AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. JAMES D. ann E. S. DANA, anp B. SILLIMAN. ; ASSOCIATE EDITORS Proressors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, anp JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Camsringe, Prorrssors H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, or : New Haven, Prorrssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuinapEetpata. THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXVIII.—{[WHOLE NUMBER, CXXVIII.] Nos. 163—168. JULY TO,DECEMBER, 1884. WITH FOUR PLATES, NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. 8. DANA. 1884. MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN LIBRARY e CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXVIII. NUMBER CLXIII. P Art. I.—Contributions to Meteorology; by Ex1as Loomis. ay With Plates I and 25 27 5-25 - Washington during a period of three years. Column first gives __ the number of reference; column second the date of the barome- _ tric minimum; and column third gives the height of the barometer at sea-level deduced from the observations at Bur- lington, Vt. and Portland, Me. The distance of Mt. Washing- __ Am. Jour. Scl.—Turrp Serres, VoL. XXVIII. No. 163.—Juzy, 1884. ee oe : 2 EE. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. ton from Portland is almost exactly two-thirds of its distance from Burlington, and I have assumed that the pressure at sea- level under Mt. Washington is given by the formula #(2B+38P). The temperature at sea-level given in column fourth is deduced from the observations at Burlington and Portland by the same formula. Column fifth shows the pressure observed on Mt. Washington, column sixth the temperature on Mt. Washington and column seventh gives the half sum of the temperatures in columns four and six. - The numbers in this table were arranged in the order of the mean temperatures given in column seventh, and were divided into four equal groups and the average of the numbers in the several columns for each group was computed. The results are given in the first five lines of table III, under the heading barometric minima; and these results may ‘be regarded as nor- mal values deduced from the barometric minima of threé years. I next proceeded to compare wage results with theory. Column sixth a table III shows the Mt. Washington obser- vations reduced to sea-level by the use of Guyot’s tables as contained in his collection of tables, series D, page 33, er ter ing the mean temperatures given in column fifth. Column ‘seventh shows the THVEr SHC between the numbers in columns one and six. It has been a common opinion among meteorologists that Shoes like those shown in column seven result from the erroneous assumption that the mean temperature of the air col- _ umn between the upper and lower stations is equal to the half sum of the temperatures observed at the two stations. In order _ sea-level, and the results are shown in column eighth, It will be seen that the differences. pay a the numbers in columns five and eight range from 0°. I next computed the eaeuidn of the Mt. Washington observations to sea-level by Ferrel’s tables, published in his ‘Meteorological Researches, Part III, pages 40-41, and the results are shown in column ninth. Column tenth ’shows the difference between the numbers in columns one and nine; col- umn eleventh shows what must be assuined as the true temmper- ature of the air-column in order that the Mt. Washington observations reduced to sea-level by Barrel a eleven range from 8° to 15°. Some remarks upon these — results will be found ona oes page. ‘ 4 : q i i a ; 2 4 A “4 ee eee OO eT a ee OP ee as ee ee Pee E. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. i Taste L—Barometric minima on Mt. Washington. N Tat Sea level. | Mt. Wash’n. Mean |] Dat Sea level. | Mt. Wash’n. Mean - sh Bar. |Therm.| Bar. |Ther.| temp. ™ — Bar. | Therm.| Bar. |Ther.| temp. 1872. ; 1/Sep.20.1/29°69| 55°-2/23°45} 39! 47°-1|] 55/Jan16.1/29-67| 9°-8'22-72| 25 7-6 2/Oct. 2.2} 74) 53-8] -32] 24' 38-91] 56} 26.1/30°53|— 9°8/23-10/—3 4° 3) 14.1) -45] 43-6] -23} 27] 34°3/] 57} 28.3/29-80| 20-2] +11 45 20.1) °97| 37 3} 17} 27-0 32 5 Nov. 7.3] °26| 40:4/22°78| 20) 30-2|| 59/Feb11.1/29°65| 16-0/22°97 6 8.1] °33} 41°6| -80| 21) 31:3 5| 34:4/23°03 7| 15.1) 58} 36°623°15} 22) 29°3/] 61] 17.1] -65| 23-2 : 8| 29.2] -72| 39-6/22-89| 13) 29:81 62| 2 92 6 9] 30.1 5} 15:8; -63) 5) 10-4|| 63/Marl0.1| -32| 20-2/22°82 | 30.83/63) 16-2] -73 9°6 12 41) 12:21 -7 11 Dee. 1.1] °84| 20-6) -85 12°3|| 65} 23 57} 24:0) - \-3.1}. -66] 36-2/23°02] 17] 26-6]) 6 23.3/30°05| 12°4/23- 13; 10.1] ‘61) + 11-8/22-78 7-4|| 67) Apr. 3.2|\29°63] 40-6) ‘1 14, 22.2/30-17| —6°6|23-05|— 9|— 1:2) 68 4.2} 90] 22-6) ° 15} 24.3} --48] —8-8| -05/—16/—12°4|| 69} 26.1] -38| + 32°6/22°95 16} 28.1] 29°95} —1-8/22°75/—20/—10°9|| 70/ 30.2} -38| 38-2 1873, Tl;May 1.1] -35) 39°6 17\Jan. 6.1! ‘62 22°9|| 7 6.1| -73] 45°0/23°38 ] 9.2) -79 19°1 22.1} -70) 47:0 19} 11,3/30°15 1:4}, 74\June 1.1} -57| 56°8 20) -26.3/29-73 721/15 16.1; Si Sre) 48 PS 98.3) +96 6-9|| 76.Sep.30.2) 39] 55°6 22\Feb. 8.2| -4 28°2|| 77/Oct. 1.1] °65} 48-2) -28 10.1/30°10 — 2°0|| 78} 11.1] °63} (54-6) °37 : 22.2\29°36 10°9]| 79} 19.1! -70} 40-8} -25 : 24.1) - — 7-6}; 80} 30.1] -72) 63-8] °38 26 Mar. 3.3) “53 10°1]/ 81/Nov11.3] -86} 34-4) °23 = 9.1| -53 22°7|, 82 1.1] °45| 33° 16.3} 60 17'3|| 83} 24.1] -09| 37-6 22°62 : 24.1] -96 8°8|| 84 9 62| 34°2/23-05 27,1] 57 13°6|| 85'Dec18.1} °73| 14:8/22°75 30.1/28°91 29°2|| 86) 24.2] -59| 35:8/23-04 32) Apr14.1/29°61 28°3|| 87) 29.2] -88 ¢ 33) 26.1) -47 31°5|| 88] 30.2/30°21| 10-8} °01 34'M’y 13.2] -45 42-9 1877. $5) TB} “64 30°1|| 89\Jan. 3.1/29°80} 7-4.22°78 36 June5.1| 56 47°2|, 90 4.1] -81 y 37 20.2] +54 64°4|| 91 2) 18). 38E). 38 July 6.1} -80 56-7]; 92 14.1 16°4| -°§ 39) Au. 24.1/30°01 40°5 24.3] -89 : 40 Sep. 2.1/29°73 49-4! 94/Feb13.1/30-11} 13-623 a 4 39-4/, 95 —-18,1/29°62| 180/22" 2/Oct. 7.1] 56 38-9] 96, 19.1] 61} 14:8] * 43) Sh 39°5|| 97, 24.3 33-4 23-4 44 30 45-0], 98 Mar. 9.2} *13! 422/22" 45 Nov 8.3] -44 32°6 BS | leas © 4a Sy ae 46)... 13,2). -68 190/100) 19.11 1-99) 14-2) * 47) 18.2/28-88 306/101 29.1| -37| 34-4/23+ Pn 25.2/29-26 16-7102 Apr, 6.1 376] ‘ea 1:3}/103} 20.3). “51; 43-2) °2 ps bate one a 29°1||104 May 3.3] 60) 45-4) *1 ae 13.3) 39) 20°3/105 June 4.1) -71) 70°6| 52) se 78 11°7/|106} 22.1) “61 39) ‘53; 28.2) -42 10°5||107|July 2.1} °64; 68-2) “54 4 29.3] 87 162 ee ae fe oe 4. E. Loomis— Reduction of Barometric Observations. I next selected for examination all the cases in which, during a period of three years there was a decided area of high pressure over Mt. Washington. The results are shown in table II, which is constructed upon the same principles as table I. These numbers were then arranged in the order of the mean temperatures given in column seventh and were divided into four equal groups, and the average of the numbers in the several columns for each group wascomputed. The results are given in the first five lines of table III under the heading barometric maxima. I then proceeded to compute the remaining columns of the table in the same manner as has been explained for barometric minima. We see from table III that if we undertake to explain the differences between the pressures observed at sea-level and th Mt. Washington observations when reduced to sea-level in feet below the summit; and for the month of June 1873 is. iven a series of hourly observations on the summit of Mt. Washington and at three stations on the side of the mountain, one situated 732 feet below the summit, a second 2227 feet . below the summit, and a third 8387 feet below the summit. _ umns. The sixth column shows the temperature deduced from the formula — _ the observations at Burlington and Portland by 4B Bo: E. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. 5? Taste Il.— Barometric maxima on Mt. Washington. Sea level. | Mt. Wash’n. Mean || 3. Dat Sea level. | Mt. Wash’n. cg siecie eaten r rm.| Bar, jpuer. temp. is Bio Bar. penerme Bar. ‘Reer temp. 1872. 1874. . 1|Sep.11.1/30°33|} 57°°0/24°15| » 48} 52°°5|| 54/\Jan. 3.1/30.28] 34°-6/23°93) 33) 33°-8 2 24.21 672] -20| 40} 53°6]| 55 6.1} °63} 20°8/24°00) 27| 23°9 3)Oct. 6.1] -15| 58:8} -O1| 44] 51°4)| 56 4 22 9} 47-6] -06) 40] 43°8]| 57 20.3 5 24.3) -51) 38-6] -18) $3] 35°8|| 58/Feb. 2.1 6 62} 34-2; +16) 26} 30°1|| 59 5.1 TiNov. 5.3} -30) 38°2/23°95) 24] 31:1} 60 18.3 8 11.1) -26| 34-2) -89| 24) 2971 ce) 17,3] -48] 28°0| -84; 12] 20°0]) 62)Mar. 6.1 10\Dee 12.1} -38 6-4| “61; 3 4:7 } ll 48.3) 38) < 169) 89). iN) BG? at 12 $9.31 = AB] Sol 7G 7) 14:7!) 65) Aprl3.3 13 0.3} °45 16] -68;— 2|/— 0°2]| 66 17.1 1873. 67 14\Jan. 2.1) -49 GO) Ror 5b 5°5|| 68|M’y 12.1 15 Slt Sh QL-3t- 89 1h 187 2 16 1.3) *33) Y8°Or -“T6P. 11}: 246], 70 en 16.1 17 13.1] . -43 8:8) -74 5 6°9]) 71 Jul.19.1 18 16.1) tT 0°5'24-03 9} 4-7) T2!An 19\Feb. 5.3) 13} 14°0/23°52 9 11° 6.1 2 15.3] -40} 18:0) °83, 10] 14°0)| 74/Sep.14.1 2] 18.1] -35} 20:2] +8 13] 16:6 17 2\Mar.6.1] -57} 12°81 °90!| 10] 11-4 19.1 E : 26:0) 84) 16] 20°6]| 77/Oct. 7.3 32-2 76) IS 286 24.1 36°6] °70| 16] > 26°3 25. 82) 2 1°3|| 80 Nov. 4.2 3 *89| 23] 29-9]| 81} 3 51°6/2411) 30} 40 82 1 55°2} 4) 30} 42°6]) 83: Dec. 1.1 66:4) -02) 43) 54°7]| 84) 3 48-4} +01] 31) 39°7]| 85 16.2 66-¢ 01, 40| . 53 :- ie 64°2 ii ail St 91) 4.2 66-2} -18 47} 56°6|, 92 11.2 53:8} .°14; 36 -4|| 93 Mar. 1.3 51-4) 07; 31] 41°2]| 94) 13,3 51:0| -07| 30} 40°5)| 95) 25.2 60°6| -07| 50| 55°3|| 96 Apr. 1.1 58-2} -06 60| 5471/97) 13.2 47°0| “13 32] 39°5|| 98 41-8} -02) 29] 35°4|| 99 M’y 13.1 36°0|23°79 18] 27°0/|100 2 27-4) 85) 11} 19°2/101 Jun 12.2 26-2} 74) 15| 20°6)102| 1 14-4) -94 11-2] 103 Jul. 23, 18°6/24-05, 15] 16-8/|104) 27.2 10' 15-4106. 241 0-8 “83! 6 Bo Loomis — Reduction of Barometric Observations. TasBLeE IlL.—Mean Results: Barometric Minima. Mount Washington, 6,285 feet above sea-level. Low’r station. Upper gmt inban Redu’d o-—ca Barom. | Ther. | Bar Barom.. Ther temp. Red’ed.| Lapl ce | o—C Ferrel. t’ t' Red’ed. | Loomis o—-¢c is s ere aX oy 22° oa ap 00|— 3° Sahay) “728 at 4°22)413°88| -435 2 ais iy Le an : es 18} 26°81). °299 Pe :. 1B 68. 256 27 bh ‘3: 62 **616'54°71'23°365!4+31°00' 42°86’ +532! -084+37°41' -498' -118'+35-00 Pike’s Peak, 8,794 fedt above Denver. | ai | | pals = sors heh LT ds eres 12{+ 0°29/24-°667/—-019|+ 1°19 24-585; +-063/— 3-02 24°567| +081 445| +°062 be 14°30 14°55) "453 +°054|+11°33 ie 21°87} + *492/+-013 bea 446 +7059) +18°52 4 ) *456 +°118) + 28°61 6°0 52°63 fd +18 tt 35°40 penains on ‘BTA 99° 849/42-21/22°893| 21°87| 32°04/29°883|—-034 33°97|29°844/ + -005 31°76(29° 818) N -031 ‘ , | °T61)+°120| 32°03] °743 *881/49°60} 921) 28°79) 39°19) -795}+-086| 34°19 | *909/55°55/23:003} 30°78} 43°16) -834!4+°075; 38°75! -801)+-108) 36°72 *891/62°84| -081) 42°52| 52°68) °‘778}+4°113) 45°81) 745) +°146) 43°80 Grand St. Bernard, 6,742 feet above Geneva. . LZ { i = © 28°305/29°17(21°666 2°79] 15-98/28°292]+°013) 15°26/28°234(/+-v71| 11°62/ 28-236] + -069 24°10): 310). 061) 21:06 29°71) “O78; -094) 27°08 40°77; °202| -O074| 38°46 Colle di meri - a vag above Alessandria. Aro)o0-36 968) 31°21] 43°29 -237| -039 29 ests 44/21°619{ 12°51] 20°97)29 24°39|29°309[—-009{ 21-46/29°313|—-013° 18| 757} 20-91} 32-04) be eal 4 ‘ob . 31°95} -288]+-052} 29°21) -302| +038 | *220'60-34) “756| 27°39] 38°87) -203 $017 37°99} -161/+°059| 35°66] -184| +036 2977/6280} -913] 35°89] 49°34) -223)4-074) 45-18} -180]/+-117} 42°92] -220/+°0 ree cama Muxima. ne Mount Washington and sea-level. — 80°468/14°66/23°812 gl Gl See iy oy 614/—"146| 19°99|/30°549|—-081/ 16-64/30°548| —:08 0 52 *296/32°30| °842| 21°03) 26°67; °392) ‘096) 32°57| °348 30°05 , 3} °09: 0 388 | *324147'67/24°042| 33°48) 40°57) °42 9| 47°07) -38 064. 44-77 oy *188}67-00)» °118| 49°04) 58°03} °257| -069| 62°89) -223) -03 5. 60°45 ke’s Denver. E. 24°922/23°80)17°774 6-44] 15°12 wail 181;— 259 28°40/25°122|—-200/ 26°14(/25°114/ — 19! ” "886/40°27| °836| 15°19) 27°73) -019| +133) 34°95/24-980/—-094| 33-02| 24-981 —-095 *894/54-50| -929} 23:42) 38-96|24-943| -049 41°74) -911/—-017| 40-00 ey "905 69°32)18:097| 37°44) 53°38) -922) -OL7; 54°59] -893}+°012} 52°69 Summit and Sacramento. 82|—18° 00 29° 64d ae 266 —18° 68 | 29°635 et 12) +376 "442 +°063 — _ ae 50°38 ay eer — 29 222 3°02 7 | +138 137 Ss 1293 744) 4-147 “317|+°054 091) +7081 227} +049 © 269] —-08) L 30305 39°32(23°486/ 23°57{ 31° He 30°668/—°363| 52°50/30- 628 ' "244/43 *472| ° 30°74 vi “500 56] 55:0! 466 447) — *123|62°07| -482) 43°82 ree "292; +169} 63°50 os 155) 61°32) -256/—" Frag 973\76°14| °480) 58°86 re "059; -086} 73°20} °024; °051! 70°88} -018)— : Grand St. Bernard and Geneva ES a8 re) 28°26'22°347| 16:11] 22°19/29°074/—'116! 28°80/29°020/—-062! 26-10/29°026)—-0 : Rs 801/44: TT 862): aT 28) 35° ib 28°865| — dee 39°60/28- hoa a °025| 37°31| 28°842)— sit rete a14 514 “471) 89:16). 48° “B03 5032) 76 +°006) 48°07) -80i)— 730/72 2°86) °634| 49°84) 61 be “691) + paces 58°71 o58 i 074) 56°34} ‘708 +028 olle di Valdobbia and Alessandria » 30-046) 31°64(22°351/ , 22°69! 27°16/30-237;—-191{ 36°68/30°182/—-136 ce | +021) —-063. | 29°846) —-024, - 29-958)47 a a 38°53 /30-043 2086 42-91 - +822/62-53| +406 5 1°25/29°845|— 52°50 7169 78-58 ‘507 52: 16| 65°37| -725) + 034 63°34 29-998 —-040| 40-67, 8 1 +021) 50-0 685,4-0T4) 61°16 re ab s % i ete E. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. 7 In order to deduce from these observations the most probable, value of the mean temperature of the air column I proceeded as follows: : ; I multiplied the half sum of the temperatures observed at the first and second stations by the difference of elevation between the two stations; I multiplied the half sum of the temperatures observed at the second and third stations by their difference of elevation. I proceeded in like manner with the third and fourth stations, and also with the fourth and fifth. I then divided the sum of these four products by the difference of level between the first and fifth stations and regarded the quo- tient as representing the mean temperature of the air column. The difference between this result and the half sum of the tem- peratures at the first and fifth stations is given in column seventh, where the + sign indicates that the mean temperature of the aircolumn is greater than the half sum of the tempera- tures at the upper and lower stations. I proceeded in the same manner with the observations at 4.35 Pp. M. and 11 P. M. | Taste IV.— Change of temperature with elevation. 135 A. M. 4°35 P.M. ll P.M, : l 5/5553 4058/2898) 134 | Diff. ||6285/5553|4058 2898) 134] Diff. |6285 5553 4058 2898) 51 |61°614+1°0||42 |48°5 155-5 63°5 |74°0 | +2°°1||/37 : 35°5 143-5 156°0|—1°5 |135 |42°5 147 56 |60°4/+4+3°6//29 : ; 6 {63 . (544/141-8142 [445/49 (58 |57°2|+2°9 1/37 49°5 154°5 '55°6 | + 2°8 |143 55 |61 |59°6}+5°0//38 445 151-5 |62°0|—1°0 |135 (3775/43 49 |54°8)+41°2)/35 42°5 |48°5 (56°2/+1-1 ||40 (50°65 (56 5 166°6 | +4°5 [1/36 49°5 150 9°4140°6 1148 (56°5 64°5 (69°5 |T1°8 | +.5°4)/41 {58 |60°6/+3°6 1/53 |62 |70 69°8 | + 6°7 ||47 6 (59°65 /63°0;/4+1°8 145 j47 '54 (63 |79°2|—1°41/39 40°5 |47 ~—1°6 1133 |37. |4£ [51°56 [67-6 | —0°6 ||32 ‘152 |62°41+0°5 ||44 15 6 61 (67°83 | +3°6 1/38 49 |48°5160°6/+1-0 1144 [4775/59 (58 (62°2}/+3°3|/41 52°5 167 |61°2|+2°5 |l47 (50° (58 (64 |70°6/+1-9 1/46 65 (71°6|+1°4 |/51 156 77° | +271 |\42 50 |64°2;|—1-5 |i37 (45°65 154 (66 |72°-41/+1°5|/30 47 |61°6|—1-0 ||44 (52 (585/64 |66°6/)+4°7 |/44 6 |62 0/+2°3 1153 (58 (67 (68°5|71-0 /+3°9 |/63 53°5 |60°5 |69°0| 0-0 1149 [49 (56 (63:5 |79°8 —42°4//36 50 |62°2] 0:0 1/34 (34:5 42 |49°5 |64:2 |—1°61/32 46 |60°0 —1:9 1/36 (39 (41 6 (6774)4+04)/34 52 4:5 |70°4 | + 8 52°5 4” 33 se 165, 169 684/+1°5 (55 (62°5 715 |73 [176 | +44)/48 71°2|—0°8 {157 (65°5 |73 [75-5 (80-4 | +4°4 1/50. 71°38 |—O-2 |155 74 |78°6|4+5°0|/51 - 75°8|—1'4 |/51 [57 (63 |T1°5|T88) +2547 |: 72°4)/—18 |/58 [665 71 (78 |77'8 +52 - eS oe 69°81 +2°8 1155 156°5 164 70-5 |74-6 8 £. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. The average of the differences shown in this table (paying — 3 18 O° ; attention to the algebraic signs) for 7.35 A. M. 0°-54, for 4.35 P. M. it is +2°°88 and for 11 P.M. it is +0°-05. In six cases we find differences as great as five degrees. These large ‘differences occur only at 4.35 P. M. and appear to depend mainly upon other circumstances than the height of the barom- — eter. Theaverage of all the differences when the barometer on Mt. Washington was considerably below the mean is +0°:84; and the average of all the differences when the barometer was considerably above the mean is +1°-22, showing a difference 4 of only 0°-38 depending upon the height of the barometer on Mt. Washington, and this is only five per cent of the difference shown in table III for the warmest season of the year. We hence conclude that the error arising from assuming that the mean temperature of the air column is equal to the half sum of the temperatures at the upper and lower stations, is quite inap- _ preciable if the observations embrace a considerable period of | time and are made at all hours of the day. The observations — made on Mt. Washington in May, 1873, and those made in May, ¥2 4 1872, and published in the Report of the Chief Signal Officer _ for 1872 lead to similar conclusions. column. The question then remains unanswered, what is the cause of these discrepancies? In my fifteenth paper, on page 6 I have given a table of forty cases in which the observed reduc- number of observations. They represent the cases in which the cause or causes which gave rise to the anomalies shown in table IIT acted with their greatest energy, and they are there- 4 _ fore well adapted to indicate what this cause was, ‘These cases are enumerated in table V, and I haye endeavored to free them from certain errors which may have affected the results as pub- lished in my fifteenth paper. In each case I have deduced the ressure and temperature at sea level from the observations at urlington and Portland by the formula $(2B+3P), and the a results are given in columns three and four. The four suc- — _ ceeding columns are obtained in the manner explained in my fifteenth paper, and the discrepancies. are shown in the ninth _ column under the heading O—C. It will be perceived that these + ee ere eee Y ; i es a i ere baie ite % rs arias Lage eet eee a ae ee ae a ag eee ee EP Te ay ee el Oe ot RR ae tee es er a ER Ey ee a NRO, eS OER SP Ee eee eae Fee ee tage e - i _E. Loomis— Reduction of Barometric Observations. 9 numbers differ a little from the numbers in my fifteenth paper. The average of the differences given in that paper was 0°36 inch, ae and the average of the differences in column ninth of table V is 0°35 inch, a change which is unexpectedly small. _ Taste V.—Cases in which the reduction to sea-level was unusually great. Sea-level. | Mt. Wash’n. Date. dextp. wie Oo—C att | o-—C Daeecihin Ace velocity. Bar, |Therm.| Bar. |Ther.; = = | Is | eh Se ELL ee | 1872. | | Noy. 7.3/29°26] 40°-4/22-78] 20°| 30°-2/28-98] + -28 29° at = ish 4; ig 38; NW. 65. 8.1) -33} 41°6] 80] 21] 31-3] -99} °34 8.2} -44| 468] -96] 22] 34-4/29°15] -29 ad 35] x yg ee 9.1] -77| 40-6/23-12| 19, 29°8| 42] -35| = °71 bo Nw. * r 9.2) -88} 39:8} -24| 20] 29°9| 57] “31 85] -28'W.7 29.2} -72| 32-6/22-89| 13} 22-8} -24| 48) -62 "38 NE. 2; SW. 35. 30.1) -45} 15°8| -63} 5] 10-4) +12] °33) -42| -30\NE. 30.3] --63] 16:2] 73} . 3| .9°6| -26 60} °34/W pe Dec. 1.1] -84| 20°6 4| 12:3] -3%| °47 81| -44|N. 52 2 36°0/23°14] 17| 26°5) -50| °30} 75) -25.SE 60. 4.1/30°01| 30°2| -24| 14} 22-1] *70) -31) -96| -26/SE. 42; W. 58 10.1/29°61| 11-8/22- 3]. 14) °36| 26] 60! -24\SE. 16; W. 69 92} 30°4|23°12} 11] 20-7] -57| -35| -96| -39 23; N. me N. 68. ‘ 22.2130°17] 6°6| -05|— 9/— 1:2) -86| -31| 30°18]. -32:ISW. 65; W.35; W.43. 2 48|/— 8-8) -05/—16|/—12°4| -07| 41) 5 = es: 2 fap $2]; Wot 8 . 28.1/29°95|— 1-8/22-75|—20/—10-9| -66| -29| 29°93 ae 1873 co tle ‘Ti\Jan. 6.2/30-08} 25-023-14| 6| 15-5) *68| 40) 30-04] *36S. 60; W.3 a 1 15}. 8-2) -06|—11/— 1-4| -88| -2%|-17} -29 [9-2 Sw. 30); x. we. = 22) 3-4) -10/— 5|— 0-8} +92) 30] 25} -33/SW. 18; 54, 20\Feb, 10.1} -10] 0-0/22-96|— 4|— 2°0| -76| -34 16) “40 ok 3 = 3a); NW. a 10.2) -07} 7-6/23-01|— 5|' 1-3] -77| -30| 09) 32 22/Mar. 16.2|29-43| 33-022-78| 11| 22-0! -11/ 32] 29-42 31'S, 38; SW. 52; W. 28. 16.3} -60}. 27°6| “74 17:3} +14) 46] 58] -44. NW. 17.1). °79).. 25°, -87|. 4) 14°65) +36] <4} 76) 1W ss 17.2} 94) 29-4/93-15| 6| 17°7| -66| -28| -9 | 28 N : 4 24.1} -96} 14°6/22°92| 3] 8-8! -52) <4 ‘97| °45'[21- 1 Si 50]; iat gs : 2 “ ues 30°09} 33°0/23°33] 15) 24:0) -78| -31 oi 28 ie 3 calm]; NW. 6 : 48\ Apr. 30.2/29°38| 38-2/22-67| 8} 231'28-96| -42| 29°36) -40 e- 1 EB. 35]; NW. 130. 29 30.3] -41) 37-2) -72) 10) 23°6/29°01/ -40} -39| ‘38 NW 30/Dec, 29.2} -g8| 26-693-02/— 3| 118] -59| -29/ 891-30 [27-2 - 20]; NW. 80. see 30°21] 10°8 -01/—20|/— 4°6| -88| 33] 30°20) -32. NW. aS 29°94| 9-4'99-70|—26/— 8-3) 54 40} 29°96) -42) sw. 73; SW. 50; Nw. 100 "81 2 91} O| 123 34 9} -35.SW ‘ NW. 7 ; 12°6| -82/—20)/— 3-7] -61| 33 IN 5.1|30-11 ‘T1|—33|—15°2| -69} -42} 30°12, -43;NW. 5.2] °17 25|— 9°8| 90) -27 1NW 5.3} -21/— 0-2/23-00/—14|— 7-1] -91| ‘30 “21 pitabas V7.1) 1%] 2-0|22-91|—-24;—11°0] +86) +31 , 5.312983 26°6} -93) 0| 13°3| -45] -37| 29°8 (203s, 8. ns ah 80. 6.2130-06} 1 95|—15! 0-1! “71! «-351 30-11! - * 10 £. Loomis— Reduction of Barometric Observations. — In some cases, an appreciable error may arise from assuming that the pressure at sea-level under Mt. Washington is given by the formula $(2B+8P) and a more accurate value may be derived from the isobars drawn to represent all the observations in the vicinity of Mt. Washington. Column tenth shows the height of the barometer at sea-level under Mt. Washington obtained by this method. ese numbers were generally obtained from the isobars drawn on the Signal Service maps, but in a few of the cases I have made a slight change in the position of the isobars when the curves on the Signal Service maps did not appear to have been. drawn with sufficient care. Column eleventh shows the differences between the numbers in columns three and ten. The average of the numbers in-column eleventh is 0°34 inch. The error in the assumed mean temper- ature of the air column produces a small effect, but by none of the preceding refinements are the discrepancies to be explained materially changed. In order to have a graphic representation of the relation of these quantities to the state of the barometer, I have curves representing the barometric observations on Mt. Wash- ington, and also the curves of pressure at sea-level, for the entire period of the three years which comprehend the observations in tables I and IT; and on these curves I have indicated by small black circles, the position of each of -the forty cases inclu- ded in table V. The accompanying chart, plate 1, shows such portion of these curves as embrace the cases enumerated. The ut had not yet reached the point of mean pressure. ' Of the remaining five cases, two occurred at a secondary minimum; t sea-level, and the remaining case coincided with a slight secondary minimum. Were these cases of low pressure on Mt. Washington accom- anied by a cyclonic movement of the winds? In order to i pt _ decide this question I have examined the direction and veloc- ER ee ea Pe eG RAGE eT Teg Ne ea E.. Loomis— Reduction of Barometric Observations. 11 ity of the winds on Mt. Washington not only at the dates of the forty cases in table V, but also at several of the preceding observations, and the principal results are exhibited in a con- densed form in the last column of table V. ene n only one wind carresponds to a 5 dine sixteen hours previous to that in column second, with the exception of the cases in which the direction of the wind is included in brackets. In these cases the date of ° the observation immediately precedes the wind’s direction. The forty cases shown in table V correspond to twenty-one differ- ent areas of low pressure, as was indicated in my fifteenth paper. Two of these storm areas began with a N.E Mt. Washington; one began with an E. wind; five began with a (Sy wind ; four with a 8. wind; and six ‘with a S.W. wind. One of the remaining cases was preceded by a calm, and one of those which began with a S.W. wind was also preceded by a calm. In the two remaining cases, the wind, as er: in the tri- “daily observations, blew continually from the W., . or N., but its velocity at one of the early observations was consid- erably less than at the observations immediately preceding ahd ollowin The elves storms which began with a wind from the N. Wie .—S.E—or 8. are regarded as unquestionably cyclonic; and the six which began with a 8. W. wind are be atta as probably . cyclonic. In the three remaining cases, one of whic an with acalm, and the other two with a sodipareivels feeble wind from the N. or N.W. the evidence of a cyclonic motion is unsatisfactory unless it vi confirmed by other circumstances. ave endeavored to obtain additional evidence bearing upon this question, from observations of the upper clouds nee at neighboring stations on the E. and S.E. sides of ash- Wind. Aierog 1872. Nov. 1.2, Portland, Me..| N.W.18| 5S. 1872. Nov. 30.2, Portland, Me.-| S.W. 18] S. 1873. Feb, 8.1, Portland, Me..| S.W. 12 | N.E. 1873. Mar. 17.2, Portland, Me..| N.W.18|N.E. - 1873. Mar. 18.1, Portland, Me..| SW. 8| S.E 1873. Dec. 9.2, Portland, Me..| S.W. 8]. E. 1875. Jan. 14.2 eRe oe 12 E. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. There can be no doubt that the upper clouds here reported had a considerable elevation, which was probably at least equal to that of Mt. Washington, and they indicate a cyclonic motion of the winds about a center but a few miles E. of Mt. Washing- ton. I think then we may safely conclude that in a majority of the cases enumerated in table V, the fall of the barometer on Mt. Washington was due to a cyclonic movement of the winds which prevailed at that elevation. In the remaining cases the observations seem to leave it doubtful whether th fall of the barometer on Mt. Washington was due to a cyclonic movement of the winds which extended i the height of 6000: feet, or was due to a cyclonic movement of the winds which was confined to a lower stratum of the aloud From Plate II accompanying my tenth paper we see that the fluctua- tions of the barometer on the top of Mt. Washington are often quite unlike those at the base (which is 3387 feet below the summit, and 2898 feet above sea-level), and the fluctuations are ‘sometimes greater in amount. From the plate accompanying this paper we also see similar differences between the barome- tric oscillations on Mt. Washington, and those at stations in its - vicinity near sea-level. According to theory, the fall of the Seagal during a me storm near sea-level should be to he fall on the top of Mt. Washington (the other elements which affect the result being supposed to be the same), in the ratio of the mean pressures at the two stations, i. e. as 29° 98 to 23°63 or nearly as five to four. Hence we see that on the sum- mit of Mt. Washington there are frequently cyclonic move- ments of the wind which are more violent than those at inferior elevations, and this explains in! part the anomalies shown in table V. But these anomalies are partly due to the fact that the barometric minima on Mt. Washington generally occur later than they do at sea-level. In several of my former papers I have dwelt upon this subject, and the same fact is clearly indicated by the accompanying plate. The average date of minimum pressure on Mt. ashington is more ‘than eight hours later than it is at sea-level; and there are frequently secondary minima on Mt. Washington which do not occur at. sea-level or only in an inferior degree. Hence it results that when the barometer on Mt. Washington stands at its lowest point, the barometer at sea-level has “generally risen above the preceding minimum one or two tenths of an inch, and occa- sionally four tenths of an inch ; and at the time of a secondary minimum on Mt. Washington, ‘the barometer at sea-level may have risen three or four tenths of an inch, or even five tenths of an inch more than it has risen on Mt. Washington. Thus on Jan. 15.1, 1875, when the barometer on Mt. Washin ngton was oo 2 et its lowest eh the barometer at sea-level had already risen E. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. 18 four tenths of an-inch: and at the secondary minimum of Dec. - 24.3, 1872, the barometer at sea-level had already risen above the preceding minimum a half inch more than the Mt. Wash- ington barometer had risen. A similar case occurred Dec. 30.2, 1874. The discrepancies sbown in table V are due partly to the causes here stated, and partly to the violence of the winds on Mt. Washington, for according to theory, the velocity of the wind is the most important factor which determines the depres- sion of the barometer in a great storm. The.excess of the barometric pressure at sea-level above the Mt. Washington observations reduced to sea-level as shown by table III in the case of barometric minima, is ascribed to the same causes. IIT are explained in a somewhat similar manner. From the even more. If we attempt to represent the reduction of the Mt. Washing- ton observations to sea-level by the Laplace formula with modified coefficients, we find that the high pressures require a larger value of the pressure coefficient than the low pressures. | Also that the low temperatures require a larger value of the temperature coefficient than the high temperatures. It is not possible therefore to find values for these coefficients which shall represent the observed reduction for all pressures — temperatures. I have sought to obtain values which shall best represent all the observations, and in doing this I have given the observations made near the time of barometric maxima, twice the weight of those made near the time of barometric — minima, for the reason that in the former case the winds are more feeble, and the atmosphere probably approaches nearer to the condition of statical equilibrium. With this assumption I have found that the value of the pressure coefficient which best represents the Mt. Washington observations is 60372, and that sure coefficient employed by Laplace (60158°6) is too small. _ I next undertoo il i serv on Pike’s Peak and Denver. Table VI shows the princi ‘barometric minima on Pike’s Peak during a period of three a Re drone = Biduction'of Barcineinic' Observations, 14 Taste VL— Barometric minima on Pike’s Peak. Denver. Pike’s Peak. shone Denver. = Peak. Wea No.) \Date. | sar, Therm.| Bar. [ther temp. ig Obamas fee ik Bar. r.| temp. 1873. 1877 | Nov22.1/2456| 29/17-43| 12| 20°-5|| 49\Jan15.2\24-64| 4/17-21| 0] 2-0 ‘ 22.3| +92) 32) 46] 10) 21°0|| 50! 21.2] -59| 18] -31/ 11 95 3 27 -68 22) °66| 9] 16°5|| 51/Feb. 7.1] .*72) 24] + -50/— 2] 11°0 4 62; 48) -26) 14] 31°0|| 52/Mar. 2.2} -21|/ 46 -25) 13] 29°5 5\Dec, 2.2} -41/ 20) 13) 5) 12°5/| 53 8.1] 53} 32) -25|— 8] 12°0 f 3.1] -69| — 2/16°97/—21|—11°5|| 54; 31.1] -23} 42) -17/— 3]. 19°5 ’ 3.3] °57 17-03|—23|—10-0|| 55;Apr21.1| -37| 50) -30| 6] 27% : 7.3| -49| 28) -26| 6] 17°0/1 56] 22.1) -59| 36) -34| 2] 19°0 ‘ 11.2) 54; 26] -27| 8! 17-0/| 57| 26.2] -6al 32] -37/ o| 160 58|May 5 541 38| 42] 7 295 19] *11} 6] 12:6) 69} 18.1; -31| 60, -39| 11; 305 24) -13,— 1) 11°5]| Go| 31.1] 33] 61| +35] 8| 295 19} -11;—16} | 1°5]| 61iJune7.2| 55} 49) -57| 23] 360 31/1699} 1) 16-0] 62} 8.1! -89| 42 -e1l J0| 260 14/17°13|—12} 1-0] 63/Jul.26.3, 62) 71) -87| 33] 52-0 2) -11/—18|— 8-0]] 64|Sep.13 57| 741 +751 32l 53°0 — 6 ‘16|\—14|/—10-0]| 65) 14 68| 53| ‘69} 12] 32°5 29} -14| 3] 16-0!| 66\Oct.13.2|} -58) 45| -56|. 27/ 36°0 20; -17;—-14| 3-01] 67 17.3} -81/ 49) -62] 13] 31.0 31| -l6l— 3] 14-01] 6s 27 56} 32) -40}/ 8] 200 42| +39} 10] 26°0|| 69|Nov.4.1| -56; 28) -45| 4) 16°0 45) °37| 11] 28-0/| 7 7.1) 57] 36) -40! 0] 180 42} -38| 4! 23-01| 71 13.1] °48} 33] 61]; 8] 20°5 25| -40\— 5| 10-0! 7 28 70; 21| -27|—18| 15 42} -29|— 1| 20-5]! 73/Dec. 3.2) -34| 41| -26| 4) 22°5 56 -25| 31! 33-Bil 74 4.1} -63| 24) -25/—11] 165 62| 52! 20) 41°0)| 7% 5.1] -92|-. 18] -41/—20/— 1°0 49} -71| 22] 35-5|| 7é 26.3} -66| 27| -32|— 7]. 10°0 62) -81| 30) 46+ 1878 ms 49| -67| 19| 34-0|| 77/Jan. 3.1] 59 "| -32/—11|— 2-0 48} -42} 10} 29-0/| 7: 11.1} +40} 33] -38| 5] 19°0 35| 57) 13] 24-0l] 7% 1} 68) 35) -44/— 6] 145 46, -42| 8] 27-0|| so\Feb. 5.1) -29) 35) -32| 3) 19°0 42} -40| 5] 23-5] 8 8.1} 54) 29) -29/— 7] 11:0 43| -32| 3] 23-01 8 14.1! -44; 30; -29/— 5] 125 37| -16] 0] 18°5l| 8: 21 54| 30| -37/— 2] 14:0 301 -46/— 14°5|| 84!Mar. 1 44, 34) -38] 6] 20°0 22| -47 11°5|| 8: 8.1, 16) 28/16-99/—18} 5:0 42] -35} | 24-5il 8 27.1| -42| 3617-38) 10] 23°0 14} -27|/— 6| 4-01] 87 29.1; :48| 31| °35) 6]. 180 14) -33|—13| 0°6/| 88|Apr. 9.1) -48| 28] -24/— 4| 12°0 ll} -16\— 7| 2-01] 8¢ 15.1; -33} 39] -29| 3/° 21-0 9} -24/— 9] 0-01! 9 17.1) 16} 41! -09/-~ 6] 175. 91|May 2.1! -67| 44] -56 10} 27-0 8} -15|/— 6] 1-01] 9 7.1|. 73} 40] +65; 12] 26°0 15) 17j/— 7| 4-01] 9 18.1} °-49} . 39} -38) 6] 22°5 —10} -24;— 2/— 6-0|| 94\Jun16.1| -76) 56) -79| 28] 42°0 9} -06|\— 2|— 5:5 July 5.1, °73 ‘91 35) 49°0 96\Sep.19.1| -74, 51) -75, 21] 360 10}. 27} «9| ~—-9.5]| on) *46| 461 57) +201 33°0 32} 211 2] 17-9) ee E.. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. 15 Tasie VII. — Barometric maxima on Pike's Peak. Denver. |Pike’s Peak. Date. | Mean | Bar. | Therm. Bar. |Ther. temp. . ya Det Pike’s Peak. Mean || 3 .. Date. ] : pee: Bar. |Therm. Bar. |‘fher.) temp. “4 ee ee ee ee | | 1873, | | 1977. pe ne | 1Nov.4.1/24°80)33/17°89] 14) 23° 51 Mar 125.3 24-81 0°98 58|1 30, 44 || 52) 26.3 24-74 hor en Apr. 5.3 24°66 2} 6 || 64) 23.3.24:96) 13} 19°5|| 55 wry 24-4 /24-81| 12] 17° || 5€ 7.1 24°78 57|\Jun 16,3 24-77) 14] 265°5]| 5§ 21.3 24-83) 14°5|| 59|July 5.1 24-92, 18} 34°5|| 6¢ 9.2 24°94) 11} 32°5|| 61/Au. 10.3 24-96) 7 || 62} 29.1;24"94! 16) 34°5|| 63/Sept.1.1 25-00, 12) 2 7.1 24:90 3| 16°5|| 65| © 10.1/24°8 9} 27 || 66] 20.1,24-90) 67\Oct. 7.3 24°88 15| 35°5|| 6 9.2 24 at 2 10,1 24°94) 21| 45°5]| T0)Nov. 9.3/24°90) 19} 40°5)| 71) 10.2/24 84 . 24 2} 16.1/24-93 28| 41 || 73|Dec. 7.3:24-98) 9} 49°5|| 74 9.3/24°89) 70°5|| 75) 10.3,24-89. 69 || 76} 12.3|25°13) ; 61 1878. | 62 || 77 Jan 10.1/24-71) 44°5 6.1/24°72| et ee BD OD ND BS So a oe a OFPDs pS p> oe bt o load = be or on wo w 25°5|| 86, -24.1/24'86. 11} 21 || 87\Apr. 5124-72, 8| 39°5]| 88} 25.1/24 Zl _ Ceowarnto oath bo -T o 28°5|| 92, 24.1 24°89. 5 || 93\Jun 15.1 24-99) 94; 19. ae “93 oO ooo 5 6\Jul. 18 ri o q 98 a e 2496 2. * 1 og 1 24.1 24-95) 23 3 101|Sept. 2.1/24°97 13 20 5/|102 26.1 25°02 16 E. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. yaar and the observations are arranged in the same manner as table I. Table VII shows the principal barometric maxima on Pike's Peak during a period of three years. he numbers in each of these tables were divided into four equal groups, and the average of the numbers in each group was taken. The results are given in the first five columns of table III, and the numbers in the other columns were computed in the same manner as has been explained for Mt. Washington. We see that for os Nweglad minima, the differences between they are quite large; but when the computations are made by Ferrel’s tables the average difference between theory and observation is almost exactly the same in both cases, with the exception of the algebraic signs. These soanlis accord with those for Mt. Washington i in indicating that the pressure coefh- cient in the Laplace formula is too small. The value of the pressure coefficient which best represents the Pike's Peak observations i is 60357, and that of the temperature coefficient is or barometric minima, the average difference between the observed reduction and that tt by Ferrel’s formula is less than half of that found for the Mt. Washington observa- tions, a result which may be ascribed, at ‘least in part, to the feebler winds which prevail on Pike's Peak. or barometric maxima, the differences for Pike’s Peak com- puted by Ferrel’s formula are greater than for Mt. Washington, the date of barometric maximum at the upper station; an small changes of pressure at one of the stations which are not felt (or in a less degree) at the other station. now of no observations which indicate what effect may be ascribed ‘to the first of these causes in the present a but probably the effect is sma e effect due to the second cause is often quite large. The barometer at Denver (after a maximum) generally begins to fall from eight to sixteen hours sooner than on Pike's eak, and it sometimes falls a quarter of an inch or more before the descent begins at Pike’s Peak. Thus Dec. 13.8, 1873, fter an uncommonly high pressure, the barometer at Denver fell ‘28 inch before the barometer at Pike's Peak began to fall. Again Jan. 14.1, 1874, the barometer at Searee was at a maxi- mum, from which time it fell for four days uninterruptedly with the exception of two slight reactions, one amounting to ‘Ol inch and the other to-04 inch. Tbe barometer at Pike’s _ Peak did not begin to fall until after Jan. 16.1, when the Li. C. Pickering—Light of Comparison Stars for Vesta. 17 barometer at Denver had already descended °43 inch. A sim- ilar case occurred between April 8 and April 10, 1874. This cause of the discrepancies between the observed and computed reductions, seems to be more efficient for Pike’s Peak than for Mt. Washington. The third cause above mentioned affects the observations on Pike’s Peak, but in general the curve of pres- sure for Pike’s Peak is much less jagged than for Denver. The barometer on Pike’s Peak frequently remains above its mean height for several days—sometimes a week or ten days— with only small fluctuations, while during the same period at Denver there have been numerous maxima and minima of con- siderable magnitude. Thus it sometimes happens that a baro- metri¢ maximum on Pike’s Peak occurs nearly, if not exactly, at the time of a barometric minimum at Denver. : [To be continued. ] Art. Il.—Light of Comparison Stars for Vesta; by EDWARD ; C. PICKERING. In Professor Harrington’s important “Study of Vesta,” which appeared in this Journal, III, xxvi, 461, the light of the planet was determined from comparisons with the two stars DM. +22° 2163 and 2164. The observations were made with the wedge photometer, and were accordingly differential, so that the resulting magnitudes of Vesta depend upon the assumed magnitudes of the stars, which were taken from the Durchmust- erung. It therefore appeared desirable that the stars should be observed with the large meridian photometer of the Harvard College Observatory, with the object of providing means for the reduction of Professor Harrington’s results to absolute measures. The meridian photometer has been described in the Monthly Notices of the R. Astron. Society, xlii, 365. The following table exhibits the results respectively obtained for the two comparison stars. The first column contains the numbers of the series to which the observations belong, the second the dates, and the third the initials of the observers, E. | C. Pickering and O. C. Wendell. The fourth and fifth columns contain residuals expressed in tenths of a magnitude. The mean results, from which these residuals are derived, when cor- rected for atmospheric absorption, are 9°06 for DM.+22° 2168 and 5:48 for DM.+22° 2164. The fifth observation of DM.+ 22° 2163 was rejected because it appeared that an error of 30° — In reading the graduated circle of the photometer had probably occurred in one of the four comparisons which constitute a complete observation with the meridian photometer. The resi- dual corresponding to the rejected observation is placed in brack- — Am, Jour, Sct.—Turep Serres, Vou. XXVIII, No. 163.—Juny, 1884, Sas 2 Sil os , 18 E OC. Pickering—Light of Comparison Stars for Vesta. ets. If the presumed error of 30° is left without correction, this residual would become —0°9 instead of —0°2. separate reduction of the four comparisons gives the greys —2°4, 0°0, —0°5, +0°1. Correcting the first reading by 80°, i residual is reduced to —0°3 No. of Date, Obs. Residuals Series. 1884, 2168 2164 249 March 16 P: —0°1 0-0 251 March 18 W. 0-0 0-0 252 March 22 Rees 00 —0°1 254 March 25 W. +01 O1 255 March 31 P. [-—0:2] —0-2 261 April 14 PB; +071 +0°2 The corrections to be applied to the DM. magnitudes of the stars appear from these observations to be +°28 for DM.+ 22° 2163 and+ ‘18 for DM. + 22° 2164. From these corrections may be derived the formula /@—m='023m+'058, in which M denotes the photometric magnitude of Vesta corresponding to. the magnitude m given by Professor Harrington. In the following table the first column is repeated from Pro- fessor Harrington’s table in the article above mentioned. The second column contains the corresponding magnitudes of Vesta computed for mean opposition, after correction by the formula just obtained. By mean opposition is understood, as usual, the situation in which a planet is in exact opposition to the Sun, while both the planet eps the Earth are at their mean distances rom the Sun. e third column contains the residuals from the mean, 6°64, of the meric magnitudes thus found. The last column contains the residuals showing the ees of ee Harrington’s observations of the two comparison stars. e differences between the two columns of his table headed 2164 and 2163, we have a series of quantities expressed in seconds of time, the mean of which is 20: 6 ; it corresponds to the photometric difference in magnitude resulting from the observations made here with the meridian photometer. This photometric difference is 9°06—5-48 = 358. These data show that in Professor Harrington’s observations one second of time may be expressed in terms of magnitude by ‘174. The final column of the table here given accordingly contains the products by ‘174 of the differences between Professor Harrington’s columns 2164 and 2163, diminished by the photometric differ- ence 3°58 If reduced to the equator, the quantity ‘174 becomes ‘16, which furnishes a determination of the constant of reduction required by the particular wedge employed. The last line of the table contains the numerical means of the quantities in the tot three columns. It may be observed that in the first and third lines of the table the large residuals in the third ee are accompanied by large residuals in the final Oo EE ae L. C. Pickering—Light of Comparison Stars for Vesta. 19 | - column and are therefore partly attributable to errors of obser- vation. In the seventh line from the end of Professor Harring- ton’s table, 5°84 is assumed to be a misprint for 6°84. Sidereal time of Observation. Magn. Residuals. April, 1883. of Vesta. Vesta. Stars. . d. h. m. 0 1 Meets 1 | 7-2) +°57 —'24 Tos RI SE 6°59 —°05 +°05 TV GT 617 —47 —'26 EV ee §°39 —'25 —'19 kD; aL; SB 6°55 —'09 +:°02 SL 319 6:43 —21 +°07 3 6°32 —"32 —'14 16 x 3 6°73 +°09 Sto 66 6°85 +°21 +°03 XIt, 26 6°43 —'l +:°14 xm «65 6°78 +°14 +11 xin 2.24 6°69 +°05 —14 XE 49 6°19 +°15 —'12 atv. 18 6°79 +°15 +°05 hrs 38 6°52 -'l +09 py | 6°47 —17 +12 ‘ x. 40 6°48 —'16 +'1l xt 5 6°75 +-1l — 03 mi 39 6°51 —'13 *+°12 xi «€660 6°52 —'12 +°14 6 o Soaeriat 13 6°61 —'03 +°02 ai: 3} 6°62 —'02 —°22 1930 at 6°67 +°03 —_ yt Rare 2 | 8 6°82 +°18 +°07 x11 «#658 6°85 +°21 +°17 S00. Bk 0 6°91 +°27 —'02 ae ose SE 6°84 +°20 +°03 6°64 4°17 +:'10 The mean result for the magnitude of Vesta, 6°64, may be compared with the results formerly obtained at this Observatory and published in the Astronomische Nachrichten, cii, 151. The value obtained from observations on 12 nights in 1880 was 6°49, and from observations on 10 nights in 1881-2 was 6-45. The differences between these values and that derived from Professor ington’s observations do not seem large, considering the fact that the two methods of observation were very dissimilar. In measuring large intervals of brightness with the wedge pho- tometer systematic errors may perhaps result from irregularities in the tint of the glass and other causes. On the other hand, the small meridian photometer used in the observations of Vesta was not designed for measuring the light of objects fainter than the sixth magnitude, and even the brightest asteroids were seen in the instrument with some little difficulty. The magnitude 6°51 found for Vesta in vol. xi of the Annals of this Observatory, page 294, was obtained by an indirect pro- __ cess, and its close agreement with the later results just mentioned _ 1s probably accidental. ka’ oe College Observatory, Cambridge, Mass., May 19, 1884. 20 Clarke and Chatard—Mineralogical Notes. Asi IIL — Mineralogical Notes from the pete of the U.S. Geological Survey; by F. W. CuarKeE and T. M. CHATARD. THE following analyses of minerals have been executed by us in the laboratory of the U. 8S. Geological Survey, during the past few months. Some of them possess more than ordi- nary interest, and all have value sufficient to warrant putting them on record. The only novelty ge the methods of analysis has been in the determinations of the alkalies. These determi- nations were made by a acihastiah, of Hempel’s process for decom posing siliontes by fusion with bismuth oxide. An account of the process, as improved and used in this labora- ‘tory, will in due time be published. 1. JADE AND PEcTOLITE. Am ong the Eskimo implements collected by the U. S& Alask Signal Service at Point Barrow, Alaska, were a cH rages number of a material which appeared to be jade. Of thes there were two varieties; one pale apple-green, the other daik green; both were hi ghly polished, and ex xceedin ngly oir and tough. The sp. gr. of the pale green variety was 2°878, that of the dark material was 3-012. Analyses (Clarke) gave results as follows: Pale-green. Dark-green. Waters: --. ccs 4°0 1°4 POA ee cee. 53°94 57°01 Sasha oxide ___ trace. 6°95 idee a cts 21 12°75 Magnesia ecu oak 1°43 21°36 AyOe es “58 42 ht ES OS aay goa EDs 8°57 lik 100°82 99°90 The dark-green material is plainly jade, or nephrite, quite analogous in composition to that from the Swiss Lake-Dwell- ings. e light green mineral, on the other hand, agrees in ‘composition with pectolite. It is easily fusible, and has, in short, all the essential properties of eaioline It i is, therefore, a new and interesting variety of that well-known species. The Eskimo of Point Barrow say that the jade and jade-like minerals used by them come from some point to the eastward. The locality itself, we believe, has not yet been visited by she ilized men. Whether both minerals ‘are found at the sam place or not, cannot be stated; but i that before pasa i more definite information may be secu Seay sel Fi ag a ae nS ee ete ao NE ik cal te aaa ghae oats eis Pee tee Spe CNA, oe ee) Ne A ee ee bese oe hm ee Clarke and Chatard—Mineralogical Notes. 21 2, SAUSSURITE. \ From a euphotide collected by J. S. Diller, U. S. Geol. Surv., thirty-seven miles north of Pitt River Ferry, Shasta County, California. The mineral is nearly white, with a greenish-gray cast, and has a sp. gr. of 3:148. As the rock itself will be de- scribed by = Diller, only the analysis of the saussurite need be cited her iielopie, F. W. Clarke. Lpetion ooo ae A eee FS 2°42 MGS us wa See a 42°79 pase tie ee ewe a uy 29°43 me pe dmemon sk Ree Ferrous oxide: See Sao . 265 Soda __.. RBA gS Magnesia 1°40 100°33 8. ALLANITE, From Sprague’s granite quarry, Topsham, Maine. Abund- ant in slender black prisms, usually rusty upon the surface, which are known to the local quarrymen as “ nails. Analysis, F. W. Clarke. Ignition ___- 4°13 TGR ooo can 4 oe eeu 34°97 ] $e a Oc ears were 12°83 Perrous Gkide oie 2s 18°11 anganous oxide ..-..---.- 2°82 Cerium, lanthanum and didymi- um oxides Syren eenewen wees 17°26 Me Rs se "21 Preaeena i Fd eats 1°40 98°73 ie ferrous oxide carries with it some ferric oxide, As the 4, DamourRITE. . Two specimens of a micaceous mineral from the topaz local- ity at ‘Biouabes. Maine, collected by Mr. N. H. Perry of South aris, and sent by him to the National Museum, have been examined and prove to be different forms of damourite. A. Subfibrous compact, light greyieh green in alae greeny luster, associated with albite and topaz 22 Clarke and Chatard—Mineralogical Notes. B. Broadly foliated micaceous, light grayish green, strong mother-of-pearl pater also associated with topaz. Ana lyses (Chatard) as follow B. gnhon ee er 4°48 4°78 a is geal & 45°19 45°34 Rigutes Pg a EES 33°32 33°96 Ferro de - 4°25 3°96 Manganous oxide. 0°58 0°51 nt Sri i ag aa we we tr 0°22 Magnesia -.-..--- 0°36 0°10 oda 1°57 1°49 PO. 11°06 10°73 100°81 101°09 ? Ignition Sev teen. ees RMON Oe LE ae Lee S172 BR i ey 50°03 errous oxide oe aa SANG Lawaidt oa as ai Awe. S 11°57 Migueea fo. AG kc, 0-12 Alkalies r anietpaliy ay if OR ag 100°58 B. An altered crystal of corundum from Iredell Co., N. C., showing a core of corundum surrounded by a yellowish white, semi-micaceous, compact mineral more or less intermixed wit small needles of black Eatatien Analysis (Chatard) shows the micaceous mineral to be a margarite similar to that de- scribed, by Dr. F. A. Genth, as occurring at Hendrick’s Farm in the same county. SOI eo ae eas ca 5°68 Silica -- 31°15 ATOMS 25 Losses oe es cs 49°51 bwt FS Week See Uae sis 11°13 OU Morse ody ee 0°45" ‘hikniion ere WOOR) cies 2°74 100°66 Clarke and Chatard—Mineralogical Notes. 23 6. CIMOLITE ? Among a collection of Maine minerals received from N. H. Perry of South Paris, were several specimens of tourmaline and albite encrusted with a pink to rose-purple, earthy, altera- tion product. The color was found to be due to a little man- ganese, which was not, however, separately estimated. The analysis (Clarke), gave results approaching to those required by = rational formula AIH,(SiO,),, as the subjoined figures show. Found Theory W ater oo! oo eee 10°4 POR Ge 70°06 69°8 Alumina*® ___...-- 17°19 19°8 O08 ooo ae Or te 2S Magnesia 3.220% "80 100°0 99°86 It will be observed at once that these results do not agree exactly with those commonly obtained for cimolite. ey are too high in silica, and too low in water, and the formula deduced from them is somewhat novel. We are inclined to 7. HALtwoysire. Collected by Ensign J. B. Bernadou, at the Detroit Copper Mine, near Mono Lake, California. The specimens consisted of by F. W. cl BT SUNS ane Dina treat eng tee Tle F ER i a SNe Rien aa 42°91 Alumina _..- cant ee ket 99°99 * Including a little manganese. 24 Clarke and Chatard—Mineralogical Notes. 8. PROCHLORITE. A dark-green chlorite collected by Mr. G. P. Merrill on Foundry Run, Georgetown, D. C., may be assigned to the above-named species. The mineral is very dark in color, sealy-crystalline, and — in quite fine specimens. Analysis, F. W. Cla RON et a eee ae 14°43 PE ee hoe eae 25°45 TRO a ate. 15°04 OR UNINS a ns a ees Sets 17°88 A Sieg OSUNO a So gan. 26°08 Me ok tee oko Eo owns 67 98°45 The iron was all reckoned as ferrous iron, although a little of it is probably ferric. 9. HALOTRICHITE. was were aay | soluble in water. e calves (Clarke) gave results which place the mineral under or near halotrichite. WORGEE ee 40°62 Sulphuric acid (SO,), .-.------ 37°19 HOMHOS ORING. oi ocd aee se 13°59 Ainge fo es ‘ POSING Foe ey, 0°50 99°17 A very little of the iron, but not enough to estimate, was in the ferric state. The mineral is reported to be abundant. 10. ALUNOGEN. Associated with the halotrichite at the foregoing locality are great quantities of alunogen. The specimens received at this laboratory were crusts of various colors, white, pinkish, yel- lowish, brown and drab. Most of them contained sulphates of iron in small quantities; but one sample of sie color, was free from such ogy Sea ‘ Analysis, F. W. Clarke. S. L. Penfield—Occurrence of Alkalies in Beryl. 2% StOPr*. Se ooo Pe ee oe 42°56 Sulphurio atid 22... cee. 34°43 VEIN b Ss ge ae 15°52 Peso... ooo eee 7°62 100°13 The following minerals from new localities have also come under our observation, and may be properly noted here. Vivianite from Washington, D. C. Found abundantly in a bed of blue clay, during excavations for the foundation of a building on Connecticut Avenue. The mineral occurs in blue, earthy masses. yalite from Foster's mica mine, near Jefferson, Ashe County, N. C. In very fine stalactitic form, coating the under side of a quartz shelf in a broad granite vein. The specimens are tinted with ferric oxide, and are as fine as any yet noted in this country. Beryl from Gilmore’s mica mine, in Montgomery County, Md., twelve miles north of Washington. Abundant, but not well crystallized, and associated with albite, large plates of muscovite, quartz, garnet and black tourmaline. Cassiterite from the Brewer Gold Mine, Chesterfield County, . C. Found in some quantity in the “black sands” of the gold washing, and crystals of 4” in diameter have been col- _ lected. The larger crystals are dark colored, while the small ones are often pale brown, straw-yellow and even colorless. The latter jn microscopic grains. Washington, April 14, 1884, Art. IV.—On the occurrence of Alkalies in Beryl; by SAMUEL L. PENFIELD. . further examination was made and the mineral was proved to be beryl. In calculating the first analysis the small quantity of alkalies, five per cent in all and more than half czsium, and the great preponderance of sesquioxides made it probable that the mineral was either impure or that some protoxide was __ present which the alkalies could be regarded as replacing. : * - 26.2 Ads cea Oceurrence of Alkalies in Beryl. Sections of the mineral when examined with the microscope suggested itself as an element which might have been over- looked and weighed with the alumina. As soon as this possi- many respects resemble beryl. more or less perfect basal and a very imperfect prismatic cleavage had previously le me to believe that the mineral agonal and a qualitative analysis proved that beryllium was present in large quantity. The analysis was then repeated, using however better material which had in the mean time come to hand. After finding alkalies in one beryl it seemed to be of interest to test others from various localities. The result has been to show that, as far as tested, they always contain alkalies, although sometimes only in small quantities. Sodium an lithium were always present, cesium occasionally, while potas- sium and rubidium. were never detected. To. prove if possible — the alkalies in beryl replace beryl- lium, as well as to find to what extent they are present, a series of quantitative ae were made, the results of which are given below. regret very much that the time at my dis- posal has been limited, and that I could not first have devoted and aluminum or for determining the errors which would be involved by a certain definite procedure. I will state here that I shall certainly improve the first opportunity sn presents itself for investigating this subject further, and I shall hope to be able to add to the value of this article by giving more cor- rect data as to the percentages of beryllium nA aluminum. As _ the chief interest seemed at first to lie in the detection and determination of the alkalies, I proceeded with : agi and I will give here the results of them. I add also a full description of the methods employed, so that a proper re may be attached to the beryllium and aluminum determinations. The mineral was fused with sodium carbonate and the silica separated and weighed according to the usual methods ; it was in all cases tested with hydrofluoric acid and the small residue added to the oxides. The b eryllium, aluminum and iron were precipitated together with ammonia, filtered and washed, the precipitate dissolved, reprecipitated with ammonia, thoroughly washed and weighed. After weighing, the oxides were dis- solved in hydrochloric acid and the solution evaporated on the water bath till the free acid was driven off ; the chlorides were then dissolved in a little water, filtered into a flask containing about ae c. c. of a cold saturated solution of ammonium carbonate and some undissolved carbonate, and the slight Gestdiae: of silica, after washing, weighed, tested as to purity 8S. L. Penfield—Oceurrence of Alkalies in Beryl. 27 with hydrofluoric acid and added to the first weight of silica. The flask containing the ammonium carbonate precipitate was shaken from time to time, then allowed to stand for twenty-four hours and the alumina filtered and washed with a nearly satu- rated cold solution of ammonium carbonate. The precipitate of sn was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, filtered from gain in the same way ‘to separate the beryilint more completely. -After the seonhil separation the alumina, together with the small quantity of iron, was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, precipitated with ammonia, filtered and weighed. The ammonium carbonate filtrates from the alum- monium carbonate and the beryllium dissolved in hydrochlo- ric acid precipitated with ammonia, filtered and weighed. he one per cent of be ryllia um was found to os extracted by the second sepadetie. The sum of the weights of the alumina, beryllium and iron oxides after the separation agreed —— “with the first weight of total oxides. The alumina tig iro oxides were dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and after be ak converted into sulphates and reduced, the iron was pen by means of permanganate of potash. The error involved in this method of separation of beryllium from aluminum is gener- ally regarded to be that the ammonium carbonate solution he small uuaihey of iron exists entre in both states of oxidation, replacing both aluminum and beryllium. The protoxide was determined separately in one analysis only, (analysis V). Beryl is very hard to decompose, even with strong hydrofluoric acid; it was necessary to use the finest, elutriated powder and then a complete solution of the mineral, for titration’ with permanganate, could not be obtained. “As the very small quantity of iron in the other beryl can affect the results but ‘very slightly, and as two-thirds of the iron in analysis V was found to exist as protoxide, I have calculated _ it as such in the remaining analyses. . - ‘ests. were always made for calcium and magnesium, byes in only two —— could fi be detected. Great care was | 28S. L."Penfield—Oceurrence of Alkalies in Beryl. in the determination of the alkalies. The mineral was in al? eases decomposed by long treatment with — hydrofluoric acid, tions were carried on in platinum. In the last analyses where it was known that the amount of alkalies would be very small, the beryllium oxide and alumina were precipitated in platinum dishes, and the only glass with which the solutions were in con- . tact were the glass funnels used in ae off the precipitates ; eare was also taken to use water which had not stood long in wash bottles. The sulphates of the alkalies after weighing were converted into chlorides, and the lithium nis phage by means of alcohol and ether and weighed as sulphate. The cesium was precipitated and weighed as cesium SlaGars chlo- ride, After weighing it was tested carefully with the spectro- ee for potassium’ and rubidium, but neither could be de- tect The loss Py ignition is considerable, as will be seen by the analyses. That water is contained in perceptible quantity can be readily seen by heating the mineral’ very intensely in a closed glass tube. The loss by ignition does not in ail cases represent the water chemically combined in the mineral, be- cause liquid inclusions are readily seen in the beryl from Branchville and may be contained in others. The water reacts neutral or only slightly acid to test papers, (the acid reaction probably due to carbon dioxide). “It is pa completely given off except by very strong ignition. By strong ignition over a blast lamp in a covered crucible no sublimate collected on the lid of the crucible. The powder usually sinters together to a porous cake and this behavior affords an indieation of the presence of alkalies, those containing much alkali sintering to- gether to a firm _ ous mass, while those containing very little as in analyses VI and VII, left a mass which could be readily erushed to powder between the fingers lorine, fluorine, boracie and phosphoric acids could not be _ detected. The varieties which have been analyzed are the following, arranged according to. the amount of alkali which they contain. The specific gravities were taken in water of the ordinary lab- oratory pe ads on a chemical balance, and are given with the a 1. Tene, pi eo Maine. The material was taken from a fragment of a very much cracked, colorless crystal imbedded in lepidolite and was given to me by Professor O. D. Allen, who collected it at the locality. Care was necessary in select- S. L. Penfield—Occurrence of Alkalies in Beryl. 29 ing enough pure and clear material for the analysis. It is interesting in showing that the beryl contains much more um than the lepidolite in which it is imbedded. II. From Norway, Maine. The material was milk-white, possession showing no crystal faces. It was collected by Mr. N.H. Perry of South Paris, Me., and sent to Professor George J. Brush, who kindly gave me the material for analysis. IIL From’ Branchville, Conn. The material was taken from a fragment of a large orystal of a beautiful pale, sea-green color, much resembling a piece of slightly colored quartz. IV. From Amelia Court House, Virginia. ‘The material was taken from a large milk-white crystal in the collection of Pro- fessor Brush. - V. From Royalston, Mass. Froma bluish green crystal, from which pure transparent material could readily be obtained. VI. From Stoneham, Maine. The material was perfectly transparent and taken from fragments of a erystal of a pale green color best fit by Mr. George F. Kunz, of New York. VII. Fro duntschilon, Siberia. The transparent a of a pale see color were taken from a specimen in the tion of Professor George J. Brush. The specimen was sede to ‘him by Mr. J. von Hichwald, who collected it at the locality. L Il. III. IV. Vi VI. VIL. bas in Norway, erence tenet cage Co., ae 8 is Bae agar Aayntschiton, Me. Con Siberi: Sid, “ 19 64°29 er ase so kes 661" Al,Os 18:92 18°89 20°13 20°80 19°83 20°25 20°39 Cs,0 2°92 66 ag ae EIS L alte pa rae male Na,O 1°82 1°39 1°45 46 51 oe. 24 Li,O E47 "84 s&s “13 05 trace trace Ign 2°33 2°44 2°69 2°19 2°04 2°08 114 CaO °35 MgO °34 100°45 100°53 100°53 100-23 100°45 100°14 100°13 Sp. gr. —— 2°744 2-732 2°685 2°11 2°708 2676 Below I have given the “rw Scary by dividing the percentages by the molec lad weights of the constituents ar- ranged in the same order as the ayes I have regarded the alkalies as replacing the beryllium in all cases, and they are in- cluded with the beryllium in protoxides. Ratio E AT, III, IV. ae L VAL: 3 SiO, 10350 10715 10790 10855 1:0857 10866 11028 — Al,Os 1837 "1834 1954 *2019 "1952 “1966 "1980 9 a xide °4995 4845 4653 - °4597 4735 “4755 “4735. ‘Water 1294 "1355 1494 “121% 1133 1155 = °0633 30 368. L. Penfield—Occurrence of Alkalies in Beryl. Disregarding the water we should have, according to the usually accepted formula for beryl, Al,Be,Si,O,,, SiO, : Al,O, : O=6:1:3. As silica is probably the most accurately deter- mined of any of the constituents, one-sixth of its quotient can be taken as unity and the ratio of the sesquioxides and pro- toxides is as follows: ¥. ue: Til. Vi as VI, VIL. SiO. 6:00 6:00 6°00 6:00 6°00 6:00 6:00 Al,O; 1:06 1°03 1°08 lll 1°08 1°08 1°08 -Protoxides 2°90 24s 2°59 2°54 2°62 2°62 2°58 It will be seen that the alumina is in all cases too high and the protoxides too low. The latter might indicate that part or all of the water is basic, replacing the beryllium, and in all but the last analysis there is more than enough water, if calculated as replacing the protoxides, to bring up the ratio to 6:1: If the error in the separation of aluminum and beryllium is, as it is said to be, that the alumina is too low, the excess of that constituent in all the analyses cannot be explained if we accept the present formula. As regards the water, it certainly cannot be called accidental, for it is always present in amounts varying from o 2°5 percent. It is also given off completely only by very eicong igniti fl chow. indicating that it is very firmly united in the ne PO The table is arranged as follows: Ist. Loss by drying for one hour at 100°C. 2d. By igniting for fifteen minutes at a faint red heat, so that the bottom of the crucible only was red. 3d. By igniting for fifteen minutes at a full red heat. 4th. By igniting for fifteen minutes at the full heat of a ring burner. 5th. By heating for ve minutes over a blast lamp. Loss at 100° low red full red white heat blast Hebron, Me... 60.2. 0°12 0: 0°84 1°65 2°33 - 0°42 1°37 13 2°44 Norway, Me... c.2ccs 0°12 { 0°42 1-49 178 9-44 Branchville, Conn. --.-- 0°10 0°55 154 2°62 2°69 Amelia, Virginia ...... 0-10 SON 1°58 2°10 2°19 Pit MASS, coc 0:00 isle 1°54 2°00 2°04 Stoneham, Me. ........ 0°08 oo 1°68 2°02 2°08 ‘Aduntwchion, Siberia _. 0°06 Pyle 0°82 1:10 114 With the exception of analyses I and IJ it will be seen that the ratio of SiO, : Al,O,: protoxides is nearly 6 : 1: 2°5, and there is also in all cases water enough to make the ratio of SiO,: 1,0, : protoxides : HO=6:1: 2°: 5 or12:2:5:1. As wecan- not disre ard the water entirely, this would seem to be a plau- ’ sible ratio giving the ries Al,Be,H,Si,,0,,. A compound of the above composition ould r require the westehie% per- centages: SiO,67°36, Al,O, 19: 7, BeO 11°69, H,O 1: ie 100-00. S. L. Penfield—Occurrence of Alkalies in Beryl. 31 Comparing these pereentages with the analyses, remembering that there some beryllium is replaced by alkalies and iron pro- toxide, we notice that the silica‘is in all cases too low and the alumina too high, as will be seen best by comparison of the ratios where SiO, : Al,O, was in all cases near'6:1:08. If we regard beryl as a little less acid, containing one less SiO, than in the above formula we obtain the formula A],Be,H,Si,,0,, equal to 2A1,(SiO,),, 5BeSiO,, HO, This formula, although not so simple as the one at first proposed, agrees much closer with the results of analysis. The percentages corresponding to the formula are SiO, 65:41, Al,O, 20°42, BeO 12°39, H,O 1'78=100-00. The corresponding ratios in the analyses, taking one-eleventh of the silica as unity, are q; LE, TLE: IV. a VI. VII. Sid, 11°00 11°00 11°00 11:00 11°00 11°00 11°00 Al,0O; 1°95 1°89 1:99 2°04 1°97 1°99 1:97 Protoxides 5-30 4-99 A474 4°65 4°19 4°81 4:72 H,O 1°37 1°39 1°51 1:23 1°14 116 0°63 These ratios are not quite 11:2:5:1, the reason being per- haps on account of the incomplete separation of the aluminum constituents of beryl may be further shown by the following _ water and alkali determinations on five beryls which aré at my disposal. The alkalies were in all cases determined by a Smith’s fusion on one-half gram each. The chlorides were weighed, without pretensions to exact quantitative work, and tested with the spectroscope. They will serve simply to give an idea of the quantity of alkalies. Water. Weight of chlorides. Green crystal, Portland, Conn.......-. 2°44 00194 NaOl, LiCl. Pale yellow, Haddam, Conn. ....._..-- 1°97 0047 NaCl, LiCl. Pale yellowish green, Delaware Co., Pa. 2°21 “0062 NaCl, LiCl. Green, Acworth, N. H. ...-222.0-.... 2-05 0052 NaCl, LiCl, CsCl. Green, Monroe, Conn 1°65 0064 NaCl, LiCl, CsCl. The results of the investigation prove then, that alkalies are always present, undoubtedly replacing the beryllium; that water is also present and cannot be disregarded in the formula, and that the formula A1,Be,H,Si,,0,, is the one agreeing best with the analyses. Alkalies have previously been noticed in beryl by hes B. * Ann. Chim. Phys., III, 53, 5. ¢ Jahrb. Min., 1872, 95. Bs at 32 G. FE. Wright—Niagara River and the Glacial Period. I publish these results, although incomplete in many re- spects, because the facts as far as made out are of interest and because I shall not be able to resume the investigation till the | winter of 1884 and ’85. I hope, however, to add to this a second paper which will serve to clear up some of the doubtful points. In closing, I take pleasure in expressing my thanks to Professor George J. Brush, for his kindness in providing me with most of the material for this investigation, and to Pro- fessor O. D, Allen and Mr. George F. Kunz, for the material which they furnished. Sheffield Scientific School, March, 1884. Art. V.—The Niagara River and the Glacial Period eg Professor G. F. WRIGHT. HAvine recently made a study upon the ground of the Niagara gorge, I will give as briefly as possible such additional facts to those already well known as my glacial studies specially led me to observe. The accompanying plate (prepared to illus- trate an article on the subject in the Bibliotheca Sacra for April, 1884) shows ata glance thesituation. From the falls to Queens- ton the distance is about seven miles, and the gorge continuous, averaging about three hundred feet in depth and eight hundred feet in width, though in some places it is thirteen hundred feet wide. At Queenston the river emerges from the gorge and pur- ‘sues its way to the lake through a low and level region. Follow- ‘Champlain period, continues for some distance, at least, on the high lands as a ridge overlying the till, like the lake ridges of Ohio. Upon going southeast from St. David’s towards the whirlpool, one finds these accumulations of sand and gravel merging not far from the watershed in a deposit of true till— Bey Pvc ah a Blt ee ate a ere Sy ya Ae PRE oy ce oetiee ii geot Mee Sort bat ato G. F. Wright—Niagara River and the Glacial Period. 33 A walk from the angle in the escarpment just below the whirlpool to the letter H in the word “Channel” discloses the following succession of phenomena: Ist. For a few rods the bare limestone rock; 2d. After a sudden rise of a few aa we pass’ for about a hundred yards over deposits of sand an gravel which were doubtless made in the old bed of the river when the falls were below the whirlpool; 8d. We reach the -old bank of the river, which consists of till, and rises fifteen or twenty feet. Till, bearing numerous granitic bowlders, contin- ues for two or three miles of an unknown depth. At the letter Hf the sand deposits, before described, begin. The small stream AW Sat ay tts OL ATM Mya ‘ al hate AAG 4 q flowing through the preglacial channel into the whirlpool no- ___ where uncovers the rock; hence it may be inferred that there is _ ® buried channel from the whirlpool to St. David’s. Still, there _ 18 no direct proof of this, as, for a space of two miles, the surf ; of the country is unbroken and the till from twenty to thirty © feet deep. The well to which Sir Charles Lyell indefinitelyrefers _ e Travels in America [First Visit] vol. ii, p. 79) was probably __ Somewhere in the broad opening on the St. David's side, from which little could be inferred. This buried channel where it Am. Jour. Sor.—Tarep Suni, Vou. XXVIII, No, 163.—Juxy, 1884. ae 34 GF. Wright—Niagara River and the Glacial Period. emerges from the whirlpool could not have been much over five hundred feet in width, since the first three streams entering into the whirlpool cut through the till to the rock, and descend in cataracts of varying heights; and the distance from the rock escarpment disclosed by the third stream to the escarpment. upon the none ae of the whirlpool is not much more than five hundre naturally made by a united stream that had worn back its channel to a point whee two or three branches came together. Secondly, ei length of the gorge from St. David’s,—about six miles,—even if it extended to near the present site of the falls, is satieedy too short to represent the work done during preglacial ages by a stream of anything near the size of the Niagara. This follows upon comparison with the enormous : amount of preglacial erosion that is everywhere manifest south of the glaciated area, where the “Tdeetges channels pet § not been buried. Waterfalls may south of the glaciated area. The broth of the Ohio River Bi its ora up the Allegheny—for a distance of fifteen hun-_ dred miles—has been formed by erosion, such as is going on at Ningare and may be taken to represent in amount what would have been done by the Niagara River had it flowed in its pres- ent channel during preglacia al ages. Thirdly, we > know from di- — iahiesk 6 or oa is ow endent of the edunldzion that there must have been such an outlet somewhere. Whatever erosion, there- — ore, was done in preglacial times along the present course of the | Niagara must have been accomplished by some small stream draining a limited area. t seems to me probable that the Niagara River has itself — worn the whole of the g° rge from Queenston to the falls, with, — elp from preglacial erosion above t G4 whirlpool; though this is a point difficult of absolute deter- - perhaps, a very little mination. As to the rate of erosion, it now seems that that fixed upon by s ’ S. W. Ford—Primordial Fossils of New York 35 Mr. Bakewell in this Journal (see January, 1857, pp. 87-93) was not far from correct; namely, about three feet a year, which would make the time required not over ten thousand or twelve thousand years. These rates of recession have been re- cently obtained by Dr. Pohlman by comparing the position of the horseshoe fall fixed by Professor Hall’s survey of 1841 and the position as determined by the United States Survey in 1875. Dr. Pohlman’s paper will soon be published in the Proceedings of the American Association. Mr. James T. Gardiner, of the present New York Survey, informs Professor A. Winchell (see World Life, p. 871) that this rate cannot be far from correct. . he rate of recession for Niagara falls corresponds with _ inferences drawn from the amount of post-glacial erosion which has taken place in the numerous small streams of Northern Ohio emptying into Lake Erie. For example, there is at Elyria, Ohio , a waterfall in Black River, a small stream about thirty miles in length. The gorge below the falls, which represents the work done by that stream since the Glacial period, is only about sixteen hundred feet in length; and this is about the length of numerous other gorges in Northern Ohio where small streams break over the Waverley sandstone into Lake Hrie ; and so everywhere the contrast between the amount of erosion ac- complished by streams in corresponding strata in post-glacial ime and that done in pre-glacial time, such as indicated in the statement just made concerning the Ohio, is perfectly aston- Oberlin, Ohio, May 2. Art. VI.—WNote on the Discovery of Primordial Fossils in the Town of Stuyvesant, Columbia County, N. Y.; by S. W. Forp. ON page 406 of Mather’s Report on the Geology of the First District of the State of New York, published in 1843, atten- tion is called to certain brecciated and conglomerate limestones Occurring in the extreme northwestern: portion of Columbia County; and on plate 23 (fig. 8) of the same work, a section is given to illustrate their stratigraphical relations. The rocks are treated of by the author in the chapter devoted to the consideration of the Birdseye and Black River Limestones ; and although no fossils are cited from them in proof, the series 1s regarded as not improbably an inverted one, the older masses _ occupying the summit of the section. I have recently Vt i her’s with some care the rocks referred to, and find section to be substantially correct, except that I do not find pie go tee courses in his lower division (a). = _ the. strata in question make a conspicuous feature in the — 36 — oS. W. Ford—Primordial Fossils of New York. topography of the region. Commencing at Schodack eis in Rensselaer County, they may be traced southward, slight interruptions, along the east shore of the Hudson ‘River, for nearly three miles; and for a goodly portion of this dis- tance they are finely displayed. In some instances they con- stitute bare, natural cliffs, more than a hundred feet in height. They may be studied to good advantage in a number of places, but one of the best points is in the “old quarries a short dis- tance north of a line running due eastward from Mr. Peter McCabe’s ice-house. At this point I was enabled to obtain the following measured section, which will, I think, be found in the main correct. e strata are enumerated in ascending order, or, as they are met with in passing from the Hotee River Railroad track upward. SEcTION. Po AEMISEORY WAG oo ct ae eles SWas 80 feet. 2. Dark blue, compact limestone, in regular courses, with slight shaly partings .-_.--- be ed my peedmn. GuaIte TOOK. oo 1 foot. 4, Green calcareous slate 2-22.22. oe 6 inches. P; Reeadise Oteree PO0K 2 i ae ie ec ok at agg 6. Green calcareous slate... 22 --- 22 oe 10 feet. iy & cars ras of my s stu dies, I hed nearly all of the exposures of rock along the Hudson River Railroad, and also, to some extent, those “infgeias ‘yer nd beyond the bays ‘and marshes (for the course of the g t Appalachian break, though here for st part a north- eh wey one, is, in certain places, Cant undulated), from Schodack Landing to the first railroad eee h bape miles south of Rhine Cliff station, at which poin re is a splendid example of unconformability between the hider one newer he rock through which the tunnel groups. passes almost certainly the Hudson River slate, while the strata sa hiah wall against it are in all probability Primordial. The Lower Potsdam group in Canada, below Quebec, has a thickness of = least 2,000 feet, and its thickness is manifestly ve Eastern New York. In c epee weet of the generally abide pane rs of the folds of the region to the course of the fault re- ferred to, cross-sections of some eof ‘the more easterly folds and ridges are constantly appearing in passing southward along the river, and excellent Spponeatties for their detailed ei are thus } presented. | Johnstown, N. Y., May 31st, 1884. 38 A. C. Stokes—Fresh-water Infusoria. Art. VII.—Notes on some apparently wha atc pace of fresh- water Infusoria ; by Dr. ALFRED C. Sto Ir is desirable but not always possible . crane the favor- ite position of an infusorian, whether near the surface of the water or near the bottom. Oceasionally inbeseinece can be made from the relative numbers captured at different depths, and it sometimes happens that a glance at the contents of the diges- tive vacuoles will indicate the infusorian’s relation to depth, yet it quite as frequently happens that the food particles are so matted together, and the collection so compressed, that a cor- rect sian is. not aac Instances do occur, however, . amon e free-swimming types, when the food within the sar- code etl fake whether the aicientalis prefer to grovel in the — e or to float on the sunlit water. To this class belong the following hitherto undescribed forms, all of which were taken from the debris and sediment at the bottom of an aquarium kept without macroscopic animal life solely for the cules sites of the infusorial inhabitants, or collected from the ooze of shal- low pools under the open sky. h of the new species of Loxodes, which I have named Loxodes vorax, and the creature’s favorite position are infusorian’s length often gorging it; in one or two instances — its voracious appetite has led it to capture a frustule so nearly repeat the attempt a second and a third time before Bay Seendonin ng it. to x4, inch. Habitat—The surface of water-soaked twigs and decaying leaves at the bottom of shallow pools. Figure 5 represents this infusorian with the tail partially withdrawn, as most commonly seen ; figure 6 an outline of the same part ‘extended. Its movements are the most rapid, and its changes of form the greatest of any member of the genus yet met with. The body is very flexible, and is frequently twisted temporarily. The systematic position of the genus is probably near that of Blepharisma. Another animalcule collected in some abundance in one of the first gatherings of early ee — to have no recog: nizable generic resting-place. It may be characterized as ser Fie Ileonema, gen. nov. (Greek eileo, to twist; nema, a thread.)— Body | fault, -shaped, depressed, elastic, entirely ciliate ; flagellum single, inserted at the narrow anterior extremity, flexible but not vibratile, the basal half large, thick and apparently twisted, the distal half fine, thread-like; oral aperture terminal, perfo- rating the apex of the neck- like portion; pharynx distinct ; nucleus sub- -spherical or broadly ovoid, sub-central ; contractile vesicle single, posterior oeitte anal say i postero- -terminal. Lleonema dispar, sp. (fig. 7 ody transparent, granu- lar, flexible, flask- shapes Vengitodinally striate, the length about three times the breadth, contracting to a short ovoid form or extending until clavate; the ventral surface flattened, the dorsal convex and bearing a single longitudinally disposed row of short hair-like perpendicular sete ; cilia long and fine, thinly clothing the surface; entire flagellum one-half the length of the body, the basal half thick, obliquely grooved and present- ing a twisted or cord-like appearance, slightly tapering yet sud- denly constricted at the beginning of the finely filamentous distal one-half; oral aperture at the base of the flagellum; pharynx elon ate- fusiform, longitudinally plicate, apparentl composed of Scheie elastic, rod-like elements; nugleus us ovoid, sub-central; contractile vesicles two, postero- terminal, close to the anal aperture. Length of body 34, inch. Habitat— oe algee and decaying leaves at the bottom of shallow — ools. This bottle-shaped_ infusorian (fig. 7) was taken from among — those delicate alge which grow so abundantly in all ger! waters, and seem to cling like soft green clouds to lea = grass and fragments of sticks and twigs in the shallow waynide - pools of age spring. Its movements are evenly oe . = f ' 46 ob C. Stokes—Fresh-water Infusoria., k. Normally its contour closely resembles that of Tracheophyllum apiculatum (Perty), C. & L. If, from the latter, the acutely conical anterior apex be removed, and thé flagellum of Jleonema be added, the result would be a: . . contracted forms being also striking. e fine long cilia are not abundant. They vibrate irregu- larly and, to a certain extent, independently of each other. species of the genus now under notice, the likeness between the enlargement, and even this the animalcule often loses, appar- ently without injurious results. This bulb seems to be sticky ; it at least easily attaches itself to foreign bodies, and I have witnessed its owner, after several attempts, forcibly tear itself oose and lose the bulb. The whole flagellum is generally carried trailing and curved to one side, occasionally being ex- portion of the non-flexible, non-vibratile-flagellum, and to more densely clothe the cuticular surface with shorter, more uni- formly moving cilia, in order to produce a typical member of the Cilio-Flagellata.. When the flagellum has been lost, the infusorian possesses no character to distinguish it from the A. ©. Stokes—Fresh-water Infusoria. 47 assumes the ovate form, when folds would become extinct and rods or fibrille more conspicuous, which is in fact the case. That an elastic membrane connects the rod-like constituents of ‘ the passage, I have not been able to determine. My impres- sion, however, is that none exists, the pharynx being merely an elongated cage-like structure open at each end, its delicate bars aya only around the oral aperture ollowing minute creatures are also apparently unde- mitted. They are deliberate, but eccentric in their move- ments, with the additional eccentricity of appearing to oe k downward, having in that position the convex surface which an observer would at free glance decide to be the donate That it is in reality the ventral aspect is proven, it would seem, by the fact that the short, trailing flagellum not only takes its origin from a point on that surface, but is habitually held beneath the convexity. It is scarcely possible that a non- vibratile flagellum could be of much service as a drag or asa pivot on which to turn, as this infusorian turns, if carried above thedorsum. Yet the animal frequently moves with this convex oie directed poReerN although this is the less common posi- gitudinal channel or - depression extending from the apex to the a ig extremity, thus giving the infusorian, when seen “end or in transverse optical section, a concayo-convex outline, oniew hat like that of a longitudinal slice of a bean. This grooved surface is represented in fig. When moving through the water, ‘it advances in a direct course steadily and not rapidly for a few moments, when it quickly and abruptly turns aside at an acute angle, the long flagellum then being thrown into indescribable curves and flex- _ e ures, but in the general direction of the route to be taken. No distinct oral aperture is visible. On several occasions humerous minute green evannel presumably of food, have been noticed within the endo 48 A. ©. Stokes—Fresh-water Infusorva. be the ventral, Stein’s genus would still be unable to receive the infusorian, since the short flagellum would then take So atom of vitality, it seems to demand recognition as the type of anew genus, of which the following may be taken as the diagnosis. acute, slightly projecting apex; the posterior bo rowing, the extremity convex but somewhat truncate; ventral aspect smoothly convex; dorsal groove narrowest at its ante- rior origin, widening and thence continuing evenly to its pos- terior termination ; flagella diverse in length and thickness, the longer and larger, once to one-half times as long as the body, inserted at the apex, and commonly held stiffly and obliquely in advance, the distal end alone vibrating; the shorter trailing, about one-third the length of the body, slender, arising from a point at a little distance from the anterior apex of the convex or dorsal surface; endoplasm granular especially posteriorly ; contractile vesicle single, small, located anteriorly near the right-hand border ; nucleus obscure, apparently placed subcen- trally near the left-hand margin. Length of the body 5;4,; to stsy inch. Habitat—Standing water with Myriophyllum. Solenotus orbicularis, sp. nov.—Body suborbicular, the ante- rior apex obtuse, the posterior extremity rounded not truncate, the posterior one-half of the left-hand border angular; dorsal groove broad and shallow; ventral surface evenly convex ; flagella, nucleus and contractile vesicle similar to those of the receding species. Length of the body with s4,5 inch. abitat—Near the bottom of the shallow water of small ols. PeThis infusorian (fig. 10) differs from that described as Sole- us, chiefly in its contour, its shorter’ dorso-ven- tral or vertical diameter, and in the shallowness and greater LR. Hitechcock— Causes of Variation. — 49 comparative width of the dorsal depression. Its movements are similar to those of S. apocamptus, the long flagellum being held somewhat more obliquely than with that species. The body is frequently elevated during its progression so that the apex seems to be held in contact with the slide, a position not observed with S. apocamptus. The anterior body half is trans- parent; colorless corpuscles and green food-particles collected posteriorly render that part semi-opaque. Trenton, N. J. Art. VIII.—The Causes of Variation ; by Romyn HircHcock. THE recent studies of Dr. W. B. Carpenter Hie Orbitolites, which were noticed in the April number of this Journal, are of special interest owing to the remarkable manner in which the stages of variation and development have been traced. The monograph by Dr. Carpenter, published in the Reports of the leat Expedition, was the subject of some remarks ture in the calcareous fabri This, however, is merel Statement of the facts siaerrell and in heb assists in 5 a aan or ‘aimless’ variation. The facts seem capable oe a somewhat different interpretation, which seems mort in accord with our present knowledge o simple organisms, and quite sustaining the views of Darwin that “plan,” in the sense used by Dr. Ourheuter, should Superfluous. For if there be an inherent tendency to variation among these organisms, as Dr, Carpenter seems to believe, how do we explain the persistence of the original orbitoline type tenuissima ? Biologists seek to discover the causes of variations which they observe, but it seems not less important that the persistence of types ‘should also be explained. 0. tenuwissima is a very ancient species, and surely any inherent tendency to change would have manifested itself during the long period of its existence, even under unfavorable conditions, he observations I have to offer may be said to relate entirely to change of environment, but their seadeney, is to Am, JOUR Sy ET es — Vou. XXVIII, No. 163.—Juny, 1884, 50 R. Hitchcock—Causes of Variation. ae ae that the changes observed in the shells of this: mily are not’ due to any inherent tendency resulting in a definite plan, but that they are due to causes easily understood. It is far from my intention to deny a definite plan of growth to these organisms. But plan of growth does not imply that there have been causes acting within the organism—special _ tendencies of the protoplasm toward higher structure. It seems to be such an assumption that has led Dr. Carpenter to speak of a “not understood ” progressive tendency, etc. In m opinion the causes of such progression as can be observed are easily understood; and the plan of growth becomes a natural consequence of these causes, which are purely Ss at and independent of any supposed tendency to variation While Dr. Carpenter, on the o and, seems to regard varia- the writer, on the other hand, attributes it entirely to the more or less favorable conditions of life of the different species. More- over, I am quite unable to understand how any inherent ten- dency to variation impressed upon the sarcode could fail to find expression in some differentiation of the sarcode, which in the cases in question hie not been observed. The same view seems to be held by O. Schmidt who, in his _Grundziige einer Spongien-Fauna des Atlantischen Gebietes me Dr. pong ’ alludes to Carpenter’s previous studies, and compares the changes observed in the sponges and foraminifera. He says Piatiles 3 in the latter are found in the general habit of the form and the variable grouping of the chamber- ‘systems, while among the sponges the variation is in the microscopic detail. “One may speak of the 5a form of foraminifera but — not of microscopic elemen e complexity of the Hel is merely in the multiplicity “s chambers and the manner of their intereommunication. re of growth, even in the complex O. complanata, is in all spects identical with that in other species, and in no essen- tial feature differs from that of Peneroplis. What Dr. Carpenter esignates as a ‘“‘ higher ac type of structure ” does not represent an advanced degree of specialization in any part; unless it results from some Path of edge which confers some benefit upon the organism, it seems not proper to regard complexity of shell-structure ee a proof of ictenien! advance- eking for an explanation of the cause of the increased Se nereas omplexity of shell-structure, so beautifully sitvieentied in the ilieline amily, the writer was led to ‘the conclusion that it is *. Se atae f. Hitchcock— Causes of Variation. 51 siurely due to the favorable conditions of life and the abun- of food available. It is true, as already said, this may be ieuardid as a mere statement of the influence of environment causing variation, but a careful consideration of the subject will show that there is a broad distinction between environment as a cause of variation, and adaptation to environment ; for in this beneficial. In the case under consideration, however, an exam- ination of the changes that have taken pl ace does not indicate any possible benefit to the organism. ‘The multiplication of © chamberlets necessitates very intimate interecommunication for the transference of food and the continuation of the processes of life. The organism is not thereby better adapted to its surroundings, but is made more dependent for its existence upon the continuance of the favorable conditions under which it has developed. The advance in complexity—tke multipli- cation of sh anne ace only be possible under the most favorable conditions, for all the nutriment received by the interior segments must be collected by the sarcode at the mar- gin of the shell, and the necessary food could only be obtained where the supply was abundant. It may be conceived that if 0. complanata were placed in situations less favorable as regards food it would die of starvation owing to the quantity of inner sarcode requiring nourishment, while O. éenuissima needs only more favorable conditions as regards food, and perhaps temper- ature, to become as highly complex in structure as the last- - mentioned species. As a further proof of the influence of environment leading to changes which cannot be regarded as special adaptations, in the usual meaning of the word, the forms of O. complanata found on Fiji reef are especially characterized by thick, plicated margins, as though growth proceeded with too great rapidity to produce symmetrical disks, and these forms are associated with the largest representatives of the eci The distinction above referred to seems an important one, which, if it has already been recognized, has not been prom- inently fechas forward in the writings with which I am famil- ore the Biological seers the subject was briefly. POR a in the following wor ‘Regarding the subject from this point of view we are led to examine more closely the relations between the spiral and the cyclical methods of growth. Their intimate pois is 20 noticeable when we observe how one has been d erived carat Le gf: q 52 R. Hitchcockh—Causes of Variation. other. When the spiral growth of Orbiculina produces a com- plete circular disk, further spiral growth becomes impossible, and if we concede that the extrusion of the sarcode to form successive chamberlets is due to nutrition and growth, the cyclical plan then becomes a necessity. In this way it may be supposed cyclical growth originated, purely a result of nutri- tion—not by adaptation to environment, but as a result of it; not because such growth is or ever was better adapted to the conditions of life. ‘‘We find here a steady course of variation a result of physio- logical processes, independent of those external causes to whi V accustomed to attribute such changes. These from the geographical and bathymetrical distribution of the species, ithout entering into a lengthy discussion of this plex species are found in the warmer waters, under conditions most favorable to the activity of nutritive processes. As an. example, the very large specimens of O. complanata from Fiji may be taken. On the other hand, the ancestral form 0. tenuissema still inhabits the colder and deeper waters, retaining the simple characters of its earliest known condition. National Museum. S. I. Smith— Crustacea of the Albatross Dredgings. 58 Art. [X.—Crustacea of the Albatross Dredgings in 1888; by IDNEY I. SMITH. Very little has yet been published in regard to the zoolog- ical results of the deep sea explorations carried on during the summer of 1888, by the United States Fish Commission, although the dredgings were among the most important yet made. Some of the remarkable forms of fishes discovered have been described by Drs. Gill and Ryder, but the writer's report on the decapod crustacea (80 pages of text with 1 plates), recently putin type for the Fish Commission Report for 1882, is the first detailed report on the zoological collection made by the Albatross, and affords an opportunity for a brief review of the results of the study of the higher crustacea, which is here published by permission of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. The dredgings of the Albatross extended from off Cape Hat- teras to the region of George’s Banks. The number of dredg- ing stations was 116, of which 30 were in less than 100 fathoms, 35 between 100 and 500 fathoms, 19 between 500 and 1000 fathoms, 27 between 1000 and 2000 fathoms, and 5 below 2000 fathoms, The whole number of species of Decapoda deter- mined from these stations is 72, but of these at least 15 are true shallow-water species. Of the remaining 57 species, 40 were taken below 500 fathoms, 29 below 1000 fathoms, 13 below 2000 fathoms, and 6 at a single hau! in 2949 fathoms. Of the 29 species taken below 1000 fathoms, 21 are Caridea or true shrimp, and the 8 higher species distributed as follows: 2 Eryontide, 3 Galatheide, 1 Paguroid, 1 Lithodes, and 1 Bra- chyuran belonging to the Dorippide. It is interesting to com- pare these results with the lists of the fauna of the North Atlan- tic below 1000 fathoms, given by the Rev. Dr. Norman in the presidential address to the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club, published last year. In Dr. Norman’s lists only 12 species of Decapoda are recorded, none of them from as great a depth as 2000 fathoms, and of these 12 species, 7 were known only from the Blake dredgings of 1880. The following are some of the more interesting new forms: ~~ a new genus of Brachyura allied to Athusa, 1496 to 1735 fath- an Anomuran belonging to A. Milne-Edwards’ new genus Galacantha, 1479 fathoms; two species of Pentacheles (a genus of Eryontide allied to Willemesia), between 843 and 1917 fath- oms; a stout Palemonid (Notostomus), six inches long and Intense dark crimson in color, 1809 to 1555 fathoms; a gigantic Pasiphaé, eight and one-half inches long, 1842 fath- 54. S. I. Smith—Crustacea of the Albatross Dredgings. -oms; three species of a remarkable new genus allied to Pasiphaé, and also to Hymenodora and some other genera of Paleemonidz, which shows that Pasphaé is closely allied to the Paleemonide ; a large Penzid, a foot in length, referred to the little known genus Aristeus; and a large Sergestes three inches in length. The great size of some of these new species of shrimp is remarkable, but is far exceeded by two of the previously described crabs. Geryon quinguedens, from 105 to 588 fathoms, is one of the largest Brachyurans known, the carapax in some specimens being five inches long and six broad, while one spe- cimen of the great spiny JLithodes Agassizii measures seven inches in length and six in breadth of carapax, and the out- stretched legs over three feet in extent. Among the Schizopoda there are two large species of Gnath- Sako one over four inches in length, and a Lophogaster, all rom below 2000 fathoms. One of the most interesting Schiz- opods is a small Thysanoessa (a genus of Euphauside) from 398 to 1067 fathoms, of which one female was found carrying eggs. e eggs are carried in an elongated and flattened mass beneath the cephalothorax, are apparently held together by some glu- tinous secretion, and are attached principally to the third pair of perseopods (antepenultimate cephalothoracic appendages). This apparently confirms Bell’s statement in regard to the egg- carrying of Thysanopoda Couchii, which is, as far as I know, the only published observation of egg-carrying in any of the Euphausidee. istinct varietal differences due to depth in any species, though there is often a very marked change in the associating species. S. I. Smith— Crustacea of the Albatross Dredgings. 55 A very remarkable case is that of Parapagurus pilosimanus, which was taken at fifteen stations and in 250 to 640 fathoms ‘by the Fish Hawk and- Blake in 1880-’81-’82, and in great abundance at one station, in 319 fathoms, where nearly four : hundred large specimens were taken at once. All these earlier fathoms, but none of the specimens were associated with the same species of es ietiggad some eing in a very different intense edad crim The eyes of these abyssal species are even more remarkable than their‘colors, as the following list of the Decapoda and . larger Schizopoda taken below 2000 fathoms by the Albatross, with the notes which follow, will show 1, Parapagurus pilosimanus.--. 1731 to 2921 fathoms. 2. Pontophilus abyssi --------- 1917 to 22 3. Nematocarcinus ensiferus _.. 588 to te 4. Acanthephyra Agassizii ----- 105 to 2949 5. Acanthephyra, sp. - 6. Gen. allied to "Acanthephyra- 1395 to 2929 7. Hymenodora glacialis - _-. ~~ - $88 to 2030 8. Parapasiphaé suleatifrons.... 516 to 2929 9. Parapasiphaé compta ---.--- 2369 10. Amalopenzeus i --- 640 to 2369 11. Aristeus? tridens _........- 843 to 2221 12. Hepomadus tener._-.....--- 2949 13. Sergestes mollis...-.......- 373 to 2949 14. Gnathophausa, sp.----.--- .- 858 to 2033 15. et nee ES ae 959 to 2949 16, Lophowaster ep, 2.23 oo 1022 to 2949 In every one of hae sixteen species the eyes are present, in ~ ‘the normal position, and distinctly patigy In Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 11 and 12 the eves are well develo pet mont and Pena, | aleemonide and Penzi pe: what smaller than in the average » 28 56S. L. Smith—Crustacea of the Albatross Dredgings. are not conspicuously smaller than in many allied shallow- water forms. In 1 the eyes are black but conspicuously smaller than in the allied shallow-water species. In 13 the eyes are black and of moderate size. In 9 they are apparently black or nearly black and small. In 2 they are nearly color- less in alcoholic specimens and rather larger than usual in the genus, but considerably smaller than in Pontophilus gracilis, a very closely allied species found in 200 to 500 fathoms. In 7 and 8 they are small and light colored. In 10 they are rather small and dark brown. In 14, 15 and 16 they are not con- spicuously different in size from those of allied shallow-water species and are dark brown. wever strong may be the arguments of the physicists against the possibility of light penetrating the depths from which these animals come, the color and the structure of their eyes, as compared with blind cave-dwelling species, show con- clusively that the darkness beneath two-thousand fathoms of sea-water is very different from that of ordinary caverns. While it may be possible that this modification of the darkness of the ocean abysses is due to phosphorescence of the animals themselves, it does not seem probable that it is wholly due to this cause. Nt he ee 3 Sa fag ee oe REA as ee a Dari ean eee tm See Les ee seen W. P. Blake—Crystallized Gold in prismatic forms. 57 ArT. X.—Crystallized Gold in prismatic forms; by Wma. P. BLAKE. NEAR Clancey, on Clancey Creek, Jefferson County, Mon- tana, minute crystals of gold occur which present the novelty of a solid octahedral nucleus, or head, with a long divergeut brush-like or prismatic development of the gold on one side, or angle, giving the whole the appearance of the drawings usu- ally made to represent comets, and as represented in the accom- panying figure. The total length of these crystals does not exceed from two to three millimeters (about one eighth of an inch), and the minuteness of the cross-section of the delicate divergent prisms makes it extremely difficult to determine their form. They are, also, very brittle, and they appear to cleave or break asunder in planes at right angles to their length. Under the microscope these prisms are : seen to have three or more planes and yoRIR they appear to be hexagonal. They taper gradually and uni- formly to a sharp point, and are sometimes composite, being for part of their length formed of two or more-prisms joined side to side, : Among the fragments, one larger and broader than the others exhibits a solid octahedral nucleus with a flat or plate- like projection on opposite sides. This projection shows dis- tinctly on one side a line of composition through the center, with divergent lines or markings at an angle of 46° with the | medial line, corresponding in angle and in direction with small planes on the edges. The same side of this plate which shows the medial line of composition is slightly trough-shaped, being formed of two plane surfaces inclined towards the medial line. The opposite side is rough, with angular projections. These plate-like projections from the octahedron are much larger than the prisms, buat it is probable that the origin and crystallization of both are similar. The plates have the appear- ance of being formed by the combination or twinning of octa- hedrons parallel with their faces with their main axes inclined towards each other at an angle of 60°. HexaGonat Prisms or Goup. At Sonora in Tuolumne County, California, I obtained some Ne ago from the late Dr. Snell a sample of very small but rilliant prisms of gold. Under the microsco are seen pe these to be hexagonal prisms with smooth and brilliant planes and terminated at one or both ends with a pyramid. They appear Q, 58 FF. H. Storer—Shell- and Rock-boring Mollusks. of mercury. Le Sage, a writer of the last.century, 1777, also mentions prismatic crystals of gold obtained by heating the amalgam. He describes them as square prisms with terminal pyramids of four planes, and considered them to be lengthened octahedrons. Mill Rock, New Haven, June, 1884. Arr, XI.—WMode of action of Shell- and Rock-boring Mollusks ; by Professor Ff. H. Storer. (Letter addressed to J. D. Dana.) - ? the true explanation of the mode of action of many rock- and nown as water-culture, which has played a highly important part in the study of the question what chemical substances are necessary for feeding plants. Knopt found, for example, on growing maize plants in solutions containing the nitrates of lime and potash that the nitrogen of these compounds was s alkaline through accumulation of the bicarbonates of potash and of lime. So, too, when Rautenberg and Kiihn tried to sup- . * This Journal, July, 1878, III, vol. xvi, 32. t See his “ Lehrbuch der Agricultur-Chemie,” i, 603. F. H. Storer—Shell- and Rock-boring Mollusks. 59 ply maize plants with nitrogen by feeding them with ammo- nium chloride, they found that this salt was decomposed and that chlorhydric acid, for which the plant had no need, accu- osmotic action of the roots on matters in the soil-water; though it is perhaps equally probable that the lines are etched . by carbonic acid which is known to be given off by plant» roots. deceives me grossly, in the stomach of the so-called ling or eel- shaped blenny (Zoarces anguillaris) some of which specimens it should be said are extremely well-fitted to give a student just conceptions as to the great chemical activity of gastric juice. Some twenty-five years ago, in a discussion at a meeting of the * See Johnson’s “ How Crops Grow,” New York, 1868, pp. 170, 171. oe . 60. F. H. Storer—Shell- and Rock-boring Mollusks. tion of food by animals should count in favor of the chemical view of rock boring. I remember to have said, on that occa- sion, that it might as well be argued that tripe could not be digested in the stomach of a dog without corroding the walls of his stomach as to s say that a marine animal sour not bore rocks by chemical means without destroying him During the last six or eight years I have had frequent opportunity to observe the common whelk (Buccinum) in the: act of boring through the shells of mussels and barnacles, and I have interrupted his operations, scores of times, at a conceiv- able stages of progress. As is well known, the w , having boscis whose end is kept continually in contact with one partic- ular point on the mussel shell, in such wise that a small round hole is there speedily perforated through the caleareous matter. he moment the hole is completed the whelk protrudes his: _ proboscis still -farther, pretties it into the actual an of the mussel, and gradually sucks out and consumes the whole of this flesh ; he then passes to another mussel, drills another hole in its shell and eats the fleshy contents of the shell, as before. t bas been not a little debated whether the process ‘of perfora- tion in this case is an act of corrosion by acid or of chipping or filing by teeth. Osler (Phil. Mag., eee p. 507) maintained long ago that “ the perforation is effec by a succession 0 strokes, following each other at inter ale. shorter than a second.” e says, indeed, that he has distinctly heard these strokes by applying to his ear a patella that had a buccinum attached to it. e gives Senne figures of the tooth-like, horney points on the tongue of cinum, which he compares with a “ center- bit ;” and, in like manner, Agassiz and Gould* have figured the teeth of natica to show the analogy of the boring apparatus. toa “file” or a “rasp.” The powerful muscular development of the proboscis a buecinum would of itself lend some counte- nance to the idea that it drives a drill. But I must say that to: myself the boring act, like the subsequent di; the process. at the denticles may aid somewhat in the boring, to remove acolan alts bits of loosened or softened shell, and that they may afterwards serve to tear off or hook up meat from within the mussel seems probable enough, but I am strongly of opinion that an ayy clveat is made to act upon the shell during the process of boring. It seems not improbable that the presence of free muriatic acid might be detected by appro- priate chemical experiments made ce large tropical gastero- pods. It might even be a one perhaps, to learn some- thing in this sense, by studying some one of our own L BpOees . id of Zoology, p. 78. A. Gray—Memorial of George Engelmann. 61 confined in a sufficiently small aquarium. Possibly the oyster drill (Buccinum plicosum) might serve the purpose? or, better, the large winkle (Pyrula)? or possibly even our common clam- devouring Natica? Arr. XII.—Memorials of GEORGE ENGELMANN and of OSWALD EER; by AsA GRAY. {From the Report of the Council of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, May, 1884.] I. Grorce ENGELMANN. In the death of Dr. Engelmann, which took place on the 4th of February last, the American Academy has lost one of its very few Associate Fellows in the Botanical Section, and science one of its most eminent and venerable cultivators. He was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, February 2, 1809, and had therefore just completed his seventy-fifth year. His father, a younger member of the family of Engelmanns who for several generations served as clergymen at Bacharach on the Rhine, was also educated for the ministry, and was a graduate of the University of Halle, but he devoted his life to education. © Marrying the daughter of George Oswald May, a somewhat distinguished portrait-painter, they established at Frankfort, and carried on for a time with much success, a school for young ladies, such as are common in the United States, but were then a novelty in Germany. George Engelmann was the eldest of thirteen children born of this marriage, nine of whom survived to manhood. Assisted by a scholarship founded by “the Reformed Congregation of Frankfort,” he went to the University of Heidelberg in the year 1827, where he had as fellow students and companions Karl Schimper and Alexander Braun. With the latter he main- tained an intimate friendship and correspondence, interrupted only by the death of Braun in 1877. The former, who mani- fested unusual genius as a philosophical naturalist, after layin the foundations of phyllotaxy, to be built upon by Braun wad others, abandoned, through some singular infirmity of temper, an opening scientific career of the highest promise, upon which the three young friends, Agassiz, Braun and Schimper, and in his turn Engelmann, had zealously entered. Embarrassed by some troubles growing out of a political demonstration by the students at Heidelberg, Engelmann in the autumn of 1828 went to Berlin University for two years; and thence to Wiirzburg, where he took his degree of Doctor 62 A. Gray—Memorial of George Engelmann. in Medicine in the summer of 1831. His inaugural dissertation, De Antholysi Prodromus, which he published at Frankfort in 1882, testifies to his early predilection for botany, and to his truly scientific turn of mind. It is a morphological dissertation, founded chiefly on the study of monstrosities, illustrated by five ’ plates filled with his own drawings. It was therefore quite in the line with the little treatise on the Metamorphosis of Plants, published forty years before by another and the most distin- inquiries after young Engelmann, who, he said, had completely apprehended his ideas of vegetable morphology, and had shown such genius in their development that he offered to place in this young botanist’s hands the store of unpublished notes and 3 sketches which he had accumulated. The spring and summer of 1832 were passed at Parisin med- | _ ical and scientific studies, with Braun and Agassiz as compan- ions, leading, as he records “a glorious life in scientific union, in spite of the cholera.” Meanwhile, Dr. Engelmann’s uncles had resolved to make some land investments in the valley of the Mississippi, and he willingly became their agent. At least — one of the family was already settled in Illinois, not far from St. Louis. Dr. Engelmann, sailing from Bremen for Baltimore in September, joined his relatives in the course of the winter, made many lonely and somewhat adventurous journeys on horseback in Southern Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas, which yielded no other fruits than those of botanical exploration ; and finally he established himself in the practice of, medicine at St. Louis, late in the autumn of 1835. St. Louis was then voyage to Germany, and, fulfilling a long-standing engagement, for bringing to a frugal home the chosen companion of his life, Dora Hartsmann, bis cousin, whom he married at Kreuznach, on the 11th of June, 1840. On his way homeward, at New York, the writer of this memorial formed the personal acquaint- ance of Dr. Engelmann; and thus began the friendship and the * i scientific association which has continued unbroken for almost | half a century. * The manuscript — of the Antholysis, in German, with the neat orig- inal drawings (the gift of the son), is now preserved in the Library of the Her~ — barium of Harvard University. A. Gray—- Memorial of George Engelmann. 63 without risk, to leave his practice for two years, to devote most of the first summer to botanical investigation in Cambridge, and then, with his wife and young son, to revisit their native land, and to fill up a prolonged vacation in interesting travel and study. In the year 1868 the family visited Europe for a year, the son remaining to pursue his medical studies in Berlin. And lastiy, his companion of nearly forty years having been removed by death in January, 1879, and his own robust health having suffered serious and indeed alarming deterioration, he sailed again for Germany in the summer of 1888. The voyage was so beneficial that he was able to take up some botanical investigations, which, however, were soon interrupted by serious symptoms. But the return voyage proved wonderfully restora- tive; and when, in early autumn, he rejoined his friends here, they could hope that the unfinished scientific labors, which he at once resumed with alacrity of spirit, might still for a time be carried on with comfort. So indeed they were, in some meas- ure, after his return to his home, yet with increasing infirmity and no little suffering, until the sudden illness supervened which, in a few days, brought his honorable and well-filled life to a close. In the latter’ part of his life Dr. Engelmann was able to explore considerable portions of his adopted country, the saw for the first time in the state of nature plants which he had studied and described more than ,thirty years before. Dr. Engelmann’s associates [so one of them declares] will never for- get his courage and industry, his enthusiasm and zeal, his abounding good nature, and his kindness and consideration of every one with whom he came in contact.” His associates, and also all his published writings, may testify to his acuteness in observation, his indomitable perseverance in investigation, his critical judgment, and a rare openness of mind which prompt him continually to revise old conclusions in the light of new facts or ideas. In the consideration of Dr. Engelmann’s botanical work,—to which these lines will naturally be devoted,—it should be temembered that his life was that of: an eminent and trusted | : a 64 A. Gray—Memorial of George Engelmann. physician, in large and general practice, who even in age and failing health was unable—however he would have chosen— to refuse professional services to those who claimed them ; that he devoted only the residual hours, which most men use for rest or recreation, to scientific pursuits, mainly to botany, yet not exclusively. He was much occupied with meteorology. On establishing his home at St. Louis, he began a series of thermometrical and barometrical observations, which he con- tinued regularly and systematically to the last, when at home his maximum and minimum thermometers. His latest publica- tion (issued since his death by the St. Louis Academy of Sci- ences) is adigest and full representation of the thermometrical pat of these observations for forty-seven years. He apologizes — or not waiting the completion of the half-century before sum- ming up the results, and shows that these could not after three more years be appreciably different. ist of Dr. Engelmann’s botanical papers and notes, collected De Antholysi Prodromus), is a treatise upon -teratology in its relations to morphology. It is a remarkable production for | the time and for a mere medical student with botanical. predi- — lections. There is an interesting recent analysis of it in “ Nature,” for April 24, by Dr. Masters, the leading teratolo- _ gist of our day, who compares it with Moquin-Tandon’s more — elaborate Tératologie Végétale, published ten years afterwards, and who declares that, ‘‘ when we compare the two works from in Coulter's Botanical Gazette for May, 1884, contains about — one hundred entries, and is certainly not quite complete. His — earliest publication, his inaugural thesis already mentioned a Wied 52 by his friend and associate, Professor Sargent, and published — a philosophical point of view, and consider that the one was a— mere college essay, while the other was the work of a professed _ botanist, we must admit that Engelmann’s treatise, so far as it goes, affords evidence of deeper insight into the nature and eauses of the deviations from the ordinary conformation of — plants than does that of Moquin.” Transferred to the valley of the Mississippi and surrounded — by plants most of which still needed critical examination, Dr. — Engelmann’s avocation in botany and his mode of work were marked out for him. Nothing escaped his attention; he drew — with facility ; and he methodically secured his observations by notes and sketches, available for his own after use and for that i of his correspondents. But the lasting impression which he — has made upon North American botany is due to his wise habit _ of studying his subjects in their systematic relations, and of ; ra rains S ae i ees sa 2 * t ies ros - od Ait are Po oe seer i Sa FE ee east a ne PRT Oe Peay ns. ote Peat: ot rae IN | pete ts Sy EN ag I OF ERR ae ee ee ati te wa SENT yee) Oe eee a nn eee Sete pe melee ne eae 8 hgh ee i eh ek ae ae A. Gray—Memorial of George Engelmann. 65 ‘devoting himself to a particular genus or group of plants (gen- erally the more difficult) until he had elucidated it as com- pletely as lay within his power. In this way all his work was made to tell effectively. Thus his first monograph of the genus Cuscuta (published in this Journal in 1842), of which when Engelmann took it up we were supposed to have only one indigenous species, and that not peculiar to the United States, be immediately brought up to fourteen species without going west of the Mississippi valley. In the year 1859, after an investigation of t! whole genus in the materials scattered through the principal herbaria of Europe and this country, he published in the first volume of the St. Louis Academy of Sciences, a systematic arrangement of all the Cuscute, characterizing seventy-seven species, besides others classed as perhaps varieties. Mentioning here only monographical subjects, we should next refer to his investigations of the Cactus family, upon which his work was most extensive and important, as well as particularly difficult, and upon which Dr. Engelmann’s author- ity is of the very highest. He essentially for the first time established the arrangement of these plants upon floral and carpological characters. This formidable work was begun in his sketch of the botany of Dr. A. Wislizenus’s Expedition from Missouri to North Mexico, in the latter’s memoir of this tour, published by the United States Senate. It was followed up by his account (in this Journal, 1852), of the Giant Cactus on the Gila (Cereus giganteus) and an allied species; by his Synopsis of the Cactacese of the United States, published in the roceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1856; and by his two illustrated memoirs upon the Southern and Western species, one contributed to the fourth volume of the series of Pacific Railroad Expedition Reports, the other to Emory’s Report on the Mexican Boundary Survey. He had made large preparations for a greatly needed revision of at least the North American Cactacee. But although his collections and sketches will be indispensable to the future monographer, very much knowledge of this difficult group of plants is lost by his death. _Upon-two other peculiarly American groups of plants, very difficult of elucidation in herbarium specimens, Yucca and Agave, Dr. Engelmann may be said to have brought his work | up to the time. Nothing of importance is yet to be added to what he modestly styles “Notes on the Genus Yucca,” pub- lished in the third volume of the Transactions of the St. Louis © Academy, 1873, and not much to the “Notes on Agave,” illus- _ trated by photographs, included in the same volume and pub- — _ lished in 1875. Pee : Am. Jour, So Vou. XXVIII. No. 163.—Juny, 1884. ~ and also exemplified in ee sets of Soa Euphor- ina (in the fourth volume of the Pacific Railroad Reports, and in the Botany of the Nokian Houndae: Sagittaria and its allies; Callitriche ; Isoetes (of which his final revision is probably hopes pu ublication), and the North American Loranthacee; to. which Sea gine groups of Gentiana, and some other genera, would have to be added in any complete enumer- ation. Revisions of these gees were also kindly contributed tinued and ‘most conscientious study. The same must be ee of his persevering study of the North Americah Vines, of which he at length recognized and characterized a dozen species,—excellent subjects for his nice discrimination, and tifically of our species and forms of Vitis is directly due to Dr. Engelmann’s she! stag His first separate publication upon them, ‘ The e Vines of Missouri,” was published in 186 his, last, a reélaborstion of the American species, with figures of their seeds, he third edition of the Bushberg soaks: oO t — whole time to botany have accomplished as much rolls of most of the societies devoted to the investigation of nature, that he was ‘everywhere the Hoa Begs authority in those departments of his favorite science which had most inter- ested him,” and that, personally one of the most affable and kindly of men, he was as much beloved as respected by those who knew him More than fifty ‘years ago his oldest associates in this coun- try—one of them his survivor—dedicated to him a monot (3 . ical genus of plants, a native of the plains over whose bo en ee ee eae ae ee LPS Soe ee ry fk a " ene Pesan oe Se oe ee RR toe ee Oe Pe ae eee A ee ye eee ee ee ee bait a ea mer : 2 ‘ ¥ 4 x A. Gray—Memorial of Oswald Heer. 67 the young immigrant on his arrival wandered solitary and dis- heartened. Since then the name of Engelmann has, by his own researches and authorship, become unalterably associated with the Buffalo-grass of the plains, the noblest Conifers of the ocky: Mountains, the most stately Cactus in the world and with most of the associated species, as well as with many other plants of which perhaps only the annals of botany may take account. It has been well said by a congenial biographer, that. ‘the Western plains will still be bright with the yellow rays of Engelmannia, and that the splendid Spruce, the fairest of them all, which bears the name of Engelmann, will still, it is to be hoped, cover with noble forests the highest slopes of the Rocky Mountains, recalling to men, as long as the study of trees oceu- pies their thoughts, the memory of a pure, upright, and labo- rious life.” II. Oswatp Heer. OswaLp Heer, the most eminent investigator of the fossil plants and insects of the Tertiary period, died on the 27th of September last, shortly after he had entered upon the seventy- fifth year of his age. He was born at the hamlet of Nieder-Utzwy]l, in Canton St. Gallen, Switzerland, August 31, 1809, passed most of his youth at Matt, in Canton Glarus, where his father was the parish cler- gyman, pursued his academic and professional studies at the University of Halle, and was ordained as minister of the Gospel in the year 1831. The next year he went to Zurich, where he resided for the rest of his life. Here he studied medicine for a time, but soon devoted himself seriously to entomology and botany, of which he was fond from boyhood. In 1834 he ecame Privat-docent of these sciences; in 1852, when the » University of Zurich was developed, he became its Professor of Otany, and in 1855 he took a similar chair in the Polytechni- cum. ost of his earlier publications were entomological ; of observation, induced him to undertake the study of the’ fossil insects of the celebrated Tertiary deposits of Oeningen. The results of his labors in this virgin field were published between the years 1847 and 1853. His attention had from the first been attracted to the plants associated with the insect — remains. His first paleo-botanical paper appeared in 1851; the three volumes of his Flora Tertiaria Helvetie were issued ree between 1855 and 1859; in 1862 his memoir on the fossil fl of Bovey-Tracey (England) was published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London. About the same PSUR te 55 ba é ee ee 68 A. Gray—Memorial of Oswald Heer. time also appeared a paper, in the Journal of the Geological Society, on certain fossil plants of the Isle of Wight. For the benefit of his health, always delicate and then much impaired, he passed the winter of 1854-55 in Madeira, and on his return published a paper on the fossil plants of that island, and an article on the probable origin of the actual flora and fauna of the Azores, Madeira, and the Canaries, In this and in his work, published in 1860, on Tertiary Climates in their Relation to Vegetation (which the next year appeared also in a French translation by his young friend Gaudin), Heer brought out his theory of a Miocene Atlantis. His more extensive and popu- lar treatise upon past climates as illustrated by vegetable pale- ontology, his Urwelt der Schweiz,—a vivid portraiture of the past of his native country,—appeared in 1865, and afterwards in a revised French edition, with his friend Gaudin (who die soon after) for collaborator as well as translator. There was also an English translation by Heywood, published in 1876, and, indeed, it is said to have been translated into six lan- uages. . if 1877 Heer completed his Flora Fossilis Helvetie, a square- folio volume with seventy plates, which extended and supple- - mented his Tertiary Flora of that country, being devoted to the illustration of the fossil plants of the Carboniferous, the Triassic, the Jurassic, and the Cretaceous, as well as the Eocene formations. The life-long delicacy of Heer’s health prevented his making any extensive explorations in person. But materials for his investigation came to him in even embarrassing abundance, not only from his own country,—where, even before he was widely known (as his fellow countryman and his distinguished fellow worker in paleo-botany, Lesquereux, informs us), a lady opened upon her property, near Lausanne, quarries and tunnels expressly for the discovery and collection of fossil plants, and sent them by tons to Zurich,—but from all parts of the world collections were pressed upon him, and his whole time and strength were given to their study. In this way he became interested in the Arctic fossil flora, of which he became the principal investiga- tor and expounder. His first essay in the domain which he has made so peculiarly his own was in a paper on certain fossil — planis of Vancouver Island and British Columbia, published in 1865; and in 1868 he brought out the first of that most important series of memoirs upon the ancient floras of Arctic . America, Greenland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, Arctic and Subarctic Asia, ete.; which, collected, make up the seven quarto volumes of the Flora Fossilis Arctica. The seventh volume of this monumental work was brought to a conclusion 4 only a few months before the author's death, . eee = 3) eae ¢ A. Gray-—Memorral of Oswald Heer. 69 Heer’s researches into the fossil botany of the tertiary deposits were very important in their bearings. ey made it certain that our actual temperate floras round the world had a com- present ; and they leave the similarities and the dissimilarities of the temperate floras of the Old and the New World to be explained as simple consequences of established facts. Thus Heer himself did away with his own hypothesis of a continen- tal Atlantis by bringing to light the facts which proved that there was no need of it. And, while thus justifying the ideas which had been brought forward in one of the Memoirs of the American Academy (in 1859) before these fossil data were known, he was not slow to adopt and to extend the tentative views which he had confirmed. A list of Heer’s scientific publications is given in the Botan- © isches Centralblatt, No. 5, for 1884. They are seventy-seven in number, besides the seven quarto volumes of the Flora Fos- silis Arctica, which comprise a considerable number of inde- pendent memoirs. These works make an era in vegetable paleontology. Their crowning general interest is, that they bring the vegetation of the past into direct connection with the present. Although he lived to a good old age, and was never inactive, | Heer was for most of his life an invalid, suffering from pulmo- nary disease. For the last twelve vears his work was carried on at his bedside or from his bed, assisted by a devoted and accomplished daughter; he seldom left his house, except to pass the last two winters in the milder climate of Italy. Last summer, having finished his Arctic Fossil Flora, in the hope of recruiting his exhausted strength he was removed to the most sheltered spot on the shores of the lake of Geneva, but without benefit. He died at Lausanne, at his brother’s house, on the 27th of September, 1883. It has been well said of him, in a tribute which a personal friend and fellow naturalist paid to his memory, that “a man more lovable, more sympathetic, and a life more laborious and pure, one could scarcely imagine.” Heer was elected into the American Academy in May, 1877. He is botanically commemorated in a genus of beautiful Melastomaceous plants, indigenous to Mexico. % * The first and second volumes of the Flora Fossilis Arctica appeared in 1868— ; 7. “Sequoia and its History,” in which the writer’s earlier view was extended and made clearer, and Heer’s results noted, was published in 1872. _ electrical potential of the a 7o. . Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Puysics AND CHEMISTRY. The diffusion of Gases and Vapors.—A, WINKELMANN has eanciaas the formulas of Meyer and Stefan in order to see if they agree with carefully conducted observations. His work included observations upon the diffusion of steam; the ostoals drawn out into a uniform tube of much narrower bore than the upper portion. This lower portion was graduated. It contained 5S over it by an ee and exit tube led into the wider and upper part of the t F or the diffusion of steam in hydrogen, carbonic acid — and in air, Winkelman finds discrepancies between the results é. 1884, « 1-81, mos spheric. Electricity.—The conference of nloctriolnus held dane April at Paris has called forth various treatises on atmospheric Tevpeiaite: mong these is a pamphlet sg Continuous Observations on Atmospheric Electricity made a by Professor Antonio Roiti. The author discovered at the zero of Mascart’s electrometer changed from time to time ie believes that this change was due to the use of sulphuric pitas inner mas of the charging Leyden jar. He accord- ss “sata ithe tituted for the bifilar cocoon suspension of Mascart’s — electrometer a very fine silver wire which served to suspend and dle with the Leyden jar, and found the modified apparatus sufficiently stable. The pamphlet of Professor Roiti contains a diagram of 3 the electrical observatory planned and occupied by him. He also appends specimens of the curves which represent the changing r. He i simultaneous observations of atmospheric electricity unless great care is taken to eliminate local disturbances.—Pubblicazioni del “3a seems di Superiori Pratici e di Perfezionamento di Firenze. Shatter brochure on the subject of Atmospheric Electricity by Borate Ka CPA, Physics and Chemistry. 71 Luigi Palmieri has been translated into German by Heinrich Discher. Professor vee has conducted electrical observa- tions on Mt. Vesuvius for many years, and entertains views on the subject of atmospheric electricity which differ from those enerally entertained by other physicists. He believes that the electricity of the air is not conducted to water droppers and to tion. He does not believe that the Thomson water dropper in pale with a Mascart electrometer affords a true indication the state of the atmosphere... An observation on the electrical vate of the atmosphere should always be accompanied by obser- vations on the state of the sky with respect to clouds and with respect to humidity. The loss from poor insulation in connection with apparatus for continuous registration of atmospheric elec- tricity is ain insisted an argument against the employ- ent o sent me Professor Palmieri therefore urges the emplo t of a simple electrometer strongly resembling ‘that: of Peltier and the sudden elevation of a metal conductor in arth Currents—A number of telegraph lines, above ground and also subterranean, have lately been put at the dis sae of M. E. E. Blavier, Inspector-General to the Minister of and Telegraphs of France, in order to study earth currents. Soha 0 gelatino-bromide paper upon which was received the image of a ‘slit of a lamp reflected from the mirrors of three palenchimdlees: The latter were connected with three different telegraphic lines running in different directions. The aperiodic galvanometer of M.M. Marcel Deprez and D’Arsonval was employed: and large resistances were intercalated between the earth | sdaobioden: These resistances were as high as 10,000 ohms. The observations were i could be undertaken over extended areas in different countries our knowledge of the change of “rypmiss otential at different points of the earth’s surface would be m increased.— : 8 a Telluriques, par E. E. Bla peste Pass, 18s; HE of the Electrical Congress of 18 4.—At the Elec- trical Sonitens held last April in Paris the vee values of the m in terms of a column of et one picnarsepe ant in ‘section: oe 72 , Scientific Intelligence. were tabulated. The results obtained by the different methods, expressed in centimeters, were as follows: BAS 106°21 Weber (I) .-- 106-14 © Kirchhoff 105°93 Lorenz 106719 Weber (II) 105°47 106°22 The mean of these determinations is 106°02. The Congress decided to recommend a column of pure mercury 106 centi- meters in length and one square millimeter in section at the as Sega of freezing as the ohm. e light emitted from a square centimeter of platinum at be ‘hicpeniiats of fusion was adopted as the standard of light; it was requested that observations on earth current alee i different countries be sent each fies to the Litceiaxiarel ating of gples raph Administration at , A Manual of Chemistry, "Physical and Inorga te as Saar Warts, B.A., F.R.S. 595 pp. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1884: (P. Blakiston, Son & Co.)—This pate by the author of the invaluable Dictionar ry of Chemistry, has many excellent patess will be found a valuable guide by students who are com- mencing their chemical studies. The eneral arrangement is in rials facts of phy science, more ii cabeiiially as related to ‘Chemistry. This portion of the work makes about one-fifth of the whole and _ is treated “with sufficient fallness to be of sabeactas value, - digression is made to chemical philosophy, and the subjects of chemical acai Sate ne yee ete., hinted at in the introduction, *xplained at length with considerable full- ness of illust rat: ” Winall ie ahs it elements are returned to and taken up in succession from the eg metals through to the metals of = platinum group. A vast deal of information is. condensed into a comparatively small fonts in this discussion of the chemical seca and, as was to be expected, the work throughout is fully up to the times. A companion volume on the Chemistry of Carbon. yo aorta or Organic Chemistry has also n published by the same author II. Geotoagy anp Naturau History. The Origin of Crystalline Rocks; by T. Srerry Hunt vitae act, by the Author, of a paper read before the Royal Society of Canada, at Ottawa, May 21, 1884.)—The author began by Pele Stl eee Tae ae Te Se aa E. ; Sarat a ¥ Sang) hist #1) ye seeds 7 ean “Geology and Natural History. ae remarking that the problem of the origin of those rocks, both stratified and unstratified, which are made up chiefly of crystal- line silicates, is essentially a chemical one. He then proceeded to review the dispute between the vuleanist and the neptunist schools in geology, as to whether granite and other crystalline rocks were formed by igneous or by aqueous agencies, and showed from recent writers that the controversy is not yet settled. He noticed, of the igneous school, both the plutonic and the volcanic hypotheses of the origin of these rocks, and then con- sidered the so-called metamorphic and metasomatic hypotheses, which would derive them by supposed chemical changes from f these rocks. The ay of all of these hypothese was. pointed out, though it would appear that Werner’s was the one nearest the truth. The author conceives that the crystalline rocks were formed by ee from waters which successively dissolved and brought m subterranean sources the mineral elements. Their formation is ‘itamtete by that of granitic veins, and that of zeolites,—pro- cesses regarded as survivals of that which produced the earlier rocks. The true zeolites are but hydrated feldspars, while the minerals of the pectolite group correspond to the rel lps cates of the ancient rocks. The sources of the elements in t rocks, according to the new hypothesis here proposed, was in the superficial layer which was the last-congealed portion of an igne- us globe, consolidating from the center. In this primitive ‘Stratum, porous from contraction, and impregnated with water, resting upon a heated anhydrous nucleus, and cooled by radia- tion, an aqueous circulation ick e set up, giving rise to mineral springs. The waters of these dissolved and brought to the surface, then to be deposited, the quartz, the feldspars, and other mineral silicates, which through successive ages built up the great gr oups of crystalline stratified rocks, often so markedly Soest d in aspect. Exposed portions of the primitive sil1- ted material would be subject to atmospheric decay and disin- — searatien, givin sediments of superficial origin, which rise to would become intercalated with the deposits from subterranean and the superficial materials were important in this connection, — probabl iving rise to certain common micaceous mi inerals,— while dissolved silicates allied to pectolite, by their reaction with e€ magnesian salts, which then passed in = the ocean-waters, generated species s like serpentine and pyro This process of continued upward lceviantons of the primitive chaotic stratum would result in the production of a = over- phate met of stratified arentine rocks, leaving below a nee, SG” tin Se ft 14 Scientific Intelligence. residual and much diminished portion, the natural contraction of which would cause corrugations of the superincumbent stratified mass, such as are everywhere seen in these ancient rocks. The source of voleanic rocks is partly in this lower and more or less exhausted stratum of comparatively insoluble and_basie ferriferous silicates, whence come melaphyres and_ basalts ;— e trachytic rocks ;—and partly, also, it is conceived, in later aque- ous deposits of superficial origin, which, also, may be brought within the influence of the central heat. This attempt to explain the genesis of crystalline rocks by the continued solvent action of subterranean waters on a primitive stratum of igneous origin, the author designates the erenitic hypo- thesis, from the Greek, xp7vn, a spring or fountain. A prelim- inary statement of it was made by him to the National Academ of Sciences at Washington, April 15, 1884, and appears in the American Naturalist for June. : 2. Alaska glacier phenomena.—Mr. Thomas Meehan, after an examination of portions of Alaska glaciers, states (Proceedings Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1883, 249) that beneath the Muir glacier, which had been described as 400 miles long, the subglacia 8 estimate, 100 feet wide and 4 feet in average depth; and that he learned from others that the flow was the same winter and summer. New Brunswick y by G. J. Marrurw (Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, - 1882).—Treats of the remains of Paradoxides, and especially of the successive forms dependent on age of individuals in the species, . deminicus and P. Acadieus, here described by the author. ue wae Phosphate, or apatite, of the Canadian rocks.— oa o they lie in veins ainin i 4 > cont g be _ pyroxene, hornblende, and feldspar, with calcite, the apatite, and Geology and Natural History. | ) more or less of pyrite. This bedded condition may be observed at the mines of Ottawa County, and in the Rideau section toward Perth and Kingston in the Province of Ontario. 5. North Carolina Phosphates ; 3 by W. B. Pamiips. 20 pp ‘somewhat similar to that of the phosphatic deposits of South Carolina, but as at present explored, of much less importance. The material has been found in the counties of Duplin, Brunswick, Pender and others, but not yet directly on the sea-board, and nowhere in sufficient amount to give full assurance of economical olia. The phosphatic material is found in sand deposits, consti- tuting in places a thin irregular bed 8 to 12 inches thick, along ‘ditches, dry runs and branches, and along their sides at a depth elow the surface of the ground from 3 to 5 feet. 6. Krystallographische ee an homologen und awsomeren Reihen. Eine von der Kais. Akademie der Wissen- schaften in Wien mit dem A. Freiherrn von Baumgartner’schen Preise gekrénte, durch einen methodologischen Theil vermehrte, Schrift von Dr, Aristrpes Brezina. I Thei a gence, 359 pp. 8vo. Vienna, 1884 (Carl Gerold’s Sohn). Pha memoir, which . has been awarded the Baumgartner prize by the Vienna Acad- 4 ilas Cyperus. —The first part of the 2 names of the Journal of ae Linnean Society is an elaborate oe by Caartes Baron CLarke, on the EF. Indian Species of Cyperus (of 200 pages and with four plates), in which the greater part of the North Ameri- can species are also considered. It will be found worthy of par- ticular attention. The paper was partially prepared at Kew, but was finished at Calcutta. We received at the same time a paper in the Transactions of the Linnean Society on The Cyperacee of West Coast of Africa es te by Henry L. Rivtey, of the Botan- ical Department in the British Museum, with two plates, Of Seventy-one species of Cyperus, a dozen are —_ in America, but not in Asia; a 76 Scientific Intelligence. proof sheet, but that his health was now “completely reéstab- lished.” On the third of May this excellent man died, at the age of 49. Our former notices of the Arboretum Segrezianum and of the other works he was engaged in may give some faint idea of unexpectedly sustained. We hope to give a proper biographical n A. G . Chorizanthe, R. Brown: Revision of the genus and rearrangement of the Annual Species; by C. C. Parry. Extr. Proceedings of Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, vol. iv, pp. 45-62. 8vo. 1884.—As this memoir was communicated to the Davenport Academy on the 25th of January, two or three weeks after Dr. Engelmann’s death, and was completed within a - involucre; so that the stamens are borne on the throat of an in- | volucre! We much prefer the ordinary and obvious interpreta- to explain unless it be that the minute tube of the spicules con- tains sea-water.— Bull. Soc. Min. de France, April, 1884. ~ ll. A Course of Instruction in Zootomy (Vertebrata); by ra Miscellaneous Intelligence. 7 T. Jerrery Parker, BSc. Lond. 397 pp. 8vo, 74 illustrations. London: Macmillan & Co., 1884.—This work certainly succeeds in its aim to be a continuation of the zoological “part of Huxley any ways 1 i Seer ous of the structures brought into view, and in many es the descriptions are illustrated by good figures in the text, a oe nent and excellent feature of the book, ” which supplies a want tong. felt by those giving laboratory instruction in vertebrate anatom 8. 18: 12. Handbook of Vertebrate a aiasanheaag by H. Neweti Mar- TIN, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., and Wi uA. Moarz, M.D. Part III, How to Dissect a Rodent., 86 | a eres 6 illustrations. New York: Maemillan & Co., 1884.—This covers essentially the same ground as the last chapter of the work just noticed, and, on super- ficial examination, does not compare favorably with it. The ani- mal chosen, the rat, seems a less favorable subject for dissection than the rabbit, is not so fully described as is the latter by Prof. Parker, and the few illustrations given are all of the skull, which is less in need of illustration than the ie and some other parts ; but the work will be very useful when a short time only is allowa- ble for the dissection and a small attnal desirable, or when the rabbit is not readily procurable. III. MisceELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. . Lawrence Smith waned pe the U. 8S. National Academy.— Since the death of Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, Mrs. Smith has gen- erously given to the Micheal Acad et my the sum of eight thous- and dollars (being the proceeds of the sale of 5 collection of age fia to Harvard,) the income from which is to be used for a “Lawrence Smith Medal.” The following are citations tisha abe deed of trust, with a few verbal changes: e medal shall be awarded from time to time by the National Academy of Sciences to any person in the United States, or wre where, who shall make an original investigation of meteori bodies the results of which shall be made public, and shall bei ‘e the opinion of the Academy of sufficient importance and _ benefit — to science to merit such recognition, provided, however, that said medal shall not be awarded more frequently than once in two years, and provided also that the investigation for which it is. awarded or the com pleted publication thereof shall have been made since the time of the last preceding award of the said me af : ‘if investigations of equal importance shall be made in regard cS a 78 | Miscellaneous Intelligence. to meteoric bodies at or about the same time in the a i ~ if 1 | % \ t | } EF 4 { “ y 3 cz 22. 18. O02 OF. Mee 6 He. Os t PS ie ee et Bae YS ae 7 ae Ye) 6 g d 9 S281 HOYWW £281 AdvNYsa4 C2BIAMVNYE. 281 +f tty. 4 RE aD i A Be LJ | EET | ete a Le ee jee ed TE DS Fa | fal TIT TTT Try { | PEST | bit TALI EEA a Lee tae [| VIN TTT TTT ATTY | ae ee) iesI TTATTT Ra ek PTI CAN ae Per tt ik | i SS ESS A ES 458 5! iti te ie iag Ps te | SReakesr ahaeees | i SP a! 2) Bea riots eG OS a Fa | Ee Ee oe bee chor | LT iT men (eee! SES SS ee i BMERSEF SSSR S eR. tides TTA LITT Ty j ai | Sea ee ww | aeeeen se Ee | Jee 4a we eee ee Sal i ia im 3 IZRRBRRAEEAS CBR IAT NIT SASRES ™ \ “| " Q ©2381 [Was fm — > nee — mm A na a ~ . and ‘gl i ae a N s A i S y Saas ~ r iy he \ N\ = See fA S 2 a \ il ~~ —— et eZei VINNY Se aot \ = \ ——s mh * 2, "@ N Ss B - g 2] N 7 aEee | \ | | tT | 4 | | | ’ TTI | Reas DE v8 | | ek | {tI al TI ae iY S2eF 22 RRR RReesees Aes mE | | 1, |} SSE EB SERRE BARES SA he BRRZRRRas ae, Ag TTI BEA ea Bee ae 1] | ogeh elaiewiaAON] TTT a Le i ech Ea a et LT Li LIP LEP LPELict tte ei ee 1¢ O 8¢ i So fe <2 20 te Oe. 6k ce 78 | AN a 2 ae >) peat | HOF 6 8 Z 9 5 + d tA | q is | i; 4 a Bee a E. a 3 3 : AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. XIII.—Coniributions to Meteorology; by Eutas Loomis, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Twentieth paper. [Continued from page 17.] Reduction of Barometric observations to sea-level. I next proceeded to make a similar comparison of the obser- vations at Summit station and Sacramento in California. hese ya ean which are in manuscript, were again loaned me by Prof. J. D. Whitney. Table Tt sho ws the principal batbineabs minima at Summit during a paisa of three years, and table IX shows the principal barometric maxima at Sum- mit during the same perio e hours of observation were 7 A. M., 2 and 9 Pp. M. and these hours are n indicated by the num- erals he 2 and 3. 7 e numbers in each of these tables were arranged in the order of the mean temperatures, and divided into four equal SHU and the average of the numbers in each group was en. The results are given in the first five columns of table IIL and the numbers in the following columns were computed in the manner already explained for Mt. Washington. These results for barometric minima accord well with those for Pike’s Peak; but for barometric maxima the differerices between the observed reductions from Summit to Sacramento, and those com- puted by Ferrel’s formula, are three times as great as for Mt. Washington, and more than twice as great as for Pike’s Peak. — A Basics of this difference is unquestionably due to an ies _ In the assumed mean temperature of the air column. This is shown by the observations at Colfax. For the Onltfoeita Meteorological observations, Prof. Whitney selected thrée sta- tions, Sacramento, Colfax and Summit ; the at station being elevated 31 feet above sea- level; the second feet and the third 7017 feet. These three stations are saa in a straight line, and Colfax is nearly a from the other two sta- tions. The table at the bottom of the next page shows the _ mean temperature of each station for each month of the year. Am, JOUR, 2 cian Series, Vou. XXVIII. No. 164.—Ave., 1884. 82 E. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. Taste VIIL.— Barometric minima at Summit, Cal. . ‘ to. mit. §Td.|:. ‘Date. Sacramento Summit Mean Wbl > Bete. Sacramento Summi Bar. | Ther.| Bar. |Ther.| *®™P- Bar. Ther.| Bar. | Ther. | qer0. | 870 | Oct. a : 29°755| 63° |23°090| 32° |47°°5)| 39 pb : 3/29°956) 58° |22°952) 29°5)43°°7 *634) 28 *818) 39 |22°941) 22 | 30°5)| 40 24.1} -560) 46 3| 3611 “T74| 41 941) 23 | 32 41 ee! : 2} °922) 56 (23-055) 32 4 Nov 6.2} :810} 59 898/35 | 47 42 1.2} °954) 5 008 957| 63 |23°069) 39 | 51 876 5 055) 33 6|Dec. 2.2} 7 57 |22°956| 35 | 46 44|Apr. 6.1] °965) 49 (22:966 22 866) 4 2 32°5/| 4 825, 923 ; 9 Jan 10.1} -892| 46 | -918) 265 36-2|| 48) 14.1] -856| 61 (23-068 31 17.3| 924) 45 |23-058) 32 5|| 49|Jun16.1| . 885 8 11 we 9 054/30 | 41°5|| 50/Au.19.2} -835) 72 99 57 12) 2/30°049| 56 | -063/29 | 42°5!| 51/Sept.2.3| -779 077| 43-5 Taleb 10.299. 957| 65 | ‘053| 33-2) 44-1|| 52] 22.3) -942| 64 | -119 3 4 *882| 45 |22-921|27 | 36 || 53/Oct.21.3| -905) 54 | °135/ 47 15) 22.1] 585) 387°5] “613/14 | 25-7/| 54] —-26.2|30-033| 61 | +142 32 16 Mar. 6.3/30-035| 53 /23-016 28:5, 40°7)| 55|Nov. 8.2/29°886) 62 | -005 53 17 2} -967| 57°5| -136 45 035, 34 23. 18 17.1 30°099; 46 {23°074) 20 | 33 57|Dec 24.2; +925) 53 035/38 19} 22.1/ -029) 38 | -063,23 | 30°5/| 58] 28.2/ -686| 53 [22-959 35 20| Apr. 6.1/29°857| 47°5/22'912/ 28 | 35°2|| 59] 30.2] -873) 54 |23- 041) 36 1 "| 44 | “727/21 | 32 1873. 2 3.3] *859| 67 |23-096| 29°5) 48-2|] 60\Jan. 3.1| -933) 49 036 33 23/M'y17.2| -883/ 68 | -0 ‘2|1 61] —-13.1/30°227| 48 | 24) 28.3} -821| 52 /22-928, 25 | 38°5|| 62| —30.2|29°803| 62 (22-703 20 25\Jun 24,1} -902| 54 |23°184/ 43 | 48°5|| 63/Feb. 1.2) -652/ 44 32 26 Jul. 26.3] -778| 64 | -165) 49°5) 56° 8.3] 790) 47 | -905 32 27|Sep.28.1| -908| 52 | -088| 31 | 41°6]| ¢ 16.2; +969] 57 | -896 21 28 Oct. 27 535] 165/31 | 42°21) ¢ 18.1) 953] 37 | -914/ 18 29|Nov. 3.3} *957| 52 |22°993/ 28 | 40° || € 24.1] :559| 39 | °593 24 1 52| 58 | 940/24 | 41 {I ¢ 27.1| 998} 42 | -977) 25 31] 26.2) -771) 53.| -705/27 | 40 || 69|/Mar. 5.3/30°007| 52°5| -917 28 : 925; 44 | -973; 23 | 33°5|| 7 26.1} 065, 48 (23°121, 33 33/Dec17.3| -785| 47 | -841/ 21 71/Apr. 4.1/ 109) 61 |22-908) 21 34; 21.2} -543| 50 | -698/28 | 39 || 72! 25.2! -101| 67 |23-088) 49 35 665} 37 | ‘700/29 | 33 || 73/M’y15.1/29°941| 55 | -003) 32 36; 29.2} -151| 54 | -863/32 | 43 || 74) 22.2) -971| 78 | -049/ 60 i=] w + TArROATO NRF OD @ SDoanmaoarwrobkwen 44} 22.2 45|May 1.1 46 12°07} + 10°6 Geneva. Bar. | anes | Bar. oe eo oe > BRwoo | r»OWWONOOKC, ee eee! ate ae ae Se Sk ee # ee cota owa — - i a ee ge > GO ae oF EO rE ores ++¢t++4+4++ [44+ wow co + ~~ Ow msec ge | 717-91. + $0 555-95 — 4°9 (Gr. St. Bernard. { Ther 44 E. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. 87 ima during the same period. The hours of observation are » indicated by the numerals 1, 2, 3 and 4 The numbers in each of priate tables were arranged in the order of the mean temperatures, and divided into four equal groups as explained in the preceding cases. The first five col- in the following columns were computed in the manner hereto- — Taste XI.— Barometric maxima at Grand St. Bernard. | Date Geneva. |Gr.St.Bernard.| 7 $ eee Geneva. _ ler. st, Bernard.| ‘ihean : Bar. | Ther.| Bar. ( Ther. | temp. Bar. { Ther. | Bar. ; Ther. | temp. 2 1858. < ¥ 1859. $ 2 ~ -1Jan. 1.1/739-90/— 3°8.573-76 — 0-6\— 2°2 ||43|M’y 11.1726-62) + 15°3/566-22|+ 4°2/4+ 9°75 — 2) 10.4) 36°19|— 2-0) 69°34/— 6-7/— 4°35|/44| Jun. 7.2) 26°39|+21°5] 68°73) + 8-5) +15°0 | 3} = 19.4) 36-81|— 2-6) 67-°72\—11-7)— 7°15|/45] 23.3) 29°92) 425-8! 71-94) 4+ 8-4) 417-1 7 4 8°08|— 5°7) 67-83 *8|I— 7°25//46] 27.2) 30°39) + 25-5) 74-56] +14-7| + 20-1 5/Feb. 5.4) 30°17/4 3°0) 64°75. — 7-6|— 2:3 |/47/July 3.4) 30°00) +24-0| 76-85] + 15°3/ + 19°65 6 2.4) 31°89|+ 08 66°97 — 7°6|— 8-4 |/48 13.2} 32°26) +25°7| 75°34|+14°4| + 20°05 _ 1/Marl7.4| 33°19/4+ 3°7| 67-42\— 6-6|— 1-45|/49|Aug.4.1| 28-48] +24-6| 73°50| +12°1/+18-35 | 23.21 35°91/+ 9°8! 71°62)+ 2°2/+ 6°0 ||50/ 12.2! 27°92|+4 22-4) 71:31] +10°8/ +166 .9 8.4) 28°11)+ 6°5| 64:93/— 4°3}+ 1-1 |/51|Sep 10.2 aie + 23°6| 70°89] + 10-9) + 17°26 ~10/Apr. 4.4) 27-24) 410-1] 65°-23|— 3°5|+ 3°3 |[52]/ 26.1, 32°89) 414-3] 74-41] + 9-1) +117 : 16.4) 30°26) + 14-4) 69°99|— 2°9}+ 5°75//53|Oct. 2.2 34°38 4+21°5| 74°98) + 8-2) +14°85 12) 23.4) 30°63| 415-8) T1-14/+ 2-4/4 9°1 [154] 17.4) 28°16] +11°9| 68-24)+ 15/4 67 —13/M’y 18.2) 30°91] 417-2) 70°36|+ 8-7] +12°95/|55|Nov. 6.4) 29°82|+13°7| 70°59} + 3°9|+ 8-8 1a) 22.3) 27-01) 422.9] 69°78|4+ 7-1/4+15-0 ||56| 13°4 2|— 0-8] 68°13 9\— 3°85 2 + 9°9/4+15-05|157| 19°2, 34-27) 4 03 68-66|— 0-6 — 0-15 ‘ + 8°8/4+15-9 ||58| 26-4, 29°17/+ 0-6) 66-45|— 40. 1-7 : + 6:4/+13°9 |/59|Dec. 9.2) 37°88)+ 1:6) 70°58|— 0°3/+ 04 | + 8°3/+15-95/|60} 31.3) 32°96/+ 9-4} 69°08|— 1°9)+ 3°75 | i + 75}414°8 1860. 410-1] +15°15||61|Jan. 9.1) 38°00\— 5-5) 71°16|— 5°3\— 5-4 + 4°5/+10°55/162| 16.4) 34°33/4+ 1-4) 68-50|— 5°8|— 2-2 - + 6°8|+12°85|/63|Feb. 5.1) 33-33|\— 6-5] 64:14|/— 8-4\— 7-46 + 68}+12°3 164 7.4, 34:80/— 0°6| 63-08/—15°5|— 8-05 + 2-0/+ 55 ||65| 25.4) 33°06|— 0-9] 65°53|— 9°6\— 5°25 + 3°6]4 5°75/|66|Mar. 4.1) 36°39\— 1-7| 66-85|— 9°0|— 5°35 27\— 7-0\— 5:5 ||67 6.3) 35°64|+ 1-2] 63-70|—15°6\— — 7:4\— 3-6 {68} 20.2) 33°73/+ 6:8) 67-66/— 5°2/+ 08 — 7-9\— 4-95||69] Apr. 6.1| 23°63|+ 8-9] 62-13|— 2°5|+ 3°2 22.4) 3194/4 4-5| 6659— 4-7\— 0-1 |l70| .. 16.4, 28-04| + 9°8 6|— 4°C 9 “301g 71] 30.2) 29°38/+10-2| 67-07) + 0° “ + an 10. A) 44°25|— 6:2) 73°60.— 8.2\— 7-2 |)72|M’y 11.2) 27°74/+18-0| 69°89/+ 475) +11°25 4, 36°35) = 0°0| 69°36 —_ 9.9/—_ 4-95|/73| 21.2} 30°53) +20°8| 69-70] + 5°é 1.4 36°93/— 2-0) 70°21\— 9.8|— 5 29° | 36°91) + 9-3 TO°T1|— 1.9) 4+ 3°% |I% 9— 0-9) 67°75 — 6.5|— 3° | 3)+ 6°6| 69°T1\— 2.5/4 1: | 36°09 +11°2) 73°03) + 3:°0/+ 7 12.2, “ me +17-8) 70°90 — 0°8|+ 8: 4 33° 0} 67°83 — 5:8|+ 0- 39) Apr. 4.4, 33-25 6| 71°89 + 0-7 - 5 7.4) 29°49 +178) 71-06'+ 3-0) +10- * 26.4) 27-51) +13°1| 6824+ 1-9)4 7 42\May 6.4, 26-79 +12-2| 65-24 + 0-3|+ 6-25||84\Dec29.4, 35:10 — 3-6 e 88 KE. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. fore explained. In tables X and XI the pressures are given in millimeters and the temperatures in centigrade degrees; but for convenience of pti arco the results in table III are given in English units. The results for barometric minima accord temperature of the air column ? In order to decide this ques- tion, | have examined the observations cade by Plantamour at several stations in the neighborhood of Mt. Blanc and published in Mémoires de la Société de Physique de Genéve, volume xv, pp. 899-408. The following table gives a summary of the results. coos astkasal No. of esc anisole es M. temp. . ee Obs. en Rare —+4sum. POIPAVAL oo devas 840 | 22 16°°41| 17°°88] 5°55 | +0°°57 Chamounix .... .... 1044 11 12°16} 16°89) 2°44 |+ 0°22 Evoléna 1379 | 7 11°63} 17°11) 2°43 |+ 0°73 Bourg St. Pierre _..| 1640 | 22 | 11°16} 17:40} 5°52 |+ 0°44 Cantine de Proz.... | 1809 ll 12°39| 19°24! 9°60 |— 0°14 Column first gives the name of the station; column second its altitude in meters; column third the number of sac ew made; column four th the mean of the observations made at stations named in column first; columns fifth and sixth ihe here employed, sities on an average 4°7 hours later than at Geneva. St. Bernard is 50 miles east of Geneva and a barome- tric minimum ide this distance in three hours, so that at St. Bernard the barometric Pa appear to be eae 47 ours on account of elevation. The discrepancies shown in table III are to be citer partly to this retardation but mainly to the dissimilarity of the barometric curves at the two stations. ap ee a si ag ace a: Se se alts aa Rei Sr : SS ee OR ee Se ee ee ee ee ee Se ee # ee iat oe eae, re, Pe, | £.. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. 89 The value of the pressure coefficient which best satisfies the penelope at Grand St. Bernard and Geneva is 60300, and at of the temperature coefficient is s4y. I next proceeded to make a comparison of observations made at Colle di Valdobbia and Alessandria. As the Moncalieri Bulletin only gives the daily averages of the observations for 1877-79, I selected for examination the years 1879, ’80 and ’81, for which the observations are published in full for three hours each day (viz: 9 A. M., 3 and9P. M.) in the Annee dell Ufficio Taste XII.— Barometric minima at Colle di Valdobbia. | $! Date Alessandria. |C.diValdobbia Mean ||| Date. Alessandria. C.diValdobbia} 7. Pc Bar. | Ther.| Bar. { Ther. temp. Bar. | Ther. Bar. [ Ther. temp. 79. ee : | 1880. : ; 1\Jan. 4.2'746-9 5'8/553-0'— 5°9\— 0° “05 be Sep 16.1/744:4) 17°9 557° : 2°5|+10°2 8.3) 43°6 —2°3) 45-4 —15-2 Oct.12.1) 49°3) 12-7) 59° Ol] + 64 21.2) 556 —0°2 559 — 8-5 20.2) 47°5| 16°38 58-9 2-7) + 9°75 4\Feb11.2) 34°3 6-7| 45-2/— 1-7 44) 29.3) 42-1) 11-4 54-4/— 2-1}/+ 4°65 17.2) 30-2) 10-8) 44°0/— 65 5|Nov. 3.2! 52°0/ 4:8 57°3\— 9°5|— 23 6 20.3) 351) 3:4) 41-7)— 8-5 17.2) 35:4| 9:4) 47-L/— 18/4 3°8 | 23.1) 26-3) 1:8} 3t-0|— 7-9 21.3; 50-0) 7-7 586 — 3°5|+ 21 3 25.2) 30°%) 1-7 40-2) — 7-7 Dec17.2) 50°0) 7:5 57-4— 2°0)+ 2°75 _ _9/Mar23.2) 40-5 11-3) 51°0/— 2°8 21.2, 49:8) 5:9 56°7/— 7T2/— 0°65 0} =. 28.1] 44-2) 9-2) 52°6)— 5-3 25,2) 43:5) 2-2) 52-0, — 3-4/— 0°6 11|Apr. 8.1) 38-4. 8-8) 48°9|— 3-7 31.1, 52:2) 4:8 57-0 —10°3)— 2-75 12.3! 388 9-0} 48-2/— 5-8 1881. | 17.1) 38-0 10-2) 47-4, — 5-5 Jan 13.3) 38°6 1-1) 45°3 —11-0|— 5-0 _ 14/May 7.2) 43-5) 17-5) 54:2) 0-7 15.2) 40°7/—0°2 44.7 —11°7/— 5°95 : 10.1] 41-4) 9-3} 51-0;— 2-2 0.1) 41-6 —6:3 45°7)\—14°0|—10°15 — 16 Jun 17.2, 46-6 23-5) 59°3° 3-5 23.1) 49°3/—6°9 51-8'—12°8/—10°35 17)\Jul. 21.3} 42°9 21-4 585) 26 L 0-1 50-8 — 8-3|— 8 Oct 16.2) 40°5 10-0 51°3 — 2-2 Feb. 6.1 46°1\—4°0 51-9 — 7-9/— 5°95 21.1) 42-2, 10°8) 53°9~. 2-2 45°1|—6°0; 53-0 — 8-7;— 7°35 , 20 Nov. 3.1) 45°6° 9:7 546 — 76 11.3) 35°5| 3-0} 44°9— 8°3/— 2°65 : 13.1) 47°9 —0°8 53°6 —10°5 Mar. 1.2 43°8) 7-2) 51-6 — 8-6|— 0-7 20.1) 50°2 1:2 54:1 —11-7 22.2, 46-2) 13°6| 52°5 —12-2)4+ 0-7 26.3) 4671) 4-2) 51-9 — 9-7 25.2) 45°3 55 52°5 — 18) + 1°85 | Dec. 1.2) 39-4 1-8) 43-4 —15-0 30.2 43-4) 12-3) 55-0 — 0°5/+ 59 : 5.1) 40-0 iis 44°9 —11-6|— Apr. 3.2, 42-0) 168) 54:9 2-4) + 9°6 pitas el 5.2 45-7) 12-7) 561|— 0-7} + 6-0 26 Jan 17.1, 540-111 52°7 —12-4 20.2, 36-2} 18-9) 50-1; = -1°5| + 10°2 22.3 590 —4°6 57-7 —13°5 22.2 36:9) 15:1) 48°83)\— 3°8\+ 5-65 28'Feb10.2 50:8 1-3) 55-8 — 4-9 ‘|68|May 3.2 49°1| 10°7) 583) 0-3/+ 5°53 18.1; 48-4 3°3) 55°3/— 5:1 ‘|69/Jun. 8.1) 39-7) 15°3) 51-4 — 2°8 + 6°25 — 30; 23.2) 45-7) 6-8) 52°2|— 53 70|Au. 17.2 43°8) 20-1) 5971; 9°4| + 14°75 f.-33) 27.2, 45°38 8-8 53°83 — 6-2 71|Sept. 1.2 41-9 : 0-1) + _ 32Mar31.2 45-5' 17-5 56-7) — 0-¢ 2 2) 43°8 4 _ 33) Apr. 2.1) 49-1) 7-3 56-0/— 3-6 73|Oct. 4.2) 47-4 0 a 34 7.1 395) 79 49-7 — 4:8 4 1.2) 43-2 | 53° 1 Fo Bl 27.2, 45-4) 13-2) 56°5/— 2-9 25.2 40-6 | 53° 2 _ 36 May 3.1| 45-5 13-0 55-7; 2°¢ 31.1 44-1 73 531— 6 : 8.2 11-5) 53°6'— 1° 25 |T7|Nov. 2.2 45-7 19.1) 46°6 117 56:1 — 3-0 28. Jun. 5.1) 47-0) 17-5 59:0 6-2 85 |79|Dec 11.2, 45-0 -3.1) 43°9) 205 58:4 5-9 80| 20.2) 45-0 “ 90 £E. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. Centrale di Meteorologia Italiana. cipal barometric minima at ometric maxima during t . vation are indicated by the numerals 1, 2 and 3. Taste XU1L— Barometric maxima at Colle di Valdobbia. e same period. Table XII shows the prin- Colle di Valdobbia during this period of three years, and table XIII shows the principal bar- ours of obser- $) ‘nese Alessandria C.diValdobbia weak S|} Date. Alessandria, A Bar. |Ther.| Bar. | Ther. | temp. | 4 Bar. | Th 1879. ; : > ||| 1880. : 1|Jan 1.1/759°2| 2°0)566-1|— 2°6|— 0°3. |47|Au28 1/756°6| 21-1 2| 18.3) 61-1|—3-2| 66-2|— 65|— 485/48] 31.3) 57-3} 19° 3] 27.1] 59°6| 3-9] 65-0, — 5-2|— 0-65 |49/Sep. 2.3| 61-0) 20° 4\Feb 7.1] 54°6|—0°6| 61-4 — 5:5|— 3°05 50/Oct, 1.1) 61-2| 13°: f 1] 56°7| 5-9} 62°6,— 4°5|+ 0-7 [51] 15.3] 58-5). 11° Mar.9.3| 65°8| 7-7| 72°3/— 3°0|+ 2°35 |52|Nov7.3| 61:9] 8° 17.1] 58-0} 4°2| 63-1/— 3-4/+ 0°4 |/53) 24.3] 64-1] 8+ Apr.1.1} 55°6| 13-5] 63-4|— 0-8}+ 6°35 |54| 29.3) 67°3| 6 9} 25.3] 49-1] 15°9| 61-0\— 3-9|+ 6-0 |55|Dec.8.1) 67-1] — 1° May 5.3] 55°7| 14-0| 63°5|— 3-1/+ 5°45/56) 11.)| 55-4) 2° 14.3) 54-4) 14-6) 64-0/— 1-0|+ 6°38 | 881. 22.3| 65-7| 16°0| 67-6, 0°5| + 8-25 /57|Jan. 2.3] 64°6| 1°6 30.1| 59°7| 12-1 66°7| 0°5/+ 63 |/58| 6.3) 58-5) B+ Ju. 11.3} 56-0] 22-0} 70-4} 5-9/4 13-95 |59|Feb 3.1] 55°9|—5:1 21.3] 52-3} 25-5) 68:3) 7-4/+16-45|60| 16:3| 57°9| 3+ 28.2| 66°4| 30-7] 725) 12-4|+21°55|61] 21-3] 61-4| 7-3 Jul 25.3) 54-8) 23-9] 70-4) 9-4/4 16°65 |62| 23-3) 60°8| 5 28.3) 56°4| 23°9| 71-5] 8°8| + 16°35 |63|Mar.3.1| 60-9] ot Aug3.1| 54:4) 2671] 72-4 16-0|+21-05/64| 9.3} 56-2/ 10° 20.3) 53°5| 24°7| 70-6, 11-9/+18-3 |65! 18.3} 62-4! 10° 29.3) 64°7| 24-8] 71-4) 12-3}418-55||66| 23.3] 57-7| 3 22|Sep. 2.1] 59°4| 24°5| 73-8] 12-4) 418-45//67|/Ap 17.3] 64-9| 16° 23|Oct. 8.3| 55°9| 16°5| 70-3) 8-3} +12-4 |/68| 25.3 55-1| 11- 4} 12.3) 62-1) 14°4| 72°8| 7-0|4+10-7 |/69} 30.3] 57-0] 12° 25|Nov5.3| 62°6| 5-7) 69°3|— 2°8|+ 1-45||70|May 7.2 3} 65-4) 6-7] 71-7] 1-0) + 3:35 22. 66°0| 3°2| 69°8/— 3-3|— 0-05||72| —30.: 28|D’c 16.1) 68-1/—7-5| 68-°6|— 8-8|— 8-15||73|Jun 4.5 29) 23.1) 71°0|—7°8| 75-2|— 4:5|— 6-15/|74| 17.3 30] 28.3] 69°0|—8-2| 71-9|— 4-6|— 6:4 ||75| 24: 1880. 76|July 4.2 31)Jan. 4.3) 65°3|—2°0| 70-1|— 3-2|— 2-6 ||77| 15. 32} 67°1/—8-4) 71-0'— 4-0/— 6-2 |/78| 18.3 33 -1| 651] 2-3] 69°5|— 5-2|— 1-45/|79| 29.2 34\Feb. 1.1) 66°3| 2-1] 69°4|— 6-7/— 2°3 |/80/Aug4.3 5] 3.3] 64-8|—0°6| 69-9|— 6-2/— 3:4 ||81} 20.3 36|Mar.6.3| 68°7| 13-1] 70-1] 2°0|+ 7°55/|82} 29.3 7 66°3| 11-4| 72°1|— 1-0/+ 5:2 |/83/Sep13.3 8} 11.3} 61-1] 10°8| 70-9} 1-614 6-2 |/34| 18.3 39)Ap19,1| 56°1| 14°9| 663] 3°5|+ 9°2 ||85] 26. My 25.3) 61-0| 19°0] 73-1] 6°7) + 12°85]/86/Oct. 7. 41|Ju.17.2| 53°3) 24°7| 67-0) 6°8| + 15°75|/87|Noy.5 42| 28.3} 56-8] 21-8} 71:3] 78/4148 |/88| 13; 43/Jul 11.2) 55°0| 29-4] 70-6) 10°6|+20-0 ||89| 20. “6| 26°2) 72°3| 13°0|+19°6 |/90| 24, 55-3) 32°6| 73-2} 17-0) +24°8 |/91|Dec. 2. 54:1| 22°8| 69°1] 9°6} +162 |/92} 27: C.diValdobbia| Th t Nee Re co re ~_ AmMrnNo-al Sr ete sy DAO ADAHWASWARTOATH=-7T t+etttette+e] Tt iti St on wm aoe Sor AMDSES ao fe ope OF be +eet¢t¢++44++ : waeoans £. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. 91 Table III shows the results deduced from these observations in the manner already fully explained, the pressures being expressed in English inches, and the temperatures in degrees of Fahrenheit. These results do not differ very widely from those found for Grand St. Bernard, but the discrepancies between theory and observation are somewhat greater. The first question then is can these discrepancies be explained by the error in the assumed temperature of the air column? In order to answer this question I have sought for observations of the thermometer at stations intermediate between Colle di Val- dobbia and Alessandria and have found two, viz: Biella, elevated 434 meters above the sea, and Cogne, elevated 1543 meters. The following table shows the mean temperatures of the four stations for each month of the year, deduced from the three years 1879-81. The sixth column shows the difference between the mean temperature of the air column and the half sum of the temperatures of the upper and lower stations. The sign + indicates that the former exceeds the latter. Aless’a| Biella. | Cogne. | Valdo'a) Temp. |Aless’a,| Biella. | Cogne vn Beinn Sf | excess. 2. | ° ° ° | ° ° ° ° ° o ° uy —2°53/—0°43)—6°80/— 8°63) + 0°58) July __| 24°13) 21°37) 16°47) 9°27/—O1 Febr’y | 2°47) 3°50 —3°63| 6°50/+0°31}|Aug’st | 23°30) 20°50) 15°10 9°80, — 0°38 March 37, 7°33] + 1°10] —2°%3|—0°17 Sept. -| 18°47 15°97] 10°30) 56°40 —0-4( April -| 12°07; 9°87) 3°37;—1°63|—0°36 ‘Oct. ars 12-00, 11°00} 4°83) 0°67)/—0°04 vas Ree 37) 13°20) 7°27) + 1-40]—0-01]/ Nov... 6°23) 677)+0°57 2°83! + O10 June__) 20°37! 17-70| 12°00| 5-10 +0°11)/Dee. ..|—0°03; 1°87|—4°27|—6°201 + 0°55 _ This table shows that in winter the mean temperature of the air column is almost 1° Fah. greater than the half sum of the temperatures of the upper and lower stations, and in summer the former temperature is a little less than the latter; but this error will only explain about ten per cent of the discrepancy etween theory and observation shown in table IIL omewhat more than half of the barometric minima occur at the same hour (i. e. the same hour of observation) both at Colle di Valdobbia and Alessandria. On an average for the three years, the barometric minima occur at Valdobbia three quarters of an hour later than at Alessandria, and allowirig for difference of longitude, the actual retardation at Valdobbia is at least three hours. The barometric maxima occur at Valdobbia on an curves at the upper and lower stations; i. e. to the dissimilar oe movements of the upper and lower strata of the atmosphere. reewe 92 EF. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. The value of the pressure coefficient which best satisfies the — di 0418 observations at Colle aldobbia and Alessandria is 6 and that of the temperature coefficient is x47. It will be noticed that in all of the preceding cases (except California) the error arising from assuming that the mean tem- perature of the air column is equal to the half sum of the tem- er and lower stations is quite small. I question from other parts of the ological Memoirs, vol. ii, p. 135, is is caine a table showing the vertical decrement of temperature in the Himalaya Mountains for each month of the year at intervals of 1000 feet up to 12,000 feet. which column secon for each 1000 feet of season for the three winter months, and column third shows the same for the three summer months. Height in feet. Winter. Sum’er. Height in feet. l Winter. Sum’er. 0 to 1,000 1,000 to 2,000 4°-00 | 3°98 | 3°91 4,000 to 5,000 5,000 to 6,000 16,000 to 7,000 2°-08 | 3°57 2°30 | 3°30 2°54) 2:97 2,000 to 3,000 3,000 to 4,000 3-77 | 2°59 7,000 to 8,000, 2°83 | From these numbers we ma that in winter, for an elevation umn greater than the half sum of the hg see at the u pet smaller in amount. The ave sere value of the barometric coefficient deduced from the observations at the five stations employed in this investigation, is san ode the value of the thermometric coefficient is =g1y;5- ce the Laplace formula becomes (=m H = 60870 ft. x log. Dx (14+0°002606 cos 2 1) | H-+452252 11 Aas a 20886860 —) wast al al te 8 From this source I oe derived the following table, in s the mean decrement of temperature Se ee Se aee eee ae, Re ee E. Loomis—Reduction of Barometric Observations. 93 The reduced pressures computed from this formula are shown in column twelfth of table III, and the differences € Sacramento, I have applied to the half sum of the temperatures at the upper and lower stations, the corrections shown on page 20. In the four other cases I have applied no such correction because this correction appears to be quite small, and its pre- cise value is not very well determined. We see that with low pressures the computed reduction to the lower station is (with one trifling exception) always too small; but with high press- _ ures the computed reduction is (with two trifling exceptions) always too great. It has been shown that only a small part of these differences can be ascribed to the error in the assumption that the mean temperature of the atr column is equal to the The discrepancies are mainly due to the dissimilarity in the curves representing the barometric fluctuations at the two stations, In consequence of this dissimilarity, it happens that when the barometer on the top of a mountain is at a minimum, the barometer at its base is generally not exactly at its minimum, or it is a minimum of an inferior order. The barometer at the correspondence between the barometric movements at the two stations, and the observed difference between the upper and lower barometers is greater than that which theory would indicate. On the contrary, when the barometer on the top of the mountain is at a maximum, the barometer at the base is generally not exactly at its maximum, or it is a maximum o an inferior order. The barometer at the base is therefore lower than it would be if there was an exact correspondence between the barometric movements at the two stations, and the observed difference between the two barometers is less than that which theory would indicate. Hence we see the utter hopelessness of discovering a formula which shall exactly represent the barometric reduction to sea- h ) ; and since these movements are greatly modified by the obstruction of the mountains upon half sum of the temperatures at the upper and lower stations. | base is therefore higher than it would be if there was an exact . level at all pressures and temperatures, unless the formula takes _ 94 M. FE. Wadsworth—Rocks of Newfoundland. XIV.—WNotes on the Rocks and Ore-Deposits in the vicinity og * Notre Dame Bay, Newfoundland ; by M. E. Wapsworru. INTRODUCTORY. THIS paper has been written for the purpose of presenting some of the results of a short trip to the island of Newfound- land in the summer of 1880. Since the object of the journey was a commercial one in behalf of parties interested in some ore deposits about the Notré Dame Bay, the observations and col- lections were naturally confined to the immediate vicinity of the mineral lands, and limited as to tim In the descriptions of the rocks collected the object has been rather to describe the rock structure and to trace its history, than to enter upon elaborate descriptions of the contained minerals. The principles ao bi ae for the nomenclature here given are those announced in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative to secondary changes since the time of eruption. The o rocks are classed as varieties under the modern species whose ‘- tered form they are supposed to be, and the mineral composition is regarded not as a fixed but a changing factor. Hence the traces of the original minerals and of the original structure of rock are here allowed much greater weight in nomenclature than is given to the secondary or alteration minerals, which now form the chief mass of these older rocks. he districts examined were seeuy various points been ’ Exploits Burnt Island and Betts Cov Tue Basattr Rocks. © i Melaphyr (Lava Flows). Much of the coast of Exploits Burnt Island is formed by a series of lava flows, These flows are seen to have rolled and tumbled over one another down the steep jt in huge ece slopes. The lines of motion and the scum-like pega ete with the few large cells, are plainly to be seen, wonderfully Se RE AN hn ole Sere N a nae eae A asim OS ky Regie = fe Sea MB a Ne ee eee <. M. E. Wadsworth—Rocks of Newfoundland. 95 preserved. This lava evidently was very pasty,'and the flows ave a contour and surface that reminds one very strongly of the recent lava flows of the Sandwich Islands. I have no doubt that the eruption was of the same quiet kind, and the lava a basalt of the same character as that now poured forth from Kilauea. The structure of these lava flows can be well seen at the localities known as Great Lobster Cove, Break Heart Point and Taylor's Nose. At the latter a fissure forming a cave by the | sliding of one side of the mass, with the subsequent sea action, admits us into the interior of these flows, where the same structure of a series of pasty flows—one above the other—is to be seen. being still preserved. ile indeed other flows may have been removed, one thing is certain, the present surface is now the surface of a flo ot a trace of glaciation could be One of the projecting rounded knobs of the above mentioned ava was procured. This is a fine-grained greenish-gray rock weathering brown and holding small porphyritically inclosed crystals of feldspar. The section (860)* is composed of an earthy gray groundmass holding porphyritic feldspars. The groundmass is made up of a dirty gray fibrous and granular mass, formed undoubtedly from the alteration of a glassy or globulitic base, and inclosing numerous minute ledge-formed _ basaltic plagioclase crystals. Some viriditic or greenish mica- ceous material of a secondary nature occurs, as well as traces of ferruginous granules derived from the alteration of magnetite grains. A few augite grains together with some pseudomorphs after olivine were observed. Excepting the secondary changes, this lava is in microscopic structure strikingly like that from the eruptions of Kilauea in 1872, the microscopic characters thus supporting the field observations. This rock is here thpaedad. . ? in Museum of Comparative as formed from a viscous glassy lava—a basalt, whose * The numbers correspond to the numbers of rocks in the Whitney Lithological Collection ive Zodlogy. ghee GB Se ss ceed of Newfoundland. present difference from that of Hawaii is due solely to second- ary changes since eruption. In its present state it would be called by most lithologists a melaphyr. The same lava flows were seen on the south side of law rence Harbor on the main land. The specimen procured is somewhat more altered than the preceding, and contains calcite pee og ale ® ae yecule besides some pyrite. In the mposed latter after olivine was seen. Melaphyr (Dikes). On South West Point of Exploits Burnt Island a number of © dark melaphyr dikes were observed. A specimen (865) from one about two feet in width, cutting the diabase and striking | north and south, is a eccwhish black rock with yellows brown spots o decomposition, which resemble decomposed feldspars. It weathers brown and sehen and bee grains brownish section is composed o dee groundmass of augite microlites, biotite and mee holding larger augites, greenish viriditic and dolomitic pseudomorpbs after olivine, etc. The augite is mostly in yellowish and brownish elongat crystals, one magnetite inclusions. The biotite is in brown irregular scales, while considerable calcite and a green- _ is now present. ‘This rock is regarded as an old an slerea basalt. Diabase. The diabase (881) of Hoskin’s Harbor, Thwart Island, occurs — in a dike about twenty feet wide, running north and south, and cutting argillite. The rock is a gray finely crystalline M. FE. Wadsworth—Rocks of Newfoundland. 97 diabase containing pyrites, and weathering brownish gray. Section greenish gray, and appears to, have been originally composed of divergent feldspar (plagioclase) with the inter- spaces filled by irregular grains and dissected masses of augite, magnetite, olivine (2), etc. At present the augite is in general only slightly altered, and is of a brownish color or nearly colorless. it is much fissured, sometimes cloudy and at others altered to a greenish chloritic material. The feldspars are for the most part kaolinized and oe Comptes retaining dis- tinct evidence of their triclinic charac Of secondary products there occur, sist others, considera- ble chloritic eas some calcite, quartz, microlites, and actinolite fibers.) A few greenish masses were seen that may e Ba cdbeior abe of olivine granules, their forms and polariza- tion characters being the same as those of such’ pseudomorphs seen in other basaltic rocks. At Tom Hall’s harbor, on Exploits Burnt Island, the main rock is a diabase cut by numerous later diabase dikes. The former (850) is a grayish green crystalline rock showing feld- spar and pyrite crystals. Under the microscope it is seen to be composed of divergent basaltic plagioclase with the inter- spaces filled by magnetite and secondary viridite, chlorite, and epidote. The feldspars are somewhat altered, although polariz- ing with brilliant colors, and contain epidote g granules, chlorite scales, and colorless needles resembling tremolite. e chlorite a short distance from this locality at Green Island Cove, € prospecting had been done in a similar diabase rock con- Site some copper and iron pyrites. In the section the general structure of this (853) rock is seen to be the same as that of the preceding (850) but it has suffered further altera- tion so that the feldspars are considerably changed. Some calcite occurs in the rock. his rock is also cut by diabase dikes, one of which (851) is a greenish gray finely crystalline rock but more compact — the preceding and’ somewhat fresher. In the section it is seen — to be only a little less altered than No. 853. Considerable _ calcite and some greenish secondary eee was observed, _ otherwise the two.sections are nearly the sam Am, Jour, Paes deca Series, Vou. XXVIII, No. 164. ibis 1884, 98 M. FE. Wadsworth—Rocks of Newfoundland, Another diabase occurring near No, 850, and perhaps a por- tion of the same mass, is more coarsely crystalline with pinkish feldspars. At the western point enclosing Sargent’s Cove, a coarse-grained basaltic rock (867) occurs cut by fine-grained diabase dikes (866). The rock on the north side of Betts Cove is a diabase, which on the weathered surfaces shows spherulitic concretions of impure epidotic material. These concretions are seen to be a superficial phenomenon, for they diminish in size and amount in the interior. No. 963 from Little Bay Mine, is a greenish rock flecked by pinkish spots of alteration origin. nder the microscope the greenish section is seen to be from a rock entirely altered, a natural condition when it is realized that the dike from which it came forms the line about which is arranged the ore of the mine. The section is composed of an irregular confused granular aggregation of secondary epidote, chlorite, green and ite mica, quartz, feldspar, microlites, ete. The epidote and — chloritic and micaceous material predominate. This rock is — similar to some specimens in the collection from Sonora, Tuolumne County, California. Diorite. At Sargent’s Cove a coarse grained old basaltic rock, No. a is sed. of a dark greenish color and com section is composed of a confused mass of secondary greenish — he is led to regard all these coarse dioritic rocks as formed from — the alteration both of gabbros and coarse-grained diabases. Porodite. are filled with secondary materials it would be difficult some- — times to distinguish these melaphyr grains from some of the — We aes i ee fa ca greater al _ polarization M. FE. Wadsworth— Rocks of Newfoundland. 99 tertiary basalts of California. In most of the fragments the fine basaltic feldspars retain their forms. These rocks belong to the old tufaceous products to which I have given the name of porodite,* but since the basaltic mate- rial predominates in them they are placed under that species. ANDESITE (?) Minette, or Mica Trap. brown color. _ The hornblende is in both short and elongated crystals, with a dichroism varying from light yellowish brown to dark brown. It is almost identical in general appearance with the mica, but 1s optically different, while the cleavage of the hornblende is nearly wanting. Both minerals are abundant. The ground- mass is composed of a pale yellowish or grayish mass, mostly isotropic, but sometimes polarizing feebly; and ee numerous microlites, granules, etc. It also holds calcite an greenish fibrous spherulitic delessite (?), which sometimes forms e Concretionary masses with centers of calcite. ve g teration, the groundmass here shows generally some * 1. c. p. 280. 100 —_ UM. EF. Wadsworth— Rocks of Newfoundland. : 0. , from the central portion of the dike contains well- — ; developed biotite and augite crystals, with calcite and quartz grains. e the biotite crystals inclose portions of the . rock mass in the center. The section is composed of a dense — , Epo eer oe generally isotropic. The augites sometimes have greenish centers with yellowish external portions. One form, composed of veins of viriditic material inclosing dolomite, resembled an olivine pseudomorph. Considerable greenish fibrous spherulitie material, like delessite, occurs associated with calcite. a | No. 858 is from the center of the dike and is essentially the same as the preceding. : Of the ingredients of this dike, the augite and magnetite — alone of the minerals observed are regarded as original mate: — rials, all the rest'are considered to be secondary or alteration — products. : : No. 855 effervesces strongly with hydrochloric acid, but does — not gelatinize. 3 ae . res resembles the melaphyr, No. 865, previously deectibed: - preponderance of its original characters appears to be of al andesite type, and it is with doubt classed under that species. na similar manner from their structure and pseudomorphs, _ the minette (5015) from Himmelsfiirst, near Freiberg in Saxony, — and that from Weinheim in Baden (5080) appear to be altered — } and old andesites. a Porphyrite. o A brownish gray rock from Wells’s Cove, Exploits Bay, cuts the argillite and 1s composed of a brownish gray granulat — | groundmass with greenish spots, and segregations of calcite. — ) In the section it is seen to be composed of altered plagioclase — and orthoclase, with ferrite, quartz, calcite and chlorite forming — | groundmass which incloses larger, altered porphyritic feldspat — crystals. The plagioclastic forms appear to have predominat although the alteration is so great the decision is doubtful. n the present condition the mass is chiefly composed of second- ary ferrite granules, quartz, calcite and chlorite, with micro’ lites, etc, It is difficult to say to what species—basalt, ande- — site, or trachyte—this rock belonged, but it most closely resembles the andesites. ae a WM. E. Wadsworth—Rocks of Newfoundland. 101 ARGILLITE. a structure that might readily be taken for a fluidal one. This seems to be owing to the crystallization of the chloritic scales in vein-like deposits. The feldspathic fragments form the chief portion of the section and are much altered now, showin aggregate polarization, and having a fibrous kaolinized and tale- like structure. The quartz is in irregular fissured grains con- taining stone and fluid cavities bearing moving bubbles. The ‘Melaphyr is much altered, retaining only its structure. While this rock is composed mostly of ordinary detritus it may in part be from volcanic ashes. . _ An argillite (868) coming from the southwest part of the island is greatly indurated, breaks with a conchoidal fracture, _ and is composed of a grayish green groundmass holding quartz _ grains. Under the microscope this is seen to be a distinctly _ ¢lastic rock like the preceding, and while in the main fine- - _ grained it contained some larger fragments like No. 863. 4 t is now composed of greenish micaceous scales, quartz, feldspar, ferrite, microlites, ete. The quartz and feldspar (ortho- Clase) are both a fragmenta] and a secondary production, proba- bly through water action. A few broken crystals resembling zircons were seen. At Kaster Cove, Exploits Bay (on the main land, near Muddy Hole), the argillite is much indurated, although less so than the preceding. The strata here show a varying dip from 30° to 90° (usually 60° to 80°) to the southward. The Strata are much contorted and bent, and in one place a gen- eral northward dip was seen. A section of the argillite No. _ 869 closely resembles No. 868, being of similar character, but _ finer grained and-of lighter color. It is traversed by veins of quartz and calcite. Neat Welles’ Cove, Exploits Bay, the argillite is black, laminated like a shale, and cut by dikes of -diabase and porpbyrite. On the west side of Lawrence Harbor the shaly argillite Stands nearly vertical and carries graptolites. 102 «= M. E. Wadsworth—Rocks of Newfoundland. Jasper. Where ‘ke lava flows or intrusive masses come in contact with the argillite the latter is often baked to a dark brick-red jaspery mass, irregularly fissured, traversed by minute quartz and calcite veins and breaking with a conchoidal fracture. One section (862) is composed of a reddish brown groundmass of ferrite globules mingled with secondary quartz «nd holding numerous globular and irregular patches of quartz. These segregations peta lat form the principal portion of the sec: tion. Veins filled with quartz and calcite with some epidote traverse the eae ome chlorite, iieaalite: ine pipe, although little fused globules appeared in the case of No. 859, owing to the epidote in it. servations made by myself indicate that rocks beaiatity called jasper are formed by the induration of argillite by eruptive action, by chemical deposi e tion, and by eruption—the second form only being true jasper- . Tue ORE Deposits. At the time of my visit the at ee of the Betts Cove Mine were filled with water. The mining had been done in an irregular manner, taking the ore i bhieeae it could be found; thus the walls not having sufficient support had broken away on one side and fallen in. All the work then doing was in the | taking out of ground that had been “eft i in the upper workings. The mine is in mixed argillite, chlorite schist, and diabase. — The ore band runs east and west, and is cut by north and south dikes, of which there were said to be ten in the min The dikes seen were all diabase. Over one-half of the adja- cent country rock is eruptive, but all the ore of importance 18 _ ara in ve schistose portions formed from the altered acu and se. e ore is of secondary deposition, being aeepation in the broken fissured altered portions of the rock, and, judging from the ore seen and the workings, must have | occurred in immense irregular masses. The ore is chalcopyrite mixed with pyrite, quartz, ete. The foot wall is formed by _ diabase. A The upper portion of Little Bay Mine is worked in chlorite - schist impregnated with chaleopyrite. The whole is longitudi- ideo ag ne : ere Varieties of Quartz. Proc. Bost. ~~ Nat. — Hist., 1877, M. FE. Wadsworth —Rocks of Newfoundland. 108 nally cut by a dike (No. 903) parallel with which run three bands of chalcopyrite which lie near the dike. In depth these three bands pass into one, varying from six inches to four feet in thickness, and the mixed chlorite schist‘and ore of the being on the surface and gradually narrowing in depth. The _ ore from this locality is mixed chalcopyrite and pyrite with quartz, schist, ete. e Roberts Arm Mine is worked on two veins from two to four feet wide in the eruptive diabase. The veins are com- “4 Lawrence Harbor the old basaltic lava had been pros- pected for ore and considerable work done, but the vein is simply a gash vein containing quartz carrying pyrite. A vein m the shaly argillite had been worked to some extent, but showed only some impure graphite with quartz. At Hoskins Harbor, Thwart Island, Exploits Bay, a grayish black, somewhat indurated, nearly vertical argillite (882), is cut by a north and south dike of diabase (881), about twenty feet in width. This diabase is cut by a few gash veins of pyrite, ing and calcite containing a little chalcopyrite and malachite. hese veins had been worked to some extent by persons not acquainted with their limited occurrence. The mode of occur- activity, after the chief portion of this basalt had €xtravasated, the action of percolating thermal waters on the — ab ar rock and its fissured and broken adjoining sedimentary » led to the concentration and deposition of the copper, Iron, and quartz in the places in which they are found.* The *See Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 1880, vii, 123-131; Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1880, xxi, 91-103. 104. MM. E. Wadsworth—Rocks of Newfoundland. cent to ge eruptive masses.. The deposits thus occur- g are irregular segregations or impregnations of varying bulk, not promise in any one locality long con- the mines as soon as the chief portion of the ore is extracted. The Betts Cove and Little Bay Mines at the time of my visit presented to me the appearance of having been well worked One prevalent error regarding the rocks of this country ought to be corrected, i. e. the belief that the ores are associate with serpentine. No serpentine was seen by me at any of the points touched between T'willingate and Betts Cove except one small bowlder at the latter place. I am informed it exists in that vicinity, and Mr. Murray assured me it occurs at Tilt Cove. The ores, so far as seen, occurred in diabase and schists; hence the statements, so industriously circulated in almost every arti- cle relating to the Newfoundland copper deposits, regarding the relation of the ores to serpentine are entirely incorrect in the districts seen by me. . In closing, I desire to express my warm thanks to the veteran director of the Geological Survey of Newfoundland, Alexander Murray, C.M.G, for his many kind favors during my stay in St. John’s, and.my regrets that ill health has compelled him to resign the post he has so long held. Cambridge, Mass., March 22d, 1884, S. F. Peckham—The Origin of Bitumens. 105 Art. XV.—The Origin of Bitumens; by S. F. PeckHam, A.M.* SPECULATION regarding the origin of bitumens has been pur- sued during the last half century along several quite different lines of investigation, and has been influenced by several differ- ent classes of experience. Generally speaking, these lines fall into three different classes and embrace those who regard bitu- men as a product of chemical action, those who regard it as indigenous to the rocks in which it is found, and those who regard bitumen as a distillate produced by natural causes. The argument for a purely chemical origin of petroleum was first brought to the serious attention of scientific men by Ber- thelot in 1866. He found that when carbonic acid or the earthy carbonates were brought to react with alkali metals at a igh temperature, oily fluids were formed similar to or identical with those found in petroleam. Byasson produced the same fluids by causing steam, carbonic acid and iron to react; and — Cloez produced them by the reaction of boiling water upon a earbide of manganese. The chemists of this school assume that the alkali metals, iron at a white heat and spiegeleisen with other raw chemical reagents, exist in the interior of the earth, and that petroleum is formed by the reaction upon them terrestrial crust. These chemical theories are supported by great names, and are based upon very elaborate researches, but they require the assumption of operations nowhere witnessed in nature or known to technology. M. Co d, who has written so fully upon the occurrence of bitumen in Albania and Roumania, and C. H. Hitchcock, forces act. ‘ The opinion that petroleum is indigenous to the rocks in which it is found has been maintained with great vigo s r by T. Sterry Hunt and J. P. Lesley, both of whom have based — ~ * Abstract of Chapter V of the Monograph on Petroleum, prepared for the i States. Tenth Census of the United 106 S. F. Peckham—The Origin of Bitumens. their views upon extended observations in Canada, West Vir- ginia and Kentucky. At several localities in Can ada, Dr. Hunt has observed the marine fossils of the Trenton limestone filled with petroleum in'which it was hermetically sealed, and he regards the petroleum that saturates portions of the hese limestone near Chicago, as cigenous to that forma- n a recent letter, J. "M. Safford informs me that in ee limestone rocks that form the Silurian basin of middle Tennessee it is not uncommon to ‘aad with gente cavities lined with calcite crystals and containing more or less petro- dw ‘leum. Iam also informed by ard Bei that ‘te Clinton limestone of Ohio, ye over the whole northern border of ties. esley’s paper on “the existence of petroleum in the autre coal field of Kentucky,” he has shown that in Johnson County, Kentucky, the great Carboniferous con- glomerate is saturated with petroleum at horizons now above the level of the water in the streams that intersect the coun- try. He thinks the Coal-measure plants contributed to the formation of the petroleum and observes that ‘the specifi¢ gravities of the oil, decreasing with the increase of the depth, is a fact which shows conclusively that a chronic evaporation or distillation of the whole mass of oil in the crust of the earth within reasonable reach of the surface), has always been and is still going on, converting the animal and plant remains into ae oils, the habe oils into paged om the heavy oils into marks of which.are so infinitely numerous in the rocks, and with the infinitude of corralloid sea animals, the skeletons of which make up a ee part of the limestone pecans which of Wall in Trinidad appear to establish beyond a doubt that _the bitumen of that locality has been and is being produced eae Be ee eet ue a Te ae se ae ete at See opi ge ee Aen ame Pre pha
  • from the front of the new Mississippi bluffs. Several still smaller falls along the bluffs have the same origin. h St. Croix and the rapids of St. Louis rivers, also in Minnesota, may probably be referred to postglacial erosion, but explicit statements of their origin are not to be found. The southern peninsula of Michigan must also furnish many examples of newly made falls and gorges, for the streams there are de- scribed as generally flowing on the drift, but sometimes cutting down into the rock. Professor I. C. White, of the Geological Survey of Pennsyl- vania, has given several excellent descriptions of gorges. Wal- lenpaupack Creek, dividing Wayne = ike counties in the northeastern part of the State, is one of the most striking examples of its class. In preglacial times, it had carved out a wide and deep channel in Catskill strata from the Pocono plateau northeastward to its junction with the Lackawaxen, having a descent of four hundred feet in eleven miles without _ any notable falls so far as can be discovered. During the Glacial period, the lower end of the channel was filled with drift to a depth of three hundred feet, so that, where the ice melted _ away, the re-established drainage found a shorter cut and lower passage to the Lackawaxen about three miles above its former mouth. For ten miles above the obstruction, the ’Paupack bE meanders through a broad, flat, swampy valley, the bottom of _ arecently extinct lake, with a fall of only half a foot ina mile: * Geol. Minn., 4th Ann. Report, 1876, 178. 128 — W. M. Dawis—Gorges and Waterfalls. three hundred feet thick. The explanation of the new course of the Raymondskill is equally conclusive. Professor White suggests that the several other high cascades over the Hamilton bluffs along the Delaware in this part of its course, such as those on Adam’s, Dingman, Hornbeck and Little Bushkill Creeks owe their origin to a diversion from their old channels by drift-dams ; but no detailed study of their topography was made.* Other illustrations of our topic described by the same author,t — are found on the hi Harvey’s lake is a long, narrow, irregularly shaped body of water, occupying an old buried valley to a depth of ninety feet. T ighlands northwest of Wyoming Valley: a outlet is closed by drift; the new line of over AS flow has already lowered the lake over one hundred feet by — * Geol. Penn., G6, Pike and Munroe Counties, 1882, 57-62... + Geol. Penn., Gi, Wyoming, etc. Counties, 1883, 171, 131, 133. W. U. Davis—Gorges and Waterfalls. 129 cutting a narrow, gorge-like channel, with bare outcropping rocks free from drift for one hundred and twenty-five feet above the lake level. Crooked Lake, also in Wyoming county but on the other side of the deep valley of the Susquehanna, has the same origin; the old valley below the lake is now without a stream, for the overflow has turned to one side, first running with gentle slope over drift deposits; then descending one hundred and ten feet in a narrow gorge over a series of rocky cascades. Here it joins Buttermilk Creek, the lower course of which has been entirely changed by glacial deposits. Vast heaps of drift are piled up in the old channel about the mouth of the aneient stream, so that its modern representative is turned aside to plunge over the cliffs of Catskill rocks into the valley of the Susquehanna. In the deep, narrow gorge that has thus been formed, the stream falls eighty feet in several cascades in _ a horizontal distance of two hundred yards. The old valley can be traced nearly clogged with drift heaps; and the evidence of the change in the stream’s course is said to be singularly clear and conclusive. _ Other post-glacial valleys, with steep rocky walls and very | little drift are described by Mr. Carll in western Pennsylvania, while the old valleys are broad and deeply filled with heavy drift deposits.* The most appreciative description that I have found of the relation between drift obstructions and river gorges is in Mr. J. Geikie’s ‘Great Ice Age.’ Nothing can be more striking—this author writes—than the sudden and complete change of scenery that ensues upon the passage of a stream from its new into its old channel. In the former the water frets and fumes between - lofty walls of rock, which, seen from below, appear to rise almost vertically from the river's bed. In such a deep, narrow gorge the stream may continue to flow for miles, when of a sudden the precipitous cliffs abruptly terminate, and the water then escapes into a broad vale, with long sloping banks of Stony clay, sand and gravel. The burial of old valleys is especially common in districts where they stretch across the advance of the ice; the gorges of the Avon and the Calder, branches of the Clyde, are thus explained as post-glacial cuts, to one side of the drift-filled, pre-glacial channels. _ Mr. A. Geikie writes of one of the most remarkable go in Scotland,t that of the Mouse water, in the district of the Cartland crags, near Lanark. The stream descending from the shady ravines of Cleghorn flows smoothly for half a mile through an old valley still choked up with bowlder-clay. This * Geol. Penn., ITI, Oil Regions, 1880, 347. + Great Ice Age, 1877, 133, - + On the Glacial Drift of Scotland, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, i, pt. 2, 1863, 51. » AM. Jour. Sct.—Tarep ry VoL, XXVIII, No, 164.—Auausr, 1884 130 W. M. Davis—Gorges and Waterfalls. . other examples are named. That this clear description was not generally appreciated is shown in a later account of the same gorge, where although it is recognized as of aqueous origin, wonder is expressed that the downward erosion should have so greatly exceeded the lateral drainage system. The long 3 feats time of land-existence gave our rivers east of the Mississippi ample opportunity to perfect their courses; to destroy all the lakes that must have existed in great numbers while the land was rising and the mountains were growing; to wear back all the falls until they their accustome quite bewildered and lost their way among the heaps and sheets of drift that masked their old valleys, and had to settle down as best they might on the lowest ground they could find. * Dougall, Falls of Clyde, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, iii, 51, 1871. ‘ Pete 7 ape eo Ay tee TS ye: ag ind ae ili tl a aa Ne Ce ay ae eS Bias 5 a ee eS ok RES pe . ' ice Se eae se ae ee ae eee tS Wee W. M. Davis—Gorges and Waterfalls. . 181 They were restrained in lakes and ponds behind drift barriers, - and were turned aside from a life of comparative ease in their well-prepared old channels to an age of hard work in active rock cutting—and here we now see them, just accommodated to their new lines of life. An old stream, having its volume, its load of silt and its slope so related to one another that its channel is eroded with extreme slowness, comes as near to a condition of stability as streams can. It has, after a long age of endeavor, at adapted itself to its environment, and has very little tendency — to variation. But any change in its condition of life sets it at work again, seeking another attitude of satisfied equilibrium. If, for example, the land across which an elderly, conservative | stream flows, is elevated with comparative suddenness, the stream finds its point of discharge lowered, and thereupon sets waters settles here and in time will fill the lake and form a marsh or meadow. On the lower side of the obstruction, the Stream finds a strong descent, and there begins the rapid deep- ening of the channel chosen for escape. If this overflow chan- nel be upon the drift barrier itself, and the down-slope below it be pronounced, then the lake is drained before much thick- ness of silt accumulates upon its bottom. In this way, many of our marshy meadows have been formed. If the slope of the outlet be gentle, or if a moderate down-cutting will make it so, then the lake has a much longer life; and this is the case of the great number of our smaller lakes and ponds that still 132 a Dawis—Gorges and Waterfalls. already quoted. We have to thank the old ice-sheet for our picturesque gorges as well as for our pleasing lakes. It has been suggested that the gorges are in many cases the work of subglacial streams during the presence of the ice, instead of the effect of open water cutting in later times. Toa certain extent this may be true; but when, as so commonly happens, there are clear signs of the former existence of a lake above the gorge, then the work must be considered essentially postglacial. For if the gorge had been cut under the ice It is to be hoped that detailed observation may be directed to some good examples of these attractive elements of our 5 o no] wm cee 5 Me ao @ = oO no) o sx | @ Qu cs ° = Ss m = bs) et @ a Sa @ S ® ie) = FS} = = i) he | Ga a 2 = orms. A set of large diagrams, in which views and mapsof Cambridge, Mass,, June, 1884, A. E. Bostwick—Electrical Resistance of Metals. 138 Art. XIX.—The Influence of Light on the ane! Resistances of Metals ; by AnTHUR E. Bostwic THE fact that light has an influence on the electrical resist- ance of the element selenium has been known since 1832, The discovery was made by Superintendent Mai of the Valen- tia cable station, and the results of a few experiments on the subject were communicated to the Royal Society by Lieutenant Sale* in March of the year above mentioned. Since that time ee property of selenium has received ta! investigation at e hands of Professor W. G. Adams, Dr. W. Siemens and sthere and some recent applications of it, more or less practical in their nature, have made it familiar. In connection with the experiments on selenium it has also been established that tellurium possesses the same quality of Ninotes its resistance affected by light, though in a much less The effect of light on these PSAs fe is we diminish their resistance. In the case of selenium this diminution has in some instances been found to amount to a large proportion of the entire resistance.t ‘Telluriam shows a diminution of less than One per cent, the greatest diminution obtained by Adams being one three-hundredth. t In the year 1877, Dr. Richard Bornstein of Heidelberg attempted to show that the property which had been establish in the case of selenium and tellurium was not peculiar to those substances, but was possessed in common with them by gold, silver, platinum, and probably by all other metals, though in a very much less degree. He announced as the result of his experiments that the effect of light upon gold, silver and plati- num was to diminish their resistance by from one and one-half hundredths of one per cent up to four per cent of the whole resist- auce. Shortly after this, Siemens] and Hansemann{ of Berlin undertook and co mpleted an investigation in which they were totally unable to detect any action like that described by Born- stein. The matter ae here until 1881, when Bornstein pub- lished** an account of a new series of experiments, from the results of which it cate” appear that the electrical resistance of silver is diminished one and one-fourth hundredths of one per cent by the action of light. As far as the writer knows, noth- ing more had been ae on the subject when he made the 4 * Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., May, 1 C, E. a iggy oN a New For ges Selénium Cell ;” we Journal, Dec., 1883. Proc. Roy. d., June Tt, Biddy and Jan. é, 187 Phil. Mag., V, vol. iii, 1877, p. Berlin Monatsberichte, June, ete Ibid. * Carl’s Repertorium, xvii Bd., 2 und 3 heft, S. 164. 134 A. E. Bostwick—The Influence of Light series of experiments which are to be described in the present paper. Bornstein’s first series of experiments were made upon plati- num wires and thin leaves of gold, silver and platinum, mounte on glass. His principal methods were two in number. The first consisted in the comparison of the resistances of two wires or plates by means of a Wheatstone’s bridge, the plates being alternately illuminated. The second method consisted in the observation of the logarithmic decrement of the swing of a gal- vanometer needle, the galvanometer being coupled in a circuit with a single plate which was alternately lighted and darkened. The latter method is the one known as Weber’s method of damped vibrations. By these methods Bornstein obtained results, which, although alike qualitatively, differed a great deal ‘in amount. Each set seemed to show that the resistance of the metals examined was diminished by light, but the diminution shown by the first method was only about one one-hundredt of one per cent, while that shown by the second was from three to four per cent. This difference Bérnstein accounts for by supposing that the passage of an electric current through a metal diminishes its sensibility to light. The metals would then be more sensitive when traversed only by the extremely feeble currents induced by the swinging needle, than when the comparatively powerful current necessary in the Wheatstone’s bridge was passing through them. Bornstein’s results seemed to show also that the action of light on the metals experimen- ted upon was greatest when they had been kept in darkness for some time, —a fact which had already been observed in the _ — case of selenium. _ The methods used by Siemens and Hansemann differed from both of those employed by Bérnstein. These observers made being thrown on and off the plates every twenty seconds. The movement of the needle during any period of illumination oF 7 * its direction as often indicated an increase as a decrease of resistance. The sensitiveness of the galvanometer was tested at each series (ir pore tes Rie r i ios. = * RR ee: Mey ARTE ee ye eee Ny RoR ES eae | geen Se Fete : ie mee pee eh a6 Saou & ciate ee pasate et Te, i Sen ites ‘ SRY Oe a oO Penn a, Sane an REL CET NPS cL er SN oman Tram er Eee Mae TOR RS ch Se) SR a en ee eG on the Electrical Resistance of Metals. 135 of observations, and it was found that a scale division corres- ponded to a change in the resistance of about five-thousandths of one per cent. It will be noticed that the circuit was closed during the entire time of each set of observations. In view of ments by the damping method and found no diminution of resistance. The change, however, which he could have detected by this method was not much under one per cent. Ornstein’s second series of observations were entirely upon silver, deposited chemically on glass, and consisted of direct measurements of the ratio of the resistances of two plates by means of a Wheatstone’s bridge, with sliding contact wire. He exposed his plates to the light for periods of fifteen minutes each. The mean of his results shows a diminution of one and one-quarter hundredths of one per cent, which he attributes to the action of light. The experiments of Siemens and Hansemann seem to Born- stein to prove nothing concerning the influence in general of light upon the resistance of metals. For in them the plates were constantly traversed by a current, and moreover the illumination was. for exceedingly short intervals. As regards — the first condition, we know nothing of the influence of the electric current upon thin sheets of metal, and this influence should therefore be as much as possible done away with in searching for a delicate effect, and in the second place the light effect, if there is one, may take considerable time and the exposures should therefore be reasonably long. Bornstein therefore ascribes the fact that he obtains a different result from Siemens and Hansemann to his long exposures and to the fact that the current passed through his plates only during the short time occupied in making the measurements. The further discussion of these points is left until after the description of the experiments ree by the writer. : ese experiments were made in the Yale College Laboratory in a room from which light could be entirely excluded. The walls and furniture were painted black. The plates of metal used were five in number and will be distinguished by the 136 A, EF. Bostwick—The Influence of Light wood having two holes two and one-half inches square cut in it. Over these holes the plates were laid, the edges resting for three-eighths of an inch upon rolls of silver foil, through whie the connections were made. ‘Two strips of wood were screwed down over the edges of the plates to fasten them, and both sides of the slab were then covered with black paper, holes some years ago. ‘They were all thin enough to transmit light i b A 5°5 ohms. Connections ‘087 ohms. Ag “ “ 3 “ A’ 14°56 “ce “ “O87 “ B’ 126:73: + “4 083: - C 9°33 “ te 045 “ D 6'25 “ee 19 “045 “ E 10°27 = «€ * "O45: > 24 Galvanometer.—A Thomson’s reflecting galvanometer of 7096 ohms resistance was used. Its two coils were connected in multiple arc, making the resistance 1774 ohms. The slit was system. . Eheostat.—A sliding rheostat was used, having two parallel platinum wires which could be connected in series or multip! on the Electrical Resistance of Metals. 137 arc. Each wire was one meter in length and had a resistance of two ohms. The slide was worked by a long handle so that the observer was never near the rheostat wire except for the few seconds occupied in reading the scale. e latter was directly beneath the wires and was graduated to millimeters. At the end of the handle a micrometer screw was so arranged that the slide could be moved an exact number of millimeters. The rheostat was connected to the resistance box by a wire of ‘289 ohm resistance, which was taken into account in making all measurements. The rheostat wire was protected from the direct radiations of the galvanometer lamp by a wooden screen and no trouble from this source was experienced. Battery.— A. single Daniell cell of from ten to sixteen ohms_ resistance was used. Very rarely two cells were used, coupled in series. A key which could be used as a commutator, or simply as a make and break circuit, was introduced in the battery circuit. to a focus by means of a lens, at some little distance from the plate, so that the spot of light thrown upon the latter was about one and one-half inches in diameter. A screen, under the control of the observer, served to cut off the rays from the plate where it was desired. A cubical glass cell with a side of three and one-half inches and filled with a saturated solution of alum, was used in nearly all the experiments to cut off the obscure radiations of the lamp from the plate. In one series, sunlight was used, a beam from a heliostat placed in an adjoin- Ing room, being admitted through a hole in the wall. The spot of light on the plate was of the same dimensions as before. On account of the increase of temperature in the room it was found necessary during part of the series of experiments to “place the plates in a separate apartment, the light being admitted to them through a hole in the wall. Methods.—It is impossible to say @ priori, whether an effect of light on the electrical resistance of a metal, if there were any such effect, would be instantaneous or gradual. If the effect were an apparent one, due to some direct action of the radiation upon the current passing through the metal, the former wou probably be the case, but if the light effected some change in the molecular structure of the metal, it would doubtless take place somewhat gradually. However this may be, it was thought best to divide the experiments into two classes; first, © those to discover whether there were an instantaneous effect of light, and second, those to discover the effect of exposures for periods of from ten to fifteen minutes. iP 138 A. E. Bostwick—The Influence of Light Method I.—The plate was connected as one arm of a Wheat- stone’s bridge. wo of the other arms were made up of any time more than a few millimeters from 265. The resistance of the connections was determined at the close of the series by substituting for the plate a sheet of silvered copper of negligable resistance. — The sensibility, or number of scale divisions traversed by the index for the introduction into the circuit of one millimeter of rheostat wire, was also determined for each set of observations in the following manner. The micrometer screw atthe end 0 the rheostat slide was so adjusted as to allow the slide a movement of just one millimeter. Ten readings of the index were then taken, the slide being alternately at its extreme positions. The mean of the differences between every two as approximately parallel, the ratio of the resistance of the illuminated portion to that of the whole plate is sensibly that of their areas. - - The percentage of change of resistance in the lighted portion of the plate corresponding to a movement of the galvanometer index one scale division evidently S| 100 “piecn Ri«€ eo the plate, and “a” the fraction of the plate covered by the light spot. It is assumed that the observer could detect 4 movement of the index amounting to one-fourth of a scale division. The method, then, was as follows: The plate resistance and sensibility having been determined, the index was balanced and the circuit closed. When the spot was perfectly still, the light was suddenly thrown on the plate and the movement 0! the index, if any, was noted. The spot had generally a steady FN ee atten gs as, 2 ; a 3 ee 3 ia 4 ee .e on the Electrical Resistance of Metals. 139 movement toward the left corresponding to the increased resist- ance of the plate caused by the heating effect of the current, and to avoid waiting for the moments when it was at rest the following method was also used. The movement of the spot for three periods of ten seconds each was recorded, the plate being lighted during the middle period, and the difference between the second reading and the mean of the first and third was taken as the effect produced by the light. Plates A an B were illuminated both with gas and sunlight,—C, D and E with gas light only. The illumination with sunlight took place directly after the series of observations described under method II, and the con- nections were therefore left as in that method. The formula used for calculating the percentage of change of resistance cor- responding to a galvanometer deflection of one scale division will also be found there. Method I[.—Plates A and B were connected as two arms of the bridge. The other two arms each consisted of part of the resistance box and part of the rheostat, the wires of the latter eing connected in multiple arc. Moving the slide therefore increased the resistance in one arm and diminished that of the other. The length of wire having a resistance of one ohm was thus determined. The index was balanced, one ohm taken from the box and the index again balanced. Calling the amount by which the rheostat slide was pushed up M, an the length of wire having a resistance of one ohm n, 10 and 25 ohms respectively being the resistances in the box, 25:102:224+ =: 10-4 approximately. From this n was found in terms of M, and was found equal to 1100™". As the plates were lighted alternately, it was assumed that the effect of the light on the one died away at the same rate that it increased on the other. The percentage of decrease of resistance of one plate would then equal the percentage of ie: in the other and the observed effect would be due to € sum 1 1 25a 10x 25 + —— 310—-__:: a S/O a, * 006 ner cent: i100°/° 1100 ges 100 ee: 100 “ 2 For A’ and B’ when the ratio of the resistances in the box was 1863110 «=°001 per cent. 140 A. E. Bostwick—The Influence of Light When plates A and B were illuminated by sunlight as men- ~ tioned above, they were connected as in this method. The change of resistance corresponding to a given deflection was therefore calculated as above, except that as the light was not shifted from one plate to the other, the effect must be considered as produced by a change in the resistance of one plate instead of being the sum of equal changes in two plates, x was thus found in this case to equal ‘013 per cent. The per cent of change corresponding to any deflection D was of course —, S being the sensibility. The light was shifted from one plate to the other by moving the lens every fifteen minutes. During the last five minutes of each exposure, observations of the first elongation of the index were made once a minute and the means taken. Care ‘was taken to read the zero point before taking each elongation. The circuit was closed for a few seconds only of the fifteen minutes of exposure. Plates A B, A’ and B’ were thus treated. With plates C, D and E the method of observation was the same, but the bridge was arranged as at first, only one plate ‘ being connected at a time, and this plate was alternately lighted and darkened at intervals of fifteen minutes. The change in the resistance of the plate corresponding to a deflection of one : | scale division was calculated as in method I. accidental causes was considerable. In this method there was observed a steady increase of the plate resistance caused prob ably by the heating effect of the current, or it may be by the passage of the current itself as claimed by Bornstein. he ca NS Sc oi es ay Bee Seis tana Tea a oh ad ae i ace | She Sh a Pe ages) IP on the Electrical Resistance of Metals. 141 Tables of Results (method I). Deflection to right corresponds to diminished resistance; to left—to increased resistance. De- Fine pei, ute Ba AE TR, AER mo] |e | Tee (ae Bh 1883. i Feb.13 | B | 12| .. | | 12] .. | = j100:10| 18) 266) -001 | gas| No 6] BT dey ie tae = 100:10| 4°3/ 265 | -0006 | gas | 18 | Be jeas ey te bie = 10:10, 1-9) 274] -001 gas | used 19 | Be) ison bag The = 100:10} 13/268] -002 | gas 20| B|10| -. | 10] -. |-1°5 cs 10:10} 1°8/271| -001 | gas| 20} A|12| 2} 6| 4/41 — 100:10| 3:5) 264| -001 | gas 221 A | 20}°2110) @|—2 =: 10:10] 14-0| 264| -004 | gas 4 Lar or ie = 10:10] 16-0 264| -003 | gas No, Mean | Max. Per cent Tohase So’c Date. |Plate| deflec- | deflec- deflec- mor r, |8| m, \corresp. of. | Remarks. tions. | tions. | tions. | pn, wire. ide Pte light, Apr.9} B | 10 | 41 | 6 | 013 |25:10/10/1100) -005 | sun |no alum. 9| B 10 2° 3 7013 |25:10,10)1100; -003 n . 9) B 10 a | 3 7013. |25:10/10}1100; -003 | sun | no alum. 9) B 5 2° 2 013. [25:10/10 Re 003 | sun| alum. 9} A 3 5 6 013 |25:10}10|1100) 0065 sun| alum. SP er : Z gs o%a| Mean /|° 23 Percent Date. § 2 e2 To |5q8|movement) a= Diff.) Ra - 3. | n, | Change z= - = left. Ns gv dong AB be oe Apr. 16) C/22; 1/12] 9 | —0-7 |—-86|—-16| 9°3 x 1)100:10)3°7|265 002 ] ait pees eae ’ " " c. 9 Dj19} 4 9 6 0°3 48|—°18) 6°3 x 11100:10/4°3/265 oank li 25) Hj12| 7 5 0 +°12 | +74 | +°28/10°3 x 1|100:10/6°6)265) . M 0002 cpocen ag (5 sec.) ine. 25} E] 8| 2 5 1 +°65 | +°13)/—°52)10°3 x 1;100:10/6°6)265) -0003 _ cigs Results — Method I. t Inc. |Per cent ra Date. | Sensibility. iene. ee 1 Die rlrenst: oF rin eae of Mar. 20 54 A — 27 eoes Dee B Sg 0 0 A 8 + 19 ONG 002 B =e Ba | — 8 tie a8 “0003 < ae 15 + 158 RES 002 B + 8 mi sachs “0005 A + 19 pa ak hee 002 B ‘Bed + 05 0005 Mar. 29 13 ae E ae £ | 5 pect B Be +09 004 A 2°09 — 61 0005 nk +B + 21 0-2 “001 A Ee ou — 0-4 002 * B pee sey te) pes 012 : A ee = 23 017 B =] 1*1 SoD are “037 ca Apr.2 | 102 - zy a T1 in : A = 1% — 0-4 0002 » B a a ee agit 0015 A re | — 08 0005 B — 4°4 + 0:3 0002 A aa ot | + 02 ects “0001 B —15°4 —10°8 Cis "0065 A an 24° — 86 005 Apr. 10 17 ew — 38 gee B’ + 98 +13°1 008 ; ug eae kf ee a 0004 B + 0°6 as 85 soos “005 Apr. 11 2°2 B’ +112 ae goths av +166 + 53 ae "002 B’ +51'8 +35°3 016 A’ 4 = 9-8 004 Apr. 12 2°5 Sa — 07 a aan 2 B’ + 69 + 76 003 A’ +08 est 0024 B’ +17 +16°2 016 A’ +13°2 — 3°8 004 ys B’ +20°6 + T4 “007 A! +1679 — 37 004 B’ + 29 +121 012 on the Electrical Resistance of Metals. Results— Method II—continued. 1438 No diminution of more th nerease of -000 Resin er cent. “ i Elongation. Ain tones a go fale or Date Remarks, Plate. Mean of 5. Diffs. Plate. Plate. Apr. 107 > 22 C =100: 10 (Platinum) n= 265 ight 0: e— 92 io on —10°9 17 “003 oe off —16°1 — 52 “009 1 se. div on —19° 2°9 “005 =0918% off —19°1 2! “0002 of plate Apr. 19 =6'3 D r=100:10} (gold) =265 | light off —12°2 S65 on — 41 + 81 ‘008 fi Tod § off + 19 + 6 006 Medi on + > — 14 0014 1 se. div off + 22°3 +21°8 022 ='0014% plate Apr. 26 |r=100:1 E =26 (silver) G2=1 off — 25 R=10°3 on —18: —15°5 008 Ford off —36° 18° “009 1 se, div. on —43- — 7% 004 =-0005% off ~47° — 4 002 of plate Apr. 27 | R=10°3 off — 2°8 a 25 on —16°5 —13°% 022 1 se. div off —34°4 —179 “029 16 Apr. 28 6 off 6°6 se. div. on + 24 + 9 : ‘ 006 =-0007¢ | off +70 #676 | Treeulany off — 15 on + 3:6 + 6:1 003 a Ma off + 75 + 3-9 "0024 Summary or ReEsutrs. Instantaneous effect—(method I). Plate Increase of a few thousandths of 1 per cent. an ‘001 per cent. A B 2 Sonal. pr ge of ‘004 per cent. D E “ ‘00005 144. A. E. Bostwick—Electrical Resistance of Metals. Long exposures—(method II). AandB Mean effect on plate lighted—decrease of 0014 per cent. f “ce ‘ “ “ A’ and B increase of ‘0053 Mean effect of lighting plate. Of darkening. C increase 004 per cent increase 0046 per cent. D diminution °008 es - diminution °014 6 E increase ‘005 ‘* increase 00 - It will be seen that the above results agree with those of Siemens and Hansemann rather than those of Bornstein. The latter’s objections to Siemens and Hansemann’s methods have already been mentioned. The first, that the experiments were made on the plate when the circuit though it was closed, apply of course also to method I of the series just described. In Bérnstein’s experiments by the damping method however, his plates were traversed by a current, though of course a very feeble one, and it is difficult to see how the difference between a diminution of five per cent and no perceptible effect can be ai Be antes accounted for by the fact that the current in one case Was — intermittent and in the other constant Ornstein’ osure is worthy of more attention. The exposures of cups, and common binding screws were used. t may also be here mentioned that the effect whose ex! tence is to be proved or disproved is of course the differenc® . between the effects of the light and the heat of the luminous © 3 . +4 aS ees ye aes s second objection relating to the length of the : eee cies tly Be ihe” ede bial Soa aeeiee aaa iar ache oars ie cige oi sei. 33 Sie Se a a eae it re Te saphgiecs : % 5 F. H. Blake— Vanadinite in Arizona. 145 rays. This is the quantity also measured in Siemens and Hansemann’s experiments. Bdérnstein on the other hand, who used no alum cell, measured the excess of light effect over the heat effect of both luminous and obscure radiations, so that if there is a true diminution of resistance caused by light, it ought to have appeared more strongly in the experiments which have been described. Taking all these things into consideration, it appears safe to say then that if light causes any diminution in the electrical resistance of metals, it probably does not exceed a few thou- sandths of one per cent. Art. XIX.— Vanadinite in Pinal County, Arizona; by RANCIS HAYES BLAKE. ries. These planes are very minute. I was unable to find planes between O and 7-2. Wulfenite is also found in this mine but not in very perfect crystals. Pinal, Pinal County, Arizona, June, 1884. ¥ Am. Jour. Sci.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XXVIII. No. 164.—Ave@ust, 1884, 10 ~ 146 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. PHysics AND CHEMISTRY. - 1. On the General Law of Solidification of Solvents.—Raouit has studied the effect which is.produced upon the point of solid- ification of a solvent by dissolving solid, liquid or gaseous sub- stances init. If A represent the coefficient of depression, that is the amount by which the temperature of solidification is lowered when one gram of the substance is dissolved in 100 grams of the solvent; M the molecular weight of the anhydrous substances and T the molecular depression of the freezing point (that is, the depression corresponding to the solution of one molecule of the dissolved substance in 100 grams of the solvent) then MA=T. The solutions employed were very dilute, containing less than one molecule (in grams) of the solid to two kilograms of the solvent. solvents used were water, benzene, nitrobenzene, ethylene dibromide, formic acid and acetic acid, whose saper yp solid, liquid or gaseous, when dissolved in a definite compound nitrobenzene 72 and 36, for benzene 49 and , for formic acid 28 and 14 and 185. The greater of these two values, wh the normal depression, is much the more f: t the case of water. Since, with the same solvent, the subs rm of in fixing the molecular weig 1 salts of the alkalies for example, when dissolved in water, depression of about 37; hen mong many as for example, when they are in the state of vapor, so t physical molecule contains only a single chemical molecule, the stig a3 a) ’ Chemistry and Physies. 147 value, since the double molecule produces no more effect than the single one. If the maximum molecular depression be divided by the molecular weight of the solvent, the quotient expresses the depression produced when one molecule of the substance is dis- solved in 100 molecules of the solvent. This value is for formic acid 0°63, for acetic acid 0°65, for benzene 0°64, for nitrobenzene 0°59, and for ethylene dibromide 0°63 ; being practically the same for all. For water however, the value is 2°61, a value four times too large. This the author explains by the hypothesis that the ; emical molecul physical molecule of water consists of four ch es. finally as follows: If one molecule of any substance be dissolved in 100 molecules of any liquid, of a different nature, there is produced about the same and approaches very near the value 0°63. Jonse quently, the depression of the freezing point of a dilute solution, of whatever sort, is sensibly equal to the product which is obtained by n subsequent papers, Raoult considers the application of this law to the study of the distribution of acids and bases in ae and of the freezing point of acid and alkaline solutions. Wit Acids and bai is produced, as Vincent has shown, a large quantity of trimethyl- amine; one establishment at Courriéres producing 1800 kilo- potassium chloride at 23°, until potassium bicarbonate, represent- ing nearly 40 per cent of the chloride, was precipitated. These 148 Scientific Intelligence. same chemists have now inteodaned into the chemical works at Palins and eae gases. On the large scale, retorts are- used like those employed in the palatal of gas, and the ammonia through Patatic alicali to absorb the hydrogen cyan The gases are collected ina Restol see and used for illumin To prepare the ferrocyanides, w tea ote of ferrous oxide is gos in the alkali- geese. ade 3. On the Preparation of Marsh Gas.—Some 6a ears ee GLADSTONE and TRIBE ae out that by the reaction of the copper-zine couple upon methyl iodide in pee of water or alcohol, marsh gas was readily produced, as follow oe A+H,0+ZnCu sein, Stee SOR tube was fixed above the flask like an inverted condenser. After foaming the zine with dilute sulphuric acid, it was treated three times with a solution of copper welphate until all ake copper had fens. precipitated on the zine, and then well washed, first with water and then a aleohol. The apparatus was then put together and by means of a tap funnel ea into the flask 20 c. ¢. of methyl iodide and the same volume of alcohol were allowed to run into the latter upon the ¢c SoppeE RING couple. reaction began at once, the first liter of marsh gas being col- lected in eight minutes. As a result 7500 c. ¢. of the gas was obtained, or 7053 ¢.c, reduced to normal temperature and pres sure, As the theoretical yield is only 7100 c . ¢, the bers gives basal a ne OP end the pyramid P, which was 118° 434’ faces observed on 8 furnished by Nilson and Petters were: «P, »P2, OP, P; and in addition, on the specimens roi nae dada eevee Pic cae eee eh RE Pitcairn Peas tir See ee aif, ae ae Nee ee aM Petro tle NEON TR re es eg eee ee ee ee aR ces at SA ERO aah Se Be ONT [eh Sh era 1 Se eee ee is i 3 ie Bee, Tee Re a ee RE ere E a gE eae ae Weschler Nan a eee ee jaca . LSA at ALAN LOOSE ROS te Se OMS nae CER yea RE aa aes ane ail) qn ain Oe) AR RENE RR RTT TS we RTs MM ANE aes wots So SP Ogi MS Sy TAS EL aRS Sia es ee eee ee Chemistry and Physics. 149 Pettersson and Humpidge, the pyramid $P. The authors think the analogy close between beryllium and zine, the latter being in all loaves holohedral.— Ber, Berl, Chem. Ges., xvii, 849, eS eee eS ae pret ee 150 Scientific Intelligence. to play the a part in the sa daa eae that inulin does in the composi t_was obtained from gts roots of Melandryum tals. On and a new w diffcultly crystallvabl sugar. The tn C. H,,0 is assigned to it ae the name lactosin.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xvii, Sik cor a 18 G. F. B. % 8. d of determining ~ Standard of Light adopted by j the Parte Coifeon —The International Conference lately held at Paris adopted as imacdusd of Ti ht the amount emitted by one aba centimeter of melting platinum at the point of solidificae ti Wr EMENS points out that the practical determin- ation of this unit is beset with difficulties, since platinum at the melting point readily takes up foreign substances which change : this melting point. He therefore recomm mends the use of the fol- Ss neo gir da aaa ann et Ns +o ae 26 co "3 08. 38 ee a Ba Bas ES os re me gop er Soe 209 4.0 eS eo re tae ‘3S, co ~~ o = BE & 5 ot > oo eS — 5 it om oo cP = = S <4 &o = Fy a3 ME: & The se point of a peat ee Air, and of Carbonse pes under atmospheric pressure.—M. S. Wropiewskt has show? that a fall of temperature of —186° C. can iy obtained by the ex- ee of ae oxygen. In continuing his work he discovered hat a hydrogen thermometer of small size could not be de Chemistry and Physics. 151 boils at a temperature corresponding to this pressure. M. blewski obtains the following results: Oxygen, boiling point —184° ©, Air, ct «“ —192°2° trogen, “ —193'1° Carbonic oxide, —193° On evaporating these gases in vacuo a temperature of —200° C. ca n be obtained. It results from the’ above that ordinary air li h to pass into the se ty already cooled when it will be Haniel and it can then .be allowed to flow out. This use of air involves no technical dificaltion and success depends only upon the mate- rial means at the disposal of the experimenter.— Comptes siserrer April 21, 1884. 2 The Beer ie of James Prescott Joule, LLD., etc. 657 pp. 8vo. London: 1884. (Taylor & Wantas —The Physical Society of London has done a most important work for the advancement of physical science in collecting and reprinting the papers of Dr. Joule, and thus putting them in convenient form for the use of students and workers. The im- portance and lasting value of Dr. Joule’s contributions to Physics are so well known that this oe cian must be at once received team. volume is soon to be followed by a second containing papers published by Dr. Joule in conjunction with other r men o ae 11. Whirlwinds, Cyclones and Tornadoes; by Writ1am M. — Davis. 90 pp. 16mo. Boston: 1880, (Lee & Bliepad: "The author has presented in this little volume (reprinted from Science) ti Scientific Intelligence. a brief but clear and readable pat ge of the er: of storms: The subject is one which now compels serious attention in certain parts of the country, and this concise exposition is consequently very opportune. II. Grotogy AND NaturAL History. 1. The ely’ sis Ag Maine ; by Groree H. Sronz, of Col- streams. During an exploration of Maine which continued for about five years, I had opportunity to examine many thousands of sections of the till throughout the greater part of the state. I have never found stratified or even water-classified material enclosed in this formation, except within a few miles of the coast, or so near to the surface as to leave the interpretation in doubt. Hundreds of miles’of the beds of the inland streams have been examined by me, and if water-washed material exists in the till in the interior of the state, it must be rare. But near the coast, as for instance 8 at Portland, one may see II es of sand nearly or quite surrounded by the unmodified till, the clayey till being in such con- trast with the clean, siliceous sand, that the difference in compo sietting of a glac e white color and porous structure of the surface ice of a lusts show where most of the melting takes place. This superficial water flows along the surface, or i ps wear and melt a deeper and deeper channel until it disappears dow some crevasse and becomes a sub-glacial stream. Modern lasiees show a difference in their glacial streams. Near the lower ex-_ . kent tremity almost allthe water is sub-glacial. The ice is so broke Bieta hse ae fea gree ee eee hap iets OS es FER SRB 2 i be Ro Ss ae at aR pe Rete le AY Pod NS OS age eae Ste eer non = > Ae ei eo ie ERB ae Rae Noe Geology and Natural History. 153 by crevasses that the melting waters almost immediately plouge to the bottom. But as we go backward toward es line of perpet- ual snow, where the ice is thicker and the melting less rapid, we find streams upon the a “oe length epeodins upon the extent of ice free from crevass How far do these ac ae a? represent those of the great glacier of eastern North Am ithout some limitation, it is doubtful if the nctulagited ‘of any modern glaciers, even of Greenland glaciers, can be admitted as valid in the case of the great ice-sheet. The Greenland glaciers do not wholly overlap lars ge areas like the great ice-sheet, but here _ and there peaks emerge from them which form crevasses and assist the waters to pass beneath the glacier. However, waiving these phiscitoda and admitting for the time that. the aa streams of our great glacier were as well developed as those of the Green- land glaciers of to-day, at the same time we must admit that the surface streams were as well developed. Now the ails ees the ice-sheet at a proper distance north from its term It. should be noted that this is the condition of the Contalana Ttaciade during a time of comparative stability, or, quite probably, of their slow increase in extent and depth. But what would happen during the final melting of the ice-sheet ? All substantially admit that this melting was ver rapid and that it took place upon a great width simultaneously, although the ice, being thicker toward the north and in a colder mean climate, would not become melted so cues as farther south. As elsewhere Big min a no southward mouon would be possible e- of hills. Nowhere except in the White Mountains have I found traces of glaciers following local valleys. Apparently, almost all flow ceased after the melting had so far proceeded that the hills appeared above the i ice, Unde er these conditions no new lines s of began toemerge. The melting t took place so rapidly, and the mo- o cial streams nabs reached the ground. he te t of the area of sub-glacial streams must have lain south of the ced coast-line. he “glacier Sar bi ah into the Gulf of Maine, and off its front ve probably numerous boiling springs of fre sh water, like those t the submerged extremitice of the Greenland glaciers. The ice 154 Scientific Intelligence. which was comune paper ce me lower part of the ice, then the kame-gravel began to gather the bottoms of their channels. Several of these 5 AS a ss -were a hundred or more miles long, as is shown by my map of the kames of Maine, published in the | Proceedings of the Association for 1880. Most of the kame-rivers have been described by me as probably sowing: in soanoole formed superficially on the ice, and that is my opinion still. coast these channels may originally nies been of sub-glacial origin. Northward there was a region where the drainage of the glacier was chiefly by surface channels which finally found their way ie neath the ice at the southern limit of this region. The final melt- ing of the great glacier took place largely at the surface, and this melting, together with the large rainfall, caused great "podies of formed sub-glacial channels fora part of their course, widening them until the ice-arch collapsed by its own weight. e may grant as great a development of sub-glacial streams in the ice-sheet as an one can reasonably consider is demanded the Greenland glaciers, and yet I cannot see how this "farnishes and also when the ice-flow had so far ceased as to make it ores above reasoning applies to Maine ouly. and other regions re to be studied by ineaealves, art of the reasoning will probably apply to most or all of the glaciated area of North rica, but with many differences in details, otes on Tertiary Shells; "by Orro Mares (Proc. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1884, p. Os) Me er, who is well versed in the onr. with Pleurotoma Volgeri Phil., of esi the same er range ve road; Saxicava bil ene Conr. with Saxicava aretica L., of wide distribution, and now living on both sides of the Atlantic; and confirms ’Heilprin’ is identification of Pleurotoma Fee So eS ee tan Geology and Natural History. 155 Beaumonti Lea with P. denticula Bast., after comparison with pecimens of the latter. r. Meyer also describes the new Claiborne species Tibiella Marshi, Bulla biumbilicata, Cadu- lus depressus. Mr. Meyer states further that in his opinion, and also Professor Verrill’s, Cadulus Pandionis of Verrill and Smith, from the western part of the Atlantic, is identical with Cadulus thallus named Dentalium thallus by Conrad, from the Miocene of - the Southern States ; and that if Jeffreys is right, this species is identical with Cadulus Olivi of Scacchi from the Pliocene of Sicily. It is to be hoped that Mr. Meyer may be able to continue his study of American Tertiary fossils. . The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota, 11th Annual Report, N. H. Wrxcuttt, State Geologist. 220 pp. _ 8vo. Minneapolis, 1884.—This report is occupied chiefly with a report on the minerals of the State by Mr. Winchell, on the erys- talline rocks by Messrs. A. Streng and J. H. Kloos, and on the glacial and related phenomena of the Winnipeg region (“ Lake Agassiz”) by Mr. Warren Upham. The first of the reports states that gold has been washed from the drift at Rochester, Oronoco, Spring Valley, Jordan, in Fillmore County, and at several points in Wabasha County, and has been announced as taken from the gravel at Willmar. 4. B. Lotti, of the Italian Geological Survey, on the origin of Tuscan Granite (R. Com. Geol. Italia).—Signor Lorri, of Pisa, reaches the conclusion that the Tuscan granite is largely of meta- morphic origin; that the granite, for example, of Mt. Capanne, on Elba, was formed largely at the expense of a rock which is “gneissic schist ” elsewhere, and that whilst the conversion of the rock into granite is general on the western side of Elba, it is only partial on the eastern. The reduction of the rock, as he observes, to a pasty state through the metamorphic process determined the formation of the granite, and also of veins of granite through its protrusion into fissures in the schistose rocks - Manual of the Mosses of North America; by Leo LEs- QUEREUX and THomas P, James. With six plates illustrating the Genera. Boston: S. E. Cassino & Co. 1884. pp. 447, post 8vo. —At length this much-needed and long-promised volume is in the hands of botanists and students, and the department of Bryology, So far as concerns the orders of the Peat-Mosses, Schizocarpous Mosses and True Mosses, is provided for. As long ago as the year 1848, and so far as relates to the Northern United States, Some provision was made for their study, in the first edition of Gray’s Manual, by a contribution from Mr. Sullivant, the founder of bryological study in this country. And when, in 1856, that — work passed to a second edition, about 100 pages of this were eee This con- tribution, also separately issued in a small edition, did excellent Service. It was thought best to drop these lower Cryptogamia ~ 156 | Scientific Intelligence. from later editions of the Manual, on the understanding that Mr. Sullivant, on the completion of his sumptuous Jcones Muscorum, would prepare a synopsis of all the North American Mosses, But early in the year 1873, just as this accomplished bryologist was setting himself to the task, he was taken away by an attack of pneumonia. The authorship of this work was to be shared with his associate and near friend, Mr. Lesquereux. But Mr. from time to time snatch some moments for bryology. hen the time arrived in which he could seriously give himself to this work, his eyesight was so impaired that he could seldom use the microscope. He now solicited the sod pbration of the late Mr. ames, an acuté bryologist, who, being comparatively free from oO engagements, could devote himself to the 7 investigation and popes of Mosses, in which he had long ept. this impor tant accessio on the Pee Me Mr. Sullivant’s five Soorecabbes of the Mosses are well repro- duced by transfer from the coppers, and a sixth is added for the gamous botany. We may hope that this loss of a sense of a ortion—a malady insidlent to specialists—will some day medied, and that genera in Mosses will again be Gieracteraal the cells of a leaf. It wou ve been well to have marked the principal accent of the generic and specific nam But we will not find fault with a work for which we cannot be too thankful Let us rather felicitate the venerable and sole survivor of our four bryologists, Sullivant, Lesquereux, James and Austin, upon this worthy conclusion of ‘his labors; and let us hope that, under the oo 5 Qu = ne So -_ mw a be] =) me oO p cr 4 a es 'S et oS fas) a} 9°] & ) o -2 mh iS) — S et a wee "™m "5 > hic new generation of bryologists may spring up. This is sae a matter of hope, re fo of si 6. Synopsis of the Genera of Vaseular Plants in the vied of San Franeiseo, wtih an attempt to Sora them according to Evolutionary Principles » ; by H. H. Bear, M.D. San Francisco : Payot, Upham & Co. 1884. pp. 165, : aaeatD be genera of a Geology and Natural History. AGF he gener. chiefly from “ Dr. Asa Gray’s Flora Californiensis.” The title of a. A. G. 8. Contributions to the Flora of North Patagonia; by Joun Batt, F.R.S., ete—An article in the Journal of the Linnean Soci- ety, vol. xxi (1884), founded on a collection made by an amateur, M. Claraz, a Swiss gentleman; to which is prefixed some interest- Ing remarks on the climate and indigenous botany of the region. “The most remarkable feature in the flora of this region is its extreme poverty. ... Putting together all that has been col- lected and published in Europe, I doubt whether more than 300 i can be said to be certainly known to grow South of the Rio Colorado. . . . It is certain that the extreme urther, it may remarked that the soil of t alleys must exhibit a sufficient degree of moisture, of constituents, and of ex- lished ther position to favor the development of many species not yet estab- here. Y “Still less can I admit the severity of the climate as an expla- 158 Miscellaneous Intelligence. cannot grow and thrive, but because the only country from which they could have been derived—tropical and sub- -tropical South America—could not supply species to suit the soil and climate. So it happened in Patagonia—raised from the sea during the lat- est geological period, and bounded on ‘the west by a great moun- © tain range mainly clothed with an alpine flora requiring the pro- tection of snow in winter, and the north by a warm temperate to be accounted for, less by any special fitness of the immigrant species, than by the fact that the ground is to a great extent un- occupied. The published list adds two or in to the considerable number of species in temperate South America—especially on the eastern side—which are ddectivel with temperate North American ss G. 9. Change of the generic name si hig by AL van C. Sroxres, M.D. (Communicated.)—In the July number of this was preoccupied. As a change is necessary I substitute the wo Notosolenus (varos, back; “olny , groove), the eae cies then standing Wotosolenus apocamptus ai N. orbiculari Trenton, N. J Ill. MisceLLANEous ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. historie man in Egypt and Syria; by Dr. Dawson. (Proceedings of the Victoria Philosophical Institute of London, ay, 1884.)—In dealing with his subject, Dr. Dawson remarked that, great interest — to eek remains which, in emir before t that the flint thus to be found irywhers has been, and still is, used for the manufacture of flakes, knives and other ine gir These, as is well known, were used for many purposes by the ancient Egyptians, and in modern times gunflints and strikelights an continue to be made. The débris of worked flints found on he surface is thus of little value as an indication of any flint-folk aieniaing the old wet tigers It would be otherwise if flint imple sik’ ments could be found in the older gravels of the country. pee S34 ; ioe Oe Re hs NN, a el eee Oe 4 iat ; by : y AS 2 Sy x SS i of 2 < “2 : oa a ge es Se a ee See Miscellaneous Intelligence. 159 of these are of Pleistocene age, and belong to a period of partial submergence of the Nile Valley. Flint implements had be alleged to be found in these gravels, but there seemed to be no good evidence to prove that they are other than the chips broken by mechanical violence in the removal of the gravel by torrential action. In the Lebanon, numerous caverns exist. ese were divided into two classes, with reference to their origin; some being water-caves or tunnels of tabula go rivers, others sea- caves, excavated by the waves when the country was at a side level than at present. Both kinds have eck occupied b n, and some of them undoubtedly at atime anterior to the aisiods cian occupation of the country, and even at a time when the ani- mal inhabitants and geographical features of a Ligeti were differ- ent from those of the present day. They were thus of various ages, ranging from the post-Glacial or Aneavian period to the time of the Phenician occupation. Speaking as a geologist, from a purely geological point of view, and from a thorough exami- nation of the country around, there was no doubt but what there was conclusive evidence that between the wa of the first oceu- pation of these caves by men—and they were men of a splendid physique—and the appearance of the early Pen isiani inhabitants ~ of the land, there had been a vast submergence of land, and a ih catastrophe, aye a stupendous one, in which even the cota ranean had been altered fron a small sea to its present siz illustration of this, the caverns at the Pass of Nahr-el-Kelb and at nt Elias were described in some detai 1, and also, in connection were probably of much less antiquity than those of the more ancient caverns. Dr. Dawson’s address was illustrated by flint hp ees and bones collected by him during his recent tour in 2. New England Meteorological Society.—This society has recently been organized in Boston withthe aim of advancing the Science of meteorology and ésiniring into codperation the many observers and students of the weather in New En gland. At the whether they can take in the work of ieivation or other- Neel ok Support to its bibets, are invited to send their names t Davis, Secretary, Cambridge, Mass. Tranisetiond. Vol. 1.—The Royal iety of Canada consists of 3. Royal Society of Canada, 1882 and 1883. Proceedings an BS gal Miscellaneous Intelligence. : a four sections. I, French Literature, History and allied subjects; II, English Literature, History and allied subjects; III, Mathe matical, Physical and Chemical sciences; IV, Ge ological ae Biological sciences, is first volume contains 16 papers in section I, 9 in section II, 24 in section IIT and 24 in section YW, showing great scientific activity in the academy during its first two years. Some of the papers have already been noticed in this serait : Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. xvi, 1882.—Mr. A. : Baa oe een in this volume the Deniliquin or Baratta meteorite. H. Tenison-Woods is disposed to refer the extensive sandstone formation, of eastern Australia, named the Ha wkesbury ? , 1849) t ee author a Mesozoic fossils from Palmer River, Queensland. Mr. H. C. Russell has a paper on eer alas illustrated by maps. s Reports on Cotton, E. W. Hilgard, Special Agent in charge: a Gotaeal Discussion of the Cotton Production in the United States, by E. W. (2) On the gate Production and Agricultural features of Mississippi and Lou- isiana, by E. W ae, aden int Agricultural features of California, with a Somber: I he f Cotton production in ee oo also Remarks Uutdare =r New ‘akaaiog Utah, Arizona and Mexico, by 'Dr. E. W. Hilgard. _ (4) On the Cotton Production and Agricultu a features of Georgia, Texas, A — 2 the Indian Territory, by Dr. R. H. Lot sidan Special Census some a cot 3 : 5 ec) OT eg PE ON Site eo ee a” Ce Oe. Oe ee a ee er nny oe es eH > Ss bo S = B25 (=) = So BS a = for) b> og = hd Q es = oa SS =, ee b=] oe. r=! ber j oO na ° = pa > . ts) B Ss ) J Qa | S te by Dr. Figen A A. Smith, Special Census Agent. Geological and “Mineral Studies in Nuevo Leon “8g Coahuila; by Dr. Persifor Frazer. 7836 Pp. 8vo, with maps. Philadelphia, 18 a ypes of A Aw us readily reduces to the known form a’ +b? > 2ab. Moreover since a’?+0’—2ab= ie b)*, the error increases with the difference between the coefficven Now, in the general case, if we suppose the original radiation L to be composed before absorption, of any number of parts A,, A, A, +... having respectively the coefficients of absorption a,,4,, a, +... the true value of L is at by a series of fractions which may be written in the for f= send OFA whereas the value of the geri energy by the suntan formula would be = (Aa)? = 2 Ao so that, all the quantities being positive, by a known i this i and for the same values of A,, inequality is Spe she Lees the difference in the values of | the uaoresa meee the radiations of which the light (or heat) of the star or sun is composed, and also that the amount by which the true values are “hate a with the difference between the coefficients. tated above that the usual hypothesis makes t sbéfiicient of eg sth gis a constant. It will be seen from the above table, however, that it varies from one stratum to the next; that it is least ‘when obtained by observations near the zenith ; and that it increases progressively as we approach A the horizon. For since a and 5 are each less than unity, each the sums Aa+Bi, etc., in the above table is less than the pre ceding. It is also evident that their rate of diminution - eat ek ‘ eas ¢ x S. P. Langley—Atmospheric Absorption. ae decreases as we approach the horizon, since Aad’— Aa’ > Ad’—Aa* Bo’?— Bs’? > BL*— Bd‘. Hence (Aa’= Bd’) — (Aa*— Bod’) > (Aa’ + Bd*)— (Aat + Bd‘). Consequently the difference between the numerators of two ‘successive ratios, such as Aa’ + BB’ Aa‘ + Bd Ad +Be S Aas Be is less than that of their denominators. In other words, although both numerator and denominator decrease in success- ive ratios, the ratios themselves increase progressively, and a similar demonstration applies to the form Ad +Bo? _ /Aa’+Bb"\ Aa+Bs ~ \Act+Bo)” But these ratios are the coefficients of transmission in question. gain, a simple inspection of the form of the expression, Aad’— Aa’ > Aa’— Aa‘ Be’? — Bo? > BS'— Bo shows that what is there demonstrated for two numbers and two coefficients A, a, and B, 6, is true for any number, even — Infinite, which is the case we deal with in actual observation. __It is then universally true that when the numbers are pos- SUVO, ANG GD Oe eo. proper fractions A Aa*t1 + Bott! 4+Co"'t1 4+ Dd*ti+ 2... mt Aa +Bé" +Cc® +Dd" + —_Aatt® 4 Bort? 4. Cert? 4 Dd"t24 2... Sagi + BS tt = Cett + Dd*tt + 2 ee and hence universally true, that when the separate coefiicients of transmission are positive and less than unity (as is the case in Nature), the general coefficient of transmission in the cus- tomary exponential formula is, 1) never a‘ constant, and (as determined from the customary formula) (2) always too large, (3) always larger and larger as we approach the horizon. ) The original light or heat of the heavenly body as found by the photometric and actinometric processes, and the form- ulze, in universal use, 7s always too small, a conclusion which | we have just reached by another method. The above demonstration does not tell us in how greata degree this coefficient is too large, and for aught we have here yet shown, the error may be practically negligible. : Since the method ordinarily employed demonstrably gives too small results, the burden of proof might seem to rest on 172 ee of Langley—Atmospheric Absorption. those who — employ it, who might now with propriety be asked to show that the continued use of methods and formule, certainly in some degree inaccurate, does not lead to an error at least as great as the total absorption in question. This has never been done. ere is a common assumption that if there were any considerable error, its results would become apparent in such numerous observations as have been made all over the world in stellar photometry and solar actinometry during this century, since in these observations of stellar magnitudes, for in- stance, two stars whose relative magnitudes are positively known, give results closely agreeing with the ordinary formula when one is near the zenith and the other near the horizon. At firs this looks almost like evidence that there can be no great wail in the determination of absolute magnitudes by the ordinary formula, and yet this apparent proof is Seagnietrably a fallacy It is certainly a specious one, but it is absolutely demonstrable that the error might be enormous—that the actual absorption sche be, for instance, 50 per cent instead of 20, without this gross discrepancy being detected by our present modes of obser- vation. As the present methods are known to give, as 1 have just said, values in substantial agreement (within three or four per cent) from independent observations made at very different _ altitudes of the sun or star, the proof of nen last statement may well be demanded, and I er on to give error but maintain that it is covieile is that since we do know that O:N=N:M very nearly, therefore N N:M=M:% very nearly, or in other words that if observation proves that oo within three or four per cent, we are entitled to assume 2 that there is only a like small error in writing X= We can make the fallacy of the preceding gen most obvious by first considering a particular case. Let the original energy be divided into any number of parts A, B, OC, etc., eacd with its own coefficient a, 0, c, etc., so that Aa +Bb +Ce + Dd +++4+KkA +Li ete.=M Aa@’+ Be? +Ce?+Dda’?++4+KF+L7 ete. =N Aad’ + Bb +Ce*°+De?+ + +KA°+LI° ete. =O etc., ete., etc. ~ ks Langley— Atmospheric Absorption. 173: We have only to assume that &, J, etc., are sufficiently near ‘zero (so that K, L and all other rays affected with such coeffi- cients sensibly vanish before they reach the observer), to see- that the only quantities sensible to observation are those with relatively large coefficients as A, B, 0, D, ete., so that now Aa +Bb +Ce +Dd +ete.=M ; Aa’ + BO’ + Ce’ + Dd’ + ete. =N Aad + Bb? +Ce*+ Dd’ +etc. =O From these values M, N, O, etc., it is plain that we can never estimate the amount of the extinguished rays K, L, etc., since these do not enter into the observed values by any amount sensible at all. Now to the rays A, B, ©, D, etc., which remain, and to their coefficients, we may evidently assign any values consistent with the conditions, which shall make the. difference between — and N N - 5 3 small as we please, for in the equations Aa +Bb +Ce +Dd +ete, Aa’+Bo*'+Cc?+Dad'+ete._1, Aa’ + Ba? + Ce? + Dd? + etc. Aa’ + Bd’ + Ce? + Dd* + etc. the conditions actually are, in inferring it from the ordinary formula, we must now consider more narrowly how this tellu~ 174 S. P. Langley—Atmospheric Absorption. ric absorption takes place. I have already spoken of the general, or non-selective absorption, whose extreme type is the scattering of light by large dust-particles in a sun-beam, and now proceed to consider the other typical extreme, which is that of purely selective absorption. I have here some photographs* which I owe to the kindness -of Professor Rowland of Baltimore, in which we have a por- tion of the spectrum near D, photographed when the sun was -on the meridian, and a second photograph of the same limited portion at about half-past three in the afternoon, when the air- mass traversed was only about one-half greater. Notice, nevertheless, the immense difference caused by the growth of telluric lines in this short interval. There is scarcely a hair’s breadth of the plate, which they have not invaded. is true the whole spectrum is not so densely crowded with them, as this region is, and yet, broadly speaking, we may say that almost the entire spectrum is visibly filled with telluric lines, in all but juxtaposition, just before sunset. What is a telluric line? A very narrow, black and cold region, where the absorption has already done its full work, or which is at any rate so black and so cold, that it can grow very little blacker or colder. The extinction of the ray here 1s ack. ut in fact we do see parts of them distinctly black cor- rect our ideas with advantage, by the study of these admirable * Not given here. _ = +See also the important observations by Professor Smythe on Teneriffe. S. P. Langley—Atmospheric Absorption. 175. photographs, of which I will only observe, that when they were taken, the air-mass at noon was 1°09 and in the afternoon, 1°60, so that all this increase of telluric lines, came with a very little tes a of the absorbing air, and is but a small part of at we sbould see nearer sunset. Evidently the noon spec- ur oat be less bright, not only for the telluric lines dis- tinctly seen, but for those indistinctly seen individually, or latent on which come out as separate individual lines when the sun is lower. It results from what has just been onid, then, hundreds of these alternations (and necessarily too small), and yet more than this, that the smallest part included in the field of the experiment, whether the telluric lines are sepa- rately visible, or whether they are only latent there, is filled with alternations of transmission and absorption, and therefore, according to our previous demonstration, the mean result, even when obtained by a linear esa or bolometer, anya still indicate too feeble an eed te I speak now only of the Zero. e previous criticism applies then, though in a less tig to the rt investigations where two or three coefficients een , and even to investigations with the linear the linear bolometer ; but even ‘this strip, when laid down ina considerably dispersed spectrum, covers more than the distance between the D lines; and if we fix our attention on that well - nown region as a type, we see that this hair-like line itself covers in this narrow interval alone, at least a dozen alternations between brightness and almost total extinction, so that though in respect to wave-lengths we may be said to measure approxi- to this local absorption, we do not. I am convinced -that we do not know what this absorption really is in amount, but T 176 jo Langley—Atmospherio Absorption. think we can now begin to see somewhat of what it is in kind, and may be prepared to agree that the data in the Mcrae table (table IT) may represent numerically the pro- portions of nature, with a certain approximation. In this table (II) we have certain numerical results consequent on the approximative hypothesis that the total heat in sun or star is ‘divided into a certain finite — of parts, each one of which has its own rate of absorptio Here the radiant energy blond absorption is supposed to be divided into ten parts, A, B,C,.......... J, each hay- ing its separate coefficient of transmission a, 6, etc., an arrange- ment which may be taken to represent some sort of adumbra- tion of the complexity of nature’s problem, and the method of her work. It is given here only in illustration of the kind and degree of the errors induced by use of the usual formulas, — however, be incidentally observed that these values do typify the facts, with a certain approximation to the real values of nature, for. “pe fae are obtained by approximate sae on of equations of the fo Aa + Bd en +Dd +Ee etec.=M Ad + BO’ + Ce? + Dd* + Ee’ ete.=N Aa’ + Bb’? + Ce*® + Dd* + Ee® ete. =O The first column is the inal intensity before absorption. {We have in this baits sso for simplicity, suppo — ate '€ se ati ae aS i SM Be a RRS ee eat ea ena Fale teh ee 5: = er oe “pe ee oe 6 eee Ss 4 Dg ae ae 8. P. Langley—Atmospheric Absorption, ‘177. Ae BeOS oak .= J =1, though this condition is not necessary. It will be observed, however, that under it in the second column Aa = a, Bb = b, ete., so that the coefficients ©o f sranataiasion, the ratios of each geometric progression, are the same in this particular column, as the intensity after absorption.) TABLE II. aE IL. +E; IV. ag Original intensity Observed intensity suansgrl t Ayia Observed intensity! Observed intensity (oeroeaa) Be one after aban after four unknown. “naa rettoe sorptio n A, B, G, ete. ae Bb, Ce, ete. |Aa?,Bb?, Cc’, etc.| Aa®, Bb, Cc’, ete.| Aa’, Bb4, Cc4, ete. 1 ‘OL “0001 000 -0000 1 ¢ ‘O1 001 “0001 1 2 04 008 ‘0016 1 6 36 216 1296 ] 4 49 343 2301 1 iN 49 343 2301 1 8 64 512 4096 1 a) “81 729 "6561 1 ‘9 ‘81 “129 *6561 1 10 1:00 1:000 1:0000 J0= poo 4°65= 3-881 = 3°3143= A+B+ete. Aa+Bb+ete. |Aa?+Bb?+etc. | Aa*+ Bb +eic. | Aat+ B-dt + etc. ee =M =N =0 =P If we determine the coefficients of transmission from a com- parison of IT and III, we have a= 7893 7 O\5 if from II and IV, we have (x) ='812; if from II and V, we have (5 ¥_.g05 and the corresponding mean absorptions are N O\4 P\} laa = = (2)? =o —(— )* =0175. yO?) 1 (x) 07188, 1 (5) 0175 So that all our observations at very different altitudes are in substantial agreement in indicating an absorption of from 18 to 21 per cent, while yet all our inferences from them are quite ie f we observed by some method which discriminated between ve different radiations of which the heat or light is core we should have from the observations in columns IJ and IIL A Bé)* C . 5 ee Aemeon... 5 « GY 4 CO « sale ‘01 “| : 0 “0001 Re 01 + at etc. ee =4¢ x 178 S. P. Langley—Atmospheric Absorption. (the true value) while the ordinary and erroneous method, which does not discriminate, gives Sano y L(ASL Bb HOOF. ot ot "Aa? +Bo7+Cei+ .... ive the most favorable case for the observer, where (what is rarely or never actually possible), he begins his obser- vation with the sun or star in the zenith, in a sky so change- lessly serene that he may continue them up to a point where — = 17.5 nearly. a photometer or actinometer. The successive values of the absorption thus found by comparing a zenith observation with three successively lower altitudes, are 21 per cent, 19 per cent, 18 per cent. All agree much within the probable error of actual observation, as ob- servers conversant with this matter will readily admit, and yet the true value is all the while 5.9 iG oP or 41 per cent. It will have been noticed in fact, that the determinations of this absorption-coefficient by various observers already cited, differ among themselves as much as these values do from each other, and if these conditions represent those of nature, the result must be in practice, that years of observation will be accordant in giving the wholly wrong absorption of from 19 ‘to 224 per cent, and that the actual minute systematic dis- crepancies pointed out by our theory, and which are signifi- ant of some error in the formula, would probably remain long undetected. While the observer, then, we admit, has strong apparent evidence from the close agreement of his obser- vations, that if there be an error in his formula, it is practl- cally negligible, yet this evidence according to our demonstra- tion is fallacious, and the actual error, as appears from the numerical illustration, may well exceed double the amount im question, for the above values might be increased without imposing any conditions but such as it may be reasonably assumed are those of nature. The writer believes the actual mean absorption of sun and star-light to be not improbably over 40 per cent, at the sea level ; but were the stars alone in question, the fact would have but little importance, since their relative magnitudes (unless S. P. Langley—Atmospheric Absorption. 179 considerable color is present) remain nearly the same with the false hypothesis as with the true one, and it is with their rela- tive magnitudes that the student of stellar photometry is chiefly concerfed, for he desires to know their relative brightness at the zenith rather than their absolute brightness outside the atmosphere. ° ith the sun, however, it is otherwise, for here it is the absolute heat or light which is in question. Accordingly, when we apply our above conclusions either to problems of solar physics or of meteorology, the result is of an altogether different importance. Almost all the phenomena of meteorology would become predictable if we knew how much heat reaches the soil, and how much, and in what altered kind, is returned to outer space. To solve these problems we must know how much is absorbed by our atmosphere; and there are further reasons, independent of those cited, for believing that this may be more than double what is commonly supposed. It may be observed that the comparison of observations at ‘the base and summit of a very high mountain will enable us to obtain much better determinations than the method of high such observations I have been led independently of theory to ‘conclude that the absorption is greater than is commonly sup- posed. But beside this method, which is in reach of but few, there is another at the command of all, the significance of whose results seems to have been hitherto overlooked. If we are willing to agree that most of the solar heat is not absorbed by our air in the sense of being accumulated there {since this would heat the atmosphere to the condition of a glowing gas) we must, it’seems to me, admit that it is mainly diffused toward and away from us by particles, so that nearly Say that they seem to show not only that the average amount of blue light (to speak for the moment of blue light only) which * See the investigation of Tyndall on the cause of the blue color of the sky, Proc, Roy. Soc., vol. xvii, p. 223. See also the theoretical investigations of Clausius. Poggendorf Annalen, vol. exxix, p. 330, et seg., and o Rayleigh, ; £0 p. London, Edinburgh and Dublin Phil. Mag., Feb., 1871, e¢ seq. Am. Jour. Sci.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XXVIII, No. 165.—Supt., 1884. 12 180 8. P. Langley—Atmospheric Absorption. is thus scattered from an ordinary pure and cloudless sky at. the sea level, already represents a selective absorption of very much over 40 per cent of the original blue in the direct sun- light; but that also the mean diffusion is, though less than this, still probably over 40 per cent, and hence that to obtain the _ actual light of sun or sta¥ before absorption, we must proba- bly add over 40 per cent to the observed value. To make the propriety of this last statement clear, it may be observed that if there were bright clouds in the sky, we should have (as we know by experience) more light from the clouds, than from an equal portion of the blue, but that in this case, our observing station would gain the added light at the expense of those portions of the earth which were in the clouds’ shadow, and in this case, therefore, we should not be justified in adding the light we receive to the observed sunlight to obtain that be- fore absorption. But with a uniform sky, it follows’ that every point on the horizon enjoys the same sunshine that we do, at a our own station; and here it is evident that if the atmos» ae were taken entirely away, the sun would grow brighter y all the light which the atmosphere now sends us, and, in — fact, by more, since this atmosphere is scattering light not — selectively borrowed from the direct solar rays. ~ a Vila tee H. A. Hazen— Tornadoes. 181 oo Art. XXITI.—Tornadoes ; by Henry A. Hazen. “THE true tornado,” says R. H. Scott, ‘occurs off the west coast of Africa and is identical with the arched squall of other * waters.” This restrictive definition of a tornado is not accepted generally in the United States, where it is applied to an intense, seemingly local, outburst, ordinarily preceded by a funnel- shaped cloud, having a rapid rotation and a more or less slow up-and-down movement. The better designation would un- doubtedly be “ whirlwind,” but the term tornado has become so — well understood that it hardly seems wise to attempt a change. e importance of a proper study and a good knowledge of the forces, which underlie the formation of a tornado, will be ee oe ee er ee) Pe ee ae ae a fo | Og Ree | YE aS Ne ‘ se iC ig aa Mi on e Yuna Pratt eon 5 i$ ss = co o @ 4 © MD cr o es 5 TM er > Ce ra n Son & re) ie) 5 © = jo} kx | o ct =. e) oe aut XY n © cr pa a Qu Net o ba) 5 or eS te oD 95 Se | as already recommended, some more general means be em- __ ployed for destroying or diminishing the force of the storm as _ it approaches a large city. Such an idea may seem chimerical ; ae One eee t is the object of this paper, first, to set forth some of the ordinary theories that are advanced for explaining the origin and development of these outbursts; secondly, to show some of _ the seeming difficulties in these theories; and thirdly, to point out _ a few of the characteristics of these outbursts and to attempt to show lines of investigation upon which.a further advance may be _ Made toward a true knowledge of the forces eae them. Unfortunately, their origin is involved in much obscurity, due in part to a lack of observation of the conditions imme- diately preceding the sudden and destructive manifestations. _ The following quotations from authorities will suffice to show some of the views at present entertained. One writer says: | _ “The inward rush of winds toward a depressed center is the _ cause of our thunder-storms, which are only infant cyclones and tornadoes. The whole country for 500 miles square from the Missouri to the Ohio valley is covered with a mass of warm moist ote 182 HH. A. Hazen— Tornadoes. air flowing northward. At numerous spots in this region this acquires an upward motion, thereby giving rise to local upward currents of air which cool rapidly as they rise. The cooling is a mechanical result of the expansion of the rising air and very soon a temperature is reached low enough to condense clouds from the hitherto invisible moisture. With the formation of clouds, the tendency to rise increases, so that in fact an upward ~ suction is experienced under the clo ud and more air is drawn in from all sides to feed this suction.” “ Whatever causes a sudden uprush of moist air ota to the formation of the cloud or the tornado. Hills or low mountains are very effective. But it is equally aR to consider the cool dry air that flows from the north toward a low center and becomes a west wind as it turns around the low, runs into the mass of warm moist air coming from the south, and being denser, underruns and lifts up this warm air and is _ in many eases more effective than a mountain in starting the formation of a cloud and local storm and often more than one Boassd feet in ace begins a rotary motion, rises at the center and passes a It is probable that theories upon the effect peg the got ’s ies fs upon the lower atmosphere have been at fault. It assumed that “ this heat is developed in certain central ae of greatest heat.” It is ordinarily considered also that the heat The effect of the sun’s heat may be considered as follows: the stratum of air nearest the earth will first be heated an > = H.. A. Hazen— Tornadoes. 183 gentle convection currents set: in motion, these will heat the next stratum, and so on his is the explanation given by Prof. Hann of Vienna, who futhermore considers the formation of cumulus cloud in summer to be due to the action of vapor immediately at a height where the dewpoint is reached, but that no great interchange of air . from the lower to the upper atmosphere will take place from the action of heat alone. : gain, the evaporation and condensation of moisture are advanced as important factors; it is stated for example: “ Of great importance is the action of vapor, as a great storehouse of solar energy, required in the process of its evaporation, gener- ally known as ‘latent heat,’” and “condensation is attended with the production of just as much heat energy as was lost in the process of evaporation.” Admitting for a moment that a warm vapor-laden current of air has found its way to some height above the earth, where is the evidence that a condensation will produce any more forcible effect than would have been noted ing would produce any sudden display of orce. The fact that efforts at a computation of the probable liberation of energy arising from such action have given most Iverse results, with even an absolute denial of any sudden release of energv, shows that such an hypothesis must be accep- ted with caution and should be supported by indubitable prac- tical tests, on it a storm-center. Through the center of this draw a line from southwest to northeast and we shall find on the north- | 184 ’ H. A. Hazen— Tornadoes. west side low temperature and cold and dry northwest winds, due to an advancing high area. On the southeast side, however, now tracks upon the map we shall find them in the region to the southeast, and generally hundreds of miles from the storm- center, where there are no northerly winds. A critical study of tornado tracks upon a weather map will develop these points in nearly every instance. , eae cae there are in the tornado region higher temperatures in the north than in the south, and very seldom will there be a lowering of temperature from sout to north any greater than the constant difference due to the difference in latitude. Again, there seems to be a disposition to advance some gen- eral and sweeping theories about cold or hot winds underrun- ning hot or cold winds, ete. It may said that, in a condition of equilibrium, the cooler air must flow beneath and, at all times there would be a more or less insensible diffusion of the two masses. It would seem difficult to asp niga in this way for the definite formation of a tornado aacied ae advance dip- c selected for this paper pele -one of the tornadoes Rescrited in Sergeant (now Lieut.) Finley’s paper, “Characteristics of 600 tornadoes,” also published by the Weather Bureau. Before the tracks were projected upon the maps, every tornado having special destructive action and at the same time a fairly well determined note of time, was tabulated and of these none were pe out in the final result. Tornadoes between Sepiecober, 1872, nd September, 1879, have alone been considered. ae ae rie 185 H. A. Hazen—Tornadoes. ‘pura qysou ON 4 “193099 JO “Buoy puv “yey y 97-60 | 009 | ‘A'S 'M'S | 00F sol “HSS osy [mw dos's ‘91, ‘9 ounr] 116 | 8.8¢ |°""""""""-~ BUBy “OO oUTTER 1r-6% | 002 ‘MS B'S OFZ sel “H'S'S) = 098 «=m dogg ‘91, ‘9 Avy] 3-68 | 8-LE |” SIL OD AIVIO “49 ‘oTBpuoquEy - 1¥-6% | fouou "M'S B'S 01 Gel aS os, |m-dor's ‘gn, ‘92 dy] 9.18 | 6-1F SIL ‘oso £9.62 | 008 "MS P'S OLS 98 aS o9¢ ‘ad «‘g),‘0¢ 300] 8.4L | &-TF vq ‘ploy 09-62 | OIF "M'S B'S 068 eet 8‘HS ~~ OTS |mdoz, ‘gy,‘¢ “Bny! 1.88 | 9-16 BIT] ‘ynvuouio'T GL-66 | 066 ‘SP M'S OOT eel aS oce ‘mde ‘Qh ‘gz Amel ¢.gn | g.6g [7777777 Ee ON “OED Ulereg pS-66 | 06E "MS og! O8T Ss ocr jm dor, ALT ‘er Ame] 0.7L | SF [7-77 CAN ‘SUtOg 190M 09-6% ‘aN oot ee ee: ‘md ‘oy, ‘21 ounf] 6.66 | §.TF “ION ‘vqeUG TP-62 0gE a’S 9 "M'S Olt cH HANa ORS md ‘go, ‘pT outs) 7.16 | 6-68 7°" 72°-- 77" 77 Ae 18-66 | fouou am Ss ost ost ‘N'S OT9 ‘md ‘92, ‘tT. ounr| 2.98 | 8-16 ["* ‘puy “og ydesor ag 01-66 + N OZ1 20 «= MSS 009 ‘md ‘gy, ‘T ARN] £88 B.bE ‘Sst ‘GoypNy r0-63 | OLY 081 oct.) HS 06 md = ‘hy, ‘2 AON) 6-98 | T-€8 Bry ‘op[BacquoW_ ore feuou | “Wl a ols 008 set - HS. . 009 "wl . PL. Ol ps 0.68 | 8-1F SIL ber yee 09% 206- “M'S'S 089 “Ul * @ ‘8n £ CP ‘A ‘N ‘Aoa FF-6% | -ouou ‘US 2's 00P ssl ‘a'S'S 099 ‘urd se a4 bene qe “tt Ra Anenees > voi “oy aaees OL-63 | 02% ‘aS OFI clit Sa ot ‘ud ‘F1,', “ady| 9%6 0.%8 wry] “OD oyogecT 91-62 09% WSF “Ss 012 SIE WSa OLt me p Ply ‘ah SOR) 608 | oe ~-"" STI] ‘oareg 09-63 | 029 ‘A'S 029 8c “M'S'S O08F ‘ut “d § ‘EL, ‘62 OUNL) 1-16 | 9-68 suvy “OD pno[y Pee oy ¥e : = 00% ocr. . WS. oF: (a bal G ‘Gh. ‘62 a #026 | x€-1F |B] ‘8,09 uoysuryes mM F YNY0Oy “y q ‘AS P's 009 ontt =. O'S... 089 "ur d'¢ ‘Gy, ‘8 “3dog] 8-08 | 6-98 |" -""" -'0 “N ‘opopegD “1aj090 “paLa ‘Nn andniG *so|TUI UT ; omenonr |'souvysrer’| T89C spars — [OLSEN] Doe on (wort) oourrsig | MOH eee | Peek | won ‘aTAV T, H. A. Hazen—Tornadoes. 186 OF-6% eee ae hea een 69% lvl “A .68'S esr suvoy, €£-62 | Og ‘M'S?'S OZ ssl ‘AS 027 ea oh ‘€ “dog OLE) Sa6 ae er ‘Buyadg Apueg Fae | 08 ARS a ee oe weeaeat ar can ft) PR Le ee OF-6% oge SR H'S OFZ 06 “oT : 09% «jad og'e ‘Gh, ‘og Avy] ¢.F6 | 6.86 [777777 “77 OW, ‘HUIMINg BOOT 62-63 | 009 ‘SP 'M'S 00 O81 ‘Ss ocr |m-dog'e ‘61. ‘62 Avy] 8.66 | 3-0F OW ‘paeuaeg _LP-63 ag ‘aS P'S OZ Gel aS 07g jm ‘doy coe ‘OT = B08 7 OCB eo et a a ‘010q101[0 M rece ‘ON PO 00T cel aS OF; ‘ul 61, ‘91 ‘Ady! 8.96 | 8g |-777" ae 5 ae ee OSE. 1. oot ‘aN PN Oot 00 MSS «(09T m ‘d oF Z ‘6h. ‘VL ady 6-06) Lies: 277" “SUT “ortasaytop ¥S-6% 09% “MSB'S 06 89 ANA oc€ |u'd ogee ‘8h. '8 “O] Gel | &8h |°~~~ “BI “OD sour ‘oleouuoyy 87-62 | 008 ‘A'S 8 091 ch ‘aN 008 ‘md % ‘8h, ‘G1 9005) 6-12 | LE [7777 "BA ‘BOULY JOAO(T IVON OF-6% 00€ "MS B'S oc O8t "g OSF ‘md 9 ‘Bh. ‘6 ‘Sny| 6-01 | ¢-IF uUoR) ‘paozsurTTe AA 62-62 OLS "M'S2'S 06 GP aN 062 |wm d 08's BL, ‘9% fue Ctl | B89 i. *: ‘AN ‘pionavy yynog F9-62 oce eg 004 OST g vad ‘ard @ ‘gn, ‘91 Aime] &.F6 | 9.88 [77°77 7777 77" OME “OD YEO ZE-6 OFE “aS 09 “A'S OgT CEL 1S 009 1 Gi, ‘Se Aen 188 | 6.48 octet? “S[]] ‘uo.Sullaeg pat | “ber a8 ae -biany Gagen bon beets x ak ee) ee ag [scree = a OND : : ie c ‘S'S 00F [me oI" ‘5 -68 pe eta pace ror 2 SS One 0£-62 OSt “MST 'S 0zF esl. ‘a's Ott “UL "B ‘g 1, dt 6011 ORE [ects ‘ON ‘oy[tAoyoseyy -G1-62.| O61 ASR 'S 08¢ scl WSS oz¢ |mdoes‘y1,‘9 “Bny| 9.¢6 | ¢-1F Shope acne =dgy ‘synig jlounoy 86.6% 08¢ ASRS 00% Cs “aS OgoT ‘wd og ‘hha ‘¢ Amr] 0.98 | LIF poy Saeyyyy 82-62% oe9 ‘n'S B'S 000T Ce ‘W'S OrOl md) “hs ‘al eung| 0.06 | 1-6 |7~7"*777 777" “Muay, ‘srydmayy 69:68 00F "MS 3'S 002 0608 MSS 06 | “dog'1 ‘1, ‘st Lew) .¢-2 | .8°eP [777777 at "N “OD uoySuryse Sts gsr PE Sl -opru10} “SOUTUI UT | oyna MoT Moy uoNoed | . ‘ : : Le [epee avo epmray (OF S10 2204) ap paw o3 (sortm) doug | OH ter tee e's i Ses : “dH ONLLNOO—A& THY TJ, H.. A. Hazen-—Tornadoes. 187 In this table, column six gives the distance in statute miles eleven gives, as nearly as possible, the distance to the nearest north wind; this was seldom measured in the direction of “low;” if it had been, the distances would have been much greater. The last column contains the lowest pressure at the center. This table brings out many most interesting facts and merits careful study. rom the south and southeast, and if from any other quarter, all are from that direction action there is no upward rush such as is supposed to take place at a low center; secondly, that the winds are uniform and there is no meeting of cool northerly with warm southerly regions. The facts, however, seem to show a much more par- ticular cause. Take a very recent instance, the earliest exten- 188 H.. A. Hazen— Tornadoes. ded thunder-storm of this year in the eastern United States. This occurred February 14, 1884, and was first noted at Augusta, Ga., early inthe morning. It appeared at hae it Va., at 4 A. M., and at Variety Mills, Va., about the same hour, where it seemed to come from southwest and passed “off to east- northeast. ioe ore Washington, . from west-south- west at 6.25 A. M. toward east- northeast. It was noted at Haverford Gcllene, ot and at New Castle, Del., at 8.30 a. M. ese times (about some of which there is a little uncertainty) give the following velocity: Lynchburg to Washington, about sixty-two miles per hour; Washington to Haverford College, counting the seconds between the flash of lightning and the thunder, on the west as it came up and on the east as it passed off, was a little less than a mile a minute. may not be that one and the same storm fete across thout a storm-center or disturbed region lg mewhat ties it. This center may not. make itself kno ag etek : thunder-storms into two classes—first, those caused in the presence of a low center of pressure, and, second, those due to the sun’s heat. It may be admitted that the sun’s direct heat is an important factor in the formation of summer thunder- storms, but this only acts in 22 ages with the disturbed region which is invariably prese If, now, ape a thunder-storm ee is general, gon is dene ent upon the presence of a storm-center, may we not hope by careful observation at short intervals of time and space, in the region over which the tornado action is expected to occur, to obtain a sounder basis of fact to reason upon than we now mere tep further we may venture. If we can correlate thandergirienn and storm-centers, may we not expect to obtain by a critical study of the former some. evidence of the forces acting in producing the latter? By such critical study we ought to be able to obtain —— to ihe following, among the questions ae to tornadoe t what distances and in what Se do they lie from the low center? How are they distributed with respect to thun- re H. A. Hazen— Tornadoes. 189 der-storms? How are they connected with each other and what is their movement? What wind directions preyail? What is the distribution of temperature? Is their relation to storm-centers an invariable one? What is the character and distribution of hail storms? and soon. Asa partial answer to the last question, observation seems to establish a rule that hail storms occur only in immediate proximity to storm-centers of considerable energy. __ In order to be able to predict violent local storms and torna- does we can accomplish much, as has just been suggested, by a study of a map containing the weather conditions over a large region. Some of the signs of probable tornado action may be enumer- ated, in conclusion, as follows: trst—There must be a storm-center fairly well marked, though this may be 600 or 700 miles away. Tornadoes almost invariably occur to the south and southeast of this point. cond—It is believed that the temperatures in the above region should be above the mean. Great contrasts of tempera- ture are not necessary, and if, in connection with these, an area -of high pressure is found to the northwest or west, no tornado will ordinarily occur. trd—In general the air should be moist. 190 J. E. Keeler—Absorption of Radiant Heat Art. XXIV.—On the Absorption of Radiant Heat by Carbor Dioxide; by J. E. KEELER. AMONG the gaseous bodies whose power of absorbing radiant. heat has engaged the attention of physicists, one of the greatest interest is carbon dioxide (CO,, commonly called carbonic acid gas), since as a constituent of our atmosphere, its*action has an immediate bearing upon matters whose importance to us is evi- dent. It would seem at first sight as if the determination of the absorptive power of a gas were a matter of no great diffi- culty; yet this is so far from being the case that most conflicting results, especially in regard to the absorption of water vapor, have been reached by different investigators, the discussion between Tyndall and Magnus on this subject being well known. Quite recently the question has been revived, ‘‘In which of the gases - composing the atmosphere does the power of absorbing the sun’s rays lie?” And, indeed, when we consider that, according to meas- urements made by different observers at different times and places, the action of any one of the principal constituents of the atmosphere is sufficient to account for this absorption, it can hardly as yet be regarded as settled. That carbon dioxide has a remarkable power of absorbing radiant heat has long beea known, and within the last few years, methods of analysis based upon this property have been invented. : e usual course pursued in investigating the subject is to allow radiant heat to pass through a stratum of gas of given thickness, and measure the amount stopped by it by com-. - paring the indication of a radiometric apparatus placed opposite — the source of heat before and after the interposition of the gas. In this way (considering the more recent experiments), E. Lecher and J. Pernter,* using as a radiant source a metal plate heated to 100° C. by steam and a gas stratum 31™ thick, found that whereas neither dry nor moist air produced any absorption. * Wied. Annalen, xii, p. 180. ' + Wied. Annalen, xii, p. 466. > 2 oo ee me O ee ee ey oe ee by Carbon Dioxide. © 191 of CO, required. It was to test the validity of this method, (which however is of little practical value, since it is only appli- view of the fact that the absorption in the first layers of a gas 1s greater than in the subsequent ones. In the case of Co, however, we have a very different state of things. Here we as great an effect. he experiments of Dr. Heinrich Heine* are much more con- clusive. By measuring with a delicate form of manometer the increase of pressure of the enclosed gas due to warming by the absorbed radiant lieat from a Bunsen burner, he found that while perfectly dry pure air produced no change whatever, the admixture of 025 per cent of CO, produced a readily measur- able increase, so that he was able to make very accurate analy- ses of the air by comparing its effect (after drying) with that of mixtures of known proportions. He did not however experi- * Ueber die Absorption der Wiirme durch Gase, und eine darauf beruhende se Methode zur Bestimmung des Kohlensiuregehaltes der atmospharischen Luft. ‘Giessen, 1882, 4 act Sala hk pee. 192 J, E. Keeler—Absorption of Radiant Heat ment on the absorption of air containing aqueous vapor or other ases ‘ ses. Further, the character of the absorption of CO, must agree with that of the air if this gas is the seat of the absorptive ower of the latter, and this gives us an independent means of decision. The absorption of a substance which permits the passage of radiant energy will exhibit peculiarities of which the following constitute the most marked cases. It may be strongly selective, i. e. confined to certain definite wave-lengths, by which lines would be produced in the continuous spectrum of a luminous source whose rays had passed through the sub- stance; it may affect strongly rays differing but little in wave- length, producing broad bands in the spectrum; or it may ex- tend over many wave-lengths, affecting each but little more or Jess than the next in succession, by which no perceptible lines or bands would be produced, although the intensity of the _ spectrum would be weakened within wide and indefinite limits. greatly. The apparatus which I made for investigating the absorption of CO, was originally intended to be used in connection with a Rowland grating, so as to test the absorption of nearly homo- geneous rays; but, owing to the limited amount of time at my disposal after it was completed, I was obliged to content myself with the use of artificial sources of heat, which, although far» from furnishing homogeneous rays, differed so widely in char- acter that the results obtained seem to’ me to be sufficiently * This Journal, xxv, March, 1883. by Carbon Dioxide. 193 pletely closed. Concentric with the trough, and likewise supported by the stand, was a silvered glass concave mirror of one meter focal length and 16™ in diameter, forming as it were the bottom of the tube when the latter was in place. By this arrangement the tube could be readily removed, while when in place it was stopped in a perfectly air-tight manner at the lower end, and the direction of the axis of the mirror could be adjus- ted by the foot screws without any motion being communicated to the tube. e upper end was left open, and reached nearly to a wide flat board, firmly supported in a horizontal position tion of two rectangular plane mirrors, likewise of silvered glass, Joined at right angJes like a letter V, with the lower angle over the middle of the hole and the reflecting surfaces facing out- ward, so that each made an angle of 45° with the vertical. The line joining their centers was therefore horizontal, and was adjusted to a height of 6™ above the upper surface of the board. In front of one of these mirrors was a slit, consisting t of a hole 1™ square in a copper plate faced on the side nex mirror or 4 meters, 3-4 meters of the distance being traversed. Within the tube. To facilitate the adjustments the slit was 194 J. EF. Keeler—Absorption of Radiant Heat , made movable in its own plane through a small distance in every direction, and all possibility of direct rays from it reach- ing the image was removed by interposing a series of screens. The bolometer used, for which I am indebted to the kindness of Prof. Langley, had a resistance on each side of about 30 ohms, and exposed a surface o . It was fastened upon a small hinged lid, which, when shut, brought the working surface of the bolometer exactly opposite an aperture of the same size in the copper plate that formed the front surface of the sliding carriage, the bolometer in this position being otherwise com- pletely enclosed in a copper lined cavity. e galvanometer used in connection with the bolometer was a very small instru- ment on Sir Wm. Thomson’s plan with modifications by Prof. von Helmholtz. The mirror, on the back of which were cemented two minute bar magnets, was suspended by a single spider's thread 6™ long, so that there was no perceptible torsion. The deflections were observed by the telescope and scale method, and, as they never exceeded 10™ on the 126™ distant scale, educt eter aperture, heat from the source experimented upon was ad- mitted by pulling the cord, and the galvanometer gave a prompt a i * +4) ta by Carbon Dioxide. 195 deflection which was noted by the observer. The tube being then filled with carbonic acid, which on account of its specific gravity could not escape, a smaller deflection was obtained, indicating a certain absorption in a column of gas double the length of the tube. It remains to describe the way in whic the filling was accomplished. short glass tube passing up by the mirror through the generator or with a water air-pump in an adjoining room. The generator consisted of a bomb containing eight kilograms of pure liquid CO,, from which a practically inexhaustible supply of gas could be drawn and the tube filled in as short a time as desired. By disconnecting the generator and connecting the air-pump the gas was withdrawn from the tube and ejected from the room. end of a wooden splinter, for which purpose a small offset tube had been provided, branching off from the large one near the top. In order to prevent air currents from disturbing the level of the gas, the mouth of the large tube was covered during the to flow to supply the loss by diffusion, and several observations made as before with the galvyanometer. These deflections were, in the case of the lamp, somewhat smaller than the first. The tube was then connected with the pump and the observa- tions continued, the deflections increasing as the level of the CO, sank in the tube, and regaining their original value when the gas was all out. s an example, I give the record of observations made on the 15th of March, the source of heat being in this instance the non-luminous flame of a Bunsen burner. ~ Am. Jour. capgiicacagss Series, Vout. XXVIII, No. 165.—Sppt., 1884. 196 J. E. Keeler—Absorption of Radiant Heat Time. | Defiec. in ma Time. Defiec. in mm, ! Time. Defiec, in mm. | 4h -2™ 82°4 | 4h §2°5™ | Filled with CQg.|| 55 18™ 56°3 28 82°4 56°5 5071 19°5 59°3 29 81-1 575 51°2 20°5 6175 30 80°9 58°2 50°4 21 Gas nearly out. 31 81°4 59 51°0 22 63°3 33 79°8 oe 50°4 22°5 —|appar’tly all out. 79'9 15 (connected pump 23 69°8 36°5 79°7 6 : 504 2 73°0 81:0 vi 50°1 31 73°0 78-7 12 51°6 32 72:9 48°5 80°3 13 52°2 34 73°5 80-2 14 52°9 39 72:8 51 78°2 16 54°5 40 74:0 52 784 17 54°6 41 73°5 If these observations be plotted on paper with abscisse pro- portional to the time and ordinates proportional to deflections, we obtain a curve showing graphically the absorption of the rays from the burner at different times, and hence approxi- mately for different thicknesses of CO, From this curve we | take at time 4" 57°5™ deflection with air in tube 78:1™; deflec- tion with CO, in tube 50°4™™ reduced to time at 4% 57°5™. oe This gives an absorption of 35°5 per cent. From a consid- eration of all the observations an absorption of 85°8 per cent — was taken as that due to the tube when full. et us now consider the absorptive media interposing be- tween the source of radiation and the bolometer face before the’ admission of CO, We may disregard the glass chimney of the ¥ ee ee > Fics: oe PM eR oe Re) ae pe ee ioe SA ME Pe Brae ee ey eo Be te ees a Ores =. gree . q . 4 a by Carbon Dioxide. 197 under the two different circumstances as the proportion of the total radiation transmitte ‘4 meters of gas. The first source of heat employed was a kerosene lamp with large argand burner and glass chimney, and was more constant than any of the sources tried later, the irregularities in a series of observations being only about one-half per cent of the aver- age value of a deflection. Three experiments gave an absorp- tion of 7:1, 7:2 and 7-9 per cent, the mean of which is 7-4 per cent. The next source was a copper plate heated from behind toa point just below redness by a Bunsen flame, so that all of the radiations consisted of invisible rays. Of these 11 per cent were absorbed. Next was tried the feebly luminous flame of the Bunsen burner itself. This indicated a greater absorption than any of the other sources, three experiments giving a mean of 35°8 per cent. was repeated under various conditions of the apparatus. The water cell completely cut off the rays from the Bunsen burner. Finally, although the apparatus did not admit of experiments with aqueous vapor, the enormous absorbing power of water was strikingly shown by a soap-bubble film stretched on a wire loop, which cut off 38 per cent of the rays from the Bunsen burner, or. more than the 8°4 meters of CO, The soap solution from which the film was obtained, when placed in the water cell, indicated an absorption of the rays from the lamp 20 per cent greater than that of water. In these results we may especially note the following facts: 1. That the luminous rays of the spectrum are not appreciably absorbed by a column of CO, 3°4 meters in length, whereas it has been shown that thesé rays are strongly absorbed by an atmospheric column containing the same quantity of CO,. The evidence afforded by the eye, inasmuch as the gas appears perfectly transparent, is confirmed by direct measurement of the energy of transmitted luminous rays. 2. That as the range _ of the wave-lengths given out by the radiant source is narrowe _ down toward a certain invisible limit, the absorption of the mes greater and greater, corresponding to the production 198 J. E. Keeler—Absorption of Radiant Heat. of an absorption band in the ultra red of a continuous spectrum, 3. That the absorption is very considerable, and hence cannot correspond to a narrow line, but rather to a broad and heavy a that some other agent than this gas (which may not be water vapor, or possibly even of a gaseous nature), contributes ia i a essentially to the total absorptive power of the atmosphere, so, 4 that a method of analysis based upon this power, in which the effect of the second agent is neglected, cannot lead to correct — ; results. Berlin, April, 1884. * This Journal, xxv, March, 1883. OTE.—Since the above was written I have seen in Professor Langley’s article ol. XXXVI, N on the determination of obscure wave-lengths (American Journal, ¥ pable that March, 1884), that observations made at his observatory make it pro the largest of the gaps referred to are of telluric origin. S. H. Scudder—Rocky Mountain Triassic Insects. 199 ArT. XXV.—Triassic Insects from the Rocky Mountains ; by SAMUEL H. ScupDpDER. Ear.y in 1882, Mr. Arthur Lakes, Professor in the Colorado School of Mines, discovered a bed of plants and insects near Fairplay, Colorado, in rocks much older than any that have be- fore yielded insect remains west of the Great Plains; the two or three specimens he sent me were sufficient to prompt a more thorough exploration of the locality, which I was able to make the following summer, resulting in the discovery of a fauna and a flora of considerable interest. The plants have been studied by Mr. Lesquereux,* who pro- nounces the species, some thirty in number, but in a very frag- mentary condition, to belong to Permian types, and declares ____ the evidence to be decisive on this point. € animal remains consist almost exclusively of insects, ° the beds in which they occur to one of the Paleozoic series ; but the presence of the other forms, and even the character: . istics of those which are referable to Carboniferous and Permian e M pes the name of Palzoblattarie has been proposed, and all aleozoic cockroaches whose front wings are preserved (and we know them almost exclusively from these organs) fall into this *On some specimens of Permian fossil plants from. Colorado. Bull, Mus. Comp. Zool., vii, 243. | 200 S&. H. Scudder—Rocky Mountain Triassic Insects. other cockroach, ancient or modern, so far as I know; but otherwise it is related to Etoblattina; while Poroblattina 18 more nearly related to Petrablattina, and especially to the two new species of that genus from this locality. he average size of these Fairplay Paleoblattariz is much less than that of the Paleozoic Palzoblattariz in general. The average length of the front wings of the Paleozoic species is 26"; that of these Fairplay Paleoblattaria, 16™. This fact has its value, for the Jurassic species are nearly all of very small size, and the wing-length of the remaining species trom * Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch., 1880, p. 510. S. H. Scudder—Rocky Mountain Triassic Insects. 201 Fairplay (i.e. those which do not belong to the Paleoblattaris) is less than 8°5, ranging from 6°5-115™™. This agrees co pletely with the size of Mesozoic species already known. The average of all the Fairplay cockroaches is less than 13°5™™. s to the six cockroaches from Fairplay which do not belong to the Paleoblattariz, the characteristics of their venation, as well as their smal] size, show them to be closely allied to Jurassic forms, although the three or four genera to which they . belong are distinct from any yet characterized. Two of them are distinctly allied to Rithma, a genus established rather loosely by Geibel for some species from the English Purbecks figured by Westwood. They all have a decided Mesozoic aspect, and would at once be considered Liassic or at least Jurassic by any one familiar with the forms already known from these deposits. They have-on the other hand an entirely different aspect from any and all Paleozoic forms, and present no points of close “comparison with any Paleoblattariz excepting some of those mentioned above from the same Fairpiay beds, notably with the genus mentioned under the name of Poroblattina, which one of the genera not a little resembles. _. This resemblance is of special interest because it points out | the method in which the change from Paleozoic to Mesozoic forms has taken place, and does not bear out the suggestion made in my memoir on Paleozoic cockroaches (based on a Comparison of the venation of the front and hind wings of 202 S. H. Seudder—Rocky Mountain Triassic Insects. If this should be proved, Mr. Lake’s discovery will have an added interest, from the fact that almost nothing is known either of the plants or of the insects of this formation. Of the plants, it is only necessary to point out that in the paucity of data, the upper Paleozoic aspect of the few vegetable remains from Fair- lay can have but a negative value beside the positive proof of the alliance of the insects to Mesozoic forms. Of Triassic insects our knowledge is exceedingly meager ; a single neurop- terous larva from the Connecticut valley is all that the formation has hitherto yielded in this country. In Europe we know 0 only four species, each, I believe, from a single specimen ; one of these is a cockroach, but it is entirely different from any of the Fairplay species, and indeed from any other known forms, so that we get no light from this quarter. It may be urged that as much the larger proportion of known Paleozoic cockroaches come from Europe, our own fauna being comparatively unworked, this discovery may only indicate for merica an earlier advance within Paleozoic times toward later types. Besides the important consideration that this would be in direct opposition to what we know of subsequent periods in e among fossil merica, there are only two facts known to m insects bearing on this point, one in favor of this hypothesis, the other against it. The first is the recent discovery in beds at Kansas City, Mo, said by the state geologists to have eight hun- dred feet of Carboniferous rocks ‘above them, of the wing of a heteropterous Hemipteron, which I have called Phthanocoris. — In Europe no instance is recorded of any insect belonging 10 this great group of Hemiptera in Paleozoic rocks, the three oF four Hemiptera so far found belonging to the homopterous division. The other fact is brought forward in. my memoir 0D Paleozoic cockroaches, and is of far more importance, not only because it is of broader significance, but also because it is drawn from the same group as that under discussion. The Paleo- this continent. In Carboniferous times, therefore, as regards cockroaches, America was more old fashioned than Europe, and we should look for the introduction of new elements earlier 12 Europe than in America; yet the better explored Carboniferous and Permian deposits of that continent have yielded no traces Pees ate tg aati Sr hae °° of anything akin to the Fairplay insects. The first appearance : of any such is in Mesozoic strata, and notably in the Lias. - §So far as I know this is the first attempt to determine the #g° of a deposit from its insect remains alone, and it is unfortunate . for its acceptance by naturalists that the plants give it, to say O. A. Derby—Flewibility of Ttacolumite. 203. the least, no support, but rather are deemed by one competent — to judge, to be decidedly adverse to what is bere claimed. he paleontological contradiction shown in the plants and animals of the Fairplay beds is not unknown to American geol- ogy, as every one is aware, but I do not know that it has been pointed out in this country at this horizon or in this direction—- the discordance appearing later in time, and the plants indicat- ing a younger and not an earlier age than the animals. An exactly parallel case appears to be shown in Eastern Russia, for in discussing the poorer strata of Kargalinsk, which he refers. to the Permian, Twelvetrees says, ‘as regards the flora [11 species] the list has a Paleozoic aspect, but a secondary one as. respects the reptilian remains”’ [4 species cited].* Exploration of the locality will continue, and it is hoped that future material may throw more light upon the question. It may, however, be added that the few other insects found appear to have no Paleozoic relations whatever. Art. XXVI—On the Flexibility of Itacolumite; by ORVILLE A. DERBY. * Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc. Lond., xxxviii, 495. 204 O. A. Derby—flexibility of Itacolumite. t course of the Rio Verde, one of the headwaters of the Rio Grande branch of the ‘Parana, in the mountainous plateau lying to the westward of the Mantiqueira. The cuttings are mainly through gneiss, in great part decomposed, but at several points narrow belts of itacolumite are also cut through. At a place called Jurumirim, the river and railroad pass by a short, narrow gorge through a high ridge of itacolumite ex- n the sides of this gorge the specimens. ‘This locality is about fifty miles southwest of Sao formation has been traced continuously to and beyond the Serra de Itacolumi at Ouro Preto. Though the intervening region has never been examined, there can be little doubt that the beds here examined are identical and continuous with those of Sao Joao D’el Rei and Ouro Preto. This cutting exposed very clearly the rock in its natural state and as affected by percolating waters and surface agencies. The total thickness of the itacolumite series in the range of along the numerous joints, and it is difficult to find masses that can with certainty be pronounced to be in their original state. a beds strike N. 60° E., and dip to the N.W. at an angle of 30°. by fissures and stratification planes, massive and schistose, com- pact and friable, non-flexible and flexible portions may be found within a distance of a few centimeters, and in exactly the same relative position in the bed. Several such masses were observed, of which one is represented in the following figure. O. A. Derby—Flexibility of Itacolumite. 205 The block, 6 a, about two meters thick and separated by open fissures from its neighbors on either side, is traversed near the middle by three cracks. From between two of these cracks a prism-shaped mass had fallen out, leaving an open space. Water percolating through these cracks has opened several concealed planes of lamination in the right-hand portion (a); while to the left of the cracks, although these planes are clearly indicated by faint lines of color, the stone shows no signs of yielding along them, and fragments detached with the hammer at 6 do not break along the dotted limes more readily than in any other direction. At the rock is exceedingly hard and not at all friable or flexible, while at a@ it divides readily into slabs two or three centimeters thick, crumbles to sand with the pressure of the fingers and is slightly flexible. It should well in an fine-grained and thin-bedded or laminated pate ‘te or ordinary sandstone. Further examination will very ppbabty show that it is not limited to rocks of any definite Orizon or to any well characterized natural division of the quartzose rocks. 206 8. W. Ford—Age of Rocks near Schodack Landing. Art. XXVIL—On the Age of the Glazed and Contorted Slaty Rocks in the vicinity of Schodack Landing, Rensselaer County, . Y.; by S. W. Forp. DuRING the latter part of the month of May, after a day spent in the study of the Primordial rocks of the town of Stuyvesant, Columbia County, the writer made a hasty ex- amination of the folded slates directly back of the Schodack westward as far as the Hudson River railroad track in two conspicuous promontories, and finally disappear altogether, out a hundred yards distant from the Stuyvesant Primordial beds,* a fault intervening. In these promontories the slates are d contorted almost beyond but ng etal so along the line of the Hudson River railroad, 8 short distance south of the county line, and about two hundred yards north of the residence of Mr. Patrick McCabe. At this G. pristis, G. ramosus, G. mucronatus, G. scalaris, G. sagittarius, G. sextans, G. tenuis, G. furcatus, G. bicornis, G. gracilis, * Directly south of the more southerly promontory, the surface is low oF marshy ; and, a ter crossing this, the rocks at one point resemble those of the nt. com tact with each other, but I have not, as yet, been able to fully satisfy myself upo® — this point. S. W. Ford—Age of Rocks near Schodack Landing. 207 In addition to the above, I have also obtained from this band the ae graptolitic forms figured on plate B of Decade II of the Geological Survey of Canada (1865), figs. 15 and 18. In view of it the evidence, I think there can be no doubt that these slates are the exact renee of the Graptolite-bearing beds of the Norman’s Kill, near Albany. Stipes of the G. eegie have been obtained has over a foot in length, and all of the species occur in a remarkably perfect state of preser- vation The eee s Kill slates were assigned by the New York ‘Geological Survey to the horizon of the Hudson River group ; and although doubts were subsequently raised by the investi- gations of the Canadian geologists as to the correctness of this reference, I became satisfied in 1871 and 1872, after an ex- caution appeared to me necessary in pronouncing upon the age of beds characterized by simply one or more of these species of graptolites, and not demonstrably their eebater Nice: equiva- lents, in other places. For instance: in the sum of 1870, I obtained specimens of Graptolithus pristis, @. eaters and a third species which I was unable to determine, from the slates immediately east of the Hudson River at Troy; and later I found good specimens of the first mentioned species in the folded slates between Troy and Lansingburgh, along the line vate i Schodack Landing, I at once resolved to institute a careful search for other fossils in the rocks of the neighbor- hood; and before quitting the field, my researches were re- smith shop, at Schodack village, there is a bed of limestone, about two feet thick, and, in part, somewlrat brecciated in appearance, enclosed in the slates; and about a quarter of a mile from the river, in the bottom of a deep gorge running eastward along the Columbia County line, the same limestone band, mae situated, is again met with. From the mode of The same or a acm band, abounding in the same species, occurs about a mile duis “ef Castl , On an east-and-west road connectin Syith: the the regular highway from Pace ser Landing to that village. It strikes obliquely across the eee only a few rods from the latter, or just beyond the residence of 208 8S. W. Ford—Age of Rocks near Schodack Landing. occurrence of this band, I have no doubt that it is a regular member of the slate formation. It is fossiliferous at both of the the hemispherical variety of Cheetetes lycoperdon. None of the species of this locality are distinctive of the Utica slate, and recognized among the folded and contorted rocks of the region. In view of what I have recently and for several years past, 2. That a great dislocation, bringing up (at least for a large portion of the distance) the rocks of the Primordial zone upon the east side of the line of fracture, and placing them upon the same level with, or even higher than, the rocks of the Hudson River group upon its western side, runs from western Vermont. southward through the western portion of Washington, Rens- selaer, Columbia and Dutchess counties; and that this disloca- tion does not strike across the Hudson River opposite, or so as to pass through Rondout, as some have supposed ; but, on the contrary, before crossing, extends on southward beyond Rhine- cliff station, in Dutchess county, for several miles.’ 8. That this dislocation probably occurred at the close of the Lower Silurian as urged by Professor Dana. 4. That over a considerable part of the territory traversed by this fault, the Primordial rocks wall against those of the Hudson River group unconformably ; but that, in the majority of instances wlfere they come together, the older beds have been made to overlap the newer conformably. Johnstown, N. Y., July 5th, 1884. \ G. F. Becker—Mineral Belts of the Pacific Slope. 209 Art. XXVIII.—The Relations of the Mineral Belts of the Pacific Slope to the Great Upheavals ;* by Gro. F. Broker. Prorgssor W. P. BLAKE first drew attention to the series of mineral belts of the Pacific slope and their striking parallel- would now scarcely be claimed that there are more than four distinct ore belts on the Pacific slope, viz: the lead silver belt of Utah, the gold belt and the quicksilver belt of California, * A part of the substance of this paper was first written for a Census report on The Statistics and Teehnology of Precious Metals, by Mr. S. F. Emmons and my- Sell, now in press. . + Report to the California State Board of Agriculture, 1866. } Exploration of the 40th Parallel, vol. iii, Chap. 1. 210 G. F. Becker—Mineral Belts of the Pacific Slope. and the chain of deposits which extend diagonally across, Arizona. In the Coast Ranges of California, quicksilver and chromic iron occur at a great number of localities. The most southerly uicksilver mine known to me is Las Prietas, four miles from few and are separated by long intervals. On the whole, how- ever, it is strikingly apparent that conditions favoring the deposition of quicksilver ores have prevailed at numerous ints within a belt in most places of small width and which is of great length. Messrs. Whitney and Gabb, as is well known, ascribe the elevation of the Coast Ranges of California to a post-Miocene uplift. The western edge of the area raised, or the present coast of California, is. nearly parallel with, and for the most part very close to, the quicksilver belt. The gold belt of California is extremely well defined from the southern boundary of Mariposa county to the neighborhoo of Nevada City, a distance of about 150 miles, and near it is a series of copper deposits scarcely distant enough to be regarde as a separate system from a general pointof view. Gold deposits are found in great abundance but more scattered to the north- west of Nevada county, and there is also a little gold to the south at a number of points along the foothills of the Sierra to its termination at Fort Téjon; in fact though the gold belt proper is comparatively short, there can be no doubt thata Mera zone of country lies along the western foot of the ierra for several hundred miles. This zone also coincides with the western edge of the great area of Mesozoic rocks which, as was established by the investigations of the California — State Survey and the Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, was uplifted after the close of the Jurassic. The Utah ore belt lies at the western base of the Wahsatch range and its southwesterly continuation. With the exception of the Leeds (Silver Reef) district, all the important deposits 0 the territory are included in this belt, which bears a very def- nite relation to the main line of crests. The Wahsatch also ‘forms the western edge of the Rocky Mountain area, which was uplifted at the close of the Cretaceous; the famous Wah- satch fault-line passing through or close to many of the mining districts. G. F. Becker—Mineral Belts of the Pacific Slope. 211 The Arizona deposits lie in a zone stretching entirely across the territory from southeast to northwest. This zone includes or lies close to the dividing line between Paleozoic strata to the northeast and the Archzean area of Southwest Arizona, depos- its occurring both in the granites or crystalline schists and in the Paleozoic limestones. The main contact between the Paleo- zoic and the underlying strata is laid down, in the geological maps of the Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, continuously from Virgin Cafion to Camp Verde, a distance of 170 miles, Farther south the most westerly occurrences of Paleozoic shown are in the Pinal mining district near Florence and in latitude 32° 20’, longitude 109° 40’. These are probably near the edge of the area, though there is some evidence of detached patches still farther to the south, and to the west of the general course of the contact so far as traced. The Chiricahui range has been shown by Mr. Gilbert to be largely made up of Paleozoic strata, and the mines of the Tombstone district are many of them sun on deposjts in limestone. In this region limestones can hardly be ne than Paleozoic, and they are reported as containing Carboniferous fossils. he rocks adjoining the Paleozoic to the southwest are un- questionably Archean, for their relations to the Silurian are Clear at a great number of points, and their lithological charac- ter in this region is very characteristic and persistent. The edge of the Paleozoic has also been followed by Mr. Gilbert in a westerly direction into California, near Owens Lake, whence 'ts course is deflected to the north (Mesozoic strata, in part over- lie close to the contact. Scarcely anything is known of the geology of the region north of Battle Mountain, but Mr. Meek determined fossils cdllected on the northern boundary of the nited States at the 114th Meridian by Mr. Geo. Gibbs as Car- boniferous,* and it is probable that the contact passes through the mining region of Idaho. The western edge of the Paleozoic in the belt of country surveyed by the Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel represents the structural line along which the Paleozoic area of Eastern Nevada and Western Utah was uplifted at the close of the Car- boniferous. In Arizona faults practically parallel to the trend of the contact are known to have had an important influence on the orography of the belt of country in which the contact between: Archsan and Paleozoic occurs, but how far if at all the present exposure of Archzean is due to the erosion of Pale- * Bull. U. S. Geog. and Geol. Surveys, vol. ii, p. 351. AM. Jour. Sc1.—Turrp Serres, Vou. XXVIII. No. 165.—Sepr., 1884. ld 212 G. F. Becker—Mineral Belts of the Pacific Slope. near and north of Owens Lake are at distances from one another too great to justify their being regarded as constituting a belt if taken by themselves, but when their occurrence is considered in reference to the Paleozoic area it seems difficult to avoid the conclusion that they really form a continuation of attended some of these great orographical changes have con: tinued through whole epochs unrepaired, as indeed is know? in part from other evidence. San Francisco, office of the U. 8. urvey, May, 1884. _ . t Py ee: ee SOPs: Se ee on, Ae ON ew Get Saw A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna of New England. 213 Art. XXIX.—WNotice of the remarkable Marine Fauna occupying the outer banks off the Southern Coast of New England, No. 9; by A. E. Verrity. Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale College. No. LV. [Published by permission of the U. 8. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. ] Work of the Steamer Albatross in 1883. DvrRin@ the summer of 1883, the new U. S. Fish Commission “Steamer, Albatross,* Lieut. Z. L. Tanner, commander, continued the work of dredging in the region of the Gulf Stream, along our coast, from off Cape Hatteras to Nova Scotia.t She is, in Construction, well adapted to do deep-sea work, and fully i i ; i therefore was able to ae the dredgings much farther out to sea than the Fish 4 : 2949 fathoms, at station 2099, N. lat. 87° 12’ 20”, W. long. 69° 39’, August 2. Besides this, there were four successful hauls in 2038 to 2369 fathoms, and 27 between 1000 and 2000 fathoms. Between 500 and 1000 fathoms there were 19 hauls, and in less than 500 fathoms, 63, making a total of 116 Stations. At nearly all these localities a large trawl was used, | v . ? rarely, 40° (in one case, at station 2050, 49°5° was recorded in =O . 1098 fathoms, but these cases may have been due to some acci- dental cause, for at the same date other trials, at similar depths, gave 39°; I have therefore omitted these two temperatures, in the table). Besides the ordinary temperature observations, * Descriptions of this steamer and of her equipment, agewell as of some of her trips, have already been published in Science. An account of the Crustacea was publish; e July number of this Journal by Professor 8. I. Smith, who has 0 ymoenieg- a detailed account of that group, with figu he Fish mis- nn . a With five plates, in the Trans. Conn. Acad,, vol. vi. Some of the new fishes have been described by Messrs. Gill and Ryder. ; The naturalists associated with the writer, in this work, in 1883, were Pro- serail I. Smith, Mr. Sanderson Smith, Professor L. A. Lee, Mr. Richard Rath- Mr. H. L. Bruner, Mr. J, E. Benedict (naturalist attached to the steamer), Mr. P. Tarr, W. E. Safford, Ensign U. 8. N., and others, more or less. Mr. Peter arker, Mr. John A. Ryder, Dr. Theodore Gill, and R. H. Miner, Ensign U. 8. N., Ray on the fishes, The parties who went out dredging, on the steamer, varied © time to time. Usually only three or four naturalists, besides Mr. Benedict, peta be properly accommodated on board. I took no part in this portion of the ork, in 1883, not going out on the steamer at all. + 214 A. E. Verrill—_ Marine Fauna off the numerous serial temperatures, not given pit were also taken, and the specific gravity of samples of water, from various depths, was determined. The bottom at all the stations below 1000 fathoms was main] sathaonsl of ‘‘Globigerina ooze,’ ing the consistency of fine sticky mud, commonly of a dull olive-green or bluish color.* When washed through a very fine sieve a variable, but often large, proportion remains on the sieve, composed chiefly of the shells of Globigerina and other foraminifera, of many kinds, but mostly minute. These are usually mixed with a considerable amount of age fine grains of siliceous sand,t among which are some grains of magnetite and garnet. Green grains, apparently of susie, are also common. The deepest localities were all rich in animal life, of many kinds. A considerable number of interesting fishes were obtained, many of them new to our fauna. Some of theseare new genera and species of great interest. Very interesting additions to our collections were made in nearly every class of marine invertebrates, including many piidendtibed species and genera, some of which are of great morphological importance, while many of the described species were previously known only from distant regions, on the Euro- pean side of the Atlantic, in the arctic or antarctic regions, off the coast of South America, in the West Indies, or even in the Indian or Pacific Oceans. Thus our knowledge of the distri- bution of the deep-sea forms, both geographically and in depth, has been greatly increased. Some of these dea sea species were first described as fossils from the European tertiaries. Moreover a considerable number of our shallow-water species have been found to have a much greater range in depth than was anticipated, many of them going down below 500 fathoms, while some even go below 1000 fathoms. On the first trip of the Albatross from Wood’s Holl, which was made July 16th to 19th, four successful hauls were made with a large trawl, in 1346 to 1736 fathoms, on the 17th and 18th of July, two each day, besides the soundings and tempera- * In recording the character of the bottom, on the vessels, bee character of the mud is usually judged of mainly by its appearance to the naked eye, and some- time ense of touch. The finer varieties of “ giatthiston ooze” are not dis- tinguishable by these tests from “fine ud,” or y mud,” or “fine gra, ” sandy mud.” Thus the official records of this and other similar explorations do not always agree with the ~ erminations of the naturalists who 8 ubsequently — the — of bot In many cases, however, such correction ns are entually made. Very perf ct samples of bottom-mu d are often enclosed in the allews ee ges bases of ae Actinie. Such samples, not having been washed f er portions, might pes serve to i ement or correct the official records eas from the samples brought - in sou ist The sand probably fonts out on the to these distant localities from the hore beaches, as explained in my aaa papers in this Journal. % Southern Coast of New England. 215 Partial List of Stations occupied by the Albatross in 1883. Most of those in less than 500 fathoms are omitted. Temp. F. Stat. Locality. Fath. Bottom. Date. Bot- | Bur- Hour. tom. | face. N. Lat. W. Long. 2034|39° “2 10"; 69°56’ 20"|1346, — gb. O. July 17 2035/39 26 12; 70 02 37 |1362 ree 17 2036/38 53 ; 69 24 40/1735 - S 18 | 38°| 76°] 4.30 a. Mm. 2037/38 53 00; 69 23 30/1731 i 18 | 38 | 76 | 1.22 P.M. 2038/38 30 30; 69 08 25 |2033 Ae 26 76 | 2.32 P.M. 2039/38 19 26; 68 20 20 |/2369 need 28 81 | noon. 2940 38 35 13; 68.16 00 2226 eee 29 76 | 4.20 4. M. 204139 22 50; 68 25 00/1608 ie 30 | 38 | 72 | 3.504. m. 2042.39 33 00; 68 26 45 |1555 Bg 30 | 38°5| 71 |10.32 a.m. 2043'39 49 00; 68 28 30/1467 Hod 30 | 38°5| 72 | 5.07 P.M. 2044 40 00 30: 68 37 20/1067 “ou 31 | 39 | 72 | 5.25 a.m. 2045/40 04 20; 68 43 50| 373) bu. M.,, fine Sh 31 | 40 | 72 |10 aM. 204640 02 49; 68 49 00} 407 bu 31 | 40 | 72 | noon 2047.40 02 30; 68 49 40) 38 aa 31) :62.) 72.) 2.15 P. 204840 02 00; 68 50 30/| 547 crs S., M. & G. 31 3.56 P. M, 2049 39 43 40: 69 20 00 1025, bu. glb.M. jAug. 1 | 39 | 71 | 3.354.M 2050.39 43 50: 69 21 20/1050 — gib. O 1 72 | 9.15 a. M. 205139 41 00; 69 20 20/1106) a 1/39] 72 | 2.34PM. 2052.39 40 05; 69 21 25 |1098 1a 1 73 | 6.16 P.M. 2072'41 53 00; 65 35 00| 858 gy. M Sept. 2 | 39 | 56 | 6.15 a.m 207341 54 15; 65 39 00 Lee. 2) 40 | 58 10.41 a.m. 2074.41 43 00; 21 50/1309) fine glb. M 3 | 40 | 69 | 6.42 207541 40 30; 65 35 00| 855 3 | 39 | 68 | 3.41 P.m. 2076.41 13 00; 66 00 50| 906 bu. glb. M 4 69 | 3.20.4. M. 2077 41 09 40; 02 00 |1255 ae 4{39/ 68/8 a 2083/40 26 40: 67 05 15 5 | 40 | 72 | 4.304. m. 2084.40 16 50; 67 05 15/1290, bu. M,S F 5 | 40 | 78°56) 9.09 a. M. 2093 39 42 50; 71 01 20/1000 21 | 3 1.12 P, M. 2094/39 44 30; 71 04 00 {1022} =“ * « 21 | 38°5) 68 | 5.07 PM. 9539 29 00; 70 58 40 |1342 glb. O. 3 69°5, 9.02 2096/39 22 20; 70 52 20 (1451 es 30 | 37°5| 69 | 2.07 P, M. Off Chesapeake Bay. 2097 37 56 20; 70 57 30/1917 ee Oct. 1 72°) 5.304 -098 37 40 30; 70 37 30 (2221 setae 1 72°5| 1.08 P.M. 2099/37 12 20; 69 39 00 (2949 be 2 2 | 5.304. mM. Off Delaware Bay. 2100/39 22 00; 68 34 30 16 ote 3 | 37°5) 69 [11.05 4. M. 2101/39 18 30: 68 24 00 1686 ee 3 | 37 | 67 | 431 PM 2102/3 0: 72 38 00 1209 “4 Nov. 5 | 39 | 62°5 nth 38 47 20; 72 37 00/1091 eK 5 | 39 | 62 94/38 48 00; 72 40 30| 991] bu. glb- M. 5 | 45°5| 63 Off Chesapeake Bay. : : aan 37 50 00; 73-03 50/1395) — glib. O. 6 | 41 | 63 _ 2106/37 41 20: 73 03 2011497 6 | 41°5) 63 216 A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the ture determinations, including series of temperatures at various distances from the surface. On this trip about 105 speciesof Invertebrates were obtained, not including the Foraminifera and other minute forms. There were amon g these 14 species of Anthozoa; 2 of Hydroids; 22 of Echinoderms; 38 of Mollusca; 15 of Crustacea; 1 of Pycnogonida; 10 of Annelida; 1 of Bryozoa; 2 of Sponges. a Ratinoaaras were among the most abundant and inter- esting of the deep-sea animals. About sixty species were dredged by the Albatross, many of which are new to our coast, though ey dredged on the European side, or in. a the Caribbean Sea and still more distant regions. Others a a undescribed forms. Among the Holothurians were two poy A tie species, belonging to a peculiar 2g sea family of which many species were brought to light by the Challenger expedi- mostly between 1000 and 1500 fathoms, in some cases more than a barrelful of one of them coming up in a single haul. se largest and most singular one is a new species of Bentho- tes (B. gigantea V.)* which is a very large, oblong, massive ade. flat below and convex x above, sometimes 18 inches long pee Fe before the fluid can penetrate the tissues, even when the visceral cavity is cut open : The second species is also a new form, Huphronides cornuta * Bent thodytes gigantea V. agra oo on e984 or oblong. broadly rounded at the ends, strongly c on the surface. The whole dorsal surface is smooth and lubricous base covered with © sofia seohg ‘minute, soft papilla, both above and belone: n the upper surface two alternating TOWS 0 of rather , tapered ambulacral papillae run from one end e other, on each side, — about midway b n the rand margin, but these usually s o nearly pear like a single row, sisting of about eleven papilla. margin is crenulated, each crenulation is surmounted by a small, tape’ P or modified sr r. is th oe side, a short distance from the anterior margin. The tentacles are twenty, short and thick, termil- ated by a group of small conical papilla. The cloacal Brive is situated on the upper surface, close to the posterior margin. Two rows of small s uckers mpage apart. e color is decors pale flesh-color, or purplish: baie reticulated whitish lines or wri mottled ab ged dark purple or dull — deeper want | he margin. venta sae yoda tacles ge purplish brown. Length of the largest specimens, about 3 inches, breadth, 6. ary specimens in alcohol, are from 250 to 300mm long “a 75 to 100™™ broad, and 50 to 70™™ thic \ Southern Coast of New England. 217 V.,* related to E. depressa of the Challenger expedition. It has twe pairs of large, elevated, teat-like anterior tubercles, to which character the name refers. In form it is not unlike B. gigantea, but it is smaller, narrower, less massive, and ha much thinner, reddish brown integument, without the car- ye: ane character of the latter. The starfishes were very numerous in the deep dredgings * Euphronides cornuta Verrill, sp. nov. A very large species, ot gy in outline, with both ends rounded, the upper oat Biiiisa Be convex, dl er flat, in transverse section nearly semicircular. upper surface, ittle in in creer of the middle, are two very large, div sist blunt salaialn ae more than inch in length, usu swollen at base, with a narrow central tube. A little i in r sm rior ones smallest. At about the posterior fourth there is a very large, double median tubercle, swollen at ais rounded o' arginate at the summit, and ter- minated by a pair of tubular verru n the openi with t rows of small suckers near together. ‘The general eater! is “asl Agsh-bolkin, or pale brownish, usually with fine specks of orange-b The dorsal aud conte arginal ambulacral bands and their branches running sto “the sckers nd tubercles are deep purplish Lats ae to orange at the gin; the bands are bordered on each side by whit r pinkish. Tentacles, ae as se rbivor sed regions dark pur plish brown. The. fea lower surface is often purplish duped retibainted iti darker lines or wrinkles, When diste te the = in is more or less boa mgr ith a somewhat t gelatinous appeara but contracti sie it becomes mo Opaque and darker colored. The whole surface i is 5 sceiphienedt with minute ‘ieetial eae Length of an ordinary specimen, 300™"; breadth, 70™™; height, about m + Zoroaster Diomedee V., sp. nov. Arms five, long, slender, tapered, angular above, with three or five rows of acute splsien: one median dorsal, and one late ral, aa : lari elon tapering pedice cel- rie are scattered over the back and sides. pcomcoe plate very small. Color ps Ly orange or orange-red. Greater pene of a large one, 150™™; lesser radius, 218 A. FE. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the and handsome, and se generally orange or orange-red in color. Several are unlike those species from less than 500 fathoms, taken by the Fish Hawk. A. large, rather smooth Archaster, with a very large madreporic plate (A. grandis V.,)* and a remarkably spinose species of a related genus (Benthopecten spi- nosus V.),+ were associated with the Zoroaster at station 2035 and elsewhere, generally between 1000 and 2000 fathoms. The Anthozoa were abundant, both in individuals and species, in most of the dredgings below 1000 fathoms. About 0 species were taken, altogether, belonging to all the panos groups. Several were undescribed, while others are new a tions to our fauna, though previo usly obtained elsewhere bs the Blake or Challenger. It was also a source of satisfaction to us that we rediscovered, in larger numbers, the few remain- Among the Pennatulacea there are some hi ighly interesting forms. The remarkable deep-sea genus, Umbellu/a, originally discovered off the coast of enland, but hitherto unknown off the eastern coast of North Kheia, heugh recently dredged * Archaster grandis V., sp. nov. Five long, slender, tapering arms; disk small pentagonal, with concave sides. Dorsal surface unusually smooth, covered with small paxille, having minute spinules; among these are scattered three-bladed ; ; 4 val space in the m iddle between ed ye margine s many See a spinules. Larger Pan hoe Pca ro diameter of madreporic pla Benthopecten spino sp. n ays five, a — sates penis at base flat, ea gradually ‘aceite to ‘ong narrow tips. Dis very large and like the arms cov with a smooth skin an covered Biren pare with a slender central spine ; ae become larger toward the center, where there is a group of ; i no . UF : marginal plates rather small. elevated in the ep more than 40 on each side; — . bears several ee oe and a single ip age Rondo and long, tape ecomi late ‘ slender spines a transverse outer r ue of two inner ng pit the largest. Suckers large, tapered, pinched up at tip. Larger radius, eee pees 22mm, Still larger examples were taken. ceaGoh 2035, in 1362 fathom Benthopecten, gen. mbles Archaster, but differs in having no paxilla; the dermal plates aie bearing a single spine, sometimes two or three. Pe ae pl neem ee tee Southern Coast of New England. 219 in most other parts of the deep oceans by the Challenger and other expeditions, is represented by several large and fine igh andy belonging to two species, one of which is probably U. Gunthert Kalliker, taken by the Challenger in the eastern Atlantic, while the other, U. Bairdii V.,* seems to be new. In this genus there is a handsome cluster of large flower-like polyps at the summit of a tall slender stem Another new species, which was taken in 1362 to 2369 fath- oms, belongs to bar genus ae acces a (K. tenue V.)t This genus we had not Bahan dredged, though a single speci- only from off Japan, occurred in large numbers we ati: stations, in 1467 to 2369 La ae This I have called S. gans.t It nearly always had a new species of Astronyx i“ ieee v8 clinging closely e it, which, like its host, was bright orang mbellula Bairdii, sp. nov. Stalk very tall and slender; axis quadrangular, with concave sides; basa | bulb long, narrow; rachis short, swollen. Polyps eight or nine, bilate ally arranged, large. long, very smooth, ng, slender, regu larly pinnate tenta Zoéids simple, s num on all f the rachis, running up on the sides in lanceolate groups between polyps; a fe extend row on each side of the upper part of the stem os deep orange-brown. Height, mm: diame f stem, in middle Stations 2036 to 2038, in 1731 to 2033 fathoms hobelemnon tenue V., sp. nov. Tall and slender, with a long thin on and a long rachis, only a little thicker. Polyps large, short, alternate, in a re ach side, well-separated. Zodids small, not crowded, forming a band on between the polyps; a few are scattered on the ve see 1 side. Spicula small an abundant. Color of stem and rachis light yellow: of zodids ahem Height, 4 to 6 inches. Stations 2035, 2038, 2089, in 2 1362 to 2369 fathom $ Scleroptilum agape’ - ., Sp. nov. Slender, with the e Payee occupying more than half the length. The polyps are rsshue. sing from larg incurved calicles, one are swollen at base and cov cet all over with an erous 110™"; breadth across contracted polyps, 3 to 4™™; diameter = rachis and stem, 1 to 1°5™™; length of calicles, about 3™"; diameter at base. The swollen bases of a calicles intel often filled with eggs. Stations 2036, 3088, 2039, 2041-3, in 1467 to 2309 fathom yx tenuis ja V.. 80. A species with a Bereviosteen disk and five & of be] a ° 3 & DR ot =a ® @® eS o¢ o 8, B @ pe Be < aS @ a + > La | Be Rn a5 a=) @Q # ° at de =e together. Mouth-papille small and short; the jaws end in a single short spine- like papilla. Color orange, in life; white in in alcohol. Perhaps this ought to constitute a wW genus, on account of the spines. 220 A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna of New England. Among the other Spree Pennatulacea is Anthoptilum Murrayi K,, which was dredged several times in 640 to 1362 fathoms. It was first site off Nova Scotia by the Challenger. was associated, i me cases, with the much larger liker as a Thomsoni from ee ig dredged by the Challenger off epi Aryes, in 600 fathom he Gorgonacea are rentenaited by — fine species, some of saan conspicuous on account of their large size and bright colors. The bush- Tike Acanella Novia ani, as usual in deh water, occurred abundantly. Lepidisis caryophyllia V., which grows in the form of tall, slender, unbranched stems, often two or three feet high, with ‘long, hollow, calcareous joints, alter-_ nating with short horny ones, and with very long spiny cali- les, occurred alive several times, in 1098 to 1735 fathoms, and dead in many localities, where its joints are very abundant on the bottom and afford solid support for the attachment of other species of Anthozoa, etc. Fine living specimens of Acantho- gorgia armata V. were taken in 407 to 640 fathoms, and a 131 fathoms. A very elegant plumose coral, the Dasygorgia Agassizit V., which has a slender, iridescent, calcareous axis, with the main branches spirally arranged zi the large pve obliquely seated, was dredged in 1846 to 1362 fathoms. It belongs to a peculiar deep-sea family, Ghepeondctides souls established by me for this and yee related _— nearly all of them elegant in form and colors. A new genus, belonging to this family, was dredged in 858 to 1735 fathoms (Lepidogorgia gracilis).+ * Blake sialon a gutting Mus. er Zool, xi, P. be 1883. mpm Axis simple, ir ridescent, with calcareous, ramose toots; polyp-ce Site ies Seana: cbigue, cavarad with aire aches ccenenchyma thin, cov vered bi at all oan Home gia graci re tall, slender, terete, tapering to a flexible tip; roots large, thick, irregulériy but see arbore escently branched, the branc chlets Po A po on between polyps, 5 to 10™™, Station 2072, off George’ s Bank, in 858 8 fa thoms ; stations 2036 and 2037, in 1735 aa 1731 fathoms. A large lot from station 2037. J. L. Campbelli— Geology of the Blue Ridge. 221 ART. XXX.— Geology of the Blue Ridge near Balcony Falls, Virginia ; a modified view ; by JoHN L. CAMPBELL. ut, as regards the stratified beds flanking the main ridge on its eastern slope, subsequent observations have modified the views expressed on page 439 of the paper referred to above, where the following paragraph occurs :— ‘The bedded rocks (1, a 6,) that rest upon the syenite are very much metamorphosed, are gneissoid in character, and dip toward the southeast. [Correct so far]. Then follows a bed of forty or fifty feet of conglomerate and quartzite, bearing some resemblance to the conglomerate sandstones on the opposite side of the ridge, but so different in composition, texture, posi- tion and thickness as to preclude the idea that they have any historical connection. Over this again we find another bed of slate. These beds all dip toward the southeast while their up- per margins reach beyond the underlying syenite and granulite, and with their edges support the lowest beds of Primordial rocks, where both extend high up on the ridges, beyond the limits of the igneous beds.” t was a mistake, as will appear farther on, to class these as Archean beds. But some apology may be found for my mis- take in the fact that Prot. W. B. Rogers, in his notes on the geology of Virginia, as found in Macfarlane’s Geological Rail- way Guide, speaks of the rocks between Lynchburg and Bal- cony Falls as all belonging to the Laurentian and Huronian (his A and B) formations. I had not, however, seen that note of his before the paper above quoted was published ; so that I am entirely responsible for my own partially erroneous. conclusion. _ After my paper on this subject had been published, suspi- clons arose in my mind that the conglomerate and slate beds along the eastern flank of the main Blue Ridge might be of Cambrian age, and so modified by the metamorphic agencies as to have their characteristic features obscure; but engagements elsewhere diverted my attention from them until recently. 222 =~ «S*.~ L. Campbell— Geology of the Blue Ridge. My assistant, Mr. Harry D. Campbell, and myself were re- quested, a few months ago, to make a professional examination of a belt of slate lying along the southeast base of the Blue Ridge in the western corner of Amherst county. In this belt the “Snowdon Slate Quarries” have been opened, and on tra- cing its strike toward the southwest it was found to cross the James River a little beyond the limit of the map and section referred to above. ile examining the geological relations of the belt of slate, my assistant discovered that one of the beds of sandstone un- derlying the slate, abounded, at some points, in Scolithus borings. Examinations extended lower down the River on the Amherst side disclosed several alternations of sandstones, conglomerates and slates, all dipping toward the southeast, but with decreas- ing steepness until, as they approach the old ferry where the Richmond & Alleghany Railway crosses the river, they become approximately horizontal. Then changing their dip toward the northwest with increasing steepness, a similar succession of beds of sandstones and slates was found, with the lowest rest- ing upon Archean rocks, such as constitute the core of the main ridge. : Thus we found what is manifestly a somewhat shallow syn- cline, about three miles wide, running parallel with the general range of mountains, and occupied by successive beds of sand- stones, conglomerates and slates, bearing a decided resemblance to the lower members of the Cambrian beds, on the N.W. side of the main mountain, though very considerably modified by metamorphism ; so much so that I, as well as others formerly regarded this syncline as of Huronian age, and I pointed it out as such to Prof. C. H. Hitchcock some two or three years ag as we passed it on the Richmond & Alleghany train; but the subsequent discovery of a bed of sandstone im situ, contain- ing characteristic Scolithus borings, settles the question that the beds in question are of Cambrian age.’ In confirmation of our conclusion, Mr. H. D. Campbell bas traced the Scolithus bed, with its accompanying conglomerate for at least five miles on each side of the river For some dis tance from the margin of the river, on the Amherst side, the higher members of the series appear to have been removed by denuding agencies ; but on the SW. or Belford side, he found the “ Baleony Rock”—the lowest bed of quartzite—well ex- osed ; then, in the next higher sandstone bed, he found abun- dant traces of Scolithus, corresponding in position and range with what had been found on the other side. Some of the higher peaks a little remote from the river, he found capped with the main Scolithus bed, the upper or typical Potsdam sandstone of this region. We may conclude therefore, that Physics. 223 this portion of the Blue Ridge has been formerly spanned by a grand arch, or series of arches, of Cambrian age, upturned per- haps at the time of their upheaval—the broken fragments o which have been carried away, and only the abutments left to tell the story of a great catastrophe. Washington and Lee University, August, 1884. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. PuHysics. 1. Photographing Colored Objects in their Natural Shades.— Professor H. W. Voce. has laid before the Physical Society of erlin the results of his long continued researches on this subject. It is well known that unnatural pictures of colored objects are generally obtained by photography, the darkest shades of blue appearing white, the brightest tints of yellow and red as black, and so on. Professor Vogel has endeavored to render his plates less sensitive to less refrangible rays by alloying the silver coat- ing with some substance capable of absorbing these rays. He has obtained in eosine, and more especially in its various deriva- tives, coloring substances which possess merely a broad absorp- ro tion band in the yellow, and which give the desired results. By mixing these bodies in the right proportion on the dry gelatine plates, the yellow of the colored objects appeared quite clear on the photograph; but the blue was brighter. Thereupon Professor Vogel inserted between the object and the camera a yellow glass, which partially absorbed the blue rays, leaving the yellow unim- paired, In this way photographs can be obtained, in which the green and yellow and to some extent the red portions of colored objects present the same vivid effects as the originals.—ature, June 19, 1884, p. 188. oY, 2. Measurement of Magnetic Forces by means of Hydrostatic Pressure.—G. QuinckE has shown that electric force produces a pressure upon insulating liquids placed in an electric field. e effect is the production of a tension parallel to the lines of electric force, and of a nearly equal pressure at right angles to the lines of electric force, which are proportional to the square of the elec- tric force at the point of the electric field where the experiment is made, and also proportional to the dielectric constant of the fluid under consideration. He has now extended this investigation to magnetic and diamagnetic fluids placed in magnetic fields. From analogy we should have in this case p= a H,’ (Maxwell’s Elec- tricity and Magnetism, 2d ed., ii, p. 257, § 642), in which H, is the magnetic force at the point in question in the magnetic field, and 224 Scientific Intelligence. air may be expressed by a hydrostatic pressure, and thus K,—1 be .’ The magnetic fields employed by hninis varied in strength from 300¢. g.s. to 12,000c.g.s, The liquids within a groan A a a , A central opening in the upper pole surface was sdients 4 by means of a thin brass tube with a sulphide of carbon manometer and a long India-rubber ied pressure at the bounding surface of air and the magnetic or dia- magnetic fluids, at and at right angles to the lines of mag- netic force, under ergoes the same increase or decrease; and that the height was in some cases more tha an 32™" with magnetic fluids wi e the intensity of a magnetic field. He also shows that the enaeiakt tension of a magnetic fluid in contact with air is bait Sil altered in a strong magnetic field. The quantity ich iedemann terms atomic magnetism (Pogg. Ann., ¢xxVl, 1865, eo a8 can also be calculated from Quincke’s results. _— Ber- itzungsberichte, Jan. 17, 1884; Phil. Mag., June, 1884, p- 59. tet Production of very low oe gg —M. L, Catieret has discovered that formene or Marsh gas can be Susployed to liquefy oxygen without the eiiplayment of mechanical means for 5 ospheric pressure. In the state of a liquid it is extremel mobile, and in passing to the gaseous state Eek) tt rature sufficiently to immediately liquefy oxygen. hod na silver by a oanrent of electricity the best method of measuring the current in absolute measure. ne Ampére deposits < grams of silver per hour; a sufficient amount can therefore be obtsinet Physics. ; 225 ‘it to keep any loose silver from dropping on the cathode. The anode is immersed in the solution of silver salt; and at the end is made by weighing the bowl cathode in a chemical balance. This process is i preferable to Nebel ihe the loss of wens of the ee —Nature, July 17, 1884, p. 2 . Change of temperature due to ‘Pijashaten and Pais cypaarbaaen Soir Ba chmetieff has made at the est ahe ti of Zurich ‘a. “Beasties a8 a Swan incandescent lamp at different tem- peratures—H. Schneebeli employed in toe. saci wy the method of Svehie and Langley. The resistance of the lamp while cold was 80 ohms. The following tables exhibit the results : No. 1. No. 2. Current Entire Light radiation | Current Entire Light radiation Strength. radiation. in candles. strength. radiation. in candles. 44°5 87-0 sk 480 102°0 03 -48°8 97-0 0°25 76°2 0 55 57-0 158° 0-70 94:2 392-0 24-0 67-0 195- 1°85 75-0 250: 5 88°2 348° 17°5 For each i strength, J, there exists the following relation, J*°W=CS, in which W is t the t esistance of the carbon at the des- ignated cecapetatnens S the energy emitted by the lamp, and C is a constant. If W, the enlaces of the lamp, is constant Citivas 900° and 1500° temperature, one has J = constant. This is expressed by the following values: Je 446, 488. BT 67. 160. 882. 480 76 94°2 gS 28 46 207 230 225 (84 B86 6228 226 The resistance of carbon between red heat and white heat appears to be independent of temperature. The absorption coefficient of the glass globes of the lamp appears also to be independent of the temperature between —— limits.— Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 7 7, 1884, pp. 430 T. 7. gE ho le Bzhibition at Philadelphia. ili Electrical Exhibition which the Franklin Institute is making extensive pre- Parations to hold in Philadelphia, during the months of September and October of the. pe year, promises to be a large and 226 Scientific Intelligence. representative one. Exhibitions devoted repaid to sepa and its applications have been held with most pronounced suce in Paris, Munich and Vienna, at each of which Athierigg parests ] x) ot © Qu eo & ~ ge ~~ i) 3 WE) ° bw) La | 2 cs) Qu ° Re =% o = = — — m i 2 = © °o fa @ fupiioienit the great progress w cb the science made since the perio the Centennial, and which shall especially show how largely the world is indebted to American disc and invention for the advances that have been made, will not only possess an unusual attractiveness, but if proper use is made of the opportuni 08 will prove most beneficial as a popular educator. or this reason it is most fitting, that the first electrical exhibi- tion held in menepina sepe be undertaken by a scientific body of such assured standing and 6 et 5g eileen as the pia Institute of the State of Pennsylva uildings, in which the exhibition will be held, oceupy sisted blocks, and are situated at 32d and Lancaster avenue, in West Philadelphia, within a convenient distance from the heart of the city, and readily accessible from all directions by the steam and street railways. The exhibition is announced to open on September 2d, and to close on October 11th. The system of classification which ond been approved by the committee having the work in charge is very elaborate, and, in its general features, original. The exhibits will be grouped under the followin ee sections: Section I, Production of Electricity ; Section II, ftlectel Conductors; Section Measurements; Section IV, Aprlications of Electricity ; Sec n V, Terrestrial Physic : Section 18- torical — atus ; Section Vil, fe aanatioeal aad Bibliographical Each of these sections is subdivided into numerous clas The committee charged with the duty of preparing a or dule of the tests to be conducted, of the apparatus and machines’ has prepared and published a code in accordance with which the r as well as the special electrical apparatus and machinery. The project of the exhibition is international in character, and a considerable number of foreign exhibits will make their —— wil recording or registering at a distance; electricity as applied to mining, naval and military engineering, to light-houses, to musi- Physics. oe 227 cal instruments, to the transmission of power, to sesh gear and to metallurgy ; and a multitude of other applications. Many of these exhibits which are being sin 2 too 2 the lead- ing companies engaged in electric lighting will be very large, and all will be in the highest fearee instructive. The his torical portion of the exhibition = ull; and the utente of the literature of electricity a magnetism hw, be an attractive feature to the student and pots nal m The utility of the exhibition will ati ba enhanced by a series of i> se} lectures and by a thorough system of labelling, for the nefit of the many to whom the exhibit would be otherwise snintelligibie e meeting of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science will take place in Philadelphia while the exhi- bition is in progress, and many members of the British Associa- tion, which meets this year in Montreal, have “ae their e adde a commission “which may in the name of the United States | conduct a National onidiuce of Electricians . . . and have the Pro r . Gibbs, John Trowbridge, C. A. Young, G. F. Brackett, Dr. ahl, Professors Simon Newcomb, G. F. Barker, E. a Houston, A. Fisk, Francis C. Van ak The first meeting of this commission was held on Thursday, August 7th, in Philadelphia, at the Hall of the Franklin Institute, under the chairmanship of Pro- fessor Rowland. From the scientific eminence of this Cees the Pri of the Conference promise to be of the first import another evidence of the interest which the Seethoortin electrical exhibition has attracted, it is worthy of note that the oyal Society of London has es ed it of sufficient Seon’ to appoint four of its members: Dr. John Hopkinson, . Preece, Lord Rayleigh, and Sir William Thomson, to act as its representati ves. other ihe am undertaken by private enterprise, has ever promised to exercise the proper function of an exhibition so truly as an edusationsl institution, and it is to be hoped, that y the intelligent use of its great opportunity, the Franklin Instit Am. Jour. Bar eas Serizs, VoL. XXVIII, No. 165.—Szpr., 1884. — 1 228 Scientific Intelligence. will prove itself equal to the task it has set ~~ to perform, and add fresh laurels to those it has earned in the 8. Etudes pratique sur les Marées fluviales : notamment § sur le gVpeatesd application aux oe de la Partie maritime des- Fleuves, par M. Comoy. 389 pp., large 8vo, with an atlas of ten plates. Paris: 1881 (Gauthier Villans: New York, F. W. Chris- tem). i . Comoy is a valuable contribution to a. difficult and complex, and at the same time, highly interesting fr | = a crossed this valley and reached the base of the Pocono escarp- i Imm ment it swings sharply back and around Pocono Knob. edi- ately afterward it ascends the steep face of the mountain to the wide plateau on top, 2100 feet above Crossing the cen- of that mountain to the broad undulating valley of Wishing ae ishing east corner of Chautauqua County, and keepin approximately Belle! to the Allegheny river, reénters Pennsylvania in Pine ove township, Warren County. : oid t Geology and Mineralogy. 983 It crosses the Conewango River seven miles north of Warren, forming immense accumulations i the valley of the river. Then, after another, and forms a line separating not only the glaciated from the non-glaciated regions, but also the cultivated from t uncultivated and densely wooded regions.” After crossing caw ord, Venango and Butler Counties, the southeast corner of thus leaves Parga ibgren: at precisely y the latitude at which it entered the Stat “The total “se of the moraine is about 400 miles. It and the Be (225 feet above ore ’ Erie) ; ie upon the high lands of eter! County it rests on ground nearly 2600 feet above tide and i surface must have been about 3000 feet he thickness of the vey is stated to vary from a mere sprinkling of bowlders to 100 feet or more; it is even 200 feet deep in many parts of peta abe Pennsylvania, while in eastern, it is gen- erall ab 7 s gives for the usual limit of transport of bowlders in aectndivanik 10 to 20 miles. The thickness of the ice at the terminal edge in some valleys is estimated at about 700 feet, and ve miles back 1000 feet; but where the edge of the re was t. Lewis’s report, Professor 2 males mes the height over the _ tain, one of enty feet in le ona. a class of facts known to be well illustrated by bowlders on Katahdin in Maine, and Others carried from Canaan into Goshen, Connecticut ; showin Upper surface of the glacier rising to a higher level to the north- ward, ae d up the encountered slope carrying its gathered load sto The / Sirection of the glacial strie over the eastern ice-region of Pennsylvania is described as southwesterly, while the same over the northwestern, is southeasterly. The most remarkable feature brought out by the investigations is the bending of the moraine northwestward in crossing the 234 Scientific Intelligence. state of Pennsylvania, and then its bending around in Catta- raugus County, New York, for another southward extension. n wes had an arched front, the chord of which ping i 42° 15’ was nearly 500 miles long, and the versed sine, about 120 miles. It was the southern front of the portion of the great ice mass which covere ew England and New York, and the regions 0 the northeastward, from whose higher portions the movement of the ice was southeastward and southwestward. Professor pa, 8 report is fully. illustrated by maps and biped 3. Geological Survey of Pennsylvania.—Besides the gece by Professor H. C. Lewis, ete ss the survey has issued recently also the following repor eport D3, Vol. II, Part I: The ‘Gooner of the South Moun- tain belt of Berks County by E. V. D’Invilliers, with maps and plates, and an atlas, 1 Atlas to D4, Vol. Ta nd II. port : a revision of the Bituminous Coal Measures of Clearfield County; by H. M. Chance. 198 pp. 8vo, with maps and sections. Atlas of the Western Middle Anthracite field to illustrate Report AA, Part I, Chas. A. Ashburner ualonsirepe, Linneus in OP Tne OEE MEE Tenet ee ee Botany and Zoology. : 239 every edition of his Genera Plantarum, writes “ HHypopitys, pice . ee that he had no intention of altering the form of the word. may therefore conclude that Jussieu and DeCondella: pee their successors have followed the rule of priority as well as the sense of the word in writing (not Hypopi'thys) but Hypo'pitys. The structure and function of Lenticels.— Heinrich Kle- Ria confirms Stahl’s description of the minute anatomy of these organs, and shows by experiments in winter (similar to those by _Haberlandt in summer), that they aid in the transfer of gases and aqueous vapor. He further shows that in some shrubs devoid of lenticels, rifts in the bark, connecting with the intercellular spaces, serve the same purpose. — Ber. d. dettsch. bot. Gesellsch., b ii, keg . Le 6. The microchemical detection of Nitrates and Ntrites” in Plants is possible by the Jeageut suggested by Wagner, viz: Diphenylamin. Molisch one per cent, or a one pro mille solution in pure og ac applying this to dry sections. If either of the salts abov med is present, a deep blue coloration appears, which soon changes to brownish yellow. Brucin in about the same strength is arly as sensitive a test, producing a tran-— sient red or re ddieh-yellow color. Molisch employs this method also for approximate Nacarniesch of the amounts of the salts present, and finds that the percentage decreases from below up- ward in the plant. — Ber. der deutsch. bot. reetoona, i, ae On the woe and growth of Palms. ee lg po in the Proceedings of the American Phil. Soc., April 18, 1884, some interesting a of i ga 1 nnd apparently careful studies of the mode of growth o he essential points of differ- ence between these saaita aE tose obtained by other observers is; gen to the origin of the bundles + is yi ee at present to Say t ra ie that they grow downward from it, from the fro bases; Von Martius, that the grow both u and down, while I of the Sake of the body that they grow outward into the limbs. It is true that the general lengthening of le bundles takes place at the superior cd but there is a growth beside this. t the first appearance of the fronds at the a apex of the phyllophore | the fibro-vascular bundles are already connected with them, and just Ps intimately as they are in the perfectly developed frond, The internodes at this point are very short, but the bundles are t 240 Scientific Intelligence. me in number, and have exactly the same connections, direc- sa tions and relation to each other that they have in later life. But in the perfected frond we find them larger, longer and harder, and in the perfect stem the internodes are longer, the stem and bundles larger, while the whole plant has grown both longi- tudinally and laterally.” G. L. 8. e Physiological significance of Water-glands and Nectaries ; b ALTER RDINER. (Proceedings of the Cam- bridge Philosophical Society, Nov. 12, 1883.)—These Water- the bundle and the cells of the gland, there are numerous tra~ cheids which form a transition from one to the other form of tissue. adding notes relative to the differences between these glands as they occur in monocotyledons and dicotyledons. o gradual stages betw hem be ected as yet, by comparative ancestor, and that there is not a gradual ascent from one group to the other. Gardiner further calls attention to the fact, but lar bundle and the free surface. In dicotyledons there are well developed glands in some plants like Callitriche, where we shoul me they cannot possibly be needed. In the glands of dicoty- ledons there is a very pronounced resistance to the escape of water, and a greater root-pressure is required to bring about exudation. lettin cells of the plant-tissue are also rendered mo turgid in consequence of the increased pressure, and the water is, a arenes. 4 s Botany and Zoology. 241 so to speak, parted with less freely. In monocotyledons, where the supply of water is fairly ize these special precautions for economizing the water suppl apparentl not taken Of nectaries the author takes dubatantiutly the view of Sachs, namely, that their activity is dependent upon the activity of the nectar-cells themselves, and is independent of root-pressure. views conflict with those of Wilson, who attributes the activity to osmosis. Wilson based his conclusions upon the passage of abrane of rawn. But Wilson, at any rate, does not explain the exudation contains only one per cent of sugar. He quotes from Sachs the - statement, that the aaeeiial cells “absorb water Seger ns substances i in solutio ion) with great force on one side and xude it Re espiration and Transpiration of Fungi.—The following i a i have been reached by Bonnier and Manern (Annales des Sc. Nat., Mar. 1884), after a series of carefully conducted experiments with apparatus of novel construction. 1. Respiration m. ool atures. As regards age 5 the following results are the ate oe light, but increased moisture in the air Sere eastern coast of America, and the Straits of Fuca on the western ; , the Pararctalian, or north temperate realm, including” the ° 8° various coast regions between the isocrymes of 44° and 68° F.; 242 Scientific Intelligence. (3), the Zropicalian, or Tropical realm, between the isocrymes of 68° F. north and south of the equator, or the Torrid zone or Coral reef seas of Dana. (4.) The athig iin or south temperate realm, and extending, * ‘ provisionally,” ween the southern isocrymes of 68° and 44° F.; and the Piette realm, or Antarctic realm. The abov ets to surface or shallow-water regions. Dr. Gill names the deep-water region, the Bassalian realm, putting the whole in és seni though recent investigations ae point to at least two. he a Slenshags regions ;” “the flying, and especially ni pay types are most accordant — the actual relations of land areas;” “tem- a . is a ro e factor, and land a secondary, in the distribu- on of marin oieenla.” "The important factor as regards marine life, light, ty set forth by Fuchs, is not recognized. III. MisceLLANEous ScIreNTIFIC [NTELLIGENCE. i; Earthquake in the Middle and Eastern States, August 10, 1884.—On Sunday, August 10, between seven and eight minutes i in the region for r some years. The area affected extends along the coast from Washington, a D. C., and Baltimore, Md., to Portland, Me., and sigit ine ¢ Vt., : ro “ete district affected. it nowhere did any damage beyond a i No bo crockery and occasionally cracking a hous ily injury was caused, although it is stated that one or two deaths resulted from the mental effect of fright upon perso ble health. The time ry veral close time A fuller = may ee expected in a later issue. —_ Errata.—Article by “acter Langley, on pag Tine from top, the rtacina Assen Bd?) — (Aa3— Bea), should se (Aa? + Bb?) — (Aas eo? Article by Mr. S. Ford, on the age of the rocks in the F adele of Schodack Se ce on page 206, the last sentence of the note should — It is possible therefore that the two groups here come into contact, etc.; and age 270, 12th et from c. the foot, the name a should nea auenstein. In Professor — mpbell’s article, p. 222, 25th line from foot, three should be two. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] —————~o—_—_—- Arr. XXXI.—On the Duration of Color Impressions upon the etina ; by Epwarp L. Nicwots, Ph.D. — {Read at the Montreal meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.] T is now more than half a'century since the publication of Plateau’s well known researches upon persistence of vision. In his.experiments the velocity was determined at which a revolv- ing disk with alternate black and white sectors began to present a homogeneous surface to the eye; and this rate was taken as the measure of the duration of the image formed upon the retina by the bright parts of the disk. Upon een red, yellow and blue sectors for the white ones, Plateau foun that the velocity necessary to this appearance of homogeneity Was not always the same, bei reatest when yellow alternated with black upon the rotating disk, and least in the eases in which the white sectors were replaced by blue ones. This reales dR the duration of the impression made the writers on Physiological Optics; and yet after fifty years. our knowledge of the manner in which the duration of the * i + . , . . * : sas Htescdegenat aed bcp poke des impressions produits par la lumiére t mann, Poggendorff’s Annalen, xci. Am. Jour, sa, Borde Serres, Vou. XXVIII, No. 166.—Ocr., 1884. 244 EF. L. Nichols—Color Impressions upon the Retina. retinal image varies with the wave-length of the impinging ray remains in the condition in which Plateau left it. The results of his measurements are given in the following table: Duration of color-impressions according to Plateau. Color of the Total i nore of oe vubaip of alternate sectors. the the hite, 0°35 seconds, 0° 00796 ‘seconds, : Yellow, 0°35 0°00798 : io ee 0°34 a 0°00966 = Blue, O32. g°01229 “ The total duration of the image was determined from the slowest rotation which would sairely blur the black sectors of: =a the revolving ak. The time during which the image re mained undimmed was paleu lated from rigs velocity necessary to give the face of the disk a uniform tin Emdmann found the duration of the i seloss to is White =0-25" Red= Yellow=0°27’ Hao na to 0 0-29" These values probably refer to the total duration. Helm- holtz* found the undimmed duration of the image when the ~ disk was illuminated by lamp-light to be a, of a second, by moon-light 315 of a second. a oe. "this phenomenon worthy of further study, the 4 writer has determined, by a modification of the method of Plateau, the persistence of the retinal image asa iacdae of | the wave-length of the ray producing it. The measure of the duration of the image, adopted in the experiments to be de scribed, was the longest ‘ceeeval which could be allowed to occur between successive exposures of the retina without intet-".> = fering with apparent ssijotathcd of vision. An sedge a one- prism spectroscopet was so placed as to give a fairly pure spec trum of a beam of diffuse white daylight; the Hreunhoter's lines being well defined. A black disk 240™ in diameter, with four narrow open sectors 5™" each in width, was rotated before eo oe th vt iy olin noptipes Optik, p. 3 + Professor Roo rn Chromatics,” a treatise e ob ch the writer owes much, se propose me the a eis the pho oscope and revolving disk for the study : the du jag of retinal images. He says (p. 206), “Dr. Wolcott Gibbs sug- to the author a method which would probably solve this problem in & Sstiatadhory manner, and which is about as follows: With the aid of a spectro- w flicker and presented a steady uniform appearance. This observation would give correctly the eral ‘Sine which the impression remained with diminished : strength on age eye, in the case of the selected color.’ rr ae, $3 =F oa ag 4 £.. L. Nichols—Color Impressions upon the Retina. 245 the slit of the spectroscope at the rate of two or three revolu- _ ihe portions of the spectrum chosen for comparison were situated as follows: Spectral region. caeuieat: : settvacae: Bed oii Sh a ae 420 Orange? 2 Sant. 6463 KOHOW iss Gers Uri ee ae 6025 FOG: Guns cee ie 5415 BiG) oie kale 4784 WIE Soe ee ecco 4382 hragm in the eye-piece of the spectroscope enabled A dia the heat vee to exclude, during the course of each experiment, all parts of the spectrum not under observation. _ _ It was found by experience that the lowest velocity produc- ing continuity of vision could be best determined by taking advantage of the following phenomenon. The transition from . 246 E. L. Nichols—Color Impressions upon the Retina. the light and with the condition of the observer’s eye. The variations due to the change of sensitiveness of the eye were so marked and so rapid that any attempt to compare different por- tions of an extended series of measurements o be aban d through the spectrum, taking a single measurement in each region, it was found possible to obtain series of readings during the course of which the eye had not appreciably varied. The method of observation was very simple. The axle upon which the disk revolved was connected by an endless. band with a fly wheel of weight sufficient to insure the neces- sary uniformity of motion. is fly wheel was turned by the observer, who increased its speed, watching the spectral region under inspection, until the appearance of the above mentioned shadow indicated the transition from interrupted to continuous Series A, Revolutions Interval between Duration of Spectral region. per minute. exposures of retina. 7420 (red) 136 0°1074 seconds. — 0°00293 seconds. 6463 (orange) 150 00961 “« 000266“ 6025 (yellow) 171 00850 =“ 0-00232 “ 5415 (green) 140 071044“ 000285 =“ 4784 (blue) | = 130 C1155: 4: 000306“ 4382 (violet) 88 O166e * 000452“ Series B. [Spectrum brighter than in Series A.] Revolutions Interval between Duration of Spectral region. per minute. exposures of retina. expo 7420 (red) . 154 0°0949 seconds, —_ 0°00259 seconds. 6463 (orange) 186 a‘ be 0024. * 4 6025 (yellow) 260 00562 “ 0°00153 _* 5415 (green) 180 oogi2 . + 0.00221 “ 4784 (blue) - 144 O1015 . « 000277.“ 4382 (violet) 108 01355 * 000369 =“ i 4 4 4 um . 2 = E. L. Nichols—Color Impressions upon the Retina. 247 Series C, [Spectrum brighter than in Series B.] Revolutions nterval between Duration of Spectral region. per minute. exposures of retina. r 7420 (red 190 0°0769 seconds. 0°00209 seconds. 6463 (orange) 228 00641 =“ 00176). « Ff » 6025 (yellow) 280 0°0523 “: 0°00144.— ** 5415 (green) 212 0°0690 0°00188 * 4784 (blue 170 0:0860 0°00234 2 4382 (violet) 136 0°1072 - 0°00286 s Inspection of these three tables and of the accompanying curves shows that the image formed by yellow light is less per- sistent than that produced by any other color, and that the aA. 16" “14"" "10" ' duration of the image increases rapidly as we approach either end of the spectrum. Aside from the inaccuracies, inevitable © Tegion in each curve. It will be seen that the duration of the image is least in the series corresponding to the brightest spec- trum and greatest with the darkest spectrum; and that changes In brightness affect the persistence of the images formed by the different spectral regions in nearly the same proportion. : The law of the dependence of the duration of color-impressions _ Upon the intensity of the ray could doubtless be determined by flame was substituted for that of daylight and its brightness varied by the method of Vierordt, i. e. by changing the width of the slit. At the low intensities thus obtained the fluctua- tions in the sensitiveness of the eye were so great as to defeat the object in view. The observations only served to confirm the fact already established, that with diminishing brightness the retinal image was measured, was, according to Talbot's law for _ the luminosity of rotating black and white disks, only +$z 4 great as that of the spectrum of uninterrupted daylight, seen through the same instrument. The difference is about that between the intensity of light reflected by white paper, 0D the one hand, and from a lamp-blacked surface on the other. Since the relative sensitiveness of the eye for different wave lengths varies with the intensity of the ray, being proportion: ately much greater for the more refrangible rays when the intensity is small, the luminosity curve of a faint spectrum — * The relative luminosity of different portions of the spectrum as determined by Fraunhofer and Vierordt are given in the following table. Their results are the duration of the corresponding impression upon the retina, and beca os show that the luminosity differs for different eyes in much the same way 4% duration of the image is found to do. Luminosity of the Spectrum. Fraunhofer.! Vierordt.? 5 Rae aie aa 32 Wie Ooo cid er ()) 94 ‘ Orange (C) ,------- 12 ellow (D)_-...... 640 Yellow (D) -.------ 80 Yellow (D to F)....1000 Yellow (D to E)----1000 Green ioe ee a ee een {E) ......44- 370 Blue-green (F) .--. 170 Blue-green (F) .---- 128 lee (GF 5 side. Blue (G) 2... -b.0 <2 3 Violet (89) 052. eee Violet (H) .------- 0° 1 Denkschrift der Bayerischen Akademie, 1815. * Anwendung der Spectral-Analyse, Tibingen, 1871. ae vee & Fike ‘ SG ie See e Pag RRR Ae See heres. Pe Re a { £.. L. Nichols—Color Impressions upon the Retina. 249 would be much flattened, at any rate toward the violet, and its values would be more nearly in inverse proportion to the dura- tion of the retinal images, in series A, B, and C, To determine whether the general form of the curve for the duration of color-impressions was the same for all eyes, Mr. Wilson Sterne, of Texas, who had been assisting the writer in the measurements already described, made the following set of readings. The conditions were the same as those under which series B had been obtained. As may be seen from the follow- ing table and from the corresponding curve (D), the variations in the duration of the image upon Mr. Sterne’s retina are very different from those represented in series A, B, and C. he impression of yellow lasts longer, while the green and blue images fade more rapidly. These measurements were repeated many times, the curve always taking the general form shown in carve D. Series D. , Conditions, those of Series B; Wilson Sterne observing. ions ~ Interval between Duration of Spectral region. per minute. exposures of retina. exposure, _ 7420 (red 176 0°0831 seconds. 0°00226 seconds. - 6463 (orange 214 0683 ¥ OGERG © 6 Sc, 6025 tyelleey} 238 ROL a 000167 5415 (green) 224 00653... * 000178 = * 4724 rin 190 OTTO 000210 == * 4382 violet) 148 0°0988 0:00270 % of the variation. Perhaps unusual sensitiveness of the eye to certain portions of the spectrum may lessen the duration of the Corresponding color-impressions, just as the increased brightness of the ray itself is known to do. If this be true, the phenome- hon stands closely related to color-blindness; the precise nature the ray producing them; but that it depends, like color itself, wholly upon the character of the nerves affected. When the in the violet, the image of the yellow and green portions disap- peared first, leaving behind it a dark violet band extending the Helmholtz theory of color, of the truth of which it affords at the same time new evidence. ach wave-length produces three sient and violet the most persistent. Upon this suppos is easy to see that whatever may be the predominant tint of @ subjective” colors in these cases. Taken in conjunction, two causes are capable of producing a great variety of “8!” jective ” tints. Those produced by the more rapid disappe™ ance of the yellow and green portions of the image are similar to the colors which white assumes to green-blind persons, | * Von Helmholtz: Handbuch der physiologischen Optik, p. 389. i; Sa it ie Bd ‘ £.. L. Nichols—Color Impressions upon the Retina. 251 of time the retina has been exposed. Plateau, in the paper already cited, gives a curious law for the velocities necessary to produce apparent uniformity of surface upon black and white disks. He found that any two disks composed of alternate black and white sectors will attain a uniform tint at the same velocity, provided the black sectors in the one are equal in width to each other and to the white sectors in the other disk. That is to say, a black disk with narrow white sectors presents a homogeneous surface at the same velocity as does a white disk with the same number of similiar narrow black sectors; and this holds true, no matter what the number and width of the sectors may be. In a more recent paper, Plateau gives some measurements of the rate of rotation of such disks. e law was not put to a test in his experiments, as it might have been, since the disks for which measurements were made were black, with white sectors never exceeding the black ones in width. he present writer, to determine the manner in which the duration of the retinal image varies with the length of exposure, Exposure of retina, Duration of the image, 0°0124 seconds. 0°0954 seconds. 0°0274 « , 0°0824. ** 0.0717 * OW? 3 0°1314 + 0°0654 . 0-2316 - 0°0463 = ** 0°4506 “ 0°0409 “ 0°7566 éc 0°0327 “ These values are not in accordance with Plateau’s law. The aoe unfortunately incomplete, indicates that upon Increasing e time i i i j infinitesimal exposure, and to become zero for an exposure ~ i pare to a single revolution of the disk. We know by the study — Of after-images that their duration after short exposures of the © 252 J. 8. Diller—Fulgurite from Mt. Thielson, Oregon. retina may be very long, but that a long exposure should be fol- _ lowed by no after-images seems contrary to common experience, The results of the experiments described in this paper may be briefly summed up as follows. 1. The study of the duration of color-impressions produced — by different portions of the spectrum, confirms, in the main, the results reached by Plateau. 2. The persistence of the retinal image is a function of the wave-length producing it, being greatest at the ends of the spectrum and least in the yellow. Mg 8. It decreases as the intensity of the ray producing the | image increases. is 4. The relative duration of the impressions produced by the — different spectral colors, is not the same for all ey oe 5. The duration of the retinal image is in inverse order to the — - luminosity of the colors producing it. 6. Hach wave-length of the visible spectrum produces three primary impressions, red, green and violet; of which green dis- appears most rapidly and violet is the most persistent. Upon the different rates at which these impressions die away depend to a great extent the “subjective” tints of moving objects. . 7. The duration of the retinal image depends upon the length — of time during which the eye has been exposed, being very long after short exposures and approaching a definite finite minimum value as the exposure increases. University of Kansas, June, 1884, eereectncenee ArT. XXXII—Fulgurite from Mount Thieison, Oregon; by J. S. DILuer. THE occurrence of lightning-tubes (Blitzrdhren) or fulgurites, — as they are frequently named, in this country has received little attention and it is very rarely that specimens have found thelr into our museums. This cannot be due to their sear n western part of the United States. They deserve special atten- ~~ because they are the product of an exceptional methodol usion. The terms fulgurite and lightning-tube are frequently used he former be ap . a “4 : ‘aa 4 BS J. 8. Diller—Fulgurite from Mt. Thielson, Oregon. 253 _ ing from a tree struck by lightning, so that in this case, as well as in the one noted many years ago (1790) by Priestly, their electric origin is clearly indicated.. Each of the two fragments is about 50 centimeters long, and the diameter of the tube varies from 7 to 15 millimeters. The smaller one retains its Scope it appears for the most part perfectly clear and amor- phous. There is rarely seen a light brown _ gurite was produced by the electric fu Rem of ( sion. Remnants quartz grains may be discovered in the colorless glass, but they are not abundant fetid limestone. In all of these cases the fulgurite occurs as a * Since this article was written the author has ascended Mt. Shasta, Cal., and found upon its summit fulgurite in the form of incrustations and lightning-tubes. 254 JS. 8. Diller—Fulgurite from Mt. Thielson, Oregon. purely superficial coating, and not in the form of lightning- tubes. It has also been observed in connection with phono- lite (?) (Klingstein porphyr) in the Auvergne; and Hum- boldt found it on one of the very acute volcanic mountains of Mexico, where it had resulted from the fusion of “ reddish trachytic porphry ” (andesite ?). The summit, like that of Mt. ielson, is very small and precipitous, and the vesicular, hole. The rock is porous and at places even spongy. +1 cavities are lined with minute clear colorless crystals and it pears evident that this structure has not been produced a i] cS rs) ceous and its interior is brightly glazed. The hardness of the fulgurite is a little below that of ordinary glass. It is rather tough, strongly lustrous, and has a specific gravity of about 2. In the flame of an alcohol lamp thin splinters readily fuse with- out intumescence. The groundmass of the rock fuses much less readily than the fulgurite to a very dark glass. Small frag: ~ments of the fulgurite when heated become strongly magnetic. It appears to be entirely insoluble in strong acids, eve? 1? aqua-regia, and is not affected by boiling solutions of potassium Baie ter al Sl BE ae ea ee J. 8. Diller—Fulgurite from Mt. Thielson, Oregon. 255 hydrate or sodium carbonate. The accompanying figure (fig. 1) © represents a section of one side of a lightning-tube and shows the relation of the fulgurite to the unaltered basaltic rock which appears beneath. Its line of contact with the fulgurite is irregular. The black-bordered olivine grains and crystals o feldspar project into it and show no prominent effects of the fu- sion, while the hypersthene is distinctly rounded on the edges and the groundmass has been melted much more readily than any other portion of the rock. The fulgurite is divided into two more or less distinct bands. The band (c) nearest the middle of the lightning-tube is a uniformly light coffee-brown glass, which -- — He REE Us Section of one side of a Lightning-tube from Mt. Thielson, Oregon. a, unaltered hyper- Sthene basalt; b, mixed zone; c, fulgurite. : contains a number of nearly spherical vesicles. Between the zone of pure fulgurite (c) and the unaltered rock (a) there is a narrower belt (6) in which the fusion has been less complete and the dark fluidal banding parallel to the length of the tube Is prominent. This zone is frequently more or less granular. It is not only penetrated by crystals of feldspar, hypersthene and olivine projecting from the adjacent rock, but envelops numerous crystal remnants of these minerals scattered through- out. It contains some small round bubbles, but they do not appear nearly so abundant as in the fulgurite described by Wichmann from Little Ararat; nor have I been able to dis- cover any radial arrangement in the longer axes of the larger vesicles. The superficial coating of fulgurite is composed wholly of coffee-brown glass without any marked fluidal structure. A striking feature of the fulgurite is the absence of all pro- ducts of crystallization from the electricfusion. It is true that fulgurite frequently envelops crystals and crystal fragments, / 256 JSS. Diller—Fulgurite Srom Mt. Thielson, Oregon. fulgurite from other natural glasses. It is doubtless due to the fact that the source of the heat being very limited in both time and space, the cooling is so sudden that there is no oppor 4 “ate for the crystallizing forees to act before the mass is rigid, hat the cooling takes place very suddenly is shown by the light- ning tubes in loose sand where, by the electric current, the ee sand is thrust aside, a hole made, the sand fused, and the tube formed and cooled in many cases before the sand can rush to- ether again to fill up the hole. In some cases, however, the pressure of the sand is so great that the tube while soft is col- apsed without breaking. That the fulgurite was cooled very _ suddenly is shown also by the fact that when heated red hot for but two minutes in a Bunsen flame and then examined under fhe EUs tke & amp for nearly five hours without intermission. the fused mass in the lower part of the crucible was found to be clear and colorless, while the upper portion was tough, black e and basaltic in appearance. Under the microscope the dark colored portion was found to be crowded with distinctly striated feldspar microlites and a multitude of others, very minute, which were indeterminable, besides many minute octahedrons of mag netite. Between these microlites, arranged in a basaltic fashion, could be detected a trace of pyroxene, apparently monoclinic, with considerable brownish glass and dark globulitic base. 4? interesting feature in this section is the accumulation of the smallest microlites into elongated groups (fig. 2) in which all the individuals are parallel, as if to indicate their ultimate combit ation to form a single crystal. The clear and colorless porto? of the fused mass found upon the bottom of the crucible com” ST Se: Saint tions” 90 Seo rg” or SS eet ee cae ee ae ee ee ee a aL aeY ghee ae egee OMT, | hey LON eee) a ae eee ati = is ish AE SRE ye soog A fn ME Se dee ae a. That the fulgurite is formed chiefly by the fusion of the groundmass of the rock is shown clearly also by the following chemical analysis made by Professor Clarke and Dr. Chatard in the laboratory of the U. S. Geological Survey. The amount of fulgurite obtainable from the hand specimens was very small and sufficient for only a partial analysis. The alumina and — iron were estimated together, and the amounts of potash and d soda were not determined. Fulgurite. Groundmass. Silica (SiO, 55°04 55°85 Alumina (Al,O, 98-99 22°95 Ferric oxide (Fe,O,) t 4°59 Lime (CaO) 7°86 8°41 Magnesia (MgO) 5°85 3°08 Potash (K,O) 2°67 Soda (Na,O) 2°16 Loss by ignition Tt 0°52 98°85 100°23 The groundmass was separated from the olivine, hypersthene, and all but a trace of the feldspar by means of Thoulet’s Solution, and the magnetite was removed from it by hydrochloric acid. The presence of a larger proportion of magnesia in the fulgurite indicates the fusion of some of the hypersthene. Nearly all of the fulgurite is either superficial or confined - to the lining of preéxisting cavities. This is what we should expect from the well known fact that electricity always spreads itself upon the surface of a body. A small portion of the ful- 8urite, however, seems to have been produced within the adjoin- ng compact rock by fusing the groundmass. It occurs in small regular nodules or strings, frequently full of bubbles and ocea- Slonally possessing a distinct fluidal structure approximately Parallel to the course of the electric current. It is difficult to Conceive how a distinct fluidal structure mey have been pro- duced in these small masses, which were but momentarily Viscous and completely hemmed in upon all sides, unless it 1s ue to the repulsion of the particles among themselves. It is 258 «J. 8. Diller—Fulgurite from Mt. Thielson, Oregon. well known that particles electrified by a passing current repel each other most forcibly in the direction of the current, and this repulsion may perhaps explain the lines of motion in the envel- oped fulgurite as well as those which are so prominent parallel to the length of the lightning tubes. To the same repulsion may be due, at least in part, the accumulation of fulgurite about the openings of small tubes upon the surface of the rock. In describing such accumulation one author has remarked that the tubes seem to have boiled over. The effusion of ful- solidifies from a molten magma. The groundmass (last pro- Os storms presents the most favorable condition for the extensive formation of fulgurite. eee U. 8. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C., May 27, 1884. fae ’ > G. H. Williams—Pyroxene and Hornblende. 259 | q Art. XXXTIL—On the Paramorphosis of Pyroxene to Hornblende ‘ in Rocks; by Gro. H. WILLIAMS. Ir has long been recognized that pyroxene and hornblende. _ are two different crystallographic forms of essentially the same _ molecule, of which the former is most stable at high, the latter at ordinary temperatures. As early as 1824 Mitscherlich and _ Berthier melted tremolite at the potteries of Sévres and found _ that on slowly cooling the mass crystallized in the form of _ augite.’ In 1831, G. Rose repeated the same operation with actinolite from the Zillerthal with the same result. The con- _ Stancy of this change at temperatures of fusion has also been _ abundantly verified by the more recent experiments of Profes- _ Sors Fouqué and Michel-Lévy of Paris, who found it impossible _ to artificially produce hornblende. In every case where this _ Mineral was employed, it changed at high temperatures to _ augite.’ In natural lavas hornblende crystals are frequently _ observed to have undergone alteration around their outer edge _ Into an aggregate of minute augite and magnetite crystals.‘ _ This is probably due to a caustic action of the magma, which, _ ©n account of an increase of temperature, partially dissolves the _ completely crystallized hornblende individual. The same - Possessed the external form of augite.* Some of these were | Pogg. Ann., xxii, p. 338, 1831. 2 Ib, ‘ Synthése des minéraux et des roches, Paris, 1882, p. 78. s K. Oebbeke: Neues Jahrbuch fiir Min., ete. I Beil. Bd., p. 474. 7 ter and Hussak: Neues Jahrbuch fiir Min., ete., 1884, i, p. 24. i Pogg. Ann., xxii, 1831. ‘Tb, xxxii, p. 617, 1834. Ax. Jour. Sct—Tuirp Series, Vou. XXVIII, No. 166.—Oor., 1884. 7 SO Ga Willams—-Pyronene and Hortblandle in structure, had evidently resulted from a gradual and often E incomplete molecular change of crystals originally altogether augite, just as monoclinic crystals of sulphur may be observed _ found to be exceedingly wide spread. It is generally conceded that temperature is not the only influence which conditions the crystalline form assumed by the pyroxene-hornblende molecules. Hornblende is often observed as a primary constituent of certain (generally acid) lavas, and it seems probable that augite may be formed at comparatively low temperatures. e chemical constitution of the mass in which the crystals are formed, as well as other conditions not in the region about Baltimore.”* In a large majority of cases the change seems to be to true uralite. Hypersthene and by Baldauf, 1883. 10 F, Becke: Tschermak Min. und Petr. Mitth., 1882, p. 157. 1 J. Lehmann: Die altkrystallinen Schiefergesteine. Bonn, 1884, P- 190. 2 Of, A. Geikie in “ Nature,” June 5th, 1884. ee 13 G, W. Hawes: Metadoleryte from Littleton, N. H. This Journal, IU, xi, P- 136. 14 R, D. Irving: this Journal, July, 1883. 1 198k 18 G. H. Williams: Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 30, April, 18°* Pi s 5 ~ 4 x G. H. Williams—Pyrowene and Hornblende. 261 parallel growths of two original minerals, just as Rose at first xplained the occurrence of uralite."* That this may indeed the true explanation in some cases is most probable, but Tam convinced that in many instances it is insufficient. In 1878 Dr. G. W. Hawes” figured and described an occurrence | side by side of augite and basaltic hornblende as an instance f paramorphism and the same interpretation was put two ears later by Professor R. D. Irving” upon similar cases occur- Mng in certain Wisconsin rocks. In neither of these instances, however, are the proofs of paramorphism adduced entirely con- Incing. Several cases therefore, recently noted by the present writer, where such a direct change of pyroxene to compact hornblende is admirably exhibited in every stage, seem worthy of a brief description. eg 8S members of that remarkable group of massive rocks ex- sed just south of Peekskill, on the Hudson River, to which fessor J : They all consist largely of compact brown horn- blende, together with more or less augite and hypersthene and varying, though generally small propertion, of a basic feld- par, ° = . . - . 7 _ Present. They were evidently all derived from one magma and exhibit very beautifully the structure termed by Fritsch and Reiss” “ Kutaxitic,” which is so commonly observed in acid lavas like trachyte and phonolite. All of these rocks Which contain pyroxene show the direct change of this mineral to compact brown hornblende in an endless variety of cases. T shall only attempt to describe one or two where this process 8 Pogg a xxii, 1831. rp aid 9 i i . . * Geology at Wisconsin ip. 170, 1880, Ck, Vanhise, this Jour, iI, This Journal, ITI, xx, p. 194, Sept., 1880. " Geologische Beschreibung der Insel Teneriffe, 1868, p. 414. - 262 G. H. Williams—Pyrowene and Hornblende. is especially apparent. These must serve as types of all the | rest eM One rock from the locality just mentioned consists of an exceedingly fine-grained, jet black mass in which occasional — ronze-colored crystals of hypersthene are easily visible to the unaided eye. The microscope shows the groundmass to } composed essentially of small oval grains of brown hornblende with here and there a similarly shaped crystal of hypersthene or plagioclase. The large porphyritic crystals of hypersthene — unaltered. The hypersthene core is surrounded b a zone of perfectly compact brown hornblende whose external boundary, the section, except in a few spots, where, as already the characteristic inclusions remain, is covered with thee tongues and shreds of hornblende of a delicacy and tenulty vis . F G@. H. Williams—Pyroaene and Hornblende. 263 _ which it is impossible either to adequately describe or portray. e hypersthene and hornblende substance, which are well Well as the fine lamella (marked b in the figure) of both the Ypersthene and hornblende are in twinning position to the two ends and the smaller middle portion (marked a), and all the part of the larger one. This exhibits in a smaller scale ‘imits once occupied by the ersthene. There are the same Uregular patches of hornblende over the surface, but here, the ¥ 264.-- G. HH. Williams—Pyrowene and Hornblende.. a original crystal being simple, the secondary mineral all has the same optical orientation Fig. 2 exhibits a similar case of ae a ame of a brown hornblende in another section of the sa erystals are cut nearly perpendicular to their perieal axes pi show very plainly that their orthopinacoids are parallel. The — change has here taken place in somewhat larger patches than in the former instance and the boundaries between the two — minerals are somewhat more distinct, but there can be little doubt that the process is the same i n both. ig These two cases described in some detail must be regarded as typical of a great variety of others, nearly or quite as 4 which when taken together make the evidence of paramorpho- sis, at least as far as the “cide ta rock in question is concerned, very satisfactory. It has been already mentioned that thé - groundmass of this rock is composed almost entirely of roundeg 2. Interspersed among these are frequent hypersthene poe of precis we: the same 0 blende, rablese™ the ptere alors owes bene that this was orig’ inally a hypersthene be up (norite), like others which occur i close connection with it, and “a its present form (diorite) has been due to gradual molecular seairpaten seems quite natural, although not perhaps capable of rigid pr P. everal peat 3 from other localities sie come to my novice which seem also to show strong indications of the direct one of pyroxene into compact hornblende. G. H. Williams—Pyroxene and Hornblende. 265 ___ Microscopic sections of gabbros from Eagle Harbor, Ash- _ land Co., Wisconsin, the possession of which I owe to the kind- _ ness of Professor R. D. Irving, show the undoubted change of _ the pyroxene into single individuals of compact brown horn- _ blende, as recently described by him,” although in none that I _ have examined is the change as plainly exhibited as in the rocks _ from Montrose Point. The wernerite-hornblende rock, in con- nection with which the apatite deposits of Scandinavia occur, ave been recently studied by H. Sjégren,” who called them _ dipyrediorites. They are regarded by this author as a peculiar _ facies of a gabbro, formed from this by the paramorphosis of feld- _ Spar to wernerite and of pyroxene to hornblende. B and green hornblende are produced in this way. I am indebted _ to Mr. Frank D, Adams, of the Canadian Geological Survey, for _ the opportunity to study a series of sections of both the Swe-. dish rocks and others exactly like them, occurring in connec- _ tion with the apatite deposits near the Ottawa River in Canada. _ All of these show the gradual change of pyroxene to compact 4 ig hornblende in a manner closely resembling that exhibited _ by the Cortlandt rocks. __ The so-called “black granite” from Addison, Me., seems to have originally been an augite-plagioclase rock containing _ Some biotite. The augite, however, is to a large extent under- _ are not accidental but must always be in accordance with the ced. o such a _ €xXistence of the other, then the molecules are no longer ina ‘ Geology of Wisconsin, vol. iii, 1880. Third An. Report of the Director of : vad oy Bronte Survey, p. 105. Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Superior. Mono- Pp J ™ Geol. Féren. i Stockholm Forh., 1883, vi, 447. Cf. Neues Jahrbuch fiir Min., _ Ste. 1884, I, ref. 81. / 266 G. H. Williams—Pyroxene and Hornblende. state of perfectly stable equilibrium. Were they free to move, they must at once rearrange themselves to suit the altered con- ditions, but if they have passed into the solid state, this tendency to rearrangement may not be sufficient to overcome the force of cohesion. Sometimes indeed, as in the case of ance with existent circumstances. More frequently, however, the molecular tendency can only manifest itself in an optical disturbance. illard” has recently show temperatures. It is not probable, however, that this tendency alone would be sufficient to effect a complete change of crystal: _ line structure. If, on the other hand, the assistance of some external agency could be introduced, which would render the a rea ment naturally takes place to suit the altered conditions. out rupture, just as heat does. Of course this pressure produces heat but acting as slowly as it does in the e evation *3 Bul. Soc. Min. de France, v, p. 144, 1882. ra Neues Jahrbuch fiir Min., etc., 1884, i, p. 185 ref., ib., p. 237. Ib., 1884, i. °6 Nachrichten der kin. Ges. d. Wiss. Géttingen, May, 1884. PE ae ee Air MeSAR nr aan we cae am POPS pene theo ae * Sia ' OG: 1, Williema—-Pamtestna and Hornblende. 267 rocks occur everywhere imbedded in and passing by gradual transitions into more or less schistose amphibolites, which ‘ nless a mass of rock were absolutely homogeneous, a lateral pressure exerted upon it 8 ros. * Ueber die Entstehung der Altkrystallinen Schiefergesteine, etc., Bonn, 1884, Pp. 190, et seq. ' 2 268 J. D. Dana—Southward ending of o fast gaining ground. It seems probable that we here havea wide-spread and very interesting phase of metamorphism, the alteration of one rock to another resulting from the change of of the paramorphism of pyroxene, or, indeed, that it is ever eed necessary. e range of observations is as yet too small to allow of any generalization. These thoughts are tien net as suggestions and it will in future be interesting to _ note whether this change has taken place on as large a scale, if at all, in the rocks of undisturbed regions, as in those whic show unmistakable signs of having been ‘subjected to great pressure. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, May 30, 1884, Art. XXXIV.—Oni the Southward ending of a ores Synch in the Taconic Range; by JAMES D. Dana. Witha (Plate IIT.) [Read before the British Association at its session in Montreal.] THE Taconic question, although American in its facts, bears no less profoundly on oe than on American geology ; for it is largely a question as to the age and origin of crystalline ocks. I have therefote thought the subject an appropriate one for a meeting of the British Association. My stratigraphical work in the region of the Taconic Range, begun in 1870, I have continued during the last two years; . and it is my saan to present some of the results of my recent investi The acaadio with regard to the Taconic rocks has been reatly ee Se from the first, by Professor Emmons'’s extension of the term Taconic to the rocks of other regions besides those of fie original Taconic, because they were sup- sed to be—not proved to be—supposed to be of the same age and system. My work has been among the original Taconic rocks, those of the Taconic Range and its bordering limestone, which, together, gave to geology, through Professor Emmons, the term Taconic and the first facts and conclusions on the subject ; and of these alone I speak. aconic Range extends along the western border of New England, between Middlebury in central Vermont on the north and Salisbury in northwestern Connecticut on the souta, and encroaches by its western slopes a little on the State és New York. The distance between these points is about 1 Great Synclinal in the Taconic Range. — 269 miles. The line of ridges, after dwindling to a low narrow strip in Salisbury, continues on southward; and this continua- tion is geologically a part of the range, although it does not bear the name on maps; but of this more southern portion I do not now propose to treat. The general conclusions presented by me in earlier papers, published in this Journal from 1872 to 1881, are fully sus- eed by my more recent studies, and I therefore briefly state them. First; as to the rocks. The schistose rocks constituting the Taconic Range vary gradually, as we go from north to south, from argillyte or roofing slate and the smooth, faintly crys- talline hydromiea (or sericite) schist, to chloritic mica schist, and still coarser kinds of mica schist containing garnets and staurolites. the uplift is anticlinal, or synclinal, or monoclinal. But in — other wider portions the beds of the two sides dip toward the axis of the range, and often at a small angle, thus exhibiting the fact that in such parts the structure is synclinal, and ren- dering it probable that it is so elsewher trdly: as to the unity, or not, of the eastern and western lime- stone belts. These belts of crystalline limestone, one. extending along the east side of the Taconic Range, and the other, less continuously, along the western, blend with one another through road low regions or valleys crossing the Taconic line, and thus prove that they are portions of one formation. ; ourthly : as to the stratigraphical relations of the limestone and schist. The great limestone formation passes underneath’ the schist of the Taconic Range as a lower member in the mountain synclinals; and, consequently, the eastern and western lime- stone belts are outcrops of opposite sides of such synclinals. © give the proof on this point for a part of the range is one of the objects of this paper. Fifthly: as to the age of the limestone and schist. The lime- stone,' which is part of the Taconic system, and, as just stated, an underlying member, contains, at various points in central Vermont and eastern New York, shells, corals and crinoids of younger than it, are of Jater Silurian age, and Sees, of the foe of the so-called Hudson River group or Upper Llandeilo ags, 270 J. D. Dana—Southward ending of a The subdivision of the Taconic system into an older and a newer Taconic was first made by Professor Emmons, the pro- bred of the system. But the division was not based on any acts connected with the original Taconic rocks—those of the Taconic Range—but on the perplexing facts that beset the subject after additions of other Taconic rocks and regions had been made. No facts favoring in the least such a subdivision have been reported from the Taconic Range. Among those broader portions of the Taconic Range in which the pitch of the beds is for the most part toward the axis of the mountain and in this fact bear positive evidence of a syn- clinal structure, there is the elevated region called Mount ashington, situated in southwestern Massachusetts and north- western Connecticut. This Mt. Washington portion of the range is that referred to in the title of my paper—“On the Southward ending of a great Synclinal in the Taconic Range ;’ and to the description of it I now proceed. Mount Washington rises boldly above the limestone plains and valleys adjoining it. Its length is about twelve miles, and its average width five miles. The limestone area on the east of it, in Sheffield, Massachusetts, and the bordering part of Con- necticut, is nearly ten miles wide, and that on the west, in Copake, about three miles wide. The summit of Mount Wash- ington (called Mt. Everett) has a height of 2,624 feet above the sea. ‘I'he mean height of the extensive summit region is over 2,000 feet, and 1,300 feet. above the limestone plains at its eastern, western and southern base. ‘ The accompanying map shows, on a scale of 0°8 inch to the _ * The map accompanying this article, presented to the British Association, included the whole of Mount Washington. I propose to publish soon a MP of all of Berkshire, and another of Salisbury and Canaan, with full details. fs eats OES ee he Ss SE ae. Fa ge ee. hai fe ihr ae TP e's RG aS ee many a8 ee ayes > Great Synclinal in the Taconic Range. O71 ally between 30 and 60 degrees. On the east side, it is west- ward ; in a large portion, only 10 to 25 degrees or not diverging widely from the horizontal, but in other parts ranging up to Hee and dip are indicated by T-shaped symbols ; the aN the stem of the T is inversely as the amount ‘of di the point of junction of the top and stem marks the leat yy ‘of the observation.) In an east-and-west section through the Massachusetts,) the ae on the west side in Copake i is 40 to 50 degrees eastward; at Mt. Everett, which is near the eastern > border, 35 to 60 Raine westward ; and at the base directly Figure 1 is a abot of the beds at the western foot, and fig. 2a a tiork at the eastern. y observations on the dip at other points in Massachusetts sustain the conclusion as to the synclinal character of the mountain-mass.* The synclinal is really a compound synclinal, that is, contains within it subordinate anticlinals and synclinals. This is suggested by the two Hagen valleys running deeply into the mountain area on the north, and by the occurrence, Within the area, near its southera pr of small limestone belts, as already ‘pointed ou . The eneral synclinal ore of the mountain is indicated it on either side and to the south. Here a quarry was opened for the sake of the limestone, and consequently the cover of * The following are some observed strikes and dips at the eastern base : In Massachusetts, near the northern end, schist N. 35° W., 10°-15° W., and limestone, 407 off, N. "55° me “ limestone N. 10° W., 15°-20° W.;.2 m. farther south, schist, about 25° W.; 4m. N. of the line of the State, schist N. 20° E., 50°-55° W., oer 75’ off same. In Connecticut, just south of line, at Sage’ 8 ravine, schist N. 20° E., 50°-65° W., limestone +m. oo. N. 22° E., 60° a W., but varying much, The dip of the Schist increas uthward, a and a mile south is 90°, and two miles south has some caktiog | the Neumann just pa of it generally dips westward. (See map.) 272 | J. D. Dana—Southward ending of a schist was removed, so as to reveal the anticlinal position of the rocks. The schist now caps the limestone on all but the upper side, as shown in fig. 3, a view of the quarry. The dip of the limestone is southeastward in the eastern part, but southward in the southern, the latter being the direction of the axis of the little anticlinal. In the limestone area No. 2, which is but a few rods from No. 1, there is another similar anticlinal of limestone; but the schist is not here seen in actual contact with the limestone, : Miss Abbott “ Preliminary analysis of the bark of Fouguieria Splendens Engl.” may be specified. ee The number of members of the British Association resent at Philadelphia was gratifyingly large. A special train from Mon- treal to Philadelphia on Thursday brought about 200; and more 306 Screntifie Intelligence. than a — ed came by other routes. They were made honorary members of the American Association, and many of them took an active _ in the work of the sections. Amon ng the poate: thus ears may be mentioned those by Professor Sir Wm. Thom- “On the distribution of potential in conductors aoe she electromagnetic effects aiecwenad by Hall;” by Professor — me on ‘ i ili ites of ue retraction my on ae method. of ae the motion of the moon’s apogee ;” by Professor A. Vernon Har- court “On the minute study of aes mical main » and “On a lamp for producing a constant flame ;” by Sir Frederick ne ‘on ‘‘Heating from a central source ; ;” by Rev. S. J. Perry, on “Late researches on the solar surface with special cious to evanescent spots ;” by Professor Robert S. Ball, exhibiting and describing a model of the “ ruled cubic surface known as the cylin- droid ;” by Professor H. N. Moseley “On the presence of eyes and other sense organs on the shells of Chitonide,”’ e ‘Utricularia vulgaris with young teleostean fishes entrapped in the pore trap of Sere plant” and “ On the feathers of the Dodo;” by Dr. E. B. Tylor “Remarks on North American races and civiliza- tion ;” ay Professor J. G. McKendrick “On ethidene dichloride as an anmsthetic.” Papers were read also by — Bedford Pim, J. Biddulph Martin, Professors W. F. Barrett, S$. P. Thompson, = oe Valentine Ball and A. H. Allen, and Mr. Trelawney aunder The eta ns of subjects for discussion by the sections con- stituted a new and valuable feature of the meeting. rough tration of chemical lectures,” opened by Professor Remsen. e tion D discussed on Monda , “The use and value of accurate standards, screws, surfaces, gauges, ete. ; > and on Wednesday, ‘“* The applications of electricit Lectures were delivered at the Academy “ emg on oer evening by Professor J. §. Newberry of New York on “The geological evolution of _ North American veccaitioatil > and on Tuesday evening by Professor Robert Stawell Ball, Astronomer Rotel for Ireland, on “ Haunt researches on the distances of the stars.” Both lectures were illustrated with the lantern. The social festivities of the meeting were given on a magnificent seale. On Friday evening, before Professor Young’s address, American Association was welcomed by President Welsh of the Local Committee, and the British Association by Provost Pepp®™ Physics. 307 of the University of Pennsylvania on behalf of the citizens of Philadelphia. After the address the Academy of Music was Pennsylvania, by the Women’s Medical College, by the Zoo- . . Muybridge’s instantaneous pho- tographic work, and by the Botanical section of the Academy of Natural Sciences. The excursions, moreover, were on an exceedingly liberal scale. The Pennsylvania railroad gave three excursions to the seashore, viz: to Long Branch, to Cape May and to Atlantic City. The _ Srganized to inspect the local geology and the local botany of Philadelphia. The city of William Penn has fully sustained the reputation for bounteous hospitality which it acquired a century ago 8 £ver since maintained. Unfortunately the heat during the meet- 2 , and made a burden of many a pleasure. But in Spite of the high temperature, the second meeting of the Amer- lan Association at Philadelphia will ever remain a bright and pleasant memory. G. F. B. — L coaddl v2) oO 1 7) a. ° 5 = = ° 5 ct ime _ R m = A © Q ct 4 Ro a oO i) “ 4 —_e bee) Qu =) 5 ~ | a = = = a") yx | ° g na ° “— dry plates obtained from the manufacturers for —Tuirp Series, Vou. XXVIII, No. 166.—Oor., 1884. : 308 Scientific Intelligence. ork in the infra red. Mr. Hough described a new form of Sensitometer for use in photography. Mr. Nichols read a h measure, The instrument consisted of a spectroscope provided with a Nicols prism and a totally reflecting prism. The inten- sity of the spectrum could be reduced known amounts by the Nicols prism, and the reflecting prism allowed the light reflected from the pigment to be compared with the proper portion of the solar spectrum. Mr. Nichols ated: that he had found that the tions is very consta nt and can serve as a me piecal measure of ignal Service, gave a deat tion of a oposed statistical method of studying the ey ency and is racter of thunder A temporary . subsection of sectio on B was then formed, before which Professor Abbe presented various papers on seismology and t ekdgeg: tization of observation of core ate and electri The st noteworthy discussion that occurred w the all Phe- enon. Mr. de H ° j 1 showe h electromagnetism demanded an effect of the nature discove by Mr. Hall, and also said that many years ago he discovered ‘ ays an Sir William Thomson then gave a pieces) representatio the phenomenon. A paper by Mr. Loudon on the theo thick lenses contained some interesting geometrical constructions Aa i ae i ng e ee Physics. 309 ie a i TN ag Sa rs Sa a a a eae a iron; and that it is by this means alone that external neutrality ccurs In the iron cores of an electro-magnet upon the cessation _ of the inducing current. * * * _., “That inherent magnetic polarity is a quality of all matter, solid, liquid, gaseous, and the ether itself, varying only in degree and not In nature, seems demonstrated by a series of researches I have aking upon the mechanism employed in magnetic con- Be Simic St 0 _ mes; cons y -Tegarded as an extremely magnetic body, obeying the same laws current passes through an iron wire, a neutrality produced an artificial superposition of a weaker contrary magnetism * “Prog Ro ” te ; . Roy. Soe.” (vol. 35, p. 178) and “Journal of the Society of Tele- Staph Engineers,” vol, BY “amo 310 Scientific Intelligence. upon one more internal—and made the supposition that were it i h piece of iron free from the influence of the tion of an external inducing force upon a bar of iron or steel is the result of symmetrically opposed polar forces, producing apparent waves of opposite polarity, or reactions between the exterior and interior of a bar of iron.” . 3. Report on the Internutional Exhibition of Electricity held at Paris, August to November, 1881; by Major Davip Hxap, Corps of Engineers, U.S. A. 287 pp. 8vo. Washington, 1884 (Engineer Department, U. S. A.).—This volume contains brief descriptions of many of the electrical arrangements exhibited at the Paris Exhibition ; these include many forms of batteries, dynamo and magneto electric machines, electro-motors, electric lamps, light houses and soon. The value of the descriptions given is increased by the fact that they are profusely illustrated. This publication has additional interest at the present moment 1n- view of the similar exhibition now being held at Philadelphia. 4, The Modern High Explosives. Nitro-glycerine and Dyna mite: their manufacture, their use and their application ppc -cot principal nitro-compounds; by Manvet E1ssier, Mining Engineer. y & Sons).—The title. explosives, describing also the use of electricity in blasting opeTa tions; and the third gives the principles of blasting, the force - oO e es, the i destruction of walls, various obstructions as in navigation oF 1) agriculture, and soon. The volume contains a large amount of useful information much needed in view of the constantly incre ae ing use 0 h explosives, and the often comparative ignorance 5. Light; by P. G. Tait, M.A., ete. 276 pp. 12mo. Edin- burgh, 1884 (Adam and Charles Black),.—Professor Tait’s excel- lent little treatise on Heat, noticed in a recent number of this Geology and Natural History. 311 Journal (xxvii, 488) is now followed by a no less valuable com- panion volume on Light. is volume is the more welcome since contributions to the department of physics of which it treats, of a general nature, have be w in recent years, while there to supplement the instruction of the elass-room. It is fresh in matter and clear in style. valuable feature, and one which is of necessity absent in class-room text-books, is to be found in the attention given to the historical development of the subject ; num- erous quotations from Newton, La Place, Huyghens and others are calcula o make clear to the student how the present accepted principles and theories have been reached. Ill. Grotogy anp Naturau History. 1. Professor James Hall on the “ Hudson River” age of the Taconic slates.—At the meetings of the American Association of lean Association) 40 5 years age of the Taconic System was the subject of long discussions; and in the course of m Profe all advocated, in opposition to Professor Em- mons, the Lower Silurian age of the Taconic slates and lime- Stones, citing facts in proof from his own investigations. No Paper on the subject was published by him, and not even a report h - Saddle Mountain and Graylock (as also shown by Emmons) ; in the second, Mt Anthony is proved to a broad synelinal of Slates with limestone ben ath; and in the third, Equinox Moun- tain is anoth synclinal ate with underlying limestone— thus long antic ipating in the exhibition of these broad synclinals, the similar sections t ont Geological Report (1862). Underneath each section the limestone is stated to be of the age 18) . are made, as necessarily foll Stone, of later Lower Silurian or the Hudson River group. The slates at Hoosick River had been previously proved to afford 312 Scientific Intelligence. graptolites; and hence the limestone adjoining them and con- formable in be edding with them was reasonably felted to the Lower Silurian. He writes that as to tlte precise period of the Hoosic slates, then made “Hudson River,” he is at present uncertain. At the Montreal meeting of the British Association Professor Hall expressed his belief in the synelinal character of Mt. Wash- ington—the subject of the writer’s paper at page 268 of this volume, and in the general synclinal character of Kes bea ef = 2. EHarthquakes of Ischia.—The facts connected with the ‘enihe quakes of Ischia, from 1828 to 1883, and the theories brought forward in explanation, are discussed b r. Francis DuBois, in esumé.—W hat then do we really ‘know about the Ischian earthquakes ? tA oat is admitted by all or denied by none at fh be accepted as true. 1 Ischian earthquakes: of which ed special record has been made resemble each other, in fact are a counterpart of one another, differing only in intensity, having a special type of which the fo ~ owing are the common and constant characteristics : If there are any premonitory signs one never hears of them ntl after the eid meng has taken place. There are always prophets after an eve (2) Great suddenness ; there is but one serious shock and all is ti intensity of the mic wave as it heey from the seismic center, ut the area of pein is clearly ma (4) The cause of the earthquake ehelster it may et dean it be a fissure, or the formation of a volcanic rent, sub- terranean falling in, or explosion, or what not, is compare near the surfac (5) There a no evident voleanic phenomena ee the Broa uake. f the ited wave is felt outside of the island at all it i felt a sligh (7) There i is no disturbance of the sea (8) Three days after the earthquake of 1881 there was not the least vibration of the soil discernible even with a microphone. Strange to say no notice one way or the other hab reached me with rerard to the earthquake of 188 Conclusions.—(1) That it is very much to be regretted that after the disaster of 1881 no efficient measures were taken to investigate the Fit Aine phenomena of the island of Ischia. That it is very difficult to arrive at any positive conclusion rom reading the different reports. On doing so, one has e PC Se et eee aa eee eee i aoe and Natural History. 313 Naples or on the a Le fee shore should not influence our judg- which was very severe in the promontory of Sorrento. Now the promontory and the ‘mand belon ong to the same geological forma- tion and are very near each oth n the other hand he er pis noticed by har 3“ Rossi in his instruments at Rome, and the various bate a he mentions in ihgpeicini with the jechenns earthquake, as fiapipnite g at that time near Rome, are not by any means necessarily connected with the Ischian earthen e. though in all Ischian earthquakes some commotion on the continent has been noticed, this commotion has invariably taken n a very considerable distance, while i e immediate mo va as been ejected from the many cones on the island one ¢ understand that there may be enormous cavities below the soil. en we consider the corroding influence of carbonic acid and water: and the great number of hot springs and the De ragiiahh of water they are eouttiaally pouring forth and have ring forth since time immemorial, that cavities may exist ee ty still t. If besides this, we remember that sufficient clay is being con- tinually taken out of the soil to furnish bricks, tiles and cooking cess is by no means a new one but has been going on for genera- tions; we see then causes tending still further to honeycomb the soil, The soil therefore being cavernous, a sudden collapse is not only possible but probable, and we can understand that it might produce remarkable effects. 5) The great suddenness and Seen quae of the Ischian earth- quake, together with the absence of any volcanic phenomena, should induce us to seek some othe cause for the earthquake than a volcanic one; and as we have a set of conditions in the nature of the ground itself amply sufficient to account for most of the phenomena, we are justified, in the absence of further evidence, in considering this as an efficient cause. Whether ene acci ae i ssure, a seismic wave, or an explosion or what not, isa ce. which 0 only a teaurthetied ee methodical iter vation in ae Abr will enable us to find o + teleain and its pr append: Subdivisions by J. D. Witter. aid M. E. Wapvswortn. pp. 331-566, of vol. vii of Bulletin of the Mus. Comp. Zool. Canibriage: August, 1884.— °*o & =| nm *@ - 314 Scientifie Intelligence. ture of the “ Azoic” and the opinions of the paren aac. tle ZOIC sonable muraect for counter-discussion. The work is a valuable addition to the history of American geological science; an will be increasingly valued as the discussion of the subject at the same time it is fae that the “ Azoic” is not yet proved to have been azoic,—is not yet proved to ee probabl y been azoic ; it is also true that the Archzan limestones have not been pry to be of chemical origin, or to be not of organic origin. The dences on both sides are still doubtful evidences; and being) Mi it is impossible for most minds to settle down into the positive belief that the era was to the end without life or that the ex1s- tence of life then was improbable; and hence the adoption of the non-committal term Arehwan for the rocks and events of time preceding the Primordial—agreeing in limits as far as its pro- poser, the writer, understands ogee eaten ang some remarks in the volume) with Whituey’s Azo e subdivisions of the A suiban are considered in the volume at much length and one to be—even that of the Huronian— without a “sep grea bas J. D. D. 4. Thirteenth annual fepen on the Geology and Natural His- tory of raesaehag by Joun Coxtett, State seo aaee 161 and 264 pp: ae with eens fake and a geological m Indian- includes an introdution on the ormation of coal and hee seine of general interest. esquereux derives from the number of species of coal plants Bod in the nodules of the shale at Mazon Creek, Illinois and from the same shale elsewhere, that at least 200 species of plants contributed to the formation of a sin gle bed of coal; and adding other species from the same horizon, the number ae ic 5.) ee ~ Geology and Natural History. 315 becomes 250. The review of the fossil invertebrates is by the well-known paleontologist Dr. C. A. ite. Mr. Collett has increased much the value of the volume by the insertion of a colored geological map of the State, compiled from the labors of the former State Geologist, Mr. Cox, and those of : other workers in Indiana geology. 5. fossils as a criterion of Geological equivalency.—The uncertainties connected with the use of fossils as a criterion of geological age was the subject of the able address before the geological section of the British Association at Montreal by its Tr. in the northwestern Himalaya, and of Sind; those pertaining to the fossils, chiefly plants, of the Gondwana system of India, and those of the coal-measures of Australia and the Karoo beds of South Africa, Mr. Blanford states objections to the commonly received view with regard to the approximate universality of faunas, floras and climates in ancient time, and concludes with the following recapitulation. (1) That the geological age assigned on homotaxial grounds to the Pikermi and Siwalik mammalian faunas is inconsistent with the evidence afforded by the associated marine deposits. (2) The age similarly assigned on the same data to the different series of the Gondwana system of India is a mass of contradic- tions; beds with a Triassic fauna overlying others with Rhetic or Jurassic floras, (3) The geological position assigned on similar evidence to between the faunas and floras of distant lands have probably been, t eater than the differences between the B ® 3 } 4 8 @ has an €rroneous in so large a number of cases that no similar deter- ™inations should be accepted unless accompanied by evidence from marine beds. It is probable in many cases—perhaps in the . 316 Scientific Intelligence. majority—where the age of beds has been determined solely by the comparison of land or fresh-water animals or plants with those found in distant parts of the globe, that such determinations are incorrect. 6. The Geology of Minnesota, vol. I of the Final Report; N. H 100 to 200 and sometimes 300 feet thick. The geology of the State hence is relatively simple. The chapter on building stones is the result of a careful study of the rocks, which included trials of strength besides ordinary and chemical analyses, the former by - Professor J, A. Dodge, the latter by the same and his assistant Mr. C. F. Sidener. Four syenytes: 1. from Sherburne Co., 2 Beaver Bay Lake Co., 3, 4. Watab, Benton Co., afforded : SiO, #0; FeO; MgO CaO K,0 Na,O0 1. Gray syenyte... 65°12 16°96 469 199 477 218 3°07= 98°78 2. Red syenyte.... 71°81 12°82 602 056 226 251 1:92= 97°90 ‘ 3°06 593 162 «=: 2'-45= 99°68 4. Red syenyte.... 78:12 1114 2°68 tf. 062 448 3:33=100°97 — The chapters on the geology of the counties are illustrated by detailed maps. The noted locality of red pipestone of the > tory and description of it are given by Professor Winchell. The pipestone is a bed of indurated clay in the red quartzyte of the region. 7. Tertiary Geology of the Eastern and Southern United States.—Protessor A. Heilprin’s paper on this subject, noticed in volume xxiv of this Journal (1882), on page 228, is published in full in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- delphia, Part I of vol. ix (1884), : 8. On the Development and Generic relations of the Corals of the Carboniferous System of Scotland; by Mr. Jamus THOMSON, .G.S. 208 pp. 8vo, with 14 plates. Read before the Philosoph- ical Society of Glasgow, March 14th, 1883.—This memoir Geology and Natural History. 317 evidence of being the result of much investigation. It discusses the relations of the various genera of Carboniferous corals and gives descriptions of many new species. arge number of development as well as distinctions in structure. eologie von Bayern (Bavaria), von Dr. K. W. von Gum- BEL, Ist part: Elements of Geology, and Ist “ Lieferung,” 208 pp-, with numerous illustrations in the text. Kassel, 1884 (Theo- dor Fischer).—-This volume is the first portion of an extended work on geology by Dr. von Giimbel, and includes an account of the constituents of rocks, and the methods of investigating them, themselves through part of the series. The cuts are illustrations of the optical characters of the minerals and rocks; and a large part of the rocks described are thus illustrated. The wor promises to be an important contribution to geological science as well as a valuable text-book. : teroscopic organisms in the Bowlder Clays of Chicago and vicinity; by Messrs. Dr. H. A. Joanson and B. W. AS. ull. Chicago Acad. Sci., 1884.\—The authors of this paper microscopic dises 1-85th to 1-250th of an inch in diameter. The facts were the occasion of the recent appointment of a com- full of bowlders, of various sizes up to several cubic yards, many with “ice-markings ;” and some of the smaller are a carbona- ceous shale which is apparently identical with that of the Upper Devonian ; like that it burns with a bright clear flame giving out a strong petroleum odor. : M as, in a note appended to the article, states that he de cla clay,” from Litchfield, in Cen ‘are marine and are supposed to come from Cretaceous beds. a clay of the lower drift, from Bloomington, Illinois, at a depth 318 Scientific Intelligence. of 135 feet below the surface, occurs a stratum of black soil con- taining quantities of well pre eserved timber, with stumps of trees apparently in their natural position, and affording also discs like the macrospores of the Chicago clays, except that they are smaller. ae (2 sein Ach Sanger Neat Congress.—The meeting of the International Congress at hala n has been deferred a year, in ae F. G. Hi 399 pp. 12mo. ees 1384 ‘(once Green & Co.).—This volume is a companion is ‘the Treatise on Systematic Mineralo ogy by the same author, published some three years since this Journal, xxi, 506). The descriptions of species are brief, from the necessity of the case, but the matter is well selected and well arranged, so that the ordinary sndent will readily find almost all the information he needs. The work has many excellent features, not the least e saab the tar id prineed from the original blocks used by Brooke and Miller, thirty years ago. It is not as fully up to date as a might be; thus we are told of cyanite that the “dimensions are undetermined ;’ mention is made of vanadinite from Arizona, of danburite from Agena and These analyses are quoted here made by J. B. Mackiutcah upon the ph mineral. 1, Ehrenfried- Was 2. Stoneham. 8. Stoneham. kler Winkler. Mackintosh. osphorus pentoxide ......- yeore 41°51 Beryl o BiG 8°61 14°84 15°76 Alumin 6-58 2°26 eee Tron sesquiomide oe cn he LUT 1°18 ce Lim 34°06 33°67 33°21 Water [6°54] 659 loss 6°72 100°00 100°05 100° 10°00 Kl. 1132 Analyses 1 and 2 were made upon 39°5™™ and 101-7™™ respect: ively. comparison between analyses 2 and 3 shows that according to Winkler the Stoneham mineral contains some alumi- num and iron together with the lium, and also that it con- tains water instead of fluorine—Winkler remarks upon a doubtt ] fluorine reaction, but is Anelined to reg: riday we loss as water. 350° and 7°59 at a re ea urther it is seen Ske the original herderite differs Poko the Stoneham miners in containing about half the beryllium replaced by aluminum and iron, he formula calculated from Winkler’s results, "if only beryllium is assumed ee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 319 to be present, is Ca,Be,P,O,,+4H,O, which requires: phosphorus pentoxide 43°23, beryllium oxide 15°34, lime 34°13, water 7°30=100. Obviously, however, the material employed was too scanty to make the results thoroughly satisfactory. It is much to be desired that a new analysis of the Stoneham mineral may be j R. 14. Deep-sea Fauna.—In his address before the Biological Section of the British Association at Montreal, H. N. Mose.ey, Esq., President of that Section, and one of the Naturalists of the Challenger Expedition, states as a striking characteristic of the eep-sea fauna, the absence of Paleozoic types except among repre- pelagic species are often larval in form, favors the idea o eing ancestral; and he infers, thence, that by later modifications, the pelagic forms became adapted to the rougher littoral condi- am and from the littoral distribution later came the deep-sea ife, 15. Linnean Society of New York, vol. .—This second vol- ume of the N. Y. Linnean Society contains two papers by Dr. C. - Merriam, on the Vertebrates of the Adirondack Region (con- cluding the Mammalia), and a description of a new genus and Species of the Sorecide, Atophyrax Bendirii. The latter is illus- trated by a plate. The shrew was obtained by Captain Bendire about 18 miles southeast of Fort Klamath and a mile from Wil- liamson’s River. It is one of the largest of the Shrews G London, at the ripe age of 84. An account of his life and Sclentifie work may be expected in a future number of this Journal. IV. MiscenLaANrgous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. all those estimated to be of the first six magnitudes. The obser- vations comprised 700 series and included 94,476 separate com- 320 Miscellaneous Intelligence. parisons, or, including peeneane) observations and those on stars not conprised in the catalogue, the total number exceeds one hundred saa These numbers are quoted as showing the tain a description of the photometer, a summary of series, a dis- cussion of the effect of atmospheric absorption, results of direct eye estimates of relative brightness of the stars, the general cata- rogue, and some miscellaneous points connected with the work. 2. Dimensions of the Gulf of Mexico. (Communication to Mr. J. E. Hilgard, ane neusent of the U. 5. Coast and Geodetic A. D According to the 2h SE given in your “ Basin of the Gulf of exico ” (see this Journal, vol. xxi, April, 1881), the area of the Gulf of Mexico is 595,000 square miles and the area of the surface included within the 100-fathom line, 387,000 square miles; hence rather more than one-third of the surface of the Gulf (35 per _— has a depth below 100 fathoms. The mean depth of the Gulf 858 fathoms, which means that a basin of the same surface with the Gulf, and of the uniform depth of 858 fathoms will have the e seen that the mean ie is rae of ne greatest and the mean = of the deeper parts 2 of the sa . Bureau of Scientific p esata A generous gift of time es ination of the results of scientific investigation, and of facilitating the work of the student in natural history, the following members and officers of the Academy of Natural Sciences have associated eee into a Bureau of Scientific ue whose function imparting, through correspondence, of precise and 5 5 r oO 0 by the nature of their environs, are precluded from the ‘advan- tages to be deriy ed from myseums and librari ies, a eed professional char —such as mineral or chemical agreement. The Heiss naa may be addressed directly, care of the Bureau of Scientific Information, Academy of Natural Sciences. A return stamp (two cents) is all that is asked. : Miscellaneous Intelligence. 321 Pond Life, Fresh-water Sponge ge W. Tryon, Jr., Conchology; Benjamin Sharp, M.D., Worms, Annelids, Histology; G. H. Horn, M.D., North Ameri- can Coleoptera; H. C. McCook, D.D., Ants, Spiders, Insect J 7 . M J. Nolan, M.D., Bibliography of Natural History. Chairman, ome in October last goes on to speak of the adoption of an international time. “Tt is my belief that an accordance of all governments can be obtained in this matter of international time, with the same unan- imity as in that of a common prime meridian, and I anticipate little difference of opinion upon the subject in the Washington Convention. The only probable discordance is relative to details In its application. “An obstacle has nevertheless unexpectedly arisen in the United t meridians midway between those of 4”, 5%, 6%, 7°, and 8° from Greenwich, it is attempted to introduce, throughout each of these Sections, one and the same system of time for use both by the is that of Greenwich for the minutes and seconds, but using that hour which is nearest to the local mean time. . . . - The accor- dance of the public clocks, thus obtained for the various cities 1n 322 Miscellaneous Intelligence. the same section, is a matter of some convenience for travelers and great advantage for the railroads ; but it is secured by sacrifices which not only outweigh these advantages, but are in fact quite needless, since the desired end can be better attained by the total abandonment of any attempt to force an erroneous standard of time upon the community, and the adoption of the recommenda- tion of the Geodetic conference. “The facts of Nature demand a certain recognition; and the absurdity of the attempted change differs in degre e only, not in kind, from that of a division of the year into a given number of equal Saaiotin or the month into a round number of equal days. The large deviation from the truth, in the standard of time thus imposed upon the inhabitants of regions near the boundaries of the proposed sections, can som: .mes amount to three-quarters of an hour; and the moment to which the name of noon is thus give would divide the day into two unequal parts, whose inequality would, at certain seasons of the year, be very little less than an. hour and a half. man visiting his next door neighbor might find his watch to be an hour wrong. Such incongruities embar- rass the affairs of daily life. ee “Only some very strong necessity ap justify such age: lences a violations of ‘natural laws; and no necessity € and co at of a distinct system of time of tim reduced toa minimum w they are so different as to preclude all danger of scietadon when they are so easily convertible, and when one of them is identical for all the world. The metho now ard time? of the North aenieeican railroads and it cannot fail to afford practical, commercial and sc ientific ‘sdvantanes while adding one more to the various bonds “whe are, of late years, se the nations of the earth in closer relations.” he National Dispensatory, cones, J the echt History, Chemisiry, Pharmacy, Actions and Uses of Medicines; by A. Srittf, M.D., LL.D. and J. M. Ma tbs, Phat .D. ei ,756 pp. Philadelphia, 1884 (H. °C. Lea’s Son & Co o.).—A third edition . this standard work has been just issued, in which it has been — thoroughly revised and much enlarged. The very large veka is handsom mes printe irs has many illustrations. Report on the Crustacea of Minnesota, included in the orders Cladocera and Famoler 9 se, wh with a proche of = described species in North America and keys to the known species of the m portant genera, by L. 0. Herrick. _ 192 pp. 8vo, illustrated by 22 plates. an ges 12th Ann. Rep. Geol. and Nat. Survey of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1884. Plate III. OF A GREAT THE Co yeaa B SCALES IN fe “li a SHADED PART LI UNSHADED MICA pte’ we NEW HAVEN CONN YY » y, LY Uy yp", ¢ yy Yy Ui, Yyy ay Oo Ms yey Ws SS ~ SSS SS ~~ = S SS SSNS 1 oe: ~~ su \ Washington : oN ROT ee ee: aN Tn ee <0, ee SUPPOSED GLACIATED LOCALITIES IN PENNSYLVANIA SOUTH OF THE TERMINAL MORAINE jated area is shaded. . NOTE.—The Glac AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES] ArT. XXXIX.—Characteristics of the North American Flora: an Address to the Botanists of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Montreal; read to the Biological Section, August 29; by ASA GRay. WueEn the British Association, with much painstaking, honors and gratifies the cultivators of science on this side of the ocean by meeting on American soil, it is but seemly that a corresponding member for the third of a century should en- deavor to manifest his interest in the occasion and to render some service, if he can, to his fellow-naturalists in Section D. I would attempt to do so by pointing out, in a general way, Some of the characteristic features of the vegetation of the country which they have come to visit,—a country of ‘ mag- nificent distances,” but of which some vistas may be had b those who ean use the facilities which are offered for enjoying them. Even to those who cannot command the time for dis- tant excursions, and to some who may know little or nothing of botany, the sketch which I offer may not be altogether un- UR. So1.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XXVIII, No. 167.—Nov., 1884.- | 21 324 A. Gray—North American Flora. for both. There opportunities may be afforded for a passing acquaintance with the botany of the Atlantic border of t United States, in company with the botanists of the American Association, who are expected to muster in full force. be asked of me, then, is to portray certain out- lines of the vegetation of the United States and the Canadian Dominion, as contrasted with that of Europe ; perhaps also to touch upon the causes or anterior conditions to which much of the actual differences between the two floras may be ascribed. For, indeed, however interesting or curious the facts of the case may be in themselves, they become far more instructive when we attain to some clear conception of the dependent rela- tion of the present vegetation to a preceding state of things, out of which it has come. As to the Atlantic border on which we stand, probably the first impression made upon the botanist or other observer com- ing from Great Britain to New England or Canadian shores, shind. Among the trees the White Birch and the Chestnut will be identified, if not as exactly the same, yet with only may be said to be no of several other trees. Only as you proceed westward an southward will the differences overpower the similarities, which still are met with. . In the fields and along open roadsides the likeness seems to be greater. But much of this likeness is the unconscious work of man, rather than of Nature, the reason of which 1s not far to seek. This was a region of forest, upon which the aborig- ines, although they here and there opened patches of land for cultivation, had made no permanent encroachment. Not very much of the herbaceous or other low undergrowth of tals forest could bear exposure to the fervid summer's sun; 2D the change was too abrupt for adaptive modification. The plains and prairies of the great Mississippi Valley were then too remote for their vegetation to compete for the vacancy _ which was made here when forest was changed to grain-fields and then to meadow and pasture. And so the vacancy came to be filled in a notable measure by agrestial plants from Europe, yr A. Gray—North American Flora. 325 mals of one country to another. So, while an agricultural people displaced the aborigines which the forest sheltered and nourished, the herbs, purposely or accidentally brought with them, took possession of the clearings, and prevailed more or less over the native and rightful heirs to the soil,—not enough to supplant them, indeed, but enough to impart a certain ad- ventitious Old World aspect to the fields and other open in floral show. The common Barberry of the Old World is an early denizen of New England. The tall Mullein, of a wholly alien race, shoots up in every pasture and new clearing, accompanied by the common Thistle, while another imported Thistle, called in the States “the Canada Thistle,” has become a veritable nuisance, at which much legislation has been leveled botanist of lon experience tells me that, where the two grow together, cows freely feed upon the undoubtedly native species, and leave the naturalized one untouched. ple, they may have played somewhat the same part in the once forest-clad W eenens vay that they have been playing here. 326 A. Gray—North American Flora. cious idea of increased strength gained by competition. Oppor- tunity may count for more than exceptional vigor; and the 7 by races unfit for emigration. ; Singularly enougb, this deficiency of herbaceous plants '8 being supplied from Europe, and the incomers are spreading with great rapidity; for lack of other. forest material eve? apple-trees are running wild and forming extensive groves Men and cattle are, as usual, the agents of dissemination. But colonizing plants are filling, in this instance, a vacancy which was left by nature, while ours was made by man. We may agree with Mr. Ball in the opinion that the rapidity with which the intrusive plants have spread in this part of South Americ “is to be accounted for, less by any special fitness of the mmr grant species, than by the fact that the ground is to a ‘ tent unoccupied.” A. Gray—North American Flora. 327 The principle applies here also; and in general, that it is Opportunity rather than specially acquired vigor that has given Old-World weeds an advantage may be inferred from tw) and, I judge, a very pleasant experience which the botanist and nd western sides of our continent flourish side by side. Here 328 A Gray—North American Flora. Juniper, and a Yew; those of Canada proper are four or five Pines, four Firs, a Larch, an Arbor-Vite, three Junipers, and a Yew,—fourteen or fifteen to three. Of Amentaceous trees and shrubs, Great Britain counts one Oak (in, two marked forms), a Beech, a Hazel, a Hornbeam, two Birches, an Alder, a Myrica, eighteen Wiilows, and two Poplars,—twenty-eight species in nine genera, and under four natural orders. In Canada there are at least eight Oaks, a Chestnut, a Beech, two Hazels, two Hornbeams of distinct genera, six Birches, tw Alders, about fourteen Willows and five Poplars, also a Plane tree, two Walnuts and four Hickories; say forty-eight species In thirteen genera, and belonging to seven natural orders. The comparison may not be altogether fair; for the British flora is exceptionally poor, even for islands so situated. But if we extend it to Scandinavia, so as to have a continental and a0 equivalent area, the native Conifers would be augmented only y one Fir, the Amentacez by several more Willows, a Pop: lar, and one or two more Birches;—no additional orders no? genera. _ If we take in the Atlantic United States, east of the Missis- sippi, and compare this area with Europe, we should find the species and the types increasing as we proceed southward, but about the same numerical proportion would hold. A. Gray—North American Flora. 329 world forms, give peculiar features to the North American flora,—features discernible in Canada, but more and more prominent as we proceed southward. Still confining our sur- three species of Locust, two of them fine trees, and two Honey TAot Locusts, the beautiful Cladrastis, and the stately Gy . dodendrons and their Heaths,—and even the latter are repre- sented by some scattered patches of Calluna, of which it may be still doubtful whether they are chance introductions or sparse evelopment and diversification of the genus Vaccinium (along With the allied American type, Gaylussacia) will attract atten- lon, It is interesting to note the rapid falling away of Hricacese westward in the valley of the Mississippi as the forest thins out. 3. The wealth of this flora in Composite is a most obvious feature; one especially prominent at this season of the year, when the open grounds are becoming golden with Solidago, and = eariier of the autumnal Asters are beginning to blossom. very few Asters and only two Solidagoes, no Sunflowers and hardly anything of that tribe. Our Atlantic flora surpasses all 330 A. Gray—North American Flora. 4. Perhaps the most interesting contrast between the flora of Europe and that of the eastern border of North America is in e charis of our coast, reaching even to New England; Cyrilla place, though on this side of the Atlantic it reaches Newlo lan A. Gray—WNorth American Flora. 331 a and Hydrastis in Ranunculacee; Caulophyllum, Diphylieia, Jeffersonia and Podophyllum in Berberide; Brasenia and Vitis, and of the poisonous species of Rhus (one, if not | oth, of which you may meet with in every botanical excursion, and Japan, ose; W remember that the peculiar small order of which Calycanthus 1S the principal type has its other representative In the same region; that the species of Philadelphus, of Hydrangea, of Ttea, Astilbe, Hamamelis, Diervilla, Triosteum, Mitchella which carpets the ground under evergreen woods, Chiogenes, “creeping over the shaded bogs; Epigzea, choicest woodlan flower of early spring; Elliottia; Shortia (the curious history 332 A. Gray—North American Flora. of which I need not rehearse); Styrax of cognate species ;: Nyssa, the Asiatic representatives of which affect a warmer region; Gelsemium, which under the name of Jessamine is the vernal pride of the Southern Atlantic States; Pyrularia and Buckleya, peculiar Santalaceous shrubs; Sassafras and Benzoins of the Laurel family ; Planera and Maclura ; Pachy- sandra of the Box tribe; the great development of the Juglan- daceze (of which the sole representative in Europe probably was brought by man into southeastern Europe in pre-historic times); our Hemlock-Spruces, Arbor-vite, Chamecyparis, Taxodium and Torreya, with their Hast Asian counterparts, the Roxburghiaces, represented by Croomia—and I mig much further extend and particularize the enumeration—you will have enough to make it clear that the peculiarities of the one flora are the peculiarities of the other, and that the two are in striking contrast with the flora of Europe. This contrast is susceptible of explanation. I have ventured to regard the two antipodal floras thus compared as the favored heirs of the ante-glacial high northern flora, or rather as the heirs who have retained most of their inheritance. For, inas- much as. the present arctic flora is essentially the same round the worid, and the Tertiary fossil plants entombed in the strata. beneath are also largely identical in all the longitudes, we may well infer that the ancestors of the present northern tempera plants were as widely distributed throughout their northera home. In their enforced migration southward geographical configuration and climatic differences would begin to operate. Perhaps the way into Europe was less open than into the lower latitudes of America and eastern Asia, although there is Te” son to think that Greenland was joined to Scandinavia. H ever that be, we know that’ Europe was fairly well furnished with many of the vegetable types that are now absent, possibly with most of them. Those that have been recognized are mainly trees and shrubs, which somehow take most readily to” fossilization, but the herbaceous vegetation probably accom: panied the arboreal.. At any rate, Europe then possessed Torreyas and Gingkos, Taxodium and Glyptostrobus, Liboce: drus, Pines of our five-leaved type, as well as the analogues « - Oe RT Onn et Te ee ee! A. Gray—North American Flora. 333 understand how Europe came to lose these elements of her flora, and Atlantic North America to retain them, we must recall the poverty of Europe in native forest trees, to which I have already alluded. A few years ago, in an article on this subject, I drew up a sketch of the relative richness of Kurope, Atlantic North America, Pacific North America and the eastern elements were somewhat under-rated. I allowed only 38 genera and 85 species, while to our Atlantic American forest 4 I were assigned 66 genera and 155 species. I find from Nyman’s by the hand of man. On Nyman’s authority i may put into this category Cercis Siliquastrum, Ceratonia Siliqua, Diospyros otus, Styrax officinalis, the Olive, and even the Walnut, the Chestnut, and the Cypress. However this may be, it seems clear that the native forest flora of Europe is exceptionally by Europe. First, Europe, extending but little south of lat. 40°, is all within the limits of severe glacial action. Second, flanked the mountain ranges, or were stationed south of them, Stretched the Mediterranean, an impassible barrier. . . Escape Y the east, and rehabilitation from that quarter until a very ate period, was apparently prevented by the prolongation of the Mediterranean to the Caspian, and probably thence to the Siberian Ocean. If we accept the supposition of Norden- * This Journal, III, xvi, 85. 334 A. Gray—North American Flora. skiéld that, anterior to the Glacial period, Europe was ‘ bounded on the south by an ocean extending from the Atlantic over the present deserts of Sahara and Central Asia to the Pacific,’ all chance of these American types having escaped from and reéntered Europe from the south and east seems excluded. Europe may thus be conceived to have been for a time some- what in the condition in which Greenland is now. . . . Green- land may be referred to as a country which, having undergone extreme glaciation, bears the marks of it in the extreme pov- erty of its flora, and in the absence of the plants to which its southern portion, extending six degrees below the arctic circle, might beentitled. It ought to have trees and it might support i iati way has been open for their return. Europe fared much better, but has suffered in its degree in a similar way.”* Turning to this country for a contrast, we find the continent on the eastern side unbroken and open from the arctic circle to the tropic, and the mountains running north and south. The vegetation when pressed on the north by on-coming refrigera- tion had only to move its southern border southward to enjoy its normal climate over a favorable region of great extent; and, upon the recession of glaciation to the present limit, or in the oscillations which intervened, there was no physical impediment to the adjustment. Then, too, the more southern latitude of this country gave great advantage over Europe. The line of ter- pleasant places,*and the goodly heritage remains essentially u2- im paired. The transverse direction and the massiveness of the moun tains of Europe, while they have in part determined the com parative poverty of its forest-vegetation, have preserved there a rich and widely distributed alpine flora. That of Atlantic or in cool ravines of moderate elevation; the maximum alti- tude is only about 6,000 feet in lat. 44°, on the White Moun- tains of New Hampshire, where no winter snow outlasts summer. T'he best alpine stations are within easy reach of Montreal. But as almost every species is common to Hurope and the mountains are not magnificent, they offer no great attraction to a Kuropean botanist. Farther south, the Appalachian Mountains are higher, * This Journal, |. ¢., 194. be- aa le gear ale EAM TAL A. Gray—WNorth American F. lora. . 335. tween lat. 36° and 34° rising considerably above 6,000 feet ; they have botanical attractions of their own, but they have no. alpine plants. A few subalpine species linger’ on the cool shores of Lake Superior, at a comparatively low level. Per- baps as many'are found nearly at the level of the sea on Anti- costi, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, abnormally cooled by the abrador current. The chain of great fresh-water lakes, which are discharged by the brimming St. Lawrence, seems to have little effect upon our botany, beyond the bringing down of a few northwestern species. But you may note with interest that they harbor sundry maritime species, mementoes of the former saltness of these interior seas, Cakile Americana, much like the European Sea Rocket, Hudsonia tomentosa (a peculiar Cistaceous genus ry which characterizes the plains beyond our wooded region. - I have thought that some general considerations like these might have more interest for the biological section at large than any particular indications of our most interesting plants, and of how and where the botanist might find them. Those who In these busy days can find time to herborize will be in the excellent hands of the Canadian botanists. At Philadelphia their brethren of “the States” will be assembled to meet their Visitors, and the Philadelphians will escort them to their classic ground, the Pine Barrens of e To have an idea of this peculiar phytogeographical district, you may suppose a long wedge of the Carolina coast to be thrust up northward quite to New York harbor, bringing into a comparatively cool climate many of the interesting low-country plants of the South, which, at this season, you would not care to seek in their sultry proper home. Years ago, when Pursh and cleistogamous flowers at the root, the showy species of Chrys- psis, and many others, must still a 336 A. Gray—North American Flora. will wish to collect Schizea pusilla, rarest, most local, and among the smallest o f only the season would allow it, there is a more southern on steep mountain-sides, through which the traveler can make his way only by following old bear-paths, or by keeping strictly on the dividing crests of the leading ridges. y on the summits do we find Rhododendron Catawbiense, parent of so many handsome forms in English grounds, and on the higher wooded slopes the yellow and the flame-colored ‘Azalea calendalacea; on the lower, the pink A. nudiflora an more showy A. arborescens, along with the common and wide - spread A. viscosa. The latter part of June is the proper me to explore this region, and, if only one portion can be visited, Roan Mountain should be preferred. : On these mountain tops we meet with a curious anomaly !” P - A. Gray—North American Flora. 337 ‘geographical distribution. With rarest exceptions, plants which are common to this country and to Europe ited well northward. But on these summits from southern Virginia to Carolina, yet nowhere else, we find—undoubtedly indigenous and undoubtedly identical with the European species—the Lily-of-the- Valley ! e given so much of my time to the botany of the Atlantic border that I can barely touch upon that of the western regions. Between the wooded country of the Atlantic side of the ‘continent and that of the Pacific side lies a vast extent of posite, especially of Asters and Solidagoes, and of Sunflowers, Silphiums, and other Helianthoid Composite from the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi. Westward, the Plains grow more and more saline; and Wormwoods and Chenopodiaceze of various sorts form the dominant vegetation, Some of them sud generis or at least peculiar to the country, others identical or congeneric with those of the steppes o horthern Asia. Along with this common campestrine vegeta- ion, there is a large infusion of peculiar American types, Which I suppose came from the southward, and to which I will again refer, _ Then come the Rocky Mountains, traversing the whole con- tinent from north to south; their flanks wooded, but not ot 80,—chiefly with Pines and Firs of very few species, and wit 338 A. Gray—North American Flora. a single ubiquitous Poplar, their higher crests bearing a well- developed alpine flora. is is the arctic flora prolonged south- ward upon the mountains of sufficient elevation, with a certain admixture in the lower latitudes of types pertaining to the lower vicinity. here are almost 200 alpine Phzenogamous species now known on the Rocky Mountains; fully three-quarters of which are arctic, including Alaskan and Greenlandian; and about half of them are known in Europe. Several others are North Mexico, and there they are few and small. In these southern and of other vegetation, mostly of Rocky Mountain types. . Desolate and desert as this region appears, it is far from uD!D- teresting to the botanist; but I must not stop to show how. Yet even the ardent botanist feels a sense of relief and exultation when, as he reaches the Sierra Nevada, he passes abruptly into perhaps the noblest coniferous forest in the world,—a forest coast, from the southern part of California to Alaska. ms < ate male autores . “y a a 2 St ee i ei iri Ode eeebe emt Marte cee eee fae atin te SL ee eR AP ere. EOS Se ER MEE EA Ge ORC et eS IN Ae ae ne eee ee eee ee yee een ws efi cain Scie ok eal rai A GR elena Sa mae i a ae Si ei al A. Gray—North American Flora. 339 So much kas been said about this forest, about the two gigantic trees which have made it famous, and its Pines Ww s which are hardly less wonderful, and which in Oregon and British Columbia, descending into the plains, yield far more timber to the acre than can be found anywhere else, and I have myself discoursed upon the subject so largely on former occasions, that I may cut short all discourse upon the Pacific coast flora and the questions it brings up. | I note only these points. Although this flora is richer than oO more showy than that which brightens our eastern woodlands in spring. But, altogether it possesses only one-quarter of the number of species of deciduous trees that the Atlantic forest has; it is even much poorer than Europe in this respect. is destitute not.only of the characteristic trees of the Atlantic side, such as Liriodendron, Magnolia, Asimina, Nyssa, Catalpa, Carya, and the arboreous Leguminose (Cercis ex- e mon throughout all the other northern-temperate floras, having no Lindens, Elms, Mulberries, Celtis, Beech, Chestnut, Horn- beam, and few and small Ashes and Maples. The shrubbery and herbaceous vegetation, although rich and varied, is largely peculiar, especially at the south. At the riorth we find a fair number of species identical with the eastern ; but it is interest- ing to remark that this region, interposed between the N. HE. Asiatic and the N. E. American and with coast approximate to the former, has few of those peculiar genera which, as ave floras so widely sundered geographically. Some of these types, indeed, occur in the intermediate region, rendering the general absence the more noteworthy. nd certain pecu- might be expected from their geographical proximity at the north. Of course the high northern flora is not here in view. : ‘gla : ; heirs of the old boreal flora, and if I have plausibly explained how Europe lost so much of its portion of a common inheri- North America lost so much more. For that the missing types Am. Jour. Sct.—Turep SERIES, VoL. XXVIII, No. 167.—Nov., 1884. 22 340 W. P. Blake—Columbite in the Black Hills. causes may have conspired in the destruction ;— climatic differences between the two sides of the continent, such had formerly recognized this element in our North Ameri- can flora; but I have only recently come to apprehend its full lands of the southwest. Gomera s Stee Art, XL.—Columbite in the Biack Hills of Dakota ; by Wm. P. Buakg. CoLUMBITE associated with cassiterite, albite and mica occurs: in several of the coarsely crystalline granite dikes which trav erse the mica schists and sandstones of Pennington County, E * A Si Se haa El I a cr ot th Seer Arlo oer eel ae W. P. Blake—Columbite in the Black Hills. 341 6, not less than 2000 pounds, or one ton. On blasting it out it without sulpburic or carbonic acid. A similar mineral occurs ‘at the Etta but gives different reactions. The blow-pipe reactions of the columbite from the Ingersoll Claim are peculiar in the amount of manganese indicated. With borax, in O.F. the bead is dark amethystine red, and in R.F. a pale amber yellow. The purity of this reaction for man- ganese is not impaired by any other metallic reaction. With phosphate of soda and ammonia in O.F. the mineral dissolves to Sapphire-blue reaction. Pine Forest Camp, September 25, 1884. 342 E. L. Nichols—A. Study of Pigments. Art, XLI.—A Spectro-photometric Study of Pigments ; by Epwarp L. NicHous, Ph.D. [Read at the Philadelphia meeting of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science. ] THE usual methods of determining the three so-called con- stants of colur—hue, purity and luminosity—are open to serious question. If the light reflected by pigments were nearly monochromatic, the comparison of their colors with the tints of the solar spectrum would offer no difficulty and the wave-length would afford a most convenient measure of the hue. The the resemblance is increased. The purity of the pigment 1s Pease IN lat aac cat ee aR aR AR 8 a ow lt a Se LG) | a MEE ema. Meee ne pe teen Ne ER Ee TN Perse £.. L. Nichols—A Study of Pigments. 343 presented by deeply tinted pigments cannot but be regarded with doubt. ; It may be urged in favor of the use of these three constants of color that the methods just alluded to have led to fairly accordant results, have increased very much our knowledge of the properties of pigments, and have given us a means of describing colors and distinguishing between them which how- ever artificial and faulty cannot well be dispensed with. If the subject were such as to preclude the adoption of a more scien- tific and complete method of determining the character of the light reflected by non-luminous bodies, there would be less force to the objections just offered to the present system. The question of a better method is however not so complex as it may seem at first sight. It resolves itself from the nature of the case into a perfectly definite problem; to determine what Wwave-lengths are present in the spectrum of the light reflected y the object in question, and to measure the intensity of each wave-length. The use of the spectroscope in mapping spectra leaves nothing to be desired in the determination of the wave-length, the methods in vogue in the study of absorption pak being equally adapted to the investigation of the reflected rays. The addition to the spectroscope of parts which shall make it pos- sible to measure the intensity of all portions of a spectrum as readily as we determine the wave-length, will enable us to sub- stitute for the present system of questionable color-constants 4 perfectly definite and complete statement of the wave-length and intensity of the rays emanating from any object whether viewed by transmitted or by reflected light. ; : n instrument which fulfills these requirements is a modifi- Cation of the spectro-photometer used by the writer in 1878 in the study of the spectrum of glowing platinum.’ Like the Spectro-photometers of Vierordt? and Glan’ it depends upon the Sensitiveness of the eye to small differences in the brightness of neighboring surfaces of identical color ; a property which enables the observer to decide with great certainty when two portions of a field of view, which is of one tint throughout, but the two halves of which can be varied in intensity at will, are equally ght. In front of the slit of an ordinary one-prism spectroscope (see fig. 1) a right angled prism (P) is placed, with its edge perpendicular to the slit (S) and bisecting it, and its longest face extending downward and outward at an angle of 45. ' Ueber das von gliithendem Platin ausgestrahite Licht, Géttingen 1879. Also this Journal, Dec. 1879 and Jan., 1880. ; Vierordt, Poggendorff’s Annalen, yol. cxl. * Glan, Wiedemann’s Annalen, vol. i. 344 E.. L. Nichols—A Study of Pigments. Rays coming vertically from below this prism are totally re- flected by it and pass through the lower half of the slit, the The Diagram showing the eye-piece and slit of the spectro-photometer, with the adjoining parts. diagonals of its faces vertical, the optical axis being parallel to the axis of the collimator tube. Light passing through this Nicol and through the upper half of the slit, the collimator and dispersing prism forms a spectrum just below the first one (in the field of view). The boundary between the two spectra 18 the sharply defined image of the edge of the reflecting prism where it bisects the slit. The second spectrum is polarized in a vertical plane: the first one is unpolarized. A diaphragm (D) in the eye-piece of the spectroscope, by means of which vision may be confined to the region under observation, and a secon Nicol (O), next the eye, complete the spectro-photometer. | The second or ‘ocular Nicol” is free to revolve, and its position 18 indicated by a pointer (I) moving upon a graduated circle (C). n order to compare the spectrum of the light reflected by any object with the spectrum of daylight, the object is placed below the reflecting prism and illuminated either by the direct rays of the sun or by diffuse daylight. Before the polarizing Nicol a white sheet of paper or a plane mirror reflecting lig t from the sky, furnishes the polarized spectrum, It is possible by rotating the ocular Nicol to give this spectrum any intensity between that which it possesses when the polarizing planes ° the two Nicols are parallel and that at which it becomes too faint to be visible. Whatever be the character of the light reflected by the object to be studied, it is therefore possible to find a position of the ocular Nicol for which the region of the spectrum under observation and the corresponding wave-length of the polarized spectrum are equally bright. From the angle Ordinates E. L. Nichols—A Study of Pigments. 345 between the planes of polarization of the two Nicols can then be calculated the ratio between the intensities of the two spectral regions when the polarized spectrum is at its maximum; and a series of measurements of the variation of the intensity with the wave-length may be obtained, in which the intensity of each region is expressed in terms of the intensity of the corres: ponding wave-length in the spectrum of daylight. In studying the spectra of a variety of substances it is neces- Sary, in order to bring them to a common scale, to adopt some 2, L ih ee) ie % ‘ \ et ‘ xh x 4 q N \ ‘\ 6 \ \ | ms ’ ok \ ; \ \ \ = ee 5 , oes * _ Vs ye 9 4 i ‘ \ T\ ava \ \ Dat ‘ 4 \ Wi \ eee \ —- \ 1 \ Ps \ x cot "2 + F \ \ ant os 4 * . ene f" Be / 1 i \¢é a : aS if L * a. ‘i \ * at \ ee A bean +44 \. ¥ Seen > =: i PO. cat iii PE asin belies fr urves showing the intensity of the s Tomate of lead: gths. pectra of four pigments (I, red lead ; II, III, chromic oxide; IV, ultramarine). Abscisse are wave- are intensities. Standard of color and of luminosity; for which purpose a pig- mparing t trum of thi Spectr ment presenting a neutral white surface is most suitable. B , the spec arized white surface with the pol- um under precisely the same conditions as those 346 E.. L. Nichols—A. Study of Pigments. under which each pigment is compared, all measurements cam be referred to a common unit, i. e. to the intensity of a certain region of this spectrum; or, as is generally more convenient, each region in the spectra of the pigments can be referred to. the “raat ag of the corresponding wave-length in this standard 8 ere es test the efficacy of this method four spetepemens pig- ments were selected. These were red-lead, ) formed crystals under the microscope. The yellow and green were freshly prepared by precipitatiow and the separate parti- TABLE. ey 2 referred to that o e rresponding road Intensity referred to that of the re- Region. Tenth oof the spectrum of gion of re 4 line in the spectrum light. of white bey j : 7 = s + Color. (Rood.*) | = = 23 os 2 = ze a” Fs + ELSE eee Lee oe ie Sian - et a = ~ a = ee ee Sy a aanee Nas 6800| 0-815] 0°744) 0°042| .... | 17158] 1-056] 0-060) ..-. | 1421 Orange-red, .___- 6550! 0-747) 0°718) 0-046! 0-005! 0 996] 0-957) 0-062) 0°007 1333 range, 50| 0°452) 0°587) 0-061! 07004! 0°515] 0°670 0 068) 0°005 1114 680) 0-0T7 1 3| 0-006] 0.073] 0°352) 0-211] 0°005) 0°94 Yellow-green, ..-|5370] .... | 0°170! 0°297/ 0-009] .___-| 0-132) 0°232) 0-006) 0°781 Green 200 . | 0°026) 0°322| 0-034] .__. | 0-017) 0:225| 0°021| 0°649 Green-blue 4910] .... | 0°001) 0°184) 0°110 0-001) 0°092 0-055) 0 500 a PANG. bse yack 4700} 2.) 2. :.:|- 0064) O18] _ | 2. | 0°026) 0-072) 0°400 LS Sean nya la 2680) co2 [eons CUES OTIS 2] 2 1 6181 80 303 Violet Se ce whe ed Co 4 || Gees Baieenee ees A oa he faces 47) 0°225 4330 SOE desea ges Sacer AUIsC) Gt Gale Mais Woamaien Bonn Me Zt * Rood, Modern Chromatics, p. 26. + Lamansky (article already cited). cles could not be distinguished with a $ inch stig These dry pigments were spread to a depth of about 10™™ upon a black surface. They were not subjected to any honsiderny® in t ca same manner served as the standard white. The spectrum of the light reflected from the rather uneven surfaces thus ob- tained was compared with the spectrum of daylight. The easurements, the results of which are exhibited in the above table and by. the accompanying curves (figure 2) ayes potions of the spectrum in which measurements were made are esignated by their characteristic colors. The wave-lengths are E. L. Nichols—A Study of Pigments. 347 given in ten millionths of a millimeter. The first set of values given in the table are referred to the corresponding intensities’ of the standard spectrum ; the second set are all referred to the intensity of the region of the D line in the standard spectrum, the well known measurements of the intensities of the solar- spectrum by Lamansky’ being used in the reduction. The curves (figure 2) accompanying the foregoing table rep- resent graphically the results of this method as applied to the four pigments in question. e abscissee are wave-lengths, the ordinates are intensities and the curves show the distribution of energy throughout the prismatic spectrum. They are identi- cal with the curves which would be obtained by exploring the spectra of the pigments with a sufficiently delicate thermopile, and do not represent the optical effect which is a complicated function of the energy of the ray, the character of which is not. the same for all wave-lengths nor for all eyes. An inspection of these curves verifies the opinion expressed in the first para- 18 practice in associating the sensation of color produced by pig- ments with the form of curve representing them. _if we retain as the standard of purity the monochromatic Unt, the intensity-curve of a perfectly pure color is a vertical € measured by supposing the pigment to consist of a mono- chromatic tint plus a certain amount of white light, and that 1 Lamansky, Poggendorff’s Annalen cxli. A . 348 R. FE. Browne—Becker’s Theory of Faulting. ship to the luminosity of the color, but they are independent f the peculiarities of individual eyes and they are in this re- spect a better measure of the brightness of the color. University of Kansas, July 12, 1884. Art. XLIT.—A Criticism of Becker's Theory of Faulting; by Ross E. Brownz, M. Tech. Soc. [Read July 11, 1884, before the Technical Society of the Pacific Coast. |* oint for an examination of the observed conditions. It 1s shown in Chapter IV that if a country divided like the Com- stock area into parallel sheets experiences a dislocation on one of the partings under a compressive strain equal at each part- ing, a vertical cross-section will show a surface line represented by two logarithmic equations.” “ Where a fault of the class under discussion has occurred, and where the resulting surface has not been obscured by deep erosion, the original surface can be reconstructed or caleu- lated, and the amount of dislocation determined.” “The theory, though worked out independently of the Com: * See “‘ Monographs of the U. 8. Geological Survey, 1882;” vol. iii, on the Com- stock Lode, etc., by George F. Becker; chapter iv, on Structural Results of Fault- ing. ny a ht. FE. Browne—Becker’s Theory of Faulting. 349 stock, applies to it with much precision. Equations can be given representing very closely the surface line se a cross-sec- tion, the amount of the fault can re determined, e e above quotations from the summary, pp. 376- 380, are made in order to bring before the reader, as briefly as such means will permit, some > of the prominent features of the theory which it is proposed to criticise. In the discussion under the several headings, ‘“ Transmission of energy by friction,” “Distribution of energy through a sys- the tem of sheets,” “The velocities of moving sheet, ete,’ ere appears a misconception of an aed ates question involved. Mr. Becker says if sheet W (see fig. 1) “begins its motion With a fixed quantity of energy, and if P, is fixed, the entire W will be communicated to P,, ou. * These statements are true, but it must be borne in mind, that in effect, the force of friction. is simply a resistance to relative psc If P, offers greater sistance to a felative move- ment of W than the body of ies to the rivht offers to a iy movement of P,, it follows that relative rest between P, will not be disturbed, and the latter will move with the: “fall velocity of the form er.t is initially at rest, it will either remain at rest or eacuits the full ed of W. is in contact with a third plate or sheet P, the energy received by P, will be expended wholly or in pat in overcom- ing the resistance on the contact P, P».” It sho be kept in view that if P, moves at all, it does so with the fall velocity of P,, for the reasons above given. “If these sheets are the earlier * The pressure exerted by W upon P,, was considered as uniformly distributed —see * page 35 This statement apparently calls for some quslifeaticn, for if a considerable Velocity is suc Idenly imparted to W, and the resistance m entioned means wary 4 frictional resistance, the inertia of P, will give rise to a diblocetion at contact 1 towever, if the most reasonable conditi i of W is s supposed to be small, and there is assumed to be a material diff tween the frictional resistance which P, offers to motion of W a body of the sheet to the right offers to motion of P,—it is proper to consider that f P, offe i ation, the resistance which the mass 0 srs nn eelion will not cause dislocé but will result in Hose cre in the elastic sheets transmitted through the projec- tions at the contact. It ot supposed that it was M r's intention to con- Sider any appreciable valet ity as being suddenly acquired. e “fixed ity of energy,” with which W begins its motion, cannot be energy of motion ‘icinetic =8)) ergy). » 350 R. E. Browne—Becker’s Theory of Faulting. members of a series of sheets W, P,, Ps, Ps, . . of in- definite number, then each sheet which moves ; will communi- cate a certain amount of energy to the next, and since the resistance of friction* is proportional to the distance through which it 6 pte sheet which receives energy from its prede- cessor must 1m In other eset “each such sheet must be translated. Herein lies the misconception. the resistance, which a given sheet P; offers to motion, is greater than the Bees op it causes to the motion of its predecessor P,, it will remain at rest; and though it receives energy from its ast paola this energy is in the form of heat and will not cause suena of P,. Now follows this statement: “ e the sheets are in all respects alike and the pressure at si Sees is the same, the fr cate resistance or negative force at each contact will ‘also ete.” and to say that it could be rea approxi scuuaaly wind but ior a misunderstanding of the ee Any small differ- ence between the surfaces of contact, of a nature to influence friction, would change the character. of the problem. There would be one contact where the frictional resistance would be less than at the other oe and here only would there occur a dislocation. If the condition should nevertheless be enter- tained, there would, owing to the inertia of P,, result a disloca- tion at the first contact W Py. The sheets P,, Ps, Pa - +++ * would all remain at rest, though in unstable equilibrium. In the real question at issue, i then, if the contact between Ps and P, offers less resistance yoan the other contacts, motion 0 will ray produce the effect shown in fig. 2, and not the effect claimed by Mr. Becker and shown in fig. It would be pur poseless to fol- low the mathematical develop- ments erratically based upod this misconception of the main question involved. uffice it to say that a logarithmic equa tion is saaehad to represent the supposed curve. However, some comment upon the “experi: mental verification” will not be out of place. Under this heading the author says: * Probably “ work of friction” is meant. R. E. Browne—Becker’s Theory of Faulting. 351 ‘supposition the pressure per anit of area of each parting will be the same.* If the plates were thoroughly flexible, and if the pressure were applied on a limited zone parallel to the croppings ; creat as that of a singleslip. If : blunt ‘edge, such as that of a ruler,{ be now applied at right angles to the longer dimension of the slips, close to the weight, with a light pressure, and be drawn away from the weight a fraction of an Inch, a slight relative movement will be perceptible. If this application of energy to the system be repeated a score of times, ia ., ~ Lat? If the above directions are followed, the pressure applied with the ruler being made sufficient, a curve will be produced ; but it is significant that a blunt edged tool is used for the pur- pose. If ‘the pressure per unit of area of each parting” is to even approximately the same throughout each parting, why not distribute the weight uniformly over the,upper slip, fasten the same, and move the weight? By proceeding in sucha manner the result will be simply that illustrated in fig. 2. etc. ¥ * See foot note page 349. ; + If it is meant that the pressure per unit of area of each parting would be the me, the first sheet should have been made absolutely: rigid, and not * thor- e, tance from the “limited zone” increases. See page 353. : The pressure under the weight might be considered as approximately constant and even as distributed approximately over the same area at each parting; but not so with the pressure under the blunt-edged ruler. , 352 R. E. Browne—- Becker's T. heory of Faulting. Mr. Becker’s experiment in no sense, “forms a check upow the theory,” since it deals with fundamentally different condi- tions. The fact is, the formation of this curve, in the experi- ment described, is due mainly to the inequality of the “ pressure rithmic curves to the Sutro Tunnel section. The fact that a carefully selected section of a natural surface may be approxi- mately covered with portions of such curves, when calculated by the method adopted, is of little import. Doubtless many other simple curves might have proved equally serviceable. However, this question will not be discussed at present. An Explanation of the Formation of the Curve in the Experi- ment with the Slips of Paper.—A B (tig. 8) represents an elastic sheet resting upon an incompres- ase, and W a toothed cylin- There is frictional resist- * Referring to the Comstock country. R. FE. Browne—Becker’s Theory of Faulting. 353 work, the accumulated effect will be a material translation of the sheet in the direction of rolling. tis easy to see that a result the same in character will be effected if there is substituted for the toothed cylinder, a cylin- der without teeth, the operation being continuous. If an edged ruler is applied and drawn from P, toward B the effect will depend upon the magnitude of the resistance which the sheet offers to the relative motion of the edge of the ruler. If the edge be sharp and this resistance greater than the frie- tional resistance between sheet and base, the result will be rela- tive rest of sheet and edge and slipping of the sheet upon the base. If, on the other hand, the edge be blunt and this resist- ance less than the frictional resistance between sheet and base, the ruler will slip on the surface of the sheet carrying the de- pression with it, and it is easily seen that the result will be the same in character as in the ease of the rolling cylinder. n rolling the cylinder from A to B the entire sheet will be mately equal to the full amount of extension which would result from distributing uniformly from A toward B weights of suff- cient magnitude to reduce the entire sheet to thickness ¢, In explaining the formation of the curved surface the weight used by Mr. Becker will be omitted, as it only serves to keep the sheets in contact. The cylinder will be substituted for the blunt edged rubber. It will scarcely be doubted that these changes are admissible and will not affect the general character of the curve formed. They are made in order to simplify the statements. : et fig. 5 represent an indefinite number of highly elastic and flexible sheets of paper, having their edges originally in the surface A B normal to the se upper surface MN. Ifcylinder R* is applied with pressure to the surface M N, this pressure will be transmitted normally to the curve of depression formed. The area of surface over which this pressure is distributed will rapidly increase—hence the di- minution in thickness of a sheet, due to compression, will decrease—with increase of the distance from the upper surface M N. If now the cylinder is rolled to 1 * Let the length of the cylinder be greater than the width of the sheets, and et it be so placed that its axis is normal to the longer dimension of the sheets. 354 Buysman—Sea and Continental Climates the right the amount of the translation of a sheet will decrease with increase of its distance from the upper surface M N, an thus the edges will form a curved surface. If it is important to show approximately the character of the curve, an equation is easily deduced after making certain assumptions. Let it be assumed: 1st. That the diminution in thickness at a given point of the sheet, due to compression, is proportional to the applied normal tance x from the center of curvature of the contact surface be- tween the cylinder and the upper sheet. It will follow then, if ¢ and C are constants and p represents the pressure per unit of area, that p=— and since y is propor- ¢ tional to p, ae The curve then will approximate in character an equilateral hyperbola, having A B and D E for asymptotes. It is only claimed that the assumptions made are near enough to the truth to lead to a reasonably good conception of the character of the curve formed. Art. XLITI.— The Difference between Sea and Continental Olimate with regard to Vegetation; by Mr. Buysman, of Flushing (Vlissingen), Holland. rees. Pinus sylvestris L. Scotch Pine. Scotland, 59°. Norway, 70° 20’. Kola, 69°. Petschora region, 67° 15’. Obi river, 66°. Turuchansk, 65°. The Werchojansk mountains, east of the Lena river (64°), are the eastern limits of this tree.’ 1 Middendorff, Sibirische Reise, Bd. IV, Th. I, p. 556. in their Influence on Vegetation. 355 Betula odorata Bechst. (alba L. var.) Birch. Greenland, 61°, shrub. Iceland, 65°, shrub to 10 feet high. Britain, 59°. Norway, 70° 50’. Peninsula Kola, 69° 30’.2. Peninsula Kanin 67°, to the Obi river 66°, and from the river Kolyma 68°, to the Deroghian Gulf 638° and Kamtschatka; on this peninsula it is a large tree Quercus pedunculata Kbrh. (Q. robur L. var.), Common Oak. England, 58°. Norway, wild, to 62° 55’: cult. 65° 54’. Fin- land, coast, 61° 30! (Bjorneborg). St. Petersburg, Taroslav, erm, 58°. Laria Europea DeC. (including L. Sibirica Ledeb and L. Dahu- rica Turez), Common Larch. Norway, Huropwa DeC. 66° 5’; Dahurica Turez. 59° 55’; both cultivated. Onega river, White Sea, S. W. shore of Onega Lake, Mesen (Peninsula Kanin), 67°. Petschora river, 67° 30°... Ue al mountains, 67° 15’. Kora river, 68°, northern limit in Europe. Yenisei river, 70°. ganida river, 71° 15’. Chatanga river, 72° 30’, most soriheen limit of trees on the globe. Anabar. a. Oleneh and Lena, 72°. Yana, 71°. Yndigirba, 70° 45’. Kolyma, 69°. Anadyr, 65°. Between Ochotsk and Gishiga, 61°. Peninsula Sachalin, 49°. To Yeddo and the island Kunaschir, 48° 45’. On the shores of Kamtschatka the larch is nowhere to be found; in the valleys of this beh Pets however, protected from sea-winds, Pyrus Malus i, ee le. Shetland Isles, cult. Britain, 57°. Norway, cult., 65° 28’; wild, 63° 40’. Gulf of Bothnia, 63° 45’, cult. Finland, 63 ° cult: 60° wild. Northern shore of Onega Lake, cult. Narva, 59° 30’, wild. Twer, 56° 45’, wild. Nishny Novgorod, 56°, wild. Kasan, 56°, wild. Southwest of Orenburg, 50°. Kopal, Asia, 45° Fagus sylvatica L., Common Beech. Britain, 58°. Norway 59°, cult. 67° 56’, Sweden, 57°. omesaas ‘Poland. §. W. Russia. Krim. Caucasus. Pers Castanea vesca Geertn., Ohestaut "South Britain. Germany (to the island of Riiyen). Austria. Caucasus. Populus alba L., Abele Tree. Britain, 56°, wild and cult. baleled cult., 67° 56’. Gere wild ‘and cult. a ae Hei L., Aspen. Britain, 59°. Norway, 70° 37’. Russia. Peninsula Kola, 69° 30’. Eastern shores of the White ea, 66°. Yenisei, 66°. Kolyma river, 67° 30’.°. Amur river. Alnus ineana W., Hoary: -leaved Alder. Canada. Norway, ? Thid., p. 5 _— ha 575. - Middondortf Sibirische Reise, Bd. IV, Th. I, p. 53 5 Middendorff, p. 573. Am. Jour. Scr.—Turrp Serres, Vou. XXVIII, No. 167.—Nov., 1884. ae 356 Buysman—Sea and Continental Climates 70° 80’. Kola, 69° 30’. Yenisei, 67°. Amur region. Petro- paulovsk, on Kamtschatka Ulmus campestris L., Dbtnbron Elm. Britain, 57°. Norway, cult., 63° 26’. Russia: Ilmen Lake. South of Moscow. Riazan. South of Kasan and Ufa to the Ural mountains. Tilia Europea UL. (inclusive of parvifolia, grandiflora and inter media), Lime Tree. Britain, 57° (parvifolia). Norway, wild, 62°°9’; cult., 67° 56’. Petersburg. Kargopol. Ust Siissolsk, about 62°. Solikamsk. Ural. mountains, about 58° 50’. Werchoturje. - Vinis vinifera L., Common Grape. Bretagne, 47° 30’. Liége, 50° 45’. Thuringia to Silesia, 51° 55’. South Galicia. South Russia, between about 48° and 49°. Astrachan. Buchara in ‘Turkestan, 40°; here the vine is rieneacea in the open fields.” Chiwa, 42°. China, 40°. Califor This plant cannot stand the eeireine cold of Asiatic con- tinental winter climate, and requires a very warm or a very long summer (California) ; it cannot, chevators, be cultivated generally in Britain. The fact of its being cultivated with suc- cess in California is no doubt owing to the continual clear sky and then to the direct solar warmth ; the mean temperature is here in summer much lower than in Europe i in the same latitude. Triticum vulgare Vill, var. estivum, Summer Wheat. Britain. ile Ch in the fields, 64° 40’; in gardens, 69° 28’. Finland, Dwina river, 63°. Yakutsk. Western shores of North | Siadvine, 65°. Fort Liard, 60° 5/ (N. tes Shay of Canada). Peace river, 56° 6’. Ontario. East ‘Hordeum vulgare L. (including lshiabsehon Barley. Faroe Isles, 62° 15’, seldom ripe grains. Norway, 70°. estern shores of the White Sea, 67°. Ob river, 61°. Yakutsk, 62°. Udskvi Ostrog, near a Ochotsk Sea, 54° 30’. Kamtschatka (inland), 58° to 54°. N. W. American shore south of Sitka, 57°. Fort Norman, Mica river, 65°." East of Winnipeg; 50°. St. Lawrence Bay, 5 - Avena alo L., Oat. Scotland. Norway, 69° 28. Fin- land, 69°. sia: the same latitude as Hordeum vulgare. Yenisei, 61°. “Yabo, 62°. Kamtschatka aig North America: the same latitude as Hordeum vulgare Secale cereale L., Common Rye. Britain. Norway, 69° 30’. Finland, 67°. Mesen river, 65° 45’. Petschora region, 65° 45. Ural mountains, 57°. Obi river, 60°. Yenis ei, 59° 30’. Ya kutsk, 62°. Kamtschatka (inland). N. America, a little south of ae latitude of the barley ; eastern shores, 50°. §Grisebach die se der Erde, vol. i, p. 407. 7 Middendorff, p. 7 8 Richardson, Searchin ing Expedition through —, _ vol. ii, Fort Liard is betw =e and 500 feet above the sea-leve ® Richardson, p p. 267. in their Influence on Vegetation. 357 Solanum tuberosum L., Potato. Britain. Norway, 71° 7’. Russia, Pinega river, 65°. Turuchansk, 65°. Yakutsk. Shores of the Ochostk Sea. Kamtschatka. Kadjak Island. Sitka Island. . Mackenzie river, 65°. Canada. Labrador, 58° 45’.° Greenland. Zeat»Mays L., Indian Corn.—This plant requires also a very warm summer to ripen. In England it can be cultivated only as a green vegetable ; or the western shores of Europe the culti- vation is profitable only to the 46th degree N. L., while in the valley of the Rhine it reaches to 49°. In Northern Ger- many the grain usually does not ripen. In North America, however, it is cultivated with profitable returns up to 51° N. L.” The period of vegetation varies there between seven and three months. Cultivation of the varieties maturing in a shorter period has been tried in Europe but without success ; they were trans- formed after a few generations into the common corn. There must exist peculiar relations between the American climate and the vegetation of this plant. _thus we see that of the plants just named, the Larch, the Tine, the Birch and the Aspen go into Siberia, with its excessive continental climate, farthest to the north; yet many of the culti- vated plants mentioned above, and almost all those of the tem- perate zone, are either cultivated or grow wild in the sea climate of Norway to very high latitudes. he northwest shores of America the Pine attains con- siderable size (Sitka) in a climate with continual precipitation, but the same size is to some extent observed on the Rocky Mountains (eastern slope), where the climate is wholly different. In British Columbia the climate is continental and very cold In winter, yet the same gigantic trees are here to be found as on the coast; precipitation takes place in spring, but the amount IS very great. In California, with the largest coniferous trees of the world, ( Wellingtonia gigantea), rain falls chiefly in winter (November to April); the other months are dry. The cause is known: the polar stream coming from the northwest reaches the Californian Coast under about 45° N..; the water being in summer muc colder than the land and the winds in this season mostly north- West, no precipitation can take place. This is the cause also of there being very little difference in temperature between summer e the gigantic vegetation of the west and northwest shores of North America. In Norway or Ireland, both having very wet 1® Petermann, Geogr. Mittheilungen, 1859, p. 124. 267 1! Richardson, vol. ii, p. 267. A : San Francisco, winter 46°, summer 53°, year 51°. 358 Buysman—Sea and Continental Climates climates, such enormous trees are nowhere to be found. It is a peculiarity of the Pacific coast vegetation, the cause of which In the southern parts of the Amur region in Asia, there is in summer a luxuriant vegetation; the annual precipitation er. the interior of Siberia the vegetation consists chiefly of coniferous trees; thus the luxurious growth in the region just named must be caused by the influence of the sea climate, as Middendorf suggests,” though there is a mountain chain on the east coast. The extensive forests of Russia and Siberia prove that an extreme continental climate is resisted by some coniferous and other trees; but it is evident that in general a sea climate with mild winters, and thus a long period of vegetation, suits them best.” latitude, and precipitation takes place only in summ n As we have seen, the northern limit of the cultivation o! corn reaches to a much higher latitude over the continent than near the seashore. On the northwest coast of North America the Island of Sitka (57° N. L.) and Radjah are on the extreme limit. On the Faroe Islands barley is cultivated, but corp seldom ripens;* the cause is absence of sunlight on account of the continual cloudy sky, storms and precipitation causing low temperature in summer (mean temperature at Thorshaven in July, 55°); for corn wants a sunny climate and the direct influence of the sun’s rays. This explains why it can be cul- tivated within the polar circle (Norway) where the sun in the summer season remains constantly above the horizon. In North America, on the shores of Hudson’s Bay, the tree limit goes down to 59°, the corn limit to 50° (Ontario). On the shores of the Ochotsk Sea corn cannot be cultivated at all, even on the south coast under 50°. In Greenland also the cu! tivation of corn is impossible. The causes are the same as stated above—the sea winds, wet climate and fog in summer; that is, want of sunlight. Of all cultivated vegetables Raphanus sativus L. et val (Radish), Brassica Rapa L.set var. (Turnip) and Brassica Napus 18 Kittlitz. Vierundzwanzig Vegetationsansichten von Kiistenlandern und Inseln des Stillen Ozeans, p. 53. 14 Middendorff, p. 763. i5 The stems of all the Siberian trees are slender compared with those of Hurope even when they are centuries old. Middendorff, p. 632. 16 Martins, Sur la vegetation de l’Archinel des Féroé. iy ville es aa ie in their Influence on Vegetation. 359 L, et var. (Rape) grow as far north as there are settlements. In Norway beyond 70° N. L.; in Siberia to the Polar Circle; on the N.W. coast of America to 64° 45’ (Nulato) and Redout St. Michael (63° 30’); in the interior to 67° (Fort Good Hope).” In Greenland, Rapes, Turnips, Cabbage and Salad are culti- vated under 70° L. (Island Disko). e potato follows the above named plants in their distribn- tion to the north and belongs also to sea climate species. On its northern limit, however, in Siberia as well as in N. America, it reaches only the size of a walnut." In Greenland, only the most careful treatment can produce eatable potatoes. The plant never blossoms there.” Comparing the vegetation of the extreme continental climate with that of the extreme sea-climate on the globe, the continen- (only a grass—Atra antarctica Forst—is foun there); and on 64° S., the last trace of vegetation is found (cry ptogamous plants). In this latitude north there is in Sibe- fe f Q (o) re) a = 5% — =, © s 7") tween 36° and 41°. Thus, notwithstanding the mean tempera- ture of June at Yakutsk is 55°, and that of July 62°,” the Vegetation is relatively slow,” though its period (10 to 12 Weeks) is the same as observed in Central Europe. The same Period is observed in North America, under 63° (Fort Simpson)” of the barley. (Wheat does not come to maturity there.) But . 214. 18 Middendorff, p. 700. '® Etzel, Gronland geogr. und statistisch iierrohae opt Stuttgart, 1860, p. 282. under Wilkes on lat. 65° 15’, 27°60 1852. vol. ii, p. 281. *' Under lat. 64° 5’ mean temp. of January, 1843, 31°; under 62°-66", in Feb- deta See Ross, Voyage in the Southern and Antarctic Regions, vol. ii, p. * Middendorff, p. 772. %8 Middendorff, p. 718. * Richardson, vol. i, p. 165. 360 J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. a harvest of thirty to forty times the quantity that was sown alternates in this climate with years of no harvest at all.” As is well known, the native plants withstand the lowest tem- peratures of the Siberian winter. eturning to Hurope we have seen that even the climate of tae northern parts of the British Isles is not suited for many vegetables and other cultivated plants. t is Germany which has a climate adapted to almost all the plants of the temperate zone and to those commonly culti- vated. We see the vine in this country ascend farthest to the north, while corn and all vegetables ripen their seeds perfectly. The climate is clearly that best suited for the vegetation of this latitude. ; Now, if we compare the mean temperature of July in Ger- many with the mean for the latitude (for 50° N.—62°) cal- culated by Dove, we find that even in this country the summer temperature is, in general, only a few degrees above the calculated. Germany is crossed in July by the isotherm of 68°, and Britain by that of 59°; but the difference in vegetation is not cause by a difference in mean temperature of nine degrees, but by the difference in the days of sunshine. ° us we come to the conclusion that a mixed climate with relatively mild winters (the anomaly of temperature for January is for Germany about +9° on the 50th degree of latitude) and warm sunny summers is the condition best suited for the vege- tation of the temperate zone. Flushing, June, 1884. Art. XLIV.—-Chemical Affinity; by Joun W. LANGLEY, An rbor, Michigan. [Address before Section ‘‘C” of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Philadelphia, 1884. ] In reviewing the history of each living being and of every intellectual conception we are at once made aware of a law of growth, the most general and fundamental possible, namely, that of development, or progression along what often seems be a predetermined line whose constraining influence 18 %° powerful that it is only by following it that the organism can escape destruction. oo Development, while it may be continuous, both for the indi- vidual and for the race when broadly looked at over large intervals of time, is, on the other hand, a process which in 118 details is constantly interrupted both by alierations of direc: tions and by arrests of action which may even go so far as to cause retrograde metamorphoses. % Middendorff, p. 720. J. W. Langley —Chemical Affinity. 361 is again bathed with light which comes from all directions. This partial arrest may even arise from the plant itself, as when the excessive growth of the vine in forming new wood saps the energy which should go to the formation of fruit, and the grapes, which alone make the plant valuable to man, never ‘reach that fullness and flavor which should recompense the toil of the husbandman. __All of us here are constituent intellectual atoms in a great ideal organism called Chemistry. We know the long and hon- orable history of our science, we know too its wonderful delight, and which stand forth as the declared fruit of our toil. Such a fruit bud our science put forth in its alchemical stage under the name of affinity. During the early part of the present century the idea received considerable expansion and showed at one time a vitality comparable with the condition of the doctrine of the conservation of energy prior affinity seems to have been arrested and soon it is seen occu- nterest to chemists. The proof of this statement is easily found by comparing such works as Daniel’s Introduction to Chemical Philosophy, Thompson’s History of Chemistry and Daubeny’s Atomic Theory, published in 1830 and ’31, or the works of Berzelius, with any recent manual of inorganic chemistry. In the older books 16 amount of space given to the treatment of chemical affinity is relatively large, while in the treatises of to-day it 1s in many cases hardly even mentioned. ; In the article Chemistry, in the new Encyclopedia Britan- ‘nica, covering 120 pages, tee is not a single paragraph referred — 362 J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. supplements, out of a total of 9,665 pages only 62 are devoted to affinity where it appears under the head of Chemical Action. In Wurtz’s Dictionnaire de Chimie the treatment of affinity under the several heads of Chaleur, Electro Chimie, Affinité, Atomicité, ete., is relatively fuller, but still the proportion is quite small ; and in that excellent manual, Remsen’s Theoretical Chemistry, I. Tur Conception oF AFFINITY. The earliest appearance of the idea, which has since been named chemical affinity, is found in the writings of Hippocrates in the fifth century B. C., where the opinion is expressed that when two bodies unite to form a compound, a certain common principle must indwell in them, for it is laid down as a funda- mental postulate that “Like unites only with like,” hence the two bodies must possess some common principle, or have & bond of kinship between them.’ This conception prevailed with more or less clearness for several centuries, but it 1s not till the year 1698 that we find the word Affinitas employed and de- fined. It first occurs in the writings of the alchemist Barchusen," and the conceptions of Hippocrates were still the ruling ones. Thus Barchusen explains the impossibility of completely isolat- ing the four elements by saying that they have for each other a strong affinity which causes one to mingle with another, and which cause is derived from a principle common to them all. — Boerhaave, the celebrated physician of Leyden, in his elements of chemistry which appeared about 1782, was the first to extend the meaning of the term Affnitas or Verwandtschajt, since he says, “the effort also of like substances to unite is due to the working of the same force ;”* and elsewhere, in explain- aqua regia collect together in the bottom of the vessel. you not see clearly that there is between each particle of gold. J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. 363 and each particle of aqua regia a force in virtue of which they seek each other out, unite and retain each other.”* We al ctio acid upon iron to a marriage, and says that the combination comes rather from love than hate. Two of Boerhaave’s successors, St. F. Geoffroy and Torbern Bergmann, appear to be the authors of a new conception which was subsequently known under the name of Elective Affinity. Geoffroy attempts to indicate the order of chemical actions, or as we should now eall it, the relative intensity of combining power, by arranging several bases in the order in which they displace each other. Thus one of his tables was the following: Vitriolic Acid.® Sel Alkali, fixed. Earths. Copper. Sel Alkali, volatile. Tron. Silver. It was soon discovered, however, that an order of bases which might be correct for one acid would be incorrect for another, and that a given substance would take different positions in the two. The following, which is a portion of one of Bergmann’s lists published in 1788, will show the fact :° Gaseous Acid. ( Carbonic.) Acid of Sugar. (Ozalic.) Pure heavy earth. ime. Pure lime. | Heavy earth. A Fixed vegetable alkali. Magnesia. Fixed mineral alkali. Fixed vegetable alkali. Magnesia, ete. Fixed mineral alkali, etc. Interest with all acids, loves them and is also loved by them ; accordingly when warmed the acid of the salt (muriatic) attaches itself to it, combines with it so that the sal volatile is Set free and is distilled to a subtle spirit.” The next advance in the direction of precision was made by Wenzel,* who, in a work entitled Lehre von den Verwandschafien, 364 J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. much of one acid must be taken to displace another. Although Wenzel’s work attracted but little attention at the time, we can now see on looking back that it marked a very important dis- covery, for he must be regarded as the first man who appre- hended with any distinctness that fundamental law of chemistry, definiteness of action, which was subsequently enunciated an ‘law of definite sistent and earnest opponent of the new doctrines. In his well known work, Essai de Statique Chimigue, published in 1808, he maintains the proposition that all unions are caused by the by a combination, we must look to the reciprocal action (cohesion) of the parts which : J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. 365 - action of their integral parts. In the mixture of liquid sub- stances (neutral) those combinations which ought to act with a force of cohesion capable of separating them ought to be formed and separated in fact.” The position assumed by Berthollet was, of course, finally “overthrown by the improvements in methods of analysis on the one hand, and by the Daltonian theory of atoms on the other; but it is a noteworthy fact that it is only as a complete and uni- versal explanation of chemical action that Berthollet’s theory fails. In many respects his position still holds good and his Other on masses of matter.” His contemporaries and suc- cessors, Oerstedt, Grotthus, Ampére, Becquerel, Berzelius and Faraday amplified and extended the electrochemical theory. Grotthus contributed his well-known hypothesis of liquid polarization. Ampére considered that each atom is surrounded bya special atmosphere of electricity, positive or negative, and that combination of atoms occurs the neutralization of the Opposing atmospheres. Berzelius held that the atoms have oles. He says," “Affinity is only the effect of the electric polarity of the particles; electricity is the primary cause of their chemical action; it is the source of the light and heat dis- engaged during combination ;” and ‘finally Faraday’s immense contribution to electro-chemistry is too well known to need any farther mention her 366 J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. may be either electrical, thermal or mechanical. We have by this theorem a mode of measuring affinity quantitatively; but- electrical theories do not establish the nature of this force beyond dispute, and this is shown by the fact that the English school of electricians, under the leadership of Sir William Thomson, have for some years been divided in opinion as to the sources of the current developed by the galvanic battery, between the old contact theory of Volta and the chemical theories of Davy and Faraday. While the electro-chemical theory was being developed the founders of the atomic theory were not idle, and in that wonderfully fruitful decade which witnessed the enunciation of Dalton’s views we find also the nucleus of an idea which has an important bearing on the nature of affinity. In 1811 Avogadro” formulated that law which is now regarded as the strongest bolt in the framework of the atomic eory; but in stating his conclusions in regard to the number of “elementary molecules” in equal volumes of gases he nec- essarily introduced the conception of what is now the funda- mental distinction between atoms and molecules, and its later development into our belief in the two orders of combination, atomic and molecular. This theorem, of the utmost importance to the atomists, can~ not, however, be considered as a material contribution to the theory of affinity, because the actions of this force are experi- mentally evident and are, therefore, not dependent for their verification on the molecular theory; but the form which this idea subsequently took in the mind of Brodie was, on the con- trary, of the highest importance for it is essentially a new conception. In his paper entitled, “On the state of the elements at the moment of chemical change,” this chemist regards the mole- cules of elementary bodies as composed of atoms. The en combined is due chiefly to the fact that when free the element is combined with itseif in the form of an integral mole- cule. He says, “The general object of the paper may be con- J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. 367 which owes its origin to De Morveau, 1787, Berzelius, 1817, and especially Liebig, 1832; and on the other, in Dumas’s discovery that chlorine could be substituted for hydrogen. a able by chlorine; and further, the substituted chlorine will have lost its familiar characteristics; for example, it will no longer precipitate silver, but will, on the contrary, assume 2 part of the duty previously borne by the hydrogen in the new 368 J. W. Langley— Chemical Affinity. selected, or from the expressions atom and molecule. If the atomic theory were abandoned to-morrow the above indicated experimental fora jabeegshar pn of hydrogen into two states or s would receive our rational indorsement though all our vast wealth of atomic expression had perished. he invention of the terms valence, or “atomicity,” is gener- ally credited to Adolph Wurtz, but the idea behind the names grew up so gradually from the theor y of types, from the study of or me ine from the controversy on the cause of etherification, also ‘the labors of Laurent, Gerhardt and Sterry Hunt, that i is hardly prudent to assign any specified year as the exact date of its origin. The “periodic law” is custom- _ arily associated with the name of Mendelejeff,’* and molifica- tions in the form of the law with that of Lothar Meyer.” There is also an English chemist, J. cng an who claims to be the originator of the discovery ; his speculations pee biving issue of to-day that any discussion of it here acaes out of place. Fin aly, 1 I will close this review with a condensed statement of the ee theories of affinity, taken from Watts’ Dic- tionar ; : " ‘ Y 1.—“ Chemical combinations are produced by universal attractions. The most Be adherents of this view are, Newton, who considered affinity as identical with the force ‘of gravitation, and Berthollet, who held it to be the same as cohesion. 2.—“Chemical combinations are produced — a peculiar power called affinity, distinct from universal attraction.” Under this head we may place the adits and the believers in elective affinity. i ‘ J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. 369° 3.—The union of heterogeneous atoms is the result of electrical attractions.” This includes Davy, Ampére, Berzelius and perhaps Patsday. 4.—“Chemical action results from a constant motion among t ultimate particles of bodies, this same movement likewise athe risé to the viens of heat, light, and electricity.” This is Williamson’s theory of icogeent sions interchange between all.mdlecules in solution. e hypothesis has also been sustained by Kekulé and Miaslia, e above closes this very imperfect sketch of the growth of ce conception of affinity, but it ignores the important dynamic problem connected with it. Let us turn our attention to the questions of force and energy which form so important a part in the history of every chemical change TL. QuantirativE MreasurEMENTS OF AFFINITY. The earliest attempts to measure the strength of affinity appear to be those of Geoffrey and Bergmann by arranging the several bases in the order in which shes combined with a given acid, or as we should now say, in the order in which they reaction arbitrarily chosen, and that the strength of absent as shown by the order in which the bases were arranged, vavtuble | and depended on the nature of the acid selected. T tables were amplified and improve oung and in the two kinds of union, atomic and molecular, still his pro- position could not be considered an important contribution to the theory of affinity while it rests for its validity on the lan- guage of the atomic theory. The proof of this conclusion will e evident when we consider that the same discrimination tween the two kinds of chemical union was very clearly fore- 370 - J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity shadowed from speculations concerning the value of chemical attractions before Dalton’s hypothesis was given to the world. An English chemist, William Higgins, Professor of Chem- istry to the Dublin Society, published in 1789 a work in which the composition of several bodies is attributed to the ” . up the sulphur compound nor the sulphur the iron compound, but both the phlogisticated iron and sulphur will be united into a compound system by this residual force of two existing between the groups. This is exactly what would be repre- sented by the equivalent symbol for ferrous sulphate, FeO, SO,, where the oxide of iron FeO, and the sulphuric acid SO,, were each regarded as entire or binary compounds united to form the ternary body, FeO, SO,. Shortly after these attempts of Higgins, we. find, in the open- ing years of the present century, three general methods indi- cated for the study of the force of affinity. Instead of being successively taken up and abandoned, like all preceding specu- lations, they have remained steadily in use during the eighty years which have intervened, and they are to-day still the most promising means at our disposal. These three methods may be called the thermal, the electrical and the method of time or speed. It will be convenient to consider each one separately. The thermal method was first indicated by Lavoisier 10 4 moir, a portion of which will bear quotation. He says: m t any tem- perature below zero (Centigrade) an acid with ice, it (the acid) will melt it until it is so enfeebled that its attractive force 00 the molecules of the ice becomes equal to the force which makes these molecules adhere to each other, and which 1s 80 much the greater as the cold is more considerable; thus the degree of concentration at which the acid will cease to dissolve the ice will be so much the greater as the temperature of the mixture is lowered below zero, and we can refer to the degrees of the thermometer the affinities of acids for water according 10 various degrees of concentration.” - ‘ J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. 371 This method, indicated by Lavoisier, would seem to be a pote one but it has never been followed, so far as I now, by anybody unless it may be by Guthrie in his investi- ‘gation of Cryohydrates.” he study of the heat evolved when various elements unite with each other and when acids combine with bases has been Woods 1851," Favre and Silberman 1853,° J. Thomsen 1853,” M. Berthelot 1864 and Alex. Naumann.” e work of Thomsen, entitled ‘‘Thermochemische Unter- suchungen,” in three volumes, published at Leipsic, in 1882, and that of Bertielot, “ Essai de Mechanique Chemique,” in wo volumes, Paris, 1879, are models of painstaking and exhaustive research. By the labors, chiefly of these two men, we now know the thermal values corresponding to many thous- ands of chemical reactions. We have learned that the energies of a reaction which can be brought about in two methods, either in the dry way or by solution, differ in the two cases; that of a dibasic or tribasic acid. : The most important generalization to be drawn from thermo- chemical phenomena is that the work of chemical combination, or the total energy involved in any reaction is very largely influenced by the surrounding conditions of temperature, pres- Sure and volume; and the conclusion they force upon us in regard to the nature of affinity is most important, namely, that this force in accomplishing work is dependent, like all other forces, on the conditions exterior to the reacting system which limit the possible amount of change. Affinity is therefore at last definitely removed from the category of those mystical agents so often invoked by our predecessors in a less critical age as belonging to causes which had no correlation with the general forces of nature. : nder the title Dissociation, St. Claire Deville gave to the chemical world in 1857” a new and fruitful method of investi- gating the nature of compounds. By determining the tempe- tature at which bodies break up or are dissociated he was able to perform a purely analytical operation on them not compli- cated by the introduction of any extraneous form of matter, and since the gradual increase of temperature can be closely adjusted and watched, we have in the process of dissociation the perfection of an almost ideal analysis. Jour. a aed Series, Vou. XXVIII, No. 167.—Nov., 1884. — 372 J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. The laws developed by Deville and his successors in this field show us, that after the point is reached at which decompo- sition commences, the further breaking up is determined by the pressure of the evolved products of the reaction, so that the ermanence of the body depends on the magnitude of two variables, pressure and temperature, either of which may be varied at will through a wide range. Deville thus gives usa fundamentally new mental tool with which to attack the prob- lem of affinity by showing the close parallelism between chemical decomposition and the ordinary evaporation of a liquid at its point of maximum tension. The electrical method of dissecting chemical forces has been followed less actively than the thermal one. Besides the well-known experimental contributions of Davy, Becquerel and Faraday, many other more recent workers have studied the chemical changes of the battery and the electrolytic cell. Among these may be mentioned Joule’s researches on the heat absorbed during electrolysis, and especially the work of C. Adler Wright on the ‘Determination of Affinity as Electro- motive force” in the Philosophical Magazine for 1880, 1881 and 1882. The general outeome of these researches is that the products of electrolysis are so numerous and so varied by the results © secondary actions that it is very doubtful whether the electro- motive force measured is that due solely to the union of those atoms which are indicated by the principal equation of the reaction. The method of time, or speed of chemical reactions, has a history as old as that of its two associates, but the story is much less eventful, for very little work has been done 10 this field. Wenzel held that the affinity of metals for a com- mon solvent, such as nitric acid, was inversely as the time necessary to dissolve them; the attacked surfaces being equal and invariable. He experimented on small cylinders covered with wax except on one of their bases.” The most notable work in this field has been done by Glad- stone and Tribe” by ascertaining the rate at which a metallic plate could precipitate another metal from a solution; DY Berthelot, Menschutkin and others who have studied the time necessary for etherification. The rate of inversion of cane sugar has been investigated by Urech, and in this country by R. B. Warder. The above are only three out of many subjects which have been studied in regard to their time rate. An index to the literature of this subject has been made by one of the members of this section, Professor R. B. Warder, and may be found in the proceedings of last year.” To these general methods for studying the problem of chem- ical dynamics should be added the investigation of the action of mass by Gladstone, in his well-known color work on the: Feel Sp ee) te en ae eee ne 7. ee ee ea eer eg eee ee Ne Ear ee = PEER ee eo teen ee gear en ti airle dace ky ee ee aia 4) otis Sa ee a a ee a J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. 373 sulphocyanides of iron;” the chemical action of light by the late J. W. Draper,” in this country, and Professor H. E. Roscoe™ in England, as well as Becquerel™ in France, pioneers who have since been followed by a host of students of scien- tific photography. In th e review just given noattempt has been made to do more than glance at the important contributions to the theory and methods of measuring affinity. Many names have been passed by and much work has been necessarily ignored owin to the limits of time and space which surround the writer of an address like this; but notwithstanding the presence of those limits, et my consciousness of how greatly your patience has been drawn upon, I will venture to add a few words on one other shade: of the subject, and that is The Haisting Problem. LIST OF AUTHORITIES QUOTED. 1. H. Debus: Ann. Ch. Pharm., lxxxv, | 23. Thos. Andrews: Phil. Trans., 1844; 3: also Phil. Mag., xxxii 392, fol- 2. Barchusen: Spheig asset 1698. lowed by a series of papers on 3. H. Debus: the same subjec 4, Wurtz: Dice ‘Chim. article Affinité. | 24. Thos. Wood: On the heat of Chem- 5. Idem. ical Combination. The first of the 6. Torbern Bergman: De Attractioni- series is in Phil. 7 C4} = 268. bus Blectivis 1775; also in the 3d | 25. Favre and Silberm 7 Oh. volume of his Opuseula Torberini- Phys. [3] xxxiv, “385, saath in sue- eign Phy s. et Chemica, 1783. ed volumes. 7. H. Debus: 26. J. Thomsen: Pogg. Ann., 8. Charles Daubeliy® rae to 349, and in following volumes. the Atomic Theory. 2de 5.| 27. Alex. Naumann: Lehr- und Hand- 9. ©. L. Berthollet: Bs de Sieeawe buch der Thermochemie, 1882. Ses 180 28. H, St. Claire Deville: Compt. rend., 10. Sir Davy: Paik Trans., 1807; xlv, 857; also in the cae de Pee 18 Chimie of the Paris Chemical So- 11. Wurtz Dict: loc. cit. ciety, on Dissociation, 1864, and 12. Amadeo Avog ado: Journal de> on Affinity, 1867. a esi, p. 58. 29. Wurtz Dict.: loc. cit. 13. B.C. die: Quar. Jour. Chem. 30. yer niece and Tribe: A Law in ag nh 194. Chemical Dynamics ; Sos Roy. 14. D. Mendelejeff: Zeitschrift fiir Soe., is, 498, Chemie, 1869, 495; and Annalen 31. R. B. Warder: Suggestions for com- er Chemie, 8 suppl, puting the Lak oF ere agee eon 15. Lothar Meyer: Ann. der Chem., 7 actions; Proce. Rte suppl., 356. 156. 16. J. Newlands: Chem. News, x, 59- 32. J. H. Gladstone: Chemical Affinity xisting among Substances in 17. Watt’ Dict. : = i, p. 865. Solution; Phil. Trans., Mar., 1864. 18. A Will : A Theory of 33. J. W. Draper: Chemical action of “Eiherfeation aan Jour. Chem. Light; ea Frank. _ xix, 0c., iv, 1 469. a ; also many others on 19, J. B. Richter: Anfan gsgrunde der the same subject in Phil. Mag., aefehiseeeee Breslau, 1792. from 1842 to 1857. 20. Willia iggins: A Comparative 34. H. E. Ros easurement of the e Phiogistic and Anti-| Chemical Action of Light; Proc. phlogistic Theories, 1789. | oy. Soc., 1857, 326; also in con- 21. Wurtz Dict.: Affinité, p. 72. | junction with Bunsen till 186 22. F. Guthrie: Phil. Mag. [4] xlix, ls 36. Edm.B ical rays which of several pape accompany Light; Compt. rend., E e by him on Cryohydrates. [To be concluded.] 374 H. 8. Carhart—Electromotive Force of a Daniell Cell. ArT. XLV.—Relation between the Hlectromotive Force of a Daniell Cell and the Strength of the Zine Sulphate Solution ; by H..S. CarHart. THE investigation here described was carried out in the physical laboratory of the University of Berlin in the spring of 1882, and was undertaken with a view to ascertain whether the variation in the strength of the zine sulphate solution sur- rounding the zine plate of a Daniell cell affected the electro- . motive force, and to what extent. It is well known that different experimenters have found different values of the electromotive force of a Daniell element. results may be partly due to difference of method; but it is easy to ascertain that slight changes in the condition of the plates or in the concentration of the solutions modify the value of the electromotive force to an appreciable extent. The method employed in this investigation was essentially the com- pensation method of Poggendorff.+ The two poles of the bat- tery A, the electromotive force of which is required, are S 8] | {1} * Everett’s Units and Physical Constants, p. 146. + Wiedemann’s Elektricitat, p. 633. ai ic NC 7 bo a Sea Spline ag j Hl. 8. Carhart—Electromotive Force of a Daniell Cell. 375 of the resistance inserted between C and E and the strength of the current in the main circuit equals the difference of potential between the two points, or the electromotive force of A. The current was measured by a silver voltameter (S) with Bae nitrate of silver The resistance employed at R was in lemens units. The deposition of silver was continued for ten minutes; the eup was then washed with great care, dried in a hot air chamber, and weighed after cooling, fractions of milli- grams being obtained by observing the swing of the pointer. The Daniell cell consisted of a U tube of the form employed by Kohlrausch in measuring the resistance of electrolytes,* the bend of the tube being much smaller than the two branches. The lower portion was first filled with a saturated solution of pure zine sulphate; saturated copper sulphate was then added to one branch and a percentage solution of zinc sulphate to the other. The sulphates were so added that the surface of | about two meters. After a little experience a balance was readily obtained by the greater or less immersion of the silver plate in the nitrate of silver solution of the voltameter; and it Millimeter force divisions. The electromotive of A was thus Measured with minimum liability to polarization and by a method entirely independent of the internal resistance of the cell. he only. resistance required is that between C and H, and this Can easily be measured by means of a rheostat. he temperature of the rheostat and of the cell was observed at every trial. The extreme limits of variation in the tempe- Tature of the cell was 3°-2 C. e table exhibits the results; but the final reduction, as Shown in the last column, was not made till after the recent report of the Paris commission on the legal ohm, and the pub- lication of the results of Lord Rayleigh’s experiments with the Silver voltameter.t The values of the electromotive force, given in the column next to the last in arbitrary units, were reduced to volts as follows :— * Wiedemann’s Elektricitat, p. 590. + Nature, March. 20, 1884, p. 495. 376 H. 8. Carhart—Electromotive Force of a Daniell Cell, | TABLE. Per_| Temp. |Resis.in! _ Silve Product of |Corrected for) | Mean E. M. F, ZnSO, |Rreostat| Watts. depcaied 1a Seeimance | temp ot | Wate | ata o | 20° | 11 | 6v27mgs| 73-997 | 73-997 | 173997 1 | 188] 11 | 7277 “| 80-037 | 80-000 | 80-000 | 1126 84] jos} 12 |,e710 “| g0320 | sosoa jf 87884 | 1193 Dee secre tetach Gh pss |: shes | L126 | 1142 ee a tk tence |. none | 79620 | 1120 Sr ad eae el eee vena: |t Toremor | ae oe i Maen ih ep henatia bdreedma a ad a Wr sare ak | toery fb agaee |b 19-008 | ita (oO aN 6 a ae Mean, 1°122 The ratio of the Siemens unit to the congress or legal ohm is 100 to 106, or, 50 to 58. According to Lord Rayleigh a current of one ampére pai 4-025 gms. of silver in an hour, or 67°08 mgs. a minute. Therefore if C, R and E represent current strength, resistance, and electromotive force in ampéres, ohms, and volts, and e the electromotive foree in the arbitrary unit of the table, we have the following equation, 53 g (R. =) (Cx 67-08) =e; : whence R C= == ri = X67 08 It is only necessary then to aun the quantities in column seven by 71°105 to reduce them to volts. The method employed is amply sustained by the results obtained with a Latimer Clark standard cell. Two trials gave the same result. I give only one of them. ‘LiIN@ Of GEDUNIUION OF SUVET,. i... wc. a hoe Lee Resistance between C and D, Tempers ature WE PONT, Ss is oe es Clark’s cell, : Weight of silver cup after deposition, poe ade befor 18° 26°1963 gms 26°14538 Silver deposited in spon min., APigir Ase oibig Ok eee 0°051 “ bc See Rh Ueda See ee 5°] =mgs. 5:1 sia gulag 102+71°105=1°434=E. H. ©. Carhart—Electromotive Force of a Damell Cell. 377 The electromotive force of a Clark element is therefore 1°434 volts, the exact value given by Lord Rayleigh* instead of the formerly accepted value of 1:457 volts. The mean of all the values of the electromotive force in the last column of the table is 1122, which is the value obtained by Sir William Thomson by the electrostatic method, if the velocity expressing the ratio between the electrostatic and elec- tromagnetic units be taken as 3X10”. In figure 2 the results of the investigation are set forth graphically; the ordinates represent the excess of the quantities in column seven of the table above 74, the value obtained with distilled water; while the corresponding abscissze denote per- centages of zinc sulphate. It will be observed that little variation in the value of the electromotive force occurs after reaching ten per cent. of zine sulphate, and that the maximum value appears to be at about five percent. I have some reasons for doubting the accuracy of the larger of the two values found with the five per cent. solution. If the smaller value alone is 2. ~ a eTN 79 auee TT 15 01:8: 3. 76 15 20 25 standard Daniell element should be so constructed as to admit of employing a zine sulphate solution of known concentration. The form proposed by Professor G. F. Barker,t in which the solutions are saturated appears to meet the requirements In this respect. Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill., August, 1884. *Nature, March 20, 1884, p. 495. In his Montreal Presidential address Lord Rayleigh gave the value 1°435 volts. + Proc, Amer, Philos. Soc., Jan. 19, 1883, p. 654. 378 A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna and deep-sea deposits Art. XLVI.—WNotice of the remarkable Marine Fauna occupying the outer gr He sof the Southern Coast of New England, No. 10; by A RILL. se Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Ya ale Collége. LVL. [Published by permission of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. ] Work of the Steamer Albatross in 1884. ‘HE exploration of the Gulf Stream region was son tinaes this season, under nearly the same conditions as in 1883, by the steamer Albatross, est Z. L. Tanner, commander. Dur- ing the four trips, between July 20 and ‘Sept. 13, sixty-nine dredgings (at stations 2170 to Jog) were made. In most of these a large. beam-trawl] was used very successfully, even at great depths.* Of these dredgings 5 were in depths between 2000 and s fathoms; 24 between 500 and 1000 fathoms; 8 between 300 and 500 fathoms ; 12 between 75 and 3800 fathoms. Another trip has since been made to explore extensively the zone between 40 and 100 fathoms. On this trip about 24 additional oete were made, but the results are not yet worked out.. The first trip was made while the steamer was on her way north from Norfolk, Va., and some of those stations were 0 the coast of Maryland, the most southern being in N. lat. 37° 57’, but most of the others have been made in the region south and southeast of Martha’s Vineyard, though some 0 them were a long way off the coast. The five stations in depths below 2000 fathoins were more than half way to Bermuda, and nearly east of the coast of Virginia, between N. lat. 36° 05’ 30” and 37° 48’ 80”; and between W. long. 68° 21’ and 71° 55’. The results are highly satisfactory, Both i in the way of physi- cal observations and zoological discoveries. Large numbers of additions have been made to the fa auna, sacludivn representa- tives of nearly all classes of deep-sea animals. Many pelagic * It is but just to say that the sac thoroughness ant volgen success of use gent ota As of the Gulf Str region have bee e to the great skill and untiring zeal and ener y of Ca . alone Tas personaly superintended all our deep-sea dredging operations during t the past five yea It is proper to add that his efforts have been well supported by the picts frepak associated with i The naturalists rupee 9 with the writer in the work, in 1884, were Pro- fessor S. I. Smith, Mr. Sande — n Smith, Mr. Richard Rathbun, Professor Lee, Mr. B. F. Koons, Profoss + Edwin Linton, Mr. H. L. Bruner, Mr. J. H. Blake og mye! vo J. KE. Benedict (oatoals josie’ “ the steamer). ‘ue A. Baldwin, W.E. d, Ensign U. S Nye, and others. Mr. Peter Parker m ran iner, Ensi — s. N 4 wiiked on the fishes. Had porvee nes went. and R pra dredging 0 n the ai varied from time to time. ree or four ponent Satta Mr. Benedict were sent out. . iS re ae thn oa ict 70 he ea og Sep ee Le ah eRe ae ate ee Ae ee er See IE a Ee See SO yi ee ee PD ee asi pore ee ea ees a eh Sore aes a es hare ae ica cae ail eon gia Aa lea Ra at OO a aa ea cage es i acai acaba Pa ah is off the Southern Coast of New England. 379 species were also secured in the surface nets and especially in the trawl-wings. Among these there are some new forms and many that have not previously been observed so far north in the Gulf Stream. Character of the deep-sea deposits. Some very interesting and important discoveries were made in regard to the nature of the materials composing the sea- bottom under the Gulf Stream at great depths. These observa- tions are of great interest from a geological point of view an some of them are contrary to the experience of other expedi- tions and not in accordance with the generally accepted theo- ries of the nature of the deposits far from land. e bottom between 600 and 2000 fathoms, in other regions, has generally been found to consist mainly of “globigerina ooze,” or as in some parts of the West Indian seas, of a mixture of globigerina and pteropod ooze. Off our northern coasts, however, althoug there is a more or less impure globigerina ooze, at such depths, at most localities beneath the Gulf Stream, this is by no means always the case. The ooze is always mixed with some sand and frequently with much clay-mud. Ina number of instances have a consistency somewhat like hard castile soap, and in sections are mottled with lighter and darker tints of dull green, ade and bluish gray. When dried they develop cracks and ‘ ; ea Scope grains of quartz and feldspar with some scales of mica More or less of the shells of @lobigerina and other Foraminifera are contained in the clay, but they make up a very small per- centage of the material. The following are some of the special localities where these clay masses were taken: Station 2192, in 1060 fathoms, N. lat. 39° 46’ 30”, W. long. 70° 14’ 45”. Large blocks of sandy clay, some weighing about 100 pounds. It was estimated that about a ton was brought up. Station 2230, in 1168 fathoms, N. lat. 38° 27’, W. long. 73° 02’. Large quantity of masses of hard but sticky greenish blue clay, some masses varying to yellowish and buff colors. 380 A. EF. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the ger 2171, in 444 fathoms, N. lat. 37° 59’ 30’, W. long. 73° Large lumps of bluish gray sand mud. ~ 6 localities, in 1000 to 1600 fathoms, the oti is cov- ered with or largely com “isin of hard, very irregular, flattened, crust-like concretions of clay and iron-oxide, wi ith more or less manganese-oxide in the crevices and worm- burrows with which mey are filled. At some localities a barrel-full, or more, of uch masses were brought up, varying in size from a few ssohoes up to 20 pounds or more in weight and from one inch to six inches in thickness. The following are some of the localities where such material occurred : Station 2208, in 1178 fathoms, N. lat. 39° 83’, W. long. 71° ‘15. Large quantities of hard crusty ferruginous clay. Also a rounded granite bowlder, weighing over 20 pounds. Station 2228, in 1582 fathoms, N. lat. 37° 25’, W. long. TOSS Large quantity of irregular crusty and. vee concretions and masses of ferruginous clay, with considerable black manganese-oxide lining the holes and cracks. The lower side of many of the masses consisted of sticky bluish clay. It was estimated that about a ton of this material came up. There were adhering to these hard masses some corals, gorgonians, hydroids and bryozoa, with the brachiopods, Discina branes and Waldhemia cranium, in considerable number Roanded bowlders and pebbles of granite, gneiss and other crystalline rocks occurred at a number of stations. One bo wl- der, station 2208, is referred to above. The sg ee are other localities: station 2195, in 1058 fathoms, N. lat. 39° 44, W. long. 70° 03’. A rounded granitic bowlder, at four inches in diameter. Its surface was covered with adherent species of foraminifera and some annelid-tubes. Station 2226, in 2021 fathoms, N. lat. 37° 00’, W. long. 71° 54’. A large number of pebbles and small, rounded bowlders of granite, porphyry, etc., and some coal cinders. The pebbles were more ess covered with adherent foraminifera, bryozoa, etc. Scattered bowlders and pebbles have also occurred at many other localities along the inner edge of the Gulf Stream. These have probably all been sasried out there by ice from the adja- cent coasts, in spring. A curious instance, quite unique in our experience, of the occurrence of abundant relics of human handiwork was ob- served this year. At station oy ek in 1587 fathoms, N. lat. 39° 03’ 15”, W. long. 70° 50’ 45”, beneath the Gulf Stream, 4 large quantity of common Netw with taba and soot still adhering to them was brought up in the tra hee were nearly entire, but most were in fragments. vAnnelid tubes, Southern Coast of New England. 381 ‘brachiopods,* and other forms of deep-sea life were attached to ‘them in small quantities, showing that they bad not been on the bottom very long. ese may have come from some wreck, or they may have formed the deck-furnace of some whaling vessel and have been thrown overboard on the home- ward trip. At any rate, the accident of hitting upon the precise locality of such relics is very curious. Otherwise than this instance we have rarely found in ORP water any human traces except coal cinders from steam In all our ten localities between 2000 and 8000 fathoms the bottom has been “ globigerina ooze.” We have never met with the “red clay” which ought to occur at such depths, penning to the observations made on the cruise of the Chal- nger The temperatures observed with the improved thermometers now used on the Albatross were pelea 36°°4 and 37°00 F. in 2000 to 2600 fathoms. But temperatures essentially the same as these were also taken in “1000 to 1500 fathoms, and even in 965 fathoms one observation gave 36°8 F. It follows from these observations that nearly the minimum temperature is reached at about 1000 fathoms in this region The zoological results this year are very important. Many -additions to the fauna of great depths were made and a large proportion of them are mies eg forms. Some of the fishes were of great interest. Huge spiny spider-crabs (Lithodes Agassizii) over three feet across were taken in 1000 to 1280 fathoms, and another very large crab (Geryon quinquedens) occurred in great abundance in 500 to 1000 fathoms, while in a deeper dredgings. Some of these had not been taken Many very ronnie Echinoderms have been obtained this year ‘a last, in addition to all those enumerated from the same region in one of my former papers in this Journal. Amon these are several Holothurians, besides the two aye species, Benthodytes gigantea and Exphronides cornuta described in m last paper, both of age were taken in abundance this year, the former in 904 to 2038 fathoms, the latter in 861 to 1735 fathoms, One 2 wg new forms belongs to the genus Ankero- derma. Of Ech we have taken two of the species with flexible shells [Phased placenta a P. uranus) in many localities and in considerable numbers. P. uranus occurred in 568 to 1080 fathoms. Some of the soutien are 8 to 9 inches * One of these brachiopods, which occurred on the bricks in considerable num- -bers, is Atretia gnomon J., which has not been recorded hitherto from off our coast. 382 A. E. Verrill—Marine Fauna off the in diameter, and of a rich purplish color, an unusual color for deep-sea animals. P. placenta ranges from 458 to 1230 fathoms. Other interesting species were Pourtalesia it ba in 1255 to 1555 fathoms ; Aérope rostrata, in 1467 to 1608 fathoms; Aceste bellidifera, in 1467 fathoms; Urechinus Naresianus, in 1809 fathoms; Salenia varispina, in 547 fathoms; and Aspido- diadema Antillarum. The last had not been taken before north of the West Indies. A large specimen occurred in 991 fathoms. good specimen of Rhizocrinus was taken in 2021 fathoms, station 2226. The additions to our list of starfishes have been numerous and important during the last two years. Two species of Bri- singa have been taken in many localities, sometimes in large numbers. One of these has often been obtained and preserved nearly entire. It is a handsome species,* with long slender arms, usually 11 or 12 in number, but varying from 9 to 13. e other is a coarser species, + which usually comes up broken into numerous fragments, by spontaneous division. risinga elegans V., sp. nov. Arms long and slender, usually 11 or 12, but eyte from 9 to 13, Seale: and finely spinulose toward the base, very aetése angular and dorsal with sn ape distally. Disk small, round, a little swollen, : in seattered in rou clusters, which are sometimes elongated transversely. ese: spinules are surrounded by clusters of minute pedicellariw. A little farther out the spinules and pedicellariz begin to be arranged in indefinite transverse groups, and still farther out there are regular and rather prominent broad, fiattened. 0 i e nearly to i S acute spine projects epee! inward beyond the middle of the groove, so tha those on opposite sides interlock. The ovaries xg clustered in ey basal a of the arms and discharge Oy a basal pore on each side. Color in life salmon oF pale orange: in alcohol soon becoming yellowish white. Greater radius, 275™™; lesser radius, 12™"; length of the largest lateral a 20-25™™; breadth of arms, where largest, 10™™, Some specimens have occurred larger than this, but the rays were bro T station 2035 and at ea ‘pee localities in 1883, and at —— 2205, 2209, 2211, 2220, 2226, 2229, in 1884, in 906 to 2021 fathoms. — At statio + B . nov. ge s = Ptpaged allied to B. coronata sesiaat The disk is round, swollen, roughly spinulose, nore. Arms Vy curved. us, om uov rupted, surmounted by a row of s oc short spinules. Transvere raised band: of pedicellarize ene Sa with the s. The ct ine Lyte bear mye three slender, fluted. glassy sila th ina patie verse r about iddle of the plate, the uppermost re and larger than the sehr th third pte small and slender; in addition to these there is a smaller, more slender, inner —_ situated. at the distal end of each plate and projecting more than half-way across the Si ll the — bear cei aes : minute peaies cella x Diameter” of disk, 28™"; breadth of arms, nea length of longest spines, 12""— Station 2310, in 991 fathoms (No. 7830) phe ‘dak from several other localities Southern Coast of New England. 383 and last, in 906 to 1467 fathoms. Its coerulean color is due only to the bluish mud, with which its large stomach is usually filled, showing through: the translucent integument. The real color is buff or pale salmon. oo tee] a — t=) oo i) “s a <2 =8 3 ° ° “ S A oO h— S 3 a a 2 o ° m ® ¢c - outh n uch flatter than the inner ones, which are conical and pobstg A sim miler adian papilla nds above the teeth. Color in alcohol dull yellowish brown. eae of disk, 30™"; breadth of arms at base, 4°5™™; length of longest arm-spin setees eae: 2211, in 924 to 1080 fathoms, 1884; station 2116, in 888 fathoms, 1883 (No. 6624). J. D. Dana—Hornblendice and Augitie Rock. 385 Stony Point on the opposite shore of the Hudson. I showed, by the occurrence of dikes in the limestone of Vetplahok:s and other peculiarities, that they were once in fusion or a plastic state; but I suggested that 5 fusion may have been connected with the metamorphic action that crystallized the rocks of the region, and that the peculiar constitution of the rocks may have come from previous igneous ejections a tufaceous deposits. Since the publication of my paper, a north-and-south cut has een made through the rocks of Stony Point for the “ West Shore” railroad, and it is now clear that these rocks are of true eruptive origin. The line of the railroad extends southward in succession, the “ soda cones the Eda ee rock and the mica schist. The exposed section of the chrysolitic rock (which is mainly chrysolitic hornblendyte) is about 250 yards lo One: Tn the section it appears to constitute a dike about N. 60° E. or S. 0° W. in course; but the map shows that the mass exte nds at the surface hardly a hundred yards west of the railroad, the mica schist apie: the surface rock beyond this distance. he mica schist (a gneissoid mica schist) exposed to view in the tailvond cut south of the igneous mass becomes vibes flexed as it nears the dike; but this increase of flexure in its beds has nothing to do with the eruption of the homblendyte, while it has some connection with the origin of the soda-gran- ite, as shown near Cruger’s on the east side of the beste The south wall of the dike or erupted mass, or the plane of contact with the mica schist, has a strike of about N. 55° K., and dips 80° to the northward. Some effects of the heat from the melted rock appear in the schists, and among them there are in a few places greenish spots or nodules. he north wall of the chrysolitie hornblendyte mass is not well exposed to view but appears to be nearly vertical. Against it there i is, first, for about thirty-five feet, /imestone which is in rh a very coarse limestone-breccia having the igneous rock as its cement, but in places shows nearly vertical bedding, par- allel nearly to its junction with the next rock nortb, the soda- granite. This breccia contains large angular masses of lime- Stone, and resembles the limestone breccia of Verplanck Point (described on pages 201 and 202 of volume xx of this Journal, September, 1880), in its appearance, its cement and the very small effect of heat at the contacts with the cement beyond some mutual impregnations. The limestone at Verplanck * The seale of the hime is 800 feet to the inch. + The “rock” I have since named hemidioryte, the name often used in lithology, micadioryte, be Relesaity 386 Scientific Intelligence. Point is the same that outcrops elsewhere on the Point, and is evidently the eastern part of the formation largely expose the west side of the river from the base of Stony Point to and beyond Tompkins Cove; and it is hence safe to conclude that the limestone by the side of the Stony Point dike is a portion of the Tompkins Cove formation. The sateen. plane of the limestone and soda- scsi ag m4 the direction N. E., and dips 67° to the northward; for the srs limestone it would be regarded as ‘she north wall of the dike. North of the dike, along the section, the soda-granite is intersected by blackish, narrow veins or vein like dikes, a foot or so wide, two of which cross one pasitae like the bars of the letter X. There is also a dike of the chrys- origin of the ‘ eee i ite.” They show, like the facts 7 age, as Seabee for the Tompkins te limstone by Profes- ok. or G. H. Co SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Puysics. 1. National Conference of Electricians.—On the 17th of July, the President of the United States, in pursuance of an act 0 Congress, appointed an Electrical Commission charged with the uty of conducting, in the name of the United States Government, “a National Conference of Electricians in Philadelphia in the autumn of eighteen hundred and eighty-four.” This Commission consisted of the following persons : H. A. Rowland, M. B. Snyder, J. Willard Gibbs, John Trowbridge, C. A. Youn ©. F. Brackett, W. H. Wahl, Simon Newcomb, G. F. Barker es J. Houston, R. A. Fisk and F. C. VanDyck. The Commission met on the 9th of August, completed its “ph og cami and sent out invitations to about one hundred and fi fifty American and to twenty-four foreign men of science, asking them to take part in the Conference above mentioned. The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, the Right Hon. Sir Lyon Playfair and Professor Sir Wm. Thomson were invited to act as Vice-Presidents of the Conference On the 8th of September, the N ational Conference of Electri- cians met at 3 o’clock p.m. The meeting was formally ca called to order by Professor Simon Newcomb, who introduced the Presi- Physics. — 387 dent of the Conference, Professor Rowland. His opening address, which occupied ne an hour in delivery, was mainly si- tion of the progress of electrical science viewed from nd- point of see fter a glowing eulogium of Archimedes, the man who, according to Plutarch possessed so high a spirit, so profound a soul and such ‘hives of scientific knowledge that ough the inventions (referring to his military engines) had now dbuiinad for him the renown of more than human sagacity, he yet would not deign to ledve behind him any commentary or writing on such subjects; but SPORE as sordid and ignoble the whole trade of pans hictd and e sort of art that lends it- self to mere use and profit, he siased his whole affection and am- bition in those pares speetations where there can be no reference sppietions, cha the traths of pure science are far more reachi in their e y of its applications ; ae yet the applica- tions of tiles often have a much more iate interest for the world at large than many discoveries in piles science which will finally rey olationize it both physically and mentally. They both have their i mportance and both are at work in causing that intelectual and material progress in ta een the world is now push- ing forward with grand steps.” ‘‘The simple experiment of the wher rewisined without invebtigndiah for 2200 years. Had the reasoning of many modern Sneiived been followed we should for more than 2000 years of intellectual, cage and ieee bee degradation. Then the awakening came an en began to feel that they were reasonin ie They began es see that there Were other pleasures in J _ world besides animal aig eit and the gain entered into the minds of these aa caves ators , but they were led by that instinct toward truth which indicates the ‘ughest type of man.” “The name of Faraday needs no eulogy rom me, for it stands where it can never be hidden and the spark tig Faraday first kindled now dazzles us at every street cor- er. No wealth came to him although he had only to hold out his hand for it. But the holding out of one’s band takes time With reverence? It is not only his intellect which we admire; it AM. Jour. Scr.—Tutrp Serres, Vou. XXVIU, No. 167.—Nov., 1884. 25 388 Scientific Intelligence. is his moral qualities beige fill us with awe, his noble and unself- ish spirit.’ ea s then passed to consider the progress of electrical measure mi ott, aie necessity for a SO Gaon bureau of electric standards and the vexed question of Noes na of elec- tricity, closing with a few well chosen words the re station of scientific discoverer as a mere visionary person.’ They are both necessary to the world’s progress and they.are necessary to each other o-day our sei rnath by its liberal patent laws encourages applied science. We point to our inventions with pride and our or Our country has now obtained weal nd this wealth should partly go in this ‘alkeouion. We have attained an honora- ble position in applied science and now let us give back to the world what we nave received in the shape of pure science. Thus and irrespective of quality. But let each one be trained in theo- retical science, leaving most of his practical science to be learned afterward ; avoiding, however, overtraining. — Life is too short for than is taught in most of our technical schools. It is not tele- graph operators but electrical engineers that the future anaaasg 788 Such a day has almost come to our country and we welcome its approach, Then aia not till then should our country ge proud and point with satisfaction to her discoveries in science pure and applied, while she has knowledge enough to stand in humiliation before that great undiscovered ocean of truth on whose shores Newton she he had but played.” Professo m. Thomson followed with a few remarks, in which after dadoring the line of thought in the address just deliv- ered, he considered the great advantages likely to flow from the and an International Bureau. The necessity for exact instruments of measurement prompt and reliable in their indications is every day eee and these instruments must measure the hundred thousandth or the millionth of an ampére as eauifed by Langley, or the five thousand ampéres needed in an Edison central station. a closed with a cordial eulogy of Joseph Henry. he Conference continued in session through the entire week. oo bjects brought forward were: “ Work of the U. S. Signal Service in relation to Ainoupness Electricity and Earth Cur- ; Es . : Pay be RR a RT Sam TE Se oe eae ee eae IER Mth eae NP Para te a eee eS Physics. 389 rents,” the discussion ne opened by dhnalparap Abbe and Lieu- tenants Greely and All “'The Adoption of the ag aon Electrical Standards,” deol patil by Professor John Trow- ridge. ‘The Establishment of a National Bureau of Prvica “Standards,” discussion opened by Professor Snyder. ‘The y Theory of the ynamo y-electric machine,” discussion opened by d. Piifenor Rowlan “The Electrical Transmission of Energy,” “Storage Batteries.” ‘“ Measurement of Large Currents.” “ In- duction in Tel e Wires, Long Distance Tele ng, an Underground Wires.” Applications of Electricity to Military and Mining Engineering,” “The Electrical Investigation 0 the Physical Quali ties of pac Metals,” ena opened by Capt. O chaelis. “ Lightning Protectio e Committee to which was referred a co mnication fro dge, W. W. Jac Preece and Professor Nipher, made a preliminary = l ‘day, as as follows : “The Committee recomme ends the National aad currents. “ir That the me ethods of observation ont reports conform as far as possible with those about to be dingeiniuated by (8) That the Government appoint a perma mmittee of five electricians to codperate with the Chief Signal Officer of the rmy in organizing this service, and (4) That this Committee laa and other wi e expel ri T ommittee 3 hie the spewee of faght was referred consisted of Professor John Trowbridge, W. H. Preece, Professor E. C. Pickering, Professor C. R. Cross, Profesor G. FE. Barker, Mr. T. A. Edison and Major Heap, U.S. A. The Committee on the a ted of Professors Newcomb, Rowland, Wee nd V vt ogers, The latter Committee reported on Thursday as iptowa: “ Whereas the recent rapid development of the applications electricity requires the adoption and legalization of common standards of electrical measures to form the basis of contracts for the supply of electricity ; and whereas the realization of such standards requires that all inetrnments for electrical measures be tested and verified y One central Deaawetag Therefore, be it Resolved, That this Conference deems it of national importance that Congress, in pursu- ance of its aonasifutloias authority to fix a standard of weights and measures, should fix standards of electrical measures, and in order to secure the use of said standards should establish a Bureau charged with the duty of examining and verifying instruments for electrical and other physical measurements. esol ved, That 390 Scientifie Intelligence. the President of this Conference be requested to communicate the above resolution to Congress anh 3 the proper official channels. Resolved, That the U. 8. Electrical Commission conducting this Conference be requested to a ribs a suitable committee to repre- sent the Conference before Congress and to move for such legisla- tion as will secure the object of ‘these resolutions. ended discussion was had upon accepting the results of the International oy eho Conference held in Paris. With regard th A. L. Kimball gave the results of Professor Rawilaid’s srcelieat: as 106-278 centimeters for the length of the column of mercury one square millimeter in section which has one ohm resistance ; and Sir Wm. Thomson said he thought if the Paris Conference had had this result before them, it wofll have adopted 106°2 in place of 106. But this value is only pro- visional and the discussion may in a few years be reopened. e discussion on Dynamo-machines was the fullest of the session, that on Secondary Batteries coming next to it. The results of the Conference cannot fail to be of great value to electrical oe amore frequent interliniie of views similar to this: its character — contribute materially to a healthier and more read progre The Conference “adjourned on Saturday, Sept. 13th, subject to a" call of the cha ereaanere abe of Vapor density of bodies with low boiling ince and bodies with high boiling points.—Nix von Klobakow reviews the methods of previous observers and diessrliich an appa- ratus for the determination of the vapor density of substances with low boiling points, which in its general features resembles a weight thermometer. The details are fu lly described in his paper. means of this apparatus one can work with a very small quantity of the substance. If the weighing of the sub- stance can be depended upon to the fourth decimal place five milligrams of the substance will give precise results. He terms the instrument a vapor density dilatometer. In order to obtain the vapor density of substances which have high boiling cadoue vapor. This Sa raitioes is called a vapor-density ara- ometer. The results obtained by both instruments agree closely with the dee obtained by calculation._—Ann. der Physik und — No. 8, 1884, pp. 466-510 3. mal peer for Electro metric measurements. _The sie of a sient practical unit of electromotive force has long been felt. The zine and parcery element of Lati mer Clark is very *The New York Electrical World published a very full and accurate report of the — of the Sietloreinals to which we here acknowledge our indebt~ edne Pe ae SA ee eee, ee A Eee Se en ee a a ee See Rem gis ew IRR Ae Ir ea ne Physics. 391 oe but its electromotive force is found to change with the d also to undergo modifications when the cell is short. cireuited, A Daniell cell stably prepared can be made to give an electromotive force of about one volt; but in the form of . cell in which a porous cup is emplo sa diffusion is apg apa going on and thus modifying the electromotive for A water battery is generally employed to charge the ace of an elec- trometer but the electromotive force of such an element oe after a short interval. Beetz found the electromotive force zinc copper element filled with spring water to be 0°992 vols On examining ag cells of his water battery whieh, had been standing a year, he found the follo ning. Nise a of potential 0°838, 0°678, 0° 734, giving a mean of 0°743 volt. Beetz proposes the fo llowing new form of cell for Hots sale electromotive force: “Fine alabaster plaster of Paris is mixed with concentrated rd phate of copper solution to about the spnaievency em mployed i copper wire was asa peat into the copper ae tone it ad set, and a zine wire into the zine paste. he upper part of each eg was cleared from plaster and tilled up with paraffine.” Thi der Physik und Chemie, No. "t, 1884, pp. 402-4 4. Wave-lengths in the Infra-r ed portion of the solar spectrin, —The method of phosphorescence used by ri Beeque bles one to see at a glance the whole region ens is es Be inves- tigation, and Becquerel claims that the method allows pes observer to explore the region further than by means of phot graphy, and in this respect is not exceeded by the bolometer or thermopile. With a very sensitive phosphorescent agent the details of the infra: red region can be observe d by the oe he. hot s punilassars The slit was ge Sade narrow to enable one : e oo one could obtain their w een Si A tab oe a lengths is appended to the author’s paper— C a a Rena Sept. 1, 1884, pp. 418-420. 7. 392 Scientific Intelligence. Il. Grotoegy AND NaAtuRAL HIstToryY. . Untersuchungen tiber die Entstehung der altkrystallinen Schiefergesteine mit besonderer Bezugnahme a iichsische- bodily ing 159 eee ake representations of rock structures, Bonn: ey Z ( 4 bad ob result of nine years of careful work, the skillful arrangement of this material so as to lead logically to the conclusions reached, enormous pressure may produce. Heim and others in Switzer land have shown that, when enclosed on all sides, even rocks may be moulded like a viscous mass. Lehmann advocates rather a plasticity, like that of wet clay, produced by a crushing and sliding of the smallest particles upon each other and a re-cement- ing by abundant mineral secretions. In this manner, 4 tightly schists. As so Dr. Lehmann considers schistose structure in a crystalline rock as no evidence whatever of sedimentation. He therefore agrees with Naumann in considering the Saxon granulite area of erup- Geology and Natural History. 393 tive origin. He goes so far as to state that even the most com- plicated system of nia ahe at? dykes may by pressure be altered a conformable series of schists. Konondin ng to the author’s view, the granulite was originally an intrusive mass which impreg- nated the surrounding sediments and lo wen 4 metamorphosed those t a greater distance, but itself cooled far below the surface. it converted the impregnated slates into gneisses and the others into mica schis e extensive role attributed to sediments, broken and again nted by eruptions of graniti¢ material, thus forming rocks sericite schists he regards as produced from acid eruptive rocks, while others, indistinguishable from them, were once sediments. Little justice can be done to this ‘elaborate me moir, Whose every | page is full of de rete in the Lbs esent short notice, and cae ne we can only refer the reader to the work itself, w , whatever € one’s geological beliefs, cannot but repay a arefal perusal, In conclusion, too hig ise cannot be bestowed upon the photographie illustrations of rock structures, taken in part by wihpintene, light from but little magnified microscopic sections, art by reflected light from carefu wae polished hand speci- men dias whey permit of a study which is hardly less grigcente ep would be that of the original specim » Os Be on the origin of bedding in reas ee ats fom rocks, by James D, Dana.—The views presented in the nahh of Dr. Leh- mann, noticed above by Professor G. H. Williams, are of so much interest that I add here some illustrations of the chief point from my observations in America, where gavreted cart rocks rely pee, under very varied conditions over large are I 43 (as Prof. Williams states), previous to making these ober vations having but a year before arrived in this country afte four years sities spent partly among volcanic islands of she ac otis and on portions of its voleanic borders, I put forth the by | sects that granite areas had been volcanic Senter, and that eisses, or schists, about such an area were portions of the PE a outflow At that time I thought well of the new i ea, for I had seen vibe saeke that were schistose. Wider experi- * This Journal, xlv, 104. 394 Scientific Intelligence. ence among the metamorphic rocks of New England soon satisfied me that the conclusion was wrong, and consequently, it is nowhere repeated in any of my later publicatior It is true Sees a schistose structure may be induséd by pres- sure. Bunt the question is—How far is this a fact in regions 0 gneiss and Beane edded crystalline rocks. The following facts bear on the question. (1.) A dozen miles east of New Haven, Conn., at Stony Creek, a thick bed of rock varies laterally in the course of a few rods (as in many ot laces in the region) from granite to gneiss, and then, Hawes layers of the gneiss, there is a bed of black mica schist, made mostly of black mica or nee The beds are nearly horizon ae It looks like stratificati om five to nine miles west of New Haven, a fine-grained, garmetiferons mica schist is the surface rock. Going westward, it t bends in a synclinal as shown by the divergent dips; then a mile beyond, in an anticlinal (large granite veins Seats Be ae the axial region), and ends at Derby, where the dip is 90 W. Beds of feebly crystalline limestone occur in this range of mica oe and show by their position, that a schistosity con- forms to the bedding. The garnets increase size westward from a diameter of yy in. to 4 in., and the sohtat hausties sone rently coarser, yet nowhere coarse, illustrating well one of the principles Hecbisaiwa b r, Lehmann—and by the Professors ogers, ceologists of Virginia and Pennsylvania, more than forty ate since. ioe the Shee becomes coarser to the westward and varies from common to porphyritic. Then follows, with perfect paral- lelism in bedding, a great formation of coarse gneiss, the most of the gneiss porphyritic, with the feldspar aes as large as the thumb b, and other portions of it coarsely micaceou The case looks sie one of stratification, of saccade deposits or strata, eis repeated ROD oecdittn at their Neca iste (3.) The gneiss Pat tion which commences at Derby continues westward with much mic ‘ae pen schistosity, and beget) dip— the dip indicating a synelinal at Derby. Three to six miles west of Derby it bends over ina very gentle gatatinat the eastward dip diminishing first to 20° and a to 10° and less, and the beds continuing nearly horizontal for more than eae miles, after which they pitch westward and so setitinie farther west. In the axial line limestone, one of them large, with gneiss in layers conform- ble to it above and below ; and to the south in the town of Trumbull, the limestone is 100 feet thiek, and some hornblendic schist in places adjoins it. . Here is haphorseipe eet! true stratification, the limestone stra tum setting a a ai occasion for doubt. Pressure bends and displaces pike: but ares not insert limestone beds, or make them out of gneiss, | : Geology and Natural History. 395 In posers Ponneaticit, a mile north of the Lime Roc k b -of coarse garnetiferous, staurolitic mica schist; the two rock si As do are nearly horizontal in position. pao are easy, I may a that I have been up t Seat and over the t Here is stratification: beyond question. st as the same limestone continues far northward Sond cae without inter- ruption, and the same schist makes or caps ridges through the limestone area as far as it pe it is re stratification as far as these rocks go. To pressure are owing the flexures and other mechanical effects, and to friction from displacement and the attending pressure che "erystalization, as has long been recog- nized, and n 1othing e else occur interstratified, lying in nearly horizontal beds and in bold flexures, as parallel with one another as the boards in a pile, Some of the boast bi is aconglomerate. The same racks extend wit All this iboks like stratification, and stratification of great wide-spread formations, not as the bedding effects of pressure on rocks within “tight” or confined limits. "No appeal to the com- pression of a region of dikes and veins accounts for any one ce of the r 6.) In the sowie Rutland, Sudbury, Whiting, Middlebury aud others, in central Vermont, "the crystalline limestone, which y wage! continuation, of that of Berkshire, and is accompanied by, t same quartzy te and mica schist, contains fossils ; and, in Ney belt of West Rutland valley, fossil corals, crinoids and shells of mollusks oceur in some of the layers, while others afford some of the best of: Vermont marble and contain its largest marble quarries. The mica schist on the west side and the | black slate on the east of the West Rutland limestone are conformable with it in bedding. In central Vermout, moreover, the quartzyte adjoining the limestone region has afforded fossils. Here is decided siratifination of beds of sedimentary origin— eds of fossiliferous limestone (now crystalline), of quartzyte or Sandstone and of mica schist—as true stratification as in. any Tegion of stratified rocks over New York and the States west. some Pennsylvania valleys numerous iron ore beds sar or brow n ae Neth occur In the limestone of what the situat ed for the most Cas near the saube of the limestone (a S. 396 Scientific Intelligence. Along the eastern border of the State of New York, through the- towns of Amenia, Northeast, Ancram, Copake and Hillsdale, occur in the valley region west of the Taconic Range, in a limestone they are situated mostly near the junction of the limestone and the overlying slates; and the limestone in the part of the sam elt between Pe age and Poughkeepsie contains fossils of Calcif- erous and Trenton The evidence of tthe oie cee and for the Lower Silurian age of the beds is as good for ew York region as for the Pennsylvanian ; and yet the eae is more or less crystalline, and the slates are oo mica schists. In conclusion I observe that the aay of the stratigraphical relations of so-called metamorphic rocks is not solely a study of the beds . " rigs or of _& gneiss, or of a mica schist or other bags gneiss reichaut Waite aad evidence that it was part of a strat- tions of granite, Ssyenyte, dioryte, granites which rocks are known e sometimes of igneous origin. Pda ehmann’s deductions as to the conversion of dikes and s by pressure into ambiguous strata, and as to the production of dahistose bedding in gr anulyte and like rocks by plasticity In 4. confined area, have a very limited application ; and n Sere te ed ber to be deceived by such an occurrence 3. Geology of Centre County, Pa.; by E. V. pheviintad: A endix x Extracts from Report to Lyon, Shorb & Co. >». LESLEY ; Appendix Bb, i goal on oe Geological ‘forma- ots from 2 Cras ae a ey F. Platt, A. 8S. McCreath, 7" in i the tc 3 Nittany, Penn’s and Brush cies Mr. d’Invilliers describes: the iron ore as chiefly derived from the oxidation of iron in sand- Geology and Natural History. 397 stone beds in the lower part of the limestone formation. The position is said to differ from that of the beds in the Lehigh ion and i tween the limestone and the overlying Hudson River shales— which shales are yrange schists (hydromica schists) in south- lva Professor LestEy, who bins s long studied the ore beds, speaks of “shafts passing through soft beds of ore and hard ribs of lime- stone;” of the ore eds in one place “ visibly interstratified with the soft clay and solid limestone layers, ee the strike and sg and with regard to a large and ical ri bed, the “* Pennsylvania Furnace ore-bank,” he pret that the various irregularities in the deposits are owing to chemical oe aa and consequent changes in bulk in the strata, during the process of oxidation and solution in progress, in which the looser ealciferous and ferriferous layers lost their lime constituent, packed their sand and clay, and oxidized and hydrated the iron, thereby excavating caverns, depositing the iron precipitates as ore, and without much disturbance of the general stratification. “ Only pina lime-iron deposits as were properly constituted in oe have been so completely dissolved as to sige the stone; t s most gnesian or tic below, but that dolomite and limestone succeed each other in many alternating layers. He concludes that the iron of th deriy from the limestone, in which it had existed as a ferrous carbon- ate; that part of the limestone affords on analysis one to two per cent of iron, and that this is s ee epaiemn for the production of. the largest ore beds; wer the s as come from arenaceous lime- stones, or caleareous sand-ro mee rather than from sandstone,.and the clay from argillaceous limestones and intercalated shale ; that the oxidation of the iron took place in situ; that some "sma 398 Scientific Intelligence. amount of transportation by flowing waters may have sag as the ferrous carbonate is soluble in carbonated waters. At quarry near by a body of ore, Zrenton fossils were found, and ok over forty rods off occur the Hudson River shales, so ‘that the ore in that case is within 300 or 400 feet of the top of the Trenton limestone formation; and this ferriferous horizon there extends along the strike of the rocks for about forty rods. The volume is an especially cpagegn he contribution to the subject of limonite-beds and limonite mak J.D. D 4. Note on the mahng of Limonite ore totes by J. D. Dana. —The results of the Pennsylvania geologists accord well with those the writer tee obtained from the study of many of the ore- its of western New England and the eastern border of New ork. As Professor Lesley observes, “ conditions, the changes and the results are the same throughou The source is, in both, chiefly the limestone of the Lower Slanse, gions the borders of which are overlying Hudson River slates. For the sake of ¢ e arison, the writer here states in brief his own conclusions, ee ing details as to facts for another place. (1 e iron ore epos sits occur in the limestone near, adjoining, either the main belt of slate or schist, or ccbeeatiied layers or small flexures of it. 2) The iron for the ore was ered from the limestone and oy to a small extent from the sl 3) The iron existed in the limestone as carbonate; probably as a _carbonate of ca calcium and iron, or of calcium, magnesium bury, and at the Leete ore bed in West Sipskerdas, a been found sparingly in other ore pits; its limit peed 3 is unknown. (4) The ferriferous limestone, owing to its iron and its panes undergoes rapid oxidation and decay. The iron-carbonate, cause of its a oxidizes slowly at surface and in its *ifts3 et exposure to the weather for two years suffices to make the blocks as black externally as sig limonite from the oxidation. 5) The limestone ledges in view about an ore pit are not fair examples of the ferriferous Shake a that has afforded the ore. They contain little iron, or none, and resist decay ; while the more ferriferous has disappeared through the oxidation process ¢ and the dissolving action of passing waters, or all except clay, sand, ete., from its aed ies. (6) The distribution of the more ferriferous limestone in the ordinary limestone is exceedingly irregular, patches, large or small, broad or narrow, deep or shallow, con- tinuous or interrupted. Toward the kin end of the Amenia Geology and Natural History. 399 ore pit the limestone on dent oS southward passes beneath the slate that makes the wall; toward the bottom its place is occupied for a while oe ore ; chen in the same line the lime- stone stratum exists again in a short eroded ledg ge, externally rusting; and then, again, beyond the ledge, the ore occupies the place of the limeston .(7) The great spac which is occupied by the ore deposit and which is often os eit or more deep, is not commonly a pre- viously made cavern; it was made by the dissolving away and removal of the limedtene as the oxidation went forward, ere the iron derived from the slate or schist no large cavity would be b 5S schist; and the ore, instead of being pure ore often through depths of 40 feet or more, would be mixed with three or fou ts weight of ¢ here derived from the aa the fact yerno ageregation not from the itferencs “i the poe volume of the oxide and the iron carbonate, but from the method of its forma- remain (clay or sand) to occupy it in prin rt; the cavity sometimes becomes hung with atadadeitien Often pro there oe per tes crusts made within the limestone. (9) The clay of the ore pit is generally in the position of the slate or teers from which it was derived, only slipped soniewbiat out of place over horse ore in faire cases Diba to the displace- e much co pressed at the other from the oxidation and decay there in te ae and the pressure of overlying materia The Pair mkt of the slate has been promoted by the eieianis acid set free in great quantities by the oxidation of the iron; the cestionatnd week's so made carried away the potash — other protoxide bases from the mica and Seton ek and lett clay sep eth silicate of alumina) with much undecomposed mica, (11 slate or schist of the region contain bat little pyrite or me iron-bearing materials to add to the ore of the deposit, yet sometimes enough of pyrite to ma rie the miners avoid the ore which lies near the schist wall of the ore-pit because of the amount of sulphur in it. : The ~ conclusions the writer has deduced from his observations. The view he is disposed to favor as to the origin oa She ella ferriferus areas in the limestone formation is as lows: The stratigraphical change, in the region, from limestone to 400 Scientific Intelligence. slate indicates that a change took Bae. in the era of their forma- tion from limestone-making seas to mud- listribution seas. ur- ing the transition from one to sha other, iron was washed down from not distant land, in the state of bicarbonate ora salt of an organic acid, over imite areas of the calcareous deposits. hese areas so invaded by the spilt during the transition epoch, were within interior seas or basins, or marshes, half shut off from the ocean. The aiaraans material wherever receiving the iron-bearing waters became changed more or less completely to ferriferous limestone or ferriferous dolomite, or received pure e be the conditions here mentioned may have existed through large .parts of the era of limestone-making. The fact that the limestone is so largely magnesian is good evidence that the-condition of a partly confined sea-basin existed at intervals through the era of limestone-making; for the magnesia of concentrated sea waters dolomite have been the source of that of the magnesian limestone or ol ricted (BDL Univ., it xii, 70, July 1884) a paper in which he discusses from a theoretical standpoint the probable distribution of the temperature within the mass of the ice of a ivan e commences with considering the coffe ct of a single considerable mass of ice, extending from higher to ath fe i A second diagram shows the supposed effect of a single summer, indicating the portion, facsaite Stat above but extending to the bed of the glacier lower down, which might be expected to be affected by the summer’s heat and thus be brought i a a melting condition. Uniting the two diagrams a third is constructed showing, by the rere overlapping of the two portions named, first, a lower part, the glacier bed, unaffected immedi iately by either winter or su mmer; then a part, B, lower down, reduced to the melting paesnot ean by the summer and which will a always remain conse- quently at 0°; a corresponding part, C, bigher up than A and like B extending partly over ys into which the winter’s cold penetrates but which is unaffected by the summer and which may remain elow 0°; finally, a fourth layer, D (entirely superticial), affected both by summer and winter and whose temperature may vary y from 0° to considerably Suis 0°. In a word, the glacier may be - . Geology and Natural History. . 401 -considered as made up of a superficial portion of changeable tem- perature and a profound portion of constant temperature. As to the probable temperature of the latter tpi the author in con- ‘sidering the upper regions from which th e descends concludes higher altitudes of temperatures, nage p> Oi , —1°, —2°, —3° and so on; the final diagram given shows these ’ successive layers divided by horizontal lines (taking in seisiheras the effect of the earth’s interior heat) which the author euggeste as the ceri ble distribution of the interior temperature of the ice-mass, and he concludes with the hope Sea the my of his theoretical deduc- tions may be tested by experimen 6. ys ch of the Rated ine of Lake Lahontan, by Israzt C, Russert.—From the third Annual Report of the ange of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Rola important memoir, now issued as a separate paper, has been ced in the preceding volume of this Journal (p. 67). It is diestrated by a te en- graved plates, and two fine heliotype plates, one of a remarkable group of the crystals of the pseudomorph named by King * thinolite.” 7. Geologische Briefe aus America ate Eecellenz Herr HI. v Dr, H. von Dechen.—These letters by the German mineralogiet, Professor vom ae contain some of the results of his observa- ions d ent journey, extending over about a year, through the United States and Me ico. . T arked b the same keenness of observation and vividness of description which characterize the writings of the same author from Sicily, Syria, Palestine and other countries. ome of the localities spoken of in the letters are Colorado, especially the region about Pike’s Peak, Virginia City and Nevada, the Yellowstone Park, and Mexico, peer Pachuea, Cordova, Zacatecas and Guana- xuato. When in Mexico beet ascended nearly to the summit of Popocatepetl aA the account of this trip is full of interest; he also visited the locality at which tridymite was first fo und in Mexico by Castillo, and gives some valuable notes eas i: A list is given, with explanatory remarks, of the many fine and rare mune found in the neighborho ood of Guanaxuato. the Composition of Herderite ; by J. B. aauepouae (Compania in a letter dated Oct. 14.) —In regard t question as to whether the loss on the ignition of herderite is oa as * clawed by Winkler ee net number), to the oe of of fluorine, it being corlant re oxygen. Athesa I have not 8 402 Scientific Intelligence. 6°03 per cent in weight, and testing the pulverized residue for fluorine, I could not succeed in etching dere perceptibly, while- an equal amount of herderite under the same conditions rendered the glass rough to the touch, besides niet Vat plainly visible at the etched spot. The theoretic al loss, assuming that all the because an enamel is formed on the surface, which prevents end further action of the air and aqueous vap 9. Stibnite Bik Japan.— A short paper was recently read (June 17, 1884) halore the 6 eal naturforschender Freunde” “ Berlin, by Mr. Wad okio, on apanese . minerals, viz: on pyrite, SURG THES. stibni nite, topae gate others. In regard to the magnificent crystallized stibnite of Japan, he remarks that the true locality is the antimony mines at TTehind: kawa, in the town Ojoin-mura near Saijo, Province Iyo, Island Shikoku. The locality given in the dicitle on page 215, vol. xxvi, Me this ieee is consequently to be corrected ; as explained by “ Kosan g anese means ‘mine “ Jaegimeken Kannaien® means “Chart of (the district) J aegime, or better, Jaechime.” 10. Flora oe atte fase. XCIHII.—This makes the larger portion of vol. vi, part 3, contains the tribes of Composite from the Helianthotdese to the “ Ligulate” (a new name for the Ligult- Jiore or Cichoriacee), and so completes Mr. Baker's task in elaborating the Composite of the [gener i os A large piece of work, to all appearance carefully don The great Brazilian region seems to hold its normal quota of Composite, namely, the tenth part of the Phanerogamia. Ac- ich we count 237 genera and over 1600 species. In charac- ter the Brazilian representatives of the order differ almost as widely from those of North America as from those of the Old orld. T World 8 prominently appears in the statement that more than one-third the species belong to the three genera ni to which there is no parallel. All these Senta indeed are fairly represented in North America, but only one of them in Europe, and that very scantily. Vernoniace @ may be said to take the lead, having 24 genera and 289 species; in North America, only 3 genera and 10 species. Hupatoriacew have fewer (17) genera, but 335 species; in North America 15 genera and 111 species. Then come the ee a with 40 hey but only 221 4 Geology and Natural History. 403 Mutisiacec, almost all American, are very prominent in Brazil, 18 genera and 99 species. The In uloidew, a weak tribe are the Senecionidew (only 3 genera and 58 species), Helenioidew (only 9 genera and 30 species, while North America has 43 genera and 214 species), _ especially those largely Old World groups, Cichoriacee, with only 4 genera and 14 species ; Anthem- idee, with only 4 genera a 6 species, and two of these Old World weeds; and above all Cynaroidew, “of which there is only, a single indi igenous species, a Centaurea. The ie eo site of this td are illustrated by 210 plates 11. Zrilisa is the name of Cassini’s genus; not Trilisia a as it is printed in the Synoptical Flora o North ’ America, page 11 the conjectural etymology of this name, Wittstein was un- 12. Finreo ParnaTors, Flora Ttaliana,. continuata di. Teo- doro Caruel. oo vi, parte pritaa, pp. 3: vo. orence: September, 1884.—It is a great satisfaction that the Flora —— — after the fifth volume was arrested by the death of Parlatore, is now continued by the most capable of Italian “se Professor Caruel. The task is to be lightened by the codperation of two or three of his compatriots. The present ne takes = the ah at ac pes ptaiey samo and this part nymy, which is in Latin, all needful particulars follow in Italian. Among them a detailed description of almost every species, not rarely filling a page, so that the species average har pag he work, with all its ane too great) poss nae now bids fair to be worthily completed 13. The Agricultural Grasses of the United States; by pai Vasey, Botanist of the epartment of Agriculture. ’Washit gti pet icultural Department, 1884.—In this c compact octavo volume , who has long and diligently studied the Grasses, pro- vitles a aehahs for popular use, which seems well adapted to its purpose. He gives deseriptions, both fairly readable and fairly scientific, of all the giao mms important grasses of the country, ‘and some others ;—through which, aided by the 120 tol- erably good plates, the daliaiot and stock-raiser may get to know tie. principal kinds with which they have se i An essay on the Chemical Composition of American Grasses, by Clifford 14, Descriptive Catalogue of the North American es North of Mexico ; by Lucien M. Unverwoop, Ph.D. Se: arate issue from = “Bulletin of the > Illinois State Laboratory. ol. IT, 404 Miscellaneous Intelligence. pp. 1 vo.—A publication pve this, which begins with a good Picgroity and ends with a good index, might at least have a title-page and a date. awk er, it dese erves a less modest title than that of a descriptive catalogue ; for it is really a pilose No cific of the rth American Hepatic, with generic and - characters well rked out. The typography and ay ehh style are excellent. Here, at length, we have good provision for the popular study of our Hepatic, and a Piuacated for the more elaborate work which the author will undertake. We append the last wore of the “ prefatory note.’ “No mpt has been made to publish new species, ue ane believing that too many have already been described from insufii- cient data, and considering it far more necessary to et in ante those already published. “Tt is hoped that persons receiving this work will aid the further — and critical eady of this group b communicating precios of all the forms found in their own localities.’ .G. III. Miscetnuangous Sctentiric INTELLIGENCE. 1. Heliometer determinations of Stellar Parallax in the South- rn Hemisphere; by Davip Girt and W. L. Erxin; from the Wane irs of the Royal (Piet Society, vol. xlviiii—Dr. Gill, shortly after his appointment as Astronomer Royal at the Cape of Good Hope, acquired by purchase from Earl Crawford the four inch heliometer which Dr. Gill had used in observing, for the solar parallax, the ea of _ uno at Mauritius in 1874 and of Mars at Ascension Island i 1877. r. Elkin joined Dr. Gill at the ecePe, and together hey observed between July, 1881, and Ma 3, upon a carefully arranged program nine stars for parallax. "The following table contains their final results: Probable Mag. of Parallax. Error. Comp. Stars. a Centauri ik ke Gill and Elkin, +0°75 40°01 76 > i chide ue a + ‘38 ‘01 v5 a “ 4. “39 03 7+ tenis 0353 cs. Gill, + 2 “02 76 ; ni : + 166 "018 6-4 B Centauri .....-. . — ‘018 019 7 Tucan ........ . Elkin, + °06 019 14 e Eridani ........ iS + 14 020 6-4 Ganopus 5... 5.5. ae + *03 030 8 One of the principal difficulties in the use of the heliometer lies in the difficulty of determining, under varying conditions of tem- perature, the values of the scale divisions of the instruments. In the large distances measured by the heliometer, these values must be determined with accuracy at the time of ea ach observation. The gata by Drs. Gill and Elkin upon the star whose paral- lax was to be determined were those of the distances of the star rai two stars situated as nearly as possible gag eogiene on opposite sides of the principal star. The distances of these t “ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 405 stars from each other being regarded as constant, the scale values become at once determinate. Four couples of stars were used in the measures bie a Centauri, and two couples in those upon Sirius and u se rowiitte have been of such value that the British Govern- t has ordered for Dr. Gill the construction of a seven-inch seraaloen by Messrs. a pore It is pr opened’ to use this rts material has been brought together in sud volume. It opens with a chapter on the history and properties of the metals and their iors and then goes on to the special Siocon of the non- ferrous meta ie to which el book is devote Picco copper, tin, The latter at is devoted to the discussion of the strength and elasticity of the metals and alloys that have been mentioned, the t the various elements are arranged number savin one hundred, and they are accompanied by numerous diagram 3. A Treatise on the Adjustment of Obiberbasiony; with appli- cations to Geodetic work and other measures of Precision, by T. - Wricut. 437 pp. 8vo. New York, 1884 (D. Van Nostrand). —This is a practical treatise giving a sytematic account of the method of adjusting observations founded on the principle of the mean, with a discussion of the applications especially to geodetic and astronomical work. Numerous examples and illustrations taken chiefly from American sources add to the value of the work. he principal topics discussed are : ate of error, the adjustment of direct observations of one unknown, adjustment of indirect obser- vations, of condition observations, application to the ppaoergee' of triangulation, to base-lit asurements, to leveling, and so on tw were present, some very ih Movelais were reached. In midnight of the initial meridian, coinciding with the beginnin of the civil day and date of that meridian, and to be counte from zero up to twenty-four hours. 406 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 5. Meeting of the National Academy of Sciences at Newport, R. I., October 14, a — The following are the titles of the papers entered to be r On the theory of atomic volumes: Phe Wo.cortr GrBBs. On the complex inorganic acids: by Wo.cott GIBBS Notice of Muybridge’s ey enna on the motions of animals by instantaneous photography: by FArRMAN ROGER Report on meridian work . Karlsruhe: by W. VALENTINER. On the Algebra of bang y C. S. PEIRCE. On the temperature of the (ae fasetana: by 8S. P. LANGLEY. Notice of Grant’s aiffe rence engine: eds AIRMAN Rogers On Gravitation survey: by C. 8S. Px On minimum diffe erences of sensibility: ‘by C. S. PEIRCE ver ry J ASTROW. Researches on Ptolemy’s star-catalogue: by C. H. F. Per On the operations of the United States Bdedgical survey: ey J. W. POWELL. motion of Hyperion: by ASAPH HALL. Temata on the civilization of the native peoples of America: by E. B. Tyo Some results of the exploration of the deep sea beneath the Gulf Stream, by the bs Hace Fish Commission steamer “Albatross” during the past summer eS vesetpe progress in explosives: by H. L. ABpor On s of eastern archery: by Epw. 8. Morse On the thinolite of Lake Lahontan: by E.S On Mesozoic coals of the N west R, Pum On the work of the Northern Ceanscontiaantel atvey: “by R. PuMpP . to an rete cm composite photograph of the members of the perl by sae i mechani ically i injurious se’ live stock : oe Wm. H. BREWER. On the Columella auris of the Pelycosauria: by FE. D, Cop The brain of Asellus and of the nhahsoey form Cecidotiea : by A. S. PACKARD. 6. French oy of Sciences. — Professor James Hat has _ elected member of the French Academy in the place of the e Dr. J. Fiance Smith. . e Young Minaralools t and Antiquarian. — This is the title of a aid monthly paper published by T, H. Wise at Whea- ton, DuPage County, Illinois, in the interests of mineralogists. Notices are deferred of the following works: A Treatise on Ore Deposits, by J. A. Phillips, 652 pp. 8vo. London, 1884 (Mac- millan & Co.). The Reptiles and anemones of Hon America, by S. Garm Memoirs of the Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. viii, No. 6 pp. 4to, with 10 viata Published Le adie necid of the: Kentucky Sang: rvey. of the Coal Flora of ad pti idee gorge - Bidens Oe a "thieoaghont the United States, by L. Lesquereux, vol. iii, 8 Harrisburg, ce isle from the Upper Devo: n Warren County, by C. E. Beecher ; d Eurypteride from eo Lower renal Coal Measures in Beaver Co., by Tonio Hall. Pennsylvania Geol. gba tah rrr. he Deposition of Ores, by J. 8. N EES et oS eek ee ae are ae ge Ce eee AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. XLVIII —The Distribution and Origin of Drumlins; by W. M. Davis. The place of Drumlins in a geographic classification—Terminology—General Description —Distribution—Origin. A CLASSIFICATION of geographic forms may be based first on general and special peculiarities of origin or structure, and second on degree of development by erosion. One could then group together plains, plateans and their derivative forms under a name that would denote their formation from wide- carried dust deposits: as lava flows of igneous rock fed from Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp Sertes, Vou. XXVIII, No. 168.—Dxc., 1884. 26 408 W. M. Davis—Distribution of Drumlins. A more complex group could include regions of disordered structure, characteristic of mountain ranges, but of very diffi- cult subdivision. Here again it is of much importance to recog: nize the stage of destructive development, in order to mark the contrast between the new, still high and lake-bearing ranges ashes and lavas; eolian drifts, like sand dunes; and glacial drifts, such as moraines, drumlins and kames, which bring us to the special geographic form to be considered here. It will be perceived that this grouping does not provide a definite place for topographic features of complicated history ; it would be difficult, for example, to assign a place for the curved trap-ridges in our Triassic formations. This difficulty is inherent, for in the blending of inorganic forms we are not limited to crossing only between closely related forms as in the organic world; crossing, or double control of form occurs here even between the first structural divisions. Such blending will greatly complicate the resulting forms, and consequently evolution by erosion need not yet be discussed. Their name should be regarded rather as generic than as specific, for it will be shown that hills of somewhat varied form may be fairly in- eluded under this term. . Soe ee ee oe ne es Sn SO ee W. M. Davis—Distribution of Drumlins. 409 TERMINOLOGY.—Drumlin ; M. H. Close, Notes on the gen- eral glaciation of Ireland; read in 1866; Journ. Roy. Geol. Soe. Ireland, i, 207. A word of Irish derivation, meaning a long rounded hill. Most of the following terms are essentially synonymous with it, although some have a more specific mean- ing, Parallel ridges; Sir James Hall, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., 1815, vii, 169. Drums and Sow-backs of Scotland; J. Geikie, Great Ice Age, 1877, 13, 76. Parallel ridges; N.S. Shaler, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 4840, x1, 37. Lenticular hills; C. H. Hitchcock, id., 1876, xix, 68. These als papers refer to hills of more oval form than those of Ire- and. Whalebacks in New Brunswick; G. F. Matthew, Geol. Sur- vey Canada, 1877-78, 12EE. These are not clearly separated from hills of stratified gravel. vets drift-hilis ; L2Johnson, Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sei., i, 82 Mammillary or Ellipticai hills; T. C. Chamberlin, Geol. Wis- gona, 1883, i, 283. Some of these have an almost circular ase. Of these several terms, drumlin appears by far the best in being a name, not a description; in having in English at least no other meaning than the technical one here adopted ; and in having been proposed .by the author who first gave a sufficient clue to the origin of these hills. It does not seem worth while to coin a word, as botanists and zodlogists are forced to do, for already a number of local names from various languages have Come into general use in geography, as pampa, selva, steppe, tundra, atoll, delta, mesa, cafion, moraine; and drumlin may be well added to the list. Drumlins, using the term in its general sense, may be specifically qualified as long, oval or round. General description —Drumlins are hills composed of com- pact, unstratified glacial drift or till; their form is usually elongate or oval, with a ratio of horizontal axes varying from 6:1 to 1:1; the longer axis is parallel to former local glacial Motion, as shown by neighboring striation or plied ype of bowlders; the profile is generally smoothly arched and com- monly almost symmetrical; terminal slopes, 3° to 10°; lateral Slopes, 10° to 20°; length, one-eighth to two or more miles; height, 20 to 250 feet above base. The general uniformity of Outline in any single region is very noticeable; indeed the View from the summit of a commanding drumlin, in the center _ of a group, shows as characteristic a landscape as that seen in looking from the Puy de Déme over the extinct volcanoes of 410 W. M. Dawis—Distribution of Drumlins. Auvergne. Moreover, the control] that drumlins exercise over the laying out of roads and the division of property is so com- plete in districts where. they abound, that it is the rule to find roads, fields, gardens and. even houses oriented in obedience to the march of the old ice invasion. About Boston, there are hundreds of dwellings whose walls thus stand in close parallelism with the glacial scratches on the bed-rock beneath them. In a recent number of Science, I have given several sketches of these drift-hills. Distribution—The absence of drumlins in non-glaciated regions confirms the evidence that gives them a directly glacial origin. When found, they occur either scattered about with- out apparent system, or crowded together in groups. The most extensive group of which I have a map is in northwestern Ireland, the district described by Kinahan and Close in their ol aath on the General Glaciation of Iar-Connaught, Dublin, 1872 he direction of neighboring glacial strive is shown b arrows, which although not all parallel to one re hom are strikingly par- allel to the nearest drift ridges. These long drumlins “ consist of stiff unstratified bowlder clay, containing well blunted and scratched stones and blocks; they have been most unquestion- ably formed by the rock-scoring streams [of ice], since they are, them satisfactorily in descriptions of the drift of Scandinavia, Germany or Switzerland. Krdmann’s “ Exposé des formations quaternaires de la Suede”’ Se ceric 1868) may perhaps refer to drumlins on p. 24 . ns les plaines, ces masses de gravier (bowlder clay) s Pélbvens en nombre considérable des couches ‘argile environnantes, sous forme de collines plus ou moin grandes.” Desor did not include them as characteristic W. M. Davis—Origin of Drumlins. » 411 but the detailed study that it would well repay has not yet been attempted. Members of this series occur near Charlton -station, Boston and Albany railroad, with their bases at an elevation of 900 feet above sea-level, and others stand still igher. The portion of the group in Connecticut is described by Percival as follows. ‘The district extending north from Hampton, through Abington, Pomfret and Woodstock, is char- ‘ acterized by a series of very smoothly rounded, detached hills, — in which the rock is usually entirely concealed. ese form a striking contrast with the longer and more continuous [rocky] ridges of the adjoining formations” (Geol. Conn., 1842, 256: also 461, 479, 485). Prof. G. H. Stone reports that drumlins -of large size, like those about Boston, have not been found in Maine. Western New York, between Syracuse and Rochester presents a surprising number of parallel, north-and-south drift hills, probably familiar to many travelers by rail. Some of them are so long, smooth and even that the country there- abouts has been described as fluted. These were long ago described by Prof. Jas. Hall in his Geology of the 4th district of New York (1843); since then they have been strangely neglected until examined by Dr. L. Johnson, who has lately published a paper entitled “The parallel drift-hills of Western New York” (Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1882, i, 77). Some of the ridges are “two or three miles long, and attain elevations of 100 or 200 feet above the intervening valleys; but the greater number are shorter and steeper. Man of them were, length, with corresponding linear marshes interspersed, ese correspond accurately to the direction of ice motion.’ (Geol. t found in the abundant drift of Minnesota. A few examples are mentioned for Pennsylvania near its western border by Prof, Lewis. (2d Geol. Surv. Pa., Terminal Moraine, 1884, 29, 188.) It is evident enough from this review that the distribution of drumlins is insufficiently known. : gin.—The earliest discussion of the origin of drumlins that I have found is in Sir James Hall’s interesting paper on “the Revolutions of the Earth’s Surface (Trans. Edinb. Roy. Soc., 412 » W. M. Davis—Origin of Drumlins. 1815, vii, 169). After describing the general form and _ struc- ture of those about Edinboro’, he says: “The facts seem to- meet the challenge held out by Mr. Playfair in the following passage from his Illustrations of the Huttonian theory, art. 366. ‘If there were anywhere a hill, or any large mass composed of broken and shapeless stones, thrown together like rubbish, and neither worked into gravel, nor disposed with any regularity, we must ascribe it to some other cause than the ordinary detri- tus and wasting away of the land. This however has never yet occurred, and it seems best to wait till the phenomenon is observed before we seek for the explanation of it.’ Now it appears to me, that these vast assemblages, in which blocks of every size, and shape, and quality, some sharp, some round, are confusedly scattered through clay, are inexplicable by any diurnal cause, and do call for some particular solution” (p. 174). Sir James consequently decided in favor of earthquake waves - as a means of forming drumlins: he recognized that the ridges of compact clay were parallel to one another (p. 177), to the scratches on the bed rock below (p. 183), and con- sidered vast diluvial waves competent to produce all these~ effects. . Others of the older geologists have since then ascribed drumlins to the rush of diluvial floods; but it is noteworthy that no explanation of drumlins by iceberg action has yet been suggested. These hills indeed offer strong evidence against the sufficiency of that theory. t is unnecessary here to enter on the evidence that places unstratified drift, with its scratched stones and large subangular owlders, among the effects of land-ice action. Since it has been generally thus regarded, several suggestions of more detail have been made as to the origin of the peculiar form of drum- lins. They have been considered the product of post-glacial erosion acting on a broad sheet of drift by W. Harte (Journ. Roy. Geol. Soc. Ireland, 1867, ii, 30) and Professor Shaler, (1. ¢.), but this explanation does not account for the remarkable scattered, with numerous and wide spaces between them oceu- pied by insignificant deposits of till, the suggestion is not so~ W. M. Davis—Origin of Drumlins. 413 satisfactory. Professor J. D. Dana’s description of Round Hill near New Haven (this Journal, 1883, xxvi, 357), would imply that it is a drumlin, although he calls it a kame; he suggests tnat it was formed by streams plunging down from the surface of the ice through a knot of profound crevasses, and “ causing a local deposition of the stones and earth that were in the ice.” But the absence of stratified sands and water-worn stones in the hill seem to negative this suggestion; and the occurrence else- where of numerous drumlins at high levels, as at Charlton, Mass., requires some other explanation. The first clear reference to dramlins as directly dependent on glacial action for their form was made by M. H. Close (On the glaciation of the rocks near Dublin, Journ. Roy. Geol. Soc. Ireland, 1864, i, 3); they are here said to be parallel to the neighboring strize, and hence like these dependent on the ice-sheet for their present attitude and form. The same con- clusion is presented in the paper of 1866, above mentioned, when the name drumlin was first specially proposed for them. Still later, when describing the physical geography of the neighborhood of Dublin (id., v, 1877, 49), Close writes: “It is perfectly certain that it must have been the rock-scoring agent which produced the bowlder-clay ridges.” Besides this, Kinahan and Close, in the pamphlet above named, stated their Opinion that drumlins were formed in a way “similar to that by which a stream of water often makes longitudinal ridges of sand in its bed.’ This is to my mind the best suggestion yet given to account for them. Geikie wrote as follows: “The remarkable linear direc- tion of certain mounds of bowlder clay in some districts of the Lowlands, agreeing as this does with the general bearing of glacial markings of the same localities, induces us to believe that we have here, with certain modifications, the original contour of the till after the superincumbent ice-sheet had dis- appeared” (On denudation in Scotiand since glacial times, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, 1867, iii, 61); but he believed that these forms may be also in part dependent on marine erosion. In the Great Iee Age (1877, 76), the same author briefly mentioned “the series of long smoothly-rounded banks or drums and sowbacks, which run parallel to the direction taken by the ice,” and regarded them as very little modified from their glacial form. They are “produced by the varying direction and unequal pressure of the ice-sheet,” and are “the glacial counterparts of those broad banks of silt and sand that form here and there upon the beds of rivers.” Dr. L. Johnson says that he accepts Geikie’s explanation and applies it to the New York ridges which were ‘formed underneath the glaciers by alternations of lateral pressure” (J. c. 1882); but this form 414 > W. M. Dawis—Origin of Drumilins. of statement does not commend itself so highly as the pre- ceding. In this country, Professor C. H. Hitchcock and Mr. Warren Upham, while engaged on the geological survey of New Hampshire, were the first to discover the parallelism between glacial motion and the axes of drumlins in 1875; they con- cluded that “the accumulation of these hills and slopes seems to have been by slow and long-continued addition of material to their surface, the mass remaining nearly stationary from the beginning of its deposition. Obviously this was the case with the lenticular slopes gathered behind the abatier of higher edgy hills or upon their opposite sides ” (Geol. N. H., 1878, iii, A little later, Upham wrote: “Althou me we do not tae the cause of the peculiar distribution of these hills, it seems quite certain that they were seule ted and moulded in their lenticular form beneath the ice” (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1879, xx, 228). DP heaor “ihehedics observa- tions led him to a similar pomeley “Mhe drift presents some peculiar tendencies to aggregation. . .. . A special ten- dency is observed over certain Sone ieee areas lying not far from the Kettle moraine, to accumulate in mammillary or elliptical or elongated hills of smooth flowing outline” (Geol. isc., 1883, i, 283) ; and again, Aner repeating this opinion, it idde rev teutue these explanations and the observations on which they are based, together with such evidence as my own studies have discovered, ‘the conclusion that drumlins should be compared to sand banks in rivers appears the most satisfac- tory yet advanced. hey seem to be masses of unstratified drift slowly and locally accumulated under the irregularly moving ice-sheet, where more material was bronght than could be carried awa he evidence for the sub- glacial growth 0: drumlins ma be summarized as follows: The scratched stones in the mass of bowlder-clay show a differential motion of its several parts as they were scraped and rubbed along from a generally northern source, and gradually parte where now found.* The compactness of the mass suggests an origin under heavy pressure. The attitude of the hills tae a close dependence on the motion of the ice-sheet. ‘The super- * A paper by Mr. Hugh Miller, read at the recent Montreal meeting of the British Association, gave several admirable Siemaratione of “this ‘ fluxion structure in till.” W. M. Dawis— Origin of Drumlins. 415 ‘post-glacial erosion ;* the faint channeling of their smooth ‘slopes by rain measures the small amount of denudation that ‘they have suffered since they were made. It must therefore be concluded that they were finished closely as we now see them when the ice melted away, and hence that they were of sub-glacial construction. water will at one point carry along silt and sand that must be dropped a little farther on where the current slackens; and the bank thus begun grows slowly ina form of least resistance, attaining a maximum size when its increase of volume has so far diminished the cross-section of the stream and consequently pared to that of a broad river. The comparison may be ex- region gives a smaller example of these two parts played by the ice. Jf the causes of the irregular motion of the ice lie in the general form of the country, the location of faster and slower currents will be relatively permanent; the districts of faster currents would be found where the greatest volume 0 ice is allowed to pass, and some of the points of retardation * This assumes a point on which there is now a tolerably general agreement: namely, that kames were formed close by the front of the melting and retreating ice. _+ The recent history of this comparison is given in my paper on Glacial Ero- Sion, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat Hist., 1882, xxii, 33. 416 J.P. Kimball— Geological Relations and Genesis may be the seats of long continued drumlin growth. The drumlins thus begun will depend less ¢ on the ag aed local nee begun, the dieunttis will go on increasing in size, as eae as deposition exceeds erosion, always maintaining an arched form of least resistance, until a maximum size is reached, or until the ice melts away: and in their growth they will approach the form to Retied nigh rocky hills would be reduced by the reverse process of erosion, if time enough were allowed. Under ser iepe glaciation, the whole surface must be rubbed down smoot! I am well aware that it is venturesome to go so far as this im reney: before all the facts are in. When more is known of the distribution of drumlins, the suggestions here given may have to be abandoned; but it is nevertheless impossible to resist theorizing, and perhaps the collection of facts, pro and contra, may be hastened by a little venture in speculati on. It is very desirable that the regions occupied by drumlins should be more closely studied ; “when this is done, it may be possible to- ive in more definite terms the reasons for their choice of atti- tude, and additional chapters in their history may then be written. Cambridge, Mass., October, 1884. Arr. XLIX.—Geological Relations and Genesis of the Specular Iron- Ores of Santiago de Cuba ; by JAmES P. KIMBALL, ' For a distance of at least some 20 miles east of the longitude of the bay-of Santiago de Cuba, the Sierra Maestra, or “coast- range, maintains a height of about 4240 feet, as harometrically measured by Mr. Emile Sarlabous, vice French Co nsul, at the point on its crest well known as Gran Piedra. On local maps of the Province of Santiago, this point is laid down as 5°69 miles from the coast of the Caribbean Sea, which is generally parallel to the crest of the range. The great outlier or escarp- ment of Gran Piedra, according to the same authority, presents the same lithological foxttites as its lower foot-hills, namely—a coarsely crystalline syenyte of eruptive origin. Wherever this: has come under my own observation, within the expanse of the lower foot-hills, it is penetrated by very numerous dykes 0 dioryte. From the overflow of similar dykes, the upper immediate of the Specular Iron-Ores of Santiago de Cuba. 417 flank of the Sierra Maestra and middle foot-hills are covered with a mantle of the same trappean rock. e maximum thickness of this mantle I estimate to be about 2000 feet, cor- responding to an altitude of about 3800 feet. The Sierra Maestra is the south (front or coastward) range, and last elevated, as well as the longest, of a series of succes- Reference will presently be made to the more special litho- logical features of both ranges, within the limited scope of my observation. Occasion is here suggested to note as a signifi- cant fact in relation to the vuleanism of the Sierra Maestra, the family relation of the two types of eruptive rocks entering into the structure of at least the base and south flank of this range. The significance of this fact, in connection with others that will be noticed, appears to be that the overweighting of the syenyte mass along an inherent line of Jeast resistance, corresponding to the margin of the sub-oceanic basin of the Caribbean Sea, has been followed first by depression, attended with re-melting of the base of the mass: and afterward by elevation. This elevation, it will be shown, has taken place y successive stages. The final, if not the concurrent, result of such oscillations of level has been to inject the molten magma in the form of dioryte through fissures incidental to elevation The diorytic mantle thins off toward the coast, in part by erosion, while the lower ranges of foot-hills are completely denuded of dioryte, if ever enveloped. The immediate coast presents a remarkable development of coral rock, or coral limestone, in three terraces, of which the upper is about 350 feet above the sea. The second terrace is at an altitude of about 175 feet, and the present shore, a plateau of comparatively recent elevation, about 14 feet above tide. These terraces mark successive elevations of the Sierra Maestra range. These stages of elevation were in direct, but probably remote, succession with other elevations which I shall show to be indicated by traces of more ancient corallines (coral forma- 4 418 J. P. Kimball—Geological Relations and Genesis distinct forms of coral, and is strewn with fragments of coral, rounded by the waves, but in good preservation, and numbering a large variety of species. The two older terraces retain little or nothing of corallum structure, but are thoroughly consolidated, indurated and crys- talline. As an effect of the action of the waves in former periods, they still present mural escarpments seaward, with a talus at the base of each from weathering, and from clefts produced by the wedging effect of roots of trees. The upper terrace reposes directly on the syenyte, and east of the Carpintero river (Juraguacito) forms the immediate coast. The base of the two lower terraces is concealed. The bay of Santiago corresponds to an original recession of the coast, the eastern limit of which was the mouth of the river just mentioned. This recession was once filled out with coral formation. Subsequent to the final elevation of the Sierra races, numbered in inverse order of succession. Larlier coral- Cobre, the eastern end of which range faces the bay, seems to have resulted in the final elevation of the coralline area. The succeeding excavation of the bay has been effected with but little aid from existing streams, the. present drainage of the mountain plateau of the Sierra Maestra and back ranges being to the east and west of it. Place is given to this remote observation, confirmed as it is by Mr. Sarlabous. The Juragua Hills, so-called, are the culmination of the middle ranges of foot-hills of the Sierra, about balf way be- tween the bays of Santiago and Guantanamo, or, more closely defined, between the mountain streams, the Carpintero (Jura- guacito) and the Daiquri. e of the Specular Iron-Ores of Santiago de Cuba. 419 Along with a study of some very remarkable deposits of a specular ferric oxide, in course of development by the Juragua Iron Co. (Lim.), for consumption in Pennsylvania, these hills came under my observation in the months of June and July last. s here distinguished, they consist of two parallel ranges of foot-hills distinct from the immediate south flank of the Sierra Maestra. The first or upper range reaches an elevation of case of the lower range, well into the syenyte. The syenyte base of the upper range is occupied by the bed of the Carpin- tero, and that of the lower range by the Juragua and its east fork—the Benevolencia. he lower contact of the dioryte mantle with the syenyte base of the Sierra (according, first, to unequal elevation and, second, to subsequent unequal erosion), follows a convoluted line. This contact corresponds, as elieve, to parts of a former coast line, as shown by traces of ancient corallines. These traces are as follows: 1. Isolated bodies of marble without stratification, but with marked prismatic cleavage. These invariably occupy the ele- vated parts of the contact. 2. Isolated bosses and other bodies of specular and amor- phous ferric oxide, only partially dehydrated, which I take to be replacements of ancient corallines. ‘These occupy the lower parts of the contact. Referring both occurrences to their original relations to the coast, they seem to be relics of bodies of coral rock and of coral ree! reposing on the syenyte. ‘These masses became implicated in the igneous overflow, one or more than one, from the north. This is shown by the approximately east and west direction of the longer axes of them all. The upper ones, or those now occurring as marble, were probably of the nature of emerged coralline, while those occurring as ferric oxide, lower in posi- tion and farther to the south, were. probably of the nature of coral-reef when involved in the eruptive flood. These are found directly back of the lower contact, while the bodies of marble, in a similar relation to the contact, appear to be farther ack of it. The thinning of the dioryte mantle toward the sea is thus seén to have been not altogether the result of its flow, slacken- Ing as may be supposed inversely to its mass, but to have been promoted by the extinguishing effect of the sea. The sea Seems also to have brought the flow to a stop. o traces of ancient coral reefs have been observed between 420 J. P. Kimball—Geological Relations and Genesis the contact, within the area of the still lower syenyte foot-hills, and the emerged corallines of the present coast margin. Ye such corallines may have once existed, aud since disappeared by subaerial erosion. Nor is proof afforded of any former extension of the dioryte mantle below or south of the contact. Diorytic dykes, never- theless, in great number, penetrate the syenyte on every hand, their frequency becoming less toward the west, as distance increases from the culmination of the Juragua foot-hills. Be- yond them, west of the Carpintero, but in line with the second range of foot-hills, or just back of the general course of the contact, the syenyte hills have been wholly denuded of dioryte, the hills themselves becoming gradually degraded toward the bay of Santiago, and exhibiting the extreme effects of weathering decay characteristic of highly crystalline feld- spathic rocks in lower latitudes. Remnants of detritus, dioryte and hematite, upon the surface of these hills, attest the former extension of at least a thin development of the dioryte mantle. Unlike the lower syenyte hills of the Juragua group, these hills have not opposed to erosive agencies a great number of ribs or dykes of more enduring trappean. roc of foot-hills, as recognized by the bodies of hematite and mar- ble, are proofs of a sum of uplifts of not less than 1300 feet. FERS Nie APE TRO SET CREM TA ce te ee er ent Se ae nee ee eS a ree of the Specular Iron-Ores of Santiago de Cuba. 421. Obscure traces upon the first range of foot hills of still more ancient corallines, to which I shall again refer, point to a still more remote succession of uplifts whose vertical range — referred to the latest indicated level of coral formations, some 100 feet below the present shore—may be estimated as about 2300 feet. From the syenyte hills may have disappeared by subaerial erosion intervening corallines, between those of the present coast and the line of ancient, and now metamorphosed, corallines traced along the contact or southern margin of the dioryte mantle. of once powerful streams occupy deep defiles of the foot- hills further attesting hydrographical changes of such a scope as may be believed to be commensurate to “the degree - Mi ASAE A elevations of the Sierra. Such defiles are the rroyos Negro, Cafidad, La Plata and Berraco. The dry and Sat filled up Laguna of Berraco, so-called, some fifteen miles east of Santiago ee and a few feet above ag spores to a former indentation of the coast at the mout at appears to have once been two of the largest streams of fa south slope of the coast range. the unde sie centers in the form of cores. At the surface, where freed from their interstitial products of decay, he least resistance corresponding to its j nting, is indicated by 422 J. P. Kimball—Geological Relations and Genesis spathic aggregate under conditions of extreme exposure to- weathering action, all parts of the dioryte must be assumed to represent its effect, however unequal, and insusceptible of meas- urement without the partial preservation of the original type for comparison. This consideration is one of importance in the present case, because a large source of ferric oxide must be looked for to account for its accumulation, under favorable circumstances of drainage, in the form of the iron-ore bosses- along the lower edge of the dioryte mantle, at its contact with the underlying syenyte. Two series of cireumstances have determined the loci of D the intermittent action of percolating acidulated waters and of alkaline bicarbonates. 1. Proof of the coralline parentage of the iron-ore bosses is the preservation in nearly all of them of fossil corals, or at least of casts of coral. Such casts are found toward the tion parts. These are in general siliceous from the segregation of silicates. While the lime carbonate of the casts referred to- is replaced by ferric oxide, the cells of the corallum are filled. out with segregated matter, more or less chloritic from secon- dary alteration. arger bosses, corresponding to coralline masses, exhibit a concentric structure characteristic of segregation by foliation or external deposition. The smaller ones, on the other hand, frequently present the peculiar warped surfaces characteristic of the coral rocks, and such as may be seen on every cliff or detached mass of coral rock in the terraces along the present coast. The larger bosses may in a general way be described as len- ticular bodies, any section of which is approximately elliptical. The smaller ore-bodies are of irregular shape and suggest a fragmentary relation to the larger ones, especially as they are always found near the larger, and invariably in such relations as would correspond to the superior surfaces of corallines referred to their original relations with their syenyte base. he position of all the ore-bodies is on the inner or upper parallel to the crest of the Sierra as wel] as to the present coast, tends to show the parent corallines to have been involved im of the Specular Iron-Ores of Santiago de Cuba. 423 the igneous flood down the Sierra slope from the overflow of innumerable dykes. The implication of the corallines in the wa @ now sometimes represented by chloritic kaolin. am disposed to refer to ramifications of the eruptive material in the act of overflow and upheaval. 2. The ore-bodies, whose general position is thus to be defined, occupy the thinning edge of the dioryte mantle. How far its reduced thickness is due to erosion, and how far to its original development, or to the circumstances of its flow, is par- tially indicated by the degree of erosion which the ore-bodies themselves have undergone. All that have been discovered s. Unequal elevation or unequal erosion, or probably a combi- nation of both conditions, has served to introduce a series of conditions unfavorable in certain cases to the radical alteration of coralline masses. In such cases the coralline mass occurs in the form of white marble. In attitude and general, relations both with the syenyte and dioryte such masses have only cer- tain features in common with the ore-bosses. They have’ already been described as devoid of stratification, and as ge, a tributed. Under such circumstance all drainage both from by this rock under such conditions, it will be noted, is by induction. Replacement of calcareous matter has gone on Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Szrres, Vou. XXVIII, No. 168,—Dxc., 1884. 27 494 J. P. Kimball—Geological Relations and Genesis only at the surface of such bodies as shown by the prevalence of float of ferric oxide remarkably pure, but evidently from small plates or segregations on their sides. arnetiferous aggregates with considerable proportions of specular and magnetic oxides of iron are the most common products of metasomatism met with on the dioryte summits. The marble ledges have, however, so many relations in com- mon with the iron-ore bodies, the coralline parentage of which seems to me demonstrated, that they likewise must be referred to a similar primary origin. Their metamorphism or crystal- lization is due to igneous contact. Their preservation in the metamorphic state without metasomatic alteration, is explained as above by their obvious exclusion from the conditions which have governed the alteration into ferric oxide of other coral- lines, whose more favorable environment with reference to such an alteration, I now proceed to describe. Toward the continuous base of the second range of hills the locally given way to darker complexions of red. and brown, especially in such as exhibit a notable proportion of free silica, and a dense amorphous consistency. Aggregates of clear crys- talline quartz in admixture with magnetic oxide of iron like- wise occur, apparently as residual forms of the alteration under local circumstances of basic material originally containing a notable proportion of this oxide. The syenyte conspicuously outcrops in contact with ore-bod- ies only ina single instance. This is the south ore-body of East ' Mine Hill. Here one side and both ends of the ore-boss abut upon the syenyte, which thus forms a cul-de-sac. The contact upon the exposed side is occupied by two courses of rotten, aluminous and bleached chlorite in a kaolinized state. These are succeeded by a plate of amorphous siliceous and highly fer- masses ; another part the alteration in situ of ramifications or tongues of diorytie eruptive material intruded into frac- of the Specular Iron-Ores of Santiago de Cuba. 425 tures of the original coralline mass when overwhelmed and lifted. Courses of chloritic material of the above description encase the lower ends, at least, of all the ore-bosses wherever terminal parts have been uncovered by excavations. These conform to are to be referred, as above, to exfoliated insoluble residuums. They are similar in type to the intrusions of siliceous material within the compass of the ore-bodies. The decomposition of dyke-like ramifications zn sctu is seen to result in a product detritus in the parent coralline. This may be supposed to The terminal parts of only the lower and more accessible ends of the ore-bodies have thus far been exposed by excava- tions at the base of the hills, and just back of the contact, where, in the course of its convolutions, this conforms to the southerly course of streams. ‘T'he longer axes of the ore-bodies are therefore transverse to such parts of the beds of streams as have been eroded along the contact. Only where assuming a longitudinal direction has the contact, for obvious reasons, pre- sented to erosion the line of least resistance. The chloritic courses immedigtely encasing the ore-bosses ifts. Hence a divisional structure resembling that of an Onion, and easily mistaken for bedding. The shell-like divis- ions, elsewhere described as transition parts of ore-bosses, give way inside to massive ore divisionally arranged as above instanced. The conditions of the central and nether parts tendency is decidedly acid from segregations of quartz or from intercalations of jasper. As returned by numerous average 426 J. P. Kimball—Geological Relations and Genesis proximate analyses from commercial samplings, exclusive of own, moisture, in part hygroscopic, is constantly present in percentages of 0°24 to 0°81; silica and insoluble 5 to 103; phosphorus 0009 to 0°065; sulphur 0-045 to 0°248; and iron of peroxidation from ferrous carbonate and from ferrous sul- * phate, and its concentration under favorable conditions by segre- gation or as a sediment as the case may be, are common and mediation of basins. (3) The basic character of their siliceous impurities, occurring as residuums, characterizes them still ese in point of sizable development and, cursorily aN i a eh PTT OT OL ee ee ee of the Specular Iron-Ores of Santiago de Ouba. 427 from which, however, they are readily distinguished by their superior hardness and density, and by their sharp metallic sound when struck with a hammer, as well as by the circumstances of their metasomatic association with unaltered or incompletely altered dioryte. What has determined the localization of such deposits within the dioryte mantle has not been made clear. Certain indicate circumstances rather than well ascertained facts, seem to bear upon this question. (1) The location of such deposits, as far as recognized, is near the contact, but not uniformly immedi- ately back of it, as in the case of the ore-bodies of coralline parentage. Some relation between the two classes of deposits may be suspected from the fact that an occurrence of this kind is recognized alongside, and probably in contact with, the developed lenticular north ore-body of West Mine Hill; while alongside a similar trappean concentration in Dry Arroyo, further up the same hill, the presence of lenticular ore-bodies of the nature of replacements is indicated. Ferriferous parts of the dioryte referred to are usually and its bleached and obviously weathered products. Such occurrences are a conspicuous feature of the first range of foot- hills. On the Yuca Mine location, what appears to be garnet- iferous casts of corallum have been found in juxtaposition with an ore-deposit of this description. This is the only relic, if — such it be, of the former existence of corallines discovered by me so far back as this range of foot-hills. € question therefore arises whether obscure and in some places obliterated corallines may not under such circumstances ave given way to available replacements of which ferric oxide was but a minor part, and have determined the loci of ct oe ap SA ible eruptive, followed by concentration of ferric oxide. he peroxidation of ferrous oxide 2n situ is easily conceived to have been a result from the tardy circulation, in so dense an Aggregate, of chalybeate, or of solutions of the vitriolized pro- ucts of iron and copper pyrites, especially under the further Condition of an adjoining body of limestone. Calcie carbonate 4s also been at hand from decomposing silicates. As a corroboration of the general induction, such occurren- €es may be held to attest an originally more basic constitution of the dioryte, and especially a once larger 9 see of ferrous oxide, and accordingly of proto-silicates. M e bitions of the same general class, but clearly without the mediation of limestone, are outcropping surfaces of diorytic ' 498 J. P. Kimball—Geological Relations and Genesis dykes, the identity of some of which seems to have been pre- served within the compass of their general overflow, or, as above distinguished, the dioryte mantle. The concentration of ferric and magnetic oxides upon such surfaces, presents outliers popularly regarded as outcrops of ore-bodies of great richness. A few blasts are generally sufficient to prove their superficial character. Cupreous stains of green carbonate from the epigenesis of a sulphide of copper, are found within the ore-bosses of coralline origin as well as in the interior of ferriferous parts of the dioryte. he copper deposits of the Sierra de Cobre west of the Bay of Santiago, exhibit to a remarkable degree still active metaso- matism of the diorytic porphyry in which they occur. only is the overflow of mine-water from the abandoned mines a present source of cement-copper, but exfoliations more or less cupreous are observed on all weathered surfaces of wall- rock left standing by the old English companies. Even individual fragments of dioryte detritus in the old burrows ave become completely coated with exfoliated mineral matter. Ferric, as well as miscellaneous cupreous products thus occur, along with a variety of silicates and other insoluble com- ounds. ven the old slags show zeolitic and other drusy segregations. Secular phenomena of this kind may be consid- ered as in part an effect of the humidity and high mean average temperature of the climate. Jnder the same favorable climatic conditions secular weath- ering, or metasomatism of eruptive basic rocks, has gone on to a remarkable degree throughout the whole region above briefly described. Permutations of this kind tend to produce from the eruptive, now represented by dioryte, a series of rocks resem- bling in lithological character metamorphic chloritic, garnetif- erous and ferriferous schists. The basic character of the pre- vailing admixtures of the latter, occurring in association with the ferric replacements of corallines, is their most obvious lith- ological point of difference from the prevailing type of Huro- nian specular schists, which as above remarked are essentially acid. Thus, they more closely resemble certain Laurentian magnetite-schists whose earthy admixtures are generally basic. Yet quarztiferous aggregates are not wanting among the great variety of ferriferous admixtures here referred to. e ferro-garnetiferous aggregates are characterized by a sub- continuous. heir occurrence is under such circumstances 1B general as to indicate their relation to the single series of dykes, : | ’ of the Specular Iron-Ores of Santiago de Cuba. 429 the individuality of some of which has been preserved within t mpass of their collective overflow. So considered, they eruptives, along with the altered alumino-magnesian silicates whose transformation has also been wholly or in part by loss of certain ingredients. abradorite-dioryte more or less chloritic and of metamorphic origin, as well as metamorphic representatives of a long series of intrusive species of rocks, have been described by Prof. Dana and the late Mr. Hawes. “The fact,” as remarked b ¥. Hawes, “that metamorphic action can produce rocks exactly like the igneous in external aspect and chemical constituents is of great interest in the study of rocks.”* It seems almost certain that ancient eruptives afford few if any standards for - Such comparison where permutations of the nature of metasoma- tism have not led to their resemblance to related metamorphics. This may be assumed especially in the case of chloritic and epidotic rocks. ; The chloritic products from alteration of the Sierra Maestra epidotic dioryte closely resemble, as above remarked, metamor- phic occurrences of chloritic schists. Such resemblances tend to indicate, indeed, a middle ground where meet products litho- logigally identical, proceeding on the one hand from basic erup- tive rocks by metasomatism, and on the other hand from sedi- mentary rocks by metamorphism. Resemblance between essen- tially chloritic aggregates of both types hardly needs the con- firmation of analyses. The dioryte of the Sierra Maestra, though not without traces of orthoclase, is essentially plagioclastic. The syenyte is mainly orthoclastic with occasional crystals of triclinic feldspars. The asalts indicated by Ansted in 1856 would now be classed as dioryte.+ * This Journal, 1876, xi, 126. + Proc. Geol. Soc., xii, 144, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., Oct. 10, 1884. / 430 C. A Schaeffer—New Tantalite Locality. Art. L.—A New Tanitalite Locality ; by eee Y. § SCHAEFFER, Cornell Universit AMONG some specimens of the minerals found at the Etta tin mine, Dakotah, and recently come into my possession, a number of pieces, which on first glance were supposed to be cassiterite, proved to be tantalite. Professor Blake in speaking of the ore from the same locality (this Journal, ITI, xxvi, 235) says, ‘‘a few thir ofa black: mineral believed to be wolframite have f been seen in the mixtures of spodumene and feldspar.” A careful sadvoh of all the specimens received has resulted in MUAENG: OFI0E 456. toc eis 79°01 psi es Iheth smeoiuealnc 0°39 TE SEITE EY Bay Re POOLE eS 8°33 Mince aids gis SiGe 12°13 99°86 . Lawrence Smith, which actitaivied tungstic acid and oxides of zinc and copper, or the mineral from North Carolina, apa by Dr. Koenig, which contained a considera- - ble quantity of magnesia. e book analyzed consisted of fragments, taken from a mass about the size of an egg, and was se seas free from any peroxidized iron. Its sp. gr. was 7°72. e determination of the sp. gr. of three small specimens, sien ee a sample of stream tin, which were water-worn and externally brown, gave the following results: 6°12, 6°545 and 6°777. Accompanying the ore, in addition to the minerals enumera- ted by Professor Blake, were found scorodite, containing kernels of leucopyrite, and olivenite. Qualitative examination showed the two former to be entirely free from sulphur * Watt’s Dict., vol. iii, 3d Supl., Pt. 2, p. 1889. eT Lae gn ee Peay Ee tre E F: 4 4 i "4 4 ‘. > C. D. Walcott—Paleozoie Rocks of Central Texas. 431 Art. LL—wNote on Paleozoic Rocks of Central Texas ; by CHas. . WALcorT, of the United States Geological Survey. THE writer had the opportunity the past season to make a hurried reconnoissance of a portion of the Paleozoic area of Central Texas: the chief object in view being the study of the Cambrian section and the collecting of fossils from the Texas Potsdam horizon. At all localities where the base of the Potsdam was observed, it rests, wnconformably, on a great formation that is stratigraphic- ally the equivalent of Powell’s Grand Cafion series (Grand Cafion and Chuar groups).* In the Grand Cafion of the Colo- rado the latter are overlaid by the Tonto group, a series of rocks, in both lithologie and paleontologic characters, singu- larly like the Texas Potsdam group. For this series of Pre-Potsdam strata the local name of Llano group is proposed from the best exposures of the group occur: ring in the county of Llano. Outcrops also occur in Burnet, Mason, San Saba, Blanco and Gillespie counties. he finest exposure seen by the writer, in direct contact with the base of the Texas Potsdam group, is along the west- ern base of Packsaddle mountain, in Llano county. Here the massive reddish colored sandstones of the Potsdam strike north and south with a slight dip to the eastward, and rest on alterna- ting beds of shale,-sandy shales, sandstone, limestone and schists that strike east and west, dipping south 15° to 40°. The strata exhibit but little evidence of metamorphism, being indu- rated but little more than the beds of the overlying Potsdam and Carboniferous. The section shows the Llano and Potsdam groups unaffected by changes subsequent to the consolidation of the Potsdam sediments. Across the valley of Honey creek, four miles west of Pack- saddle mountain, the strata of the Llano group have been more metamorphosed, plicated, and broken by intrusive dykes of granite. This is along the eastern base of a ridge of Potsdam Silurian and Carboniferous rocks that strike eastward with a dip that increases from 10° at the north end of the ridge to 40° at the south end. The movement producing this position, as compared with the Potsdam beds of Packsaddle moun- y the result of extrusions of granite at or near the close of the * This Journal, vol. xxvi, p. 437, 1883. 432 ©. D. Walcott—Paleozoic Rocks of Central Texas. erosion of the Llano group ae before the deposition of the otsdam. It is to this age that the great masses of granite belong. At the crossing of the Llano river, on the road from Burnet to Honey Creek Cove, fragments of the shales and sandstones of the Llano group may be seen imbedded in the granite, and on Morgan’s creek, Burnet Co., the Potsdam rests directly on the granite. he thickness of the Llano group was not determined owing to lack of time to study it in detail. In Honey Creek reel from two to three thousand feet of shales, sandstone and lim stones were observed, and parennses - the town of Llano : great mass of reddish sandstone oc On Roessler’s map of Llano ok ; all of the ula i is referred to as “ granitic, metamorphic and igneous,” and been considered as Archean. The a did not pe Ba on rocks of undoubted Archean age. No fossils were found in the Llano group, but, from its lithologic character and position in relation to the overlying Potsdam, I refer the group to the Paleozoic, and correlate it with the Grand Cafion groups which are of Paleozoic age and referred to the Lower Cambrian. Pati OF Sacto ase SHOWING THE Uscomronsirs BETWEEN THE PoTsDAM AND LLANO GRO 1 = Llano group. mn ener Potsdam —, 205° feet. m limeston 310° . Ponies nig 30° 5 = Potsdam sandstone . 60 605° POTSDAM. The Potsdam horizon has been well described by Shumard.§ The writer collected several thousand specimens of fossils from * It may be that further and more complete abate bag yy will prove all paid granite to have been intrusive in the Llano Group r to its erosion, but fro’ the ev aor as seen by the writer, it is difficult to eae ha its occurrence eX xcept as abov an of Llano county, Texas, A. R. Roessler, New York, 1 ¢ Since the paper on t the Pre-Carboniferous strata of the ont Cafion was pub- lished (this Journal, vol. xxvi, p. 487), a fragment a. a trilobite, probably of the genus oparia, a. has been detected in a bit of shale from the Chuar group. § This Journal, IJ, vol. xxxii, p. 213, C. D. Walcott—Paleozoie Rocks of Central Texas. 433. its sandstones and limestones in order to study the fauna more thoroughly and to illustrate Dr. Shumard’s species. A section was also found on the west side of Honey Creek valley that shows the contact with the Llano group below, the passage into the Silurian above, and the thickness of the Silurian up to the base of the Carboniferous. The section gives 245 feet of sandstone and 625 feet of lime- stone; all marked by the presence of an abundant Upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) fauna; Lingulepis, Orthis, Agnostus, Ptycho- paria and Dicelloce ‘ The upper beds of the Potsdam become compact, hard and have a little included cherty matter. The fauna terminates here as far as observed and it is not until over one thousand feet of limestone are passed through, that recognized fossils again occur. The fauna is then of the type of that of the Calciferous group. A number of fine specimens were collected of the genera Ophileta, Straparollus, Murchisonia, Orthoceras and Bathyurus. massive bed of limestone, sixty feet thick, rests on the Silurian beds, 1145 feet above the upper beds, carrying Potsdam fossils, and directly above it limestones of a slightly different character carry common Carboniferous fossils, viz: Productus semireticulatus, P. Nebrascensis, P. Prattenianus, Streptorhynchus. erenistria and Bellerophon sp. A vertical fault, parallel with the strike of the strata, breaks the continuity of the section about 300 feet above the summit of the Silurian, and the study of the Carboniferous was not taken up in detail. On the Colorado river, in San Saba county, a collection of cephalopod shells, of the genera Goniatites, Nautilus and Orthoceras, was obtained from the Carboniferous, and on the San Saba river a quantity of corals were collected. The results obtained are: additional data on the Potsdam section and fauna; the Silurian section and fauna; Carbonifer- ous fauna; the geologic relations of what has long been known as an Archean area and which is now referred to the Came brian, and the determination of the age of the granite of Burnet county. 434 A. C. Baines—The Deflection of Streams Art. LIT.—On the Sufficiency of Terrestrial Rotation for the Deflection of Streams ; by A. C. BAINEs. In a paper on this subject in the June number of this Journal Mr. G. K. Gilbert has investigated the combined effect of the earth’s rotation and the centrifugal force in causing a difference in the velocity at the right and the left banks of rivers, and has shown that where a river flows in a curve the line of maximum velocity is shifted toward the right bank by the combined action of the deflecting force due to the earth’s rotation and the centrifugal force developed in moving along a curve. Mr. Gilbert comes to the conclusion that the earth’s rotation is effective in causing the erosion of the right bank, only in connection with and as an adjunct to the centrifugal force—or that the earth’s rotation has no effect in shifting the courses of straight streams. No other conclusion seems possible when only the extremely small difference in the velocity at the right and left banks due to the earth’s rotation is taken into account for the small excess Let v be the velocity of any particle in the stream; let v, be the velocity of any particle at the surface; let v, be the velocity by Terrestrial Rotation. 435 of any particle at the bottom; let F be the deflecting force due to the earth’s rotation on a particle whose velocity is v. n F=2nv sin A where n is the angular velocity of the earth, and A the latitude. Let F, be the deflecting force on a particle at unit of volume of water. As in the stream now under consideration the surface veloc- ity is greatest, 0 will evidently be less than if the whole stream : ‘ F moved together with the velocity v,, i.e. less than tan™ oe Also, @ will be greater than tan™ Fy It seems probable that @ will not differ much from the angle whose tan = the sum of the deflecting forces acting on a thin slice between two cross-sections near together divided by the weight of the slice. Pas t is not necessary that @ should be accurately determined, as the following reasoning requires only that its tangent should be between the two values above mentioned. Suppose, there- nv,sin ; fore, @=tant——*-—*, v, being some velocity between v, and v,, probably not differing much from the mean velocity of the stream. tan OW, W being the weight of the cube he ’ oe . in terms of the deflecting force and gravitation, the excess of j 2nv, 8} oe hydrostatic pressure on the right face = ———--_ This pressure tends to move the cube from right to left across the Stream in opposition to the deflecting force, os the resultant nsin of the two forces is their difference, or ————— (%—¥), v must be urged from left to right. : Le In actual streams where the friction at the sides diminishes. 436 A. C. Baines—The Deflection of Streams. the velocity and the angle @ varies at every point along a line drawn across the stream. Suppose the water to be divided into a number of small vertical columns, then the above rea- soning applies to each column and the forces acting on each will be similar in difection though differing in intensity, and there will be a transverse motion of the water, the surface and bottom layers moving in opposite directions, and necessarily a downward motion at the right bank, and an upward motion at the left. The resultant transverse force is greatest at the bot- tom and surface, and diminishes to nothing at the layer whose velocity is ¥,. The transverse motion must be extremely slow, and will be combined with that down the stream, so that the actual motion will be inclined at a very small angle to the direction of the channel. It is clear that a very slow motion of the bottom - shelving, and the right steeper, and to place the deepest part of the stream near the right bank, thereby increasing the velocity, and consequently the erosion. The left shore being, more shelving, will be more favorable to the resting of sedi- ment during floods. The deposition at the left bank explains how it is that a stream can cut away a high terrace on one side, the low-lying shore on the other being added to instead of being removed. The expression for the resultant transverse force on a par- 2n sin v,—v ticle at the bottom, , v being the velocity at the bottom, may be used to oe. a rough approximation to the. force urging the bottom layer towards the left bank. Suppose (v,—v) = two feet per second, the latitude 45°. The expres- sion becomes W X2x0-0000729x0-707x2_ SW 32° ~ 156230 nearly, a underflow in the opposite direction. It is clear, therefore, that the deflecting and centrifugal forces must be added or subtracted, as the convex side is on the right or left side of the stream. Christchurch, New Zealand. J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. 437 Art. LITI. coe A fintty * by Joun W. LANGLEY, or, Michigan. [Concluded from page 373.] Ill. Tae Existinc Prosiem. The history of the various modifications and additions which have been made to the primitive conception of the nature of affinity, when briefly summarized, appears to be this. Hippocrates held that union is caused by a kinship, either a believed affinity to be a force which unites unlike substances. Bergman and Geofrey taught that union is caused by a selec- tive attraction, and therefore they called it “elective “affinity.” Wenzel and his successors showed that affinity is definite in action and amount. It has limits, or proceeds per saltum. Berthollet contended that affinity is not definite; he proves that it is often controlled by the nature and the masses of the reacting bodies. Dalton, Berzelius, Wollaston and others, held on the contrary this force to be definite and to act per saltum. It is a power which emanates from the atom. Davy, Ampére and Berzelius believed affinity to a a consequence of electrical action. Avogadro, in one way, and Brodie in another, oS us affinity exerted b ihotectiiea as wel force which binds together not only particles of the same aah: stance but also of heter rogeneous substances. rom the fact of the actual existence of radicals and from the phenomena of substitution was developed the notion of agave and that therefore affinity Bath with the structure of t e body as well as with its composition. The difference Pca power has led to the doctrine of valence, which, if influence on theories of affinity, shows that this property pe matter has two distinct concepts ; one its power of attracting a number of atoms, the other its power of doing work or evolving energy. These two attributes seem to be in no . way related to each other. : Address before Section “C” of the American Association for the Advance- a, of erthog Philadelphia, 1884, 438 J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. atomic interchange; hence that affinity is fundamentally due ation. We see that the primitive notions of affinity have undergone extensive modifications. dea which seemed so simple and natural a one to Hippocrates has grown successively more complex and less sharply defined; for while it presented itself to him as a single cause depending on kinship or occult resem- blance we now find it branching out into a many stemmed structure inextricably entangled with other physical forces and having its roots deep down in the regions of the mysterious and the unknown. When we look for an advance in precision of ideas, for a logical development of a satisfactory theory, or for generalizations which shall help us better to classify chemical henomena in terms of force and energy, we are compelled to admit that the years have not brought the theory of affinity to a state of active growth; rather it is like that strange counter- part of a living tree, the branching coral, whose many busy workers do indeed each for themselves add their mites to the accretions of past generations, but who have failed with all their toil to infuse that mysterious principle which would make of their labors a living organism ruled by an internal law of growth. Affinity, under its own name, is no longer presented in recent manuals. Chemists have more and more turned their and thus they lose the great advantage of being bound together under one title. Secondly, there is a more important reason arising from what has hitherto been the traditional scope of our science. eT eg ae ae ae Ee ee UNE RE ree, a ee: J. W. Langley—Chemical Affinity. 439 her group which does not invite the aid of mathematics, the great analytic science of immaterial things? It is because three fundamental conceptions underlie physics while only two serve the needs of the chemist Au, Jour, Sct.—Turrp Series, Vou. XXVIII, No. 168.—Dec., 1884, 28 440 O. A. Derby—Occurrence of Gold in Brazil. is actively registering the time element in vital phenomena through the rate of nervous transmission, the rate of muscular contraction, the duration of optical and auditory impressions et cetera; and we cannot ignore the fact that all the great living theories of the present, contain the time element as an essential part. Now may it not be that the reason why chemis- try hasevolved no great dynamical theory, that the word affinity has disappeared from our books, and that we go on accumu- lating facts in all directions but one, and fail to draw any large generalization which shall include them all, is just because we have made so little use of the fundamental concept, time. To expect to draw a theory of chemical phenomena from the study of electrical decompositions and of thermo-chemical data, or from even millions of the customary static chemical equa- tions would be like hoping to learn the nature of gravitation by laboriously weighing every moving object on the earth’s surface and recording the foot-pounds of energy given out when it fell. The simplest quantitative measure of gravity, is, as every one knows, to determine it as the acceleration of a velocity; when we know the value of g we are forever relieved in the problem of falling bodies from the neéessity of weighing heterogeneous objects at the earth’s surface, for they will all experience the same acceleration ; may there not be something like this gran simplification to be discovered for chemical changes also’ The study of the speed of reactions has but just begun; It 18 a line of work surrounded with unusual difficulties, but I cont- dently believe it contains a rich store of promise; all other means for measuring the energies of chemism seem to have been tri except this; is it not therefore an encouraging fact that to us, the chemists of the nineteenth century, is left for exploration the great fruitful field of the true dynamics of the atom, the discovery of a time rate for the attractions due to affinity. kinds of changes in reference to their velocity ; the physiologist h n Art. LIV.—Peculiar Modes of Occurrence of Gold in Brazil ; by OrvitteE A. DERBY. — 1. NATURAL DEPOSITION OF GOLD FROM SOLUTION. Tue following facts are believed to justify the heading of this paragraph. A specimen (Mus. No. 84) in the National Mu- seum at Rio de Janeiro shows films of gold which are difficult to account for on any other hypothesis. The specimen W received some thirty years ago from the Danish Collector Claussen, with the indication “gold on limonite, Ponte Grande, Sabara, province of Minas Geraes.” The formation at this % : SA eee ee eR ee FE NE ne ee O. A, Derby— Occurrence of Gold in Brazil. 441 place consists of hydromica schists with granular quartzites (itacolumite) and itabirite. The region abounds in old alluvial washings and rock mines in quartz, itabirite and pyrite, those in the latter material being the most important. The geolog- ical formation at the Sabara bridge is identical with that of the country rock of the great pyrite vein at the celebrated mine of tail Velho some fifteen miles away. become lined with a crust of black botryoidal limonite less than a millimeter in thickness. The greater portion of the men. This film, though very thin, is of appreciable thickness and rests on the polished surface of the black limonite, from which it may be detached in minute flakes by a very slight pressure with a metal point. On various parts of the specimen, but particularly along the whole length of the V-shaped streak, are minute detached films of gold, the largest of which cover a surface equal to about a square millimeter. These gold films adapt themselves perfectly to all the irregularities of the 442 O. A. Derby—Occurrence of Gold in Brazil. may be compared to films of limonite deposited from an aqueous solution, or of mercury deposited from suspension in fatty matter. It seems impossible to regard these gold films as transported granules simply lodged against the surface. Their perfect adaptation to the surface on which they rest, their almost inappreciable thickness and their uniformity of struc- ture and of surface, whether large or smail, are against this view. In order to judge of the probability of this hypothesis I made the following experiment to determine the state in which fine gold occurs in the rocks of the region. A fragment of arsenopyrite assaying about five ounces to the ton, com- ing from about 500 meters below the surface in the Morro Velho mine, was dissolved in acid. The exceedingly minute specks of gold obtained in the residue are distinctly granular and crystalline. The smallest, an octahedral crystal, measures 0-075 millimeters, while the largest, an irregular group of ecrys- tals, is 0°375 millimeters long. The fine gold of Sao Gongalo described in the following article, is of the same character. Such grains could not possibly be lodged against the surface so as to produce films of the appearance of those here described. The V-shaped streak of earthy limonite shows some pecu- liarities that seem to throw light on the process of introduction of the gold. Its outer margin is distinctly thickened, showing that the iron-bearing solution stood for some time upon it with a tendency to flow onward, causing a piling up of the liquid at the margin and a consequent thickening of the matter de- posited from it. As before remarked, the gold is more abund- ant on this streak than elsewhere on the specimen, and more abundant on the outer than on the inner half of it, as would naturally occur if it had been deposited from a solution which ad been for some reason, dammed back, so as to remain for some time on the place of the streak while it slowly evaporated, as the iron deposit proves to have actually occurred. On removing a little of the iron crust similar films of gold are seen resting on the botryoidal surface underneath the streak. These had evidently been formed before the accumulation of liquid from which the streak was deposited. Some of the gold films outside of the limits of the streak were also most probably deposited at the same time and in the same manner. Of these the greater number occur in a considerable patch, slightly discolored with iron, just below the angle of the V, as if the liquid which deposited gold on the streak had flowed over at this point, that of greatest accumulation, on the adjoin- ing surface, carrying a little iron with it. The facts above noted appear to be susceptible of the follow- ing interpretation as regards the course of events in the history of this specimen. In a narrow open slit of a quartz vein con- eo a eae Lee a ee eee ea a a eS ees et mee O. A. Derby—Occurrence of Gold in Brazil. 443 of oe gathered and rested for some time, or until it evap- orated, i During the deposition of the iron the upper portion of the liquid, becoming lighter than the lower, lowest point where the accumulation was greatest and, carry- ing with it gold and a relatively small proportion of iron, pro- cee the thinner film of iron with gold below the angle of ‘the V. : 2. GoLp IN GNEISS. Gold, almost universally worked from veins or from debris derived from them, is supposed to have come in some way from the adjoining rocks (Dana’s Mineralogy, 5th ed., p. 6), but thus far no case of its occurrence in workable quantities throughout the mass of such rocks seems to have been recorded. useum specimens of country rock charged with gold are comparatively common but in such cases the deposition of the precious metal in the rock is clearly connected with the filling of the adjacent vein. The gold-bearing itabirites of Brazi come nearer to a case of the distribution of gold throughout a rock independent of well-defined veins, but even here the irregular pockets of friable iron ore (jacutinga) and lithomarge, in which the gold is found so abundantly, partake somewhat of the nature of veins. The district of Campanha and Sao Gongalo in southern Minas Geraes, however, afford an example of extensive mining operations in decomposed gneiss in which the almost complete absence of veins and of the other usual concomitants of gold is remarkable. This district hes some fifty or sixty miles to the southwest of Sao Joao. D’el Rei which may be taken as about the southern limit of the rich belt of auriferous slates, quartzites and itabirites which constitutes the best known and most 444 O. A. Derby—Oceurrence of Gold in Brazil. ing article on itacolumite. The quartzite, however, constitutes only a subordinate feature in this region which may be de- scribed as almost wholly gneissic; and the accompanying auriferous schists, which characterize the typical gold-mining region of Minas, have not been noticed in this part of the and cutting deeply into the hillsides, as extensive as can found any where in Minas. The feature that particularly lated beds have been followed, is the great superficial area and nearly uniform depth of the greater part of these old washings. They are suggestive of placers, but on entering them one is surprised not to find gravel heaps and only a comparatively O. A. Derby—Occurrence of Gold in Brazil. 445 thin mantle of transported clays at the top, the greater part of the walls and all the bottom being of jeanne gneiss which is evidently im situ. The comparative rarity and insignificance of the quartz veins is equally surprising, and when they occur there is no evidence of their having been followed in prefer- ence to the enclosing rocks which have been worked away in mass. Indeed the veins are said to be generally barren, though that this is not always the case is proven by one of the mines at Sao Gongalo where a little work has been recently carried on along a face twenty feet or more in width traversed by a small vein which affords a richer streak. Some of the hills, as that of the Cata Funda at Sao Gongalo, have been worked in strike seems to be about due east, with a dip of 30° to t south. A small vein of pegmatite traverses the beds. Mining ~ 446 O. A. Derby—Oceurrence of Gold in Brazil. is at present confined to one of the thicker beds of quartzite which is considered the richest, but very good tests were ob- tained from the black gneiss and also from loose masses of reddish half-decomposed rock much more feldspathic than that in contact with the quartzite bed. Considerable iron sand was obtained in all these tests. The washings at Sado Gongalo lie on both sides of a small stream that flows near the base of the Serra de Sao José and parallel with it. On the town side a broad belt over a mile as been almost continuously washed, and it is said that other washings make with these an almost uninterrupted belt of washed ground as far as the mouth of the stream in the distance of several miles along the strike. Although the de- composed material has been very generally washed, traditions speak of richer streaks, and there is some reason for supposing, from the few experiments made, that the more quartzose an ferriferous portions are richer than the generality of the mass. The proportion of gold shown by a single panfull of dirt 1s very small and the average richness must be very low. ’ informed that some recent tests on a measured quantity of dirt gave about fifteen cents of gold per cubic meter. wing to the extensive decomposition, there is considerable difficulty in obtaining unaltered specimens of the rock in con- The mica is abundant in fair-sized black flakes; the quartz 1s in small well-formed crystals and is the least aed Mle in- gredient, while the feldspar, which is the most abun is white, a large proportion of it being plagioclase. In the were found on examining a hand specimen. In view of the almost constant association of pyrite with the gold of the cen- tral and northern parts of the province in the auriferous schists, A. W. Jackson—Colemanite, a new Borate of Lime. 447 as well as that from the quartzite bed at Santa Luzia, was in well nntawen doubly terminated crystals. Th of this region is excessively fine. A number of opaciaiene ye Sao Gongalo and Santa Luzia examined micro- scopically showed distinct crystalline grains, with sharp, well defined angles. Nothing of a leafy character or resembling the flakes on ee described in the prabdlink article were noticed. The grains range in size from 0°05 millimeters for single crystals a to 0°4 millimeters for agglomerations of sev- eral crystals, and present the same characters as those obtained by eeppiee: the arsenopyrite of the Morro Velho vein. a company has been sper 4 organized to reopen the Sio ‘Gonsae mines by the hydraulic method it is to be hoped that further details regarding this interesting se tebe may soon be obtainable. As already mentioned, a few small gold-bear- ing quartz veins occur, and in future abtinion under more favorable circumstances it may be possible to determine some- thing bearing on the question as to whether or not these veins have been enriched from the adjacent rock. Art. LV.— On ger aren a new Borate of Lime; by . WENDELL JACKSON. A NEW borate of lime has’ recently been determined by J. T. Evans, of the California Ppccngin of Sciences. His analysis fixes its formula as follow 2CaO . 3B,03 . 5aq. It differs from pandermite in containing five instead of three molecules of water. Its main interest lies however in its morphological relations. Mr. Evans kindly sent me a crystal for investigation and subsequently I obtained from another source twenty other crystals. They are all small, colorless and in the main with faces in good condition. The examination in the polariscope showed that the erystals were monoclinic. The plane of the optical axes is normal to the clinopinacoid ea makes an angle of 83° 25’ with the chief axis (in front). ith a primitive form havin a:b: c=0°774843 : 1: 0540998 and B=69° 50! 45" IT have determined already the following forms: 448 J. D. Dana—Sand and Kaolin from Quartzyte Pinacoids: «Px, «Px, OP. Prisms: oo P3, «Pi, « P2, «Pie, oP, «P2. Clinodomes: P&x , 2P=. Hemidomes: $§P«,6Pa,4Pa%,2Pa,Px, —Pé&. Homipyramids: P, 2P, —P, —3P, —42P, 2P9, 3P}, 4P2, 3P3, 2P2, 3P3, —3P3, 3P3, 4P4, —3P3. Arr. LVI.—On the Decay of Quartzyte, and the formation of sand, kaolin and crystallized quartz ; by James D. Dana. Facts from the quartzyte regions of Massachusetts, Connecticut and Vermont fully sustain the observations of Mr. O. A. Derby on throws light published in this volume (page 203), a appear to quartzyte has cer been known, and for many years the product (obtained mostly from crushing the friable rock) has been used for making glass. The most extensive localities and those earliest worked are in the town of Cheshire, a few miles north of Pitts- field, as mentioned in Professor Hitchcock’s Geological Reports of 1832 and 1842, The sand-works are situated just west of the Js Mets oe also one mile and two miles south of te: and two miles to the stward, tne the borders of the tow of Savoy. I have found it gd to rely on the present position of the layers for evidence to the a position, the weakened beds tending to slip out oft place b ity. I have visited also a locality, “inal x worked, in the town of Savoy, about six miles east of the village of "Cheshire ; and another four and one-half miles east of Dewey’s station (Housa- h other Batiiion. Pe ll ceeily a : | J. D. Dana—Sand and Kaolin from Quartzyte. 449 2. Kaolin from quartzyte.—At the Cheshire sand-works, south of the village, the waters that flow from the quarries, or stand in tt friable rock is well exposed at the quarry two miles south in bluff front, =i Takis en its layers here and there occur thin seams y Dr. A. A. Hayes, of Boston, afforded 75 per cent of silica to 25 of alumina, equivalent to a half-and-half mixture of kaolin and quartz sand. Similar facts were observed at the works a mile south of Cheshire. is") tv 2] ct 9 a ma ® B ° wm et ch & o —— bane) bax | 3 5B "p ° = ¥ oy me "3 or 8 kd aa os ry vr is) au ‘2 oad 7) sometimes has the layers alternating with seams of soft kaolinized feldspar; and occasionally this material is so mixed with the quartzyte as not to be easily recognized, except that the pacar quartzyte is a little coherent. Many kaolin beds of western New England occur in quartzyte areas. This is true of the largest of these deposits, that in the southwest corner of New Marlborough near the Canaan (Conn.) boundary ; the kaolin is sandy and contains fragments of quartzyte ; it has bedding from short transportation. It is true also of that of northeastern Sharon, where the kaolin contains much sand an its working brought to pe surface the friable quartzyte; also of as val deposit just e of Monument Mountain, between on, Vermont, has iar. to the eastward as the nearest otteropritie rock, and far the larger part of the clay is white, and thus pure from iron oxide. That of Monkton, Vermont, also a large deposit, is - a sandstone es independent, says ’Pro- faesot Hitchcock in the Vermout Rep ort (1861), of any limonite ed. That of Pownal, described es Dr. C. Dewey (this Jour- nal, xii, 298, a and kee of by Professor E. ets sas “a large bed of porcelain clay,” is also in a region of q 3. Fel ldspathie quartzyte. ” source of the kaolin, Feldepesian quartzyte occurs near the li etween Lenox and Washington, in the latter own, two saileg ea vo of Dewey’s railroad station and four and one-half miles south- by-east from Pittsfield.* Large blocks, ev idently derived from a bed in the piempeale er! rete ten of the reg gion, and cavernous from the remo of the feldspar, lie over the ficld; the narrow ragge “a perce are often an inch or more long. Dr. ©. Dewey, who describes the * The locality is ‘seag xd the house of A. Dexter (situated near the junction tween the road from Dewey’s to Washington and another short road going north, one-half mile west ie the school-house corner), in the field south of the road. 450 J.D. Dana—Sand and Kaolin from Quartzyte. rock in this Journal for 1824 (viii, 17), says of it that ‘it is wrought into millstones ofter the manner of the Paris buhrstone,” and goes by the name of the Pittsfield buhrstone. Feldspar exists in some of the cavities. Professor E. Hitchcock recog- nizes the feld Geological Report of 1842, saying (p. 587), that the buhrstone is d ingredient.” The name gneiss given it is not so far out of the the quartzyte elsewhere. Professor Hitchcock mentions another : “ce ; locality of it: “four or five miles south of the spot where mill- rofessor Hitchcock states, in the Vermont Report, that the ownal, Vermont, as affording it abundantly. He also states in the chapter in his American Geolog 1. I, Part ii), on the ak Hill G and the adjoining part of the town of Adams), which consists of quartzyte with some micaceous and gneissoid beds, has a layer of have observed, At a locality of kaolin in the south part of Kent, the rock from which the kaolin originated is, as stated by Professor C. U. Shepard in his report on the Mineralogy of Connecticut (p. 74), @ kind of “graphic granite which must have been free from mica,” in other words, a rock consisting of quartz and feldspar; and at J. D. Dana—Sand and Kaolin from Quartzyte. 451 another, three miles west of New Miford, which the same author light-colored muscovite and damourite usually three to six per cent while the quartzyte has almost none and the little oxide that is made is readily removed by percolating waters. No beds of white kaolin of workable value occur with the limonite deposits of western New England which I have examined, although clays abound in th pieces through the quartzyte. 4, Pseudo-breccia from Quartzyte, and in some of this pseudo- breccia crystallized quartz—A very common source of the de- struction of quartzyte is the oxidation of its pyrite, as is well known—a mineral that is often present yet in general very spar- ay ferruginous cement; and Dr. Dewey in 1824 (this Journal, viii, 18), and Professor Hitchcock in his Report of 1841 (p. 588), so ck has : limonite coloring the rock alongside of the cracks, and also depos- 452 Scientifie Intelligence. * colored bands. This feature I have best seen in the interior « in na largest cavity is a ragged shallow one two inches long A one broad ; and another has half these dimensions, These cavi- Ges contain a coating of limonite. The prying action sstendiog the oxydizing BP ocess tends to loosen grains as well as open crevi- ces; but, if the quartzyte were originally solid, the mechanical removal of the ‘separated grains so as to make cavities in its inte- rior would be impossible. The cavities may have been produced the removal of largish pieces of pyrite, or of both pyrite and feldspar, but whether so or not, the facts are insufficient bosianay to determine. The presence of feldspar is rendered probable by the occurrence of a kaolin-like material in a few otherwise empty cavities in the body of the quartzyte. Further: the cavities described have generally a lining of minute erystals of quartz ; and these crystals coat the limonite, showing that the crystals were deposited after ie limonite. The drusy quartz also penetrates to such an extent the limonite-colored bands, that it is probable that they were formed also during the making of the limonite, and at the ordinary temperature. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysICcs. nm the Cause of the discrepancy between the observed O. Bastrom otive force of a Battery and that calculated from thermochemicat data.—Many voltaic cells have an actual these, those containing iron, eee or cobalt in a solution of potassium hydrate, for example, show polarization phenomena markedly, as Becquerel pointe d ain in 1856. These cells, though the positive electrode is unpolarizable, give a current which rapidly fi ro. So a cell having an electrode of uminum in dilute sulphuric acid aoa one copper in sulphate of copper solution, gives an electromotive force of only 0°62 volt instead = as required b sca and a cell bawing Cuaprron has accordingly made a series of experiments upon Chemistry and Physies. 453. the polarization of the metals above mentioned, in solutions he most m alternately put in contact wi ith this battery and with a micro- maximum given the electrodes. By means of a peor bone galvanometer or an electrometer, this difference of potential was measured. When the electrodes were of distilled zinc Dlasedii zinc sulphate solution, and called unpolarizable, charged with an - electromotive force of one volt, three contacts of the key gave th ntacts. bra ie system on ea co aad, thei thr iree or four contacts, the i curves whose abscissas represent the differences of potential of the charging source and whose ordinates are the differences por to the condenser by the electrodes, it appears that for the metals and solutions studied, polariz zable systems are produced under those circumstances whose difference of potential increases con- tinuously from zero up to the point of decomposition of the sreotrolyse into its elements. Thus with electrodes of magne- n alies, this electromotive force reaches 3°8 volts and with aluminum in aci jie lated water, more than’ 4 volts. spi re- senting by Try the energy of formation of an electrolyte ¢ and pn and th shown follows a continuous law of variation, this chemical work in value from Tpy to zero; i. e., et ween the point of electrolysis and the neutral condition of the electrodes; by giving at the lower limit the equation Tpy— 6, also Tn and T,,, may vary from zero to two positive Valdes, ek being at the limit, smaller than Tay. It is therefore this limiting value of Tax in the abov equation which should be used in caleu- lating the theoretical electromotive force in place of the heat of combination.— C. R., xeviii, 729; J. Chem. Soc., xlvi, eb » Aug:» “th On the Color of Chemical pg 8 18m . a 4 fmetion of "the y nae weights of yA gh macy Elemen LLEY has ry pound, and 3d, the atomic weig t of the constituent elements. e first two of these conditions were studied y Ackroyd, who observed (1) that all chromium compounds change aler in a defi- 454 Scientific Intelligence. nite direction, an increase in the temperature producing tints extending more and more toward the red end of the spectrum, et finally brown and black if the heat be sufficiently in- (2) That in sore ZOE an inerease in the quantity of the negative element produces a change of color toward the red end of the spectrum, ending finally in brown and black; for example, PbO is yellow, Pb,O, red a and PbO, brown. Carnelley formulates the third condition thus: In certain scries of compounds A,R,, while A, B, C, etc., are elements belonging to the same sub-groups’ in Mendelejeft’s table of natural classification of the elements, the color varies either entirely or partially through the following scale of color as the atomic weight rises: White (or colorless), violet, indigo, a green, yellow, orange, red, brown and black; in 884. # Analysis under greatly diminished aon slomeae ress and Srusert have made a series of experiments on the force of gaseous pap ouies under reine pressure, the sewnlis of which confirm the observation of Thomas that rarefaction pro- duced by Coie the pressure is more “effective i in pene ning é Chemistry and Physics. 455 mercury in the usual manner and the gas to be analyzed is intro- epee: in amount about one-tenth of the capacity of the tube ean read. e results are calculated as usual. In a subsequent paper by Lothar Meyer, valuable suggestions are given on "s ee of > analyses.—J/. oc., Xlv, 581, Oct., 18 4. On the Gpathasts of Galenite by means OP Thioe bo ela Emerson-REYNOLps has shown that the ready desulphurization of sulphur-urea or thiocarbamide by metallic oxides notably those of silver, mercury and lead, may be made use of for the purpose of obtaining their sulphides. hen heated with an sikadi-colyiios grams per liter. On mixing equal volumes of the two solutions = rot se a brownish color appears at about 38° to. 40 ., the hole becomes turbid at about 45° and a specular layer forms on Wotbcin and sides of the vessel, which increases in thickness con- tinually, reflecting light of the same color as a brilliant face of a crystal of native galenite. After ten minutes boiling the liquid is octahedral or etrahedral faces were observed. The is process for plating articles of glass and metal with Bec nti ta erent been secured by patent t.—dJ. Chem. Soc., xlv eas a sp ‘'. n the Action of active and inactive Amyl sMovsdes pat of fear Paes a in presence of Aluminum chloride.— solution —— only isophthalic acid apparently: though mui- nute qua = of ordinary phthalic and of terephthalic acids were pres The inactive amyl indie also reacts upon toluene and Welds a eae boiling at 207° to 209°, which anv all Am. Jour. cgay Serres, Vou. XXVIII, No. 168, —DEc., 456 Scientific Intelligence. the properties of the body obtained with the active chloride. Amylene also acts upon toluene in presence of aluminum chloride and gives the same identical product as the active and inactive amyl chlorides. The active chloride under these circumstances loses HCl and becomes amylene, which unites directly to produce tertiary isoamyltoluene. The inactive chloride not only loses HCl goes a molecular rearrangement to yield this body. From the mode of its formation its constitution is easily deduced. It is dimethylethylmet Imetl Bull. Soc. Ch., U, xhi, G. F. B. 213, Sept., 1884. ‘ 6. On the Electro-magnetic Rotation of the plane of polariza- tion of light—A. Kunprt has examined this subject with refer- ence to the magnetic metals in general and his conclusions are as follows: (1) The greater part of isotropic solid bodies, fluids and gases which have been examined turn the plane of polarization in the positive sense. (2) A strong concentrated solution of iron chloride turns it in the negative sense. e negative turning of other magnetic salts is apparent from the diminution of the positive turning of the medium of solution. (3) Oxygen turns the plane in the positive direction. 4 e plane of polarization of light which is passed through iron, cobalt and nickel is tu in the positive directi Negative turning results from perpendicular reflection from an iron m le. This is true for cobalt and nickel Chemie, No. 10, 1884, pp. 228-252. . 7. 7 new form of Polariscope—At a meeting of the Amer- . A ican Academy of Arts and Sciences, held in Boston, October 8, ment can also be used as a photometer. Lap 8. Conductivity of Tourmaline for Heat. — Theoretical con- clusions have led Professor 8S. P. Thompson and Professor O. J. Lodge to believe that there exists in tourmaline a unilateral con- ductivity for heat in the direction of the principal axis, and that the conductivity in the direction from the analogous pole to the Chemistry and Physics. 457 antilogous pole is different from the conductivity in the opposite direction. Franz panes has examined the subject, using an adaptation of Weber’s thermo-electrical method, and conclu that the unilateral condustivity for heat in tourmaline is at oe extremely small and probably does not exist.— Phil. Mag., Nov., 1884, pp. 427-433 9. Helmholtz’ dispersion theory. — A. WULLNER shows “from the pats vations pate angley that the equation between indices of an Chemie, No. 10, 1884, pp. 306 6-312. +E. The Infra-r red Emission-spectra ne rage wae » Vapors 3 by i. pee EREL.—Last year I submit the A mie des Season a short account of my first Pest on ie infiered Spectra emitted by metallic set till then unknow Sine that time I have investigated the subject still further by aking use of a special a shoe which shall be page in a future : a throwing the s a eg about to be examin oom upon a suitable Bicephoasnes. substance, which nes been previously rendered luminous, and in observing the temporary excitation, which recedes " extinction, under the tins of the infra-red rays. he lines and bands of the emission-spectra then appear brilliant, and can be examined with the microscope. In experimenting on different phosphorescent substances, nota- bly certain al. eseaapcme of sulphide of calcium, I found some uch more sensitive than others for infra-red rays. These sub- staunes have permitted fi to determine directly the wave-lengths or the more brilliant lines of several ee metallic vapors (potassium, qoltae m, cadmium), by using the diffraction- spectra produced by a very beautiful metal gratis of Mr. Ruth- erfurd’s, which was kindly lent be by M. Mascart. ther m tals, the spectra were obtained ie means of a bi- red of the solar spectrum have been again + dole a byt mea of the grating, which had been stud ervice; an the more sensitive substances in my possession have permitted me to extend these measurements much f I was enabled to do in my previous ersmeiraseee! propose to return shortly to * Comptes Rendus, t. xcvii, p. 7 ¢ Annales de Chimie et de of Sa 5* série, t, xxx, p. 5. 458 Scientific Intelligence. this work, which has led me to rectify several numbers relatin to wave-lengths at the less-refrangible end of the spectrum; ri will only give here the wave-lengths of ae he lines used for reference: the band indicated by A” former memoir is made up of two bands, whose wave- onde i are from 0°00115 to 0°00119 millim., and from 0°001132 to 0°001142 millim, ; the large band A” extends from 0°001351 to about 0°001400 millim., and the extreme band A from 0°001800 to about 0°001900 millim. for the first, and from 0°001239 to ‘ diese? for the eanelh e metals were volatilized in the voltaic are. The intensity was such, that I could make use of a very narrow slit, an observe, on the phosphorescent substance, interesting details. In this case, it is necessary that the image o of the line be brought to an exact focus on the phosphorescent screen ; for, onluas this be so, the results are not observable when the slit is narrow. spectrum; but, by i trials, it was possible ef — — examined. I am occupied, roe ver, sent striae with an improvement, which will admit of ‘till, greaen delicacy. Wave-lengths of the Principal Emission-rays of several Incandescent Metallic Vapors. POTASSIUM. ALUMINIUM. Wave-length, 1128 ) Broad and intense, perhaps 1098 : : 4113615 compound. 1162 Lines very brilliant, 1233 1125 ZINC. 1306 Sopium. { Visible to the nak 1850. CADMIUM. si9/ Capt. Abney has priya ee Leap. this line ie discovered that} 1059-8 ouble. ae | Very intense. 1142. Feebler group. rl STRONTIUM. 7a Approximate wave-length. ee Lines and bands feebler; ap- THALLIUM. jose]? proximate wave-lengths. 1150. Approximate wave-length. 1098 CALCIUM. aay se gets 858-876 ) Broad bands, probably groups| 973 t Approximate wave-lengths. 883-888 of lines. poeetl ar ot au t Visible to the naked eye. 899 Very oe perhaps com-| 825 1083 TIN 1047 (2) J Very fe 1199 f 1200 ) Broad Ans pitiiaie double. 21 This group resembles group 0. Chemistry and Physics. 459 The preceding table contains the wave-lengths for the most intense lines, bands or groups of lines which characterize the spectra of several metallic vapors. e numbers are expressed in millionths of a millimeter, and are generally exact to one or two millionths of a millimeter. ve several rather feeble bands or groups of lines; while iron, in our experiments, gave no band sufficiently intense to exam The sentia, meer above, show how rich the field of research is which the phenomena of phosphorescence open up in the invisi- ble part of the ukaaed of the spectrum which, alone, covers an interval of wave-lengths greater sina a visible and ultra- violet parts together esides the interest it may excite by proving the er of these rays, of which the wave-lengths are considerable, in the spectra of metallic vapors, this research, more than any other, is and eg in the Infra-red portion of the Solar Spectru Note ENRI BecquEeReL.—In a recent communication to the ‘Académi ie des Sciences* on the lines in the infra-red part of ed make in the numbers adopted in a a researcht for the es iy aac of —— lines ae bands in the solar spectrum. now give a ré of m , determinations of the wave- to a similar saaals yom the two others. In m for mer researches I i ndinates these bands, starting from A, by the letters A’, A’, and Al’, the wave-lengths of these rays do not allow of the Seige gr with any certainty, of the results of their researches. In 1847 * Comtes Rendus, August 25, 1884; Phil. Mag., eee 386. + Annales de Chimie et de Physi ique, 5° série, t, xxx, p. 5 460 Scientific Intelligence. Fizeau gave the number 0°001445 millim. for the wave-length of a band which appears to be the band A’. On the other hand, my father obtained for this same band, by the phosphorographic method, numbers varying between 0°001400 and 0:001200 millim., and gave the number 0°001220 millim. for its most refrangible border. It was therefore necessary to determine these wave- lengths directly by using a grating. n 1879 bney prepared a very beautiful map of the infra-red portion of the normal spectrum; it was obtained by photography, and extended to about the wave-length 0°000980 illim. In my previous researches I was enabled, by the appli- cation of phosphorescence, to measure, in the diffraction-spectrum - of a grating, to about 0°001000 millim.; but the feeble brilliancy of the spectra did not permit of my going further, and I adopted the number 0°001220 millim. for the most-refrangible border of the band A” which can be easily observed in the spectrum formed by a prism. The numbers above 0°001000 millim., published in the paper cited above, were obtained by means of an interpolation based upon this assumption. In a memoir published in 1883 Mr. Langley deduces the wave- lengths of the bands A’, A”, A’, Aiv i ion 1 ose W disposal during my former researches. These substances have allowed of my measuring, with a quite near approximation, e t finer lines; the numbers given by these experiments are near reater. The solar rays, concentrated upon a narrow slit, in the focus of a collimator were made to fall upon a beautiful grating, ruled on metal by Mr. Rutherfurd, which M. Mascart was kind enough to lend me. The rays, brought to convergence by a lens, then transversed a bisulphide-of-carbon prism, of which the edges were at right angles to those of the slit and the lines of the grating, and formed upon the phosphorescent substance a series of oblique spectra, in which the rays of the spectra of different orders were in juxtaposition and not superposed. The slit was sufficiently narrow to allow of distinetly seeing the principal lines of the luminous spectrum; and on comparing the position of the lines and bands in the infra-red part of the first spectrum with those of the known lines in the luminous part of the spectra of second and third order, their wave-length was obtained with an approxt- mation which depended only on the accuracy of the scale-reading. Chemistry and Physics. 461 The following table contains the numbers obtained for the principal lines and bands. These numbers appear exact to within one or two millionths of a millimeter, and may be substituted for those which have been given in the publications of my previous researches. Wave-lengths of the hag! lines and bands in the infra-red Yt of the solar spec- expressed in millionths of a millime 7004. A, [ i oup of two 771. bands which appear ee “ ae to be those indicated 791 to 796 : by Capt. Abney 4, o: ani 819. (Sodium), 1142. (Sodium). 830. . 1200. (Magnesium). 844, 1254. a aoe Corresponds to a calcium Border inet S88: 0-860 | rong: from 1351. Ap- . 1354 to 1400. A’, pears to be the 898 to 900. (Magnesium). band named » 917 to 920. Band or group of lines. by Abney. 934 to 945. { A’. Group of lines and} 1440. Feeble band. 950 to 965. bands very near to one | 1510 to 1560. Group of ban 968. (> another. proximatenum- 992. bers. This band 1025, 1800 to 1880. Atv, has been called 1069 to 1075. @ by Mr. Lang- ley. The above results show that the phosphorographic method per- mits, hosphorescent substances are properly. he . the investigation of the i red part of the spectrum as mass fovther and farther than reap meth This mastiod Nov., 18 ie 12, On the Strain connected with say “ggg i and with the Pesala of perlitic structure—Mr. Frank Rutiey has dine Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., July, 1884) some ae resting obse tions on the effe ct of incipient crystallization and the develo pone! of the perlitic structure in producing a state of strain in some vitreous rocks, as shown by the phenomena observed in polarized light. The observations were made upon a section of obsidian from Japan. This showed a considerable number of crystals under the microscope and about each of them the a pone ena occurring within the re toe ee or again there may be crystals surrounded by the strained and these areas bound 462 Scientific Intelligence. vades the whole rock, as ae perlites. (2) Cooking —— pron fragments taken up in a lava flow; this see erely a marginal structure connected with the igeeits ad. fea "affect. ing the rest of the rock. (3) By the tension in the surrounding mass when a crystal is formed ; Ay formation of a crystal not rhe involving perlitic fissior author gives an interesting isu of the development of ictinta in glass along fissures. He says: “ Fifteen or twenty years ago a house was burnt down in the market-place m5 Dover; a small piece of plate-glass from one of the windows is seen, when closely examined, to be traversed by minute, irregular cracks like those in the artificially cracked, carmine-staine quartz of the French jewelers, known as trubace. "When ex taniied under is spherules with ig Meine? beeen structure, each traversed by the usual dark cross. That they follow the cracks is evident, the upper surface of the glass downward. They a really iicwttat erystalline films like little flat wheels lying on the cracked surfaces of the glass. The phenomenon is superficial and seems only to follow the cracks e may feel tolerably sure that the glass was not cracked in this manner before the house was burnt. The cracks are precisely such as would be produced in glass or rock crystal by heat and subsequent immersion in @ cold solution; and these conditions would, in this case, be fulfilled by the fire and the pla ay of water from the fire-engines. Whether those little circular Shar ps ese es gr represent crystallization set up actually iz the glass, or result from the erystallization of some substance other than that of the ‘ilies, introduced in solu- ~ tion into the fissures, I am not prepared to say.” II. GroLtogy AND MINERALOGY. a Duluth and from Duluth to Nipigon Bay. The rocks of the Animikie group, about Thunder Bay, are excluded, and referred to the Huronian age; and also the horizontal Lake uperior h. a coast region eastward, are made to be unconformable and Geology and Mineralogy. 463 probably of the age of the Potsdam sandstone. The Report first gives a history of former geological investigations of the region and a full bibliography ; and then treats of the distribution of the rocks, their kinds and stratigraphy, and all with great thorough- ness. The enh part is specially interesting on account of the large amount of eruptive rocks in the Keweenian series, and ales the hae i excellence of the colored microscopic illus- trations. The basic eruptive rocks of the region are remarkable ne base, olivine-diabase, diabase-porphyrite (=porphyritic diabase), melaphyr, gabbro, and oliv ine-gabbro with anorthite rock. Pr fessor Irving remarks that “ all of the kinds, although distinct enough in the field are, cn mame conside red, but phases of one kind of work,” and plagioclase-augite e rocks, to which “the term ‘basalt,’ sentricted by Sescnlin sch to their younger equivalents, mi ht be not improperly used.” The diabase and hyr occur amygdaloidal, and figures on seolee s 311 and 326 represent the layers of successive outflows with the lower half solid and the upper vesicular. e ga os are generally coarsely crystalline and sometimes contain orthoclase ; the others are of all grades of texture. The anorthite rock is a coarsely whi ting black gabbro and has included angular masses in the same rock. The acidic rocks are granite (one small locality) augite- syenyte and granulite “ porphgriti granite; quartziferous por- yry, quartzless porph and telsyte—which terms mean: felsyte, both meson nad Lie and quartzless (the quartz usually in distinct crystals), and either porphyritic with feldspar crystals or no elsyte rocks are mostly of a pale or deep re e subject of the origin of the minerals in the amygdaloidal cavities and their successive formation, so well investigated by Pumpelly, was ~ canst: tbe rae git = Prof. Irving, and only a statement of Pumpelly’s results ts he fr saicilicke rocks of the series are made of granitic and felsitic material, and in part of material from the other igneous rocks, but are nowhere true quar Aes + lua sete A indicat- ‘tin es her the any part of the Candidas group of reat 1 Been or is older than its oldest beds, Prof. Irving leaves undecided, for the good 464 Scientific Intelligence. reason that fossils, the only true criterion of geological age, are absent from the yeds, and from all underlying beds; he says, accordingly, only this—older than the Potsdam sandstone and its equivalents. The Cambrian of Great Britain is of great thick- ness below the equivalents of the Potsdam sandstone ; and the question has arisen among those who have considered the subject, whether the Keweenian beds are not the equivalents of the part of the Cambrian below the oem Lingula flags, that is, of the Lower Cambrian and Menevian groups of Great Britain, or of the Lower Cambrian alone. Should either prove to be a fact, the series is true Cambrian; and if the name Cambrian is to be used at all in American geology, this series may claim it better than any beds of later origin. The colored maps of the Report are of the best style of the er and nee a illustrations are excellent. Note the Par a sal oe nlm the Hornblende of the Onatalline. ‘Roske of the Northw by R. D. Irvine.—In my second paper on this jahiots in nem * Journal for February, 1884, in which I give an historical review of the matter, there is a quite important omission. In referring to the work of Streng on the Minnesota crystallines I failed to note that, besides the Du- 23 gabbro, Streng had described other rocks from Minnesota* n a number of which he found associations of augite and diallage with hornblende, of such a nature as to lead him to believe in the secondary origin of the latter. It is evident that Streng was by far the first to note this relation betweer hornblende and an aug- itic material in the rocks of the Northwest; not merely in green- stones sind in ype and other quartz-bearing r rocks. ‘And ae ie in beider Mineralien ist eine so un patie A die Hornblende dringt in so schmalen Paithien i in die Augitsubstanz ein, dass man sich des Gedankens nicht erwehren kann, hier sei die Hornblende aus beyme agit rac ag Der Beweis fir bait’ ~aemer i wird sich trigt. Wiirde Masia Beweis Heo dann ae man annehmen miissen, dass auch andere el nblenden, welche keinen Augitkern mehr besitzen, aus Augit entstanden sein und dass bei ihnen die Umwandlung schon vollendet sei; d. h. dass die thy HE Geese einstmals noch reicher an augitischem } aie ale gewesen sein, - sie jetzt erscheinen.” This was in 1876. Madison, Wis., Oct. 7, 1884. * Neues Jahrbuch fiir Adit ete., 1877, pp. 31-56, 113-138, 225-242. cutee Jahrbuch, 1877, p. Mages See also for translation Eleventh Annual rt Geol. Survey Minn., p. 8 : Geology and Mineralogy. 465 3. The Berlin Archeopteryx.— The Geological Magazine for September last contains an abstract of a paper by W. Dames on the Archeopteryx discovered in 1877 in the lithographic stone at Blumenberg in Bavaria (the same rock that afforded the speci- men described by Professor Owen), which is illustrated by a plate showing the head with the tooth-bearing jaws, from which the accompanying figure of the head is taken, reduced in size. The brn A, orbit; B, antorbital foramen; CO, nasal opening; A/, parietal and frontal ; n, nasal; im, intermaxillary ; 1, lach al; m, maxillary ; Pr palatine ; ppm, palatine process of maxilla; pt, pterygoid; qu, quadrate bone; sel, sclerotic plates of eye; mi, lower jaw; ppd, post-articular process of mandible; h, hyoid bones. 4. The deposition of Ores; by J. S. Newserry, (School of Mines Quarterly for May, 1884, New York).—Dr. Newberry’s extensive knowledge of the ore deposits of western North America any essential change; that many veins have no connection with igneous rock; no associated ore deposits; and favors the view of Richthofen that the filling of many of the veins was the result of “ the leaching of deep-seated rocks, perhaps the same that enclose the vein above, by highly heated solutions, which deposited their load near the surface.” The region, he observes, is conspicuous for the number of its hot springs, and it is evident that these are the last of the 466 Screntific Intelligence. series of thermal phenomena connected with the great volcanic upheavals and eruptions since the beginning of the Tertiary age.” The heated moisture of the Comstock lode is heated by coming in contact with hot rocks at a lower level than the present work- ings, and the hot sources thus opened are doing to-day what they have been doing in the past, though less actively—bringing toward the surface the materials taken into solution in a more highly heated zone below. Hot, not cold, waters are doing and have done the chief part of the ‘work in the formation of mineral veins. 5. Some placeaigape of Atmospheric action on raaereseie by M. E. Wapsworrn. (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxii, Feb. 7, 1883. ine. object of this brief paper is simply to aaa on record some observations made a number of years ago, and to call the attention of others to the subject, in the desire that similar facts from field observations, Sea upon sandstone and quartzites. As examples of the power of the ordinary atmospheric agencies over rocks Iw ould cite some cases observed by me in 1 1871, 72 posed portions of the same blocks and slabs were greatly indu- rated, the grains almost obliterated, and the rock possessed the conchoidal fracture and other characteristics of a quartz e Potsdam sandstone east of the town likewise possaened similar characteristics. In this, concretions of an indurated char- ules, and a few Ssidlien farther of the ss auch was incoherent, “enaily. crumbling under the touch and showing no trace of con- cretionary structure. At an nother grat the oo showed in cavities formed by weathering a distinct lining of quartz crystals, while a few inches beneath the surface the rock had the i) consolidated the sands “ibe Se ee not as a seen extensively in that vicinity aig the surface rock left by denudation. In the autumn of 1872 lock of clear white Potsdam sandstone was found on the aoe of a hill, the protected side of which was friable, while the other sides, especially the one most exposed to the pre- vailing storms, was nearly a quartzite. This block was only about two feet square, ead as a test of the correctness of the above Senalieton the indurated surface was broken off, and a Geology and Mineralogy. 467 comparatively friable surface exposed. This locality was visited the following spring when it was found that this fresh surface was much indurated and approached toward a quartzite. This change had taken place in the few months that had elapsed since the fractured and friable surface had been exposed and there could be no doubt that the change was due to the action of the elements. Many observations were made regarding the induration of these sandstones, which are not here given, but all tended in the same direction—to show that atmospheric agencies exercised a strong indurating influence upon the surface and immediately underlying portions. On the Structure of English and American Carboniferous pwaRD WeETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S. (Brit. Assoc., Montreal Meeting, 1884.)—With a view of testing the “Spore Theory ” of the origin of coal, as propounded by Professor Hux- ley, the author had obtained a portion of the ‘better bed” seam intact for a thickness of ten inches from the top. He had exam- ined this inch by inch, by preparing thirty-three microscopic sec- tions. At the top was three and one-half inches of dull lustrous oal, termed “laminated coal.” This the author found to be four inches thick, and presented a dull luster with thin bright layers traversing at intervals. e dull portion was a mass of ri ? by dull lustrous coal, showed plenty of spores in the dull coal, but in the bright not one was detected. The second bed in this seam was one foot thick; it was of a brighter luster than the four inches below, but two layers could be distinctly made out, one more lustrous than the other. In the dullest of the two chiefly aoiehae fs except in the bright layers. The American and American Carboniferous coals had a common origin. ‘ The spores in the coal from both countries were closely allied. 468 Screntific Intelligence. Some microspores from Alabama were identical fee phone amhich occur in the lower m9 d of the We tes ** four r fee A eles as superficial or not, it was very ahapactartaies of them, and was, therefore, to mF considered in attempting to ally them with modern vegetatio 7. On the Geology of South Africa ; by T. Ruprerr Jonzs, F.R.S., G.S., etc.—The contour of the south coast is parallel with the outcrop of the strata in the interior, from Oliphant’s River (31° 40'S. lat.) on the west coast, southward to the Cape, and then eastward to about 33° 30'S. lat. Here the edges of the hea formerly bending round to the north, have been swept away to a great extent; but their outcrop is again seen on the cae coast at St. John’s River (31° 40’ (S. lat.), where oe strike nore er ary peer aes a ete far up the co Gneissic rock an e Namaqualand Schists aecanly be aa the others, coming ag on the northwest, aud exposing a narrow strip on the south coast. (2.) Mica tua and slates, snd Sal by granites here and there, form a curved maritime band, from about 30 to 70 miles broa d, and are known as the Malmesbury Beds (Dunn). These and the beds next in succes- sion (the Bokkeveld Beds, 3) are overlain unconformably by the Table-Mountain Seudans (4), 4,000 (?) feet thick, which forms Carboniferous Hee (with oe ete “sit and forms the Wittebergen and Zwartebergen in the Cape district, and the Zuurbergen in Eastern province. The Zeca Beds (6) come next; Lower series, 800 feet ; Con- glomerate beds yea), 500° feet ; Upper series, 2,700. feet ; conformable with No in the south much folded, and in un- dulations throughout, “ant it tig under the next set of beds, No. 7, in some places 50 miles to the north. The Ecca beds part of the ‘ Beaufort’ beds of ones (1867). The series No. 7, horizontal and unconformable on the Ecca beds at the Camdeboo d elsewhere, retains the name of Karoo Sandstones; and, after a width of about 40 miles, is conformably surmounted Ps" set of somewhat similar beds (8) in the Stormberg; and thus No. 7 should be regarded as the Lower, and No. 8 the fi Karoo sandstones. The latter end off northward in the Draakensberg, Natal, Orange-Free-State, the Transvaal, and Zululand, with the Geology and Mrheralogy. 469 still horizontal Cave sandstone and associated beds. The lower Karoo erence probably thin a sited northward beneath the others. w the Karoo sandstones, and dying out southward near the Comtsebes (Professor Green}, are the Shales (7*), which constitute the country aroun imberley, des —— . as the ‘ 7 . ‘die out northward against the old sae of Griqualand: W est and t aal. They contain Glacial conglomerates in their lowest (earliest) beds, in Griqualand- West s just as the Ecca series as its great Glacial conglomerate (the Dwyka Conglomerate in the Olive or Kimberley shales (7*) in the Cosas -Free-State, the “a s 3: mains, and some coal on the Vaal; the Aaroo sandstones are rich with Dicynodont and other reptilian bones, and have some sh remains; and their upper portion (Stormberg) contains bf coal, A mammal also has been found in this series. ep ca its range the Aaroo Series is traversed with igneous d Limestones and sandstones (9) with foal “of nearly pure Jurassic, but with some of Cretaceous type, occur unconformably in the Eastern province. Their fossil flora is like that of the a coast; and Tertiary and post-Tertiary a s (11) from sev- eral patahas on ibe east, ne and west co 8. Miniature domes in Sand.—Myr. T. Mella rd cas in the Geological Magazine for tot last, describes domes 8 of sand 3 wane across nd an inch high, on on ies ,on a and to 10 feet off, along the clay forcing the interstitial air upward into a flat bubble and raising the sand above. Mr. Reade states that on trial he found that a bottle holding 7 ounces of perfectly ry sand well shaken together would hold in its interstices 2 ounces of eam — ratio of sand to water in bulk being, there- si about 7t pete on Ore Deposits; by J. ARrHUR PHILLIPs. pp. By0, with numerous illustrations. London, 1884, — Co.)—The author of the well known Manual of Metallurgy, pre- sa in this new work a ase account of the various pel and modes of occurrence and associations, of ore deposits, a review of theories as to the formation of mineral veins, and 2 ‘ial deserip- tions of the principal mining regions o the worl compre- none in the se tb language of more recent date than Professor Frederick Prime’s translation of the volume by Von Cotta. e work fulfills er its purpose both as an elementary and descriptive treatise. The part on the mines of the United States and Mexico 470 Scientific Intelligence. is the least satisfactory. It covers but 60 pages, which is a small allowance considering the variety, extent and peculiar character of the ore-deposits. Mr. Phillips s visit to the country some years since has aided him in writing up the subject; but another visit, preparatory to the present treatise, would have secured for it greater thoroughness and abort since the new developments ee the past decade have bee : Lesquereux on the Coal Flor ora ep Pennsylvania and the United States.—The third and last part of the Coal Flora of the Pennsylvania and the United States, by Leo Lesquereux has been published, as volume III P, of the hi. ata of the Second Geolog- ical Survey o * Pennsylvania. It is a fine volume of 280 pages with 24 8vo. plates, completing Ne work in 976 pages and 111 plates. The first twe A ape in 1880, have been widely distributed and are now well-kno This last one adds deserip- figured, species already ’ published, a table of species referred to forma- tions, an —. of all the species found at each locality mentioned, and a ised index for the three volumes ie generic voted to the description of Californian rocks, but is in fact principally a discussion of meteorites. It contains an extended discussion, in the successive sections of chapter I of the structure of the earth, the origin and alteration of rocks, and of their min- eral constituents, the value of chemical analy of rocks, the methods of chaeeiisatiog based upon mineral composition, geo- logical age, with the conclusions adopted by the author as to the true method of sie ae ~~ Chapter IT takes up chapter IV the basalts. The hire ” described under the above heads are mostly meteorites sles the author has collated with t has added to them observations of his own. In regard to the origin of meteorites, he regards “ the su, or some similar body, their sao qo 9 le source.” The tables in the close of the vol- ume, cov pages 1 to 33, contain a long series of analyses of chromite iat ploonites showing their close relation to each other, and also of meteorites and terrestrial rocks, mostly the former. ions colored plates are se executed. Carboniferous Cockroaches and Myriapods.—Professor 8. H. Sondder has a paper in gi Memoirs of the Boston Society of Geology and Mineralogy. 471 Natural History, vol. ili, No. ix, (March, 1884), on new species of Cockroaches of the genus Mylacris, and on Myriapods of the 7 Morri and Pennsylvania and smite e praia In view of the ehereay of boniferous Myriapods was as great as among existing species. No trace of Myriapods has been found in this country below the Carboniferous; but they are known from the Old Red Rude a of Scotland. 13. Macfarlane’s Geological Railway Guide—James Mac- ARLANE, T ; as commenced revising his American Geological Railway Guide for a second edition. He would be glad if persons who have used the book and made notes of correc- tions and additions, waar end them to him; or if it will bea ume) has at ear been removed b The results bd his analytical work, poate publishéd, coutirm those first giv by Mackintosh and go to show that ukler’s are entirely un- trustworthy. Four analyses were she by me Genth upon quantities of the mineral, respectively, 1°033, 0°8608, 0°3303, 0°5860 grams, and the resu ults are iy en below, Bale ‘x with the analyses by Mackintosh and Winkle Ehren- Stoneham. friedersdorf. I I Ill IV Mackintosh. Winkler. | Winkler. P.0; = 41°76 43°01 43°38 43°43 443 A151 2°44 BeO = 14°60 1501 15°17 15°04 15°76 14°84 8°61 AT,O,; = O17 0°22 0-09 0-20 ets 2 6°58 Fe,0; = 0°48 0°31 0°49 0°15 soe 118 1-77 MnO = 0-09 0-08 0°12 0-11 Pa ss a CaO == 33°96 34-06 33-74 33°65 33°21 33°67 34-06 BO ae os ae 20°61 20°61 a Fl Site 26-04 pier 8°9. 11°32 es ps 10212 104°06 Less O = 3°76 4°76 98°36 99°84 Dr. Genth gives in detail the method of analysis followed by him, and in conclusion says: “The analysis made by Mr. Mackintosh and myself show sl AM, panty ss Series, Vou. XXVIL, No, 168.—Dec., 1884. 30 472 Scientific Intelligence. “Somewhat doubtful is the exact quantity of fluorine which it contains. Mr. Mackintosh determined its quantity from the excess of lime which he found. A determination which I have made in the same manner gave me a far lower result, instead of 11°32, only 8-93 percent. My direct fluorine deter mination is probably too red owing to the incomplete decomposition of the mineral by fus with silica and sodium carbonate and the difficulties in the cide ration of fluorine from such a welt tion doubt also exists as to the 0°61 per cent loss by fusion with plumbie a whether it is water or lead fluoride. As all my material was used up I could ra attempt any other determination for dededg up these doubt- ul points “It is to be regretted that the results of Dr. Winkler’s two analyses are so very unsatisfactory, and that he has sacrificed the very precious Ehrenfriedersdort tie ite by employing incorrect methods for his analyses. nition he has volatilized the greater poe of the ene te aici by evaporation with nitric more left than sufficient to give a doubtful reaction. * “Dr. Winkler does not state that he has tested hie soca alumina for its purity, which is unfortunate, or he wo gee that a slight trace of it might have been present, Wil that e precipitate was nearl ure glucina. here can be very little doubt that the Ehrensfriedersdorf and Stoneham mineral are identical in composition. There is also a larger percentage of ferric oxide in Dr. Winkler’s analysis than found by me. Might this not have come from the molybdie acid which he used? The ammonium molybdate—prepared from Merk’s molybdic rg which I use contains in 100°, 0-002 grms. ferric oxide. measured quantities a cor responding amount of ferric mt Pie oak ted.” deduce Ill. Botany Anp Zoo.Loey. 1. Catalogue of the Flora of Minnesota; by Warren Uru Part VI of Report of Progress of the Geological et Natural istory Buea | of Minnesota, N. H. Winchell, State Geologist. Minneapolis. 1884. pp. 193, 8vo.—* Minnesota lies in the middle of the North American Continent, almost midway between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and between the Gulf of Mexico and the Arctic Ocean, being distant a thousand miles or more from each of these grand bodies of water. . It lies between 43° 30” and 49° north latitude, and between 1 90° and o7° west longitude. Its area is 84,286 square miles.” “A moderately undulating ountry” on the whole, with an average elevation of about 1 5275 not far from that lake, which exceeds 2000 feet, while Itasca Lake, the head of the Mississippi, is about 1500 feet above the Botany and Zoology. 473 ? —30°, or sometimes — he annual precipitation as rain and snow is from 25 to 30 inches. oil throughout the greater of Minnesota consists of glacial drift. rest covers the Andropogon furcatus, Chrysopogon nutans, bouteloua racemosa, and Stipa spartea: in wet ground Spartina eynosuroides and 1 hay. cent of the plants growing without cultivation in the State are introduced species.” All this, and much other information we find in the well-arranged preface ; which, moreover, opens with a history of the various publications touching the Minnesota flora,’ rom Hennepin and Carver down to date. There is a good map, genera, and to 118 orders. The six largest orders are C sts Graminec, Leguminose, Rosacee, Ranunculacee. we curavit G. C. W. Bounenstec, Custos bibl. Soc. Teyleriane, arlem.—This elaborate and well-digested index and guide to botanical publications in periodicals is still kept up with spirit by 474. Scientific Intelligence. the Teylerian Society. We have now received the seventh vol- ume, of 522. ‘pages, 8vo, with full indexes of names of authors and of genera of plants treated; this for the yea r 1878. With it, the first part of the eighth volume, of 211 pages, for a portion of the bibliography of 1879. The arrangement is clear: and we elaboration thorough. . Drugs and Medicines of North America; a ter ‘erly, ee voted to the Historical and Scientific Discussion of the any, Pharmacy, Chemistry and stoke pa of the MMe dicinal i Plat a TU . and C. G. Lloyd, 1884, —The title page on the cover _ fies the nature and scope of this work. The form is imperial 8vo. The three parts of the first volume, now before us, se) the dates respectively of April, July and October, reaching to 96 pages. The fullness of the work may be judged of mink we state that these pages are devoted to one natural family, the Ranunculaceae, and that by no means completed. Clematis Virginiana begins the first sey ni dani Canadensis fills the larger part of the third. Ther good figures. The second figure of Clematis crispa ou ht e i good, for it is eT 8 from the best original figure extant, and the sam e — be said of “others. ear are some elaborate magnified v of microscopical s We are struck with the eotdertdl ills of the Vistorical <8 piblio- graphical matters, also with the statistics or general statements the enormous amount of some of the herbs and roots which plant which is essentially inert. And the total haa collection of the root of Hydrastis “ — not vary much from 140,000 or - t this 4, Das Botanische Practic um; by Professor Srrass . 664, 1884, 8vo. —Taken all in all, this is the most remark y wide each a due proportion of space. Therefore, if a student goes le fully and sion ofthe through the whole treatise, he will be placed the extreme care with which every didicalty in the path of the independent student is either smoothed down or removed, is a Botany and Zoology. 475 distinguishing feature of the book. Lastly, it must be said that it is in no sense a compilation. From first to last, it is constructed from new and fresh material, and by a master, whose name is associated with the successful treatment of the most difficult problems in vegetable morphology and histology. His recent minute in every respect as the most exacting student could possi- bly demand. A single illustration must suffi the wealth of material, and that. the author is sometimes apt to conjoin accounts of methods and results without sufficient atten- tion to the requirements of the style naturally looked for in a scientific treatise. But this habit of thought lends a great charm to these discursive and almost colloquial conferences with the upils, whom he takes into his confidence in this admirable guide. t is to be hoped that the promised English translation will be as well done as are the translations of some other recent German botanical works. G. L. G. 5. The Essentials of Botany; by Professor C. E. Bussey. pp. 292, 8vo.—This is an abridgment of a useful work by the same a8 .L. & 6. Ornithorhynchus and Echidna.—The announcement of the discovery of oviparous reproduction in the Monotremes by Mr. W. H. Caldwell, made before the British Association at os 476 Scientific Intelligence. the table, including an egg found in the pouch of a female Echidna, in support of the theory that the Echidna, although a milk-giving animal, lays eggs which are hatched in the pouch.” In the same paper, of the 6th, Dr. Haacke (director of the South Australian Museum), publishes a notice alluding to the telegram and his own coincident announcement, and adding that his discovery of the eggs was made on the 25th of August last, in the mammary pouch (not in the uterus) of a living Hchidna received about the third of the same month from Kanga- roo Island through Mr. A. Molineux.” Dr, Haacke also remarks sidge that the Monotremata (to which class the animals referred o belong) are oviparous, adding the request that the information be sent to the British Association, then in session at Montreal. The telegram adds that Mr. Caldwell is now in Northern Queens- land, pursuing his investigations, at a station named Dangangald, two days journey from Camboon. Mr. Caldwell is the first recip- ient of the Balfour travelling Fellowship (established in honor of the late Professor Balfour) tenable for three years, he being “one of the most distinguished students of Natural History Cambridge University has produced, and especially capable in embryology: His proficiency led the British Association to commission him to try to solve the mystery of the Monotremes, and also to make - further discoveries with regard to the Ceratodus. Mr. Caldwell “is likely to remain in Australia two years longer.” Mr. Theodore ‘Gill, in Science for November 14th, reviews the history of the idea that the Monotremes were oviparous. He mentions that Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, in 1829, published a paper, illustrated by a figure of an egg of the natural size, in the 18t volume of the Annales des Sciences Naturelles. It was received y him from Professor Robert E. Grant of London, who drew one of a nest of four obtained by a Mr. Holmes. Still earlier, the Rev. Dr. Fleming, in his Philosophy of Zodlogy (ii, 215) pu lished in 1822, remarks that “if these animals are oviparous (and we can scarcely entertain a doubt on the subject, as the eggs have been transmitted to London), it would be interesting to know the manner of incubation”; and his belief led him to separate, in his classification of Vertebrates, the Monotremes from the Mammals. Mr. Gill states other facts bearing on the subject in his note. 7. Organisms in Ice-—Professor Lurpy stated that there had been placed in his hands, for examination, a vial of water obtained Astronomy and Geodesy. ATT from melting i ice which is used for cooling drinking-water. From time to time, am some sediment taken from a water-cooler, the gentleman had observed what he supposed to be living worms, he suspected were introduced wit e water into the cooler, and not with the ice. Upon melting some of the ice alone, the worms were still observed, and the water submitted for examination was some that was thus obtained. Professor Leidy was surprised to find a number of worms among some flocculent Hoare the worms there were also immature Anguillulas, and a of Rotifer vulgorite all living. It would appear that eae sntiale had all been contained in the ice, and had been liberated on sialttag. It was an unex ected source of contami- =] supposed to be very *iniprobable. The little worms ew no familiar with. They belong to the family of se ahah, wid Bie e an undescribed species of Zumbriculus. The e white, or colorless, from 4 to 6 millimeters long, by a third af i a ( utiiintee in thickness, The ar Bs is ‘gdtiast into thirty segments, bearin h th odal spines, which f ows, wit ree in each fas- ciculus, and di oone Othe, cpiites are curved at the root, pointed at the free end, and measure 0°05 06 mm. long. The upper lip is blunt conical; the terminal segment truncate. There appears to be no distinct girdle, but the third, fourth and fifth segments contain ie eg tig glands and other organs pertain- ing to the sexual appar Several dead worms swarmed in the interior ig large, ovate, beaked, ciliated infusorians measuring from 0°5 to 0°6 mm. long by 0-04 to 0-048 mm, broad.—Proe. Acad. Neg Sei. Philad., 1884, p. 260. ITV. ASTRONOMY AND GEODESY. 1. Report of Observations made on the Expedition to Caro- line id . observe the Solar Eclipse of May 6, 1883; 4. series of observations by three different methods on the Sola radiation. In regard to the last point, the author remarks: “The follo Bien pcre gives the conclusions derived from an examination of t The cue of ihe ‘black and bright bulb pig ee freely exposed in the air gives only an approximate determ tion of the solar inter ot This was expected, and is due to ‘the precept oh varying os. eo ons of, exposure, caused by the effect of the winds on convection currents. (2) Violle’s bulbs : are affected by convection, but the effect is shown less than in freely exposed thermometers, on account of 478 Scientific Intelligence. the position of the thermometers within. The observations on the afternoon of May 2, when the air was almost perfectly still, show higher intensities than the corresponding times on other days, but the observations are ge 2 wei to indicate how muc the results are influenced by this (3) The intensities by the saute ‘thermometers seem also to be iti’ by the varying influence of convection, but in this case (and in the preceding also) direct experiments would give more Mbbiniation as to this effect than examination of these observa- ions. (4) The ie by Violle’s bulbs (see the war eh are smaller in the morning and greater in the afternoon than those by the conjugate thermometers. There is a marked ‘ifferenee in the time of the maximum readings, the Violle bulbs fea | the maximum one hour later than the conjugate thermometers. This shows that the former are sluggish in their sieht, and at any given time show the intensity not for that time but for e as opinebags as the observations permit for the period April 28 t from curve. It is pr uncertainty of several hundredths, but not as great as a tenth. ey may be accepted as the final values of the relative solar intensity obtained at Caroline a Expressed in terms of the 12°00 value they are as follow Relative solar intensity at Caroline Island, April 28, to May 3, 1883. Time. Intensity. Time. Intensity. Time. Intensity. ene | §; 7.00 0°47 10.30 0°94 2.00 0°93 7,30 0°57 11.00 0:97 0 0-90 8.00 0°66 11,30 0°99 3.00 7 8.30 73 12.00 1°00 3.30 0°82 9.00 0°80 P. M. 4.00 0-76 9.30 0°87 12.30 1-00 4.30 0°66 10.00 0°91 1.00 0-78 5.00 0°46 1.30 0-96 From the observed solar intensities was calculated the value of the “ pe constant” as defined by Professor William Ferrel in his investigation of the theory of the conjugate thermometers namely, the amount of heat received on a square centimeter of in A= 2°'360. Astronomy and Geodesy. 479 Radiation observations were taken during “is eclipse to deter- at propo! ar as cut off the author states: “An examination of the wba ars vd vd the results of the computation leads to the oe conclus (1 e readings of all the instruments were sndentially the same at the close of totality, and agreed with the observed air pron paral This indicates that during the total phase no heat was received by the earth from the atmosphere, as far as these ; frist itaeite allowed its measurement. It need hardly be said that the radiation instruments are not intended to show the effect of the heat of the corona, and are not sensitive enough for such refined measurement. Their use : to measure the effect of heat which is received from the sun and by reflection from the atmos- phere—the heat which is a factor in causing vegetable growth ; ments. is at about 10.08 a> M., or four minutes after the first contact. This four minutes covers whatever tardiness the instruments pos- sess, as well as the natural increase of solar heat in the morning, until it was overbalanced by the ig cutting off of a portion of the sun’s heat. e minimum point of the curve is at about 11.40 A. M., or three minutes after mg observed time of third con- tact. This time is somewhat uncertain, as from the nature of the case this portion of the curve is drawn ‘arbitrarily, the intensities i : econd afternoon observations do not Paw as great intensities as the morning, as is further indicated by the computed diathermancy agree given below. The “ was observed to be quite hazy ie trand, Row Yo bay there is a jie a8 of a new form of primar The apparatus might be ponatracted as fol Ws: easuring bar, a bar of steel 25™" in diameter and 6° i in aaa elas ina circular cast-steel tube 4" in diameter, made stiff by bracing, but as light as possible. Along the top of this tube slots of about 75™" in width would be cut to allow the introduction of ice around the bar. The hole for drainage would be at the center of the tube on the under side. For supports during the measurement two 480 Miscellaneous Intelligence. trestles placed 14” from the ends would be best. Effects of flex- determining the inclination of the ee during measurement, such as those made by Repsold for the U. 8. Engineers. The mode of measurement the same as with the Repsold apparatus. The amount of computation necessary to reduce the measurements made in this way would be small in comparison gic that required with the forms of apparatus at present in use. scheme is entirely prac- ticable in the United States, at least ate | ice is to be had every- where at all seasons. VY. MIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. ope to start a meteorological volume on its way. A huge mass of similar material will be left for the occupation of my suc- cessors in the two institutions. The manuscript of seven astro- . h aken by Mr. Ss. y the Papyrograph Piate Process. A bibliography of the sub- jects considered will also be iter with the lectures. In all there will be about 350 pages, qua A few copies are offered for sale at $5.00 net. The spe is pegs limited to 300 copies, and orders therefore should be sent at once to the Br 8 A. agency of the Johns Hopkins Unive sit Baltimore Md. ies may also be, procured fro Nop Minas ré& Franzdsische Strasse 38, Berlin a: Bens 8 Rue de la Sorbonne, Paris; Triibner & Co., bes taigat Hill, Jiadiin n. INDEX TO VOLUME XXVIIL* A wage ene ingame Langley, 163. n dioxide, Keeler, 190. Acad, eters Newport meeting, Smith medal, 7 Affinity, aeubel per et 360, 437. f, 74. ocarbon of chamo- mile, 149. Association, American, Philadelphia sige, 2 303. cal pity before, 307. ita Montes real meeting, 300. prehoicee absorption, Langley, 163. Baines, A. C., The venoeos of streams dw chid sof N. ingland 237, Ball, “ Flora of North Pa alagonia, 157. rher, G. chemical arate, 146, 52. British association, 300 American Association, 803. electrical exhibition at Philad., Barometric observations, seduntion: 5 omis, I, Bauermann, B.., saat of Descrip- tive Me gp 8 Becker, G. F., ahaa ‘belts of the Pa- cific slope, 2 09, sone! of Rana criticized, 348 Becquerel, H. set mission-spectra of metallic vate engths i in n the infra-red of the Genera se Vascular Plants r San cisco, 15 Servis delete: vapor-density of, 149. erystalline form o ares C. K., The Essentials of Botany, FH. anadinite in Arizona, 145, Blake, WwW. P, crystallized gold, 57. columbite i sh Hills, 340. Blanford, ‘ossils a : aia of geological Fair sate: cy, 3 ZOOLOGY, and under each issier’ 8 Flora Orientalis, 157, ensi ce, 473. uence of light on electrical resistance of metals, 133. OTANY Climate, influence of, on vegetation, Buysman, 354. Flora Brasiliensis, 4 nieree espiration ee transpiration of, uyponity %. A ypopithys, 238. aatiads. seas and function, 239. Minnesota flora, 472. N eae oti bey iag ond 240. North Am eae sienceee and tierce, of, 239, Patagonian flora, 157. Plants, detection of nitrates and ni- og Trilisa See 7S tii under GEOLOG tall nestnticé Unter- ing, 3 Bureau of ‘Scientific Information, 320. Buysman, influence of sea and conti- nental climate on hospi 354. a he L., geology of the Blue Ridge, 22 242. Carbonic ab Sige point of, 150. absorption by, 1 ‘arhart, H. is cts force of a pail ‘hamber ne C., Berge moraine of gpesonc'ye acial e 228. Chatard, . , neraogica tes, 20. pag so M easurement ee elec- Chemical radintty. ‘Langley, 3 Cl C. < Kast 290 ay pa of Cyperus lar. fol aos se “gti phe Goolngial Report, FW, era te notes, 20. * OBITU. et Index contains the ica hel eats 2 MINERALS, — ARY, 482 gees impressions, duration of, Nichols, 243. and atomic weight of compounds, 4 Comoy, ogee pratique sur les marées fluvial Congress Teeaaeiinds at Washington, coo, J. P., Jean-Baptiste-André Du- Crystallization, strain connected with, Cyanides, production of, from trimethyl- amine, 147, D Dana, £. S., 2s a Dana, J. D, second gina “epoch, 2 term the sine wae a a great gp oma in the "acon, O68. conic slate ic svete Cortiant Earublndse and augitic rock origi - ange in so-called meta- morphic rocks, 3 ing of Slants ore-beds, 398. the decay bite xy te, Davis, W. M., gorges and waterfalls, 123. distribution poe origin of drumlins, Whirlwinds, Cyclones and Torna- does, 151. Dawson, Prehistoric man in Egypt and yria, Deep-sea fauna a, Ww, 0. A., hoxibility of itacolumite, 203. gold in Brazil, 44 Diller, J. S., sade ‘from Mt. Thiel- son, 252 aiouike as an alteration product of titanite, 234 wees in Middle and Eastern State si Tachia, Eastman, J. R, ge meteorite, 299. Klip, se e Sun. Electric a battery, observed and calculated force of, 452. stunt page voltameter for mea- suremen 224, measurement of rapidly Tit. 18. Ford inal Pleat of the roe alternating. acanen M, of earth’s surface, 71. INDEX. _ Electrical congress, results of, 7 exhibition _ Philadelphia, 225. Par ran aeg fost conference of, 386. ~~ mene psy nee cor Se influence of: light vr Bostwick, 133. Electrometric ebrsnetpyer ae Electromotive force of a gt cell, i rhart, 374. n, W. L., Heliometer determinations a Stellar ‘Parallax, 404 Explosives, modern hi igh, 310. F fae Wy gio rie fossils in Stuy- ns ef age of rocks ps Schodack Land- ing, 206, Forel, F. ‘ke Glacial Studies, 400. Fossil, see GEOLO Fu ulgurites from Mt "Thielson, Diller, 252. G Galenite, synthesis of, 455. Galton, F., Life-History Album, 78. we toges W., water-glands and necta- 8, 240 ak nals mae greatly diminished pressure Gases and asi diffusion of, 70. Geol — eo third session of the, 7 Gasiiece acon AND SURVEYS— Indiana, Minnesota, 155, 316, 322, 472. New York, 234. Potuyiva ts 231, 234, 396, pe 470. United States, 20, 228, "401, GEOLOGY— Africa, geology of South, 468. Age, fossils as a criterion of, 315. ap om of the Canadian rocks, Ven- archiopiery the Berlin, 465. Argillite be Newfoundland, Wads- worth, Azoic, s cubdivia f, Whitney, 313. Basalt of pica eat PS Wadsworth, Bedding, —. of, Dana, rhage orig of, Ponkee, 105. Pag gens Balcony Falls, 21, Bowlder clays of preeene 317. Canadian rock goo Vennor, 74. Centre County, oe INDEX. GEOL Coratosaurus, united metatarsals of, Marsh, ee Coa of Mazon creek, 3 plan Coals, wrk ure of Ca ‘poniferous, 467. Corals, Carboniferous of Scotla 316. Cortlandt ho rnblen dic rock, pede on of, Ppt 407. ath Afric Faulting, ReaD chetery oy Broa, Fossils as a criterion of geological gr Sh ney, 315. imordial, in Stuyvesant, Ford, Glacial Epoch, terminal moraine of ond, 228. gps in Pennsylvania, 231. deposits of Long Island, 230. pa = nd the Niagara River Wright, 3 rivers of oe 162. 8, 400 studie Glaciation gta of the terminal mo- Kaolin from quartzyte Lake a or, ree need rocks of, 4 liens ore beds, Dana, 398. Long Island, moraine tie of, 230. Metamorphism, Lehmann ral belts of the Bacifie slope, Bec Cd Moraine, see ( acial stig hte Newfoundland, rocks oe "Wadsworth, Ni iagara River and the Glacial period, Wrig Nickel ore in Nevada, Newberry, 122. of Cen Ore as re Co., Penn., 397. Newtoshila’ Wadsworth, ge of, Newberry, 4 Phitahekes of North Carolina, — - the ordinary art gy 448, 4 y of, Da — of ewbiailiand, Wadewsrth: or of crystalline, Hunt, 72. 483 GEO Sand, ge of, siege) ge mini pags domes in Sandston con sation me at- ph adsworth, 4 Streams, renee of, Baines, Pe Taconic slates, age o United States, 316 shells, er, 154. Texas, Paleozoic of Central, Walcott, Waterfalls, gorges and, Davis, 123. ilbert on the deflection of streams by terrestrial rotation, criticized by ines, Gill, D., Heliometer bss daar of Stellar Parallax, 4 Gill, T., Principles of oogsogaph 241. Glacier ‘phenomen a of i ee also "| Gold, se ag a e, G. L., bota ag bey 239, 474. Ganges rand wate ape Davis, 123. Goul ae pon ae unifica- oe of Longitudes, 3a. Letter from pa A., ‘neal of Engelmann and Heer, botanical notices, 75, 156, 237, 402, ge Bentham North American Padi BP dome Flora of North, ‘America, Gu if ot Mexico, exe of, 3 Gumbel, K. W. von, Geologie on “Bay- rn, H Hall, J., Monomyaria of the Upper Helderberg, ote,, pa 234, e Hudson River age of the Taconic rege Hazen, H. A., nadoe Heap, D. a Intoruationl Exhibition of Bloctricit Helmholtz’ Sepereiae theory, 457 piesa Nip coy sa hed 401, 471, Hitcheoc n, 49. | oe ” Renda oe} Flora’ of the British Islands, 238, ope . &., origin of Rates, rocks, I Ice, living organisms in, Letdy, Invillier SEY. ad’, Geology Of ‘Deite Co., 396, enn., 484 aes meteoric, from PnP Lasser ing, R. D., paramorphi ten “hoiblenie - ee ayy italics rocks of the northw papnecbeatinte rocks of Lake Supe- rior Ischia, earthquake of, 312. Itacolumite, see GEOLOGY. Jackson, A. W., on colemanite, 447. arr T. Px Mosses of North America, Johnson, H, A., microscopic Soi esc in powider clays of Chicago, Jones, T. R., Geology of el ie 468. Joule, J. P., Scientific papers of, 151. Keeler, J. E., a by carbon dioxide, Kimball, & a seeder Soa ores of San- a, 416. Kunz, G. F, rabdotphaise from Amelia County, Virginia, 235. Lactosin, a new carbohydrate, 149. er J. W., chemical affinity, 360, Langley, S. P., amount of atmospheric absorption, 163, 242. cae Untersuchungen iiber die altkrystallinen re beds of caw Co., Penn., Lesquereux, Mosses of North Amer- ica, 155. Coal Flora of Pennsylvania, 470. is, H. C., Pennsylvania Geological Report, 231. supposed glaciation south "of the terminal moraine, 276. Light, me ce né determining the standard of, 1 bec gdh — aes resistance of meta’ Lightning Satie Diller, 2 Li hl, A ied of the Gulf of Mexico, 320. Linnean Society of New York, 319. Lloyd, J. U., Dru and Medicines of orth America, 474. Loomis, E., romero to meteorol- ogy, 1, 81. — Lotti, B., origin of Tuscan granite, 155. K sy nga of radiant heat M INDEX. M of Macfarlane, J., Geological Railway Guide, Mackintosh J. B., composition of herde- rit 401, Magnotic forces, measurement of by oleh ets 223. arity and neutrality, 3 Magnetization, change in serstecitore from, 2 ‘allet, i W., meteoric iron from Texas, 285. Marsh gas, promos of, 1 Marsh, O. C., united cara! bones of Coratosaiurus, 161. Martin, H. N., Handbook of Vertebrate Dissection, 17. Matthew, &. J., Fauna of the St. John | ew Brunswic oup, N 4, infra-red ‘emission-spec- Gro Metallic Mery tra of, 457 -riesbalocts ew, Eastman, 299. teorites, origin of, 4 Meteorol gical sone. "wan England, Meteorology, contributions to, Loomis, Magu O., notes on Tertiary i 154. Mineralogist and Antiquarian, 40 ‘Aimafibrite, Bi pra: anite, “Blanks and Chatard, 2 res mogen, Clarke and Chatard, “ Annabergite, 122. Beryl, Clarke and ore tae 25. alkalies in, Pen Cassiterite, "Clarke fet “Chatara, 25. Chlorophane from Virginia, Kunz, 235. lite, Clarke and Chatard, 23. 3) tom 447, Columbite, Blake, 3 Damourite. . Clarke nad ig sai 21. aoe crystallized, Blake, 5 Brazil, Derby, 440. oys ite d Chatar Halovichite Gack e and Chekrd “ Herderite, 318, 401, Hornble om | peratborphic origin of, pae! oe Williams, 259. Hyalite Clarke and Chatard, 25. sears and pectolite, Clarke and Cha- Kaolin from peg ag Dana, 449. Manganostibiite. Margarite, Clarke shee Lee 22, Niccoli "Newberry, 1 INDEX. 485 MIN P t of, 461. Octahedrite, Diller, 2 Phi lips. J. As ates on “Ore De- Pectolite, Clarke and “Catara fey posits, 4 Prochlorite, Clarke and Cha 24. ace om v. B. North Carolina Phos- Pyroxene and hornblende, William, phate 259. Photographing neo objects in their Saussurite, Clarke mer Chatard, 21. natura Stibnite from Japa Pickering, "a. Fgh of comparison Titanite, ; ourmaline, 456 Utahite, 2 Va nadinite in Pen Blake, 145. Vivia Clarke and Chatard, 25. Mi innesota ‘Goalagieal Report, Crustacea, oaia WW. A, P gmceateieees of Vertebrate Dissectio on, Moseley, H. N, ‘Deep-sea Fauna, 319. N N oe are og ry, J. &., the ad of ores, Neuter, S. B., nickel ore from Ne- vada, Newt Fr on pordrpesire notice, 404. Niagara River, see GEO Nichols, E. L., duration ‘of color impres- — on the. “4s ane udy o Nitrates, ican $e in ant 239. 0 OBITUARY— Bentham, G., 319. Optics, physiological, Nichols, 243. Ore: ~ deposition of, Newbery, 465. e also under Oayeen boiling point of, of, 150. Parallax, stellar, 494. Parker ¥ = A Course of Instruction aye Parlatore, r. fee — 403. try, C0, , Chorizanthe, Peckham, Ss. F., origin of. sal eh id, S. L., ‘occurrence of alkalies s of Observatory of Harvard 231 Pigm Pa 8, a study of, Nichols, 34 Planet Vosta, : of fev ht stars or, Pickerin aspen “i see fan AS cope, new form of, 456. Polarization, electro-magoetic rotation of plane of, 4 R th, oN vom, Geologische Briefe aus Raleigh Presidential address, 300. Ridley, H. L., Africa vs Latino 5 as Rivers, deflection ye Baines Rockwood, C. G., stake . Y Middle and Eastern States, 2 Russell, I. C., Ge ewe History of Lake Lahontan, 401. R , £., strain connected with erystal- lization, 461. $ Scheffer, C. A., a new tantalite locality, Scudder S. H., Triassic insects, 199. Carboniferous Cockroaches and My- riapods, Al Sea, see Oce Smith, Bid, laa of the Albatross dredgings, zoological notices, Society, Met Saeed. ‘a New Eng- land, Royal of Canada, 1 of weg South Wales, 160. Solar, se Solvents, ae ot solidification of, 146. Spectra of ” tallic vapors, 391, 457, 459. ser kes, A. new fresh-water infusoria, ge nge of generic name Solenotus to aiden “gprs tone, G. H., the kame rivers of Maine, Storer, F. H., shell- “and rock-boring gery 58. ry of R. A. Smith, 79. 486 See Das Botanische Practicum, Stre ams, deflection of, Baines, 434. Sun, infra-red spectrum of, 391, 459, eclipse observations. Swan incandese cent lamp, radiation of, 226. - Tait, P. G., Light, noticed, 3 Temperatures, production of ah 224, Thomas, B. copic organisms in bowlder cays ‘of “Chi icago, 317. Thoms aot, J., co — of the Carboniferous sesaniiad address, 302. s i Molecular Dynamics, Thurston, reg H., Materials of Engineer- Tides i in ome Toluene, action a anyl-ehorides on, 455. Tornadoes, Tourmaline, conti of, for heat,456, bridge, hysical notices, 70, 150, es 390, physi ee ace read before the American nheaibingoee 307, U Sgr Me of North Underwood, L. M American Hepatice, 4 ; Upham Be Minnesota Geological Report Sieve of the Flora of Minne- sota, 472, Upton, W., ‘Caroline Tsland Eclipse Ex- pedition, 477. v ont densities, determinations = 390, , causes of, Hitchcoe ultural ae the 403 time apatite of the Canadian eg Verrill, y 2: marine fauna of New England marine Mees and deep-sea depos- its, 378. Vesta, comparison stars for, Pickering, Vom Rath, Geologische Briefe aus Amer- ica, 401. INDEX. WwW Wadsworth, M. £., rocks of Newfound- land, 94. the Azoic system, 313. atmospheric action on sandstone, Lithological Studies, 4 W. Z,, Wahl, © lectrcal ‘exhibition at Philadelphia, 2 veg e Yabo , Palorsie rocks of Cen- Waterfalls ie and, Davis, | Watts, H.., ual of Chemisty, vi : Wie uae in the infra-red of the solar spectrum, 391, 45 aves. tidal, ivers, oor Weisbach, A., herderite, Weth hered. E, structure of Goaiceieate coals, 467. Whine, J. D., the Aroie system and its sent sag 31 Willia Pe caenbebale of py- G. HH, roxene ‘to hornblende, 259. tamorphism Winchell, N. r “ Stionsot Geological eport, 155, Winkler, gst a herderite, 318. Wright, G. F, Nia ai ara River and the glacial period, 3 ee = Hide eaphatiiets of Observa- w . Potin of Primary Base Appa- ratus, 479. Z ZOOLO Crustacea og the Albatross dredgings, Behidns, a of, 475, of deep-sea, one Fine new, Stokes, 3 Marine fa gece es New TTogland, Ver- Be A vey Mollus ag? 58. Notoslents, Stal Ornithorhynchus, se of, 475. Rotifers i in ice, : Solenotus, Stokes, 158. v s cules, siliceo ceous, ‘ pening causes of, Hitchcock, 49. Worms in ice, 4 Zoogeography, Gill, 2 See further under pase lie No. 163, Vor. XXVIIL SULY, 1884. Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818 AM HREOC AN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. EDITORS | : JAMES. D. ann E. S. DANA, anp B. ‘SILLIMAN. ASSOCIATE : EDITORS Proressors H. A. Ew eeR AND ar New Haven, : Proreason GEORGE F-. BARKER, oF r Pi | WITH PLATES I AND It AMERICAN CHEMICAL JOURNAL. This Journal contains original articles by American and Foreign chemists ; reviews of works relating to chemical science; reports on progress in the various ceskomats of Chemistry ; and items of general interest to Chemists. rag 8 ‘from 64 to 80 pages; six numbers forming a volume of 3 = pages. Each volume will be completed, as nearly as is consistent with the supply of material, within a year. Subscription price for the volume $3.00; single numbers 50 cents. Volumes I, II, III, [V and V, 1879-83, are now complete. Price $3.00 each. ane Subscriptions and communications of all kinds should be addressed to my , Jo. rues hns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. - AMERICAN JOURNAL OF oe PURE AND APPLIED. " Publishea gastor the & suspices of the Jouns —— University. __Its primary object is the publication uf original javeutigations: sents Be bri __ bibliographies and brief expositions of modern methods will also be give ___ Editor in chief, J. J. Synvester; Associate Editor in charge, Story; with the cod —— of Washi Vew A. ROWLAND, ic price, $3.00 volume ; “single muabers, Address, _ Pe Wald WILLI TAM | E. STOR fe Ce RY, on Exe ates ‘ oes -Ioling ate Sa Baltimore, Ma. : as O A ors a | Amencax “A Foneiay, in Thin § * NRE of Sitox ao ington, H. AL NEWTON, Res - in cloth 50 Po nts, 3 sie % Foe a et ae Ty re eee ee oe } MINERALS, SCIBNTIFIC & MEDICAL BOOES. GS, SHELLS, FOSSILS, BIRDS, EG And all objects of NATURAL HISTORY are belaaht: asia nd exchanged. Rca 3 A. No. 1223 Belmont Avenue, Philadelphia, - Penna. (Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy; Fellow of the American Assoc tiation for f Scie ; ae member of the Academy of Nat. ‘Sciences, Phila., and American pea of) Nat. Hist., Central Park, .Y. City Spe scimens sent to any part of the world by mail. Specimen copies a = > vd monthly arapivtyond 8 ach p Leisure i of 32 pages sent free. Subscription 75 cents a year, fo rates . ‘\d premiums see monthly Tree Sviey ‘the highest award given to any one at the Centennial “xposition of 1876, ithe only award and ! medal given to any American for “Collections of Minerals.’ offer: STORE, s“Pestis, tom! =, Mineralogical Catalogue of 100 poet is sent post-paid - receipt of 15 Cones ., heavy paper 25 cents, bou 8, 72 ealf $1.00, cloth interleaved $1.00, sheep interleaved $1. pe Ve po if interleaved $ . (price-list 6 pp. 3 ¢ cents). It is profus sely illust trate: 4 and the io er and engraver charged - rebone ‘St, 000 Cenar s lin y was struck off. By means of the table of species and acc company ing ~~ ane t spec'es may be ve rified. a he price: -list is an exc ellent check list, eo ssberains ihe a a — of all the = eC ee nged alphabe nd prece die d by the specie seat ar. The cies number indicates the pla ace ‘of any mineral ‘in t the table of spec: ie: Sy a he are Mer us aus e <% und the species oa ne, streak or lustre, ec 2le avage or inp ture Spe ecific gr &e., &¢ a en = erystalli- zation. I have very many species not o price-list, and sina tl rat I had | in 1875 are no longe toek LECTIONS OF MINERALS for parse — Professors, Be hice The collections of 100 illustrate all the principal nd all the grand subs Hivisions in De and ot works on Mineralogy; all the principal Ores, &c., re The eolle tions xfs iabelled 7 t 1 lal va that can only be rotsored by verte The labels of the $5.00 and higher priced colleetio Jana’s species number, the name, lo« salit y, and i os st cases , the ce ee of reas bogs eral; the $5.00 ‘na higher, ied a8 accompa- nied by my illustrated ( ‘atao gue an The sizes given are average; some smaller, many p eeet er. eo pea . 25 50 i 300 ji 4 NuMBER OF SPECIMENS. in box in bot. (in bex. | 100 200-5 300 Crystals and ie pi ee har eee Sox Oe ae ee OR tee UO ek OO $2 00 | $3 00 Stac dent's size, Or ee ae Oe: ee eee ee ee Ae 8 2h i. eee pa a reihy ar ; 19 00 25 00 | 50 00 en ny size, 21 iZ in,, Shelf Specimens, . | i | | 25 00 50 00 | 100 00 elf Specimens eor i. c a] 50 00 | 150 00 300 00 } { I have now ove or 70 to tons, and over $60,000 worth of Minerals, mostly crystallize a; in stock. I can refer to the Sewing Gentle id Colleges, al lL of whom, with thousands of oth ers, hare bought of me and most of then have giv special permission tou the es : 8. F. -rof. J. W. Powell, Prof. _ Ae Hayd en, Prof. R. Pumpelly, Prof. €. V. Rile y, Dr. Joseph rof. a B.S: Dana, T. A. Edison, Prof. G6. J. Brash, Prof. J. P. Cooke, E. B: Coxe, Agassiz Museum, I & N.H., Prof. C. s. Rares nt, Prof. C. 'E. Besse ey, Iowa State Agl. College, Dr. John 8. of, tag F. Newberry, D.S. - fordan, Prof R. H. Richards, Mrs. Ellen 8. Richards, Prof. Ste rove a _8. Bement, Pr« E. Smith, Beloit College, Prof. G. A. Koentg, = , Cine in H. Society, M. Basso, Minister of Instruction, Paris, France, Lau- igal, Prof, "Orto on, Prof. Ira Remsen, Gen. A. Gadolin, Imp. School of Mines, St. USSsIa, LES Nordensehiold Rover Maseum, ‘Stor rg et ~—— Dr. Nicolo Moreira Imperial eae ae gc So na Brazil, British Museum, Royal Museum Berlin, Dr. P. E. Defferart Italy, Harvard ‘Ghent ne California, University of Rebea ska, Oregon Biate College, Yale College, Wisconsin ege, Michigan University, Wellesley veer ; Se inois Industrial University, Massa- a ul nehno logy, Col. Sehoo! of Mines, University of Virginia, soap st of Missouri, Towa State Univer rs ne Min State Normal School, McGill College, Ameen College, Chicago University, Uni- city of Notre ‘Dame, “Prine eton College, Johns Hopkins University, University of Ge orgia, University of Ohio mer School Boston, and many others in Nevada, Washington Jerritory, Canada, Maine, Pexas, Peru, C hili, Eng sland, Brazil, Germa ny, Austria, ete., etc. &i 5° Is, c.,—I can p is of = at the following low rates: 25 Genera, 26 species $1.00; in box, ale ». 50 Genera, 100 s species, Py oO: in box, $6.00, 100 Genera, 300 species, $25.00; 200 Genera, 1,000 ‘econ 46) 1.00 5 250 Genera, 2.000 speci : o ‘ < © «i 2C7ES AC Catalogue of 2,500 species pet ot mp made for me by George W. Tryon, Jr., who has labelled nearly all shells, 3 cents, printed on mig paper with genus label list, 10 ‘cents. “T have a ed one or two of the round celebrated collections known, and ne now over 2,000 Ibs., 3,000 species, and 30,000 specimens © of Shelis and Corals in stock, Catalogue a Birds, Eggs, Eyes, Skins, etc., ete., 3 cents. Catalogues of yarious pe pirsi of Aigomr ye Books, 22 op.. €a. 3 cts. Medical Books, 80 pp.,10 cts. (Please specify exactly what elass of books wish catalogues of.) Send for the 8 Naturalist’s Leisure at giving full particulars. Specimen copy free. You will confer * touble fayor by handing this t sor, physician or other person interested in science. CONTENTS. Arr. I.—Contributions to Meteorology; by Exras Loomis. ew tne LAN Dl ae a, ae gen ee ig I.—Light of Comparison ‘Stars for Vesta; by E. C. Picker- iL Mineralogical Notes from the Laboratory of the U. S. eol. Survey; by F. W. Crarxke and T. M. Cuararp,_- + TV.—Occurrence of Alkalies in Beryl; by 8. PENFIELD,- F, We —The Niagara River and the Glacial Period ; by G. = VI. Discovery « of Primordial Fossils in Columbia County, oe ee ee FORD, ee —So NIL me ae sndesoabed forms of Fresh-water — A. C. Sto ; Z Infusoria; by ORR epic) so ee ee rat VIIL—The Causes of V ariation; by R. Hircucocx, ie any ee IX. —Crnstacea of the Albatross Dredgings in 1883; by Ss. MITH, Galt to Poach Wack: Vone © oie ce X. — Crystallized Gold in Prismatic Forms; by W. P. Buake, . XI. Boi pint of Shell- and are Mollasks — oo Physics and Chem "Atmospheric Electr icity, TO Bart Gil gress of 1884, 71 Manual of Gheesistey. y Phsive a Geology and Naturai History.— —Origin of Crystalli 9 Alaska g comearnig ee _ New Sees S : Canadian roe No. 164, Vor. XXVIIL AUGUST, 1884, Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, EDITORS | | JAMES D. anv E. S. DANA, anp B. SILLIMAN. ASSOCIATE EDITORS i Proressors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, AND i JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Camsripcr, ae | Proressors H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven, | Provessor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Pusapenenns. | THIRD SERIES. VOL. XXVIII. —[WHOLE NUMBER, xxv ‘No. 164—AUGUST, ‘1884. NEW HAVEN, CONN. : i d. © 8. D oe ing thin sections, A AMERICAN CHEMICAL JOURNAL. This Journal contains original articles by American and Foreign chemists ; reviews of works relating to chemical science; reports on progress in the velba departments of Chemistry ; and items of eck interest to Chemists. ae in numbers of from 64 to 80 pages; six numbers forming a volume of fr 500 pages. Hach volume will be completed, as nearly as is consistent Pars ha supply of material, within a year. Subscription price for the volume $3.00; single numbers 50 Volumes I, I, ITI, IV and V, 1879-83, are now complete. Price $3.00 each. Subscriptions and communications of all kinds should be addressed to Ira ohns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICS PURE AND APPLIED. Published under the — of the Jouns Hopxins UNIVERSITY. In volumes of about 384 quar sah col comprising four numbers issued quar- eae Soe volume published nc present year. mary object is the publication of original ae Systematic bibliographic and ran! expositions 0 of modern methods will also be given in chie SYLVEST: soci a MINERALS; SC PIC 86 BER DICAD, BOOBS, ELLS, FOSSILS, BIRDS, —— And all objects ee VATURAL HISTORY are bought, sold and exchanged. No. 1223 Belmont Avenue, Philadelphia, Penna. Profes i Mineralogy; Fellow of the. “gy erican Association for the Ad nt of Science; Life member of the Academy of Nat Sciences , Phila., and American Museum of Nat. Hist., Central Park, N. ¥, City, part of the world by mail. Specimen copies of the illustrated monthly Naturalist’s Lei sure Hour of 32 pages sent free Subscription 75 cents a year, for club rates and premiums see each mont! Ny nae Ir the highest award given to any one at the Centennial “xposition of 1876, and the only award and medal. given: to any American for “Collections of Mine vals.” PETES F288 Sore, ‘ ts Fx th t eh 1eep interleaved $1. 25, 14 salt 1 ) re College size, 3g 4x6 in Shelf Ape! imens 2 ee i . protasely red SL 34 and the rite and engraver one. ne about § 09 before a G0 abc ‘stra of. Sy ans of the table of species and accompanying tables, m ost spectes may rifle The price-list is an exce enpnte heck ls, containing the names of all the species, and th ciate, arranged alphabetic ally pee = eced ne by the spectes number. The species number indicates the place oan any mineral in Bog e of species re _ t aualty. be found the species name, hyena Srpelnt cleays fr acture ha = ees, nee fie gravity "ee ‘ usibility and crystalli- zation. I hay i list, tI ha 876 are no 0 r in stock. LECTIONS OF MINERALS tor Students, Anat Profs ‘Phyitclan $. The collections ee 100 illustrate all the ogy yt kpee cies and ubdivisions in Den na and other works on Mineralogy; all ee gf ass ipal Ore *, ke, t P bites with printed label coed ean cay pe rem “agg ig i her price a collections give I the name, localit nat i ae sition of f the} 2 ineral; mapa higher, nied by my nserated Calciogae pea table of species. The si api tage many larger. tr Sars % 25 50 100 et Noumeper or Specimens. inbox | in be (in Boeke 200 | 300 brystule aud fragments. oa. ei BP Bad $ 50 | $100 | $200 | $100 ) $200) $3 00 Student’s 3 size, larger . ie eel genta eee i ha valent ees | 50 300 | 600 5 00 16 00 25 00 ize g in. xl Oe ee ee nae I | 10 00 25 00 50 00 ade ig Qh, 6x3} 4 in | Shelf f Specimens, . i 25 00 50 00 > 100 00 50 00 150 00 | 300 00 I have now over 70 tons, and over fg ger worth of Minerals, mostly erystallized, stock. E¢ refer the following Gentlemen and College all of ¥ whom, with thousands = others, have bon ght of me an ad rot of them ha 1a ve given me especial permi sit to use their names as es ee. _ Prof. 8. F. = d, = J. ike es all, Prof. F.V. Hayden Prof. B Posipall y, Prof. ©. V. Riley, Dr. Joseph Leidy, Prof. J. nd E 8. Dan: na, T. A. Edison, Prof. G. J. Brush, Prof. J. P. Co poke, E, B. Coxe, Agassiz Museum, Harvard Uniy be rot. A H., Prof. C. S. Sargent, Prof. C. = Bessey, Iowa Sta me € ri ege, Dr. John 8 Sioeiria gs, Pr of * inch, Pro J. ea Newberry, D.S. Jordan, Prof R yee Richards len S. Rich — Prot Prof. T. ‘autre Hunt, ©. S. Pisin, ent, Prof. A. E. Smith, Beloit poten Prof. G. Paul Nic tae Cincinnati, Cincinnati N. H. Society, M. B — Ministe r of Instruction, Paris, Fre ance, ee } Lisbon Portugal, Prof. gent Prof. Ira Remsen, Gen. A. "Gadolin a School of Mines, St. irg, Russia, Prof. A. E. Nordenschiold Royal Museum, ‘Stookhokm, Sweden, Dr. N Nicolo Moreira Imperial . Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, British Museum, Royal Mhsenm Berlin, Dr. P. De .ffe rari Italy, Hi: ( University, Unive rsity of California, University of eae, Oregon State College, Yale ¢ t Unters riversit U Iniversity, rr 9 College, Michiga n University, Welles ih College, See — ri Shusetts Institute of moose logy, Cal. ‘Sehool of Mine Univ sity of Virginia, Un a sity ee “tate University, Min ta State Normal School, Moi Gil Colle ge, Am ve z College, Chicago ie niversity, Ye ae ¥ of Ne ote Dame, ‘Princeton bine, Johns Hopk ins University, University of Georgia, Un srsity of { Yh 0, omer ae ae , and many others in Nevada, Washington Territory, Canada, Maine, ‘Temes, Peru, € hili, Engl land, zil, Gersie ustria, He, aie. ‘Shells, re ae ean put up collections shells at the “gag low rates: 25 Genera, 25 species, $1.00; in box, $1.25. 50 Genera, 100 species, $5.00; in box, 36.00. 100 Genera, 300 species, $25.00; 200 Genera, 1,000 species, ure . 3 JES Catalogue of rato ye ~ Shells, made for me by George W. Tryon, Jr., who has labelled nearly all my Shells, 3 cents, printed on eye with gpk label de a 10 cents. I “ai purchased one or two of the most celebrated collections seers. wi ave now 0 0 1b ne 3,000 oye mer ecimens of Shells and Corals in stocix. Ceionns of "Birds, Eggs, asi Skins ‘ = Ste, ents, rae ote 3 of various classes 0 tific Books, 3 ets. Medical Books, 80 pp., io oe aPimaas spesity aracty what class of books yu wish catalogues Bry Send for t the Naturalist’s Leisure heute ibe Ee B apaing rig Specimen copy free. You will confer ” Youble favor by handing this rother person interested in science, CONTENTS ART. a Teta of the Atmospheric Absorption; by PAN OU oe ca ss oe Dee REMC Tomados: by HAD Haz ies aes XXIV Absorption Be, Radiant Pent by Carbon Dioxide; J K ie EELER o. e se ee ek XXV —iviasic Insects from the Rocky Mountains ; by 8. We OU ODER 0 4 athe ee wu AXVI. —Flesibilty of Itacolumite; by O. A. Dery, .---- XXVII.—Age of the Glazed and Contorted Slaty Rocks in the ees of Se eatin Landing, Rensselaer County, ee Gee ey a ae ae | exe Nees of the remarkable ine Fauna occupy in ‘ eo yates banks off i bitrate: Cant of New ‘Englan sy = by AcE: Verrntjeies 2c: ; eo XXX. ction of che? Blue Bees, near Sica Falis, = ‘irginia; a modified view ; vk PBELL, - pote erin INTELLIGENCE. a Pasi — Photographing Colored Objects fe their Raunt s Shad : Measure Ma forces ns of Hyd 1 epaprinsdi sur le Mascare, sone ti i Pras sg fl Geology and Mi presets — , “Eecond Glacial Ryness and . 0g) RAY’ Engl: ge t Mor the "brit eine 8 Sir : Jo. 166, Vou. XXVUL | OCTOBER. 1884, : : } Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. THE AMERICAN : JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. EDITORS JAMES D. ann EB. S. DANA, ayp B. SILLIMAN, . ASSOCIATE EDITORS a oS Proressors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, Fr JOHN TROWBRIDGE, OF Campringe, Proressors H. A. NEWTON ann A.B Na New Haven, Prorressorn GEORGE F. BARKER, oF Punape.ea “THIRD SERIES, Se Be oh 2 166--OCTOBER, 188, THE MEDICO-LEGAL JOURNAL. A Quarterly devoted to the Science of Medical Jurisprudence. PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES mei Para MEDICO- ej ascans SOCIETY OF THE y YORK CITY OF N This Journal ‘oe a the leading papers of og Medico- hegal Sand and a resume of its tra ns. Its ieee” will at the same time be ntri- butions from all soure ial from all parts of the ona. on appropriate subjects : and questions. It w “I endeavor to eee nicle seb iy omnes facts and scientific deductions within its domain, and keep a record of c¢ rent Sune: especially in ’ the trial of cases in the courts whrch involve Medico- Spot questions, e Price of the Medico-Legal Journal has been fixed at $3.00 Ra area 75 cents per copy, in the hope and with the expectation ou its receivin - ous support from all classes of inteltiadnt readers. Every branch and Ariektenon of Medico-Legal Science will be carefully repre eres a assurances have been received from the ables ae names in res Medici ar efficient aid and support by way ote ributions to these eka While aeualy connected. with the Medico-Legal Paorin that j institution assu maps no responsiblity for what appears in these pages. Authors, whose articles appear with their names, are solely : Subscriptions are solicited, which may Pay made to a # 1 om : any aoa of the Medico-Legal Society, to CLARK L, Esq., roadwa: ae Age om specimen copies can be ehgpgeae on application, os a ns of 40 FOR SALE CHEAP. a an small collection of Silurian, Devonian, Cretaceous and Tertiary invertebrate fossils. Also a few of the more oS : Paleontological, Geological and scientific works, | or particulars address Dr. 8. i ik BARRETT, Box 44, Port ery oe. me: a he HENRY N. STEVENS, = eee AMERICAN AND ANTIQUARIAN BooKsEL.Er, 12, St Martin's Lane, Charing Cross, London, WwW. C ‘New ee ‘Goma «takes sags of the 1 Zoli Collections of Schools, ee and See . ors ae ei ANS am as, V No. 167, Vor. XXVIIL NOVEMBER, 1884, JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. | No. 167—NOVEMBER, 1884. | j _ Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. | Sol THE AMERICAN EDITORS JAMES D. ann E. S. DANA, anv B. SILLIMAN. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Proressors ASA GRAY, JOSIAH P. COOKE, anv JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Campringe, Si Prorgessors H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, oF New Haven, Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Pun.apeteata. THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXVIII, —[WHOLE NUMBER, OXXVIL] ee ‘NEW HAVEN, CONN : x D. 1 (1884. TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, F THE MEDICO-LEGAL JOURNAL. A Quarterly devoted to the Science of Medical Jurisprudence. PUBLISHED UNDER THE ort glen erg OF THE MEDICO-LEGAL SOCIETY OF RK. E CITY OF NEW This Ji ournal will publish the leading papers of the Medico-Ler-' © “uwety, aD e transaction ow umns will at a> fe) - and questions. It will sade to chro “ veresting facts and scientific deductions within its gare. and kep a record of current pabiee especially in the trial id Sore in the courts whreh id tieliy Medio- Legal questi of the Medico. Loval Journal has been fixed at $3. 00 per annum 75 cents pa each n the hope and with the expectation of its receiving a gene ous support fr bhy classes of intelligent readers. ery branch and depertnank of destiseo Secek Science will be ey represented, and assurances have been received from the ablest phitepsicnia! na in Law and Medicin e of efficient aid and eee by way of contributions to peta columns. While closely connected i e Medico-Legal Society, that institution assumes no respons siblity for what appea ” in these pages. Fe thors, whose articles appear with their names, are solely responsible therefo ubseriptions are solicited, which may be made to the JoURNAL, to any spi of the Medico-Legal Society, to CLARK BELL, Esq., 128 Broadway, N. Y., whom specimen copies can be obtained on application, at a cost of 40 cents Sof AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICS ished. see —. te UNIVERSITY. In eee of about 384 quarto ee. pete ie four numbers issued quar- terly. fth v ou ier eect the pre: . Its primary o is the publiention. “3 original Pi cheacnttl _ Systematic bibli Marta iA ok rbtlef @ exposttions of modern methods will also ees _ Editor in chief, J. J. Sytvester; Associa te Bdito tor in charge, Waites RY; with the codperation of Smon Newooms, of Washington, H. A. pope re of New Haven, and H. A. ROWLAND, o Subscription price, ot 00 a volume single wasibeis: $1.50. Address, : “WILLIAM BE. STOR Bg ‘Exe sor eeeray Gaeran Baltimore, Ma. Ma. J. i= 3 EMERTON, New Haven, Conn. - akes charge of the Zoological Collections of Schools, Colleges and Scientific Soviotien. re : intends the hnildin< nd furni shing Of: Museums and all work — to ; “Museums and ¢ their uses. Ae : Sept, 1884—th : | Seas BE co K =e pou Bo So N a No. 6 Murray Street, New York, Si tater of Balances and Weights of ‘Precision. for oe ak Assayers, Jewelers, Drea and in general for every use where accuracy | is ee . pril, 1871.—[tf.] g/So_188, Vou XXVIN DECEMBER, 1884, _ Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. | - EDITORS . ae JAMES D. ayy E. S. DANA, anv B. ae ASSOCIATE EDITO Proressofs ASA GRAY, pan P. COOKE, AND JOHN TROWBRIDGE, OF Camnriper, a Proressors H. A. NEWTON anp A. E VERRILL, OF New Haven, ae = Proresson GEORGE F. BARKER, ‘OF Panapenem THIRD SERIES. 3 Z VOL. XXVIIL —[WHOLE NUMBER, oxxvit. i: No. -168—DECEMBER, 1884. NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E, 8. Di LITTELL’S LIVING AGE. with the and journals of the oO pages of The F'oremost Livins Sess. ects, ression in the Piptotcat Literature of Europe, and ne gree ablest and most cultivated inte find exp The Living Age, forming four large and ge mass Ties LIVING AGE has been page sapien oun witha pte teria PAE and ¢ 8 of this literature, the only | published for more than forty years, ation and support of “se a ith uninterrupted su A whos EKLY eels a - gives fifty-two acini gre six a or Savage than Thr -four a Quarter Thousand doable realingematter yearly; enabling it to prese se te 'y department of Literature, volumes a year, oat from hat, while within h of all n the is of jncascitinte eteoag or of solig. pear value. — e every one ispensable to Weibil bona gearindail aaciry wishes to oes pace with soe ; general who 1 progress of the time, or to cultivate in himself or r his” family ee aS lie i CE ae zs Siteligecee and literary taste. [ «> } ons. is Tas Lavine AcE retains the breadth, variet “For over forty years it has remained ; : i sete oF sana, Which tot enben ae post of intelligence". i as remained the guide reputation “ay - Near] the whole world of authors and © It was al: but its best days are now.” — Mriters appear in it in their best moods. . Art, sci- tadeiphia Been clin. _ Hom ins pages trom the pens of the bast writers of "Through {te pages alone, if 1 possible ‘ Ss Ss from s of the writers the day: dod th he deed kept well phrcuns t of the a ‘informed h ‘in current Hiperature aa by & by. ifort current thoug ee gem - oricayed bal Shetan ate) ; Biography. fie vselen povreonions Ie an in er men Anteres qn) ar the latin Sei vmer ase sae Eat ven Foty — eis tre are is Bar a p Saves: lg” ater pea but mone: inns a the Living Age. . It ete, pote ca a man, San Pra ogres it costs than an’ Yr periodi our vel fifty-two numbers rapes ia srg Boston ~ ghing whieh ‘one one ae pe lle to ty nag ok what etna “yy of sk tok most attracti ve liter- ought “tn ae he every household mg roe nttene panos 0 of | ‘pets it may be trnthfully vo ith ‘th @ curren y any attempt is made e day.” — oaare ant cork i Tribune offers a dry or value- cht sing y years held the first lace of all our seria! rpblieations. Pine Ted possibl “< pte 4 the immense amoun' of. reading it gives. Ha here is othing S eorat a5 science, a O50} or religion, that cannot are, blog rapny eit elves nd Churchman form t the best thought of te ae ith rei wenn year it increases in value xo other periodical 3S 80 diversified a view of cur. rt ap teare n Banner, Pittsburgh. It {BS Fender to een nace wth the best w Fork. ee is nothing like it." ‘Ae “It has become indispensable.” — 1 New-York O- and value beyond those Coming onee a week, it r orp and literary work sagt ane Be an interest a mbieNtione ee at ths Stker on ae phen while sot fresh, the productions of the fore- é most writers of the day.’ ’— Montreal Gazette. “ Foremost of the eclectic periodicals.” — New-York Wor closel eee gm fa contact with the men who are making opinion world ov er.” — Episcopal Recorder, Philadelphia. — are enables its readers to ke: fnlly abreast of the aide? pcan gs literature of civilization, " — Chris~ tian TG ean a complete com ation ok an inais- pensable liters terature.”— sere ening Journal. ‘Cheapo As much a necessi ever.’ — The “Advance, The een of all ‘the eclecties.” oe elt = vest of al Fe I to SE we a iit neuen te ‘Livin oye to a all nb ing Star, epee re fe “Tt is one of the marvels of the see" — Spectr . Hamilton ton. Canada. : _ PurtisHEp WEEKLY at $3.00 a year, i of postage. oe ‘TO NEW SUBSCRIBERS for the year. 1885, remiting et before Jan. i,t will be se wet numbers of 18 ’s Livixe AcE.’ and of one. er other mand « of the Sa : MINERALS, SCIBNTIFIC & MEDICAL BOOES. SHELLS, FOSSILS, BIRDS, EGGS And all objects of NATURAL HISTORY are bought, sold and exchanged. o. 1223 Belmont Avenue, Philadelphia, Penna. chon of Chetry and DA Oy i nhs pinvk he American Fite mag Sanka rthe Ad ife me of the Academy of Na , Phila. ‘isd Am an Museum of Nat. Hist., Gectral Park: tN r. Ci ty.) Spe cimens sent to any part of the world by mail. Specimen copies of the illustrated monthly ee 8 ore Hour of 32 pages sent free. Subscription 75 cents a year, for club rates and premiums see each sap issue. ’ Ir eived the highest award given to any one at the Centennial “xposition of 1876, and the only award and dal g y American for “Collections of Minerals.” My Mineralogical Catalogue of 100 pages is sent post-paid on receipt of 15 cents, heavy} paper 25 cents, bound cloth 50 cents, ae sheep 75 eg 3 Tera = 00, cloth interleaved $1.00, 144 sheep i interleaved $1.25, 14 calf intereaved Proce pathy wage ts). be t is es illustrate: , and the printer and engraver charged bent $1,000 before ea one ie tru y means of theable of oo and accompanying tables, oars pata may be verified. ‘The price- list | is an excellent che x — con —e . names of all the Species, and the more common varieties, gene aa Leer teegr s and ded oy t ecg en rors Species number indicates the place of an n the table of s species, mB il Gaity and t Species name, streak or lustre, rae ge = fracture ng tt re s a4 ecific gravity, &e., fds fast ad “crystal zation. I have very many specie tape st, and some that I had in 1 COLLECT ONS OF MINERALS for Students Amateurs, — Physicians, et ai. The collections of 100i — po gt and subdivisions in a and other works on Minoreiay; 4 ; s "The collection labelled with oie nted Inbel that can only oa moved ty ein ng. Phe ke labels ofthe & higher eed. foolicedians s give Dana’s s Geanien s number, the name, locality, and _in most cases, the composition ‘ot ork Minerats the $5.00 and higher. are also accompa- nied b OF my illustrated able of species izes given are average; some smaller, many larger. Numeer or Specimens. 100 200 300 os ee) ane | in box. | in box. | in box. > Sade size, large 50 3 00 2 6 eRe Eee ee ee eee ee! She wee ) = Crystals and rag arnneg Og oe a eae eG Ce eo ae 1. oe: be ee | $2 00 | «81 00 $2 00 Lag 1 xi, 0 Gallo. School or Xe aulomy size, 2bex3t¢ in. » Shelf Specimens, . | ; 25 00 es College siz see Shelf Specimens os a A ee el | 50 00 "130 OO | at i } ra now over 70 tons, and over $60,000 worth of Minerals, mostly crystallized, in stock. I ca t ying Gentlemen ai id pear see all ai emer pst thousands of others, have banight | of me mie paste we them v have given me especial ntou Dist irn refer Prof. 8. F. Baird, gee J. W. Powell, Prof. "F. : Hayden, "Prof. R. Pumpelly, Prof. C. V. Riley, Dr. Joseph Leidy, Prof. J. D. and ser Dana, T. A. Edi =e Brot G. J. Brush, Prof. J. P. Cooke, E. B.Coxe Agassiz Museum, Harvard Univers ity Prof. A. & N. H., Pr of. C. 8. Sargent, Prof. C. EB. sem Iowa State Agl. College, Dr. John 8S. weit nes, oe Wine ‘hell, Prof. J.F. Rewberry, cat Ss. nom Prof. R. - Richards, Mrs. Ellen 8. Richards, Prof aed ngs Se a s TT Hunt, CG. ment, Pr A. E. Smith, Beloit College, Prof. G. A. Koenig ti shit rar Cincinnati nN. a Genie M. “Buisson, Minister of Instruc tion, Paris is, France, Lau- rene o Mi: ath oo isk bon ‘Portug gal, Prof. Orton, Prof. Ira Remsen, Gen. ne a ons Imp. School of Mines, St. Petersburg, “Russ ia, Prof. A. E. Pardes schiold Royal Museum, Stockholm den, Dr. Nicolo Moreira Impe rial Museum, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, British Museum, Royal Museum Berl De P. E. Defferari italy, Harvard University, Iniversity of California, tag oa sity © of Nebra: _ Oreg son State College, Yale Shans ce, foobar bes nsin } : i ichi - as! oO © ors b = chusetts Institute of Technology, Col. Scho o ‘of } s, University y of ‘Virgi ints, University of Mise State University, Minnesota State Normal School, Me on ‘ollege, Amhers x Col é, Chicago Un versity of Notre Dame, Pri as ge epee Johns Hopkin University, University rod tieate! a, Univ nets sit ry of Ohio, Brimmer Schoo! Boston, an many o in Nevada, W: aaiiagton — Canada, Maine, Texas, Peru, Chil” England, Brazil, German ny; y Austin, otes gs ; Shale. ¢—le ean $ of shells at the following low r. 25 Genera, 25 — $1.00; se ~~ © $1.25. 50 Genera 100 ‘species, $5. ere — loge $6.00. 100 Genera, 300 scr $25.00; 300 Ge , 1,000 species, » $150.00; 250 Genera, ~ ‘pergaey $506, : Catalogue of 2,500 5 es 0 Solis, m made for me by George W. Tryon, Jr., who has labelled nearly all my _ shel cents, printed on m hears a ea genus jabs list, 10 cents. Ihave purchased 0 one or two of the moet : eee — collections os now over 2,000 | 8. eg Dy species, and 30,000 specimens of Shells and Corals ock. Catalogue ot ‘hide. po 3, Eyes, Shine. ete., ete., 3 cents. Catalogues of various classes of Scientific i Bou ks, ri P Be cts, Medical Books, 80 pp., 10 ets. (Please a exactly what class of books ' YOU wish catalog -.. Send for oe Vaturak ist’s Leisure Hour, ziving fuli particulars. Spec copy free, i= will confer Souble favor by handing this to some professor, physician or other person saterouie in seienc , lows. un es os CONTESTS. i P. Arr. XLVIII.—Distribution and Origin of Drumlins; by We ee OANIB O ore Pu oe a eee ae 407 XLIX. — Geological ‘Relations and Genesis of the Specular Tron-Ores of Santiago de Cuba; by J. P. Kimpatn, ..-. 416 L.—A New Tantalite Locality ; ; by "OA. ScHAEFFER,....-. 430 i— LI.—Paleozoie Rocks of Central Texas; by ©. Ware coTT, 431 |§ LIL. Sr esau of Terrestrial Rotation for the Deflection 4 treams; by £ MOR a So Po Se oan oe 434 LIL. Lao Affinity ; “by J. W. Laneey, _ 437 LIV. gh ele ced Modes’ of Occurrence of Gold in Brazil ; by _ 4 ah aoa eee LV: a olesdiwuits, : naw i Pirate of Lime; by AW. J ACKSON, 447 LVI.—Deecay of Qua artzyte, and the formation of sand, kaolin and ~ oyocemamae quatiz; by J.D. Dana. ooo. os ee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGEN CE, ree oy ees Sean pits ee Ohenist age md Physics. —Cause 0 the een the ohebrvell electro- ae ooh a oe ttery bt src calculated from hersaeeieal data, CHAPE- fore “452. Col f Chemical Compounds as a = of the Atomic yo ‘ of their foceetnent Blements, CARNELLEY, oe ty eee ee greatly . diminished Pressure, ‘ - means-of Thiocarbamide, Ex ; — Amy! piascent and of Amylene on et, in a Alum: eu and ¢ OSSIN, 455. netic atin of the oo | Infra-red Emit ission-spectra of Metallic Vapors, H. Br 6Q nation of the Wav e-lengths of the principal lines and eae. in the Here | ' portion of ie Solar Spectrum, H. BEcQUEREL, 459.—The Strain connected — 2 ery n and with the development of pert structure, F. RUTLEY, 461. Geology oad: sveding: —The Copper- rcks of e Superior, — Irvine, =o oe the erage pieces of the Hornblends: of the Crys. - talline J heck Northiw D. Irvine, 464.—Eerlin Archeo Ww. Di AMES : the pieaiely he J. S. Newperey, 465. —Some instances “of si ton oy mre M. E Wapsworts, 466,—S . : Joes, 488 ¥: re iericrmatte g ‘Pennsylvasia and the United States : *Lithologieat § ‘ Studies, ac Cockroaches and ot iaaeti ap aare | ische Practicum, Pro: Seaumebuddn 416 iieen oe Ornithorhynchus: fa ‘iebion, 475.—Organisms in Ice se 476. Astronomy and Ao Dioiebie: made on the Expedition t to Carlin I: We. ies 401 ee form of Primary Base sp nr W. : scellaneous Scientific Intelligence —Extracts of a letter t 3 it William Thomson's gh Se es ee eee eee Dee aE MINERALS, oS & wa BOOKS. LLS, FOSSILS, BIRD And all objects of NATURAL HISTORY are bought, sold and exchanged. No. 1223 Belmont Avenue, Philadelphia, Penna. vg ep hapen? of Chemistry and Mineralogy; Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; ife member of the Academy of Nat. ‘Sciences, Phila., and American Museum of Nat. Hist., Central Park, x = Cit Sp eimeae sent to any part of the world by m Specimen copies of the —, pianist oe Leisure Hour of 32 pages sent fr a. Hcp Broers 75 cents a year, for club rates and pre ach nthly issue. ial “ixposition of 1876, and the only award and ok received the highest award given to any t medal given to any American for “Collections of Minerals." 3 3 pre ce ins iusto oa the. oe ‘ er charged n ae about uy 000 be nefo rea copy was per ols off. B sy Means of t able of specie Bi ‘ Prof. Ortc : : : Petersburg, Russ ia, Pre . BE. Nordenschiold wee al Museum Steck ti x0lm, Pct en, Dr. Nico Sirs Mu n, Rio de Janes sire. Brazil, ritish Museum, Royal Re shiggreneonal Pasar Bra Fi Bag Defferari Italy, Ha University, University of California, University o a, Ore State College, Yale Guivers ee 8 Univers sity, Spare ‘College, Michigan Univ ersity, Welles nig College, illinois fais ise University Bi Ss *husetts Instit of Tex shatt logy, Col. School of Mines, University of Virginia, University o r — State Drdveeeiee ‘ "Minnesota State 2 rmal School, On College, Amherst Colleg e, Chieagt po 0. a vers itv. Un versity of Notre Dame, Prin ll Johns Hopkins University, University of Geo “sth a, faiveaky of Onto, Brimmer School Boston, and m many papery in Nevada, Washington Territory, Canada, e, Texas, Peru, Chil England, Brazil, Germany, Austria, etc., ete. . é Shells, &c,—I ean put up a ns of shells at the or ec low rates species, $1.00; in box, $125. 50 Genera, 11 ies 0; box, $6.00. 100 Genera, 300 spe sai, "ge8.00; 300. Genera, 7000 eben, ; 250 Genera, 2,000 spe cles, (i alo aap of ah aad ot i s ers a made for me by George W. Tr eae rg ho has labelled nearly all my Be printed o ag ¥ y pe = ‘with g re ow gr Me aan 1) cents. The e purchase of one or two ef the most © celebr: ate a ‘colle tions cea n, now oF dbs. i Pag Corals in sto talo: vee oe sey 5 Foon sik Seientifie Books, 2 $2 PP. ets. Medical Books, $0. iy 10. ots. you —— catalogu ‘a nd for se Naturalist’s Leisure Hour, ziving full partienlars. Specimen copy free. You will confer : $ ens of Shells 5 ete. , 3 cents. Catalogues of various classes of (Plea 3 e specify exactly what class of books Souble fayor by handing this te some professor, physician or other person interested in science. CONTENTS. | Page ART. a a Characteristics of the North American ae Flora; by Asa Gray, Le Sl a 323 | XL. —Caltonbite in the Black Hills of Dakota ; by Wa. P. 340 eee ee ee ee ee XLI. —Spectro-pliotometric study of Pigments; by Epwarpd | 342 | i of XLII. —Critcisa of Becker’s Theor y of. Faulting; by Ross We a ee 348 | MIE ee? ome between Sea and eno tas Climate q with regard to Vegetation; by M. Leo Sa 354 | XLIV. = remeeal Affinity; by ‘Joun W. ‘te sa aey Rees 4 RLV: gy between the Blectrimotive ‘force. of S Dan fell and dear RELA XLVIL—Notice'of the ea Marine Fauna ocenpyin ue — banks off the aah te Coast of New England, chy A: iw Verb Cee 77 | isis Note on the Cocina and Stony Point. Horn- : blendic and Augitic rocks; by James D. ‘Dani, >: ane SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Phyescs: —National ecu isin of Electricians, 3 Des Teecrmniantion: r Vi density of bodies with low boiling points and bodies Ww vith high boiling pe Normal elements fos, eocciecie metric neni —— 390. Wavelengths in the = Infra-red portion of f the solar spectrum, 3 Ce aie Geology and Natural rear 9 —Unti stata te ber die ‘Botatehuny linen Schiefergeste teine, J. LEHMANN, (392. pe on the origin os the North American — | Miscl cellaneous Scientific eo 4 with 3 nai s to Geodetic od ad coe cance ot eae “ Wrieat: Meeting of the ay Sele ery Sie Oe 1 0c 405.— a ye National A, of | : Be at New ah Ls .. Oc ber t MINERALS, SCIENTIFIC nil een BooES. SHELLS, FOSSILS, BIRD G And all objects of NATURAL HISTORY are Siete ns and exchanged. Aas a Pe , MD. No. 1223 Belmont Avenue, Philadelphia, Penn f Cl and Mineralogy; Fellow of the American Association for the Advance cael of Science; “Tis member of the Academy of Nat. ‘Sciences, Phila., and American eer seum of Nat. Hist., Central Park, Ps Shee sie sent to any part of the world by mail. Specimen pied of the illustrated monthly Naturalist’s Leisu e. Hour of 32 pages sent free. Subscription 75 cents @ for club rates and premiums see each nathiy is : 33 Ir eaiead the highest award give tennial “xposition of 1876, and the only award and medal sae to any American for «Collections of Minerals.” 30 ps » Ib Dp. 3 cen ts). t is a ; sigh eo struc = oft. * pot tables, most spec!es ay veri iad. he price-list =a in Nevada, Washington "Te sritory, Ceamah, Maine, Texas, Peru, Chili, Shells, nok can ut u collections of shells a at be roar ang low rates: 25 Genera, 25 species, $1.00; in box, $1.25. 50 5 fu T tm apes $5.00 x, $6.00. Genera, 300 species, $25.00; 200 Genera, 1,000 ‘specie 3, $150.00; 250 Gen spe ecies, $500 Catalogue of 23 idea of Shelia, made for me by George W. Tryon, Jr, who has labelled nearly all ry shells, 3 anak, printed on heavy Pa with legen — list, 10 cents. I have purchased —* ae ofthe most celebrated co! llections known, & Shere ve now 0 Ibs. 3,000 species, and speci of Shelis — , i talo: ogee ue Pag Birds Eggs, ‘Eves, Sicins, ete., etc., 3 cents. Setaloge as 0 Pvarion s classe ets. Medical Books, 80 pp., 10 ets. (Please specify exactly what class of backs rtcratiat’s Leisure Hour, giving full particulars. Specimen cop. free. You will confer ” double favor by handing this to some professor, physician or other person intereste in science. * me |i | Hf ie z ye iG te i ee if As a8 i ie ‘if CONTENTS. P ART. De — Duration of Color Impressions upen the 4. NICHOLS, Poca oe ks naa 243 sa a ee ee ek a ae we ae ae ew te ie ee a ee a a ae ee XXXII —Paramonphosis of Pyroxene to Hornblende in BRGRS > DY roel. VV UAE, oo loos oa, 259 XXXIV. OES thee ending SE 2 " great Synclinal in the Taconic Range; by J. D. Dana, With a map (Plate Cixv. —Supposed. gen in Pennsylvania south of the Terminal Mor b oe C. Lewis. With a map Texas; os Oe Maz NCE Sk Ea ene Ea. ea 285 3 pel cXV IT. = SeanBapiste And Dumas; by J. P. Cooke, 289 —New Meteorite; by I. R. Eastman, 299 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. int Saiciations —British Association, 300.—American : Asscolation, 303, “ Physi ea er Papers | read howe the Physical Section at the meeting of the ‘American | Association for the Adyancement of at Philadelphia, 307.—Magnetic ~ a. a Nanoniy D. E. Huenes, 309.—Report on the International _ E a High Explosives, M. Kiss Geology and Natural History — _Profssaer James Hall on the § + Hoghins River” | Ge age of the Taconic — 311.—Earthquakes of Ischia, 312.—Azoie System and its proposed Subdivisions, J. D. Wurryey a M. E. Wapsworrs, 313— | _ Thirteenth annual report on the Geology and Natural History of Indiana, J. - COLLETT, , 314,— ossils as a criterion of Geological equivalency, W. T. BLaN- J 3 U e 2 of Minnesota, N. H. W : Tertiary (9 : peer of the Eastern sr Southern United States: Development and Generic | of the Corals of the Carboniferous System of Scotland, J. THomson, _ von Ba 3 Bu , K. W. vos GimBeL: Microscopie organisms in | the” Bowlder Clays of Chicago and vicinity, H. ‘ Rae and B. W. | THOMAS, 317.—International Geologieal Congress: Text-book of Descriptive — : Mineralogy, H. BaverMan: Herderite, A. Wass 32 er Fava, _#LN. Moser BY: ‘Liman Society of New boots George B - Misettneons: ‘Scfenitific gre arvard Coll of Elec tricity held at singin. August to November, May, D. P. Heap: ff : Light, P.G ee