AMERICAN NATURALIST, A POPULAR ILLUSTRATED MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. EDITED BY A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND F. W. PUTNAM. E. S. MORSE AND A. HYATT, ASSOCIATE EDITORS. VOLUME IV. LETALA] El Gf Ji SALEM, MASS. PEABODY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, 1871. MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN LIBRARY CONTENTS OF VOL. IV. THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU ap pd WITH THOSE IN OTHER PARTS OF THE Wonrp. By Hon. E. G. Squier. Jilus- trated, REMARKS ON SOME Currous oci: By Poisk Jodeph Letdy. Illustrated, s; THE FRESH-WATER ‘guanine. By Charles B. Haat (Con- cluded from p. 490 of Vol. III.), A SKETCH OF THE TRUCKEE AND finid viii. By w. wW. Bailey, ó 4 "i THE SEA Gane By Capt ee M. T s : 4 : Fatconry. By William Wood, M.D., ^ i ERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. T ilssiedtód ; with a aide By Dr. À. S. Packard, jr., . . NOTES ON ipsa Yin OF Caw fucar I Ioan. By Charles C. Abbot THE INDIANS OF tipos aie I Hestrotad: By pawid E. Coni: THE TIME or THE MawMorHs. By Professor N. S. Shaler, THE MOLLUSKS OF OUR CELLARS. Jllustrated. y W. G. Binney, THE SURFACE GEOLOGY OF THE BASIN OF THE GREAT LAKES AND VALLEY OF THE MissirssrPPI. By siege’ J. S. Newberry, Our NATIVE TREES AND SHRUBS. By Rev. J. W. Chickering, jr., A WINTER’s Day IN THE YUKON ee By W. H. Dall, A Few TT ABOUT Morus. With a Plate. By Dr A Packard, jr. - $ $ i i THE Horse Pose Cui. With a Ms By Rev. S. Lockwood, THE B. Ww DAE i AT Noui AND Aui I nisa. By do i Russe Footoe FROM A Piori OF TAR By Dr. Elliott ERN U.S.A., Tue Lyre Brrp. Illustrated. By Miss Grace Anna Lewis, . Musset CLIMBING. Illustrated. By Rev. S. Lockwood, Ph.D., . FLOWERLEsSS PLANTS. By Dr. A. Kellogg, : VARIATIONS OF Species. By A. H. Curtis, A STROLL ma THE BEACH OF LAKE MiCHIGAN. By Professor. W.J.B BD Lor. Piskas d Hosiraloi. By Chavis C. "Abbott; M. D., y Du IN NATUR By Thomas Meehan, OBS TIONS ON THE mati OF THE Soomus Attias. 373 Putin: E. D. Cope THE DEEP-WATER Purus OF ae Manes: By Dr. William Stimpson, ‘ a i: í ` . Gi) Page iv CONTENTS OF VOL. IV. CLIMBING PLANTS. Tibustvated. By Professor W. J. Beal, . Recent ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. By J. W. Foster, LL.D., * VARIATIONS IN ries Ne AND WisTERIA. By Thomas Maik á HE PRIMITIVE VEGETATION OF THE EARTH. By dw M L INDIAN Baci Yupraiicere. By J. 3. H. reko e THe HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF SOME OF THE MARINE isses ke CULTIVATION OF ALPINE FLOWERS. By Alfred W. Bennett, WHAT IS THE WASHINGTON EAGLE J. A A a ACCLIMATIZATION OF FOREIGN TREES AND PLANTS. By Alfred W. Bennett, THE Disteanvrtos OF THE Moom : IN We Avon By J. A. orm. on Cream latino Brus c OF iiv isnt. By Charles C. Abbo THE sna IQ OF tod Gractmrs IN THE Wairi J llen ISTRIBUTION OF THE MARINE SHELLS OF "PübuibÀ. By Dr. William aie: Tur BORERS OF Curate Sito ‘Temes. I llustr add. By Dr. PT s. Packard, jr., SPRINGTIME ON THE YUkoN. By w. H. Da E THE IMPREGNATION OF EGGS IN TROUT BREEDING. iludratal. By A. S. Collins THE ANCIENT Yaxwd OF Weerken Manta Thiers Dsíósrms AND DRAINAGE. By Professor J. S. Newberry, LL. D., THE CHINESE IN San Francisco. By Rev. A. P. Peabody, D. B. Tue Lycosa AT Home. Illustrated. By J. H. Em m UNDER THE Microscops. Illustrated. By k Way, NT Lion. Illustrated. By J. H. Emerton THE PEA AND CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA. By Kev. Dr. yt P. Peabody, . NorES ON SOME "BIRDS IN THE Moszvu o OF VAssáR Cortece. By Professor James Orton, FURTHER NOTES ON NEW Ja IR By CháHes C. Abbott, * M.D THE robar OF LUSA By H. Willey, THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. itiustruies: By Pro fessor Theodore Gill, LI REVIEWS. 405 449 472 Report upon Deep Sea Dredgings in the Gulf saat p.38. Transac- tions of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, p. souri River Valley, p. 41. eology of the Mis- Petites Nouvelles Entomologiques, p. 42. CONTENTS OF VOL IV. v Volcanoes and Peso cu p.118. Geology of Colorado and New Mex- ien. p. 119. Geographical Handbook of all Known p à 121. e- cent works on the Rcs of Articulates, p. 122. wdoin Sci- entific Review, p. 122. Nature, p. 123. Cha te g het oir 171. The Record of Zoological Literature n 1868, = 181. The Record of American Entomology for 1869, p. 182. e Weeds of Maine, p. 182. The Geology of the New Haven Region, p. s Apis Ideas of Deri- vation, p. 220. The Torrey Botanical Club, p. 237. Fossil Plants from the West, p. 237. Relations of the Rocks in the Vicinity of Boston, p. 238. Sponges, p.304. The Extinct Mammalian Fauna of Dakota and (ET : h tion, p. 361. Handbook of Zoology, p.362. A ‘Naturalist’ s Guide, p. 363. Ornithological Results of the Explorations of the North-west, p. 367. Geology of i p. 872. AU Atlas of the Geography of Plants, 312. a 1 Selection, p. American Microscopes and their Merits, p. Kee Alaska and its Veo p.430. Trout Culture, p. 434. Record of American Entomology for 1869, p. 435. Brazilian Crustacea, 435. 'The Population of an ye e Tree, p. 436. The American Mu- seum of Natural History, The Polyps and Corals of the North Pacific Exploring ot du vagari with two plates), p. 488. Eco- e Craw Fish of North America, p. 616. The Lifted and Sub- ees Rocks of America, i p Geological Survey of New Hampshire, emi ronde of the Six Days of Creation, p. 620. The Eared Seals, p. 675. Injurious Insects (Illustrated), p. 684. Deep Sea Explorations, p. 744. The Classification of Water Birds, p. 746. Thorell’s ce Spiders (Illustrated), p. 752. Geography and Archeology of Peru, p. 7 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. Borany. — Larger Bur-Marigold, p. 43. The Yellow-flowered Sarra- cenia purpurea, p.43. Areas of Preservation, p. 44. Leaves of Conifere, Large Trees in Aúitraliá; p. 124. dare ds of Floral Organs to Ex- change Offices, . Monstrosity in Trillium, p 5. Notic Botanical Monstrosities, p. 125 rc ora, e Fertilization of Winter-flowering Plants, p. 126. Collected Notes on the the American Oaks, pp. 183, 242. On the Fertilization of Grasses, p. 239. Insect Fertilization of Flowers, p. 242. Does Air Dust contain the Germs ill 2. The Lianis or Woody Climbers, p. 313. Japanese Sea-weeds, p. 313. Dialysis with Staminody in Kalmia latifolia, p. 378. Occurrence of Rare Plants in vi CONTENTS OF VOL IV. pai ap . 874. Fragaria Gillmani, p. 497. New Plants, p. 438. Palms the Sa oio prede p. 438. The Irritability of the Stamens in the And p.438. The salts Plant, p. 495. On the Laws of sou tion and its sd to Sex in Plants, p. 511. On Objections to Darwin's Theory of Fertilization through Ded Agency, p. 512. Nutrition cm Sex in Plants, p. 562. ichardsonia scabra, p. 558. cclimatization of Palm Trees, p. 559. Fertilization of Salvia by Humble Bees Motion in the Leaves P Rhus toxicodendron, p. 689. Bur Grass, p. . 689. Wolffia in Blossom, p. LOGY. — Relation of the Physical to the Biological Sciences, p. 46. Notes on the Ducks found on the Coast of Massachusetts in Winter, p. 9. Is Huxley's Bathybius an Animal? p. 50. Reason and Instinct, p. 51. i Deeks e South, p. 52. Blackbirds in Winter, p. 52. How the Sculptured Turtle deposits her Eggs, p. 53. Anecdote of the Sparrow-hawk, p. 53. Hybrid Fowls, p. 53. The Ruby-crowned vno pp. 54, 376. is: Crocodile in F onde, p.54. House Sparrow, p. 54. orphism in the Higher Worms, p. 5 Disposal of the Placenta, p. 56. generi Red Bird, p. ig The pone p.57. The Great Auk, p.57. A Rare Visitor, p. 57. e Cow Bird, p.58. Occurrence of the Brown Pelican in heats p. 58. The Chipmunk, p. 58. Albino Rodents, p. 58. Conchological iar of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Nov. 4, 1869, p. A Rare Duck, p. 126. External Gills in Ganoid Fishes, p. 127. The ties of Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus, p. 127. The Organs of Eds and Smell in Insects, p. 197. Albino Bara Swallow, p. 127. Spi Horns (with a cut), p. 188. Adirondack’s Reply, p. 189. Habits of n Striped Squirrel, p. 249. Conchological Notes, p. 250. Functions of the Nerve-centres of the Frog, p. 250. The Compressed Burbot or Eel Pout, p.251. A White Woodchuck, p. 252. Rare Birds in Nova Scotia, p. 253. A New Insecticide, p. 313. Fauna of Round Island, p. 314. Position of the Brachiopoda in the Animal Kingdom (with cuts), p. 314. The Ru Song of the Song Sparrow, p. 378. The Pigeon Hawk, p. 439. The Flight of Birds and Insects, p. 439. Pe zdogenesis in the Birlopidee, p. 439. Curious Conduct of a Sharp-shinned Hawk, p. 439. Partheno- CONTENTS OF VOL. IV. vil ming Birds of the Equatorial Regions, p. 495. Embryology of Limulus Polyphemus (with cuts), p. 498. On the Relations of the Orders of Mam- mals, p. 502. The Structural Characteristics of the Cranium in the Lower ee orate On cuts), p. 505. On three new generic forms of Brachio- ndo Caudal Styles of Insects Sense Organs, i. e. Abdominal Antenne, p. 620. A Remarkable Myriapod, p. 621. How to Mount Spiders for Cabinets, p. 622. The Toucan’s Beak, p. 622. Physella not a Fresh-water Shell, p. 623. On the Young of Orthagoriscus Mola (with cuts), p. 629. Ab- dominal Sense-organs in a Fly, p. 690. Note on the Existence of trans- riis striated muscular pide in Acmea, p. 691. Cedar Bird with WwW xou s on the Tail, p. 692. Habits of the Red-headed Wood- poii, p. 6 American Pihlak, p. 692. Notes on some of the Coast Fi shes of old. p.693. Morphology and Ancestry of the King Crabs, 760. Callidryas konp p. Mephitis bicolor, p. 761. Woodcock and es, p. Tu Sia seule p. 762. Spike-horned Bucks, p. 762. Deer's die p. 768. Singular Manners and Customs of the Hornbills during the Breeding Season, p. GEOLOGY. — Further bg ris of the Affinity between the Dinosaurian dde and Birds, p. Fossil Horse in Missouri, p. 60. Sudden Dry- ing up of Streams in "Made p. 61. Quaternary deposits in Missouri, . 61. New Mosasauroid Reptiles, p. 62. Scolithus a gaa p. 62. Discovery of a huge Whale in North Carolina, p. 128 he Geology of Brazil, p. 128. Professor Ward’s Museum, p. 128. Now Ree Remains from ii the "Curboniférüus and Devonian Rocks of Canada, p. 190. Gigantic Fossil Serpent from New Jersey, p. 254. Geological Survey of Iowa, p. 17 New Fossil Turkey, p. 317. Geological WB" ge te p. 878. S- toration of the WA cesis 379. Ancient Reptiles of the Connecticut Valley, p. 444. The Rate of GieologicHt Change, p. 444. Notes on some Post Tertiary Sgen in Michigan, The Supposed Elevation and Depression of the Continent during the Glacial Period, p. 508. Gla- ciers in Paleozoic Times, Recent and Fossil Copal, p. 560. - and Chemung Groups, pp. 563, 639. Nostder-éradus in Berkshire County, Mass., p. 565. On the Evidence of a Glacial Epoch at the Equator, p ! The C NN of Washington Territory, p. 567. The Great Salt Marsh of Silver Peak, Southern Nevada, p. 567 e g- raphy of the White Mountains, p. 567. ew Species of Trilobite from New Jersey, p. 568 rgence of a portion of the h American 8. Continent since the Drift Period, p. 568. Black Iron Sand, p.569. The Stratigraphy and Surface Geology of North Carolina, p. 570. The vili CONTENTS OF VOL. IV. Origin of South Carolina Phosphates, p. 571. Did a Glacier flow from e Huron into Lake Erie?, p. 623. The Upper Delta Plain of the Mis- sissippi, p. 638. On the Mud Lumps of the Passes of the Mississippi, p. 638. A Point in Dynamical Geology, p. 639. Discovery of Lower Car- ines of Missouri, p. 766. arks of Ancient pea on the Pacific Coast, p. 766. oulders in Ancient Times, p. 767. New covery respecting omnts p. 767 Microscopy. — Microscope Objectives; Regra and Reply, pp. 254 and A poop of the Latex in the Laticiferous Vessels, p. 817. Does Boiling Destroy Germs? p. 318. Ereni of Gas in Proto- plasm, he Largest Infusorium Known 980. Air Tight Spec- p. imens, p. 444. The Focal Length of Microscopie Objectives, p. 445. evade of EE of the American Association for the Advance- t of Science, p. 5 New Form of a Binocular Microscope, p. 571. n ssh Ponsi a ar Binochiar Microscopes (with cuts), pp. 571, 633. Diatoms from Marblehead, Mass., p.573. Test Plates, p.573. Instru- ments at the Meeting of the A.A.A.S., pp. 573-576. New Clinical Com- pressor (with cuts), p. 574. American Microscopes, p. 625. Wales’ Low Power Objectives, p. 626. The Simplest form of Micro- -telescope, p. 628. A New Form of Binocular for use with High Powers of the Microscope, p. 696. : ANTHROPOLOGY. — Relics from the Great Mound, p. 62. The Bone Caves of Gibraltar, p. 255. Archeological Impostures, p. 819. borigi- nal Relic fi rom Trenton, New Jersey (with cut), p.380. Origin of the 2. i o Archeology, p. 445. On the Structure of the Eskimo dines; 561. The Significance of Cranial Characters in Man, p ayers MISCELLANE — The Death of Michael Sars, p.63. Photograph of George bsp. * T 64. Correction, p. 64. -The Sars Fund, p. 127. Mary- d Academy of Sciences, p. 191. The Future of Natural Science, p. 438. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, p. 622. Ameri- can Association for the Advancement of Science, pp. 383, 492, 561, 629. Norrs. — Pages 703, 767. ANSWERSÉTO CORRESPONDENTS. — — Pages 128, 256, 320, 383, 448, 576, 704. Books RECEIVED. — Pages 64, 192, 256, 320, 384, 448, 492, 640. Lisr OF PLATES AND Curs. — Page ix. List or CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME IV. — Pages xi, xii. INDEX. — Page 769. ILLUSTRATIONS 1x LIST OF PLATES. mee be pw Page 1. Bird lice. seven figures, . . 98| 5. North Pacific re and Corals, 2. og thirty-nine figures, 229 nine figures, 3. Hor zn" Crab, etc., fourteen’ ons 6. Illumination of Binocular Micro- 1. North. Pacific Polyps and Corals, T. Injurious Insects, twenty-two fig: ten figures, s oo ues o. OD 687 T3 LIST OF WOOD-CUTS. No. Page. Grape vine 4 $ a . 414 L Primitive tomb, Acora, . eee ote 91. Woodbine, : 415-416 . Hill Medi nin Peru, . a ay E 5 ony, é ‘ S S r x Chulpa, . .. 6| 98. Spike horns of m 00se, "oun . 443 E Chulpa Bolly via, " . 7| 94. "omen iin expansa, . n 489 : Bection of Chul . - .8|95to99. Embryo and young of Lim . Burial tower, PR 4 . $t ox lus, * à 498-501 7. Pelasgic tower, Italy, . . . 11/100; Larva of Branchipus, . ^ . . 501 8. Early defences, Peru, ; «oc 100b. Larva of Apu A . 501 9. Ancient monuments Tan A + 15/101. Larva of "Triraoleas, n i . 501 10. Pheronema Ann ý . 21/102. Larva of Sao hirsuta, “i . 501 ib 12. Spicules of the same, . 21,22/103. Larva of Agnostus nudus, ach NE Bed bug, . r 4 . . 85/104. Adult of Á% «UL; m Mouth of louse, . PN . 87/105 to 106. Skull of Ichthyosaurus, . 506 15. Headlouse, . . QU . 87/107. Skull of n: QUA cg EET 16. Body louse, * . 88/108. Mackerel, . ; é è . 513 17. Em o of lous e OOHO CORBIS uoo o uou As ve cone. MR 18,19, 24. Embryo o Dragon fly, 91, 93/110. Haddock, $ ; é ^ > PEE OLT 301033. Development d — pan in Brie fish, aM a UG . 518 e, 4.1989. Herring, 3 ons eddie le mM * La of Cow . 93/113. Bill-fish, K » 5 ‘ . 520 Louse of Domestic Fowl, è . 94|114. Internal Lieb 572 .. Louse of Cat . . 96/115. Ward's clinical compressor, . i 575 . Louse of Goat, | s 5 . 96/115 bis to 116. Compe tridentata ) Antenne of — 3:3 4 S T larva an 590 ). Smelt, . e « 108|117 to 118. Sapérda vestita, larva and . Gizzard Shad, « VUE : < 591 . Chub. = T d Š . 111/119. Larva of Sa ape erda calcarata, . 592 : 4/120. Prionus brevicornis and pupa, 592 . Gar ue s RE ) . . Indian Sung an Ánteloe, . 129|121. Saperda inornata and larva, . 593 . Indian village, . 135 » E z 331|1 ne 3 E Prien - binocular micro- Scop e, "i e 701 381|159 to 162. "Ant Li 05, 706 385/163 to ME _Sperm-whales, 728, 734, 136 741, . Indian bow and arrow, * + 139 É š ow heads, etC., . . «+ ~~ 189/123. Chion ' cinctus, larva and pupa, t Water basket, . CURA 2 124to 125. Roller Sp p box,. 606, j . Awl, etc., for making basket, 141/126. Pickle worm, : a . Indian woman c ary ng basket, - . 141/197 to 128. deus dresser, $ $ " 611, J . Stone mortar and pestl . « 142/129. Alypia 8- maculata, ‘ . Jaw of Limax flavus, . . . 167/130 hs 131. "Eudrya grata, 613, . Teeth of Limax flavus, . . . . 167|132to 133. Acoloithus. Americanus, 614, , 448. Hyalina cellaria, .: . .. 169/134 gie lacanthus Palas: . Limax maxim Sie 170135. OENAR blo a. ER ) . Limax garus, . . . 170/136 to 137. Orthagoriscus mola, . 630, . Arion fus . 170]138. Nest of Sas Pes Prepared ‘gation’ Mexican skull, 172]139. Anatomy of Theloschistes, Eu ‘to 66. Chalchihui itls, . 173 to 181|140. ‘Anatomy of Collema, . oa . Spike horns, . 188/141. Anatomy of toa i » k A after the first moult, . 971|142. Anatomy of Us 2 Zygnem . . 281/143. Anatomy of Stic i 4 Cageotia, PSI egy ie ee ae o Anat. of CERT ps . Chztomorpha, s (Uc cn MRETHET, Spores of —— . Microleus repens, . » + >œ 283 1 49. Anatomy of Theloschistes, . . Seeds of MN «tgo vo WDO. E veda ‘of lichen . med UNE S 286 151 to 153. Anatom of B Biatora, : 613, De en . i è ring Pupa o ata i * 5 16 : 1 QU S 1 upa o r Wooden ce enn i " t Horse fly, . 386 8r. j weed mee ttatu oa . 410/177. Clateification of Spiders, i + 09 . Solanum jasminoides, see 5 5$? “ee $ ERRATA. ERRATA TO VOL. IV.— Page 63, line 16, for pervenum read perver: line 15, for lips read n g on 03, for (Later, however, Cope has wn the species to = distinct from Kirtland’s Kentuckiensis.) Page 117, line 13 of ^u ox d Teretribus read teretulus. Page 112, line 16, for Rariton rea arita 2 P vk 501 under figure 100, first line, for 4pus read Branchipus, and in second line, for anchipus read Apus. On line 1 from iem n Pus éiihalitlores read head. Page 126, mm line, for MR. DRESSER read MR. D I age 375, line 34, for J. P. KIRKLAND read J. P. KIRTLAND. Page gm last Peine la d Zoologist read Zoologists. Page 689, line 29, for poisoning read poison Plates 3 and 4 (pp. 490, 198); ana pee plates 4 and 5. Plate 5 (page 637) should read age 687) Plate 6, and Plate 6 (p. Plate 7. Page 572, for figure 100, read figure 114. Page 575, for sre 100, read figure 115 fi 140. age 700, for figure 140, read 157. Page 701, for ires "t inge ; however, only refer to the serial bers of the ve 1 in the text to their p t I ) (x) ; CONTRIBUTORS. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO VOL. IV. Mong ES C. ABBOTT, M.D., Trenton, N. J. W. W. Battey, Providence, R. I. Prof. W. J. BEAL, Chicago, Ill. ALFRED W. BENNETT, viis due Quarterly Journal of Science). W. G. BINNEY, Burlington, Rev. J. W. CHI puse Je ee N. H. A. S. COLLINS, Caledon Prof. E. D. Cop apunta Pa. :5. A J: H, rs Salem, ILL, W A J. H. GREGORY, M tmd M A. ; , San PN RE uL Prof. JOSEPH tir; Philadelphia, Pa. Miss GRACE ANNA LewTIs, Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. S. Lockwoop, Lockport, N. J. THOMAS MEEHAN Dermato, Pa. Prof. JoHN L. qni Salem, Mass Capt. C. M. SCAMMON, U. S. N Prof. N. S. "oiu ATRA Mass. Hon. E. G. SQUIER, New York, N Dr. Wm. SrrIMPSON, Chicago, n. H. WirrEY, New Bedford, Mass. WM. Woop, M.D., Winsor Hill, Conn. xii CONTRIBUTORS. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO THE REVIEWS, MISCELLANY, ETC. qo C. Abb P. Alcott, North Greenwich, Conn. mbridge, a adem Ca ott, M.D., Trenton, N. J. 3 m. Allison, DeWitt, Iow: - Mr. Alvord, xa F. P. Atkin 1r. B., Colo LA P. Barn venilel, Mars. FRYE bridge, Mass. ce Pa. Beal,” Oise. M il. he IOW.d. Edwin Bicknell, ll, Cambridge, Mass. rederick Brendel, M eori J an .0.€ J. R. Collete, Somerville, Mass. Wm. A. pie Prof. A. J. Co in, I York, s. X. Lansing, Mich Dr. J. G. Cooper, San Francisco , Cal. Prof. E. D . Cope, poem Pa. Dr. T Coues W. H. Dall, V ; MD New York, AN. X . J. Higgins Prof. Eugene W. Hilgard, Oxford, M Miss. Thomas ; LL.D., Waltham, Mass. of. C. teh HU N. Rotors Haag, ane Mi LEM Canada. Charl Wright, Ca: QM 5 un ontre: ana = mbrid, ass. Prof. A. Hyatt, Raters Mace sin B. C. Jillson, M.D. » Pittsburgh, Pa p dnt London ndon Month mum Journal, London. J. Matthew Doce Halifax, N. S. UN ae r, Ralei gh, N. C. H. M. DM Williamsté wn, Mass. C. * aly aum a, Fla H. W. Parker, Grinnell, 10 Dr. wad- = Perkins, Ñewburyport, Mass. Rev. J. B ambridge, Mass ` : uis, Mo. Bt. Ms Pi y Rohmer. r, Mobile, Ala. L. Russell, Salem, Mass. ira ires Ha Rushford, N. Y. ; Bos ston, Mas s. E. G. Squier, wA New York, N. Y. Winfrid Stearns, Amherst, Mass. . R. P. Stevens, New York. Charles Stodder, Boston, Mas L. EE. Stroop, , Waxahachie, Texas. Prot S Tenney, Williamstown, Mass. G. Ag JA ur pm Pa. RE H. Ward, M.D., Troy, N Coena A. Winchell, Ann Arbor, Mich. Dr. s Wook East Windsor Hil, yman, Cambridge, Mass COPIED FROM iblio pitas: wad Universelle, Archives des Sci- ences Physiques et Ni aturelles, Geneva. ebold and Kolliker's Zeitschrift fur Wis- Si — i the copus Society of| senschaftliche Zoologie, Berlin Me Gori der ily faturiisse ensci onn. | C S ‘of Natural History.| Franklin Journal, Philadelphia. A — yt T ee peste of Natural History of T EL d AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. IV. — MARCH, 1870.— No. 1. ec GG ($e rex. THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU COM- ARED WITH THOSE IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD. BY E. G. SQUIER, M.A.* THERE is a class of stone structures in Peru belonging to what is regarded through the world as the earliest monu- mental period, coincident in style and character with the cromlechs, dolmens, and “Sun” or “Druidical” circles, so called, of Scandinavia, the British Islands, France, and Northern and Central Asia. The existence of such remains in Peru has not, I believe, been hitherto mentioned by any traveller in that country. They are not very numerous, at least not in the parts of Peru traversed by me, but their scarcity is probably in great part due to circumstances and causes to which I shall refer further on, and is by no means inconsistent with the supposition that they formerly existed in considerable, if not very great numbers. I think students will attach importance to these remains as indicating the existence at one time or another in Peru of a population identical in degree and stage of development with the people who raised corresponding lithic and megalithic *Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London; Honorary Fellow of the Anthro- pological Societies of London and Paris; Fellow of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Copenhagen, etc., etc. Entered according to Act of Co in the year 1870, by the PEABODY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. in the Clerks Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts, AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. Iv. 1 (1) 2 THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. monuments in other parts of the world, and who, if not the progenitors of the semi-civilized nations found in Peru at the time of the conquest, certainly preceded them in the occupa- tion of the country. If it should be found, nevertheless, that there has been a gradual development of any of these rude remains into elaborate and imposing monuments, corres- ponding with them in their purpose or design, or a gradual change from the rough burial chamber of uncut stones into the symmetrical sepulchral tower built of hewn blocks accurately fitted together, and in general workmanship coinciding with the other and most advanced and admirable structures of the country, then we may reasonably infer that the latter were constructed by the same people that built the first, and that, monumentally, at least, the civilization of Peru was in- digenous, gradually developed and not intruded. Leaving, however, the very few and obvious deductions I may feel justified in making, for the close of this brief paper, I wish to call attention to three groups of monuments, the culpas and other remains of Acora, Quellenata, and Sillustani, all in the great terrestrial basin of Lake Titicaca, near that lake, in that political subdivision of the ancient Peruvian Empire called the Collao, and now Department of Puno. 'The arable portions of Peru, cireumscribed by mountains, cold and sterile punos or table-lands, and bare deserts, early forced the population of the country to a close economy of their eultivable lands, and led them to bury their dead and build their towns in waste places, on arid hillsides above the reach of irrigation, or on rocky eminences and promontories, which even their patient industry could not make productive. In such positions throughout the ancient Collao, we find numberless cemeteries, often in proximity to the ruins of towns and villages. Some of these cemeteries are marked by really imposing monuments, and form conspicuous fea- tures in the landscape. The first and simplest form of the burial monument, and which I shall assume, for the present, to be the oldest, con- THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. 3 sists of flat, unhewn stones of varying lengths set firmly in the ground, projecting above it from one to two feet, so as to form a circle, more or less regular, about three feet in diameter. The body was buried within this circle, in a sitting or crouching posture, and with a vase of pottery or some other utensil or implement at its feet. Sometimes a few flat stones were laid across the upright ones, so as to form a kind of roof, and in a few instances these rude tombs were placed side by side in long rows, and stones afterwards heaped over them, so as to give them the appearance of lines of ruined walls. Another rude but more advanced and impressive form of ey Fig. 1. QUES A Sane d ws p er cma Tomb, Acora. the tomb consists of large slabs of stone, projecting from four to six feet above the groufid, and also set in the form of a circle or square of from six to sixteen feet in diameter. These uprights support blocks of stone, which lap over each other inwardly, until they touch and brace against each other, thus forming a kind of rude arch. A doorway or opening is often found leading into the vault, formed by omitting one of the upright stones. The arid plain to the south of the town of Acora, near the shores of Lake Titicaca, and twelve miles distant from the ancient town of Chueuito, is covered with remains of this kind, of which Fig. 1 is an example; and on the west- ern border of the plain, at the base of the mountains which: 4 THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. bound it in that direction, are some of the better class of chulpas, round and square, built of worked stones, to which I shall have occasion to allude in another place. A modification of the second class of chulpas, which I have described, or rather an improvement on them, is to be found among the ruins, so called, of Quellenata to the northeast of Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia (Fig. 2), and at many other places in the ancient Collao. Here the inner chamber or vault is formed, as in the case of those already noticed, by a circle of upright stones, across the tops of which flat stones are laid, forming a chamber, which often has its floor below the general level of the earth. Around this chamber a wall is built, which is carried up to varying heights of from ten to thirty feet. The exterior stones are usually broken to conform to the outer curve of the tower, and the whole is more or less cemented together with a very tena- cious clay. Nearly all are built with flaring or diverging walls; that is to say, they are narrower at their bases than at their tops. Sometimes this divergence is on a curved in- stead of a right line, and gives to the monument a graceful shape. In Quellenata I found only one skeleton in each of the chulpas I examined; and none of the chulpas had open entrances.’ Similar structures in shape and construc- tion occur in great numbers among what are called the ruins of Ullulloma (Fig. 3), thrge leagues from the town of Sta. Rosa in the valley of the river Pucura. -But here the chul- pas have openings into which a man may creep, and all of them contained originally two or more skeletons. Returning now to Acora. As I have intimated, within sight of the rude burial monuments already noticed as exist- ing there,—and which so closely resemble the cromlechs of Fop ee other sepulchral monuments, showing a great advance on those of Quellenata and Ullulloma. They are both round and square, standing on platforms of stones reg- ularly and artificially shaped, dud are themselves built or _ squared blocks of limestone. In common with the primitive -* Ss, sä ak j p e Jd LAGE CT ETUR Et ae ees ‘ STOEL iy 1 pd cL A — eet j NB CT 2 C MÁS ^. ty Wire Pagi : uj i : A res acu BL jj | fre gc PUN ij ELS dard. Eu AR (eut a le » S reper ies] a. T x ——L a a E x s T sett de Le oi EP un GRADE cU un y ; VT PA 3 1 i rum, pd “i | ARAM. LM / d 5 1 CELA SL. UE. COEM JESUM V Tom. 5. : A x a VET VU. LUE Uy ITA |^ 8-1 C= ED g XE 3 7e eae ESTÁ UL e MM... ^ ie aS ' SOIN qus m ^ i)! RIS Sr SR ME E. C1 Lor X MM NE Sene e al RES Sos a E o o o Ce ee, Cae S sq - ] J^ pact 4 Mo — ie oe 2292-1 px eS pue y Mo. — : ee re = Pucura, or Hill Fortress of Quellenata, with Chulpas. (5) 6 THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. and typical forms of the same class of monuments already described, these also have an inner chamber, vaulted by over- lapping stones, after the fashion of the earlier approxima- tions towards the arch. They differ, however, in having each four niches in the chamber or vault, placed at right angles in respect to each other. The sides of these niches converge a little towards their tops, as do most of the Fig. 3. Inca niches, PEE windows and : Cos SS " Led X SN doorways. In EC OEC Se, . Cy PS these niches re; x T TRUM f å " , al “ = Kr " T S >, 4 5 A Aii mina mE oe R were astene l P e ~ si the bodies of Ce Eig the dead, in Cs ui squatting or crouching double -sto- ried, square chulpa, with un): jj, à pucura or TUE hill fort in the SSO ee = = “~~ distance, oc- oS" a SS | curring near Chulpa, Ullulloma, partly ruined. the Bolivian town of Escoma, on the eastern shore of Lake Titicaca. Figure 5 is a section of this chulpa. I introduce these cuts to show some of the variations in this class of monu- ments. Escoma is on the same side of Lake Titicaca with Quellenata, but sixty miles to the southward; and it is a curious fact, that while at the latter place all the chulpas are round, at the former they are all square. The sides of all the square chulpas appear to be perfectly vertical, and near their summits we find a projecting band or Locis THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. 7 cornice. Their tops seem to have been flat. On the other hand the round chulpas here swell out regularly up to the ornamental band or cornice, and terminate in a dome. These features, however, are still better marked in the ruins of Sillustani, where the chulpas, in respect of size, elaboration of design and workmanship, take their highest form. Here we find them built of great blocks of trachyte and other hard stones, fitted together with unsurpassable Hit on LU d Square Chulpa, Escoma, Bolivia. accuracy, the structure nevertheless preserving some of the characteristie features of the first and rudest form of the chulpa (Fig. 6). The lower course of stones is almost inva- riably composed of great blocks of which the unhewn por- tions are set in the ground, and these support a series of layers, not always regular in respect of thickness, nor uni- form in respect of size, but which have their sides cut on exact radii of the circle, and,their faces cut with an accu- rate bevel upward to correspond with the swell of the tower. 8 THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. The stones forming the dome are not only cut on accurate radii, but the curve of the dome is preserved in each, and they are furthermore so eut that their push or plunge is in- ward towards the centre of the structure, thereby tending to give it compactness and consequent strength. There are many other interesting architectural features connected with these remains of Sillustani, the enumeration of which is not necessary in order to illustrate the particular question before us.* Some of the chulpas of Sillustani have double vaults or chambers, one above the other, and others have a double row of niches, in a single chamber, with a cist, carefully walled up, sunk in the earth below. There are a few built of rough stones plastered and stuccoed over, and paint- ed, with inner chambers also stuccoed. Now, in all these varieties of the burial monument called the chulpa, from the rude pile of rough stones at Acora, so much resembling the Euro- L. pean cromlech, through every variety Section of a (fig. 4). towers of Sillustani we discover com- mon features, a common design, and many evidences that all were equally the work of the same people. If so, do the ruder monuments mark an earlier and possibly very remote period in the history of that people? And do the various stages of development which we observe in this class of monuments, correspond with like stages in the develop- ment of their builders? Or did they build -the rough tomb *For Dierk of comparison, I introduce a reduction from a photograph, of a ioni led P among the ruins of Alatri, Italy (Fig. 7). The sa ce "pieta he style and wo rkmanship of the Sillustani monuments and sie of — is voee hash that the stones of the former are much the largest, and are cut fitted witl t muc 'h greater accu maey: In n no of st h 1 g of perfection i& was by the ancients of Peru. ` THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. 9 for the poor and insignificant, and the grander and more elaborate monument for the rich and the powerful, as we do today ? I incline, for reasons not altogether drawn from an in- vestigation of this single class of monuments, to the opinion that the various forms of the chulpa are indices of different eras. I doubt if monuments were ever raised, whether rude or imposing, except over important persons. I believe that anciently as now, the common Indian, the patient servant of the chief or curaca of old, Fig. 6. as of the gobernador of our age, received few burial hon- ors. His grave was unmark- ed by stone or symbol. The chulpas probably signalize the graves of individuals distin- guished in their periods, upon which contemporaneous skill and effort were expended. If the monument was rude, it was because the people dg who raised it were also rude. 73€ — At the time it was erected Mr WT: the cromlech or chulpa of = 999 Acora cost, it may be, an Chulpa, or Burial Tower, Sillustani. effort as great or greater than was exhausted, at a later pe- riod, on the elaborate and imposing towers of Sillustani. And, altogether, I am convinced, speaking for the present only in view of sepulchral monuments, that their develop- ment in Peru may be traced from their first and rudest form. up to that which prevailed at the time of the Conquest, preserving throughdut the same essential features. But it is not in the early sepulchral monuments of Peru, that we have absolute coincidences with the remains which are now accepted as among the primitive monuments of mankind. As we find in both Europe and Asia the rude AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 2 —— 10 THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. monuments of religion existing side by side with those of sepulture, so we find in Peru the Sun-circle, or primitive, open, symbolical temple, side by side with the Peruvian chulpa. In many places we discover circles defined by rude upright stones, and surrounding one or more larger upright stones placed sometimes in the centre of the circle, but oftener at one-third of the diameter of the circle apart, and on a line at right angles to another line that might be drawn through the centre of the gateway or entrance on the east. In connection with the group of chulpas at Sillustani, or rather on the same promontory on which these occur, are found a number of such Sun-circles, which seem strangely to have escaped the notice of travellers. The tradition of their original purpose is preserved in the Quichua name they still bear of Intihuatana, “where the sun is tied up.” Some of these circles are more elaborate than others, as shown in the engraving (Fig. 8), from which it will be seen that while the one nearest the spectator is constructed of simple upright stones, set in the ground; the second one is surrounded by a platform of stones more or less hewn and fitted together. The first circle is about ninety feet in di- ameter; the second about one hundred and fifty feet, and has a single erect stone standing in the relative position I have already indicated. A remarkable feature in the larger circle is a groove cut in the platform around it, deep enough to receive a ship’s cable. I am well aware that many of the smaller so called Sun- circles of the old world are rather grave-circles, or places of sepulture; but that in no way bears on the point I am at present illustrating, namely: the close resemblance if not absolute identity of the primitive monuments of the great Andean plateau, elevated thirteen thousand feet above the * Inti, in the Quichua language, signifies the Sun, and huatana, the place where or the thing with which anything is tied up. The compound word is still applied by the Indians to dials and church clocks. Huata signifies a year. THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. 11 sea, and fenced in with high mountains and rey deserts, with those of the other continent.* Peru has many examples of that kind of stone structures called Cyclopean, in which stones a xe — and sizes are fitted accurately together, with- ] To out cement, so A ' as to form a iM solid whole. 1 The great Inca fortress of the Sacsahuaman, dominating the city of Cuzco, the old Inca capital, is one of the most im- posing monu- ments of this- kind in America or the world, and claims to rank with the pyramids them- selves as an il- lustration of ES human power. * Pelasgic? tower, Alatri, Italy. (See foot note p. 8.) But apart from remains of this kind, which characterize comparatively late eras, we find remains of similar design, often imposing, but rude, and on the stones of which we look in vain for the traces of tools of any kind. In con- * Cre to have been under discussion in the cede vise of London during the past mem (1869). Mr. Hodder M. West- ropp, while indicating their wide range from Etruria to Malabar, from the steppes of ' Tartary, to the centre of Arabia, and from Scandinavia to the Pacific Islands, insisted i e form hase o have supported his views (of which I have only an abstract in 12 THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. struction they somewhat resemble the works uncritically known as Pelasgic. A notable example may be named in the ruins of Quellenata, already mentioned, situated on a mountain dominating the town of Vileachico, and overlook- ing Lake Titicaca (Fig. 2). Still another, but less rude, is the great fortress of Chancayillo or Calaveras, in the upper part of the valley of Casma. Tradition affirms that these pucaras, or strongholds, were reared long ago, when the inhabitants of Peru were divided up into savage and warlike tribes, "before the sun shone,” or the Incas had established their benignant rule. They are held in a certain veneration as the works of giants, whose spirits still haunt them, and require to be propitiated with offerings of chicha and coca. Hundreds of these remains, often of great extent, crown the bare mountain tops of Cen- tral and Southern Peru and Bolivia, and are scattered’ all through the grand Andean plateau. Looking upon them in their obvious character, expressed also in their name of pucaras, as strongholds or fortresses, we find them to be but rude types of the extensive and elaborate defensive works constructed by the Incas, and in which were introduced parapets, salient and reéntering angles, and many of the French) by the cireumstance that human ici and other evidences of sepulture, are foun nd i in all or nearly all of these monument But we know so A T e temple and vaj f r reciprocal sa tity and reverence. bs the antiquaries of the future anl over the question ers r Westminster Abbey and the Church of St. Denis were tombs or temples, on or ? e this discussion ron — Fox (and I am pee confined to the deu alluded to), after à for megalithic monuments than Mr. ier" "D — the Canary Islands, Algeria, Palestine, Persia, the Fejee Islands were the work of one people that miu es mies west Pw: barriers | of Poan like the t um the south and line eternal their oc- currence. And that, th f hn which America is enumerated), * are Medii those where civi lisetion n never etrated." Civilization E , a relative , and to which nations who in this age go to war with of the Arcadian accom of New Mexico mi ht lay good npe pa if megalithic onuments i stages, Pe from what has been ‘meee D the text, e: no longer * be left o ni] in a cold;" and if civilization took the route of these mon ts it certainly spread “laterally” past the Pacific Islands to America, or— vice mq, i : 1 1 | THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. 13 most important features of modern fortifications. In short, as we find in the rude chulpas of Acora, the essential fea- tures of the imposing and skilfully constructed burial towers of Sillustani, so we find in these primitive defenses the fundamental ideas subsequently elaborated in the gigantic fortresses of Sacsahuaman, Pisac, and Ollantaytambo. Some instances fell under my notice in Peru, of single rough upright stones, oceasionally of great size, which were huaca or sacred, and to which great reverence is still paid by the Indians. A notable instance is to be observed on the sum- Fig. 8. MS —— — - = Intihuatanus of Sillustani, Peru. mit of a high, bare hill, on the road between the port of Simanco and the town of Nepeüa, and which overlooks the interesting ruins of Huaca-Tambo. No doubt some of these stones were set up by hand of man, but most of them occupy natural positions. * 'The celebrated ruins of Tiahuanaco in Bolivia, which may be called the Stonehenge or Carnac of the new world, afford a striking example of the artificial arrangement of rough as well as upright stones, in the form of squares and rectangles, The Indians of the coast of Peru raised large stones in their chacras, gardens and Msi fields, which they called chichoe or Truanea, also chacrayoe, or Lord of the 14 THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. and on parallel lines. Here we find quadrangles defined by huge, unhewn stones, worn and frayed by time, and having every evidence of highest antiquity, by the side of other squares of similar plan, but defined by massive stones cut with much elaboration, as if they were the work of later generations, better acquainted with the use of tools fit for cutting stones, who nevertheless retained the notions of their ancestors, bringing only greater skill to the construction of their monuments. The megalithie remains of Tiahuanaco rank second in interest to none in the world. Fig. 9 is of a singular monument, in the ancient town of Chicuito, once the most important in the Collao. It is in the form of a rectangle, sixty-five feet on each side, and consists of a series of large, roughly worked blocks of stone, placed closely side by side on a platform, or rather on a foundation of stones, sunk in the ground, and projecting fourteen inches outward all around. The entrance is from the east, between two blocks of stones, higher than the rest. This may be taken as a type of an advanced class of mega- lithic monuments by no means uncommon in the highlands of Peru. The features I seek to illustrate would be made more apparent by a greater number of views, plans, and sec- tions than I am now able to present, as may be inferred from the few accompanying this paper. When they shall come to be fully illustrated, I think all students will coincide with me in my already matured opinion that there exist in Peru and Bolivia, high up among the snowy Andes, the oldest forms of monuments, sepulchral and otherwise, known to mankind, exact counterparts in character of those of the “old world,” having a common design, illustrating similar conceptions, and all of them the work of the same peoples found in occu- pation of the country at the time of the Conquest, and whose later monuments are mainly if not wholly the developed forms of those raised by their ancestors, and which seem to have been the spontaneous productions of the primitive man in all parts of the world, and not necessarily nor even prob- ably derivative. Ancient Monument, Chicuito. W *" ^ | ta) ue ru a vu JU RSS & m m ; Ce 3d i Ts y OE my (15) 16 THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. I have only to add one word in respect to caverns. There are many of these in the serras of Peru, in which the mod- ern traveller is often glad to find refuge, as was the Indian voyager before him. But few of these however, seem to have been inhabited. Generally they appear to have been used as burial places, and abound in desiccated human bodies, human bones, objects of human art, and the bones of indige- nous animals, often cemented together with calcareous de- posits. Some of the many Peruvian traditions affirm that the ancient inhabitants of the country emerged from the limestone caverns in the frontier Amazonian valley of Pau- cartambo.* The best accepted perhaps of the Peruvian tradi- tions assigns to the Sun-born Manco Capac, his birth-place and early residence in a shallow cavern on thé island of Titicaca, out of which the sun rose to illuminate the earth, and which was regarded as the most sacred spot in the Inca Empire. That man should first seek shelter in caverns, in a cold and arid region like the plateau of Peru, where wood is scarce or unknown, is equally natural and probable; but the evidences of such a practice do not exist, or rather have not yet been discovered. That considerable aboriginal Peruvian tribes once lived in houses built on piles, or on floats, in the shallow waters of the Andean lakes, is not only probable but certain. The remnants of such a tribe, bearing the name of Antis, still live in this manner in the reedy lakes formed by the spread- ing out or overflow of the Rio Desaguadero, the outlet of Lake Titicaca. These people spoke and still speak a lan- * The old Jesuit, Arriaga, in his rare and valuable work Zztirpacion de la Idolatria del Peru (1621), tells us not only that the inhabitants of the coast of Peru reverenced the re their ancestors and also giants, but the buildings erected by them." He adds: * They reverence also their Pacarinas, or places of ancient residence, to the — of preferriug to live in them, wd; that they are built in lofty, rocky, arid places. only possibly to be reached, and even then ds difficulty, on foot.” n The word Pacarina, as given by Arriaga, is embodied jn that of Paucartambo, the name of one of the € r Amazo nian Valleys, running parallel to that of emp near Cuzco, whence, one of th f their civiliza- tion and em empire. The name is phare: a corruption of itus Pad to be born; d. ps dwelling or stopp ie a e e T ~ REMARKS ON SOME CURIOUS SPONGES. 17 guage differing equally from the Aymara and Quichua, called Puquina, and the early chroniclers speak of them as ex- tremely savage, so much so that when asked who they were, they answered, they were not men but Uros, as if they did not belong to the human family. Whole towns of them, it is said, lived on floats of totora or reeds, which they moved from place to place according to their convenience or neces- sities. REMARKS ON SOME CURIOUS SPONGES. BY PROFESSOR JOSEPH LEIDY. Amone the many remarkable marine productions which puzzle the naturalist as to their relationship in the animal kingdom, is thé Hyalonema mirabilis of the Japan seas. First described and named by Dr. John E. Gray, of the British Museum, this distinguished zoologist viewed it as a coral related with Grigoris or the Sea Fan. The specimens of Hyalonema, as ordinarily preserved, appear as a loosely twisted bundle of threads converging to a point at one extremity of the fascicle and more or less divergent at the other. The threads bear so much resem- blance to spun glass that the production has received the name of the Glass Plant. They are mainly composed of silex and are translucent, shining, and highly flexible. The fascicle is upwards of a foot and a half in length and near half an inch thick. The threads range from the thickness of an ordinary bristle to that of a stout darning needle. Specimens of the Hyalonema fascicle, as they have been brought to us, almost invariably present some portion in- vested with a brown warty crust; the wart-like elevations terminating in a cylindrical ring with radiating ridges. These elevations are the individual polyps, continuous through the AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 3 18 REMARKS ON SOME CURIOUS SPONGES. intervening crust, of which Dr. Gray views the fascicle as the central axis. In some specimens of the Hyalonema fascicle the narrow end is enveloped in a spongy mass, or as Dr. Gray observes, "a species of sponge." He supposes the sponge to be inde- pendent of the fascicle or “coral,” though necessary to it as a means of attachment in its habitation. According to this view the fascicle with its warty crust, is a parasite of the sponge into which the fascicle is inserted. Dr. Gray remarks that *in general the specimens are withdrawn from . the spongy base and the lower part of the axis is cleaned ; but it is evident that they all are attached to such a sponge in their natural state." When the writer first had an opportunity of seeing a specimen of Hyalonema, consisting of a fascicle partially in- vested with a warty crust, presented to the Academy of Nat- ural Sciences of Philadelphia in 1860, and before he had seen an account of the remarkable production, his impression was that it was a silicious fascicle of a sponge, upon which a parasitie polyp had found a convenient and secure resting- place. M. Valenciennes had previously expressed a similar opinion, as observed in the introduction to Professor Milne Edwards’ work on British Fossil Corals. Notwithstanding the frequency of silicious threads enter- ing into the composition of many sponges, Dr. Gray re- marks, in referring the Hyalonema fascicle to a coral, that this is peculiar “as being the only body the animal nature of which is undoubted that is yet known to secrete silica; the spicules and axis of all the corals which had fallen under his observation being purely calcareous.” Professor Brandt of St. Petersburg views the fascicle and its warty crust as parts of a polyp, and the sponge mass as a parasite which attaches itself to the ein gradually pen- etrating its silicious axis, and finally killing Dr. Bowerbank who has so extensively ae the sponges in general, regards all three of the elements of the . REMARKS ON SOME CURIOUS SPONGES. 19 Hyalonema—the fascicle, the warty investment and the sponge mass—as parts of one sponge. The wart-like eleva- tions of the crust he views as oscules of the sponge. Professor Max Schultze of Bonn, has published an elabo- rate memoir on the Hyalonema, accompanied by beautiful plates of perfect specimens preserved in the Museum at Leyden. He represents the fascicle and the sponge muss attached to one end as belonging together, while the warty crust is referred to a polyp, to which the author has given the name of Polythoa fatua. : To conclude these discordant views, we may add that of . the distinguished micrologist Ehrenberg, who considers the fascicle as an “artificial product of Japanese industry.” The Hyalonema in Professor Schultze’s work, is repre- sented as a sponge mass of conical or cylindrical form with rounded summit, from which the rope of silicious threads projects. The sponge mass measures five inches long and three in diameter ; the fascicle projects a foot and two inches. The sponge mass is described as composed of loosely inter- woven cords of fine silicious needles. The entire surface, except the end opposite to the fascicle, is provided with numerous orifices about one line in diameter. The flattened end of this sponge mass is furnished with six orifices half an inch in diameter, communicating by canals in the interior with a system of interspaces finally ending in the smaller orifices of the surface generally. | The long silicious threads of the fascicle are composed of delicate concentric layers enclosing a fine central canal. The external layer appears to be composed of imbricating rings, most conspicuous toward the free end of the thread and almost or quite disappearing toward the other end. The arrangement reminds one of the appearance of the cuticle on the hairs of mammals. The projecting edges of the ring toward the free ends of the thread are most prominent "i also form reversed hooklets. Professor Schultze regards the sponge mass as situated at + 20 REMARKS ON SOME CURIOUS SPONGES. the bottom of the fascicle, and its flattened extremity with the large oscules at the base. This appears to be the general view, but it has oceurred to me that the sponge mass in its natural position was uppermost, and was moored by its glassy cable, or rope of sand, to the sea bottom, perhaps to marine alge. This opinion is founded on the circumstance that in sponges generally the large oscules from which flow the currents of effete water are uppermost. The ends of the threads of the fascicle, with their reversed hooklets, are also well adapted to adhere to objects. The equally wonderful and still more beautiful Huplectella of the Philippines was also at first represented upside down, as seen in the figure of Professor Owen in the “Zoological Transactions of. London," the reverse of the position now assigned to it as represented in figure 76 of the third volume of the NATURALIST. In the same manner Euplectella and Hyalonema appear to me to be alike constructed so as to be anchored in position by the silicious threads, with their re- versed hooklets. It may be that Hyalonema, in its home, is suspended by means of its glossy cable, but I think it highly improbable that it should either sit or be attached by the base of the sponge mass in which the large oscules are placed. In the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London for 1867, Dr. Gray observes that, according to Dr. William Lockart, "the Japanese Hyalonema is found growing on the rocks of the island of Enosima not far from Yokohama. The fishermen offer the sponges with their silicious fibres for sale to visitors at the temples of Enosima." An entirely different sponge, apparently intermediate in character with Hyalonema and Euplectella, recently de- seribed in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sci- ences of Philadelphia, under the name of Pheronema, would appear to throw some light upon the question of what be- longs to Hyalonema. The specimen, obtained from the island of Santa Cruz, W. I., is preserved in the Museum of | REMARKS ON SOME CURIOUS SPONGES. 21 the Academy. It is represented in the accompanying figure (Fig. 10), one-half the natural size. The body of the sponge is oblong ovoidal, with one side more protuberant than the other. The narrower extremity, which I suppose to be the upper, is conical, and its truncated apex presents a single, circular orifice, the third of an inch in diameter. The oppo- site extremity is rather cylindrical with a broad, slightly rounded extremity, from which project nu- wig 20. merous fascicles of silicious threads. The sponge body is of a light brown hue, and rigid to the feel. Its surface exhibits an intricate interlacement of the sponge tissue, which appears mainly composed of stellate, silicious spic- ules of various sizes. The coarser spicules of the sur- face, of which one is rep- resented in Fig. 11, three times the diameter of na- ture, have five rays. Four of these together are ir- regularly cruciform, while the fifth projects in a di- | rection opposed to all the others. They appear to be so arranged that the crucial rays interlace with those of the contiguous spicules, form- ing a lattice work on the surface of the sponge, while the odd ray opposed to the others penetrates the interior of the sponge. ‘The finer tissue, seen through the intervals of the latticed arrangement on the surface of the sponge, appears to be made up in the same manner of finer stellate spicules. Some of the largest stellate spicules of the surface have a spread of half an ineh. The fascicles of silicious threads projecting from the body Fig. 11, 22 REMARKS ÓN SOME CURIOUS SPONGES. of the sponge are upwards of twenty in number and over two inches in length. They resemble in appearance tufts of blonde human hair. The individual threads are nearly like those proceeding from the lower end of Euplectella. Where thickest they are less than the zy of an inch in diameter, Fig. 2. and become attenuated towards the extremities. At first, as they proceed from.the body of the V sponge, they are smooth and then finely tuber- culate. The tubercles are gradually replaced by minute recurved hooks, which become better developed approaching the free end of the threads which finally terminate in a pair of longer opposed hooks, reminding one of the arms of an anchor, as seen in Fig. 12. The object of the tufts of threads, with their lateral hooklets and terminal anchors, would appear to be to maintain or moor the sponge in position in its ' ocean home. i The singular sponge thus described, the author has attributed to a genus distinct from Hyalo- nema and Euplectella, and has dedicated the species in honor of his wife, under the name of y w, Fd Pheronema Anne. N í Of the specimens of Hyalonema in the Mu- seum of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, there is one which appears to the writer as somewhat significant. The fascicle would appear to have been withdrawn from its sponge body and lain sometime in the sea before it was found. This is inferred from the fact that the Polythoa crust reaches to within an inch and a half of the end, which in the natural condition is inserted in the sponge mass. Two sharks eggs are also at- tached to the fascicle by their tendrilled extremities, and one of the tendrils clasping the fascicle is included in the polyp crust. ML | | THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. BY CHARLES B. BRIGHAM., [Concluded from page 490, of Vol. iii.] A very valuable addition to the specimens of an aquarium may be found in what are called the cray-fishes or fresh- water lobsters. These little animals so closely resembling their salt-water relations can be kept without much trouble in the general collection. They are natives of most parts of the country, though rare or limited in their habitat in New England. In New York they are abundant in the gravelly brooks and streams, especially in those near Trenton Falls. A - careful observer will, as wading into the water he searches for them, see two claws just visible in a hole in the sand or under the edge of a rock ; and if he can hedge the hiding place around with his net, and also possibly his straw hat, and then give the desired specimen a slight stimulus with his hand, he will find of a sudden his cray-fish resting quietly in the trap he has set. So quick are their motions that one has to keep a sharp lookout for them or they will escape; the average length of those found near Trenton Falls is about two inches. They are quite hardy, with this exception that they cannot bear water which is much above the normal tempera- ture. In the summer time if the tank is so placed that the sun shines upon it too forcibly, or for too long a time, we shall probably find the eray-fish resting motionless upon the gravel with its claws and tail extended and its body some- what swollen. If this state of things has not existed too long a time, immediate removal to cold water may revive the unfortunate victim by degrees. Some day, after the cray-fish has been a quiet inmate of the aquarium for some time, we shall be astonished in finding apparently two cray- fishes instead of one. Closer examination will diselose the faet that one of them is merely the cast-off shell of the | (33) 25. — THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. other; and now the newly clad cray-fish appears in a coat of a pinker hue than before, and tries to keep under the plants and conceal itself, until accustomed to its new gar- ment it can venture forth once more into its little world. Cray-fishes eat small pieces of raw beef eagerly. We shall have to be careful that they do not crawl out of the tank, for if even a tassel of a curtain is left so near the water that it can be reached, we shall find our much prized spec- imen some morning dried up and lifeless in a corner of the room upon the floor. Frogs are interesting objects of study, and to many are great favorites; they are best kept in a tank with an inch or two of water, with a number of islands or resting-places above the water for them. A wire screen over the top of the tank will be necessary to keep the specimens together. Two of the most useful and instructive sets of specimens which the aquarium contains are its snails and mussels; use- ful, because they act as the scavengers of the tank, and from what would otherwise be the refuse matter make their living from day to day; instructive, because they serve to illustrate in a small way the great principle by which the health and purity of all our larger ponds and lakes is maintained. The snails live upon the bits of decayed plants and the confervoid . growths in the tank, and the mussels by filtering the water act as constant purifiers. There are three kinds of snails common in our ponds and streams, the Planorbis trivolvis the Paludina decisa, and the Lymnea desidiosa. Of these the best is the Planorbis, a snail with a shell coiled like a modern chignon; it is hardy and of clean habits, and does almost as much work as its neighbor, the Paludina; it is found chiefly in ponds or large streams, while the Paludina can be obtained in great numbers in small brooks or pond holes. The Lymn:a is found near the gravelly beaches of the larger ponds; it is a beautiful snail, but does not confine itself to the refuse matter, and is apt to eat eagerly the most delicate plants in the tank; it is, therefore, generally an 1 ; PSAL ONITE ace N THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. 25 unwelcome visitor. Of the mussels, those found in ponds with their many rayed shells, and those river mussels with their thick, unattraetive coverings, are alike useful; they move from one side of the tank to the other with ease, and we must not expect to find them always in one position; the number of snails which may be kept to advantage in a tank is very large; they are so apt to perish during the winter that it will be well to begin the season with as large a stock as two hundred for a medium sized tank; a dozen mussels of a size proportioned to the tank will be sufficient. There are many specimens, such as fishes at the time of spawning, or those particularly fierce, or certain larvze, which would either be destroyed or seen to disadvantage in the: general collection. For each of these a separate tank is in- dispensable ; some glass jars of strong clear material holding about two quarts, will answer every purpose, and the contents ean be arranged precisely as if they were large aquaria. After one has had an aquarium in operation for some time extra tanks of this sort will be found very useful and necessary ; for if a specimen gets injured or is in poor condition, a few weeks recruiting in a separate tank will often save its life ; or, if we have a larger stock of plants than the large tank will : accommodate at the time, when later in the winter the plants die off, then we shall wish to replace them from specimens in the reserve stock. The instruments used for aquarial purposes are, few in number and simple. We need a good net a foot or two in diameter, with very fine meshes, and a flat basket so par- titioned off that it will hold four good sized jars; these jars may be of earthen-ware or of strong glass, the latter mate- rial being perhaps better, as we can then see how many specimens each jar contains without trouble. Most of the plants ean be taken home (if the distance is not too great) rolled up in the net, while the mussels can occupy the room between the jars. It is very necessary to keep the plants moist, as they are much blighted if allowed to dry; if AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 4 26 THE FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM. covers for the jars are used at all they should be caps of mosquito netting held on by India-rubber rings. For the tank a glass rod about a foot iu length and a quarter of an inch in thickness will be of use in moving the specimens into place when disarranged. Too much cannot be said against unnecessarily meddling with the specimens in the aquarium; a slender rod with a sponge attached to the - end of it will be useful in removing the conferve from the sides of the tank; a small gauze-net three or four inches in diameter is often needed to remove dead or objectionable specimens; an India-rubber pipe several feet in length af- fords the simplest method of drawing off the water of the tank; a fine gauze should be placed over that end of the pipe which is in the tank, otherwise the specimens may pass through it and be lost. Should the water in the tank become impure by any means it can often be purified by the following simple method : take a small earthen flower-pot holding about a pint, and insert a piece of sponge tightly in the opening at the base so that when the water is placed in it it will pass through the sponge only drop by drop; the pot being filled with ici pow- dered chareoal and two-thirds water, place it over the tank and let it empty itself into the aquarium. The effect of this ' simple contrivance is astonishing and it will often save one ` the trouble of arranging the aquarium anew. The time of edins mà the amount of food may depend somewhat upon the kind of stock in the aquarium. As a general rule it is better to keep the specimens under than over-fed, for they do not then by wasting their food make the water impure. Twice a week is often enough to feed them, and then very small pieces of raw beef will be found the best food; gold-fishes will not always eat the beef, and for them erumbs of bread are necessary ; should we find that they do not eat all that is given we must stop the feeding at once and remove with the glass rod the neglected portion. The process of accustoming certain salt-water fishes, such THE TRUCKEE AND HUMBOLDT VALLEYS. rri as minnows aud stickle-backs, to fresh water must be done gradually if we wish a happy result; in this process we have an example to follow, set by nature herself, for there are in- stances of bodies of what were once salt waters, so freshen- ing by degrees that they still retain seals and certain marine animals. We may find crabs in the Charles River at some distance above Cambridge, and they may be kept alive and in health for a length of time in the fresh-water aquarium. The system of artificial aération and that of producing an ebb. and flow in the marine aquarium have been practiced with success in large collections of aquaria. The value of the aquarium as a means of instruction can- not be overestimated, affording as it does the opportunity of studying the habits of aquatic animals in a manner attain- able by no other means, and giving to all an inducement to pursue further the study of natural history which will be a pleasure throughout life. * A SKETCH OF THE TRUCKEE AND HUMBOLDT VALLEYS. BY W. W. BAILEY. SiwcE the opening of the Pacific Railroad all haye had their attention more or less turned to that vast region lying between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains. It is known as the Great Basin ; but if, misled by the name, we con- ceive merely of a boundless valley, more or less desolate, we shall arrive at a somewhat erroneous conclusion. It is indeed a depression between the two giant ranges of the continent, but traversing this are successive parallel mountain chains . with a north and south trend, and only inferior in altitude to the Roeky Mountains and the Sierra. Indeed, according to our eastern notions, the whole so-called basin is but a broad 28 THE TRUCKEE AND HUMBOLDT VALLEYS. mountain top, as no portion of it is below four thousand feet. Notwithstanding the general sterility of the soil it will be seen, as I proceed, that it sustains quite an extensive and peculiar flora. With the belief that a brief sketch of this unique region will be of interest to naturalists I have ven- tured to present the results of my observations. My first botanical rambles were along the banks of the Truckee River, which has its source in Lake Tahoe, a lovely sheet of pure, cold and clear water, situated on the eastern boundary of California. From this Alpine lake the little river flows into the Great Basin and waters some of the best farming lands in Nevada. It is a narrow and rapid stream, mostly shallow, and with a rocky or sandy bottom. At intervals nature has adorned its banks with groves of cotton- wood (Populus monilifera). It is sincerely to be hoped that these noble trees will be spared by the rapacious wood-chop- pers, as in a country so meagre in its sylva, a green thing, if it be but a shrub, is cheering to the spirit, and a full-sized tree is a positive delight. The size of these poplars, and the. wide spread of their branches, render them especially wel- come to the traveller, who, parched and weary, seeks refuge within their shade. | In speaking of the plants of Nevada it is convenient to classify them much as they are distributed in nature, and we find that according to their location they naturally fall into three grand divisions : lst. The plants of the river bottoms and margins of irri- gating canals. 2d. Those found on the desert plains at a distance from water. í 3d. Those of the mountains. These main divisions for ease in study may again be sub- divided into sections almost as naturally marked, namely : A marginal section immediately contiguous to the rivers or lakes. A meadow tract, moistened generally by artificial irriga- | | 1 THE TRUCKEE AND HUMBOLDT VALLEYS. 29 tion or by streams descending from the mountains, and usu- ally dry in the summer months. A desert section proper and one more particularly per- taining to the alkaline flats and vicinity of saline springs. Lastly, the flora of the mountains is naturally divided into two distinct fields, according as the plants grow in the caüons in the vieinity of water, or flourish ou the higher and more exposed regions where in the summer months little or no moisture is obtained, unless from an accidental shower, or by direct condensation from the atmosphere. Of course these divisions are more or less arbitrary and shade the one into the other. Following the above order we observe that on the, Truckee there are a few plants immediately bordering the river and small streams which have apparently been drifted from above with soil and debris swept off by floods. The original habitat of some of these plants, I presume to be the neighborhood of Lake Tahoe, although no definite data can be given in support of such an opinion without an examination of the flora near the source of the stream. Still, certain plants which I always found on sandy shoals and islands in the Truckee, ànd nowhere else, lead me to this conclusion. Seeds, too, have undoubtedly been trans- ferred from place to place through the same medium ; but whether; with the exceptions just mentioned, the prevalent plants have advanced from the east or the west, I am not prepared to say. It would require for the study more time and larger experience than it was my lot to bestow upon it. The species of plants found along the Truckee at one camp differed but slightly from those discovered at another, pre- serving a close resemblance to each other as far as Wads- worth, the limit of my investigations. It would be tedious and uninteresting to read a list of the plants found in this region, a more correct account of which will, I hope, soon be given to the publie by one more competent to treat of them, and I shall therefore only mention such as are conspicuous to the traveller as he passes by, or such as have a positive or 30 THE TRUCKEE AND HUMBOLDT VALLEYS. possible industrial value. Among the smaller plants a spe- cies of mint is common, and a hemp from which the Pi-Ute Indians make their bow strings. There is also a highly or- namental species of sunflower (Helianthus), well worthy of eultivation, as its smaller and more brilliant flowers render it more attractive than the grosser garden form. The Mexican Poppy (Argemone Mexicana), is occasionally seen, and a thistle, which 1 consider unequalled in beauty. The deli- cately cut leaves look as if formed of silver, and the flower resembles a paint-brush charged with scarlet lake. I have before mentioned the fine groves of cottonwoods, but in addition to these a fringe of willows is often found along the stream, and a inigunbeid thicket of “Buffalo berry” (Shep- herdia argentea), Roses (Rosa blanda) , and other shrubbery. The bright berries of the Shepherdia and scarlet lips of the rose present a pleasing appearance, contrasted, as they are, with the silvery leaves of the former plant. When the roses are in bloom the effect must be even more charming. Near Hunter’s Station the river flows through exten- sive meadows producing abundance of hay and vegetables. The native grasses are mostly grown, but our own well- known “Timothy” (Phleum pratense), has been introduced to some extent, and is always much prized. This valley and that of the Carson form decidedly the richest portion of the state. The meadows are bounded by Washoe Peak, an out- lying spur of the Sierra, by the Pea-vine mountains (so-called from the frequency with which the lupines or wild peas are met with on its sides), and a range lying to the east on which is situated Virginia City. That town, however, is not visi- ble from the river. Washoe Peak is of very great height, and frequently shows snow upon its summit even in mid- summer. It is a splendid mountain in form and color, and is especially admirable when the clouds which droop over its snowy sides, are suffused with California's own golden tints. After leaving this fertile valley, the Truckee enters a narrow gorge between high rocky hills, often beautiful in the colors THE TRUCKEE AND HUMBOLDT VALLEYS. 31 'of their exposed strata and always in the graceful outline of their summits. Upon the higher portions only of these hills grows the juniper (Juniperus occidentalis), the chief and best firewood of this region, where fuel is so scarce that during the winter of my sojourn, wood sold as high as thirty dollars in gold in Virginia City. The cottonwoods are also sometimes used for fuel by those residing near the river, to- gether with drift wood brought down from the Sierra. The lower slopes inclining to the stream support only the scragg sage brush (Artemisia). Yet even in this narrow defile the farming lands are excellent, and are occupied and cultivated by thrifty settlers. The Truckee after flowing in a general easterly direction as far as Wadsworth, suddenly hacia and following a north-west course empties into Pyramid Lake. This is a sheet of water about thirty-five miles in length and ten or twelve in width at the widest part.: There are many small and steep rocky islands in the lake, some of them cov- ered with an arborescent tufa resembling coral in its appear- ance. One very abrupt, pyramidal island gives its name to the lake which was discovered and e alie explored by Fremont. The islands are the temporary home of pelicans and other sea fowl, who frequent them in the breeding sea- son, and share the rocky soil with numerous rattlesnakes and lizards. Near the mouth of the river the land is good though subject to overflows, which while they fertilize the soil for future growth, often jeopardize the present crops. 'This land is held as a reservation by the Pi-Ute Indians, but even this remnant of their once broad acres is coveted by the neighboring whites. The lake is surrounded by moun- tains, cad the lands removed from the water are of little or no value unless artificially irrigated. Just before its embouchure the Truckee throws off a branch which supplies Winnemucka Lake, parallel to Pyra- mid, but separated from it by a narrow strip of highlands and mountain ridges. This lake is rarely found on any but the most recent maps and we are led to wonder how it could a2 THE TRUCKEE AND HUMBOLDT VALLEYS. have been overlooked. The fact that it is increasing in depth’ while Pyramid is said to be decreasing, seems to indicate that it is of recent origin and occasioned by some accidental deflection of the Truckee from its legitimate course. The fresh water of the river is soon deteriorated by admixture with that of the lake, which like all similar sheets, devoid of outlets, is brackish and unpleasant to the taste. The most showy plants of the Truckee Valley, in addition to those already mentioned, were a gigantic Thelypodium often ris- ing to a height of six feet, two species of Mentzelia (Jevicau- TM and albicaulis) a species of Hosackia, and two of Cleome, and Sida. Near the mouth of the river occurs a remarkable deposit of infusorial earth. It is found encased in the cal- careous tufa so prevalent in this vicinity. Under this lies the basaltic rock. The "chalk," as it is here called, is one hundred feet in width and forms a perpendicular bluff nearly forty feet in height from the stream, which at this point is very deep. The whole deposit is very free from impurities and upon microscopical examination, by my brother, proved to be composed entirely of fresh-water forms. From the Truckee to the Humboldt Valley there is about a day's hard riding through deep sands and deserts devoid of water, where only grows a depauperate form of sage brush (Artemisia), or the equally dreary grease wood (Obione). The hills in sight are of volcanic origin, and are covered with loose and blackened scoriaceous rocks, occa- sionally encased in tufa. There is not a vestige of a tree, shrub or herb, with the exception of the ashy colored sage or the singular Effedra (anti-sypAilitica). The first and only object that awakens any interest is the group of hot springs. There are some fifteen or twenty of these presenting differ- ent degrees of temperature. One spring indicated 2019 Fah., while others were positively cool. The water is beau- tifully clear, but contains salts in solution which render it unpalatable. It is, when cooled, however, preferable to most of the villainous decoctions of the sixty-three elements, THE TRUCKEE AND HUMBOLDT VALLEYS. 33 which, in the absence of the genuine article, pass in this re- gion for water. It is often in a state of violent ebullition, and is thrown up in intermittent jets, especially when ex- traneous substances are introduced. Some of the springs of this region, highly saturated with mineral ingredients, build for themselves a conical chimney, as it were, by the deposition of their dissolved constituents. Coarse and wiry, but verdant grasses spring up around. Sometimes living fish make their abode in these boiling springs, though not found in the particular group in question. I have seen them from similar wells where the surface of the water marked 709. This statement is consistent with that of other obser- vers in various parts of the world. Carpenter says "we . have examples of the compatibility of even the heat of boil- ing water with the preservation of animal life. Thus in a hot spring at Manilla, which raises the thermometer to 187°, and in another in Barbary, whose usual temperature is 1729, fishes have been seen to flourish. Fishes have been thrown up in very hot water from the crater of a volcano, which from their lively condition, was apparently their natural residence." Various confervee and animalcule are known to occur in similar situations, and indeed, were noticed in these identical springs. Carpenter adds, “small caterpillars have been found in hot springs of the temperature of 205°, and small black beetles, which died when placed in cold water, in the hot sulphur baths of Albano.” After these quotations I hope no one will charge me with Munchausen- ism. In apparent extravagance they certainly far "m my statement. A few hours after leaving the springs the road begins to descend, and soon a view is obtained of the basin into which both the Humboldt and Carson Rivers enter and "sink," or disappear in the sands. A broad, barren valley is stretched out before us, through which the course of the river is indi- cated by the fringe of green tules which border it. Occa- ‘sionally the plain is marked by a tract of white alkaline AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 5 34 THE TRUCKEE AND HUMBOLDT VALLEYS. salts, looking like a snow field as it glistens in the sunlight. The mountains, most fantastic in outline, which border the valley, are enveloped in a gauze-like mist which seems to ‘preclude all further inquiry into the features of the anom- alous landscape. There is no live color in the scene. Even the greens with which nature usually relieves her more rugged details, are here wanting, except in the case of the tules above mentioned. Still there is a strangely fascinating and weird beauty in the view peculiar to these deserts. Here the Humboldt which begun its course far away as a fair young stream, expands into a lake, and becoming disgusted with its vitiated life commits suicide by self-burial. Hence the spot is known as the Sink of the Humboldt. At the sink proper, the water is intensely alkaline and disgusting to the taste, and the atmosphere is filled with noxious vapors and miasms. The legions of mosquitoes which infest the tules are the food of numerous water-fowl, to whom I can- didly wish all success in their warfare upon the insects. Among the birds a black swan is said to appear at times, but I did not have the fortune to see one if any such occur. Above the lake the Humboldt is a narrow, sluggish and ser- pentine stream, hardly wider than an eastern creck and totally lacking its vivacity. The water is turbid and un- pleasant to the taste. The fish which frequent it are when cooked soft and tasteless. Nota tree adorns the last hun- dred miles of the stream, low willows and Shepherdia being the nearest approach to arborescent growth. The lofty range of West Humboldt mountains are now in sight, whose highest point, Star Peak, rises to an altitude of nine thou- sand nine hundred and sixty feet above the sea. From the great height of the range, its direction north and south in conformity with the trend of the other ridges, its frequent water courses giving life and beauty to narrow belts of lux- uriant vegetation, and the wide prospect to be obtained from its many commanding points, it affords numerous subjects for consideration. Many deep cañons channel its rugged f THE TRUCKEE AND HUMBOLDT VALLEYS. 35 sides, most of which contain clear water. A strange fact in re- gard to these streams, is that they run freely, even boister- ously, during the night and early morning, and dry up utterly in the lower part of their course toward noon. The power of the sun is such as to totally evaporate the water before it reaches the plains, while the powerful radiation during the night allows the stream to resume its proper dimensions. If a handkerchief be saturated with water at noonday and then flirted in the air, it becomes dry in a moment, thus in- dicating the wonderful absorptive power of the atmosphere. Rains are so infrequent in summer that it becomes a cause of wonders, not that the rills should fail, but that they should ever flow. Along these little streams willows, aspens ( Populus tremuloides), Cornus, Shepherdia and elders (Sambucus) grow most abundantly, and Clematis with its feathery plumes waves over all. The herbage is peculiarly interesting also, columbines (Aquilegia formosa), asters and solidagos, leading us away in spirit to where their beauteous kindred smile upon the New England autumn, while the gilia (G. pulchella) and lupines are equally lovely though less familiar. Away from the streams the wild sage only thrives, if so wretched a specimen of vegetable life can be said to flourish. By far the greater mass of the mountains is desert, like the plains they overlook. The great, brown earth waves roll down into the valleys unrelieved by a dash of green, except where some sombre juniper fights its hard battle for life. Variously colored lichens occur on all the rocks, and an occasional tuft of moss on those exposed to the streams, but ferns are nowhere seen. High up on the range is found a luxuriant growth of a species of Ceanothus, and at seven thousand feet or thereabouts, the sage yields to the western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) and mountain mahogany ( Cercocarpus ledifolius). The latter is a hand- some tree, averaging twenty feet in height, with bright glossy leaves, whose revolute margins conceal the brown scurf of their inferior surfaces. Its silvery bark, the 36 THE TRUCKEE AND HUMBOLDT VALLEYS. strangely plumose fruit and shining leaves render it very conspicuous. As in the case of the manzanita (Arctostaphylla glauca) of California, the wood is susceptible of a high polish ‘and is used for many ornamental purposes. This tree and the juniper form the only respectable fuel which the country affords, and the traveller may consider himself especially blessed if he lights upon either when frantically searching for the wherewithal to kindle a blaze. The juniper is the more common tree, and is sometimes twenty or more feet in height. The wood is lighter colored and appears scarcely so compact as our eastern red cedar, which in other respects it closely resembles. The character of the vegetation is quite different on oppo- site sides of the same range, many plants being found on one side which are not at all represented on the other. As a rule the eastern exposure is the more fertile. Instances of this peculiar distribution are the little alpine potentilla (Ivesia Newberry’) found in chinks and crevices of high ex- posed granite bluffs on the western side, and a curious moss- like Spiraea (tomentosa) only found in somewhat similar locations on the eastern side. A few eastern weeds thrive about the houses in Unionville, and I also found Ranuncu- lus cymbalaria at quite an altitude in the cafions. This fact does not speak well for the soil, as this little plant generally favors the sea-shore or neighborhood of saline springs. A wild tobacco (Nicotiana) is common, which the Indians called “pah! monh!” pronounced as two interjections, and with much the sound of a person vigorously smoking an ob- durate pipe. They informed us that it was formerly much used by their tribe, until superseded by the superior article of the white men. The fleshy roots of a Phelipaea they told.me they employed as food in the month of October. The view from the West Humboldt Mountains is very ex- tensive and remarkable. The atmosphere is so pure in this region that it is possible to see a distance of sixty miles as readily as one could twenty at home. From this great THE TRUCKEE AND HUMBOLDT VALLEYS. 31 height range beyond range is seen both east and west, and there seems to be no limit to our vision. No positive colors enliven the landscape, giving it the pleasing variety of our eastern scenery, but there are only varying tints of brown in the foreground and light azure in the distance. The re- mote hills look as if merely outlined in blue. The valleys are dreary wastes, through which the roads may be seen winding. From these clouds of dust often rise a thousand feet into the still air. The dreary monotony of the desert is relieved at this distance by the broad plains of snow- white alkali, which it is well to view afar off. They have no fascination for the unfortunate traveller who inhales their smarting dust, penetrating as it does the eyes, nose and ears, and imparting a nauseous soapy taste to the mouth. These deposits often contain embedded crystals of rock-salt of great beauty. About sunset is the proper time to really enjoy the weird prospect, for the colors the mountains then assume are most charming. The main masses look as if dusted with gold, while each cañon and ravine is filled with purple shadows. 'The delicate tints change rapidly, deepening and blending until finally night drops its curtain on the scene. Still the act is not closed, for the stars twinkle above the serrated outline of the mysterious mountains, or the moonlight trans- . figures their barren slopes. When we study each detail of this anomalous scenery in its horrible individuality it seems unreasonable that the whole should in any way delight us, yet that it is fascinat- ing is most certain. "There is a peculiar coloring, or rather tinting, seen nowhere else, and never to be forgotten. I do not mean to say that the land is anything but a desert—a lit- eral “howling” wilderness, nor do I maintain with many of the settlers that earth has no fairer habitations. It is an in- sult to a forest to call it a wilderness in the above sense, teeming as it is with myriad forms of life and beauty, but here where nothing interrupts the view but bare, treeless - 38 REVIEWS. mountains, is solitude complete and unbroken. Whatever be the charm, it is yet certain that having gazed once we admire the strange picture ever after. REVIEWS. REPORT UPON DEEP SEA DREDGINGS IN THE GULF STREAM.*— This number of the Bulletin sums up the results of the panes expeditions, and is also especially valuable for many novel and interesting observa- tions upon geological and zoólogical questions. According to Professor Moe the fauna of the reef, consisting mainly of corals, extends to ten > fathoms only. 'The second zone, *a muddy mass of dead and broken shells, he corals, and coarse coral sand, is chiefly inhabited by worms, and such shells as by their sobi seek soil of this m with a few small species of living corals, some alc? atest ians, and a Alge.” This extends seaward “from a few miles” off Cape rise to v geom miles and more off Cape Sable.” ‘A third region, or zone, 4 beginning at a depth of about fifty or sixty fathoms, and extending to a 4 ? abundant, the species are generally of small size and belong to genera either identical or closely allied to those of the Cretaceous period. Th deep sea proper beyond this zone lies upon **a uniform accumulation of thick, adhesive mud, with a variety of worms and such shells as seek muddy bottoms." Professor Agassiz thinks that if the bottom in he depths was rocky, animal life would be **as varied and as numerous paratively as are the Alpine plants on the very limits of perpetual snow." With reference to geology, Professor Agassiz says that he infers from into deepe oor of this zone is rocky ; it is, in fact, a lime ] stone conglomerate, a iss of lumachelle, composed entirely of the re- E mains of organized beings, animals now living upon its surface." Algæ ; are but sparsely represented upon the plateau, and though the animals are i E been subject only to comparatively van NNI of level after they were once elevated above the primeval o In the main bearing of this Poids Piotuo) Agassiz agrees with * d of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. No.13. Re eport upon Deep Sea Dredg- he Gulf Stream during the Third Cruise of the U. S, Steamer Bibb; addressed to Pro- aede » Peirce, Supt. U. S. Coast Survey. Agassiz. pp. 363-386. Cambridge, 1869. at ie Beet, REVIEWS. 39 Dana's theory of the gradual development of continents, a view which of late has been steadily gaining in adherents, especially in this country. The statement, however, that probably no stratified rock has been formed in deep water is open to serious objections. | The Chalk, the — p the Eozoonal limestone and others of like constituti composed in great part of qiiae animals especially si to flourish at great depths, and, probably, so far as we can judge from soundings and dredgings, covering at the edi day a large portion of -the Atlantic bottom. The des uie of the physical contrast between the shelving of the Floras shore and the abruptness of the Cuban side and Bahama reefs, minute pRa of the formation and disintegration of the rocks a the Double Headed Shot Key, Salt Key, and others, will be read with the greatest interest by all geologists. We could iot do justice to this part of the beige without quoting several entire pages, and this we have not spac Generally Eas the Keys are formed, according to Professor Agassiz, of fine coral sand, which is washed up on to the higher shal- hard as ce S MI cU of the sec ondary formation." Actinians as the lowest; the is kag eit wage and the Hale; pubs as the highest among the als. Among the Madrepores the se of the genera is Turbino 5g Fungia, Astrea and Mad ra. TIME Astreeans, xm assuming their s Eg frame, are ppt prd their first coral frame is Turbi portage d from that stage they pass into a Pcie condition, befo a assume their characteristic Astraean features.” It is next e that the succession of types in geological app the vertical distribution of these types on the seashore, the Turbinolian type is found first and is followed in succession by the P naa the Astræan, and the Madreporian types. ese views also seem to be i accord with those of Alexander Agassiz, who, as v dita cited, com- 40 REVIEWS. pares the deep water Echinoids to the Cretaceous, and those of inter- mediate depths to Tertiary genera. would seem, therefore, if the latter be true, that, æ priori, the former would acquire a still higher de- gree of probability, so far as the agreement of the succession in time and depth is concerned. TRANSACTIONS OF THE CHICAGO ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. *— This part completes the first volume of ** Transactions" and in interest and value, and the beauty of the plates, fully maintains the high simi of the pre- Cr part. The plates, which are costly, are presented by the Trus- tees of the Academy, an evidence of their immediate interest in the scientific and literary reputation x their city. Nearly half of the volume is devoted to a biography of Robert tado the first Director of the ademy, from the pen of Dr. Stimpson, his successor, and the editor of ins present volume. It will be read with great interest as the record of a seg explorer and admirable field naturalist. r. J. W. Foster contributes an exceedingly interesting paper ** On the PEA of Man in North America.” Among the proofs of his great antiquity he claims that “the discovery (by Piofüssór Whitney) of a hu- man skull in California during the past season, buried deep in the gold drift, and covered with five successive overflows of lava, carries back the advent of man to a period more remote than any Ed thus far afforded by the stone mip in the drift of Abbeville and Amiens, in the valley of the Somme, or the human skeleton in the nel of the Rhine; and although the fossil elephant (E. primigenius) existed in Europe dur- ing the glacial epoch, and survived through the valley-drift and loess (which I think may be regarded as iie ind though different in the form of the materials, and indicating a difference in the transporting power of the current), this association of the remains of the elephant with a sneer of contempt. Last spring I questioned him as to the possi- bility of his having been mistaken, when he assured me, in the most sol- emn and emphatic manner, that it was true." He describes the remains of the id builders, figuring various im- plements, and recapitulates the evidence of their “advance in civilization dw and of a vegetable fibre, allied to hemp,” and “ regularly spun with an uni- form thread, and woven with a warp and woof.” It was taken from two * Vol. i, Part I. Chicago, 1869. Royal 8yo, pp. 133 to 337. With a portrait and thir- teen plates, mostly colored. NUT EIS EE IES T ee a T EE TOTER EE O SR S OENE AEN, a AE A E E E E S a REVIEWS. 41 mounds in Ohio. He closes with a chapter on the *' ái aig us to the Antiquity of man on the two Hemispheres.” The remaining articles are * Descriptions of certain Stone and Copper meena sed by th Mound Builders,” J oster, L ** List of the Birds of Alaska, n : with Biographical Notes,” by W. H. Dall and H. M. Bannister. “O Additions to the Bird Fauna of North America, made by the Scientific Corps of the Russo-American Telegraph Expedition," by S. F. Baird, and “A preliminary List of the Butterflies of Iowa,” by S. H. Scudder zc EOLOGY OF THE MISSOURI RIVER VALLEY.* — This is the final report of the interesting series from the able hands of Drs. Meek and Hayden, which have been already eA in This Report also includes one made by Dr. Hines on a portion of the route, and another by Professor Newberry, on the peat ae and Tertiary plants, x dria reviewed in the NATURALIST. A careful perusal of the latter, and of Dr. Hayden's chapter on the Physical Geography of the region surveyed would give any of our readers new ideas with regard to their own country. The pins n phical errors in the work are numerous, since it was printed dur- g the absence of the author; who read no proof of it. The historical Hin tine tion reviews the labors of previous explorers, and contains in- teresting remarks with regard to maps. These are especially opportune attached to the present report. The colors are excellent and its size and variety of details gives one a very clear idea of the geological structure of the Great Missouri Valley. The ter on physical spam contains a resumé of the results of the barometrical profiles run by t ifferent western government expe- ne showing the bòiterit rise üf the country west of St. Louis, to the Rocky Mountains. Dr. Hayden regards the viole country ve of the Mississippi as a vast plateau, which was gradually elevated to its present height, the strain bursting the central axis of the plateau and he R Mountains. Dr. Hayden describes only two types of these mountains, those having a granite nucleus and regular outline, and those composed of erupted rocks, which ‘‘are very rugged in their spies e irregular in their trend." The author regards the Black Hills as an example of the regular type, and describes the stratified rocks as lying MK a nucleus, or kernel, of granite without a break or any unconformability on either side of the axis of elevation to the latest period of the Cretaceous for- mation." From these facts we draw the inference that prior to the ele- vation of the Black Hills, which must have occurred after the deposition of the Cretaceous rocks, all of these formations presented an unbroken continuity over the whole area occupied by these mountains. This is * Geological Report of the Exploration of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers Dr. F. V. Hayden, assistant bg the direction of Captain (now Lieut. m asd Brevet Brig. General) W. F. Raynolds. 1859-60. Washington, 1869. 8vo, pp. 1 AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 42 REVIEWS. important conclusion, and we shall hereafter see its application by nier ranges, and also to the Rocky Mountain range taken in the aggregate. om evidence of a similar nature the Laramie Mountains, the Big Horn and Wind River Mountains are shown to have been elevated at some time during the Tertiary perio pe IR this connection I ‘hare thought it best w remark gos systematically in regard to the . e Missouri River and its tributa- ties tun one of the largest as well as most important Peat basins n America. It countr y. drains area of nearly or q 1,000, , Taking its rise in the loftiest portion of the Rocky Mountains, near latitude 44°, lo: de , it hward in three principal branches, Madison, Gallatin, and Jefferson forks, to weis junction, and then proc ward — it eme qe som Ae p gare Por the dpt a ien ce of nearly 200 miles; it then bends ula t f White th River, a distance of Ear iv as. 500 mi es; it then gradually bends southward and yestward to. its junction with i Mis- il ates distance of 1,500 to 2 miles. f th ssouri rise in the central portions of the Rocky Mountain range, flowing through rene basalt, and the older -seammsaaabargs? are € it emerges from the gate of the mountains, when the triassie and j The falls of the Missouri, extending a distance » o miles, eut their way through a great joda of compaet triassie rocks. Below the falls the eed oper dpen! ay thr iso the soft yieldin g élays "anf sands ot "me Oretaceous beas peg T 1 ti ling ly to the mouth of Milk River, where the lignite tiary formations commence. These are also composed of sands, marls and clays, as the seine iso of the valley will c A. iit er flows through these tertiary rocks to the Monik of en River below Fort Union, a distance of nearly 250 miles, where the Cretaceous rocks com the surface a pin. hese BB er gie at nd nearly to Council Bluffs, a distance of santa Thay ed inastraight line as nearly as possible. Just above Council Bluffs the coal me e limestones commence, and the valley of the Missouri hae ipt ecomes more dicis pie it is of moderate width even below the mouth of me Kans MAA xe y far the 1 tb h he Missouri, and for 400 miles from to b 1 I a i itself hon Fort Union to Fort Pierre. It luri tl i 1 y summer for 300 400 miles above its junction with the Misso uri. the main divide of the Rock Mountains, near latitude 44 1- 2° a an pi longitude 110°, in a lake, as some suppose, called Yellow- stone lake, whieh is ceo 60 miles long and 10 to 20 wide. Its channel is formed in rocks simi- lar to that of the Missouri, about 400 ni of its course passing through lignite tertiary beds. ‘The character of its valley is very similar. p that al the Missouri. Most of the important — "ep udi this river I p g tion of this chapter. Tongue and t t l tti di d the Big Horn range. Tongue River is nearly 150 mile s in length, and flows for the most part through the soft yielding rocks of the lignite tertiary. _Po wder. River is. from E 300 — in length, and also flows nearly Chapter II. on the * en of Geotepian Pouaiioné in the North- west." Chapter XII. on Geological Explorations in Kansas, and Chapter XIII. “Tour to the Bad Lands of Dakota," in 1866, will be found of es- get value to the student of American Geology. PETITES NOUVELLES ENTOMOLOGIQUES.*—This entomological news- paper piedi on d lst and 18th of each month, contains a résum of news interesting to entomologists, and will be useful to all who wish to keep themselves informed in current entomological information. Subscription (for North America) $1.20 a year post free. All communications to be ad- B ri to Mr. E. Deyrolle, fils, 19 Aag dela Monnaie, Paris. American subscribers ean remi in two or os sen cent postage s pia NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. BOTANY. LARGER BUR-MARIGOLD.— In the last edition of the **Manual," Prof. Gray ascribes to Bidens chrysanthemoides a maximum height of two and a half feet. The writer has recently observed this species growing to the prodigious height of from six to eight and two-thirds feet. The locality of these large specimens is near a spring in Pratt Co., Illinois. We tried the maximum size allowed it by our authors, as in ind do many other ul ree to five, rather than “two to three," as Professor Gray says. But scores of other species might be doni which seem constantly to outgrow themselves on our western soils. The flora of the United States as it is now known seems remarkable for various forms of the. same species; and although future studies will probably identify as dis- tinct species many forms now regarded as only varieties, yet remarkable differences in the size of the same species in different localities will be a more notable feature of our flora when the plants of the east and the west, the north and the south, shall have been more thoroughly studied and more diligently compared. — EDWARD L. Greene, Decatur, I llinois. Tur YELLOW-FLOWERED SARRACENIA PURPUREA. — The remarks of Mr. Tracy, on page 327 of the NATURALIST, have somewhat surprised me, as the form of Sarracenia purpurea L., there des ee though rather rare, has been long and well known. (See Gray’s Manual, ete.) This is, I er Eaton, a a. purpurea, var. hete rophylla Torr. Under the latter e d in PUA Wc it says it has been found at Northampton, Mass. It may be interesting to state in this connection, as showing its diti E Pune I collected this form (a specimen of which I preserve in my herbarium) more than two o years ago, on the south shore of Lake Superior, about thirty miles east of Marquette, Michigan. It grew with the common form. In my plant the leaves were without purple veins, or had them but very few and pale. (43) 44 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. As to its being a transition state, on its way to full whiteness, that is a point open to question. I do not know that the flower has ever been found white Those wie so strongly insist on the relation of vital force to color would seem to be sustained in this one fact, that iu almost all white vari- € (white us taken as absence of color) the foliage, stem, sepals, ,appear to sympathize, and are at least much paler than usual. But ine will not ius admitted as conclusive. — HENRY GILLMAN, Detroit, Mich. AREAS OF PRESERVATION. — Although distribution is one of the strong- est points of the derivative doctrine, yet it is wonderful to see, in the light of this sober and impartial survey [ Bentham's address on Geographi- cal Biology to the Linnæan Society, 1869], how entirely the whole aspect of philosophieal natural history in this regard has changed within two decades. **Centres of creation" and the like are of the language of the past, here replaced by Bentham's happy term of ** Areas of Preservation." And the conclusion tardily reached **that pem present geographical dis- tribution of plants was in most instances a derivative one, altered from a very different former distribution," has been followed by the sepas. that the present species themselves are equally derivative, and ha changeful history, some steps in which may be dimly surmised by di study of cognate forms, extant or fossil. At the point now reached, if not by general yet by large consent, the problems we are led to consider are such that it is indispensable to have a term of wider application than * species" technically means; and Mr. Bentham here appropriates to this use the word Race, to denote either permanent variety (the old meaning of the word when definitely restricted), or species, or groups of two or more near and so-called representative species, i. e., for those collections of seconde Soci or resembling groups of individuals, whose association in purely technical word. — A. Gray, in American Journal of Science. LEAVES oF CONIFERÆ. — At the meeting of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences on the 5th of January, Thomas Meehan referred to his original observations that the so-called leaves of pines were rather branchlets than leaves, and that the true leaves existed in the shape of scales which were adnate to the stem; and that these adnate leaves were iain free or adherent in proportion to the axial vigor of the tree. In ome Conifer, the larch being a good illustration, the adherent leaves or peas. had the power of producing long foliaceous awns, which ap- peared as true leaves. Nothing of this kind had been found in Pinus except in the one-year-old or seedling state. He now exhibited a spec- imen of Pinus serotina, which had been sent him by Mr. W. H. Ravenel, of Aiken, South Carolina, in which foliaceous awns, two inches long, had been NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 45 developed from these adnate leaves, under each fascicle of branchlets (form- ing 3-leaved fascicles). This he thought demonstrated in a more remark- able manner than any VERE Laid di he had yet made, the soundness of his former deductions. alled attention to the value of these adnate leaves in affording spe- co E They differed in form and other points nearly as much m one another as the leaves of other tribes or plants. He exhibited living specimens of Pinus Austriaca, P. sylvestris, P. maritima, P. rigida, P. pungens, P. mitis and P. glabra Walk., to illustrate this. Some were costate, some regularly plane, others neue linear, ovate, obtuse, acute, regular, oblique, spathulate, g ribbous, e etc. inus glabra, which had been confused with P. mitis, could re den be distinguished by these almost inappreciable difference founded on the old time leaves (fascicled branchlets) and cones Nores FROM CuicaGo. — Chicago has a flourishing young botanical society, the members of which meet on the first and third Saturday of each mont They have engraved upon their official se eal the Dioscorea sta considérine it the prettiest native twiner in this part of the country. s flowers of the prairies are no prettier than the flowers of New York and Massachusetts. e variety is not so great; but on account of the absence of trees and shrubs some species are represented by very, large numbers of specimens, making a grander display which is noticed by everybody. — W. J. B. PHOTOGRAPHY IN Botany. — To illustrate venation and the nature of ho from a specimen of one of the coriaceous-leaved oaks of the Men paee which was truly wonderful in its rendering. — A. GRAY, in American Journal of Science. Photography in Entomology will prove of great je especially in representing, with accuracy, the venation of the wings o the Hymenop- tera, iy «niis ard Diptera. We value very highly xis photographs taken for us several years ud by Professor A. E. Verrill; and Mr. Ca rl Meinerth of Newburyport, Mass., has taken some exceedingly good pic- tures of Hymenoptera and Moths. The venation of insects is exceed- ingly difficult to praan by the pencil, even of a facile and skilled entomologist. — EDITORS. ] TRANSFORMATIONS OF PARTS OF FLOWERS. — Professor Koch has found that in a fruit of Solanum melongena, the five anthers have been trans- formed into five smaller capsules. A capsule of poppy offers , in the cen- tre of its cavity, a small elevation € continuation of the spot, when he and awa di pe^ y upon th e scent, while I could not help shouting, " rusian d r old Bluebea -— In a few minutes he was by the side of the dead elk— a speci- men of a true hound, who certainly had exhibited a large share of reason.’ " — P. MALFORMATIONS IN INsECTS.— In the summer of 1868 I observed on several occasions along the south shore of Lake Superior, specimens of the Dragon-fly with a curious malformation, or arrest of development of the wing. In an individual I specially observed, the skin had just been cast, and the wings, not having yet hardened, were quite soft and delicate to the touch. In one of the wings was a lump-like unexpanded portion reducing the size of the limb nearly one-half. The malformation was 02 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. similar in each of the instances noticed by me, and was so serious as to prevent the flight of the insect, it invariably falling to the ground on being thrown into the air, and being quite unable to raise itself. A like deformity, with like results, I had previously found to be not unc ommoh in the Ephemera, which is produced in such countless multi- tudes in the lake region. The only wonder is that creatures so fragile that Ped the touch of a finger ye im them, pep be brought into Vased in such myriads, generally unharmed and per Is o examples of a more singular case of sun aun in the "Bess Pet green Moon-moth (Actias Luna). e wing was similarly dwarfed or Boris a large portion towards the extremity being unex- panded and harden The coloring matter and fluids which should have passed down to uri ect "s development remained above in greenish blisters, ie the skin of the wing on each side. On breaking this the contents escaped. By pressing those blisters it was possible to pro- ject the colored ee in any ewes within the wing; the motions being quite perceptible in the increased brilliancy of color of the parts where the fluid passed. — Henry GILLMAN, Detroit, Michigan. THE COTTON or ARMY Worm or THE SovTH.— The Secretary (of the a Society of London) read a VARI trae gto respecting the injury done to the cotton crop in Louisiana by the ** Army Worm," the larva of Heliothis armigera — the aver oie Eds.) “Tt stated that the crop was in danger of ! Some years ago the plan- ters of Louisiana, tempted by the high price of cotton, which was ‘then selling at peni Pants a pound, began to cultivate cotton, which had b abandoned, The sugar-can of aceenieny. importance; but me caterpillars arrived, end swept Lid the hopes of die ie i the was described audible at ihe. distance of a mile, and to resemble the crackling of a house on fire. It was npa: pde a jong Re that me Army "orm | only v visited dem hod ciega, but this was an ty ton: on in the Bahamas; they. Meroe the cultivation of cotton to M: given. up in many of ‘the West Indian Tslands, and WOK tt -South Carolina; r years | r they descended on the whole of Louisiana; and in 1825 they ravaged the oe ie the Southern States, and it was very difficult even id Hn seed for the fol- — year. The last g was in 1845, The Army worm appears often in a and other parts X jns America," BLACKBIRDS IN WINTER. — Since the flrst week in December there have been two, and part of the time three, Rusty Blackbirds constantly about one of my barns. At the same locality a number of Cow Blackbirds were seen last winter and the winter before. They appeared about the middle of November, and left the last of March. tae es only three or four were observed, but «the highest number seen was nineteen. They were usually very tame, allowing one to approach within eight or ten feet of them. Their only note was a sort of a whistle, uttered while sitting on the top of an apple-tree. The Cow Blackbirds were usually very active, but . the Rusty Blackbirds seemed much pinched with cold, and in cold days sat crouched down on their feet.—Rosert HOWELL, Nichols, Tioga County, N. Y., Jan. 11, 1870. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 53 How THE SCULPTURED TURTLE a insculpta Ag.) DEPOSITS HER EGGS. — [The following was given to me by Mr. Frank Gammons, of West Newton. I think it sisati interesting, and send it for publi- cation. — C. J. M I was passing through a cornfield in Weston, when I observed a turtle scratching about a hill of corn with one of her forefeet. I paused and watched her movements. She went to half a dozen or more hills, and seemed to try them, but for some reason they did not suit her; finally she came to one where she began to dig in earnest with both forefeet; turning around with her hind-feet acting as a pivot she continued to dig until she had formed a complete circle with the dirt thrown in the centre. She then reversed her position. by placing her forefeet in the centre and supporting herself by these alone, she with her hind-feet threw out the earth; at the same time turning around until the hole was about six inches deep and about thirteen inches in diameter. She then began to tread it down hard on the bottom. She then came out to the edge and between each deposit. Sometimes two would come out very nearly — | When she had finished laying she filled the hole by standing n her forefeet as before, and using her hind ones as shovels en dide one inch of earth was thrown in, she would get in and tread it solid. This continued until the hole wa 5 aise. when, after smoothing and treading carefully, she crawled away. She measured nine inches wide by twelve long. The soil where she dug was very sandy. ANECDOTE OF T PARROW-HAWK. — An old PA OEA once told me the following je ear € this bird and I can vouch for truth: ‘One on ng by my window looking over the ducit little town of D — —, my attention was turned towards a tame cat which was cross- ing the street, ce bearing a large mouse in her mouth, evidently a treat for her young. ut she came well nigh losing it, for a sparrow-haw came flying over, and seeing the mouse in her mouth, made a sudden swoop and tried to seize it with its Yo but us not succeed. "The hawk continued its : Qvod ntil they reached the opposite side of the street, when the eat we este under the adda and the hawk flew off into the ea wing LISON, De Wüt, Iowa. Hysprip FowrLs.— By chance I have had in my possession for two or three years a pair of hybrid fowls, bred from an ordinary dung-hill cock and a guinea hen. Not having had the means of ascertaining whether this is an isolated instance worthy of note, I have addressed these few lines to you, since if the case is worthy of attention I shall be pleased to give you any taii concerning them that is in my power. — WARD BaCHELOR, Wave [If not too si we ppl be pleased to have a description of the fowls. Will our readers inform us of any similar cases they may have authentic knowledge of. «] 54 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. THE RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET. — All our standard works on American ornithology describe the Ruby-crowned Kinglet as presenting little o no sexual differences in color, both males and females being said to pos- sess the red crest when mature; those without it being regarded as young or immature birds. I have To ng questioned whether this is so, but have not of late had an opportunity of arriving at a satisfactory conclu- sion. Mr. Jillson, writing to me recently about them, says he thinks there is some mistake about them. e says ‘‘as far as I know, all nat- uralists describe the female as having the red on the head. I have taken from three to a dozen every season in May; have dissected most of them but have never found one that had the red that was not a male never taken any without the red until after the former had all, or nearly all, gone north. Those without the red have always proved to be females, and I have never heard one of them sing; but I do not think I ever shot one with the red crown but that I had heard it sing." What now is the experience of others? Does the female ever have the red crown? —J. A. ALLEN. THE CROCODILE IN FLORIDA. — Professor Wyman describes, in the * American Journal of Science" for January, the skull of a true Croco- dile shot near the mouth of the Miami River, Florida. He remarks that ‘it has been shown by different paleontologists, especially by Dr. Leidy and Professor Cope, that several species of Crocodilians existed in North A extinct. At the present time two living species of true Crocodiles, viz: C. acutus and C. rhombifer, are known in South America, and both doe as far north as Cuba and San Domingo, but we have not been able to find a record of the presence of either of them within the limits of the United States, the Alligator being the only representative of the family to which it belongs." He considers the Florida specimen as the Crocodilus acutus. House Sparrow (Passer domesticus). — The recent introduction of this interesting and useful little foreigner to Boston, with a view to his i t in such circum- pigs they appeared to be quite at home and vastly enjoying themselves. is a social, bold, cunning and gregarious bird; domestic, yet impatient NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 55 of restraint, and his loquacity and pugnacious "mie are at times quite amusing, and if successfully acclimated, we may expect eventually to find him — a among ¢ our villages and farm menit, as well as winters, when the earth is bound by frost or enveloped with snow, in the shape of a few daily handfuls of grain and a snug shelter under the eaves of the barn or outhouse, would, I apprehend, be the extent of his de- mands on our sympathies, and with his cheerful company and active ser- vice during the ensuing season in exterminating those insectivorous pests the garden and i caet the curculio, cankerworm (Et sui generis), would be yea an ample remuneration, and a more plentiful supply of n S and luscious nns w we might expect as one of many other beneficial sey — J. R. COLLETE, Somerville, Mass. DIMORPHISM IN THE HIG Lien —The distinguished Swiss nat- uralist, M. Claparéde, in a ieee rticle: “Researches on the Annelids,” published in the **Bibliothéque arobi Archives des Sciences Phys- iques et Naturelles,” gives an abstract of his studies of the annelids of the Gulf of Naples, in which he confirms the discovery of cui (noticed in the NATURALIST, Vol. iii, p. 494) that Heteronereis is a form eo genus Nereis. He states that Ehlers, in 1867, in his ** Die vexati a work on the higher annelids, has shown the undoubted specific unity of er 1 e umerilii and Heteronereis fucicola; of Ne- illosa, and Heteronereis Middendorfii ; ys Nereis fucata and Hetero- pain TETA "e another Heteronereis to Nereis Agas d ns. inks the Nereids are ugs into Heteronereids separate sexes. But, among the peame see yen es (Carma- i toder c M. Dumeril has spes us with, offers certain points of analogy wit that of Nereis Dumerilii.” The bearing of these remarkable discoveries, as well as those dimorphie forms of insects, on Darwinism, -— especially oe dati Cope's theory of the origin of genera, is start g, and strongly con- firmatory of the latter phase of the theory of Soak ie - 56 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. DISPOSAL OF THE PLACENTA.— Noticing in the NATURALIST passing al- lusions to this subject, I desire to add my testimony in the case. I have closely observed cats and dogs in the act of parturition, and am in posi- tion to affirm that these animals devour the afterbirth. It would ration- ally be inferred from the fact that a cat’s bed, no matter how numerous her progeny, shows nothing but a few blood stains, and those made by the liquor amnii. The lying-in of a bitch that I watched through the whole process, and had under observation for some days afterward, furnished e other interesting particulars. The uterus expelled its contents at short intervals, one foetus at a time, each e merging iscay without rup- ture of the membranes, and so of course, accompani y the secundines intact. The mother at once seized the intrat mass with her teeth, tore it open, spilt the water, and shook out the puppy. She then hastily took the placenta and membranes in her mouth, chewing and swallowing convulsively until the whole mass was in her throat, the funis meanwhile hanging out of her mouth with the puppy € attached, its abdomen — her muzzle. At this point she began to bite the cord, about an inch fr the umbilicus, and chewed it off, Met not the incisor, but the canine cx aen th. A few drops of blood followed the severing of the cord; the puppy was left to its own em while the mother rested, apparently asleep, after yad foam and fatigu The process was substan- tially repeated in each instance. In this haut ehe there were nine puppies; consequently some idea of the amount of flesh taken into the mother's stomach may be formed. Here are two points for consideration. In the mode of severing the cord we have a fine example of the instinct, or perhaps rather necessity, that effects laceration, instead of clean cutting, and thus obviates hemor- rhage; for lacerated vessels do not t bleed. It raises a question now ex- tensively discussed by obstetricians; and, indeed, one might ask with ropriety, was Cain's navel-string tied? Secondly, it is probable that the secundines are not wasted, but on the contrary furnish sustenance to the mo for a time. In the case to pen I have special reference the mother did not leave her bed for forty-eight hours, nor could she be in- duced to take food brought to her during that time. The mass was cer- tainly digested, and its nourishment assimilated, as was evident from the appearance of what was voided on the third day. — ELLIOTT Cougs. SUMMER Rep Brrp.—I have just learned, through Mr. Winfield s of Amherst (in a letter to the NATURALIST), that a specimen of the mer Red Bird (Pyranga estiva), was shot in August, 1867, in that Minor this making ae ipei instance now known of the capture of this southern bird in this s Much is dad still to be learned respecting our Massachusetts Vite especially in regard to the frequency of occurrence of many of the pecies. It is to be hoped that those having facts of interest re- ii such species will see fit to report them in the NATURALIST. — NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 57 THE Osprey (Pandion haliaétus).— Mr. Allen, on page 569 of Vol. iii of the NATURALIST, refers to the desertion of the seaboard of Massachu- setts by this bird. I will relate an incident which came under my observa- tion some time ie showing that the — is still, or recently, a very near neighbor and affording some expectation of his return to our coasts where seni a suitable to his peculiar met still exist. alking from Bristol to Warren, R. I., in May, 1868, I noticed with a pleasant MD an eyrie of a pair of these birds on the denuded top or a stunted oak or butternut, at an elevation, judging from my distance, of less than twenty feet from the ground, located near a solitary farmstead, b half a mile distant on the right of the turnpike, and with but few oiher trees of dwarfish growth scattered at intervals around. The female bird appeared to be busily engaged in collecting material and repairing her nest; the male meanwhile sedulously pursuing his piscatory avoca- tion over the adjacent bay. I presume I could not have been mistaken in identifying the species on this occasion, having had some years previous a fair opportunity of studying the habits of these birds on the estate of my friend, Dr. Parmley, near Shrewsbury Iulet, New Jersey. — J. R. Cor- LETE, Somerville, Mass THE Great AuK.— The statement (Amer. Nat., iii, p. 539) that **the Great Auk or Gare-fowl, fortunately wu itself did not live long enough to receive more than one scientific name" is incorrect. I give several (Pro- ceedings of the Academy of Natural CB Phila., 1866), and believe others might be found. The tips of the wings are not white, as stated (1. c.), the primaries not being thus marked. I — Judge ‘less than case is weighty that Professor Nesnton conld not say with edens ar Se there is yet a chance of the Great Auk still existing" (ibid., p. 23). — ELLIOTT Cougs. A RARE VISITOR. — A specimen of Pomarine Jager ( Lestrís Pomarina), was obtained by Mr. Vincent Barnard on the fourth of July last, on en Susquehanna River at Peach Bottom, Lancaster County, Penn. Ana bird oF the same species was procured, during the summer of jel ^ summer may well be considered as quite remarkable. ,* AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 8 58 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. THE Cow Birp.—In the second number of ‘ Nature,” Profes Newton has an — Ü Antennae and suggestive article on Wis variation observed in Cuckoos' eggs, which seems to depend upon, or to e in some way connected with the characters of the eggs of the birds se- lected by the parasite as the foster-parents of its offspring. Has — of the sort been determined regarding the eggs of the Cow-bird? — vary, in the first place, to anything like the extent that the peers S ; and secondly, do they ever tend unmistakably to assimilate in marking o ^ ide eggs of birds usually selected by the Cow-bird as its dupes? Or, ‘again are the birds so chosen, those whose eggs have any special resem- blance to a Cow-bird's? It is not always so, I know; but is it so some- times, frequently, or usually? The subject is worthy of the attention of our ornithologists, from whom it would be well to hear. — ELLIOTT CoUuEs. OCCURRENCE OF THE BROWN PELICAN IN MASSACHUSETTS. — Since writ- ing **Notes on Some of the Rarer Birds of Moisetinsbtm," I have re- ceived, through the kindness of Mr. Martin, further information respecting the Pelicans mentioned in the February number of the NATURALIST gentleman who saw the flock referred to there, and who fired at them, fuscus) instead of White Pelivans. They came in from the sea, appar- ntly much fatigued, and alighted on the beach near the Sankaty dur. lighthouse, where they remained till driven away by being fired a White Pelican seems, however, to have been recently killed on nito Point, Nantucket, as previously our: The Brown Pelican I have not o occur previously so far north. — J. A. ALLEN T IPMUN of our jog was noticed a few days ago busily nibbling at a snake that had been recently killed. He could hardly be driven away, and soon retürned to his feast when his tormentors had withdrawn a short distance. Does the Tamias striatus in other regions possess such carnivorous propensities? — A. J. Cook, Lansing, Mich. € back yard of a small restaurant in this city as killed at the same time. There is an albino rat at a bird-store in buy J. BEAL. ` gesamte qus prs OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES, PHILADELPHIA, Nov. , 1869.— Mr. Tryon called the attention of the members n E mens pt Amnicola grana Say, from Carter County. Mis- souri, presented this evening. This very minute species was apparently o SS Mr. Tryon had discovered it, six or eight years ago, existing in consider- able numbers in ditches in the southern part of the city of Philadelphia. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 59 Mr. T. distributed specimens to many of the American "EY MeL rii most of whom informed him that it was new to their collections. "The donation this evening (Nov. 4) indicates that the species has a large area of distribution, ae has probably been overlooked by — gin we supposition that it was — the "i of some larger speci t the meting held December 2d, Mr. W. L. Mactier pi ationtinn specimen of Dolium i GE m presented by him this evening. T. iie ‘of this shell still remains a mystery, although it has been recently assigned to Japan. Mr. M. also presented a nearly perfect speci- - men of Voluta Junonia and remarked that it was the rarest of American Volutide, and was found in the Gulf of Mexico. Mr. Tryon referring to his remarks made at a former meeting in refuta- tion of Dr. Gray's opinion that Crepidula plana Say, is identical with C. fornicata Linn., stated that additional evidence of their non-identity had recently been presented by Mr. George H. Perkins, who in a recent paper states **that the ovi-capsules of plana are broader, shorter, and thinner than those of fornicata, and the ova are differently situated." GEOLOGY. FURTHER EVIDENCE OF THE AFFINITY BETWEEN THE DINOSAURIAN REPTILES AND Binps. — Professor Huxley Midas the evidence already cited by himself and others (especially Prof. E D. Cope), in favor of the ornithic affinities presented by the 5 ROSE and discusses at length the recently ascertained facts which bear upon this question, some of the most important of which are derived from the species described by him in the preceding paper under the name “ae Hypsilophodon Fozii. He summed up his paper by a comparison of the different elements o Lus pelvic arch and hinder limb in the ide eg Kris the Dinosauria d Birds, and maintained that the structure of the PD ic bones (espec- ny the form and arrangement of the ischium and pubis), the relation between the distal ends of. the tibia and the ne SIS (which is per- fectly ornithic), and the strong cnemial crest of the tibia and the direc- tion of its twist, furnishes additional and important evidence of the affinities between the Dinosauria and Birds. Sir Roderick Murchison, who had taken the chair, enquired as to the Mr á e habits of the Hypsilophodon. . Hulke mentioned that Mr. Fox several blocks Vernis X remains of a large portion of the Hypsilopho- on, all procured f om n band of sandstone near Cowleaze ine. which is longer than the femur, four long metatarsal bones, and an astra- galus. All the long bones are hollow. Portions of at least eight indi- viduals have been found in the same bed. Mr. Seeley doubted whether these animals should be called reptiles at all, as they seemed to h form a group distinct alike from reptiles, birds, and mammals, but occu- 60 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. pying an intermediate position. s the hinder limbs of Pterodactylus the ser with birds. The President, in reply, stated that Hypsilophodon, from the character of its teeth, probably subsisted on hard vegetable food. He expressed a hope that Mr. Fox would allow a closer examination of his n distinct than to authorize the creation of fresh divisions. — Nature, Lon- on. ossıL Horse IN Missovnr.— In the Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Science (Vol. ii, p. 418), Professor diei announced the discovery of horse remains in s altered drift of Kansas. I have now the honor to announce that similar ani have recently been discovered in a well at Papinville, Bates County, Missouri. Mr. O. P. Ohlinger procured a tooth at the depth of thirty-one feet from the sur- face, resting in a bed of sand beneath a four inch stratum of bluish clay and gravel. Above the last was thirty feet ten inches of yellowish clay reach- ing to the surface. Beneath the sand, containing the tooth, was a gravel bed five feet in thickness, consisting mostly of rounded pebbles resembling river gravel, generally hornstone, many partially, eus some firmly a adher- ether ing toget ther pebbles shown me from the e bed were of iron ore, coal dd Prepih sandstone. I was ide Mb that some re- mains of fluviatile shells were found. I sent the tooth to Professor Joseph Leidy of Philadelphia, and he pronomeed it to be the last upper molar of a horse, probably an extinct specie From a similar gravel bed on the banks it pee des Cygne, a fragment of a tusk was «it me resembling very much that of a mammoth. Its whole length was said to be seven feet four inches. About ten miles above Papinville, the banks of Marais des Cygne River appear to be of a similar formation to the well of Ohlinger, consisting of about twelve feet of brown sandy clay resting on ten feet of blue clay with many pebbles of worn gravel at the lower part. These gravel beds I consider as of more recent age than the drift, but older than the bluff or loess, and regard them as altered drift. They seem rather to ME on the Osage and its tributaries, and are often reached in vind we tooth tok Maysville, oe was found in altered drift at a depth of forty-five feet from the su Dr. Albert Koch exhumed the f haoa Missourium (Mastodon giganteus), from a bed u gravel and clay on Pomme de Terre River, twenty feet be- low the surface. In these beds of altered drift we may therefore expect to find many interesting remains of mammals. — bs C. Broapneap (Read gles the St. Louis — of. Science, Nov. 15, NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 61 SUDDEN DRYING UP OF STREAMS IN NEVADA. — In my article on the ‘Truckee and Humboldt Valleys,” I casually call attention to the inter- mittent character of the mountain streams in that region. I state that they “run freely, even boisterously, during the night ne iy morning, but dry up totally in the lower part of their course by n My offered explanation was rather a surmise than a conclusion. " hind at that time ot in the January number of the ** Country Epa upon **The Forest Trees and Forest Life of North-west aii a.” He says “these streams are hid in high mountains, and the sun is not of sufficient power to melt the snow which forms their volume until late in the day, when they gather force, and again decrease after sunset until they are almost dry.” This solution of the mystery is very plausible and doubtless correct as regards the streams which came under Mr. Brown's observation. It will not apply so well, however, to those of the West Humboldt Mountains, of which I wrote. At the time my attention was drawn to ject there was no snow upon the range, even the high summit of Star Peak being perfectly bare. Had there been snow, I think the heat of the sun in August was sufficient to melt it any time in the day. I confess that my own offered explanation does not account for the great volume of water in the streams. Although the subject has no direct connection with natural history, I have ventured to call your attention to it order, if - sible, to draw out a theory gans will meet the facts.— Wow: iuxta Deposits. — During the summer of 1865, whilst digging a pit for the foundation of a bridge abutment on the Pacific Railroad, four miles north of Pleasant Hill, Missouri, after passing through soil and dark clays at the depth of twelve feet, a bed of gravel and decomposing remains of fresh-water shells was reached, from which I obtained the tooth of an Bison species of ox. n the year 1868, whilst prosecuting some geological examinations in Moultrie ndi. Illinois, I found in the bank Ac askaskia River, the pem with part of the vertebral column of an ox (probably Bos lati- The distance across the skull Diea the roots of the horns "Mir n twelve inches, and the same between the eyes. The horns were short, thick, and but slightly curved forward and upward. On the bank above there were trees growing two feet in diameter. The bones were e br Besides remains of ma malia, Donik and sticks of wood have been found in modified drift at twenty feet or more beneath the bn. In North Missouri, sticks of wood have been found at a depth of seventy- five feet, part of a grape-vine at forty feet, and in Illinois a piece of cedar has been obtained from more than a hundred feet beneath the sur- face. In Nevada, Missouri, a walnut log two feet thick was dug up from 62 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. a depth of sixteen feet; and four miles north, charred wood and a bivalve shell from a depth of nineteen feet It may not be improper here to state that boulders and many rounded pebbles of granite, sienite, greenstone, etc., with ac d of drift sands, abound along the north line of Missouri, dapes even abundant near the line of the Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad; iei south they are more rare, being scarce near the Missouri River. In Baliak shes Missouri, I have observed a granite boulder twenty-five feet in diameter; in Monroe County, a greenstone boulder, three feet in diameter. Ná r the Missouri River one is rarely found more than a foot in diameter. In Osage County, Missouri, I have only found one small granite boulder, and found none in the upper river counties on the south. The Missouri River hornstone, greenstone, lignite and quartz rock, with pebbles from neigh- boring rocks; all the first named pebbles are borne down from far up in the mountains. The absence of granitoid rocks in the accumulations along the Osage and its tr ibutaries may be sufficient evidence to place the era of these de- posits in a more recent period than that of the modified drift of North Missouri. They may belong to the older loess or bluff, and we may con- clude the horse, ox, mammoth and mastodon to be coexistent. Itis even probable that they may have roamed America during the epoch of the mound builders. — G. C. BROADHEAD, St. Louis, Mo. EW MOSASAUROID REPTILES. — Professor Marsh has kei pes in soy “ American Journal of Science,” a notice of four n reptiles egeta or tiled, to Mosasaurus, from the Greensand o Hach Jersey. Her at ** a striking difference between the reptilian fauna of the mains of Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus, which here appear to be en- tirely wanting; while the Mosasauroids, a group comparatively rare in the Old World, replace them in this = s are abundantly repre- sented by several genera and numerous spec SCoLITHUS a SroxGE. — Mr. E. Billings has referred the supposed casts of worm burrows, named Scolithus and Arenicolites, and found in Silu- with their sometimes wide and trumpet-shaped icon or even with or a little elevated above the surface. — SCIENTIFIC OPIN ANTHROPOLOGY. RELICS FROM THE GREAT Mounn. —I send in this letter a perforated shell a and an oblong bead. They were found with many others in a TIN NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 03 removing the **big mound" in this city. The grave was seventy feet long, eighteen feet wide, and twenty-five feet below the surface; the dies were in a sitting attitude facing the east; the bones are nearly decayed and will crumble when exposed to the air. Ihave a lock of long black hair which was on one of the skulls; I also obtained from the same head two copper ornaments, shaped alike, which were behind the ears and beneath which were the oblong beads, one of which is enclosed; the copper ornaments are shaped like the bowl of a large tablespoon, from the convex surface of which extends a long, sharp horn. Two large conch shells were also found which are in my possession. —'T. T. Ricu- ARDS, wes uis, Mo [On genit Vol. i, of the Transactions of M Chicago Academy of MN: dues Foster mentions the finding of the “disks,” “ beads,” etc., in the grave on the mound, and figures one of the ** disks," which on the authority of Dr. Stimpson he considers as made from the shell of Busycon pervenum, often found in connection with the mounds. Colonel Foster also states that a quantity of small shells Ma arginella apicina, from the Gulf of Mexico were also found. he ear ornaments of copper men- E -bowl. We have also received a number of the disks (all with holes through the centre) from Mr. Joseph F. Tucker, of Chica, s e who states that they were found as described by Mr. Richards. We would n to publish carefully made figures of the ear ornaments in the Sarum ‘Great Mound" have been compared with those e undoubted mound skulls? For there seems to be much uncertainty relating to this mound. Was it really formed by the mound builders, or even used by them, or were the skeletons found there of the present Indian race? It will be remembered that Professor Smith, of St. Louis, who watched the level- ing of the mound, was satisfled that it was a river deposit, and not an artificial mound. —F. W. P HE DEATH OF MICHAEL Sars, the distinguished Naturalist and Pro- fessor at the Royal University at Christiana, Norway, was noticed in the last number of the NATURALIST. Since that notice was written we have he has thrown upon many of the lower forms of animals in the unri- MGR in investigations embodied in his publications, we feel it a duty to olicit aid for his family. Any remittance, however small, will be wel- come and acknowledged, and will be inewended to his family through the Norwegian minister. —Eprrors NATURALIST. 64 BOOKS RECEIVED. GEORGE PEABODY. — We have received from Mr. Carl Meinerth, of es the finest photograph we have yet seen of Mr. Peabody. It is done by the new form of Mezzo-tint, invented by Mr. Meinerth, and is a copy of the last portrait taken of Mr. Peabody by Mayall of London in 1869. CORRECTION. — A slight correction apne to be made in — wie on “ esee ” in the Feira rier mber. The “large openings” in the fi poken of on page 566, are popi — of ‘spiral a of which there is none in Hn body of such wood, but of t m ars nt Pags duets. The shaving figured, moreover, must have | been. taken from com stick of oak, not to show the great umu- lation of t inn iit each annual zone. The figure shows? them only in the second layer and a at ari ie third. —9Ó9Ó9——- BOOKS RECEIVED. Archiv fur Anthropologie. Vol. iii, Parts 1-2, Braunschweig, 1869, Laer cg nd LT ed of the oni Society of London. 4to. Vol, clvili, Parts 1 and 2 rt Proceedings of the Roya loci eaa 8vo. Vol. x. oM (1808-9). Vol. xviii, Pt. 1. 1869, List of Fe: — etc. of the Royal Soc dete London, "». Transatlantic Longitude, as determined by the hae Respite of 1866. A ure X the Supt of js U. S. Coast Sur. By Dr. B. A. Gould (sinitivontan Contributions]. 4to, Quarterly Toar nal o penienda Jan., 1870, 8vo, London. Memoirs de la Societe de Miu et d' Histoire Naturelle de Geneve. 'Tome xix, Pt. 2, 1868. Tome xx. Pt. 1. to. The Anatomy of a a Mushroom y M. C. Ce — dde Ae daa Science Review, Oct., 1869.] Le Naturaliste Canadien. Quenec, Vol. ti, No. 2. ag : Botanical Notes, By D. A. r. Watt. [From y" Canadian aturalist.] American Journal of the ‘Medical Sciences. Jan., 1570. iro (quasterhy) H.C.Lea. Phila. Half Yearly Abstract of the Medical Sciences Vol. 50. an., 1870, H. C. Lea. Philadel Iphia, An Address on the occasion of the a “Anniversary of the Birth of Alexander Von boidt. By James P. Luse. Read befor Pade Albany (Md.) Natural History society, Petites Novelles Entomologiques. Nos, 13 "a .1870. Paris. American Entomologist, Vol. ii, No. 2. De ec. Jan. Studley & Co. St. Louis. ientifie Opini J r g Stanley’s Microscopic Catalogue. Londo Praiminery Field 4 Report ue F the United States Geological Survey of Colorado and us Merico, deny E cei i oe am ority of Hon. J. D. Cox, Secretary of the Interior. By F. V. Hayden. vo ashington, eiie aig to Zoto) published by us Bo al Zoological Society (Natura Artis Magistra), mste olio. Notice su ebris ne aue faisant partie de - iate tions du poe et Pa Histoee Naturelle vm i red rrains Tertiaires des Env IECIT IER ott LP ruar CLAN 1869. 'ardwicke's e . January, Februa ps e e Also bound volume for ^ and a: fan fit de D. Nos 202. nary. —Jan.8. London. a le: Í pt Thi e Com comer ES, Atkins. 8vo, pp. 48. por er er n o of Black Bass, pes one Journal of Conehol: Vol. v, No.3. Phila Mar (10 per annum.) The — una of joe: aven. € George H. Pe rk » 8vo weise ignes Pro- ournai of a : Teacher, Jow ] zette, Manufacturer and Builder, Chemical News dong. ulliv : Lit- tell’s Living Age, American Journal of Numismatics, IT LOU ail, E a the u ounty Independent, neri Ce rnah Wise onsin State Jour- Farmer. t, Sal — Ent or. Pacific and Surgical J zette, cram s Medical Ga; M T ET E AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. IV.— APRIL, 1870. — No. 2. coc Gu 9 OTD THE SEA OTTERS.* BY CAPT. C. M. SCAMMON. THe most valuable fur-bearing animals inhabiting the waters of the north-west coast of North America are the sea otters; they are found as far south as twenty-eight de- grees of north latitude, and their northern limits include the Aleutian Islands. Although never migrating to the south- ern hemisphere, these peculiar amphibious animals are found around the isolated points of southern Kamtschatka and even to the western Kuriles, a chain of islands that separate the Okhotsk Sea from the north-eastern Pacific. The length of the matured animals may average five feet including the tail, which is about ten inches; the head re- sembles that of the fur seal of the coast, having full, black, sharp eyes, exhibiting much intelligence. The color of the females when in season is quite black, at other periods of a dark brown. The males usually are of the same shade, al- though in some instances they are of a jet shining black like their hates. The fur is of a much lighter shade inside than upon the surface; and extending over all are long, black, glistening hairs, which add müch to the richness and beauty of the pelage. Some individuals, about the nose and eyes, *Furnished for publication by the SMITHSONIAN fomes: f The most northern limit we can rely upon is sixty degrees north. Entered according to Act of Co in the ue, e 870, by the PEABODY eere ud or SCIENCE, in the Clerks Office of the District Court of the District of Massachuse 9 E AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV 66 j THE SEA OTTERS. are of a light brown or dingy white. The ears are less than an inch in length, quite pointed, standing nearly erect, and are covered with short hair. Its hind flippers, or feet, are long and webbed much like a seal’s. Its forelegs are short; the fore paws resemble those . of a cat, and are furnished with five sharp claws, each meas- uring half an inch in length; the hind feet, or flippers, are furnished likewise. Occasionally the young are of a deep brown, with the ends of the longest hairs tipped with white, and about the nose and eyes of a cream color. The mating season of the sea otter is not known, as the young are met with in all months of the year; hence it is reasonable to suppose they differ from most other species of marine mammalia in this respect.* The hunters about Point Granville say that the males are less shy, and run more in shore during May and June, and appear to be in search of the females; while on the other hand, the latter make every effort to avoid them. The time of gestation is supposed to be eight or nine months. The oldest and most observing hunters about Point Gran- ville aver that the sea otter is never seen on shore unless it is wounded. (Nevertheless we have accounts of their coming on shore upon the Aleutian Islands, which will be spoken of hereafter.) It is possessed of much sagacity, has great powers of scent, and is exceedingly imbued with curiosity. Its home is nearly as much in the water as some species of whales; and as whalers have their favorite "cruising grounds, so likewise do the otter hunters have their favorite hunting grounds, or points where the objects of pursuit are found in greater numbers than along the general stretch of the coast. About the seaboard of Upper and Lower Cali- fornia, Cerros St. Gerimmo, Guadalupe, St. Nicholas and *This remark in relation to finding the young at all seasons of the year is based THE SEA OTTERS. 61 St. Miguel Islands, have been regarded as choice places to pursue them; farther northward, off Cape Blanco on the Oregon coast, and Point Granville and Gray's Harbor, along the coast of Washington Territory. At the present day con- siderable numbers are taken by whites and Indians about these northern grounds. Thence to the northward and westward comes a broken coast and groups of islands where the animals were in former days hunted by the employees of the Hudson Bay Company, Russian American Company, and the natives inhabiting those broken shores. These interesting animals are gregarious, and frequently may be seen in bands numbering from fifty up to hundreds. When in rapid movement they make alternate, undulating leaps out of the water, plunging again as do seals and por- poises. When in a state of quietude they are much of the time on their backs. They are frequently seen in this post- ure with the hind flippers extended as if catching the breeze to sail or drift before it. They live on clams, as well as crabs and other species of crustacea; sometimes small fish. When the otter descends and brings up any article of food, it instantly resumes its habitual attitude on the back to de- vour it. In sunny days, when looking, it sometimes shades its eyes with one forepaw, much in the same manner as a person does with the hand. The females usually have but a single young one at a birth, never more than two, which are brought forth on the kelp (say the white hunters), which abounds at nearly all points known as their favorite resorting places.* * That the ott r, or on the kelp, appears improbable; however, may it not be cipi e? We have: it : from retty reliable authority that do — ont the beaches ab out e Aleutian Islands. E it probable that the habits of the D T 3 PS à P PUTI + "m + it Thare bch oiomed on the contrary, those m 1l ith much valu- able data, I know to be of pienten s — and th y scc | positi. never come on shore unless in some way disabled." This is the ise; of Mr. Blodget, a very successful hunter at Point Granville. He assures me that he has searched dili- 68 THE SEA OTTERS. The mothers caress and suckle their offspring seemingly with much affection, fondling them with their forepaws, re- clining in their usual manner, and frequently uttering a plaintive strain, which may have given rise to the saying that “sea otters sing to quiet their young ones.” But when startled they rise perpendicularly nearly half their lengths out of the water; and if their quick, sharp eyes, discover aught to cause alarm, the cubs are seized with the mouth, and instantly all will disappear under water. Both males and females are sometimes seen curled up in such shapeless- ness as to present no appearance of animal form; when in this position they are said to be sleeping. The perpendicular attitude is likewise often adopted during the mating season. The sea otter is rarely seen far from land, its home being in the thick beds of kelp near the shore, or about outlaying rocky reefs. Point Granville seems to be an exception, as there is no gently for their tracks along the sandy beach lying between the above-named point and ahd Maroon but never found the least indication of them Captain Williams, who has long been a successful sea otter bauer on the California et pe me ey Mr. Blodget/s statement as to sea otters coming on shore on tha t ast. oxe, in his work published in 1780, writes the following in relation to the sea otter: * Of all these —— the skins of the sea otter are the richest and most valuable. Those animals resort in great numbers to the Aleutian and Fox Islands; they are called by the Russians ^ Bosbry Morfki, or sea beavers, and sometimes Mpeg 1 pp on this animal is of the dele seb 8, whereas e true sea o The females are called Matka, or dams; and pan ubs, till five wer old, Medviedki, or little bears, € cause their coat resemble es that of a ‘pean; they lose that coat after five months, an Kofchloki. fur of "e pss son is thick and d long, : of a dark color, and fine Lon A p en nre Ta ken four ways B followed in boats and -juatéd down till they are tired, surprised in madras, o ond taken ce At ppenieem ena the pe sell for, per skm, from thirty to ap iA roubles; middle sort, twenty to E thirty; worst sort, fifteen to twenty-five. At Kiachta, the old and middle- otter skins, are die to the Chinese per skin, from eighty to one hundred; the worst sehe from thirty to fx s these furs fetch so vent a price to the Chinese, they are seldom brought into Russia for sale; and several, which have vn carried to d as a tribute, were purchased thirty roubles a skin; and sent Ng thence to the Chinese frontiers, disposed of at a very high intere THE SEA OTTERS. 69 kelp in sight from the shore, but the Indians say that there is kelp in large patches about ten miles seaward, where the animals resort as a breeding place.* About the period of the eatablishing of Fort Astoria, near ' the mouth of the Columbia, and for many years following, the sea otter hunters, along the coasts of Califorma and Oregon, were made up from nearly all the maritime nations of Europe and America, as well as from among the different tribes of natives that dwelt near the seashore. Those of the former were hardy spirits, who preferred a wild life and ad- ‘venturous pursuits, rather than civilized employment. The distance coasted in their lightly constructed boats, the stealthy search for the game, and when discovered, the sharpshooting pursuit, gave these hunting expeditions a pleasant tinge of venture; moreover, the taking of sea ot- ters on the coasts of the Californias by foreigners, was pro- hibited by the Mexican government; and the hunters were aware that, if detected, the penalty would be severe; hence they ever kept a watchful eye on all vessels seen, which were carefully avoided, or cautiously approached. An “otter canoe” is fifteen feet long, nearly five wide, and eighteen inches deep. It is sharp at both ends, with flaring | sides, and but little shear. Still these boats are admirable sea-goers, and regarded as unsurpassed for landing through the surf. Its shape is peculiar; so likewise are the paddles for propelling it, which are short with very broad blades, being better adapted for use in the thick beds of kelp. The outfit when going on a cruise is limited nearly to the barest necessities. Two men usually hunt in one boat, each taking his favorite rifle, with a supply of ammunition. A little tea, coffee, sugar, flour, or ship-bread, are provided, adding pipes and tobacco, and, as a great luxury, perhaps a keg of spirits completes their equipment. All being in readiness, they leave the quiet waters of the * Within the last four year this locality — by e Indians as producing eris ca of kelp, but have never i fond any.—C. M 10 THE SEA OTTERS. harbor and put to sea, following the trend of the land, but oecasionally making a broad deviation to hunt about some island, miles from the main. ' When an otter is seen within rifle-shot instantly the hunter fires, and if only wounded the animal dives under water but soon reappears to be repeatedly shot at till cap- tured. Sometimes three boats will hunt together; then they take positions one on each side, but in advance of the third, and all three in the rear of where the animal is expected to be seen. It is only the practised eye of experienced men that can detect the tip of the animal's nose peering above water disguised by a leaf of kelp. Thus they cruise in search of the game landing to pass the nights, at different places well known to them, behind some point or rock that breaks the ocean swell. The land- ings are "made" by watching the successive rollers as they undulate upon the beach, and when a favorable time comes the boat with dexterous management glides over the surf with safety to the shore. It is then hauled up clear of the water and turned partially over for a shelter; or a tent is pitched, a fire is made of drift wood, or if this fail, the dry stalks of the cactus, or a bunch of dead chapperel serves them; the evening meal is soon partaken of with hearty relish; then come the pipes, which are enjoyed intensely. Freed from all care these hardy men talk of past adventures and frolies, and when inclined roll themselves in their blank- ets for a night's invigorating sleep in the open air; awaking at day-break to the screams of sea-birds and the barking of coyotes attracted by the scent of the encampment. he morning repast over they again embark in their cockle-shell bosti; launch through die surf, gain the open sea, and paddle along shore, ever on the watch for “otter sign." From San Francisco northward as far as Juan de Fuca Strait, the hunting is chiefly prosecuted by shooting them from the shore, the most noted grounds being between TAPER Re SETS NA AUREIS ET IRSE ORE MERERI EU LES UNDLOUDTUL MESS We O lo Soh sea ee TEGERE RID PR DI EN MR e LIRE PE ONT 1 A j 1 | REPAS ANNUS UE EPR ee eS THE SEA OTTERS. 11 Gray’s Harbor and Point Granville, a belt of low coast lying between the parallels of 46° and 48° north latitude. e white hunter builds his two log cabins, one near the southern limits of his beat and the other at its northern terminus near Point Granville. During the prevalence of southerly winter gales he takes up his quarters at the last named station, as the game is found there more frequently ; but when the summer winds sweep down from the north he changes his habitation and pursues the animals about the breakers of Gray's Harbor. From early dawn, till the sun sinks below the horizon, the hunter with rifle in hand and ammunition slung across his shoulder,* walks the beach on the lookout for a shot; the instant one is seen, crack goes the rifle, but it is seldom that the animal is secured by one fire. A sea otter's head bobbing about in the restless swell is a very uncertain mark; and if instantly killed the reced- ing tide or adverse wind might drift the animal seaward, so that even if it eventually drifts to shore it may be far out of sight from the hunter by day, or is thrown on the rocks by the surge during the night, and is picked up by some one of the strolling Indians, who “run the beach" in quest of any dead seal, or otter, that may come in their way. It is estimated that the best shooters average at least twenty-five shots to every otter killed; and only about one- half the number shot are secured by the rightful owners. But when once in his possession, it is quickly fleeced of its valuable skin, and stretched on the wall of the cabin to dry. It is no unusual occurrence for the hunter to pass a week travelling up and down the beach, and he may shoot sixty or more rounds, perhaps kill several, but owing to bad luck, not one is secured, all either drifting to sea, or to shore, possibly am informed by Mr. Ford, a resident near the hunting grounds, that the hunters now use à kind of a ladder, or it might be termed two ladders joined near the head ends by a hinge, opening at me lower ends. It is made of y very DEON be easily carried by hand; and mounted by the areae when an elevation is desired, which is 8 considered a great advantage under some cireu 12 THE'SEA OTTERS. with the flowing night-tide; and the object so eagerly and patiently sought for is at last stealthily appropriated by some skulking savage. Notwithstanding their propensity to purloin, the Indians of the north-west coast not only occasionally shoot the sea otter as do the whites, but in the months of July and August, when calm weather prevails, they capture them by night. A small canoe is chosen for the purpose and the implement used is a spear of native make composed of bone and steel, fitted to a long pole by a socket. Four chosen men make the crew for the canoe. Near the close of the day a sharp watch is kept on any band of the animals that may have been in view from the shore and their position accurately defined before beginning the pursuit. All being in readiness, as the shade of evening approaches, they launch upon the calm sea, and three men paddle in silence toward the place where the objects of pur- suits were seen, while the fourth takes his station in the bow — who is either a chief or some one distinguished in the chase— watches intently for the sleeping otters. As soon as one is descried the canoe is headed for it, and when within reach the spear is launched into the unwary creature, which, in its efforts to escape, draws the spear from the pole, but is not freed yet (as there is a small strong line connecting the spear and pole together, although permitting them to sepa- rate a few feet). It dives deep, but with great effort, as the unwieldly pole greatly retards its progress. The keen-eyed savage, however, traces its course in the blinding darkness by the phosphorescent light caused by the animal's transit through the water, and when it rises upon the surface to breathe is beat with clubs, paddles, or, perhaps another spear, and is finally despatched after repeated blows or thrusts. The confliet arouses the whole band which instantly disappear, so that it is seldom that more than one is secured. As soon as the hunt is over the animal is brought on shore, the skin taken off and stretched to dry, and when See loui dM M LOU I p uL Hua MC d NM MEC P d m cns duc occ MMC AE DL RI LM ME CALL Ru: SSE ae M ES HER THE SEA OTTERS. 73 ready for market the lucky owner considers himself en- riched to the value of ten or fifteen blankets. The flesh of the otter is eagerly devoured by the Indians as a choice article of food. The mode of capture between Point Gran- ville and the Aleutian Islands varies with the different native tribes inhabiting that coast. About the Aleutian Islands, the natives, dressed in their water-proof garments made from the intestines of seals, wedge themselves into their bidarkas (which are constructed with a light wooden frame, and covered with walrus or seal sking*), i and as it were plunge through the surf that dashes high among the crags, and with almost instinctive skill reach the less turbulent ground swell that heaves in every direction. Once clear of the rocks, however, the hunters watch in- tently for the otters. The first man that gets near to one darts his spear, then throws up his paddle by way of signal ; all the other boats form a circle around him at some distance ; the wounded animal dives deeply, but soon returns to the surface near some one of the boats forming the circle; again the hunter that is near enough hurls his spear and elevates his paddle, and again the ring is formed as before. In this wise the chase is continued till the capture is made. As soon as the animal is brought on shore the two oldest hunters ex- amine it, and the ore whose spear is found nearest its head is entitled to the prize. The number of sea otters taken an- nually is not definitely known, but from the most authentic information we can obtain the aggregate is two thousand six hundred ; valuing the skins at fifty dollars each, amounts to the sum of one hundred and thirty thousand dollars. Whether these most valuable fur animals have decreased in numbers within the few past years is questionable. The hunting of them on the coast of California is no longer *These * bidarkas, or skin-boats,” from twel fe 'cording as they may be made for one or two persons, the greatest width — about ety inches, and depth ayer inches. In these frail crafts the natives go fro to Sanak Islands to hunt the sea otter, a distance of one hundred and rune AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 10 . 14 FALCONRY. profitable for more than two or three hunters, and we believe of late, some seasons have passed without any one engaging in the enterprise; notwithstanding off Point Granville, which is an old hunting ground, sixty otters were taken by only three hunters during the summer of 1868, a great an- nual increase over many past years. It is said that the Russian American Company restricted the number taken yearly by the Aleutian Islanders — from whom the chief supply was obtained —in order to perpetuate the stock. Furthermore may it not be that these sagacious animals have fled from those places on the coasts of the Californias, where they were so constantly pursued, to some more isolated haunt, and now remain unmolested. FALCONRY. BY WILLAM WOOD, M.D. As Falconry, before the discovery of gunpowder and fire- arms, was a favorite amusement of the kings and nobles all over Europe, and as it is even to the present day among the Turks in some parts of Asia Minor; among the Persians, the Cireassians, the wandering hordes of Tartars and Tur- comans, and as it forms one of the chief sports of some of the native princes of India, and is not unknown in the northern provinces of China, and among several other bar- bárous or half-civilized countries, it may not be uninterest- ing to my readers to know in what estimation it has been held. I will not in this article give any account of the manner of training falcons; suffice it to say that they were taught to fly at the game and capture it, and come at call. It required months, and sometimes years, to train them properly. Hawking was not unknown to the Romans in the early FALCONRY. 15 part of the christian era, but was first introduced into Eng- land from the north of Europe during the fourth century. In 920 the Emperor Henry was called the fowler on aecount of his great fondness for the sport. In the eleventh century when Canute, king of Denmark and Norway, ascended the English throne, the amusement became more and more prev- alent. After the ascension of William of Normandy to the English throne, none but persons of the highest rank were allowed to keep hawks. The killing of a deer, or boar, or even a hare by a serf, was punished with the loss of the delinquent's eyes, when the killing of a man could be atoned for by paying a moderate sum. In the twelfth century this was the favorite recreation of all the kings and nobles of Europe. “It was thought sufficient for noblemen’s sons to wind the horn, and to carry their hawk fair, and leave.study and learning to the children of meaner people." A German writer, about the year 1485, complains that "the gentry used to take the hawks and hounds to chureh with them, disturb- ing the devotions of those religiously inclined, by the screams and yells of the birds and beasts." This diversion was in so high esteem all over Europe, that Frederic, one of the emperors of Germany, thought it not beneath him to write a treatise on hawking. In 1481, in the reign of Rich- ard III, Juliana Berners, sister of Lord Berners, and prior- ess of the nunnery of Sapewell, wrote a tract on faleonry, which was loudly applauded by her cotemporaries, and be- came what Hoyle has on games,—a standard treatise. In 1615 and 1619, two works on the same subject were pub- lished in London, the former, by Gervase Markham, the latter, by Edmund Bert. In the thirteenth century the arbitrary law of William, then Duke of Normandy, was somewhat modified by King John, "allowing every freeman to have his eyries of hawks, - faleons, ete., in his own woods." In the fourteenth century, Edward III, of England, made it felony to steal a hawk, or take the eggs, and "punished the offender by imprisonment 16 ; FALCONRY. for one year and one day, together with a fine, at the king’s pleasure.” Any person finding a hawk was to carry it to the sheriff of the county, who was immediately to cause a proclamation to be made in all the principal towns in the county (each falcon had a ring put around his leg with the owner's name engraved on it, and a small bell was sus- pended from the neck of the bird so that it might be discov- ered when lost in the chase). Any attempt of the finder to conceal or appropriate it was to be punished the same as stealing. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth the imprison- ment was reduced to three months, but the culprit was to lie in prison "till he got security for his good behavior for seven years." The dignitaries of the church even indulged in the sport, and the poet Chaucer represents them as being more learned in hunting than in divinity. During the middle ages a Eu- ropean showed his rank by having a hawk on his fist, and when he died the bird was generally carved on his monu- ment. Among the Welsh priuces the king's faleoner was the fourth officer in the state; yet he was "forbidden to take more than three drams of beer from his horn lest he should get drunk and neglect his duty." The grand fal- coner of France had four thousand florins per annum, was ullowed three hundred hawks, and had fifty gentlemen and fifty attendants to follow him. He rode out with the King on all great occasions. The prices paid for falcons were enormous. Sir Thomas Monson paid five thousand dollars for a pair. In Persia the gerfalcon of Russia is not allowed to be kept by any per- - son except the king, and each bird is valued at fifteen hun- dred crowns. Hawks were sent as royal tokens from kings to kings, and formed a customary present from the sovereign . to the embassador of a friendly power. In more ancient times they were bequeathed as valuable and honorable lega- cies, with the injunction, **that the legatee should behave kindly and dutifully by the said bird." ` FALCONRY. 77 The sport suffered no decline on the accession of the Tudors. Henry VII. made laws about hawking as did also Queen Elizabeth, who occasionally indulged in the amuse- ment with the ladies of her court. Sir Walter Raleigh, allud- ing to her sylvan sports, compares her and her retinue to the goddess Diana and her nymphs. John of Salisbury, who wrote in the thirteenth century, said, “that the women even excelled the men in the knowledge and practice of falconry.” Henry the VIII. followed the sport until he grew so fat and unwieldy, that in attempting to vault a ditch, he fell in where the “bottom had fallen out,” and would have drowned but for the assistance of a John Moody. Says Hall, “God in his goodnesse preserved hym.” In 1531, Sir Thomas Elyot “lamented that providing the numberless hawks then kept by the English gentry, with their customary food of hens, almost threatened the total extinction of the valuable race of domestic poultry.” In 1536, in the twenty-seventh year of the reign of Henry VIII, owing to the inroads made upon the game, he issued a pro- clamation to protect them, and made it imprisonment, and such other punishment as should seem meet to his highness the King, for “any person of whatever rank who should kill, or in any way molest herons, partridges and pheasants from his palace at Westminster to St. Giles’s-in-the-Fields, and from thence to Islington, Hampstead, Highgate and Hornsey ark.” Falconry had in a great measure lost its prestige in Eng- land by the beginning of the seventeenth century. Hawking . was then classed among “the amusements of squires and country gentlemen generally." In a book of advice which James I. wrote for the benefit of his eldest son Henry, Prince of Wales, after recommending manly exercises, hunting, etc., he adds, "as for hawking, I condemn it not, but I must praise it more sparingly, because it neither resembleth the warres so near as hunting doeth, in making a man hardie and skilfully ridden in all grounds, and is more uncertain and 78 FALCONRY. subject to mischances; and which is worst of all, is there through an extreme stirrer-up of the passions.” The greatest faleoner of modern times was one of the Lord Orfords who died toward the close of the last century. This nobleman spent a princely fortune in attempting to re- vive an obsolete taste. He had a large. number of hawks and a regular establishment of faleoners. Each hawk had its separate attendant; "they were all sent on occasional voyages to the continent for the sake of a more congenial atmosphere during their time of moulting." Having now traced falconry through the English dynasty, and as they confined it mostly to the smaller game, I will ' give some account of it among other nations who have car- ried it to a greater degree of perfection. There was no nation in Europe prior to the fifteenth century but what the emperor, kings and nobles indulged in this sport, and it was considered "as the exclusive attribute of noble blood." Even in China and Tartary in the thirteenth century, it was strictly forbidden "to every tradesman, mechanic or hus- bandman throughout his Majesty's dominions to keep a hawk, or any other bird used for the purpose of game, or any sporting dog." In China, Tartary, India, and some other eastern nations, they capture the stork, swan, heron and hubara with their faleons and. train dogs to act in con- cert with them, so that they pursue and take hares, foxes, wolves, deer and antelopes. Father Rubruquis and Marco Polo make frequent mention of the practice of hawking during the thirteenth century among the wandering Tartars. A sport which Marco was excessively fond of, and frequently indulged in. The ol Venetian informs us, that the grand Khan (Kublai), who was at once Emperor of Tartary and China, kept at one place, where he was accustomed to resort for the purpose of hawking, two hundred falcons, which during his stay there “he always visited and inspected in person, at least, once a week.” FALCONRY. 19 The Emperor after residing the usual time in China,- always proceeded to enjoy the field sports in the plains of Tartary, attended by full ten thousand falconers, who carried with them a vast number of gerfalcons, peregrine falcons and sakers. He has also with him ten thousand men who are called taskaol, distributed all over the country, whose busi- ness it is to watch the hawks, assist them when necessary, and secure the falcon when he has captured the game. Marco tells us, that the Grand Khan takes his wives and the ladies of the court with him on these expeditions, who have their own hawks and join in the sport. These with their attendants, physicians, astrologers, courtiers, slaves and fal- coners formed an immense retinue. Dividing up into par- ties of one hundred and two hundred, they proceed to the lakes and river, where they capture great numbers of storks, herons, swans, ducks and smaller game. Each bird belong- ing to his Majesty, or to any of his nobles, has a small silver label fastened to his leg, on which is engraved the name of the owner and the name of the keeper so that it can be readily restored. The manner of taking the prey shows great skill and sagacity, the falconer usually carries his hawk to the field on his fist protected by a glove, and on seeing game, removes the head-gear (a hood to cover the head and eyes of the bird) and casts the bird off with a loud whoop to encourage her. If the bird flushed is a duck, partridge, pheasant, or any bird that does not soar high, the hawk quickly strikes and brings it down, but if it is a heron, or some bird strong on the wing, it will attempt to keep above the hawk. Now comes the tug of war, each trying to mount above the other until nearly out of sight, when the faleon by performing a succession of spiral eircles rises above the game, and darts down upon it with all her force and velocity, when both tumble from the sky together, the sportsman hastening to the spot with all possible dis- patch assists the hawk in her struggle with the prey. Marco informs us that "the Emperor had reclaimed eagles which & 80 FALCONRY. ` were trained to swoop at wolves, and such was their strength that none, however large, could escape from their talons." The accounts given by Father Rubruquis and Marco Polo would seem incredible were not their statements fully con- firmed by other writers. The description given by Johnson of the number and magnificence of the hunting retinue of the Nabob-vizir of Lucknow makes it nearly, if not quite, equal to that of the Emperor of Tartary and China as de- scribed above. The Persians, on some occasions when hunting hares and other four legged animals, dress their hawks with leather breeches. I will give the language of Sir John Malcolm respecting it. “When at Shiraz the Elchee had received a present of a very fine Shah-Baz or royal falcon. Before go- ing out I had heen amused at seeing Nutee Beg, our head- faleoner, a man of great experience in his department, put upon this bird a pair of leathers which he fitted to its thighs with as much care as if he had been the tailor of a fashion- able horseman. I inquired the reason of so unusual a pro- ceeding. ‘You will learn that,’ said the consequential master of the hawks, ‘when your see our sport;’ and I was con- vinced at the period he predicted of the old fellow’s knowl- edge of his business.” “The first hare seized by the falcon was very strong, and the ground rough. While the bird kept the claws of one foot fastened in the back of his prey, the other was dragged along the ground till it had an opportunity to lay hold of a tuft of grass, by which it was enabled to stop the course of the hare, whose efforts to escape I do think, would have torn the hawk asunder if it had not been provided with the leathern defences which have been mentioned.” The account given by Marco of the training of eagles for the chase is fully substantiated by a later writer, Thomas Witlam Atkinson. The following account of hunting with the eagle in Chinese Tartary is related by him in his “Seven Years Explorations and Adventures in Siberia, Mongolia, the LÀ FALCONRY. 81 Kirghis Steppes, Chinese Tartary and a part of Central Asia." “A well-mounted Kirghis held the bearcoote, chained to a perch, which was socuied into a socket on his saddle. The eagle had shackles and a hood and was per- fectly quiet, he was under charge of two men. “We had not gone far when several large deer rushed past a jutting point of the reeds and bounded over the plain about three hundred yards from us. In an instant the bearcoote was unhooded and his shackles removed, when he sprung from his perch and soared up into the air. I watched him ascend as he wheeled round, and was under the impression that he had not seen the animals; but in this I was mistaken. He had now risen to a considerable height and seemed to poise himself for about a minute. After this he gave two or three flaps with his wing and swooped off in a straight line towards his prey. I could not perceive that his wings moved, but he went at a fearful speed. There was a shout, and away went his keeper at full gallop followed by many others. When we were about two hundred yards off the bearcoote struck his prey. The deer gave a bound forward and fell; the bearcoote had struck one talon into his neck, the other into his baek, and with his beak was tearing out his liver. The Kirghis sprang from his horse, slipped the hood over the eagle's head, and the shackles upon his legs, and removed him from his prey without difficulty. The keeper mounted his horse, his assistant placed the bearcoote on his perch, and he was ready for another flight. No dogs are taken out when hunting with the eagle, they would be destroyed to a certainty ; indeed, the Kirghis asserts that he will attack and kill the wolf. We had not gone far before a herd of small antelopes were seen feeding on the plains. Again the bird soared up in circles as before, and again he made the fatal swoop at his intended victim, and the animal was dead before we reached him. The bearcoote is unerring in his flight; unless the animal can escape into holes in the rocks, as the fox does sometimes, death is his certain doom." In another AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 11 82 FALCONRY. place he says "next morning before starting, I sketched Sultan Beck and his family. He is feeding his bearcoote— hunting with the king of birds being his favorite sport." The Persians have a peculiar kind that they train to fly at antelopes and to act in concert with dogs. The huntsmen ‘proceed to a plain, or rather desert, near the seaside with hawks on their hands and greyhounds led in a ieash. When an antelope is seen they endeavor to get as near as possible, but the animal the moment that it observes them goes off at a rate that seems swifter than the wind; the horsemen are instantly at full speed, having slipped the dogs. If it isa single deer they àt the same time fly the hawks, but if a herd they wait till the dogs have fixed upon a particular antelope. The hawks skimming along near the ground soon reach the deer, at whose head they pounce in succession, and with so great violence as to confuse the animal so much as to stop his speed in such a degree that the dogs can come up and in an instant, men, horses, dogs and hawks surround the unfortunate deer and capture it. The antelope is supposed to be the fleetest quardruped on earth, and the rapidity of the chase is said to be wonderful and astonishing, the dis- tance run, generally, not exceeding three or four miles. In the spring of 1861, on the return from Russia of our late Ex-Governor, Thomas H. Seymour, who had been min- ister to that country for several years, in conversation with him, 1 learned that faleonry was still a favorite sport in the East, and that he had joined in the chase several times ; that eagles were trained as formerly, and that he had seen falcons with their leathern breeches on catch hares and hold them by inserting one talon into the game and holding on to the turf, or anything that came in the way with the other, and that they held on with such tenacity that their limbs would be dislocated or torn from their bodies were they not thus protected. ^ CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. BY A. 8. PACKARD, JR. Tue subject of our discourse is not only a disagreeable but too often a painful one. Not only is the mere mention of the creature’s name of which we are to speak tabooed and avoided by the refined and polite, but the creature itself has become extinct and banished from the society of the good and respectable. Indeed under such happy auspices do a large proportion of the civilized now live that their knowl- edge of the habits and form of the louse may be represented by a blank. Not so with some of their great-great-grand- fathers and grandmothers if history, sacred and profane, po- etry, and the annals of literature testify aright ; for it is com- paratively a recent fact in history that the louse has awakened to find himself an outcast and an alien. Among savage na- tions of all climes, some of which have been dignified with the apt, though high sounding name of Phthiriophagi, and among the Chinese and other semi-civilized peoples, these lords of the soil still flourish with a luxuriance and rankness of growth that never diminishes, so that we may say without exaggeration that certain mental traits and fleshly appetites induced by their consumption as an article of food may have been created, while a separate niche in our anthropological museums is reserved for the instruments of warfare, both offensive and defensive, used by their phthiriophagous hun- ters. Then have we not in the very centres of civilization the poor and degraded, which are most faithfully attended by these revolting satellites ! But bantering aside, there is no more engaging subject to the naturalist than that of animal parasites. Consider the great proportion of animals that gain their livelihood by stealing that of others. While a large proportion of plants are more or less parasitic, they gain thereby in (83) 84 CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. interest to the botanist, and many of them are eagerly sought as the choicest ornaments of our conservatories. Not so with their zoological confreres. All that is repulsive and uncanny is associated with them, and those who study them, though perhaps among the keenest intellects and most industrious observers, speak of them without the limits of their own circle in subdued whispers or under a protest, and their works fall under the eyes of the scantiest few. But the study of animal parasites has opened up new fields of re- search, all bearing most intimately on those two questions that ever incite the naturalist to the most laborious and untiring diligence — what is life and its origin? The sub- jects of the alternation of generations, or parthenogenesis, of embryology and biology, owe their great advance, in large degree, to the study of such animals as are parasitic, and the question whether the origin of species be due to creation by the action of secondary laws or not, will be largely met and answered by the study of the varied metamorphoses and modes of growth, the peculiar modification of organs that adapt them to their strange modes of life, and the conse- quent variation in specifie characters so remarkably charac- teristic of those animals living parasitically upon others.* With these considerations in view surely a serious, thought- ful, and thorough study of the louse, in all its varieties and species, is neither belittling nor degrading, nor a waste of time. We venture to say, moreover, that more light will be thrown on the classification and morphology of insects by the study of the parasitic species, and other degraded, wingless forms that do not always live parasitically, especially of their embryology and changes after leaving the egg, than by years of study of the more highly developed insects alone. Among Hymenoptera the study of the minute Ichneumons, such as the Proctotrupids and Chalcids, especially the egg-parasites; * Wi 1 Ta dhat Ye notice f Parasitology has for some- time been issued in Germany--that favored land : of du. It is the * Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde," edited by Dr. E. Hallier and A , Jena. CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. 85 among moths the study of the wingless canker-worm moth and Orgyia; among Diptera the flea, bee-louse (Braula), sheep tick, bat ticks, and other wingless flies ; among Cole- optera, the Meloé, and singular Stylops and Xenos; among Neuroptera the snow insect, Doreus, the Podura and Lep- isma, and especially the hemipterous lice, will throw a flood of light on these prime subjects in philosophical entomology. Without farther apology, then, and very dependent on the labor of others for our information we will say a few words on some interesting points in the natural history of lice. In the first place, how does the louse bite? It is the general opinion among physicians, supported by able entomologists, that the louse has jaws, and bites. But while the bird lice (Mallophaga) do have biting jaws, whence the Germans call them skin-eaters (pelzfresser), the mouth parts of the genus Pediculus, or true louse, resemble in Fig. 13. their structure those of the bed-bug (Fig. 13, from the author's "Guide to the Study of In- sects”) and other Hemiptera. In its form the louse closely resembles the bed-bug, and the two groups of lice, the Pediculi and Mallo- phaga, should be considered as families of Bed-bug. Hemiptera, though degraded and at the base of the hemip- terous series. The resemblance is carried out in the form of the egg, the mode of growth of the embryo, and the meta- morphosis of the insect after leaving its egg. Schiódte, a Danish entomologist, has, it seems to us, forever settled the question as to whether the louse bites the flesh or sucks blood, and decides a point interesting to physicians, 7.e. that the loathsome disease called phthiri- asis, from which not only many living in poverty and squalor are said to have died, but also men of renown, among whom Denny in his work on the Anoplura, or lice, of Great Britain, mentions the name of "Pheretima, as recorded by Herodotus, Antiochus Epiphanes, the Dictator Sylla, the two Herods, the Emperor Maximian, and Phillip the Sec- a—À 86 CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. ond,” is a nonentity. Schiódte, in his essay "On Phthirius, and on the Structure of the Mouth in Pediculus” (Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1866, page 213 ), says that these statements will not bear examination, and that this disease should be placed on the “retired list,” for such a malady is impossible to be produced by simply blood-sucking animals, and that they are only the disgusting attendants on other diseases. Our author thus describes the mouth parts of the louse. “Lice are no doubt to be regarded as bugs, simplified in structure and owere sites, small, flattened, apterous, myopic, crawling and climbing, with a conical head, moulded as it were to suit the rugosities of the surface they inhabit, provided with a soft, transversely furrowed skin, probably en- dowed with an acute sense of feeling, which can guide them in that twi- light in which their mode of life places them. The peculiar attenuation of the head in front of the antenns at once suggests to the practised eye the existence of a mouth adapted for suction. This mouth differs from that of Rhynchota [Hemiptera, bed-bug, etc.] generally in the circum- stance that.the labium is capable of being retracted into the upper part of the head, which therefore presents a little fold, which is extended when the labium is protruded. In order to strengthen this part, a flat. band of chitine is placed on the under surface, just as the shoemaker puts a small piece of gutta-percha into the back of an India-rubber Shoe; as, however, the chitine is not very elastic, this band is rather thinner in the degree of protrusion; if this is at its highest point the orifice is turned inside out, like a collar, whereby the small hooks are directed backwards, so that they can serve as barbs. These are the movements which the g ium, and along the walls of this tube the setiform mandibles and maxille in the shape of long narrow bands of chitine. In this way the tube of CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. 81 suction can be made longer or shorter as required, and easily adjusted to the thickness of the skin in the particular place where the animalis sucking, whereby access to the capillary system is secured at any pue of the body. It is apparent, aue the whole struct- Fig. 14.* ure of the instrument, that it is by no means cal- f culated on being used as a sting, but is rather to be compared to a delicate elastic probe, in the use of which the terminal lobes probably serve as feel- ers. As soon as the capillary system is reached, the blood wi at once ascend into the narrow pidity the pumping ventricle and the Saa erful peristaltic movement of the digestive t If we compare the Hin of the louse (Fig. 15, Pediculus capitis, the head louse ; Fig. 15. Fig. 16, P. vestimenti, the body Y louse) with the young bed- bug as figured by Westwood (Modern Classification of In- sects, ii, p. 475) we shall see a very close resemblance, the head of the young Cimex be- ing proportionally larger than Head Louse. in the adult, while the thorax is smaller, and the abdomen is more ovate, less rounded ; moreover the body is white and partially transparent. The beak of the bed-bug we have studied from some admirable preparations made by Mr. E. Bicknell for the Museum of the Peabody Academy. Under a high power of the microscope atonth of the Louse. specimens treated with diluted potash show that the man- * Figure 14 represents the parts of the — in a large specimen of Pediculus vesti- menti, entirely protruding, and seen from above, magnified one abies and sixty times; aa, the summit of en head, with fou er on each side; bb, the chitinous band, and c, the hind part of the lower lip — such as the appear through the s y strong transm ; dd, t os ding part of t lip (the haus- tellum); ee. the hooks turned outwards; f, the inner tube of suction, slightly bent and twisted; the two pairs of jaws are perceived on the outside as thin lines; a few bl globules are seen in the interior of the tube. 88 CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. dibles and maxille arise near each other in the middle of the head opposite the eyes, their bases slightly diverging. Thence they converge to the mouth over which they meet and beyond are free, being hollow, thin bands of chitine, meeting like the maxille, or tongue, of butterflies to form a hollow tube for suction. The mandibles each suddenly end in a curved, slender filament, which is probably used as a tactile organ to explore the best sites in the flesh of their victim for drawing blood. On the other hand the maxille, which are much narrower than the mandibles, be- come rounded towards the end, bristle-like, and tipped with Fig.16. — ,numerous exceedingly fine barbs, by which the E bug anchors itself in the flesh, while the blood is pumped through the mandibles. The base ~ of the large, tubular labium, or beak, which ensheathes the mandibles and maxille, is op- posite the end of the clypeus or front edge of the upper side of the head, and at a distance beyond the mouth equal to the breadth of the Body Louse. ]abium itself. The labium, which is divided into three joints becomes flattened towards the tip, which is square, and ends in two thin membranous lobes, prob- ably endowed with a slight sense of touch. On comparing these parts with those of the louse it will be seen how much alike they are, with the exception of the labium, a very variable organ in the Hemiptera. From the long sucker of the Pediculus, to the stout chitinous jaws of the Mallophaga, or bird lice, is a sudden transition, but on com- paring the rest of the head and body it will be seen that the distinction only amounts to a family one, though Burmeister placed the Mallophaga in the Orthoptera on account of the mandibles being adapted for biting. It has been a common source of error to depend too much on one or a single set of organs. Insects have been classified on characters drawn from the wings, or the number of the joints of the tarsi, or the form of the mouth parts. We must take into account in i Í: k, i : 4 ae ete REO as Nick E P N aad EST Nee Rete repeats xL Mid t Li d Se nape a E E ERLIE TRES RD UTR AE he. Y ESO UM E REESE NE MEOS KNOT ee Oe I ee ee YN ae CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. 89 endeavoring to ascertain the limits of natural groups, all the organs collectively, as well as the internal anatomy and the embryology and metamorphosis of insects, before we can hope to obtain a natural classification. The family of bird lice isa very extensive one, embracing many genera, and several hundred species. One or more species infest the skin of all our domestic and wild mammals and birds, some birds sheltering be- m ‘Fig. 17. neath their feathers four or five spe- cies of lice. Before giving a hasty account of some of our more com- mon species, we will give a sketch of the embryological history of the lice,* with especial reference to the structure of the mouth parts. The eggs (Fig. 17, egg of Pedicu- lus capitis) are long, oval, somewhat pear-sh:ped, with the hinder end somewhat pointed, while the ante- rior end is flattened, and bears little conical micropyles (m, minute ori- fices for the passage of the sperma- tozoa into the egg), which vary in form in the different species and Embryo of the Louse. genera; the opposite end of the egg is provided with a few bristles. The female attaches her eggs to the hairs or feath- ers of her host. After the egg has been fertilized by the male, the blasto- derm, or primitive skin, forms, and subsequently two layers, or embryonal membranes, appear; the outer is called the amnion (Fig. 17, am) (though as Melnikow states, it is not homologous with the amnion of vertebrates), while the inner * Fo rm 4z +h y EAE TE nt y foa Ps ee, B Professor Nico- laus Metnow's ^ th Embryonal Develop tof Insects " in Wiegmann's Naturgeschichte, 1859, p. 136. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 12 90 CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. is called the “ visceral membrane” (Fig. 17, db). Melnikow remarks that ‘In all the insects whose embryology has been studied, and in which the ventral primitive streak is developed, neither does the amnion nor the visceral membrane take any part in building up the body of the embryo, since they are provisional structures in a peculiar sense of the word. Quite different relations exist in the lice. The origin of the embryonal membranes of the louse occurs at the time of the formation of the prim- itive streak. The thickened blastoderm of the end of the egg on which the hairs are situated folds in, and this fold is the beginning of the primi- tive streak and of the visceral membrane. The layer of this fold facing the ventral side of the egg, is transformed into the visceral membrane, while the other layer, opposite to the other side of the egg, becomes thick- ened and forms the primitive streak. The remaining portion of the toderm, with the exception of the primitive streak, which forms the fore- head (in the more extended sense of the word) consists of the so-called amnion In Sobtradiatiection to those insects [Simulium, Chironomus, Donaci and Phryganidz] in which a ventral primitive streak is developed, neither do the amnion nor visceral membrane form a capsule surrounding the con- tents of the egg. "The amnion is intimately connected with the cephalic portion of the embryo as also with the visceral membrane. This latter is connected only with the abdominal part of the primitive streak, and the edges of the side, i. e. the continuation of the amnion. In opposition to those above-mentioned insects which have a ventral primitive streak, bryonal membranes of insects, are in direct relation to the mode in which the primitive streak is formed. It seems, therefore, that the mode of origin of the primitive streak, or its position in relation to the yolk is concerned in the above-mentioned differences of the embryonal mem- branes.* s. f * Melnikow does not consider, as his fellow countryman, Metznikow, E that the embryonal membranes of insects are homologous with those of vertebra iae e says, *the mode of origin in ko vertebrates is the same. The formation ay visceral rane and amnion of insects ga L differe ue ‘groups, with pened dn d formation of the sation streak. mbryonal membranes of vertebrates have a certain relation to the allantois, AY ihe pce membranes of insects are corre- lated on ra brates; but in insects differences arise, which become noticeable in the —— of the primitive streak in relation to the yolk. Finally, these embryonal membranes in all vertebrates are d but in insects this is not the case. They are coii only in those which have a ventral awe streak,” (Melnikow). We see, therefore, that r the Mme ion of the egg, great and radical differences exist between the e eggs of vertebrates and articulat es, and e ven | between different groups of thelatter. lstat tt E , CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. 91 Again, looking at the louse’s egg and its germ (Fig. 17) we see the amnion (am) surrounding the yolk mass, and the visceral membrane (db) within, partially wrapping the rude form of the embryo in its folds. The head (vk) of the em- bryo is now directed towards the end of the egg on which the hairs are situated ; afterwards the embryo revolves on its axis and the head lies next to the opposite end of the egg. Our embryo previous to this important change of position may be compared with the embryo of the dragon fly (Figs. Fig. 18. Fig. 19. i I. IL IH. IV. V. VI. VI. Embryo of the Dragon-fly, side View; I. antennze; Ir. mandibles; rrr. maxilla; 1v. second maxille (lab- jum); v.- vir. legs. Fig. 19, ventral view of the same. 18,19). Eight tubercles bud out from the under side of the head, of which the foremost and longest are the antenne (as), those succeeding are the mandibles, maxille, and second maxille, or labium. Behind them arise six long, slender tubercles forming the legs, and the primitive streak rudely marks the lower wall of the thorax and abdomen, not yet formed. Figure 20 represents the head and mouth parts of the embryo of the same louse ; vk is the forehead, or clypeus; ant, the antenna; mad, the mandibles; max, the first pair at first the eggs of all animals, as well as the early stages of the embryo, are alike, have not regarded the important differences presented at the first sketching out of the em- ryo. The great differences between the two branches of vertebrates and articulates arise before the most rudimentary form of the embryo is indicated; indeed it may be said with truth, at the first beginnings of life. Those also who indulge in glittering iti . and the p neralities regarding the identity in th e eggs of animals, and th topl ic matter ich they a: mposed, should also take into account the radic: differences of the mode of action of this lasm (i. e. egg-contents, yolk and albu- men) in the eggs of vertebrates and insects at the dawn of life, whether they be due to the “vital force,” or to some chemical force conserved and metamorphosed into a ife-giving power, 92 CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. of maxille and maz’, the second pair of maxille, or labium. At this time the embryo may be compared with that of the dragon fly of the same period of growth (Fig. 24 c, clypeus; l, antenne; 2, mandibles; 3, maxille; 4, labium; 5, 6, 7, legs.) We see that the mouth parts of the louse, so unlike those of other adult insects, are originally similar to them. Figure 21 represents the mouth parts of the same insect a Fig. 20. Fig. 21. Fig. 22. Fig. 23. DEVELOPMENT OF THE MOUTH PARTS OF THE LOUSE. little farther advanced, with the jaws and labium elongated and closely folded together. Figure 22 represents the same still farther advanced; the mandibles (mad) are sharp, and resemble the jaws of the Mallophaga; and the maxille (max!) and labium (maz?) are still large, while afterwards the labium becomes nearly obsolete. Figure 23 represents the mouth parts of a bird louse, Goniodes ; lb, is the upper CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. 93 lip, or labrum, lying under the clypeus ; mad, the mandibles ; max, the maxille ; 7, the lyre-formed piece ; pl, the “plate,” and v, the beak or tongue. (This, and Figs. 20, 21, 22, are from Melnikow). We will now describe some of the common species of lice found on a few of our domestie animals, and the mallopha- gous parasites occurring on certain mammals and birds. The family Pedieulina, or true lice, is higher than the bird lice, their mouth parts, as well as the structure of the head, resembling the true Hemiptera, es- pecially the bed bug. The clypeus, or front of the head, is much smaller than in the bird lice, the latter retaining the enlarged fore- head of the embryo, it being in some species half as large as the rest of the head. ; All of our domestic mammals and birds are plagued by one or more species of lice. Figure 25 represents the Fig. 25. Hematopinus vituli (Linn.), which is brownish in color. As the specimen fig- ured came from the Burnett collection of the Boston Society of Natural History, together with those of the goat louse, the louse of the common fowl, and of the cat, they are undoubtedly naturalized here; the other specimens were collected by Mr. C. Cooke, and are in the Museum of the Peabody Academy of Science. The remaining parasites belong to the AS ` Skin-biting lice, or Mallophaga, and I Louse of Cow. will speak of the several genera referred to here in their natural order, beginning with the highest one and that which is nearest allied to Pediculus. The species of Docophorus, figured on PI. I, fig. 3, appears to be unde- scribed, and may be called D. buteonis. It lives beneath the Fig. 21. 32 TE 94 CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. feathers of the Red-shouldered Hawk. It is honey-yellow, and the abdomen is whitish, with triangular chitinous plates on each segment, the two on the segment next to the last forming a continuous band. The head is longer than broad, with the trabecule (or movable horny process just in front of the antenne), as long as the two basal joints of the anten- ne, and extending to the middle of the second joint; the basal joint of the antenne is rather thick, and the second joint is as long as the two terminal ones. Another species ( Docophorus hamatus n. ep, P1. T; fie; 1j taken from the Snow Bunting ( Plectrophanes nivalis) by Mr. C. A. Walker, Feb. 10, 1869, is white and has a large triangular head, with a very narrow prothorax, not much more than one- half as wide as the head; the abdo- men is rounded oval, while the trabe- cule are very long and hooked. An undescribed species of Nirmus (N. thoracicus; Pl. I, fig. 5) found on the Snow Bunting, is a large white form with the prothorax remarkably large, and but slightly narrower than the head, which is triangular. A nar- row dark line extends along each side of the head and body. The trabe- culæ are large, placed near the front of the head, and the antennæ in our specimens appear to be remarkably short, Louse of Domestic Fowl, being only one-half as large as the trabeculæ and not reaching . to the outer edge of the head. "The abdomen is long, ovate. The common barn-yard fowl is infested by a louse that we may call Goniocotes Burnettii (Fig. 27), in honor of the late Dr. W. I. Burnett, a young and talented naturalist and phys- iologist, who paid more attention than any one else in this country to the study of these parasites, and made a large collection of them, now in the museum of the Boston Society of Natura] History. It differs from the G. hologaster of Tov vem mde a ce tg eur RUETNEE CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. 95 Europe, which lives on the same bird, in the short second joint of the antenns, which are also stouter; and in the long head, the clypeus being much longer and more acutely rounded ; while the head is less hollowed out at the insertion of the antenne. The abdomen is oval, and one-half as wide as long, with transverse, broad, irregular bands along the edges of the segments. The mandibles are short and straight, two toothed. The body is slightly yellowish, and variously streaked and banded with pitchy black. Of three species of Lipeurus, figured on the plate, fig. 2 represents a male of the louse of a crow, L. corvi, a new spe- cies. Its body is unusually broad, and is white, with pitchy black lines along the side of the head and thorax, a row of small blackish oval spots along the abdomen, and a pair of narrow black bands on each thoracic ring. The head is broad and triangular, with large, curved, long trabecule, and a prominence just behind the antennz. The latter are slen- der and simple, with the two basal joints moderately large, and of equal size and length; the three terminal ones are slenderer; the third and fifth are of nearly the same length ; the fourth is shorter, and the fifth ends in a rather sharp point. The mandibles are slender, acute, and much curved. The legs are rather stout, with two very small claws, and a small thumb-like tubercle opposed to them. Another species ( L. elongatus, n. sp., Pl. I, fig. 4, 9) is allied to the L. baculus and squalidus of Europe. It is white, with pitchy black patches along the sides of the abdo- men, and at the base of the legs. The head is pitehy black along each side. The two basal joints of the antenns are of the same length; the third joint is a little larger and longer than the fourth, while the fifth is a third longer than the fourth, and is barrel-shaped. The third species (L. gra- cilis, n. sp., Pl. I, fig. 6, d) has a longer and narrower head with the clypeus more expanded and larger, and the edge of the body is dark, but the band is not so wide as in ZL. elongatus. There are two conical trabecule, and the antenne 96 CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. are as long as the head is broad at the place of their inser- tion ; the second joint is much longer than the first ; the third and fourth are together as long as the second, while the fifth is a quarter longer than the fourth joint. The mandibles are narrow, acute, with two unequal fine teeth. To the genus Trichodectes belongs the T. subrostratus Nitzsch? (Fig. 27) identified by Dr. Burnett as probably the same as the European species. It is a parasite of the common cat. The front of the rather square head is elongated trian- gularly, with the apex ending in two acute spines on the under side of the head. The antenne are three-jointed, with the middle joint a little longer than the last. The abdomen is oval, and the animal is whitish, with the head and thorax pale honey- . yellow. The other species lives on the goat; it seems to be undescribed, and may be called the Trichodectes capre (Fig. 23) ; it is closely allied to T. longicornis of Europe, but the head is not hollowed so much in front and is rather broader, while the third joint of Fig. 28. the antenne is more slender than in that species. It is reddish yellow, while the abdomen is edged with red, and is barred transversely with reddish brown. The Saddle-back Gull (Larus ma- rinus) is infested by an undescribed «species of louse which we may call Ool- pocephalum lari, Pl. I, fig. 1. It is dark brown and oval in form, with the head deeply indented in the middle; the an- terior lobe, or clypeus (made too small Louse of the Goat. in the figure), is twice as broad as long, with the basal half of che head a little wider than the head is long. The slen- der filiform antenne are three-jointed, the last joint some- Fig. 27. Louse of the Cat. CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. 97 what pointed. The third segment of the thorax is as wide as the head, and the legs are thick, the femora being broad. It is allied to C. piceum Denny, which in Europe lives on the Sandwich Tern. The most degraded genus is Gyropus, of which Mr. C. Cook has found G. ovalis of Europe abundant on the Guinea pig. A species is also found on the porpoise ; an interesting fact, as this is the only insect we know of that lives parasit- ically on any marine animal. The genus Goniodes is of great interest from a morpho- logical and developmental point of view, as the antenne are described and figured by Denny as being "in Fig. 29. the males cheliform (Fig. 29, a, male; b, fe- / male); the first joint being very large and thick, the third considerably smaller, recurved towards the first, and forming a claw, the fourth and fifth very small, arising from the back of the third.” He farther remarks, “the males of this [ G. stylifer, which lives on the Turkey] and all the other species of Goniodes, use the first and third joints of the antenne with great facility, acting the part of a finger and thumb" (Denny's Monographia Anoplu- Antenne of Goniodes. rorum Britannie, 1842, p. 155 and 157). The antenne of the females are of the ordinary form. This hand-like struc- ture, is so far as we know, without a parallel among insects, the antennz of the Hemiptera being uniformly filiform,* and from two to nine-jointed. The design of this structure is probably to enable the male to grasp its consort and also . perhaps to cling to the feathers and hairs, and thus give it a superiority over the weaker sex in its advances during court- ship. Why is this advantage possessed by the males of this genus alone? The world of insects, and of animals generally abounds in such instances, though existing in other organs, * Except in Ranatra and Belostoma where they are disposed to be flabellate, 7.4. rudely pectinated on one side AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 18 98 CERTAIN PARASITIC INSECTS. and the developmentist dimly perceives in such departures from a normal type of structure, the origin of new generic forms, whether due at first to a "sport" or accidental varia- tion, or, as in this instance perhaps, to long use as prehensile organs through successive generations of lice having the antenne slightly diverging from the typical condition, until the present form has been developed. Another generation of naturalists will perhaps unanimously agree that the Cre- ator has thus worked through secondary laws which many of the naturalists of the present day are endeavoring, in a truly scientific and honest spirit of inquiry, to discover. In their claw or leg-like form these male antenne also repeat in the head, the general form of the legs, whose pre- hensile and grasping functions they assume. We have seen above that the appendages of the head and thorax are alike in the embryo, and the present.case is an interesting example of the unity of type of the jointed appendages of insects, and articulates generally. Another point of interest in these degraded insects is, that the process of degradation begins either late in the life of the embryo or during the changes from the larval to the adult, or winged state. An instance of the latter may be observed in the wingless female of the canker worm, so dif- ferent from the winged volant male ; this difference is created after the larval stage, for the caterpillars of both sexes are the same, so far as we know. So with numerous other ex- amples among the moths. In the louse, the embryo, late in its life, resembles the embryos of other insects, even Corixa, a member of a not remotely allied family. But just before hatching the insect assumes its degraded louse physiognomy. The developmentist would say that this process of degrada- tion points to causes acting upon the insect just before or immediately after birth, inducing the retrogression and retardation of development, and would consider it as an argument for the evolution of specific forms by causes act- ing on the animal while battling with its fellows in the Ri Ne ONE SENS a [^ E: E edm toa e ene TAE T at ait A Ty mia gue y ^ je: t m Sat ae, Hoesen eee t seu ^ Lis Re Pat EN 2 | csi dom. verd egg cde ee e) CU : s E eor 3 eS Ee Eten ee BHR ore TES ris aes We 1 im IER A ! FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. 99 struggle for existence, and perhaps consider that the meta- morphoses of the animal within the egg are due to a reflex action of the modes of life of the ancestors of the animal on the embryos of its descendants. ` EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1. Fig. 1. Colpocephalum lavi Pack. la, antenna. The short line by the side gives the length of the insect. Fig. 2. Lipeurus corvi Pack. 2a, antenna, ** 3. Docophorus buteonis Pack. 3a, antenna, * 4. Lipeurus elongatus Pack. 4a, antenna. * 5. Nirmus thoracicus Pack, 6. Lipeurus gracilis Pack. ** 7. Docophorus hamatus Pack. NOTES ON FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. BY CHARLES C. ABBOTT, M. D. Tue character of the Delaware River, in the vicinity ot Trenton, New Jersey, the head of navigation, is quite varied ; the bed is stony, with scattered large rocks above the rapids, and sandy, with some vegetation below the falls; the current is swift to the rapids, but less so, being tide water, below them; these conditions, with that of the varied character of the tributaries at and near Trenton, make it an excellent point at which to examine the ichthyology of this river basin. This has been done partly by those who have received col- lections therefrom; but there is nothing i in the publications of their studies giving any knowledge of the habits of these fish, but siuply the fact of their presence in these waters. The ichthyic fauna is quad aay as some streams are cold and swift, that until lately harbored trout; and other streams, sluggish and thick, that are paradisiacal to the mud- fish (Melanura), and the sucker (Hylomyzon). 100 FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. In the present paper we propose not only to mention the results of the study of the habits of the species partieular- ized, but to refer also to observations we have made, that apply to the fishes of these waters as a class, rather than to any single species. These observations we will give first, and then notice separately the more interesting species, in conclusion. We would first call attention to alterations in circum- scribed faune. These changes are what have occurred lately in the small brooks, either emptying into the river directly, or tributary to the two large creeks, the Assunpink, and Crosswicks. We give only such instances as have occurred under our own notice. In the month of June, 1867, we fished the entire length of a never failing spring-brook, re- markable always for the number of specimens, if not of species. The fauna consisted, as usual, of chubs (Semotilus rhotheus and S. corporalis) ; dace (Argyreus atronasus), and minnows (Fundulus multifasciatus). The abundance of these species was relatively as named. During the first week of July following, a heavy, sudden fall of rain caused a consid- erable rise in the brook, and the extra bulk of water rushing over the narrow bed, altered the character of the brook so slightly, that it attracted no notice from those accustomed to seeing it daily. On the subsidence of the water, no cypri- noids, or in fact other fish, eould be found, although we left hundreds in the stream. A week later we found a few roach (Stilbe Americana) ; they were never seen by us pre- viously, in this stream, and still later, young mullet ( Moxos- toma oblongum). No chub have since been seen in this brook, which during the summer past (1869), was well tenanted with the species substituted in 1867, for them. During the last summer a few red-fins ( /Typsilepis cornutus), and shiner (Hypsilepis Kentuckiensis), made their appearance. In a similar instance, happening in 1868, a familiar creek, teem- ing with eyprinoids, but with representatives of no other family, was found after a freshet to have lost a large number FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. 101 of its species, and those remaining, represented by but few individuals; while percoids, heretofore wanting, appeared in the shape of Banded Sunfish (Bryttus chetodon), and Spot- ted-finned Sunfish (B. punctatus) ; also a few specimens of the Pirate (Aphrodederus Sayanus) were met with. A third instance of alteration in the fauna, with no change in the bulk of water, occurred in the Shabbaconk Creek, a creek flowing into the Assunpink, which latter is dammed at its mouth, effectually preventing fish, leaving this creek, from returning to it. In this instance, the Aphrodederus Sayanus, which, for several seasons previous to 1867, had been abundant, suddenly disappeared. We have searched for them repeatedly since, but never have taken a single specimen. In the Assunpink Creek, where these “pirates” it would seem must have gone to, we have also carefully searched, but its extensive basin has not yet furnished a single specimen. Such experiences of one familiar with these waters for fif- teen years, explain why it is that different visitors in a few years examination of a stream or neighborhood, will in their reports differ considerably. One’s own notes may be very inconsistent, on comparing those of any year with that of the preceding or following season. Even to the smaller cypri- noids, that are, we would suppose indisposed, if able, to migrate, we have applied the terms "abundant," “rare,” "numerous," "scarce," at different times. More frequently these contradictory “remarks” were jotted down with ref- erence to the occupants of small streams, but not altogether so. It is our custom now to look upon the contents of — any one stream as but very imperfectly showing the fauna of that neighborhood, for two water-courses similar in all respects to the eye, may have no species common to each, although but two or three miles distant. In concluding what we have to say under this head — of changes in faung— we would call attention to our experience in find- ing ourselves apparently or really in error. Frequently » 102 FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. we have failed to produce for visitors what we claimed in publications as easily obtainable ; so we have been forced to the conclusion that only a series of examinations, cov- ering three or four years, will warrant one in asserting positively, that this or that species is a denizen of such and such waters. An instance of this presents itself forcibly now in the fact that during the past summer a few speci- mens of Pomoxis hexacanthus were caught in the Delaware River. -They were not caught here before 1869, and may not be here during the coming summer. Through canals a few specimens might have strayed into the Delaware, or it may be they were the pioneers of the species hereafter be- come resident, but the fact, as it now stands, goes for noth- ing in deciding the geographical range of that species. Recently discovered species. Professor S. F. Baird, during the summer of 1854, discovered, in New Jersey, three fresh- _ water percoids, the Banded Sunfish (Bryttus chetodon), the Spotted Olive Sunfish (Brytius obesus), and the Mud Sunfish (Ambloplites pomotis). Sometime later Dr. Cheston Morris discovered in the Delaware, near Philadelphia, the Pomotis (Bryttus) punctatus, which we now believe to be distinct from B. obesus. With reference to the three latter species, we have only to say that their dull coloring and general sim- ilarity to other species may have caused them to be over- looked; but we very much question if they were any way near as abundant before detected by Baird and Morris, as they now are. With the Bryttus chetodon the case is dif- ferent. A year later than the date of Baird’s discovery of this species, in Atlantic County, it appeared sparingly in Watson’s Creek (Mercer County), a tributary of the Dela- ware. Since then it has been crowding out the old time “Sunny” (Pomotis aureus), although never reaching over one-third the size of that sunfish. This fish (B. chetodon), considering jts clear silvery and jet black markings could never have been overlooked. Wherever it was previously to 1855 it then became an addi- FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. 103 tion to the fauna of Mercer County, and of New Jersey, about the time of its discovery by Baird we believe. Few in numbers at first, it has steadily multiplied until now it is fully as common in a few streams as the P. aureus is in many others. To pass now from quiet shady waters to the rapid hill-side brooks, let us discuss the active little cyprinoid, called, by Girard, Cyprinella analostana, and shown by Professor Cope to be the Hypsilepis anulostanus. This little fish, we know, was not a common species, we doubt if it was an inhabitant of our waters at all twelve years ago ; and now four-fifths of the streams, besides the shallow rapid waters above the falls in the river, are literally full of them. Discovered by Kirt- land in 1845, in the Ohio, did they work their way from there to here, or how became they so abundant in New Jer- sey, we might say, suddenly? If they were throughout the past century, say, a resident of our waters, with so few indi- viduals of their species in existence as to escape detection or to be confounded with others, what caused their numbers so suddenly to increase, that now they are taking the place of the old-fashioned Red-fin ( Hypsilepis cornutus) ? In the absence of any facts to the contrary we have jumped at the conclusion, that these "newer species” were to us, "newer creations.” If created of old then some un- detected alterations in our waters must be going on that some few years since gave them an impregnable advantage in the struggle for existence, and which will give other spe- cies now overlooked, ultimately, a similar advantage. Grant- ing this why do we not come across the few specimens that are now merely preserving their kind until the favorable moment arrives for their assuming a multitudinous existence? As far as we know the "rare" species of the present have somewhere localities where they are abundant, and those with us are those that are "pioneering," and are always in direct communieation with the river basin — the mass of their species dwell. 104 FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. Habits of fresh-water fish. We have never met with any elaborate treatise upon this subject; and have been surprised that it should be so little referred to by those who have so carefully described the fish themselves, unless it is that the describer has not generally been the collector. "Clear water,” “muddy streams,” “rapid creeks,” “sluggish brooks,” and such phrases cover the whole ground, frequently, of the habits of the species, unless like the stickle-backs they do something so marked that it cannot well be overlooked. The introduction of aquaria has not done much to elucidate the subject, in consequence of the meagre dimensions of the tanks and carelessness to imitate nature. To what we pro- pose to réfer now, more particularly, is that the habits of the same fish vary much in accordance with their surround- ings, and that the various species are not as confined to certain kinds of streams as is usually supposed. We make these two statements after a careful résumé of our many notes, giving them as the result of eleven years study of the habits of the forty-nine species, that are found in the Delaware River or its tributaries, within five miles of Trenton, in one direction or another. Take the ten percoids as an example. We have found them in every variety of water the neighborhood produced, even to the little rivulets, where young Pomotes and Brytti hovered behind rocks, in the stiller water, but dashed up stream on being disturbed. Now these “sun-fish” as a class, are deni- zens of still water; but the exceptions are not so few, as to be put under the head of “merely accidental.” In sluggish, gloomy water, we have found many a school of White-perch (Morone Americana), that had but to swim a thousand yards to join their fellows in the swift waters of the river and like them prey upon the cyprinoids there abundant, but scarce in the muddy, quiet ereek we mentioned. Often when fish- ing for pout and the larger Pike (sox reticulatus), we have found these schools of White-perch, occasionally having the Rock-fish (Roccus lineatus) associated with them. FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. 105 The .ApArodederus Sayanus, once abundant in a clear pebbly-bedded creek, is now occasionally found in deep waters with little currents, where the banks overhang suffi- ciently to give them a safe retreat. The Bill-fish (Belone longirostris), is not sufficiently abund- ant in the river, to give one good opportunities of thoroughly studying it. During the summer, or autumn, numbers of them occasionally enter the Delaware and Rariton Canal at Bordentown, New Jersey, and thence come into the canal basins. When the water is let out of the canal in De- cember these fish are sometimes caught in the basins which are a little deeper than the canal. In these puddles, if not discovered by boys, they will remain during the winter, half buried in the mud, and semi-torpid. On the opening of navigation in March they seem to be wholly revivified, and frequent this artificial water-course during much of the sum- mer, but finally disappear. An accident brings them, but they adapt themselves to the surroundings, as their remain- ing during the summer shows. Occasionally seeing quanti- ties of young about two inches long seems to show that they spawned in the canal. The common Barred Minnows, Fun- dulus multifasciatus, have occasionally been seen by the author in spring-basins, at a considerable elevation from the brook into which its waters emptied. How they got there was a question it was found difficult to answer. To pass from the brook to the spring head it was necessary to pass up little perpendicular falls of twelve and fifteen inches. Within a short time we came across a large number in a little pool about a yard in diameter, fed by a fall of just thirteen inches, and very nearly perpendicular. With a sudden onset, we forced them from their quarters and saw several mount the fall. The power of this fish to swim against the current is very great, and by exercise of it only could we explain their presence at fountain heads. The mass of these fish are found in the river and tide water creeks, but in some numbers everywhere that it is possible for any fish to live. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 14 106 FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. Many more instances might be given showing the wide range of territory and difference in habit in different local- ities, which these fish have; and how unsafe it is to judge from a casual circumstance or two, what may be the peculi- arities of any species. Under the headings of certain species we propose now to call attention to peculiarities that are specific in their nature, especially breeding habits of some of the less numerous residents. Banded Sunfish (Lryttus chetodon). In the "Geology of New Jersey,” page 807, the author under the above head- ing, says “this interesting species is a lover of weedy, slug- gish streams and ponds, and is never met with in tide- water." We now, at this writing, are confident, that there is no fish in New Jersey found in other water not some- times met with in tide water. Since the above quotation was put in print we have taken this sunfish from the “bel- lies” of shad-nets, which were drawn in decided tide waters, the Delaware and Crosswick’s Creek. The breeding habits of this species have, during the past two summers, puzzled us considerably. That they occasionally scoop out a little basin in the sand, and there deposit the ova, is undoubtedly true ; but not always is this the case we judge, as during April of 1868—69, we found them in all sorts of out-of-the-way places, the females heavy with eggs, and in some instances, a female with a male at her side, were hidden at the foot of a tussock, -with scarcely enough water to cover them. Two months later the ground over which they swam was perfectly dry. Was a severe battle going on between this species and the Pomotis aureus, that they were forced to hide themselves to preserve their ova from destruction? We did see some “nests” like those of P. aureus, but they were not abundant, as we had seen them previously. "The other Bryttus is simi- — lar in his habits to the Pomotis, and is not so peaceable as the B. chetodon; but preferring localities not favorites of other "sunfish," it does not interfere much with them. The FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. 107 coloration of both B. chatodon and B. obesus is very vari- able. On removing them from the water the black stripes of the former, and brilliant spots of the latter, are very dis- tinct, but they soon fade even if replaced in water. In an aquarium, when first placed in it, they are dull, yellowish brown, with no distinet bars or spots, but in a short time they resume that coloring which easily distinguishes them from other sunfish; the cAetodon becoming silvery, the obesus, deep olive. Pirate Perch (Aphrodederus Sayanus). In the “Geology of New Jersey,” page 808, we make the following statement : "The ‘pirate’ makes a nest after the manner of the sunfish, and with the female guards it and afterwards the young, till they reach a size of one-third of an inch, when they are left by their parents, etc.” Since the above was written (1866) we have had some opportunities of farther studying the habits of this peculiar fish. We believe that they occupy the nests made by sunfish, but do not scoop them out for themselves. Furthermore this is not the only manner of breeding, but like many other fish they seek out-of-the-way places, as deserted burrowings of the musk-rats (Fiber zibethicus), and here the pair will remain several days, and when the young appear they are attended by the parents, or at least an adult pair, until they are about one-third of an inch. When young the Aphrodederus is very black, with a few pale, yellowish dots. The tail is margined with white, whieh disappears on the fish reaching an inch or more in length. The adult fish, measuring five inches in length, has been seen frequently to swallow one of its own kind meas- uring an inch. Mud Minnow (Melanura limi). It would be an interest- ing question to solve in how little water and how compact mud this fish can survive. Its gills present nothing pe- culiar in themselves, and certainly are not powerful enough ` to squeeze water out of the mud in which we have found them buried, two (and one four) inches deep. On closely 108 FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. examining the bottom of any ditch one can easily detect the Melanura lying close upon the mud as quietly as an Etheo- stomoid,* but if at all disturbed they immediately dart off, and with a rapid twirl and twist of their whole body will bury themselves entirely out of sight at about an angle of forty-five degrees, tail down. We have often tried this in a shallow aquarium with mud on the bottom, and always with the same result. The movement is too rapid to be learned in detail, but they always bury themselves in a hole scooped out with their tail, which is the most deeply buried portion of their body. A peculiarity of this fish worthy of note is the length of time at which it will maintain one position, especially a per- Fig. 30. 7 Smelt, Osmerus mordaz. pendicular one, head up and tail down. In an aquarium we have had them remain so four minutes, while we held just above the water a worm or fly. On slowly lowering these until they touched the water the fish would then seize them with a rapidity of movement equal to that of the trout. We have likewise seen them leap from the water a distance greater than their length, and seize insects that were upon blades of grass overhanging the ditch. The largest speci- men of Melanura limi ever seen by the writer measured seven inches. Frost-fish ( Osmerus mordax). We desire to record here *In mentioning the number of fish in this neighborhood (Trenton, N. J.) as forty- nine, we did not include the Etheostomoide, and the few stickle-backs that come and go. Both these Visión às represented in the Delaware will be studied and published in a separate paper FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. 109 the fact of the presence of this fish in a few numbers during almost every month of the year. In August when the young shad are going down the river, we have seen single speci- mens of “smelt,” or “frost-fish,” as they are generally called. Occasionally also when fishing for White-perch (Morone Americana) we have caught them. In April there is very generally a freshet that submerges the tract of mead- ows bordering on the river south of Trenton. On the sub- sidence of this water the frost-fish are occasionally seen with a few herring in the small ditches, and are known then by juvenile anglers as the “silver pike.” Hearing frequent mention of silver pike, I found this to be the fish referred to. Herring that are thus caught in ditches and cut off from the creeks do not live, but the Osmerus appears to thrive very well. The herring is the " Alewife" (Alosa tyrannus). Gizzard Shad (Dorosoma Cepedianum). We gave a short notice of this species in the “ Geology of New Jersey,” page Fig. 31. Gizzard Shad, Dorosoma Cepedianum. 822, which we will quote and speak of more particularly. “Occasionally the ‘gizzard shad’ is carried by a freshet into inland streams usually having very small outlets, and thus imprisoned they thrive very well. A pond near Trenton was, in 1857, stocked with them, and is now full of specimens, some weighing five pounds apiece.” Besides this pond 110 FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. spoken of we know of one or two creeks that are annually visited by a few of these herring, and have occasionally seen several bushels hauled from the deep holes in the creeks they had entered. They appear in the Delaware early in March, before the other representatives of the Clupeide do, and as they are not ever taken in very great numbers, as are the- other herring in the river, we judge that the immense quan- tities occasionally taken in creeks, is to be explained in the suggestion that those that come in the spring do not return. We have seen them in mid-winter frozen to death, appar- ently, and have reason to believe that they bury themselves in the mud when they take up their winter quarters in creeks and ponds. The specimens we first met with, and described as Cha- toéssus insociabilis, were from the pond referred to, stocked in 1857. They were different in coloration from the same fish as found on the coast and in the Delaware, and appeared to be distinct. If these Dorosome are left to themselves, un- visited by others later from the coast, will they in time be- come so far changed by the change in their surroundings as to be a different species? We thought them distinct in 1860, and the .Dorosoma, from this same pond, is a different looking fish now, in 1870, from what it was then. The dif- ference being one of color only it suggests the question as to whether the character of the water influences the charac- teristic coloring of species? The Chub (Semotilus rhotheus and S. corporalis). In all the tributaries of the Delaware, as well as in the river itself, “chub” abound. There are several points in their history that we cannot fully understand when reading what has been pub- lished of the two species, especially “Cope’s Monograph on the Cyprinidz of Pennsylvania." This author very correctly gives the Delaware as the locality of the Semotilus rhotheus, and admits the presence of S. corporalis. Now in the Del- aware, at Trenton, "chub" are very abundant, as we de- scribed them in 1861, which description Cope says is his S. FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. 111 rhotheus, and we agree with him; but in addition he says the Cyprinus atromaculatus is the young of the S. corporalis. If such were the case then why are not the adult S. corpo- ralis abundant in the river in proportion to the presence of the young in the smaller streams? The true corporalis is scarce, very scarce, yet the atromaculatus is abundant. This, of course, is an absurdity; but these atromaculati are not young rhothei; that fish when young is wholly different in Fig. 32. Chub, Semotilus rhotheus. color, being wholly silvery on the sides and belly, the silver becoming roseate near the back, which is "deeply, darkly, beautifully blue." We have endeavored for several years to collect specimens of atromaculatus of all sizes, and so see where and when they cease to be atromaculatus and become true corporalis. We have as yet failed to do so, and have been somewhat disposed to consider it not the young of any species for these reasons. It is a peculiarly brook-loving species, hovering about deep holes, and most ingenious in its mode of eluding the pursuit of collectors. They are never found (that is, have not been by us) associated with the young of true “chub” as that fish is known. Their peculiar markings ren- der them at once distinguishable from the young of S. rhotheus, and the two love very different waters, the S. atromaculatus loving muddy bottoms, in which they ^ 112 FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. half bury themselves, while the young of S. rhotheus are fond of and frequent always pebbly-bottomed, rapid brooks. To recapitulate, we have, in the Delaware River and its . tributaries, the Semotilus rhotheus in abundance, likewise the young in the directly tributary streams, equally nu- merous — and in eertain streams, some cut off from the river by dams, the fish described by Mitchell as Cyprinus atromaculatus, which reaches a length of six and seven inches, and presents a coloration of black, yellow, reddish and silvery, like no other fish of our waters. If these are the young of the Cyprinus corporalis of the same author, why have we not this latter fish in abundance also? But we have not. Again, in streams, as the Assunpink and Shabbaconk, which are cut off from the Delaware by dams, and in the Stony-brook and Mill-stone, which are eut off from the Rariton, we have Semotilus atromaculatus which never cease to be such. Do they die for want of the rivers to become the S. corporalis? If not, where are these larger chub? In Stony-brook and the Mill-stone we have also the SS. rhotheus, from half an inch to nearly half a yard in length. The difference in the scales of these two species of "ehub" render them distinguishable without reference to color; and the S. atromaculatus agree with the size and number of scales of S. corporalis, as given in the “Mono- graph of the Cyprinide of Pennsylvania," by E. D. Cope. We are not yet satisfied, however, that the atromaculated chub of the Delaware basin is the young of any other species. Roach (Stilbe Americana). Professor E. D. Cope in his Monograph says of this fish: “This Stilbe rarely exceeds seven inches in length." In the various streams in which we find the "roach," it is so frequent an occurrence to meet with them eight, nine, and nine and a half inches in length, that we are surprised at the figure mentioned by Cope as the maximum length. Otherwise his remarks accord with our observations. These large specimens have the pectoral, FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. 113 ventral and anal fins brilliant orange, during the spring and early summer, and later the color is dimmed but not lost. The color of the body is, as given by him, of “a greenish, brassy, or golden lustre." Smaller specimens even during the spring have the fins black and the general coloration sil- very; duller upon the back than the sides. This species is not as much annoyed by the approach of winter as are many of the cyprinoids, merely seeking deeper waters. By cutting a hole in the ice and letting down a well-baited hook they are readily taken, and the larger ones at this season are ex- cellent eating to those who are not incommoded by the mul- tiplicity of small bones. The largest “roach” we have ever seen measured exactly nine and seven-eighths inches. The Mud-sucker (Hylomyzon nigricans). In a tortuous tide-water creek, with unobstructed access to the Delaware, there are to be found at all seasons of the year where the water is deepest and the mud almost unfathomable, myri- ads of these “suckers”—old, young and middle-aged. Lazy, limp, almost lifeless, with a net they can be scooped up, offering no resistance, scarcely flapping their tails. As we follow up the course of this stream (Crosswick’s Creek, Burlington Co., N. J.) we still find them tucked in under the overhanging banks, and so listless that on the receding of the water, at the turn of the tide, they sometimes are left high and dry before they are aware of it.* In other streams of New Jersey the fish is less abundant, and found usually with the “mullet” (Moxostoma oblongum). As an article of food they are good from December until April, and from then until winter are as near worthless as any fish well can be. We once saw a large specimen in the jaws of a Water-snake ( T'ropidonotus sipedon), which squealed like * A similar instance of this is very well "a = a dec different "p uen Poa oroar PET PAE WM the recession of the water until too late. Between tides we have gathered over hundred in a space not over twenty yards square. Nothing in their stomachs owas what particular article of food they sought. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 15 114 RESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. a young pig, more so than cat-fish have been known to do under similar circumstances, and showing greater indications of “a voice" than does the chub, which Cope says “utters a chirruping and croaking noise.” The Gar (Lepidosteus osseus). During the past summer while walking on the banks of Crosswicks Creek, we were attracted by a decided commotion in the water, and on near- ing the spot found a young gar, probably eighteen inches long, surrounded by and evidently harrassed by a dozen or more Bill-fish ( Belone longirostris). It soon disappeared by sinking out of sight, but reappeared soon near the shore, giving us an opportunity of watching it. It remained as Fig. 33. Gar pike, Lepidosteus osseus. motionless as an Hsox for several minutes, and on the ap- proach of a minnow would come as near the shore as possi- ble, moving steadily backwards. If the fish came to about where the gar previously had been, it was seized in an instant, and the Zepidosteus would remain motionless until the approach of another Minnow would cause it to again draw back. We finally interrupted this “play” in an attempt to shoot the specimen. This fish we should judge was yearly becoming more scarce in the basin of the Delaware. The Darters (Zheostomoide) as a class have been the most difficult to collect and study. They are with us in most streams exceedingly abundant, as also in the river itself. Lying motionless upon the flat stones or compact sand they readily escape detection, except by experts. As yet we have not made as elaborate a collection as we desire, but are satisfied we can show in this family some instances of wide geographical range, and one or more undescribed species, FHESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. 115 Another family, the stickle-backs ( G'asteroste?), is one of much interest as found with us, but they are so uncertain in their stay in any stream that we have concluded to wait until another season’s out-door work shall have given us farther opportunities to study them. The four-spined Stickle-back ( Apeltes quadracus) as an instance, for several summers was quite abundant in several streams, and is now not seen in any of them. In Watson’s Creek, in 1865, they were very abundant, and the writer found several nests; in later seasons they were still present but in fewer numbers, and during the summers of 1868—69 they had disappeared. We were ac- eustomed to collect them from the "bellies" of nets drawn in the river, and lately have been very unsuccessful in find- ing them. During the present, almost completed winter, the Dela- ware River has not been closed by ice, and judging trom appearances at the time of writing (Feb. 18, 1870), it is not likely to be so closed. The fishermen have been steadily engaged in their pursuit, and with draw and gill nets have eaptured in very unusual abundance the commoner resident species, and also single specimens of rare fish, rare either for the time of year, or for the locality. Some of these instances are sufficiently of interest to warrant recording them. On the 20th of January, the weather warm and water wholly free from ice, a Shad (Alosa prestabilis), weighing four and one-half pounds, was taken a short distance from the city. It was supposed to have been a sickly fish that had not "gone out" in August of the preceding summer. Such was proved not to be the case however, by an examina- tion of the contents of the stomach, which demonstrated that it had come directly from salt water. Among the mass of marine food was a partially digested Killi-fish ( Z7ydrar- gyra flavula). The Shad was a female, with ova apparently as fully matured as in May. Two or three specimens of other representatives of the Herring tribe were captured 116 FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. about this time, but to what genus they belonged, the writer could not determine from what he heard. He did not see the specimens. The Gizzard Shad (Dorosoma Cepedianum), has been met with by single specimens and pairs, while fish- ing for “suckers” (Catostomus) and “chub” (Semotilus). The date is much earlier than any previous one, and prob- ably more specimens have been taken. They were usually large, but were thin, sickly and sluggish in their movements. Probably but few of this species enter the river, or at least, come up as far as Trenton. When once they have wandered into deep ponds they will remain and breed. One pond, that has been stocked with them since 1833, contains now larger specimens than the writer has ever elsewhere seen. .. On the 23d or 24th of January a healthy, strong, active Cod-fish ( Morrhua Americana), weighing nearly four pounds, was taken in a draw-net. The stomach of this fish showed it had been in river-water for several days. The fisherman who took this specimen considered it the first instance of the kind on record, but such is not the case. Several have been taken about Philadelphia during the past twenty years. A unique oceurrence, however, we believe to be the capture of a large Sturgeon in January. The Sturgeon is sensitive to the cold, but it would seem that the water had not been greatly chilled, considering the presence of this fish, which was fully as active as the species is during the summer months. Of the resident fish that are to be taken in variable quan- tities during the winter, when the ice is not abundant, the sucker tribe and the Delaware chub are the principal. Dur- ing the past few days the abundance of these fish has been remarkable, and in one day several bushels were taken. The number of chubs was very large and afforded excellent opportunities of examining their distinctive characters. They were all the Semotilus rhotheus Cope. None measured less than eight inches in length, and every specimen, male and female, had the brilliant rosy and blue tints mentioned FRESH-WATER FISHES OF NEW JERSEY. 117 by the writer in describing this species in 1861. Mr. Cope has stated, in his Monograph on the Cyprinide of Penu- sylvania (Transactions American Philosophical Society), that the coloration given by the writer, was that of the male in spring. The description he alludes to was drawn up in the summer. Mr. Cope is correct as to the coloration being that of the breeding season, but the tints do not grow less distinct after spawning, and the female is very nearly, if not quite, as highly colored during February, March and April. Later, the female becomes silvery, but the male, in clear waters, retains his high coloring. In muddy, sluggish waters, the bright, rosy hue becomes a reddish brown; the blue tints become leaden. Of the smaller specimens none exhibited the peculiar cloudy markings of the Cyprinus atromaculatus Mitchell. The largest specimen, a female, measured fourteen inches in length, and exceeded all the others in the magnificence of its coloring. The examination of nearly three hundred specimens kat clearly that the beauty of this species was in proportion to the size, and that the sex could not be determined by the color of the specimen. Among this enormous quantity of specimens not a single Semotilus corporalis was found. NoTE.— Early in the month of February of this year, the writer received a imu of sim fish” or “smelt,” from the Raritan River. N. J. Among these fish (Osmeru mordax) Was a mp. peers of | a oyprinoid, wien was new to the waters of vnd Jersey, and The specimen was — to Professor E. D. Cope, and has since been Spese by him in MSS., s Hy osmerinus Cope. The paper containing the description will be praon soon in a * Transactions of the American sante Society of Philadelphia." This is the only species of this genus found in the state, aud is, we believe, nd In our report of the esee ted. New Jersey, si — boe n pene es end " AL. as found in the s rolepidotus whic h is very shade, in the Dolaware > River, about per south of bhia. delphia, 1 f the REVIEWS. VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES.* — Professor Hunt has said more in the zones, or regions of the earth in which volcanoes are found most abund- antly, the author sums up the different theories which have been advanced in the endeavors to account for these phenomena. He rejects entirely, and with crushing force, the theory which attempts-to account for volca- noes by supposing that they are the vents of a liquid nucleus, and gives a summary of his reasons for doing so from which we quote the following paragraphs: we Judging from the known properties of the rocks icing which we are acquainted, solidifica- ti tl but at tł the liquid globe, a process which ould moreover be favored by the influence of pres This augments the melting temper- ware of makters, which, Hke me rocks and mort other solids, become less đense when melted, those which, like ice [or bismuth], be- me more rras by fusion. Pressure, moreover, it may be mentioned in this connection, in- eases ie t water for most bodies, whose solution may b scribed as a kind -* meltii nidos n with water into u Dese density is greater Agen that of the mean of its eonstituents; the importance of this Lees will appear farther he theory deduced rom the above considerations, and adopted by Hopkins and by elt ui id briefly as follows: the earth’s centre is solid, though still retaini ly the bigh temperature at which it be- À dnos At an advanced stage in tl lidi f fused r became viscid, so that the descent from the surface of the heavier partition, cooled by radiation, was prevented, and a didnt m rmed, gend tiep whieh s istas nar — gone on very slowly. There of yet unsolid- ified matter (or even api as suggested by Serope, a continuous Pn and ri is in the ex- istence of this stratum, or of lakes of uncongealed matter, that we are to find an explanation Y noes and earthquak t f the movemen whic h pen it "e >? rmation of moui pum in chain ns, as ingeniously set forth by Mr. Shaler. The utra a gradually a most important agency in the wer phones, is evidently not excluded by this hypothesis. It may be added that a sim- f the globe, viz., a solid nucleus and a solid crust separated from each other by hice stratum, wer io ng ago Suggested is Halley in order to explain the phenomena of ter; ism. poner or pressure m: esse portions ar of matter beneath th e surface to pass from solid tb liquid, or from a vires to a solid state, and in this way helps us to explain the local and the ys ede bavi of Hopkins and Serope appar ently which I adopt, though differing from it in some most important particulars, eines naming gisen them the existence of a solid nueleus and a solid erust, with an interposed , on o sss eous m dena but a layer of material which was once solid, but is now rendered liquid by the interve — ^a water under the influence of heat and pressure. When, in the process of re- iocus e globe bad r ached the pel int imagined by Hopki ns, where a solid crust was over the e shallow. v molten lay id , the farther cooling and contraction of ld lt in i ts, breaking it up, and causing the asatio: iiw the va liquid portions confined beneath. When at length the reduction of temperature permitted the precipita’ cpt T Te bp the — prasever — re, the whole eooling and disintegrating mass ken: * Abstract ofa Lecture by Profossor ' T: Lees ey enl D., ald R. S., delivered before the " Pamph., pp. 10. (118) € REVIEWS. 119 become exposed to the action of air and water. In this way the solid nucleus of igneous rock became Garanin with a deep layer of disintegra ated snd wate — material, the ruins of its former e influence of heat from below and of air and water from above, the world of geologic and of —— history was to be volved. T4 +} t mperatures, develops ex- Wuordipary soivent powers; while from what has already been n of the influence of pre: tl ht of the overlying mass becomes a s — — Per the liquefaction of the wer portions of the sedimentary mate rim. TM is sind ose alternately wasting pie building : up continents. By the depression of the yielding crust bene vie 1 regions of great accumulation a ere follows a softening of the lower and of mime À more fusible strata, while the gre deer mass of more silicious -— becomes —€— into comparative rigidity. * and finally, as the result of he pee contraction, rises a hardened and — atas which Pn their composilion Fiela snoer these conditions the most liquid ti s conceived, th volcanic rocks. Shaa ccompanied by difficultly eóerethl iure they are eter extravasated a ong the fissures which form in the overlying stra d their The variations in the com- position of lavas and their didi ying gases m different regions , and even from the sam vent at different times, are strong confirmations of the trati e this view, kiss whieh may ee » harm that a the various f types of 1 " y the process of fusion." OLOGY OF COLORADO AND NEW MExico.* — With the small appropri- pere of ten thousand hie Dr. Hayden appears to have traversed in ad c for this purpose was so small that Dr. Hayden could not have accom- plished a large portion of his explorations without their assistance, The appropriation of ten thousand dollars, by the central government, to ex- plore two territories, while a state is spending annually more than twice that amount, per annum, upon a single institution, might excite some Ei dum and confusion in the minds of a foreigner route lay along the eastern foot of the Rocky Mountains, from due. in Wyoming Territory, to Santa Fé, the Middle Park having been explored by a lateral excursion from Denver City. Returning from e and ee the Rocky apogs through the South Park. The explorer's re with regard to the superficial deposits are very interesting, and hait ari importance as an explanation of the origin of some of the most interesting localities is our justification for the following extract: * Preliminary Field Report of the U. S. prada Survey of Colorado and New Mexico, By Dr. F. V. Hayden. Washington, D. C. 8vo. 120 REVIEWS. * With the nommenpentent of the rinm v wae ushered in the dawn of ta eront lake period of the Tek " f the tertiary period, e up to the commencement of the present, there was a continuous series of fresh- Water lakes. e pret the continent west of the Mississippi River. Assuming the position that , progressive, and long-continued, and that the earlier sedi- ments of the tectiney, were marine, then brackish, eec purely. fresh waten, we Wiame: reum a of e gro y step, p to the d time. The earliest of pr fecit lakes marked the commencem ment of the tertiary period, me seps - have ee nivel a ven large — aai the American continent west of he A f Dar a Da 4 - > # m 7] 7 D N n A whie Lr we sg lave called the White River tertiary basin. We believe din it commenced its growth near has south-eastern base of se. Disk agisce and gradually enlarged its borders. I 1 ost or quite up pi ihe QUERN ot the present period; t tl d l he Upper Arkansas, in the Middle Park, among the mountains at the ‘source of the Missouri River, in Texas and California, and Utah, are all later portions of this great lake. The upper i in the Win ve mi r e deposit. ver Valley, near F ,and on the divide between the Platte and the Arkansas Rivers, were undoubtedly synchronous, though perhaps not eonnected 1 this great very year, as the limi ar nded any direction, I fi es of what — to be separa e basins, greater o , and bearing insic proof, m less pipet dig of the time of their existence. I hav 9 gen in this pia e the above b Pelis; to of the various geologi formai sas Ll lied tl West, in digi that my subsequent remarks on these formations in their southern extension may be more clearly understood. Constant reference will be medo to pus as the ey have aique seen in the e E h and West, in order that the story of thei y be linked together Dr. Hayden also speaks of having met with vast quantities of true drift material which he regards as originating from the neighboring mountains. i kinds, but slightly worn; but proceeding from the base of the mountains, the rocks become smaller and more rounded, until they pass into small pebbles, mingled with loose sand. 'The phenomena of erosion, as seen at the present time, all along the flanks of the mountains, in the plains, in the channels of streams, point clearly to a vastly greater quantity and force of water than exist anywhere at the present time." A page is de- nis bre familiarity with them enables him to condense into so brief as Bey “It is now well known ite: the great Rocky Mountain PENE BER is not composed of a single range, but a vast series of ranges, covering a width of sìx hundred a one thousand miles. Toore are also two kinds of ra iota wen "e a i granitoa nucleus, with long lines of fracture, the us, and is cor posed of a series of yotesuie cones or outburs of igneous rocks, in many cases forming thada saw-like rid or sierras, as the Sierra Nev - Sierra Madre, ete. Along the easter rtion of the Rocky Mountatns, os the north line to New Mexico, the ranges with a a grani toid nu- cleus prevail. Each one of tl a number of fragmen which — m des — from a definite direction, but the aggregate trend will he about and south-e: _ As I have | before stated, cach one of the main ranges seems to me to form a gigantic anti- and the lower parallel ranges a ng like steps to the plains, or to the m valley. If,for exam agp we were to aud pipund one a ne minor mountain ranges, as the Black Hills of Dakota. re the ey very complet e and er we should find a Souter: granitic axis, and. on — - AT scu p 55 5 y no: rth and so! And REVIEWS. 121 the eastern portion of the anticlinal, inis east side of the minor ridges — gently down, vine the west side is abrupt; and on the western portion vice versa, But if we take the ridges singly and examine them, we shall tm ta most cases that the aggregate — p mearty ners west and south-east. The conseque mountain from rogers to south, tse cor ranges or ridges pre esent a sort of ** en echelon” ap- arance; that is, they run out one after the other in the prairies, preserving the nearly north and south ebura of the entire sisted Not unfrequently a group or several of these ridges will run out at the same time, e — a huge notch in the main range. This notch in most which give birth to a water system of greater or less extent. trem for example, is the noteh ~ Cache a is Poudre, TORE ndo City, Canon City, on the Arkan as River, and other loca rest are beyond comparison the most correct and most scientific of our Rocks Mountain region in in existence, we s bvem uld at _— — the "nr: of ye es inet rang of fracture iti i iti north and en and "A these — pass out o or conse bod an end without prodome any 3 14 except perhaps. plain through the mo onoclinal rift. But when ‘several of apa minor ranges come to end to- e an abrupt jog of several miles towards the west is caused. Then d as rds range dies out, a "— anticlinal oF s €— cemedartiben (ied is ptm tothe sedimentary beds, Be- t th t of ridges or ** hog-backs” "riore es very narrow, sometimes hs hardly Maer m sometimes emey onno esten by superficial de- posits. But at these breaks the s ofr from half a mile to wae or fifteen m aie hi width, ft is in i these localities that the complete re s^ id country can be studied in detail. I do not Po of any portion of the uch d geolo; round "Colorado City. Neariy all the elements Edi geological cals revealed in t ie studying the mines of Colorado the explorer apres that ^g: lodes are almost invariably parallel, running north-east to south-w This and the two cleavage planes, one north-east to UR ide and ye other north-west to south-east, which he found to be peculiar to all the Azoic rocks, leads to an important and highly interesting generalization : “Tam inclined to neneve that the epist of the history of the — Mountain ranges is closely conne . As I have before stated, my own tamorpl ‘pote h f mountains is north-west and south-east, and that the eruptive trend north-east and south- es l t d and sout ran, range with a metamorphic or granitic nucleus, the trend chan. around to north- pouth-nast. Many o of the ranges have a nucleus of metamorphic rocks Peal the cen = be composed of nt case the igneous ma- terial ds thrust - in eed be the same direction as the trend. It mes therefere pret h th eraptive: meer Ss we z pa veas subsequent to the elevation of the t in Soutl Colorado and New metamorphie : nucleus, P Jal] e H f E + P e them over large areas." GEOGRAPHICAL HANDBOOK OF ALL KNOWN Wee is the title e the eat and of the most praiseworthy of Fern-books, now so popular in and. This neat volume is by K. M. Lyell (Mrs. Cir. , Lyell), jä is just patioa by Murray; a small octavo of two hundred and twenty- pages. It gives in order, under the principal countries, a list of all inr Ferns, with range and localities, and then a full series of tables exhibiting the geographical distribution of each species through the sev- eral regions. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 16 199 REVIEWS. RECENT WORKS ON THE EMBRYOLOGY OF ARTICULATES. — Besides the very valuable paper of Melnikow on the embryology of the lice and other insects pester noticed and quoted, we have to enumerate several others of great importance, and which we hope to find room to notice at greater war hereafter. Professor Claparéde has published a paper, Me illus- trated, on the embryology of worms, especially Spirorbis, in Siebold and Kolliker's “Journal.” Melnikow writes in gie aneri nans * On the early stages of Tenia cucumerina, with a vei figures. Dr. Richard Greef publishes in the same number of the ‘‘ Archiv" some most inter- esting researches on Hide meines forms of Arthropoda and worm- pn SER by four pla r. Ant ohrn has Aeg runs the first part of his “Researches on vs ioci and Development of Arthropoda" (Insects and Crusta- cea) with nine excellent plates. It is extracted from Siebold and Kol- liker's ‘“ Journal.” He here records his observations on the embryology of Cuma and allied genera, of certain sea spiders (Pycnogonidz), and thinks that embryology shows that these curious animals, classified y many naturalists with the Ara ie are really Crustacea; and of Daphnia, Praniza, and Paranthura Costana. A paper of the greatest interest to Mlbonio etia is M. Ganin's ** Con- tribution to a Knowledge of Developmental History in Insects" in Sie- bold and Kolliker's “Journal.” It is fully illustrated, and some of the em- bryoes and larve of certain Pteromali, Platygasters and Polynemas are of such startling interest, from their resemblance to the zoeüs of crabs and to certain low worms, that we must defer any farther notice for an- other number, when we can insert cuts to illustrate our review THE BOWDOIN SCIENTIFIC REvIEW.* — Two numbers have appeared of this fortnightly paper, which is viciis im Professors Brackett and Goodale of Bowdoin College. It is devoted mostly to chemistry and physiology, and the editors say in their announcement that ** it was orig- inally their design to communicate to their fellow physicians in Maine recent intelligence in physiology, and chemistry applied to eee This design has not been relinquished, but it has been somewhat moditied at the suggestion of many, and the scope of the journal has been Make without trespassing upon the field now so well occupied by our American journals of natural history, physical science, and medicine. It is believed that much of the work now accomplished by many of our domestic foreign periodicals may made more directly available by the regular journal will approach that of **Cosmos" and ‘‘ Les Mondes," but more prominence will be given to the results of English and American study.” We trust that this enterprising and ably conducted journal will meet with every possible encouragement. We quote the conclusion of M. Mayer's *A Fortnightly Review. Brunswick, Maine, 8vo, pp. 32. $2.00 a year. T ? "cec T NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 123 discourse before the Scientific Reunion of Insbruck, on Matter, Force and “The French PUN — Hirn, who, at the same time with Joule, Colding, Holtman and Heniholtz, disco mechanical equivalent of heat, arrived at the conclusion, which i pae there are three categ re) © Il 5 e E E P» T ® = = = = et E E =] x r - e ^ & as we n w retira part. But neither matter nor v pars generally supposed that the nervous substance, and especially the brain matter part in intellectual operatio dion try have roved that no living organ, a pun course the brain, contains free e phosphorus. If, on one side, si illusions must vanish before the data of an exact science, it is none the less iie. n li rial modificatio me co ottequenens ofas wor Tolconisr activity; wa nd — bnt intellectual acts of the individ inti onnect But it isa at entify these two activities which ab pra parallel to each other. An illustration can be no teleg iie com on ts o. what ve idea h as a function of the electro-chemical action. That is still — ever be regarded for the brain and "thought. The brain is ouly the mac chine, it is not thought. Intellig m ia hib t and the anatomist. What ist j y Jj 3 eternally pre-established by 1 objeeti would be sterile. Logic is the statics of intell ligene e, gramm ar is its en, and language ts dynami I finish in saying to you u with. deep convietion: an exact philosophy should and NaTURE.* — During the last year we prendi à very favorable opinion of “ Scientific Ones.” a weekly scientific newspaper, and have now to m g It is in royal 8vo form, well printed, containing ex- cellent articles by the leading scientists of Great Britain, and much valu- able weekly tpe Everybody who can afford to do so would do well to subscribe to it. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. BOTANY. EDIBLE FuxGr. — During the last few years great attention has paid, by botanists on the one hand and epicures on the other, to the Sec qualities of certain fungi. Notwithstanding the prejudice generally en- tertained against this class of vegetable productions, extending in Sc land, Wales and some parts of England, even to the common mushroom, Nature, a weekly illustrated journal of science. Royal 8vo, two columns. pp. 32. Twelve atu cents a number. Millan £ Co. New York, 63 Bleeker street. 124 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. there is no question that a considerable number of species, very abundant the year when very little else is to be obtained. It is nigris that — is scarcely a parish in England where tons of wholesome food are not allowed to waste every year, to say nothing of the vicus for their sci culture. Berkeley reckons that there are at least thirty distinct English edible fungi; Dr. Curtis has partaken of forty in North Carolina, and enumerates one hundred and eleven species in that state alone re- puted to be edible. Fries, the greatest living cryptogamist, is publishing a large work on the edible and poisonous fungi of Sweden; several works ofa similar character have recently been brought out in Italy; in our own country the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, Mr. Worthington G. Smith and Dr. Bull of Hereford, may be mentioned as having paid special attention to the subject. — Quarterly Journal of Science. E TREES IN AUSTRALIA. — On this subject the government director of the Botanic Garden at Melbourne furnishes some qp» catio details, as follows:—‘‘The marvellous height of so f the Australian (and ásia v the Victorian) trees has become we. instr of Mon: investi- ation since of late (particularly through the miner's tracks) easier access has been afforded to the back gullies of our mountain system. Some astounding data, supported by actual measurements, are now on Th record. e highest tree previously known was a Karri Eucalyptus a deii select measured by Mr. Pemberton Nani in one delightful gle f the Warren River, in Western Australia, where it rises to ^ ado vum hundred feet high. Into the hollow trunk of this Karri, three riders, with an additional pack- -borse, could enter and turn in it without oo At the desire of the writer of those pages (Dr. Müller), Mr. D. Bogle measured a fallen tree of Eucalyptus amygdalina, in the deep recesses of Daudenong (Victoria), and obtained for it the length of four hundred and twenty feet, with proportionate width; while Mr. G. Klein took the measurement of a Eucalyptus on the Black Spur, ten miles distant from Healesville, four hundred and eighty feet high... - - It is not at all likely that, in these isolated inquiries, chance has led to the really highest trees, which the most secluded and the least accessible spots may still conceal. It seems, however, almost beyond dispute that the trees of Australia rival in length, though evidently not in thickness, even the renowned forest egg of California, Sequoia Wellingtonia, the highest of which, as far as the writer is aware, rises, in their favorite haunts at the Sierra even: to about four hundred and cuf feet. . .. Mossman's Origin of the Seasons, p. 367. [And see more at Sa od « Silli- man's Journal" for November, 1867, p. 422.] LATE T EEEE E E e Neve ade ua EEUU PEREN LP UN e ; E ; 3 4 3 VETT ts ee. eT NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 125 TENDENCY OF FLORAL ORGANS TO EXCHANGE OFFICES. — In the No- vember NATURALIST, p. 494, ** C. J. S.," speaks of finding a little ear on the apex of a staminate spike of Indian Corn. This is something new to me; but I have several times seen staminate organs, produced on - ear. When the rains came after the past dry summer many plants seem to have made haste to produce new organs even though out of lid «du than to go on with the development of organs formed at the natural t rn has ime. This tendency gives us ears of c n the tassel, as C observed, and tassels formed upon the ear and many abortive ears ina single husk, as I h observed this fall. I have noticed, also, a few growth of little leaves, and are scarcely recognizable as Timothy-heads. D. MILLIKIN. MoNsTROSITY IN TRILLIUM. — April 28, 1866, while totas D at ie Roy, N. Y., I found a Trillium with two stems arising from a c rootstock, "each stem bearing a flower unlike the other and neither pulsi. he petals of one could hardly be distinguished from its sepals, the only — Mire being a minute white margin surrounding the apex of each petal. The floral envelopes in this case appear to have reverted to the "pam and color of the leaves much more nearly, than in the other terminal flower where the petals are oblong and pure white, having a nar- row green stripe running through the centre of each. "Though monstros- ities among the Trilliums may not be rare, I have never seen à similar one. — C. S. OSBORNE, Rochester, N. Y. Notices OF BOTANICAL MONSTROSITIES, such as the above, we are glad from our various correspondents. But they must not be dis- appointed if they should not appear at once. When they have accumu- lated a little so as to throw interest upon each other, we will print them all, or the most interesting ones, with some remarks on their classification and bearing, as pe ted in connection with a recent work upon Vege- table Teratology, by Dr. Masters of London, published by the Ray Soci- ety. ‘If ou monstrosity in Indian corn, the attempt to produce ears on the staminate spike is common enough; the production of male flowers on the ear is so unusual that we should be very glad to see specimens. Chlorosis (as it is termed) in Trillium grandiflorum is rather common, and we find that the plant so affected goes on year after year producing such blossoms. — Eps. .— Dr. Berthold Seeman discusses in the **Journal of upon a vegetation which, like the Arctic, enjoys the protection of a thick covering of snow, and is besides in a state of inactivity. e tempera- f the summer during the months of July and August has by far the 1236 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. greatest share in the distribution of vegetable life in the northern ipo d i 5 there is no reason to suppose that the terrestrial pole is destitute of vege- tation. The most northerly berry-bearing plant yet recorded is Vaccinium Vitis-Idea, or the cranberry, gathered in Bushman Island, on the north- west shore of vergence vs by Captain W. Penny, or in latitude 76° N., ew and longitude 6 . The most poto berry-bearing genera are Vac- cintum, htt Rubus, Cornus and Empetrum. It is stated that occa- sionally berries ripen in Lapland ene doped of Scienc [We should think so! See Linneus’s “ Lapland Flora," and ‘Ms inter- esting ** Tour in Lapland.” In the former almost thirty baccate-fruited plants are enumerated, and at least half of these ripen edible berries. — Epirors. | THE FERTILIZATION OF WINTER-FLOWERING PLANTS. — Mr. A. W. Ben- nett contributes = the first number of the new scientific ma aga pag * Nature," the results of some observations on the fertilization of tho plants which kibti flower in the winter, when there are few or no insects to assist in the distribution of the pollen. He finds that in those wild plants which flower and produce seed- bearing capsules throughout the year, as the white and red dead- -nettles, shepherd's purse, chickweed, groundsel, etc., the pollen is uniformly discharged in the bud before the flower opens. Many garden-plants, on the other hand, natives of warmer countries, but which still flower with us in the de epth of winter, never bear fruit in this climate, and‘in them the pollen is not discharged till the flower is fully open. Of this class are the yellow jasmine and the Chi- monanthus fragrans, or all-spice tree; in the latter Species the arran ge ment of the pistil and the stamens is such as to render self-fertilization impossible. — Quarterly Journal of Science. ZOOLOGY. A Rare Duck. — A specimen of the aio Tree Duck, Dendrocygna fulva, was killed in New Orleans on the 2 f January, 1870, and pre- sented by Mr. N. B. Moore to the nds Institution. This is the Tejou. The species occurs sparingly throughout Mexico and Central America and the eastern parts of South America, and is said to have been found nesting near Galveston, Texas, by Mr. Dresser. x TES E Em NIE ANT PS. V PICENO NIE CN Fe) NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 127 tirai GILLs IN Ganorp Fises. — Steindachner has pied hus lyp- terus Senegalus external branchiw occur when they are youn In T new species, P. Lapradei, the branchie persist in individuals yb viua inches long. They consist of a long, flattened band, with fringed edges, very like the external branchis of the axolotls; there is a single one on each side behind the operculum, and it does not pass the posterior margin of the pectoral fin. In P. Senegalus this transitory organ SEEPI sooner, and is no longer to be found in specimens measuring thre half to four inches in length. That these are respiratory organs en been proved by the anatomical investigations of Professor Hyrtl. — Annals and Magazine of .Natural History. Tur LIMBS OF ICHTHYOSAURUS AND PLESIOSAURUS. — Dr. Gegenbaur of Jena, has recently published an essay on the nature of the limbs of Ich- thyosaurus and Plesiosaurus. He indicates that the homologies of the paddle of the former are best understood by reference to the fin of the Selachians, especially of the sharks, a most important point. He accepts the view of the great importance of the differences between i sauroid fishes, and therefore a basis for the estimation of the origin of the distal portions of limbs from the simplest form — the simple ray. — . D. COPE. THE ORGANS OF HEARING AND SMELL IX INSECTS. — Mr. Lowne, in a which are remarkably dilated, and are covered with minute — communicating with little sacs in the interior. The halteres he rega as t of hearing, their cavity being filled by a very large nerve terminating in nerve cells, which is connected with a number of small, highly — bodies, regularly arranged around the base of the organ. ALBINO BanN SwaLLow.-——In the month of July of last year, near Saco, Maine, I observed a flock of Barn Swallows (Hirundo horreorum Barton), one of the individuals of which was pure white or nearly so. — P. ATKINSON Tue Sars Funp.— At a parlor lecture delivered in Salem by Mr. E. S. Morse, the sum of twenty-nine dollars and fifty cents ($29.50) was raised for the family of the late Professor Michael Sars, of Christiania. Liberal sums have already been'subscribed in London and Paris. 128 CORRESPONDENCE. GEOLOGY. DISCOVERY OF A HUGE WHALE IN NORTH CAROLINA. — Professor Kerr has discovered recently in North Carolina the remains of a huge whale some eighty feet in length, which I have recently studied. It is near Balena, and very different from anything hitherto found. It has an ex- traordinary development of the supercilia. The ear bone is preserved. I have named it Mesoteras Kerrianus. — E. D. COPE. HE GEOLOGY OF BraziL.— Professor C. F. Hartt of Cornell Uni- iude who has for several years been studying the geology of the coast region of Brazil, and has published two papers on the subject in the NAT- ALIST, Vol. i, and a general résumé of his explorations in the ‘ Pro- ceedings of the American Geographical Society," and has an extensive work on the subject nearly printed, entitled **'The dob and urea Geography of the Coast Provinces of Brazil,” proposes to make a trip to Brazil next summer. He will take with him several students E Cornell University, and the expedition will be one that in its results will, we doubt not, do credit to that institution which has already done s much in UN full courses of scientiflc studies into college curricu- lums. The geology and natural history of Brazil have been iine studied out by da Cen professors from America and Europe. Professor Hartt proposes to or apts the Amazonian drift, and doubts Mrd ing been thrown on Professor Agassiz's theory of a great Amuzonian glacier by several eminent SE we trust that this vexed question will he fully settled. PROFESSOR WARD’Ss MusEUM. — It will be gratifying to many of o readers to learn that the late fire has not proved an unconquerable oe stacle to the indomitable energy of Professor Ward. Our own Museum has lately been augmented by the addition of a small collection of his he will continue to furnish casts and collections to colleges and institu- tions as freely as before the fire. Professor Ward also informed us that he was upon the point of departing again for Europe. where he expects to renew and add to his collections, both of actual fossils and of casts. His museum was fully insured, and as this has been paid, the losses can be, in a great measure, repaired, especially among the moulds, only one- third of the whole of these having been destroyed. — EDITORS. —— e e ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. S. L. W., New York. aac Nos. 1 and 3, Leptogium tremelloides ; No. 2, Pannaria microphylla; No. * Endoc iniat m two specimens, one of which is E. glaucum Ach., but only a variety ; [o 5 por 6, Cetraria lacunosa; No.7, Urceolaria TEET No. 8, desee dii. The Usnea Sei a number is Usnea rubiginosa MX., & variety of U. barbata. —J. L. R. "UD JL. AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. IV. — MAY, 1870. — No. coc Gu (O59 e THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA.* BY EDWARD E. CHEVER. Fig.34. Indian stalking an Antelope, THE name “Digger,” which Fremont gave to the Indians that he found on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada, ead before the Essex Institute, February 21, 1870. An abstract will be found in the * Bates of the Essex Institute” and e tribes, du ming five years of ET personal intercourse, s given him a ^n baii o g a correct judgment of what these Indians really were before they were demoralized by Toe with me Whites, and that he has confined himself to such state y and kne — EDS. w to be correct. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1570. by the PEABODY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, in the Clerks Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 17 130 THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. people who obtained a precarious subsistance in winter by digging through the snow for roots, and searching the rocks for lizards, and who had neither villages or numerical force, has been applied by the readers of Fremont's work to all the Indians of California.* The name was really applicable to those whom he first met with, but not to the Indians living on the other side of the mountains, who spoke a different language and were more provident than those living on the great plains east of the Rocky Mountains. The latter have been much more destructive to the whites in battle, having procured, at an early date, firearms from Indian traders. The gold excite- ment, however, settled California so rapidly that the Indians were in a hopeless minority after the first immigration crossed the continent, and excepting where their villages were attacked they had no wish to fight, for they had no surplus population to lose. That these same Indians were not wanting in courage or spirit I have had repeated proofs. They would attack the sturgeon when under water and drag him to the shore with their limbs bleeding from the sharp spikes. I have also seen Indians bearing the scars of conflicts with grizzly bears, and the frequent instances of white men scarred with wounds made by their arrows, shows that they contended courageously with the early settlers. The Indians of California, in 1849, were the more inter- esting to the ethnologist from the manner in which that country had been settled. The Jesuits, it is true, had been in Lower California for many years, and had established mission schools there, and a few Europeans had a short time before made scattered settlements in the Sacramento Valley, but the whole country was so remote from our frontiers, and inclosed by the intervening barriers of the Rocky Mountains * The Indian tribes of the section I am describing, called themselves respectively, Sesum, Hocktem, Yubum, Hololipi, Willem, Tankum 1 inhabited tl lley of north em California, dox " Qi "XD Aa and the Coast Range. n ar e THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. 131 and the snows of the Sierra Nevada Range, that it had been but little changed since its discovery by the whites. Many Indian tribes were living in as perfect a state of nature as the elk, deer or antelope, which furnished them with food. A head-dress of feathers with a scanty coat of paint on his face was the full dress of a brave, while a fringe made of grass, or fine strips of bark, from the waist to the knee, was the costume of the girls or women. The Indians had but lit- tle beard naturally, and excepting in a few cases where old men had grown careless of appearances the hairs were pulled out ; sometimes a pair of muscle shells were used as tweezers, although I have seen a squaw dip her fingers in ashes and pull out her husband's beard, and draw tears at the same time from his eyes. Both sexes wore ornaments in the ears, but not rings. The children had their ears bored when quite young and small sticks inserted; these were ex- changed from time to time for larger sticks, until a bone ornament, made from one of the larger bones of a pelican's wing carved in rude style, and decorated at the end with crimson feathers, could be worn permanently. This bone was about five or six inches long and larger in size than my little finger. The back hair of the men was fastened up in a net, and this was made fast by a pin of hard wood pushed through both hair and net, the large end of the pin being ornamented with crimson feathers, obtained from the head of a species of woodpecker, and sometimes also with the tail feathers of an eagle. The women used no nets for their hair, nor wore feathers as ornaments, excepting in the end of the bones used by both sexes for the ears, which I have already described. The children were naturally frank and the girls gentle and confiding, not much more so, perhaps, than young grizzlies, but then I doubt whether the cub’s mother threatens to give it to a white man, if it proves disobedient, and a white man was the Bugbear used to frighten papooses into good behavior. They were allowed much freedom, however, in seeking amusement or instruc- 182 THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. tion; the girls acting as nurses to the younger children, and taking them off in the woods or to the river where they bathed, and the babies allowed to crawl in the water before they could walk on land. An Indian could no more remem- ber when he learned to swim than when he first stood on his feet. When the children were disposed to be good natured the girls petted them as kindly as our children tend dolls, but if they were cross, in spite of their caresses, they threw cold water in their faces until their tempers cooled. The girls fully equalled the boys in swimming or diving, and also used the paddle with skill, sometimes even beating the boys in their canoe or foot races. The boys, however, soon took to their bows and arrows, wandering off to hunt, and the girls learned at home the art of weaving baskets and making bread of acorns. Familiar with the points of the compass from infancy, they use their knowledge on all occasions ; even in play, if a ball or an arrow is being searched for, the one who saw it fall will guide the seeker thus, "to the east," Ta little north,” “now three steps north-west,” and so on. In the darkest night I have known an Indian go directly to a spring of water from a new camp by following the directions of a companion, who had been there previously, given perhaps as follows : “three hundred steps east and twenty steps north." This early training in wooderaft gives that consummate skill and confidence which is rarely acquired by those who learn it later in life. In tracking game they know the "signs," as our hunters call them, of the various animals and birds as well as they know the kind of game that made them, and experience teaches them when the animals moved away. In tracking white men they cannot make mistakes. The white man’s foot is deformed, made so by the shape of his boots or shoes, and even when he is barefooted his toes are turned inwards. The Indian's foot, never having been compressed, has the toes naturally formed and straight as our fingers are, and he can even use them to hold arrows when he is making them. When he walks therefore, each * THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. 133 toe leaves its impress on the dust or sand, the imprint of the little toe being as straight, perfect and distinct as that of the largest. In summer the Indians are fond of travelling from place to place as fish or game, sunny nooks, or shady glens offer their attractions in turn, and this living in differ- ent places accounts in part, for the intimate knowledge they possess of localities and also of trails leading from one sec- tion to another. In the event of exposure to a severe storm when out hunt- ing, or on a journey, the Indian does not risk his life by ex- hausting his strength. He selects the best shelter near him while he is comparatively fresh, and with bark or boughs, or under an overhanging rock, seeks protection from the wind. A hole sunk in the ground, and a small fire kept burning by an armful of sticks, will keep him warm till he can resume his journey. The Indians use great skill in their selection of fuel, and also in the disposition of the sticks in burning. They say of the white man "big fool, make heap fire and smoke, stand far off, look at him burn, while freeze." The Indian rejects green or wet wood and puts a few dry sticks together, with the ends towards a centre. This gives a free circulation of air between the brands, with but little smoke, and a large proportion of heat for the size of the fire. Their winter quarters are dry and warm, but are rarely free from smoke, which the Indians do not seem to regard as an incon- venience. The outside is covered with earth and at least a half of the hut is below the surface of the ground. The in- side shows strong posts supporting an arched roof made of poles bound with grapevines, and these covered with reeds and coarse grass secured by cords. A small hole in the roof serves as a chimney, and a low door, usually on the south side, is kept open excepting in stormy weather. A raised platform of poles and reeds holds the skins and blankets used for bedding. These blankets, made from geese feathers woven so as to bring the feathers overlapping each other, are ingeniously made, and are a protection from wet or cold. - 134 THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. When the Indians leave their houses a branch is left in the door to show that no one is athome. The California Indians were more provident than most of the aborigines of this country. Large, round, upright cribs, made of poles and reeds, perhaps eight or nine feet high, contained their sup- plies of acorns. These cribs were neatly made and had a floor of loose reeds to keep the acorns from contact with the ground; they were estimated to hold two years supply of breadstuff, and were filled when acorns were abundant to _ provide for a short crop if the next year should prove un- fruitful. The whole tribe, men, women and children, worked together in gathering acorns in the fall for these public granaries. The hunting and fishing were done wholly by men, and some of the fishing was done at night when the women were sleeping at home. Much of the drudgery came to the women and seemingly with their consent. They said that a hunter needed a keen eye, a firm hand and a fleet foot ; if he became stiff from hard work or lost his skill, his wife must suffer with him in his misfortunes, and it was best for each to do what each could do best. The position of honor among the Indians is the recogni- tion of excellence in some quality or acquirement. This induces every young man to improve himself by every opportunity offered, so that he may become the first in use- fulness and be called on to meet chiefs in council. When the customs of the Indians are learned the charge of indo- lence, as often made against them, does not seem wholly merited. One of the early settlers in New York asked a chief why he did not work and lay up money. The chief replied that he wanted one good reason given him why he should make a slave of himself all of his life to make his children lazy for the whole of theirs. The labor performed is often great and exhaustive and must be shared by many. As no one gains any advantage over his fellows, excepting as he may prove himself more useful to them by the exercise of superior skill, he has less inducement to work alone, as a THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. 135 publie servant. The Indian again has a desire to have game abundant, and to have the trees preserved for his acorns and fuel. It would seem folly to kill game faster than needed for food from year to year, and cutting down the oak that brought him acorns, would be killing the goose that laid the golden egg. An Indian to be judged fairly must be re- garded as an Indian. Custom with them, as with civilized people, is law, and many of their customs have probably been transmitted, with but little change, from remote ages. Fig. 35. Indian Village.* There is every reason to believe that the Indians were very numerous in California at some former time. Deserted mounds, showing the sites of former villages, are seen along the banks of the rivers, and a few tribes, speaking dialects of their own and yet living separately as nations, only consist of a dozen families each. One of these removed to a large tribe while I lived near them and remained as a part of the more powerful tribe for a year or more; but they became discontented or homesick, and returned to the village con- ib the huts, and the poles - un in some of them support the decoys used os the Indians in shooting geese. — ED 136 THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. taining the dust of their ancestors. Here they kept up the traditions of their fathers, and related tales of former glory, and prayed to the Great Spirit for success and for abundant blessings. It is worth our time perhaps to consider, while speaking of the mounds that indicate the sites of villages, how much of the elevation is due to natural deposits, and whether it may not jn many cases be entirely so. The streets in the city of Chicago have risen from eight to ten feet above the old level during the past twenty-five years from the soil obtained from cellars, ashes, sweepings, etc. Even the villages (so called) of prairie dogs are made higher by their occupation. The ground used as a permanent home by human beings is constantly receiving additions from the wood used as fuel, bones of animals, shells of various kinds, and even the bodies of the California Indians were buried near their houses, with their baskets and implements used in hunting and housekeeping. I am aware that else- where mounds seem to have been heaped up by another race of people, but the highest that I have met with in Califor- nia I think were owing to the gradual accumulations from centuries of occupation. The traditions of the Indians are so fanciful, when they get beyond the history known to the living, that they differ but little from printed fictions. Their religion is probably little changed from that of an earlier age. A Good Spirit is invoked to provide food and give prosperity, and evil spirits are to be propitiated. The oldest chief prays at certain seasons, morning and evening, outside of the council lodge, and sings in. a monotone a few sentences only. This is not in words taken from their lan- guage, but is supposed to be intelligible to the Great Spirit. When special prayers are made for success in fishing or hunt- ing, the request is made in plain Indian. Although he prays constantly for success, he uses wonderful craft and skill to ensure it. The antelope could not be approached in the short, dry grass on the plains even by crawling, but the In- THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. 137 dian whitens the sides of his body with clay, and puts a per- fect decoy antelope’s head on top of his own.* With a short stick in his left hand to give length to the pretended foreleg, aud carrying his bow and arrows in his right, he pretends to feed contentedly on the grass until the antelope approaches sufficiently near for him to kneel and shoot. The hunter, when standing or walking, supports himself on the short stick held in the left hand, like an animal standing on three legs (Fig. 34). I found by adopting this decoy head, and wearing knit clothing, that the antelope would come to me readily if I would remain in one place and hold the head near the ground, as if feeding. It was more difficult to walk far in this way, and the antelopes would come to me at times when if I had attempted to go to them, they would have become alarmed. | To illustrate the ease with which an Indian can provide food for himself, I saw one come to the bank of Feather River one afternoon and start a fire. Turning over the sod and searching under the logs and stones he found some grubs. Pulling up some light dry reeds of the last year’s growth he plucked a few hairs from his own head and tied the grubs to the bottom of the reeds, surrounding the bait with a circle of loops. These reeds were now stuck lightly in the mud and shallow water near the edge of the river, and he squatted and watched the tops of his reeds. Not a sound now broke the quiet of the place; the Indian was as motion- less as the trees that shaded him. Presently one of the reeds trembled at the top and the Indian quietly placed his thumb and finger on the reed and with a light toss a fish was thrown on the grass. The reed was put back, another reed shook and two fish were thrown out; then still another and the fellow was soon cooking his dinner. The spearing of salmon by torch-light, is very exciting. * This = "d rent skin of = ae head with artificial horns made from tulé e bulb ef ^ ie daas | bar ete with charcoal; 2 Ortho diih zin ped fi dpecker, with the purple iik fédihers attached. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 18 cover ed W P 138 THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. It is done on moonless nights and usually in parties of three to each canoe. One Indian guides the boat, a boy kneels in front with a blazing torch held near the surface of the water, while the one with the spear watches for the flash of the salmon as he darts toward the light. The spear is a loose point of bone with a hole through the centre, and one end fitted in a socket at the end of a light strong pole, and se- cured to the staff by a cord through the centre of the bone. When a fish is struck the bone is drawn out from its socket and left in the fish, making what sailors call a "toggle," the cord holding it in spite of its struggles. When the Indian is about to spear the salmon, you see him to advantage, and he gives his orders full of earnestness. *Hoddom ! Hoddom ! Pue-ne ! Pue-ne! Hon-de ! Hip-pe-ne ! Mip! Mip! Wedem-pou!" as the struggling fish is drawn to the canoe. These words translated are: There, there! . East, east! Lower! Higher! Hold, hold! The last word is an exclamation of surprise. No christian has stronger faith that his Father will provide for his wants, than these Indians had that the Great Spirit would send the salmon into their nets, or the grasshoppers to vary their bill of fare. Although grasshoppers are regarded with dread by the white settlers in some sections, the Indians go out to meet them rejoicing. They pile up the dry bunch grass for a centre and then forming a wide circle, and swing- ing branches of trees, they adajo driving the swarms of grasshoppers, until they take refuge under the pile of bunch grass. The grass at every point is set on fire simultane- ously; and burns like gunpowder. When the smoke has rolled away the roasted grasshoppers are picked up by the basket full. The division of fish and game was made generally by a chief, who counted out as many portions as there were fami- lies to eat. If no objection was made to the size of any por- tion, one of the number turned his back and called out, some name as each lot was pointed out by the chief, the Indians THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. 139 removing their share as fast as called for. No complaint was made if some were sharers who had not been workers, and hospitality to those entering their lodges was universal. The Indians hunt for one kind of game only at a time, and each kind when they can be taken most advantageously. Fig. 36. a The bow unstrung, from the Museum of the Peabody Academy. b Arrow with head of obsidian, from the same. When I saw every kind of game represented together at the Indian encampment in Bierstadt’s celebrated painting of the Yosemite, I knew the camp had been introduced for effect, from this evident ignorance of, or disregard for the habits of Indians. The Indian bow (Fig. 36) is made of the tough mountain cedar, with a thick back of sinew. A string of sinew also enables him to draw an arrow nearly to its head before it is sent humming through the air. The arrows are of two kinds, those with a head of hard, pointed wood for common use and those (Fig. 365) reserved Fig. 37. for extreme cases of attack or defence, having points of agate or obsidian, which are carefully kept in the skin of a fox, wild cat or otter. The stone arrow- heads (Fig. 37) are made with great care, and the materials from which they are made are often brought from long dis- b a EUM & Arrow-head of obsidian, from the Mu- tances. Obsidian and agate are ,,, EET Academy. a, probably selected not so much “Section or the for beauty of coloring as for their close grain, which admits of more careful shaping. They use a tool with its working edge shaped like the side of a glazier’s diamond. The 140 THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. arrowhead is held in the left hand, while the nick in the side of the tool is used as a nipper to chip off small frag- ments. An Indian usually has a pouch of treasures consist- ing of unfinished arrowheads or unworked stones, to be slowly wrought out when industriously inclined. The feath- ers are so placed on the arrow as to give it a spiral motion in its flight, proving that the idea of sending a missile with rotary motion is older than the rifling of our guns. It would consume too much space to describe all their im- plements, and many of them do not differ materially from Fig. 38. those that were used by Indians in this a section; among them were awls of bone, thread of deer sinews, and cord which they used for their nets, bird traps, and blankets ; — this cord was spun from the : inner fibre of a species of milk-weed. Their cooking utensils were made from the roots of a coarse grass. These roots grow near the surface of the ground, and in sandy soil can be pulled up in long pieces. The pulpy outside skin is re- a Cooking or warer basket, moved and the inside is a woody tibre, tray, and this also shows extremely tough when green, and durable baskets are formed* when made into articles for daily use. The Indian women split these roots into thin strips, keep them in water when they are making baskets, and take them out one at a time, as needed. The water basket is first started from a centre at the bottom, and is added to stitch by stitch, without a skeleton frame to indicate the intended size (Fig. 38). A loose strip of grass root is added constantly as a new layer to the last rim, and this is sewed on with another strip of the same fibre to the finished work beneath, a bone awl being used to bore holes through the basket portion. The last rim or complete edge of a basket has a larger filling, con- sisting of several strips of split grass roots, or sometimes à willow stick is used. The larger baskets are ornamented with ion M x4 2 Skia di moorrect e e THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. 141 figures woven in of a darker color; the girls sometimes add beads and feathers for smaller baskets (Fig. 39). The con- ical baskets used for carrying Fig. 39. burdens is woven instead of being sewed together, and is of looser texture and lighter in weight (Fig. 40). They are quite durable, however, and are used to carry wood, acorns, or household goods on a journey. UH The water baskets were also durable and would hold t a The yoke used to carry the conical basket. b The awl used in sew sowing the basket. water.* Water was made to *Fraeme boil in them by dropping in d Inside view of the same, showing that . stitch from above run stones previously heated. The i M women” ‘skilfully: vuséd £wo Rod ere. sticks in handling hot stones or coals as we would tongs. Kies In bread making the women pounded the acorns between two stones, a hol- lowed one serving for a mortar (Fig. 41), until it was reduced to a powder as fine as our eorn meal. They removed some of the bitterness of the meal by scraping hollows in the sand and leaching it, by causing water to percolate slowly through it. To prepare it for cooking the dough was wrapped in green leaves and these balls were covered with hot stones. It comes out dark colored and not appetiz- , but it is nutritious and was eaten SEE with gratitude by Fremont’s men in Waker, 7s a burden 1844, Fish and meat were sometimes cooked in this way. A salmon rolled in grape leaves and surrounded with hot stones, the whole covered with dry TT SRR aus WEADRANARAALN ANAL COCO CTA LL) CULT * A shallow basket of their work. which has been in the Museum collection for years, now holds cold water as perfectly as when it was made. — EDs. 142 THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. earth or ashes over night and taken out hot for breakfast, does not need a hunter’s appetite for its appreciation. Marriage among the California Indians was similar to that of other tribes in other parts of the country. Presents of sufficient value were given by the man to the girl’s parents, and the bride might be given away without her knowledge or consent. From my own observation I know that the Indian uses the best of his judgment in making a selection, and desires neither family strife or misery in his lodge. Girls are married at thirteen or fourteen years of age, and no woman of marriageable age remains single long. Most of the Indians, who became per- sonally well known to me, were very happy in their family rela- tions, and the custom of dividing food equally among them, al- == lowed no family to suffer from TT want. Stone die ad Bola from the Museum When the whites first came ee TEM into the country the Indians were virtuous and happy, and if whiskey had not demora- lized them they would have retained mueh of their original independence and self-respect. They were naturally cheer- ful and attached to each other, and although polygamy was permitted I knew only one chief who had two wives. These seemed to agree, although Waketo said of his family that it had "too much tongue." In earlier days dancing among them was confined to cere- monies of different kinds. In some of these the women joined, forming themselves into a circle; but as only one step was used in a solemn way, accompanied by a half turn- ing of the body, a stranger might be in doubt whether it was rejoicing or mourning. Within this circle the men danced with great activity, leaping across a fire burning in the centre, and yelling and singing whilst the women Fig. 41. THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. 143 continued their solemn dancing, singing a low monotonous chant. Running of races was confined, after childhood, to the men, and endurance rather than speed sought for. A race was for three or five miles at least, and a good runner would follow à runaway horse or mule that had started off with greater speed, but in a few hours would return with the animal in his possession. The Indians were inveterate gamblers, and parties from one tribe would visit another for several days at a time and play day and night. The game was a sort of an **odd and even," as played by white children, the parties guessing as to the number and position of the sticks used in the game. The playing was accompanied by singing, and beads were principally used for stakes. In the treatment of diseases the Indians succeeded in a certain class of them, but failed altogether in others. The pain from a sprain or rheumatism would be drawn to the sur- face by burning the skin with fire. I can testify to a cure from this remedy. A severe sprain of an ankle, followed by two months use of crutches, resulted six months later in rheumatism in one of my feet. The assertion of a chief that fire would eure it in an Indian, but for a white man— and here he shrugged his shoulders as if words were unnec- essary —induced me to try the experiment, and show him that white men could bear pain. I placed a live coal on the top of my instep, and before the burn was healed my rheu- matism was gone. For headaches they pressed their hands on the head of the sufferer and sometimes cured it by gentle pressure. For other diseases they tried steam baths, especi- ally for colds. When any internal disorder defied their treatment, they immediately begged medicine from the whites. In burying the dead a circular hole was dug and the body placed in it, in a sitting posture, with the head resting on the knees. Ifa man his nets were rolled about him and his 144 THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. weapons placed by his side. If a woman her blanket en- closed her body, and a conical shaped basket, such as they carry burdens in, was put in the grave also, with the peak upwards. The widow of an Indian cut her hair short and | covered her head with ashes, and in the mountains they used tar for that purpose. Every night for weeks, after their be- reavement, the wails of these women were distracting. I do not know the exact time prescribed for mourning but I do not think it lasted more than six months. The language of the California Indians is composed of gutteral sounds, difficult to separate into words when spoken rapidly, and hard to pronounce or remember. The count- ing is done, as with all primitive people I have met, by deci- mals. Children in reckoning call off the fingers and toes of both hands and feet as twenty, when wishing to express a large number. In counting ten the following words are used : Weekum, Paynay, Sarpun, Tchuyum, Marctem, Suckanay, Penimbom, Penceum, Peleum, Marchocom. If eleven is to be expressed it is Marchocum Weekum, or Ten one ; Marcho- cum Paynay, ten two, and so on to twenty which is Mide- quekum. The general term for man is Miadim, and for woman Killem, and for a child Collem. A boy is Miadim collem and a girl Killem collem. Although this seems to indicate a poverty of distinctive terms, yet when it is found that every animal, bird, insect and plant has its own name, it will be seen that there is no want of materials to supply a stranger with words for book making, if his tastes lead him in that direction. After many years passed with these Indians, and having every opportunity to study their customs and character, I entertain pleasant recollections of their friendship which was never broken, and feel sadly when I realize that the im- provements of the white men have been made at the sacrifice of Indian homes and almost of the race itself. Feather River (Rio de Plumas), before its mines were washed for gold, was so clear that the shadows reflected on THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. 145 its surface seemed brighter than the real objects above. The river abounded in fish, as did the plains on either side in antelope, deer, elk and bear. The happy laughter of chil- dren came from the villages, the splash of salmon, leaping from the surface, sent ripples circling to the shore, and the blue dome of heaven was arched from the Sierra Nevada with its fields of snow on the east, to the distant Coast Range that shut out the Pacific on the west. Grand oaks, with far spreading shade, dotted the plains that stretched for miles on either side, and in spring time the valley was brilliant with flowers. This was the possession and home of the Indians, whose ancestors had lived and hunted without patent or title obtained from deeds, long before the first sailor planted his flag on the sea-coast,and claimed the country by right of dis- covery. It could not be expected that the Indian would see his trees cut down and game destroyed, and the clear rivers turned into muddy streams, without regret. That they refrained from seeking satisfaction for what they re- garded as intentional wrong is more surprising. A white woman told me one day of her spirit in driving an Indian from her tent, by getting out her husband's pistol and ordering him to “vamose.” The Indian’s story was heard in this particular ease, and never having seen a white woman before he was astonished at her hostile intentions, and indignant at having been threatened when he intended no wrong. He added that he knew now "why so few of the white men in California were married." The Indians are philosophical by nature and accept either death or suffering, when regarded as inevitable, with com- posure. On one occasion, when talking with a chief, and slapping mosquitoes with considerable energy, killing them when I could, the Indian remained cool and serene, quietly brushing the little torments from his limbs, and observing my impatience, said, “what good comes of killing a few, the air is full of them." When the first steamboat passed the Indian villages I watched the Indians to see what effect AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 19 146 THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. it would produce, but to my disappointment it did not excite them or elicit any expression of wonder. Even the steam whistle failed to move them ; they did not understand it and would not exhibit surprise. . Two years later a brig sailed up the river and the Indians were full of excitement. The size of the sails and the strength of the ropes came within their comprehension, filling them with wonder. The task of gathering fibre enough to weave so much cloth, and such ropes, made the white man a wonderful worker in their estimation. It has been eustomary to attribute certain general qualities to whole tribes of Indians, and this has been done to those of whom I have written. I can only say that no two In- dians of my acquaintance were alike, and their mode of life would naturally develop individuality of character. The charges of lying and stealing, as urged against them, have some foundation in fact, although the Indian might make some such defence as our soldiers made to the accu- sation of theft of honey and chickens while marching through the South during our late war. "They did not steal, they took what they wanted and expected to live on the enemy. No Indian ean steal from his tribe, however, without los- ing his character, and their desire to have position in the tribe makes both men and women as careful of their reputa- tions as those in civilized life. Indians and white men can- not live side by side happily, nor without fighting till the white man is acknowledged master. The Indian is cat-like, attached to localities, and kills only such game as he needs for food; he is stealthy by nature, and patiently waits his opportunity to strike. The white man is migratory and carries his attachments to strange lands, making his home where his ambition or nature attracts him, and is destructive alike to game or forests. The Indian, if he become an ob- stacle, is classed with wild animals, and is hunted to the death; this antagonism becomes mutual and is perhaps as natural as the antipathies of cats and dogs. THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. 147 The early settlement of New England was attended by the horrors of Indian warfare, and this struggle is the same to-day as then, but farther west on the plains of Colorado and Arizona. The Indians of California are now fed on gov- ernment rations, and instead of elk and antelope the land is grazed by herds and flocks of domestic animals owned by the white men, and enumerated and taxed as one of the largest items of wealth in a rich state. The present policy of the government of removing Indians from disputed lands, and settling them upon reservations, is perhaps the best thing that can be done, but much of the management of Indians in the past has been a shameful record of fraud, by the agents of our government who represented the public money-bag, and of outrages committed on emigrants by the Indians. Many of the Indian agents, in their greed for gain, sup- plied hostile tribes with rifles, ammunition and whiskey in exchange for furs and even property captured from the white settlers. Whisky that may only make a fool of the white man converts an Indian into a fiend, and when drunk he may kill friend or foe. The individual settler, exposed to attack, regards the Indians as brutal and dangerous, and loses faith in his government if it rewards with presents the wretch who has murdered his companions, and may at any time attack him by surprise and butcher his wife and children. Our government is now powerful enough to warrant the exercise of authority and mercy. It is folly to purchase peace of such a people by paying them tribute, as the In- dians themselves seek to propitiate evil spirits by gifts of beads; and it cannot be right to make “Black Kettle” a present of a Colt's revolver, after he has already used his rifle and knife on more white victims than any brave of his tribe. The Indians whom I have particularly described in this pa- per, have been shown to possess the virtues of generosity and hospitality without the least knowledge of Christianity, and 148 THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTIIS. it is a mortifying fact that the early explorers in this country generally found welcome and hospitality among the Indians before the white traders had corrupted them. Now it is dif- ficult to find a tribe that a white man cares to visit unless with the balance of power on. his side. Indian cunning even has not proved equal to the duplicity of the white man. You may have heard of the Indian who offered his beaver skins for sale to a trader in olden times in one of our Puritan vil- lages, when the trader was on his way to church. The trader would not purchase then, but in a whisper stated a price. When the church was dismissed the Indian followed the trader home and demanded payment for his skins, but was forced to accept a less price than was first named. The Indian took the money but told an acquaintance that he had discovered the use of the big meeting at the church,— "it was to lower the price of beaver skins." As a white man I take the side of the pioneer in defence of his family, but I wish the Indians could have been spared much of the degradation brought upon them by bad white men that must eventually end in complete subjection, or extermination. NOTE. Allthe fi PT M Pr RTI ted, drawn from memory. — EDS. e D THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. BY PROF. N. S. SHALER. We must ask the reader to go with us into the remote past; back beyond the time when man invaded the primitive forests and disturbed the abundant life which covered the prairies around the great inland seas of our continent ; still farther back until we come to a time when very different animals from those now living there, roamed those woods and fields. We thus come to a time remote when measured tater ae eo ES THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. 149 by the usual standards of duration, yet only a geological yesterday. Once such journeys as we propose making were very difficult, and attended with dangers to soul, if not to body, whieh might well make any but the stout hearted in- vestigator hesitate. But now that the wall, which once di- vided the preadamie time from the present, has been so frequently breached and trodden over by those bound on expeditions into an even more remote past than that to whieh we seek to penetrate, we may set out on our journey without fear of meeting with a reception, on our return, which might make us wish that we had stayed among the monsters of that ancient time. We will not strain the imagination of the reader by asking him to conjure up a pieture of land and sea unlike that given by our present continents and oceans. He need not flatten out mountain ehains, or dry up river systems, in order to represent to himself a true picture of the theatre which bore the actors of the scenes we are about to describe. Our good old continent was much the same then as now. All the changes which have taken place would fall within the limits of error of the maps of the past few decades. The unceas- ing agents of change operating through water, have done much work; but a little longer delta to the Mississippi, a somewhat greater projection of Florida to the southward, a lessened area of the great lakes of the north-west, are about all the more important changes which have been ac- complished sinee the time of which we speak. In order to come in contaet with living elephants and mastodons, we need not go so far into the history of our continent as to traverse the glacial period. Long after the time when this great ice envelope shrouded the northern half of this continent, the great pachyderms continued to form the most important feature in the life of our continent. .If we wish to go back to the time when these great animals first came into our fields and forests we must ascend much farther into the past, beyond two or more glacial periods, 150 THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. with the long intervals of repose between them. During the middle and later tertiary periods elephantine life had its highest development; a half a dozen or more species lived then on the surface of the European continent, and only a portion of the then existing forms may be known to us. The importance of the elephant life of this time may be better estimated by comparing the number of large mammals belonging to any one family now existing in the same area. Only three or four species of the family of cervide, to which the common deer belongs, have existed in Europe since the glacial period. Among the bulls not more than two.species are known to have lived during the same time. Nor among the large carnivora, the bears or wolves, have the species been more numerous. We must seek among the smaller of the existing mammals, among the squirrels or mice, for the same riehness in specific representation as we find among the ele- phants of the tertiaries. The variety in size and form seems to have been very great; the smallest species was not over three or four feet high, while the largest stood as high as any of our living elephants, towering to the height of ten or twelve feet. We know too little of the geology of the other continents of the old world to say whether this exceeding richness in large elephants at this stage of the earth's history was also found there. We know, however, that India, where one of the two remaining species of elephants lives, was thronged with these animals at this time, and although Africa was probably then separated from the other continents with which it is now closely united by seas of considerable width, it, too, probably bore an abundance of the same life. We do not know the character of the life of the middle ter- tiary time in North America with anything like the accuracy that we do that of Europe during the same time. The in- vestigations which are to enable us to form a clearly defined picture of the life of that time, on our own continent, are yet to be made. It seems likely, however, that during the time when elephants were so remarkable a feature in the life THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. 151 of the old world, the new world was inhabited by quite dif- ferent forms of pachyderms. The beds of the Mauvaises Terres, and neighboring country so astoundingly rich in ani- mal remains, have supplied us with more species of fossil horses than are known from all the rest of the beds of that period. Altogether the middle and later tertiaries of North America have supplied us with the remains of at least ten species of fossil horse-like animals; so that the compara- tively unexplored regions of North America have yielded more tertiary horses than all of every age and formation which have been found in other regions. When we come down to dates nearer to our own time, and only separated therefrom by the last ice period, we find evi- dences that the European elephantine life still continued, though the species had changed, there being no longer so eonsiderable a number of distinct forms as then existed. We are not yet quite certain whether the elephant remains of Siberia come down to us from a period anterior to the glaeial epoch, or whether they were stored away in that frozen soil during or since that time of extreme cold. All analogy with the remains found in other regions, lead us to conclude that these herds of elephants, whose remains are found in such abundance around the mouths of the great rivers of northern Asia which empty into the Arctic Ocean, are contemporaneous with those of the closely allied, if not identical, species found in the peat swamps and morasses of North America. The number of these fossil elephants which are to be found in northern Asia is as remarkable as the condition in which they have been preserved. The ivory which they have left strewn over this region has been for centuries an important article of commerce, a large portion of the Chinese supply being probably derived from this source. There can be no doubt that the elephant life of this region was once as abundant as that which now exists in the jungles of Ceylon, or the southern part of Africa. The peculiar cireumstanees under which many of the bod- 152 THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. ies of the Siberian elephants have been preserved, enables us to form an idea of the external form and habits of the crea- ture far more satisfactory in its character than that which we have of any other extinct animal, except a few which have been exterminated by the hand of man. Generally the geologist is compelled to effect the restora- tion or rebuilding of the form of the extinct animal from fragments of a skeleton, the gaps of which he must fill by inference, and this conjectural framework is afterwards to be thrown into a more or less imaginary outline of soft, envel- oping parts. He is only too thankful if he finds that decay has left him a tolerably fair basis which he may build his labor upon. But in the case of many of the Siberian ele- phants the preservation is perfect; not only the skeleton, but the whole mass of the soft parts; the external envelope of skin, with its protecting covering of hair; even the deli- cate and perishable structures of the eye, an organ which so quickly perishes when decay begins to work, are all in an unchanged condition. Nor is the preservation that of form alone ; the chemical condition of the body is unchanged, it is still flesh and blood; its imprisonment in the ice of the frozen soil of the Lena delta for an hundred thousand years, more or less, has not perceptibly changed its constitution ; animals feed greedily on this flesh which has endured twenty times as long as the historical record. The dogs and wolves gather from afar to the feast whenever one of these bodies is uncovered, and there seems no good reason why those abnormal appetites of Paris, which find a new titillation of the palate in every monstrosity of diet, should not get a sweeter morsel from these preadamic elephants than they have obtained from their choice pieces of the knackers yard. Fortune certainly awaits the next rival of the Aois treres Provenceaux, if he will bid for it with elephant steaks from Siberia. The many ingenious inventors, who seek to find a means of preserving substances liable to perish by decay, who are constantly endeavoring to solve the problem of how THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. 153 to bring the surplus food of South America to the hungry mouths of Europe, may take a profitable lesson from these Lena elephants. Freeze the object to be preserved from decay in a block of ice; retain this in a frozen state and the entrance of the dreaded agents of change is at once barred. The conditions of permanent preservation are obtained ; air is excluded; that which is within the substance is locked with the water and can act no farther. These are the simple conditions which have kept the Lena elephants unchanged, while the very vegetation which supported them has been swept away; and by observing these conditions we might have preserved the body of Cæsar himself unchanged to the present day. Who knows but that following the simple method here indicated, the forms of the illustrious dead may yet be preserved from generation to generation, giving a tangible chain to connect the too forgetful present with the past. What could so preserve the memory of a time as one of its chief actors sleeping before our eyes cased in crystal ice? Would not the world be richer if we could have before us the earthly habitations of a Dante, a Shakspeare, or an Humboldt, as they were left by their immortal selves? He who entered the cold depositaries of such precious relies could not come forth without feeling that he was closer wedded to a distant past than ever before. The author does not feel free to advise this Siberian treatment of our ances- tors, as he is not sure but death should be followed by decay ; but to those who think that the closer our relation to the past the better fitted we are for the work of the present, it must commend itself. But to return to our elephants. The peculiar interest which is attached to the discovery of the well preserved re- mains of the only one of these animals which has come under the eye of a naturalist, warrants the transcription of the whole statement of the cireumstances of its discovery. This important discovery was made by the Chief Schuma- choff, of the wandering tribe of Tunguzes, near the mouth AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 20 154 THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. of the river Lena. The following account is translated and condensed from the description published in the "Memoirs of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.” * *In 1799 he built a cabin for his wife on the borders of the Lake Oncoul, and then went to search on the shore of the northern sea. hoping to find some elephants tusks. One day he perceived in the midst of the ice cliffs a shapeless mass, which did not look like the heaps of drift wood which are often found there. In order to examine it more nearly, he came ashore and observed the object on all sides, but could not recognize what it was. ‘The following year he discovered at this point a sea cow, and saw at the same time that the mass which he had seen before was farther sepa- rated from the ice, and showed two long projections, but he could not yet determine what it was. Towards the close of the following summer the whole side of the animal and one of the tusks projected beyond the ice wall of the cliff. On his return to the shores of Lake Oncoul he commu- nicated the result of this discovery to his wife and to some of his friends; but their way of looking at the matter gave him much distress. The old men told him that they had heard their fathers say that once before a similar monster had shown itself on the same peninsula, and that the dis- coverer and all his mg perished soon afterwards. The mammoth was consequently looked upon as an augury of a dire calamity, and the Chief was so much affected AR The fell very ill; but at last, being a little con- valescent, his first idea was of the profits he might gain by selling the usks, which were of extraordinary beauty and size. He gave orders to have the locality carefully "dran, and all strangers turned away on some pretext, charging at the e time some of his people to watch carefully that no one should cs pni treasure. But the summer was less warm than the preceding, and the mammoth remained buried in the ice which scarcely melted at all. At last, towards the close of the fifth year, the ardent desires of Schumachoff were happily accomplished. For that part of the ice which was between the ground and the mammoth having melted more rapidly than the rest, the surface became sloping, and this enormous mass, pushed by its own weight, slid down and sorted on a bank of sand upon the shore. In the month of March, Schumachoff came to his mammoth, and having cut off his tusks sold them to à merchant for goods worth fifty roubles. to establish these facts which one would have believed so improbable. I found the mammoth still in the same place, but entirely mutilated. The Jacutes of the neighborhood had cut up the flesh and fed it to their dogs during a period of scarcity, and the wild animals, white bears, wolves, *Tio etal ^r 4 Qiu H ad m ris gl fat. Tit. 1797 efosso, Auctore Tilesio. Mem. Acad. Imp., St. Petersburg. Tome v. THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. 155 gluttons and foxes had picked the bones. The skeleton, almost entirely stripped of the flesh, was still entire with the exception of one forefoot. The spine from the head to the coccyx, a shoulder blade, the pelvis and the remains of the three extremities were still attached by cartilage. sin head was covered with a dry skin. One of the ears was very well p served, and furnished with a tuft of hair. Allthese parts have Sine suffered by transportation for a distance of eleven thousand werst. Still the eyes have been preserved, and in the left the ball is still visible. The brain remained in the skull, but seemed somewhat dried. The parts the least injured are one front and one hind foot; they were covered with hair, and had still the soles. According to the assertion of the Chief the creature was so fat that the belly hung down to below the knees. The neck bore a long mane. The skin, of which I collected Puch three-quarters, is of a dark gray color, covered with wool and bla The escarpment from which the mammoth had slid seas a height of from two hundred to two hundred and rid feet, and is composed of clear, pure ice. It slopes towards the sea and its summit is covered witha coating of moss and friable earth sam eight inches thick. During the +- heat of summer a part of the crust melts, but the rest remains frozen. Curiosity caused me to climb two other hills somewhat away from the shore. They were composed of ice also, and less covered with moss. At various points one saw fragments of wood of great size, and many tusks of mammoths imbedded in the ice precipices.” ` The peculiarities of the geographical distribution of or- ganie life makes us associate certain animals and plants with certain features of climate. So that the inference was natu- rally made that the remains of elephants and rhinoceroses indicated a climate of a tropical character in the region where they are found at a time when these extinct species were living. That this is entirely fallacious is sufficiently proven by the fact that our Lena elephant is fitted to resist just such a temperature as now prevails in the regions where his remains are found. `The hairy envelop afforded a non- conductor. such as does not exist on the skin of any living animal outside of the Arctic circle. In place of the imper- fect hairy covering of hairy pachyderms, or the bare skin of his living congeners, this elephant was provided with three distinet suits of hair and wool, the longest bristle-like hairs having various lengths up to a foot and a half, and serving the ruder purposes of defence; the next and shorter coat was a close set, tolerably fine hair, three or four inches long ; within 156 THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. this, in itself a considerable protection against the weather, lay a coating of wool, fitting the intervals between the other hairs, and enabling the animal to withstand the greatest rigor of the climate, which now prevails in this part of Asia. Acute observation has supplied us with another evidence of the fitness of this elephant to live in the ordinary conditions of high latitudes. In the tooth of the specimen, before de- scribed, was found a morsel of wood, the remains of the last meal made by the creature; the microscope of the botanist showed this fragment to belong to a coniferous tree, so that the stunted furs of the high north might have supplied food for herds of these mammoths. It is not, however, quite cer- tain that these animals ever came down to the borders of the northern sea, though, as we have seen, they were fitted for such a climate as now prevails there; so far as we know the remains which are found around the mouths of the great rivers of Siberia are always in a position, which seems to indicate that they have been swept into their places by the river, and may thus have come from any point on its course. The fact that spring overtakes the stream at its headwaters, filling its channel with the floods of the annual melting, while the region near the estuary may be still fro- zen solid, renders these Siberian rivers, as all other streams which flow towards higher latitudes, peculiarly liable to de- structive overflows. Overtaken by these inundations these clumsy inhabitants of this region were swept down towards the sea and stranded on the perpetually frozen soil of the shore; here buried in the mud and ice they soon became frozen, and each successive inundation thickened the sheet of ice and frozen soil which sealed them from decay. Noth- ing but a change of climate or an alteration in the course of the stream in such fashion as to disinter the remains can ever disclose the innumerable bodies of these ancient mon- sters which lie stark and stiff along the waters of that frozen sea. When the frequent disinterment of these valuable fos- sils, by the falling of the frozen cliffs of the rivers of Siberia, THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. 157 are more closely watched, we will doubtless obtain similarly preserved bodies of the other large mammals which were contemporaneous with these elephants. It would be contrary to all analogy to find that these great pachyderms held these vast steppes of Siberia unassociated with other large mam- mals. We may reasonably expect to find a whole fauna of creatures fitted to the rude conditions to which we have seen this elephant is adapted. Unfortunately we know too little concernirig the fossils of the extreme northern part of North America to be able to say whether the Siberian elephants were peculiar to the Asi- atic border of the Arctic Ocean, or extended over the north- ern part of this continent. All analogy in the distribution of life around that sea, at thé present day, would lead us to expect that the same, or allied species, ranged all along our northern shore. The Mackenzie River being subject to just such a peculiar overflow as has embedded the elephants of Siberia in ice, we can hope that when its shores are better known there will be similar fossils found there. There seems to have been an obscure tradition among some portions of the Indians of eastern North America, that on the unex- plored and distant recesses north of Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence, there dwelt some great mammals which had a size like that of the elephant. With the early voyagers this was accepted as proof that the mammoth still lived in the western part of Labrador; and on some of the first maps this territory was laid down as the habitation of these sur- viving members of the giant race whose bones strewed the surface of so large a portion of the continent. It is to be expected that the Indians, who must from time to time have encountered skeletons of the mastodon and elephant where they had been unearthed by the changes of river courses, or brought to light in their efforts to free the obstructed course of large springs, such as those at Saratoga or Big Bone Lick, would have believed the species still living, and have assigned it a home in some distant region. A savage conceives with 158 THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. diffieulty the extinction of any species of large animal, but if it fails to cross his path is disposed to assign it a home in the region least known to him. So far as is known to the author no remains, either of elephants or mastodons, have been found north of the parallel of forty-eight degrees east of the Rocky Mountains. South of this line the remains are found in tolerable abundance over the whole surface of the eastern United States as far south as middle Alabama. We have not sufficient evi- dence of the distribution of the remains of these animals to determine just what range they had. New England has given us the fewest remains, only rare traces of the presence of this species having been found. In the valley of the Hudson they are tolerably abundant. In New Jersey, where the conditions favorable for their preservation are frequently found, some of the most perfect skeletons have been disin- terred. All over the middle states we come across traces of this species ; and in the West, they are the most abundant of mammal remains. On the Pacific coast, the fossil elephants were as numerous as in the Mississippi Valley ; on this side of the continent they seem to have a greater northern range. The explorations of Mr. Dall revealed the existence of these remains as far north as Alaska; so that on the west coast at least, we have the remains of American elephants as far north as those of Siberia. The existence of these remains in Alaska makes it exceedingly probable that we shall find the similar fossils throughout British America, and that our mammoth is specifically identical with that of Asia. It is re- markable that the buffalo, which once ranged far east, and covered the whole of the plain region of the Ohio basin with innumerable herds, has not left as many traces of his pres- ence as the elephants. The remains of the mastodon seem even more plentiful than those of the red deer. Something must, no doubt, be attributed to the greater size and solidity of the bones of these pachyderms over those of bison and deer. Still the remarkable abundance of the elephant re- THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. 159 mains is indubitable proof, not so much perhaps of the abun- dance of the individuals at any one time, as of the long con- tinuance of the species on the soil. The buffalo was a temporary race on the Ohio Valley; he had probably been here only a few thousand years at most, possibly but a few hundreds, when the coming of the white man drove him beyond the Mississippi. He was not there at the time of the mound builders. His bones are not found among their remains.: His striking form is not copied in their pottery, as are those of all other remarkable mammals of the valley. Nor do we find him delineated in the great figure mounds of the north-west; although if he existed in the region at the time when these people made these earthern monuments, he would have been sure of a prominent place among them. The elephants and mastodons, on the other hand, had a life which may possibly be reckoned by hundreds of thousands of years. A species was probably here before the glacial period; and since that time up to about the com- ing of man, possibly after his advent on the continent, they were continually present. The consequence is that their re- mains are found in about every spot where the conditions of their preservation exist. Almost any swampy bit of ground in Ohio or Kentucky where these huge creatures would have gotten mired in their efforts to get to water in dry seasons, or where the too yielding mud could have swal- lowed them up when they endeavored to cool themselves by wallowing in the mire, as is the habit of all elephants, con- tains more or less evidence of the presence of these animals. Sometimes a single tooth or tusk only has survived decay ; at other times many skeletons are packed together in the bog. The numerous salt springs of the West, commonly ealled licks, are peculiarly rich in these remains. Like many other mammals these elephants were in the habit of seeking once a year, or oftener, some place where they could supply the hunger for salt. The saline waters, such as pour from Big Bone Lick, the upper and lower Blue Licks of Kentucky, > 160 THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. or other similar localities in the West, supplied this need, and here came, on an annual pilgrimage, all the large animals of the country. When this region was first occupied by the whites the bones of elephants and mastodons were found in abundance upon the surface, or buried beneath a thin covering of mould around the various springs of the first of these localities. For nearly half a century they supplied every strolling curiosity hunter with relies, besides furnishing the remarkably perfect specimen in the British Museum, as well as half a dozen less complete skeletons. There remain to this day traces of the ancient paths on which at the time the country was settled the deer and buffalo thronged to their favorite watering place. These traces, broader than a wide bridle path and worn to the depth of several feet, were fifty years ago the natural roads, leading from great distances, down to the springs. The buffalo evidently fell into the paths made by their predecessors, the elephants; for along the courses of these paths the mammoth remains seem most abundant. Although some of the remains of the Hlephas primigenius give evidences of extreme antiquity, others seem comparatively very recent. The author has a tooth of this species which came from the uppermost terrace of the alluvial plain opposite Cincinnati, at a point over sixty feet from the surface. This tooth could not have been placed in its position less than fifty thousand years ago. Since the deposition of the beds where it lay the Ohio has deepened its rock channel over fifty feet, and shrunk to the mere shadow of the mighty stream which flowed through its valley when it bore the melting ice of the drift period. On the other hand some of the remains of the same species, such as those which lie upon the surface at Big Bone Lick, are so well preserved as to seem not much more ancient than the buffalo bones which are found above them. There is a great difficulty in determining the relative antiquity of the two elephants which have existed in the United States since the glacial period. The Zlephas primigenius (if the species THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. 161 be identical with the European representatives) seems on the whole to be more ancient than the Mastodon Ohioticus. It was beyond all question in existence when the upper terraces of our river bottoms were being formed, which must have been just as the ice sheet was passing away from the Alle- ghanies and was flooding our Western streams with its waters. This mastodon on the other hand seems never to be found under circumstances which indicate such great antiquity ; it seems to have come in after the details of the river courses were about complete and all the terraces formed. There can be no doubt, however, that these two giants were associated during the latter part of their history. Although it is quite unusual for two allied animals of very great size to exist to- gether in the same field, there is no reason why the Western world could not have been broad enough for both. There is sufficient difference in the structural features of these two races to warrant the supposition that they must have been characterized by considerable difference of habit and instinct such as would lead them to choose different fields of activity. It seems not unlikely, though the evidence is hardly suffi- cient to support the assertion, that the mastodon was most given to wandering in the swamps, while the elephant ranged on higher grounds. The Zlephas primigenius, or mammoth, was consider- ably taller than the Indian elephants of to-day, though not much exceeding them in length. The most striking dif- ferences of form were to be found about the head, which was considerably higher and more pointed than that of the Indian elephant, and provided with tusks, which in- stead of projecting downward and forward, curved quite abruptly outward and backward. The size of these tusks far exceeds those of any living elephant the author has measured; tusks-of our North American mammoths have been found having a length on the outside of the curve of over ten feet, yet wanting both tips and bases. The perfect tusk must have been over eleven feet long. In AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 21 162 THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. addition to the greater length of the tusks the mammoth was distinguished from the elephants of to-day by the long hair which hung in a coarse mane from the neck and along the belly, nearly dragging on the ground. This shaggy envelope of hair must have added duse to the apparent size and formidable appearance of this giant. We know less about the appearance of the mastodon than the elephant proper. Their proportions were evidently not more widely different than those of our domesticated bull and the buffalo. The mastodons were probably never over eleven feet high. They had straight tusks, as have our modern elephants, their grinding teeth, which exhibit the most char- acteristic differences, separating them from their larger rela- tives, were fitted for the grinding of rougher food. From the extreme frequency of the occurrence of the remains of the mastodon in the swamps of the West, it seems likely that this form of elephant was peculiarly suited to exist in such regions. There can be no doubt that a few thousand years ago these companion giants roamed through the forests and along the streams of the Mississippi Valley. They fed upon a veg- etation not materially different from that now existing there. Replace them in the primeval forests of that region and their wants would be as well supplied as when they were lords of the domain. The fragments of wood which one finds beneath their bones seem to be of the common species of existing trees; even the reeds and other swamp plants which are imbedded with their remains are apparently the- same as those which now spring in the soil. The naturalist, accustomed as he is to behold the mysterious changes of life, where races sink at once into a common grave, and the face of earth prepared for other actors in the great tragedy of existence, cannot but feel more keenly than before the tem- porary character of all life when he opens to the light of day the resting place of one of those species of gigantic ani- mals. What eoid have been the nature of Sante agents THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. 163 which at one stroke drove from the face of earth two of the most powerful races of its inhabitants, sweeping with them many smaller forms, such as the extinct deer and bulls which we find buried with them. The unchanged geography of the country assures us that no great convulsion of nature brought it about. The similarity of the vegetation of the elephant period, with that now growing on the same soil, shows pretty conclusively that it was not due to great geo- graphical changes of other regions reacting on the climate of the region they inhabited. It is not meant to assert that no changes of climate have taken place; on the contrary, such changes have most likely come about; but they have hardly been sufficient to extinguish animals so well adapted as the Zlephas primigenius undoubtedly was to brave climatic irregularities.* There seems but one other way to explain the extirpation of these races and that is through the action of man. There is no longer any doubt that our ancestors of the stone age, on the European continent, were ushered on to earth in the midst of the gigantie animals of the elephant riod. It is now over thirty years since Schmerling of Liege presented the evidence of the contemporaneity of the remains of man with those of the cave bear and other extinct ani- mals. Step by step the evidence has accumulated, over- whelming the determined opposition of those who think that the truth they have is necessarily damaged by all new dis- coveries. It is impossible to present here the evidence which supports what may seem to many a too confident as- .sertion; its character is known to most readers. Bones of these extinct animals, split for marrow and worked for tools, are probably the most important part of the evidence. But the most unquestionable bit of proof is that which is fur- nished by a fragment of a tusk of an elephant in the collec- far from a change from warmth to cold having been the cause of the extinction of the fossil elephants which have recently disappeared from the Mississippi Valley, at all, it likely acted by an alteration from cold to warmth, giving a climate too hot for a creature probably clothed as we know the Lena elephant to have been, * 164 THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. tion of M. Lartet, of Paris. Some artistic spirit of the stone age has commemorated an incident*of the chase by graving upon this fragment a rude, but spirited representa- tion of the animal to whom the tusk belonged. The form is very characteristic ; the shape of head, such as the species is known to have had, differing considerably from that of the African elephant, is clearly shown. But one feature alone is sufficient to show that the savage meant to represent a mem- ber of the race to which the Lena elephant belonged; it is the long, shaggy hair, falling like a mane from the shoulders and neck and fringing the belly ; this is clearly indicated in the engraving. But for the preservation of the Siberian elephants in ice we would have failed to perceive the meaning of this feature in the drawing; as it is it leaves no doubt that he who drew it had an Hlephas primigenius in his mind's eye. It was probably for the best that man should have come upon earth while these giants still lived. They were his teachers in the first arts of craft and courage. Having to dispute the possession of his primitive home, the caverns, with the gigantic cave bear, and the mastery of the forests with the formidable elephants, he was compelled to contrive weapons and use them with well concerted bravery. The magnitude of the dangers which surrounded him compelled him to associate himself with his fellow men, and his tri- umphs in struggles, where skill and valor prevailed against animal strength, gave him the first rude education of the combat. If we must seek a reason for the death of the elephants in external influences we may well find it in the coming of man, though it would be quite as reasonable to suppose that their race already, as we have seen very ancient, passed away because it had lived its time and done its appointed work. We have no such evidence of the contact of man with this ancient race of giants on the continent of North America as European discoveries have afforded. No one who has ex- THE TIME OF THE MAMMOTHS. 165 amined the conditions of entombment of the extinct peoples of the Western states, the preservations of their remains, and the changes which have taken place since their deposi- tion, can believe that the disappearance of the elephants, and the coming of the North American man were separated by any great length of time. When the fields of the West, rich in the remains of these ancient animals and ancient men, are studied as they will be by the rising generation of investi- gators of that region, the precise idein will be easily established. It is not likely that it will be found that the highly organized mound building nations were instrumental in driving the extinet elephants from the soil of North America. Had they come in contact with these large crea- tures we should have had some representation of them in their pottery sculpture, where we find figures of all the com- mon large mammals of the West, except as before remarked, the bison, as well as other forms like the manatee which could not have been personally known to the inhabitants of the Ohio Valley. It is more likely to have been some rude dweller in caves of the stone age who slew the last mammoth of America. The history of the changes in the elephant life, a little while ago so abundant, on three at least of the five conti- nents, is not unlike what we find among other types of ani- mals and plants which have passed the full meridian of their existence and are hastening to their setting. While the type is in its full vigor it spreads its diversitied species far and wide over northern as well as southern lands ; when it begins to wane the northern species fall first in the struggle, and the last remnants of the type are found beneath the torrid sun where easier conditions permit them to protract a senile life. Among the plants the palm and tree ferns ; among the animals the large reptiles like the crocodiles and alligators, the rhinoceros, the hippotamus, the tapirs, the monkeys, and many other types find in the tropical forests the conditions of existence which the ruder climes of the north long since 166 THE MOLLUSKS OF OUR CELLARS. denied them. Our speculative friend asks, “may it not be that man, driven from the northern lands by the coming of his higher suecessor on the stage of life, is to finally end his race on earth within the recesses of the gloomy forests of Brazil or Borneo?" THE MOLLUSKS OF OUR CELLARS. BY W. G. BINNEY. Most of the readers of the NATURALIST, who reside in the cities of our Atlantie coast, are aware that the cellars of their houses are infested with slugs and snails. They have seen or heard of the glistening tracks made by their slime, and have heard dreadful stories of the ugly creatures who left them when escaping from their nocturnal depredations. But as few of our readers have met them face to face, we pro- pose giving a short description of each with a portrait of sufficient accuracy to enable any one to identify the separate species. ' A word first about their characters and habits. They all belong to the great division of mollusks which are called Pulmonata, from the fact of their breathing with lung-like vessels. Furthermore, they all belong to that group of Pul- monata which are called Geophila, or lovers of dry land, from the fact of their habits being terrestrial in distinction from those which are adapted to living in fresh-water, or in the sea. These Geophila are distinguished in addition to their breathing with lung-like vessels by their having their eyes at the end of long, slender, cylindrical feelers. Thus far most authors agree, but in subdividing these Geophila into natural groups there is so little accord among naturalists that we do not carry our readers farther in classification. Suffice it to say that literally from head to tail almost every THE MOLLUSKS OF OUR CELLARS. 167 character has been seized to found families upon, and thus far the conchological world is but little the wiser for it. Our cellar mollusks are all nocturnal in their habits. They lie quietly stowed away in some crack or crevice of the walls during the day. At night they sally forth in Fie. 49 pursuit of food and to enjoy the company of «qu their kind. They feed on vegetable matter — refuse from the kitchen, decaying vegetables Jaw of Limaz flavus. or fruits —or on Indian meal, flour, or anything they are lucky enough to find. They even devour animal food, and in confinement have even been accused of cannabalism. When one comes to know how well adapted their mouth is to eating, it becomes a wonder that our mollusks leave any- thing uneaten. For the mouth of each individual mollusk is Fig. 43. Half row of teeth of Limar flavus, armed at its entrance with a sharp, stout, pointed process, called a jaw, for want of a better term. This falls, portcullis- like, on the food of the animal, and cuts off pieces into his mouth. We give here a figure of the jaw of Limax flavus one of the species mentioned below (Fig. 42)." Once in the mouth the food is taken hold of by a long, broad, ribbon-like membrane, generally called a tongue. The whole surface of this tongue is covered with sharp, tooth-like processes run- ning in transverse rows. These small, sharp teeth rasp quickly the food and carry it forwards towards the stomach. Short work they must make of it, for the number of these tooth-like processes is very great, counting as high as eighty thousand in some species. We give here a figure of one- half of one transverse row of teeth on the tongue of the same species whose so-called jaw is already figured (Fig. 43). To 168 THE MOLLUSKS OF OUR CELLARS. understand the figure it must be borne in mind that the remaining half of this transverse row is similar to the half figured, and that all the transverse rows are alike. Thus our figure gives as good an idea of the tongue as if the whole hundred rows of eighty-five teeth each were given. No wonder the possessors of all these teeth have a reputa- tion for voracity and that their presence is dreaded in kitchen gardens. Our cellar mollusks are active all the year round, owing to the milder and more equal climate of their. abode. They do not hibernate like their brethren of the fields and woods. Their soft shell-less body gives them little protection trom their enemies. Like all animals so defenceless they would soon lecome exterminated had they not great powers of reproduction. They lay eggs several times during the year, and in such numbers that a couple of them will lay as many as six hundred in a year. These eggs are gelatinous, semitransparent and globular, sometimes attached together like a rosary. They are remarkably tenacious of vitality, so much so that they resist the greatest extremes of temper- ature. They have even been shrunk and dried in a furnace and kept for years in this state, yet still have developed their young upon being restored to moisture. The young animal emerges from the egg in about ‘a month, and when two months old begins to reproduce its kind, though not itself arrived at more than half its greatest size. Only one species of our cellar mollusks is furnished with un external well developed shell. The others are what are commonly *nown as slugs. They have, however, under the skin of the forepart of their body, called the mantle, a rudi- mentary shell, either in grains of calcareous matter or in a regular calcareous plate. This plate was formerly supposed to have great medicinal properties, and has been said to be a sovereign remedy for almost all the ills that flesh is heir to. The whole surface of their body is constantly lubricated by a watery fluid. They also have the power of secreting a THE MOLLUSKS OF OUR CELLARS. 169 milk-like mueus at any part of their body which may require protection from any foreign substance. This secretion of mucus is their only means of defence against their enemies. It also is used as a thread like the spiders web to enable them to descend to the earth. All the species mentioned below are of foreign origin. They were imported from England. They are found only in close proximity to man around his habitation, either in cellars or gardens. Most of them were noticed pig y. more than half a century ago, as early as mollusks became to be studied in our country. They have also been imported into other colonies of England, g and probably are destined to become the most em cosmopolitan of mollusks. adips eid We will now describe the various species found «eerie. in our cellars, commencing with the only one which bears a well developed external shell (Fig. 44). This is the Hyalina cellaria, a thin, horn colored, glistening, flattened shell of five whorls, and less than half an inch in diam- Fig. 44a. eter. The edge of the aperture is sharp, not reflected, or dienai by a border of testa- V B ceous matter. It isa common European shell Animal of Hyatina of which a single specimen was first noticed — ^^ by a gentleman in Philadelphia on a wharf near the foreign Shipping. It was shown to Mr. Say, who described it as a new species. Of late years it has not been seen in that city, but from Astoria, Long Island, to Halifax, it exists in almost every Atlantie port. It is found only in cellars and gardens. It used to be very common under the bricks of the inner edge of the sidewalk on the north side of Mount Vernon street, Boston, between Walnut street and Louisberg Square. Limax maximus is the largest of our cellar slugs (Fig. 45). It seems to be a more recent importation than the other spe- cies, having first been noticed in Philadelphia in 1867. It appeared almost simultaneously at Brooklyn, New York, and AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 22 170 THE MOLLUSKS OF OUR CELLARS. at Newport, R. I. The individual figured was found in a garden in Pelham street of the last named city. Some indi- Fig. 45. Limax maximus, viduals placed in a garden in Burlington, New Jersey, were shortly after found in an adjoining cellar. This species is readily distinguished by the rich brown or black stripes Fig. 46. running lengthwise down its back, giv- ing it a leopard-like appearance. It is about four inches H om ce tes whose tongue and jaw are figured above, grows about three inches long (Fig. 46). It is characterized by a brownish color, with oblong- oval uncolored spots; body cylindrical, elongated, termin- ating in a short Fig. 47. prominent keel; mantle oval. rounded at both ends, with round- a ed spots ; base of : aron denis foot sallow white. It has been noticed for more than forty years in the cities of our Atlantie coast, and probably has followed the white man over the whole country. Arion fuscus belongs to a different genus from the last named slugs (Fig. 47). It is readily distinguished by its REVIEWS. 171 jaw which has no median beak-like projection to its cutting edge, but has rib-like processes on its anterior face, cren- ulating the margin. Its tongue differs also in the form of the teeth. In the forepart of its body, under the rounded shield-like process of the skin, there are calcareous grains instead of a well formed plate. And finally at its tail is a decided triangular perpendicular mucus pore. It grows about one inch long. The color is whitish, grayish or brownish; upper surface marked with elongated crowded glands; mantle oval, granulated ; tail obtuse, not carinated ; the sides marked with an obscure brownish line. It is of European origin and thus far has only been noticed in Boston and vicinity. It is not properly a cellar snail, but is found with the preceding species around kitchens and gardens. REVIEWS. om ; . ba, ALCHIHUITLS. * — [Mr. Squier has in this communication to the Ly- um given a very important and interesting summary of what is known Mida to pgs carved ** green stones ” from Mexico and Central America, and as he has kindly placed the original cuts of the article in our hands, we make this review in the form of extracts from his communication. In a future number we shall give figures of a few similar carved stones Ne et de Mr. McNiel in Nicaragua.] g the articles of ornament used by the aboriginal inhabitants of Mexico and Central America, those worked from some variety of green stone mbling emerald, and called by the Nahuatl or Mexican name Rp a UD. or chaichiuite,t were most highly esteemed, and are oftenest mentioned by the early explorers and chroniclers. The word ‘chalchiuitl is defined by Molina, in his Vocabulario Mexicano (1571), to signify esmeralda baja, or an inferior kind of emerald. The precious em- erald, or emerald proper, was called quetzalitztli, from the quetzal, the bird known to science as the Trogon resplendens (the splendid plumes of which, of brilliant metallic green were worn by the kings of Mexico and * Ob C ti f Ch tral America. By E.G. From the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. 2 Ms pese followed the orthography of the word throughout, as given by tl i thors 172 REVIEWS. Central America as regal insignia), and itzli, stone; i.e. the stone of the quetzal. Sahagun mentions four of the Mexican gods who were the especial REEN] of the lapidaries, and honored as the inventors of the art tor working stones and chalchiuites, and of drilling and polishing them.’ He does not, however, describe the process made use of by the Indians in cutting precious stones, *because,' he says, *it is so common and well un- derstood;’ an omission which his editor, Bustamente, regrets, ‘since the art is now entirely lost.’ Quetzalcoatl, the lawgiver, high-priest, and instructor of the Mexicans in the arts, is said to have taught not only the working of metals, but ee aed the art of cut- g precious stones, such as pee ving which are green stones, much esteemed, and of great value.’ ( Torquemada, ib. vi., cap. xxiv.) Quetzal- coatl himself, according to cer- tain traditions, was begotten f these stones, which the edie Chimalma had placed in her bosom. Indeed, both among di poti and ations Seer to ave —— in its kind. Its name w& to heroes and divinities. The ee of water bore the ame of Chalchiuitlcuye, the the Human Skull, Ancient Mexican, inlaid with turquoise and the name of Chalchiuha- and obsidian. city of Tlaxcalla, from a beautiful fountain of water near it, the color of which, according to Torquemada, ‘was between blue and green.’ Cortez, according to the same authority, was often called ‘ Chalchiuitl, which is the same as captain of great valor, because chalchiuitl is the color of emerald, and the emeralds are held in high estimation among the nations. (Monarchia Indiana, vol. i, p. iut When a great digni- tary died his corpse was richly decorated for burial with gold and plumes of feathers, and *they put in his mouth a fine stone resembling emerald, which they eed iuc and which, they say, they place as a heart.’ (1b., vol. ii. p. 5 REVIEWS. 173 in esteem, and as his account may materially aid in identifying the chal- chihuitl, it is subjoined entire: ‘The emerald which the Mexicans call quetzalitztli is precious, of great value, and is so called, because by the word quetzalli they mean to say a very green plume, and by Fig. 49. peculiarities belong the good emerald ; name- ly, it is deep green with e Š et n e- ES S. = et p | -— & B = p and at the same time lus- trous. "There is another kind of stone which is called quetzalchalchivitl, so called because it is very green and resem- bles the chalchivitl ; the best of these are of dee green, transparent, and without spot; ose which are of inferior quality have veins and spots intermingled. The Mexicans work these eo o 1 Ow ub ec "i are green (but not trans- Chalehibuitl, or engraved precious stone, from Ocosingo, : : Central America. Full size. parent), mixed with white; they are much used by the chiefs, who wear them fastened to their wrists by cords, as a sign of rank. The lower orders (maceguales) are not allowed to wear them. . . . There is yet another stone called tlilaiotic, a kind of chalchuite, in color black and green mixed. . . . And mong the jaspers is a variety in color white mixed with green, and for this reason called iztacchalchiuitl.* Another variety has veins of clear * Iztac signifies white; 1. e. white chalchihuitl. 174 ' REVIEWS. green or blue, with other colors interspersed with the white. And there is yet another kind of green stone which resembles the chaicbósiitn and called PERE ig auge * ]tis known to the Nr: as tecelic, fcr the reason that it is very easy to work, and has spots of c h wrought and curious stones which the natives wear shige! js their wrists, whether of crystal or other precious stones, they call chopilotl— a designation that is given to any stone curiously worked or very beauti- ful? (Historia de Nueva España, lib. xi., cap. viii.) The same author, deseribing the ornaments which the Mexican lords used in their — speaks of a ‘head-dress called quetzalalpitoat, consisting of two tassels of rich plumes, set in gold, and worn suspended from the hair at crown of the head, and hanging down on each side towards the shoulders. They also wear rings of gold around the arms and in their ears, and round their wrists a broad band of black leather, and suspended to this a large bead of chalchiuitl or other precious stone. They also wear a chin ornament (barbote) of chalchiuitl set in gold, fixed in the beard. Some of these barbotes are large crystals, with blue feathers put in them, which give them the appearance of sapphires. There are many other varieties of precious stones which they use for barbotes. They have their lower lips slit, and wear these ornaments in the openings, ys they appear as if coming out of the flesh; and they wear in the same way semilunes of gold. 'The noses of the great lords are also E T necks, sustaining a gold medal set nura with oe and having in its centre a smooth precious stone.’ (Zb., viii. ca x.) In these descriptions, it will be seen yo the alinia are spoken of as ornaments, e or oblong beads, which conforms with the repre- sentations in the paintings. But these or similar green stones were used for other purposes Pra chronicler D MM in his account of the conquest of the Tesis of Yucatan, spea idols their temples *of precious arp green, red, and of other apti esi in describing the gre e of Tayasal, mentions particularly an idol which was found in it, *a e long, of rough emerald (esmeralda bruta), which the infidels called the god of Battles," tnd sg the conquering general, Ursua, took as part of his share of the s The Mexicans nevertheless ie true emeralds, of which we have left to us the most glowing descriptions. Gomara describes particularly five large ones which Cortez took with him from Mexico to Spain at the time of his sin visit, and which were regarded as among the finest in the world. The re valued at 100,000 ducats, and for one of them the Genoese aneii offered 40,000 ducats, with the view of selling it to the Grand Turk. Cortez had also the emerald vases, which the padre Mariana as- sures us, in the supplement of his History of Spain, were worth 300,000 ducats. They are reported to have been lost at sea. All these emeralds 2s De. h Pa tht. cosa verde. , and tecpatl, stone; 1. e. green stone. 1 , , 5 Shae le Nasa ae gh S Eg PN N ER E ^ 4 a 1 E X 4 : REVIEWS. 175 were cut in Mexico by Indian lapidaries under the orders of Cortez, and were most elaborately worked. One was wrought in the form of a little bell, with a fine pearl for a clapper, and had on its lip this inscription in Spanish, Bendito quien te crió! Blessed he who made thee! he one valued most highly was in the shape of a cup, with a foot of gold. All of them were pres- , ented by Cortez to his second wife, who thus, Fig. 50, rkab these emeralds, Peter robbed by the French pirates, that must have surpassed any of them in size and value. eer and trinkets of a hard, green stone, which they call by the Mex- ican name, and which they regard as of great value; *a string of frag- ments large enough for an ear-ring being worth as much as a mule.' Mr. Blake, suspecting this stone to be turquoise, and learning that it was Basso-Relievo of the god Cuculcan, from Palenque. fragments of the so-called chalchihuitil ‘of applegreen and peagreen, passing into biuish-green, capable of a fine polish, and of a hardness 176 REVIEWS. little less than that of feldspar.’ The fragments found were small, not ~~ three-quarters of an inch in length and one-quarter of an inch ickness, and the material ‘appeared to have formed crusts upon the m dpa cavities or fissures in the rock, or to have aani through it in veins. Mr. Blake's description applies to the specimens exhibited to the Ly- ceum not long ago E Pro fessor Newberry, and there is no doubt that the ages. wa s, a variety of the turquoise. But I doubt if it e the true gee eo ud the Mexicans and Central Americans. That ud used the stone described by Mr. Blake for certain purposes, I know; Fig. 51. Chalchihuit] from Ocosingo. Two-thirds actual size. for there exists in the museum of the late Mr. Henry Christy, in London, a human skull completely encrusted with a mosaic of precisely this stone, €: a flint knife with its handle elaborately inlaid with it, in small frag- ments. Of the first of these relics I present a drawing made by Waldeck ex pubised by the oe Government. See Fria. 48.* T f eviden opinion, goes to show that the stone i ih Paco. s that -— Molina defines to be ‘ baja esme- ralda, or possibly nephrite, ‘a jasper of very green color,’ as Sahagun, already quoted, avers. I should ctore object, on strictly critical and historical grounds, to the suggestion of r. Blake, that the variety of turquoise found by him should be * known among mineralogists as chal- chihuitl.’ But apart from any speculations on the subject, I have to lay before the Lyceum a most interesting series of green stones, unrivalled, in their *In Mr. Christy’s i r, with turquoises, tempe and white and ‘red shells. The predominant — — sr is end rmi The bac of the skul e face to be hun -— by € ern: int (which still remain) over t the face of an nerd as was eri cu nM transverse black bands in the ent are of obsidian in the original. The essi are eere of iron pyrites, cut hemispherically and highly polished. Sa REVIEWS. . 177 way, in the world, which were found among the ruins of Ocosingo, in the department of Quesaltenango, Guatemala, on the borders of Chi: ipas, and not remote from the more famous but hardly less imposing monunients of — I must not omit to say that, in common with similar stones, they were designated by the people of the region where they were found as chalchichuites. TR - Bibi first and most — of these » precisely four inches long by two and th i, asa about half a thickness. 1€ face is sculptured in low relief, hin the figure Ld a divinity seated, eross-legge d, on a kind of carved seat, with his left and his right raised to his breast, as i the act of giving benedic- tion. Around his loins s an ornamental girdle, and depending from his neck kae re reta on is breast is an oblong ober plate or charm lik to ha en worn by the Jewish e tae sts. The face is ir ofile, show- Fig. 52. an p- tures, Or haere are mee ed in the lobes of the ears, and the head is surmounted with the character- istic and elaborate plumed head-dress that we observe large bas-relief found by Mr. Stephens in an inner chamber of one of the ruined structures of Palenque (Fic. 50). At about one-third of ets "an of the carved chalchihuitl, measu oo from the top, it is drilled through from edge o edge, the an Pete a little less than eweadeauces an Pct drilling eod puse made from each side to the tre, where the o drillings run one into the pires with ofl slightly diminished bore. - e pi rpos e of this or other part of the e person; but the back edges of the e are sis pierced a as if to affo n mean oy e vio for enamel. It is a semi-disk in shape, four and a half neh rings and ot rnaments below the chin. It, too, is LT. om Ocosingo. Te s dge, longitud ur home et side. The back shows that it was sawn from a solid ! ock of the same material, both from above and below, u ntil the earner d each other ae half an inch, when the interme- diate core, if E may so call it, off. The swcrre of the saw is distinctly T. from hu ps hey ig as well as "e Me ge spin the striæ are nearly polished out. This was clearly i 8 there are no means by which to fasten it to robes of any kind, It m" e Ld pee ~~ served » a ati ote r breast-pla’ 2.—This is ost interesting, atone a very irregul spee- Misc. Pix inches bán two-tenths long by and a half vieni wide at ‘its wide i: ort: The ack shows a compaet greenish stone, wit as he same evidences of havin dir gris sawn from a solid block to which I have alluded i in describing pier 51. The - - appear of a brilliant een — exhibiting 1 helmet or huge and neek NE tiniomibié to describe, and only to be understood by ins ein of dg lcm This, too, is pierced, like that last described, from edge to edge, near "ed upper end. FIG. 53, — This i my tively 11 fi lentical terial with Fic. 49, an irreg- “= AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 23 178 REVIEWS. ular triangle in shape, somewhat concave on the face, where is carved in profile a human hea achment by threads to some portion of the dress of the wearer, It is polished paria and S5 and Hepernes: pu. an d thr ae inches by one and — It has its formerly Maye r, Mus eum, of Lon "m — PRÉ gn specimen * peculiar. and very interesting It is a sey irregular glo on d = Fig. 53. eter. On three sides, if I may ise the ex- prennon in respect of a sphere, are as lua d 56,57. As I shall "e MOM to my to ned. a siniple NM perfect gione aeter, pierced th ws a hole sufficiently large to admit a sions “Fics 58 and 59 - types of a large clas of what may be called a orna- — vin no Nee signifie j and 61, howe iis may have a Minos trate signifieance. "The latter (Fra. 61) is a fr t Fig. 54. two-tenths in diameter over the rim, o one inch and one- indi e with a bore of atienda of an inch in diameter. The above described are fair types of the aes found at Ocosingo; but I pos- sess some other worked and engraved green- stones, worth oo. a in this con- nection. The first of thes ned globe, pierced, IG, e RE URGES to the engraved Assyrian ourth size. seals, or, as they are sometimes called, ‘Chaldean’ cylinders. It is a perforated cylindrical piece of heavy, opaque stone, of a dark sea-green color (ne ph- rite?), two inches long by an inch and one-tenth in diameter. In a kind of oval o r what Egyptian scholars would call a cartouche, is presented the profile of some divinity (tbe. Maya sed e corner of the an, , Among the things found by the conqueror of the Ttzaes, Ursua, REVIEWS. 179 temples which he destroyed in the island in 1697, sd eere er an idol of emerald a span long, beri says the chronicler, * he appropriated to hin may be observed of the figure engraved on this poet that fo speak, among American na- dias was the verbal as well as the symbolical expression of life or being, as is to see or to i Fig. 56 i * Hieroglyphics” on Chalchihuitl globe. Full size, breathe, ® or to eat, among eris Betions in various parts of the world. 'The projecting tongue in t de iile | dm living God or man; he who n talk, and therefore lives. In this "ud ince, the lax and drooping tongue Fig. 59. heightens the dit of death which the Fig. 58. == — eye in part conveys. . 64 is an engraving of a stone A or adze of hard green stone, parallel with e r cutt e edge is slig curved out- Chalchihuiti ward, implying that, i intended for Peai service, it was an it is to be y d that it was bolically, in the Pheirhihnit? Anlat bin of distinction or ornament. It was found in an ancient grave in Costa Rica. Q9 ruling ca of Peru carried an axe instead of a passin as one of his insignia of dominion.* * In Greece stone weapons s of jade or nephrite are sometimes found, which the common peo- Lo call “thunderboltsy and hold in D abire qtu in Nasan, New Pro of the * London Athe- m^ found a ilar object, called by the same name, in nrg New vide S in the Ba- na Ie Jeha cs ES s polished ithe: fia attened, bet oint eå a with a broad cutting edge at the other, and r a ad by the natives as a pre ative rb Thiele. Another — respondent of the same publication states that he ands a aiat object in Jamaica forty year: ago, e called a thunde — It was kept in an earthern jar filled with water, ded wass esi posed to keep thew water 180 REVIEWS. G. 65 (full siz 133 tc th 1] "1 ho 6 ¢ Ly -" ae D | 1 3.6 Piast the island of Pat adn Lake Nicaragu FiG.66 is of still another and harder M d of green stone, from a mound near Natchez, iik 64. | will 7 A lf, Eng 1st ylinder from Yucatan. Hatchet of green stone from Costa Rica. and appears to be a strange combination of the head of a siren of o of the frog, with Sh human body. Itis also pierced laterally, like esl already described, pods or suspension I do not jii FrGs. 63, 64, 65, and 66 as specimens of the chalchihuitl, but as showing the regard paid to green stones generally. It is one that pervades both continents and many nations, from the advanced Chinese, Fig. 68. Carved green stone found near Natchez. Sculptured frog, Nicaragua. to whom the green jade is sacred, to the savage dwellers on the banks of the Orinoco, among whom Humboldt found cylinders of hard green stones, the most highly prized objects of the several tribes, and some of which it must have required a lifetime to work into shape. REVIEWS. 181 ‘Of the carved chalchihuitls, like those d ibed from FiG. 48 to Fia. 62, I have seen but three specimens outside of my own collection: one al- ready alluded to in the Christy Museum of London, another in the late Uhde Museum near Heidelberg, and a third in the Waldeck collection in Paris. The question how these obdurate stones were engraved, drilled, and sawn apart, or from the blocks of which they once formed a portion, is one likely to arise in most minds. It is one that has puzzled many in- quirers; nor do I pretend to give an answer, except that the drilling was pur performed by a vibratory drill, composed of a thin shaft of cane b o, the silica of which was reénforced by very fine sand, or the I of us very article — treatment. The strie shown in the orifices are proof of something of the kind, and the esteem attached to these As regards the sawing, of which the backs of Fias. 51, 52, and 64, afford striking examples, we may find a clue in the accounts of the early chron- iclers, who relate that they saw, in Santo Domin ngo and elsewhere, the ines use a thread of the cabuya ai agave), with a little sand, not only in cutting stone, but iron itself. The thread was held in both hands, and drawn right and left sis worn out s attrition, aim then changed for a new one, fine sand and water being constantly supplied. Not a few inquirers Vise the hypothesis pe most of the raised and sunken figures on various stones in Mexico, Central America, and the mounds of the United States. were produced by persistent rubbing or abrasion — a general hypothesis which I shall not dispute. B bjeets m the mounds, as well as from other points on the continent, we have distinct Meg f the use of graving or incisive tools of some kind — as for instance in ad heretyk in Fic. 54, which are cut in a stone so ° hard that the blade of a knife produces scarcely any impression on its polished surface. E RECORD OF ZOOLOGICAL LITERATURE FOR 1868.* — We have before out the part on insects; or the conchologist without that on shells; or the ae ates be at all informed on the progress of his speciality unless work to refer to. Its preparation isa labor of love by the editors aa its liberal minded publisher, Mr. Van Voorst; and the work is a credit to their heads and hearts. *Vol. V. Edited by Dr. A. eet London, Van Voorst, 1869, 8vo, pp. 592. Price re- duced to $10a vol. The Record id 1868, also in parts: Part 1, Foin, $3.50; Part 2, Entomology, $1.00; xe s pb aad agde and the Lower Animals, $3.50. For sale at the Naturalist's Book Agenc 182 REVIEWS. THE RECORD OF AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGY FOR 1869 will be Sores late in May. It will contain chapters by Messrs. Scudder Horn and Packard, and Baron Osten Sacken. Price, A x which does not cover the cost of printing. We trust lovers of entomology will evince their zeal for the science by promptly dandas to this useful publica- tion. e hope that it will meet with bet support than last year, as the im are n out of pocket in bmi: of the small sale of the work for THE WEEDS OF Matne.* — This cR issued from the State Print- g Office, consists of a few forms taken from the recent report of the Secretary of the Maine Board of initio: The young man whos appears as the author, has certainly shown a remarkable taste for hal study. Wholly unassisted, even by friendly advice, he co menced the study of botany under great disadvantages and he has nies ously prosecuted his herborizing during the too scanty leisure afforded by a Maine farm. The ART power of diagnosis, which the author possesses, leads us to hope that he will devote the next few years to rigid disciplinary study, Pad then resume botanical work for which he s H fi The pamphlet itself is not to be criticised make it the text for a few very brief remarks. It is so easy to learn the names of plants and associate the two together, and so very difficult to learn £he plant itself, that too many of our young botanical students are devoting praa time meia to collecting, preserving, and naming speci- mens. In v of the many great questions in plant- ph ares which week. The January p number of “Gomptes rendus,” contains a very in- teresting note by M. Prillieux upon the movements of chlorophyl grains n f st but it is plain, too, that the thinkers of our time are asking that the former kind of work shall be done and faithfully done. Our plants are well named, and therefore we are justified in suggesting that our young botanical friends devote less time to mere *' botanizing," as it is absurdly called, and give more time and better work to the study of the plant. Tux GEOLOGY or THE New Haven REGION.f — Professor Dana de- scribes the geology of New Haven and vicinity, with especial reference to the origin of its topographical features; showing by special facts, that the region, in the glacial era, like that of New England to the North, was moulded by ice, and that icebergs had no part in the matter, and the sup- posed iceberg sea over New England no existence. * By F. L. Seribner, tF the T ti f the C ticut Academy. 1870. 8vo, pp. 112. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. BOTANY. COLLECTED NOTES ON THE HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN Oaks. — The first American oak noticed in botanical works is the white oak, ML by Parkinson in “Theatrum Botanicum," 1640, as Quercus alba Virginiana. Banister, 1686, in **Catalogus Plantarum "n Virginia Observ ataram ” (in Rayi Historia) mentions Quercus alba virens (as Virginiana sempe ns), Phellos € im Marilandica) with a drawing by Ray, and neers We. (as Q. pum nt » * Amagestum Botanicum," 1696, enumerates Quercus esculi divisura, Pie is Q. rubra L., Q. Americana rubris venis (Q. coccinea Wg.), var. y (DC.), Q. Virginiana salicis longiore folio (Q. Phellos L.), Q. Vir- giniana sempervirens (Q. virens Ait.), Q. castanee folio ( Q. prinus palustris Michx.), Q. pumila castanee folio Virginiensis (Q. prinus pumila Michx.), Q. rubra, papaa and Prinus palustris, are illustrated. Catesby in his ** Nataral History of Carolina,” 1731, names Q. alba, Pri- a tica Walt., he knows under the name Quercus folio non serrato; his Q. esculi divisura is Q. erap asma and his Q. humilis "wn folio breviore is Q. cinerea Michx.; all except the latter are illustra Charlevoix in ** "Histoire et vituli générale de e Nouvel France,” Paris, 1744, knows Q. prinus palustris Michx., Q. alba L., Q. virens Ait., and Q. nigra L.; he gives drawings of the three latter. In — stunt us eae ean 1743, containing the pee which John Cla obse Virginia, we find Q. Phellos, nigra, atica, Prinus pcan — ih he calls Q. pumila bipedalis, fei stelata Wg. (to him Q. alba) and falcata Michx., which he calls rubra Kalm in his travels, or rather in his ‘‘ Preliminary "Redit on his Bo- tanical Collections," 1751, mentions only four oaks. Q. rubra and alba, the Spanish oak (Q. falcata Michx.) and another one with three lobes at the apex of the leaves, which is perhaps the var. triloba of the latter (Q. triloba Michx.). These are the American oaks known at the time when Linnsus' **Species Plantarum," 1753, was published. Linné established five species, Q. Phellos, comprising Q. virens and cinerea as varieties 3 and 7- Q. nigra x and g (x being aquatica Walt.), Q. rubra, comprising rubra, coccinea and Catesbei, Q. prinus (Q. prinus palustris Michx.) and Q. alba. Du Roi published (in ** Harbke'she wilde Baumzucht," Braunschweig, 1771) a new species, Q. palustris. Marshall published his ** Arbustum Americanum,” in 1785, in which he described the following oaks: Q. alba, Q. alba minor=stellata Wg., Q. alba palustris, which is apparently Q. Prinus tomentosa Michx., not Q. 3 (1835 184 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. alba. as Michaux says; Q. (Q. tinctoria Bartr.), Q. nig digitata, Q. nigra trifida, Q. anis i (aeprifolia, the two latter certainly "d iug under Q. nigra L. var. fj» Q. nigra pumila— Q. ilicifolia Wg., Q. rubra ; ra issi Q. palustris Du Roi; Q. rubra montana=Q. falcata Michx. ; Q. rubra nana=Q. Catesbæi BMiohx.; ; Q. Phellos mper: sap la tifolía— Q. Phellos L. (silvatica Michx.); Q. Phellos virens Ait.; Q. Prinus—Q. Prinus monticola Michx. ; ; Q. Prinus hutnitio= Q Prinus "od Michx Wangenheim in his PSR on the ** SET iene BAN ten," 1787, pro- posed-some new species, of which three are ack ledged to-day: Q. stellata (the Q. alba minor of Marshall), Q. reckon (the Q. pumila of pou. and Q. coccinea (Q. rubra L., var. a). His Q. cuneata is Q. falcata Michx., var. y triloba, and his Q. MiBMEen is the Q. aquatica teim by. Walter in ** Flora Caroliniana,” published in the year 1788, enumerated thirteen oaks: 1, Q. sempervirens (virens Ait. ); 2, Q. Phellos ; 3, Q. humilis (cinerea Michx., var. 7. Spes 4, Q. ydo ce prid Michx., var. pumila) ; 5, Q. Prinus; 6, Q. nigra; 7, Q. aquatica (nigra L., a) 308, rubra (glandibus parvis globosis, perliaps Q- SA Wang.?); 9, Q. iovis (Catesbei, Michx.?); 10, Q. alba; 11, Q. lyrata, which he first describes; a Q. sinuata, from the bu dii ud of which it is not plain what it means; 3, Q. villosa already described by Wangenheim as Q- stellata. Micha usd a. who a FANE but did not name it, the au iis of cus aquatica. De Candolle makes Walter the author of it; the Whi published his Flor ora one year after the publication of Wangenheim's novius, so his name should be added. By the m Walter is noteworthy for his modesty, which should be imitated by many an eager species- His w n ** Libertatem appellative assignandi paucis tantum concedendam stil; quamobrem iis, qui in hac scientia merito duces sunt, jus reliquit dicendi quenam sint nomina plantis nunc primum descriptis." If so many botanists, who, overrating the doubtful merit of having created a new species, fill our botanical books with names, would follow modest old Walter, a good deal of wasted paper could be saved, and a good deal of unnecessary work. Indeed, it is much easier to make new species, than to clean those Augean stables of synony Aiton in ** Kew Garden," 1789, calls the oo Q. sempervirens of Catesby Q. virens; the latter name is adop William artram, in his ** Travels Vind North and South Carolina," Phil. 1791, proposes the new species Q. tinctoria, which De Candolle in NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 185 his Prodromus reunites with Q. coccinea Wg., as var. y pecia Bart- ram's Q. hemispherica and dentata are both varieties of Q. aqua Luis Née joined the expedition of Malaspina from 1789 me 9; he visited South America, Mexico and the Pacitic Islands, and brought i t cias Naturales ” by Cavaniitén, 1798. Amongst these oaks are two Cali- fornia species, Q. lobata and agrifolia ; the latter was already known to lucknet as Ilex foliis ag € Americana (in ** Phytographia," London, cat 93, M but without flower or fruit); the others are Mex- n, Q. circinata, magno pti, salicifolia, microphylla, are acuti- fui elliptica, castanea, and candicans, all considered yet b ood s." His Q. lut and Nea. specimen is defective; tfi rugosa Humboldt and Bodl ud changed into Q. crassifolia, Me ibique specimen being very defective - doubtful. André Michaux explored from 1785 to 1796 the forests of Eastern North merica. He published in 1801 his **Histoire des Chénes l'Amérique tion. His arrangement is the fi E ades leaves of the old tree ipi beste pointed: fruit peduncled, annual. porem obed. Q. obtusiloba (stellata Wg.), macrocarpa (n. sp.) lyrata Walt., alba L. 2. Leaves toothed. Q. Prinus, with : varieties: palustris, monti- cola, acuminata, pumila and tomentosa. B. d entire. Q. virens, but the poc are according to him ial. II. Leaves a ve old tree Vieh i fruit sessile, biennial. eaves entire. i un bns three varieties, silvatica, mari- tima, and pumila. one rea, Q. imbricaria (n. sp.), Q. lauri- folia, with the variety porate, 2. Leaves with short lobes . aquatica, Q. nigra, ho tinctoria, with two — (aigu eons tee, Q. trilo 3. Leaves deeply lobed. Q. Banisteri (ilicifolia Wg M Q. ws (hispanica Clayton, discolor rents elongata Willd.), Q. Catesbai Q. coccinea Wg., Q. palustris Du Roi and Q. rubra The same species are enumerated in his **Flora Americana,” published by L. C. Richard, but without this arrangement. The ripening of fruit -is not there mentioned at all. Willdenow in **Species Plantarum," 1797-1810, enriched (?), the genus Quercus by new species, making out of the five varieties of Prinus, five species: Prinus, montana, bicolor (tomentosa), castanea (acuminata) and Prinoides (ridi ; the varieties of Phellos, maritima and pumila he AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 24 186 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. changed into two species of the same name; tinctoria var., sinuosa into discolor, and his Q. myrtifolia is probably a variety of Q. aquatica. Persoon in ** Synopsis Plantarum," 1805 enumerates MA five oaks, of Nort posed five new species: Q. ieee! which proves to be an hybrid; ambigua and borealis, which fall und pi coce "a ; ^fi A e which is Q. nigra L. 8.; and oliveformis, whic Humboldt and Bonpland nites Eris -1808) mer -three new spe- cies, of which thirteen are now considered a a Qs see crassifolia, crassipes, depressa, Humboldtii, ee a ind, obtusat pulchella, repanda, reticulata, Tolimensis, Xalepensis; four are evum Q. Amalguerensis, chrysophylla, glaucescens and sideroxyla ; three had been described already by Née: Q. eu. XR Pep Née; trid astanea var. 7, and Mexicana = Castanea Née var. E; three are the same as other species of the same authors: Q. sata is reticulata H. B.; pan- durata and ambigua are obtusata H. B., va f. They are all Mesi- can, except three from New Granada : liv Tolimensis s setter erensis. ‘They are described in perdis Æquinoctiales,” 18 818. acter, the second the presence or absence o the bristles of the leaves; the third the form of the leaves. Nuttall in ** Genera of North American Plants," 1818, follows the same Escorts 2 the number of his species is thirty-two. He calls Q. Prinus discolor Mich. fil. Q. Michauxii, but at the same time he keeps Q. bicolor Willa. as a species with the variety mollis (probably Q. velutina Lam., which he believes is : filiformis Muhl.). Afterwards he proposes three. more species: Q. Gambelli, Leana (a hybrid) and dumosa (in ** Silva ee a doubtful species. Of Mexican species he knew ouly fif- iol in a * Sketch of the Flora of Georgia," 1824, enumerating twenty-six tps adds to those already known, a variety of falcata Michx. (var. pagodefo Chamisso ak Schlechtendal, 1830, in **Linnea," v., described some new Mexican oaks from specimens collected by Schiede and Deppe: Q. calophylla, polymorpha, ao germana and oleoides, the latter being Q. virens Ait. These make the western species amount to thirty-six. Hooker and Arnott published y 1841, the ** Botany of Capt. Beechey's Voyage," comprising the plants which Lay and Collie, 1825-28, collected. We find amongst them three oaks, two Californian: Douglasii and densi- flora, and one Mexican: aristata. In ** Hooker's Flora boreali Americana,” SE CITIES RP ERAT RUIN cq ms adi OUT T UNIS MAT ih EENES ge EO VN Y ee, TTA NPE PTR SEN S DS SPONSORS er een) W ES awa eee cere OSA Be eee T i wt Te ERE e 5 rer pH S rtr Ne IQ (AL OSEE ES OE N POR Re BL I I D E NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 187 1833-40, is described as new Q. Garryana by Menzies and Douglas, found in Oregon; and in ** Icones," 1837-45; — —' from Guatemala. Ben vm describes in the Botany of the v e of the had under command of Capt. Belcher, the lis sine s Barclay, Hinds and Sin- clair. He proposes a new species T : capas Hindsii, Pion Cali- fornia which is nothing else than Q. lo From the same author are the en thats = conned di 1839-42, «aste ‘ing the plants which Hartweg, 1836-40, collected in Mexico, etc. There w find a number of new species: Q. barbinervis, visit m ‘ahami, "rd neri, Sonomensis, dysophylla, a te salicifolia, the ew atter names, as read Cand ge ers had already been described: Q. Mexicana is crassipes H. B., = Sa Cham. hl., Hartwegi = obt H. B., petiolaris = She am. avd Baht ., Callosa = tomentosa Willd. Others are a Willd., var., compressa — acutifolia var., E Hook, AER. var. §. Hartwegi; Douglasii = Douglasi. ` Hook. Arn. var. ; one proposed as a variety was afterwards taken as a spe- cies by Liebmann: Q. obtusata var. = Q. laeta Liebm. At the same time two Belgian botanists, Galeotti and — travelled in M exico, and — many oaks, which have been publ d, MN in ** Bulletin of th cadémie des Siria of Bruxelles," i P i and Marte e aj lutescens, Ghiesbreghtit, nitens, Ada banat glaucoides, pha po S z=: od haps crassifolia), are doubt uch as were already described are Q. d Schl., nitida = acutifolia Née, acuminata and (ational — pog Schl., spinulosa = crassifolia H. B., affinis = obtusata H. B., decipiens = reticulata H, B., laurina = depress a Bth., lan- B ca n ar tandrefolia, sah o a pie se paises Seemanni, Sartorii, Cor- tesii, læta, Drummondii, strompocarpa, grandis, Warscewiczii, rene Species already pn are Q. Fendleri—undulata Torr. (in Annals Ly- ceum of New York, He P iod: uei " B. Ri luy Wm M. G; eret morpha Cham. & Schl., retusa =virens Ait.; varieties 3 scribed specia d are Q. ao MM MAE Née, y rudinervis— ie ta H. B. y, Newi=Douglasii var. y, longifolia— acutifolia var. ocotefolia—nitens var. y, (bless hs microcarpa=elliptica evar. His Q. oocarpa is the same as his zewiczii; what he took for laurina is lanceolata H. B., var. 5. ; Q. Grahami om] is acutifolia Née, . his lancifolia is a new species by A. DeCandolle changed into leiophylla ; Q. bum pnr cuneifolia ( Chinantlensis), excelsa, evgeniarfalia, Jarian, floccosa, fulva, jurgensenii, Oaxacana, Orizabae, sapota , Segoviensis, serra, sororia, scytophylla, turbinata (by A. DC., aspen mee Guatimalen- 188 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. sis), are donbtful species. From Wright’s collection he described Q. pungens, hastata and grisea, already published by Torrey, the two former greaves’ : named, when he published them: Q. crassipocula (in Williamson's Vr rt) is chrysolepis Liebm., described in **Plantze Hartwegians;" Q. tinctoria var. Culifornica (in W Lb S seien is utitur Bth.; longi odi in * Frem. Geogr. Mem. of Cal," is 7 Née; echinacea (in Whipple’s Rep.) is e sryalenin n Sites es' Report) is agrifolia Née. In ** Mexican Boundary Survey " (1858), is a new species described as Q. acutidens from pen steel wasn by De Candolle; another, obtusifolia, falls under undulata Torr., as a variety ; auodier vatriséy is there mentioned, Q. coccinea var. microcarpa. Kellogg published in the ** Proceedings of of the California Academy of Sciences," vol. i, some new species, which are not new: Q. fulvescens is chrysolepis Lbm. ; dere doses is agrifolia Née; ` Ransomi is lobata N?e. His Q. Morchus (Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. ii) is doubtful. Newberry proposed what ita ey to ik fo or a variety of tinctoria i.e. coccined), as a new species, Q. Kelloggii, MAN falls under yes mensis Benth. Curtis, 1849, proposed a new eastern species, Q. yes Shuttleworth's Q. Floridana is the var. f. WloHdana of Q. stellata ac- cording to De Candolle, perhaps p oid Svar. parvifolia? E aes in * Genera Plantarum," Suppl. iv, 2, 1847, enumerates one hundred and ninety-seven described oaks, of which one hundred and one are American. : BRENDEL, Peoria, Ill. (To be concluded.) ZOOLOGY. eris Horns. — The article in the December number of the NATURA- ms to me dee bs the eons of careless — nes The ‘Common ary observer would be thought old animals. : T er of persons hunting in the Mirondcis increases very rapidly, and every hunter is bent on procuring a fine pair of horns as a tro- phy, and as it takes at least six or eight years for a buck to grow a fine NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 189 pair of antlers, you ean see that the chances for a deer to attain a full de- velopment is growing more unfavorable every year. The reason why sjnke horns seem to be more numerous than formerly, is that there are more hunters and fewer old deer. If any oue can show me a spike horn of a deer that is Me or more years old, that is not the gen of accident, I would like to The same ceeded exists with the moose and carraboo. It is now almost impossible to procure a large and well developed pair of moose or carraboo horns, while some years ago they were plenty. — W. J. Havs. ADIRONDACK’s REPLY. — In replying to the criticism of Mr. Hays, I er unless I can take time to collect testimony, only reiterate my form mesigiirhe that I shot on Louis Lake a buck with spike-horns, viti a yearling, nor a two years old, nor a three years old even, but a M pee of full age and size; and that I afterwards shot on Cedar Lakes a buck- with spike-horns, which was pronounced to be a ‘three year old." I will add that I have conversed on the subject of ** spike- horn bucks" with a number of hunters and guides, some born in the Adirondacks, others who have lived there many years, and that the tes- timony of all agreed that spike-horn bucks are of all ages and sizes, and that they are slowly increasing in the southern part of the Adirondack region I shot the large buck on Louis Lake, Silas Call, then a noted and . most intelligent guide, now keeper of the inn at Northville, was with me. He will undoubtedly remember the facts and testify to them if called upon. When I shot the smaller spike-horn. William S. Robinson, Esq., of- Mal- den, Mass., stood by my side. Hon. F. W. Bird, of Walpole, was of the party, and saw the deer at the shanty. I do not know that either of these den has ever given attention to the subject of spike-horn bucks; but Mr. Bird has hunted a good many years in the southern Adirondacks, gentlemen for using their names without their consent, but, living at a place reached only by infrequent mails, I have no time to procure it.] David Sturges, the keeper of the inn at Lake Pleasant, born there, and one of the best and most successful guides and hunters of the Adiron- dacks, could give valuable testimony on the question. He has been upon the lookout all through the past autumn and early winter, for the head of with horns **in the velvet," before next September. I hope then Mr. Sturgis will be mgre:successful. But spike-horn backs; of full age and size, are not yet common, and a young one will not answer your purpose. Of the figures of ** spike-horns " (Fig. 67) by Mr. Hays, neither resembles very closely the trne spike-horn. I have the pair from the young spike- horn buck shot by me, and will send them to you whenever I go to a place reached by the express. I will send with them the antlers of a common “two year old” buck. You will at once see the difference. You will see too, what was the fact, that the spike-horns came from the larger deer. 190 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. The distance between the horns shows this. The spike-horns are about of the spike-horn buck is shorter than that on the other; the spike-horn was shot just as deer were attaining the ** blue coat;" the other was shot a month or six weeks later. This is the reason of the difference. Notwithstanding what Mr. Hays says, I never saw a yearling buck (that is a buck in his second year, wearing his first pair of horns) that could be said to have ‘attained full growth,” in ** height,” or anything else. I never saw a **two years old" (in his third year) that had attained full growth in all respects — itor yet “a three years old." "The saddle ie: a two years old will never exceed forty or fifty pounds in weight. I dou seventy pounds; and I have the head of one whose saddle weighed a little overeighty pounds. I have heard of bucks still heavier. Without the antlers, there may in some cases be difficulty in distinguishing between a two years old and a three years old; but there is never any difficulty in dis- tinguishing between either of these and a buck of six or seven years. ` Å yearling (in his second year) can always be known by his size. A buck in the spring, when he attains the full age of two years, never has horns, and has had none for some time. While his first pair of horns lasts surely he can never be said to have ** attained full growth” in any respect. Shot in the fall previous, his youth is very manifest. Me it is the first pair of horns only that are ever ** spikes" in a common C. inianus id Mr. Hayes. ever hunt south of Raquette ro or ever r south of Fulton counties, and west into Herkimer county and the *' idis tract." But I have visited the country north of Long Lake only o The writer in the ** Saginaw Republican" apparently s pet of deer. A yearling buck (in his second year, with his first pair of horns) has spike-shaped horns; but at the rutting season he is scárcely pes A months old, and is quite too young and small to be a rival of a full-grown buck, while a two years old buck (in his third year with his second pair of horns) has antlers which are scarcely more formidable weapons than the antlers of a full-grown buck. In point of fact I believe the full- grown bucks have altogether the advantage with the does.— ADIRONDACK. GEOLOGY. New ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS AND DEVONIAN Rocks or CaNADA. — Principal Dawson has discovered another species of amphibian from the Joggins Coal Mine, the Baphetes minor ; the remains consisting of a lower jaw six inches long. The author also noticed some EP SUS MC LA Er eiu Lr cot Des ge Nk adi eee ae PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 191 insect remains found by him in slabs Meet Sphenophyllum. They were referred by Mr. Scudder to the Blattarie. From the Devonian beds of Gaspé the author stated that he had ec a small species of Ceph- alaspis, the first yet detected in America. Mr. Etheridge remarked that the Cephalaspis differed materially in its proportions from any in either the Russian or British rocks. — Nature. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. MARYLAND ACADEMY OF Scrences. — By this title we announce the or- ganization of a Natural History Society in the city of Baltimore. We are glad that the long continued efforts of the gentlemen who are its present officers have at length resulted in the establishment of a society regularly chartéred, and with some fifty members. They have, as it appears from an r ad states their case very fairly and modestly to the citizens of Balti- re, and we do not see how they can do otherwise than sustain the new society x they care at all for the completion of their system of public in- structi an pu devoted to the exposition of the natural resources of the country have a recognized value in Europe and in some of the cities of this country. But their refining influence € society, the cultivation which results from their publications and teachings, especially if they vanced students of the public schools, as the Boston Society has done, is not at all appreciated or even understood. The basis of the new academy, as announced in article two, is broad and effective, and ought to insure its members the moral and material support search, and to collect, preserve and diffuse information relating to the sciences, especially those connected with the natural history of Maryland." The officers of the academy are Philip T. Tyson, president; John G. Lee, treasurer; P. R. Uhler, curator; A. Snowden Piggott, M.D., Libra- rian; J. B. Uhler, J. DeRosset, M.D., and F. E. Chatard, jr., M.D., as- iutint curators. 192 BOOKS RECEIVED. BOOKS RECEIVED. Description @ un Jeune Individu de la Dermatemys Mawit espec Elodites. Par. M. Alf. Preudhomme de Borre. "regen 1969; vo 0. maie th ae on @ une arene espece Americain 4 genre Caiman > tie. Par. M. Alf. do la famille des J va Svo. nales Academici, 1816-65. Leiden. 42 vols. 4to. [1867. 8vo. poseen til en Forandret Ordning af det hoiere “Skolenaesen. Del. 1-3, 8yo. Christiania, et K.-Norske Fred. Univ. Aarsberetning for Aaret, 1866. Svo. Christiania, 1869. 8vo. Index Scholarum. 4to. Christiania, 1869. 4to. Le Glacier de Boium en Juillet, 1868, Par S. A. Sexe. Christiania, 1869, 4to. pp.40. En Anatomisk Beskrivelse af de paa. Over og Underextremiteterne dro e con Wi Mu- cose. A.S. D. Synnestvedt. -— ved Dr. J. Voss. Christiania, 1869, The Mammals of lowa. By J. A. All [From Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. Vl xiii, dee 1869. | Notes on the Rarer Birds of A Pa e AN e By J. A. A len. [From ie "Nat.. Vol. iii.] Ma Contributions to the ge al History of Nova Scotia, Part 1, Coleoptera, By J. Matthew Jones. [From bi Trans. N. 5. Inst. Nat. Sci 70.) F of Some Remarks on the Relations of the ai in the vicinity 3 Boston. By N.S. d 1 8vo. por 87 The West "oum Fresh-water Univalves, No. 1. By J. G. Cooper. [From Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., iv. Feb., The Fauna of California and its Geographical Distribution. By J. G. Cooper. [From Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., iv, Feb. 1870.) Contributions to os from Museum of Yale College. No. 6. Descriptions of Shells from Gulf of California. By A. E. Verrill. re 1 Am. Jour, Sei, and Arts, Mch., 1870.] Transactions of the American E ogical Society. Vol. ii, No. 4. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, No. 3. Ang. "iin 1869. ad Arts. Vol. i, No. 1, m 1870. Chicago. E. Her sh & Co. $1.00a ye "($8 O; 7 * Detroit Free Press” for Feb. and follow ing.) s Address of the President of the Peabody Institute to A "S of Trustees on the Organization and Government of the buini. Feb, 12, 1870. Balt Third Biennial Report of Trustees of Towa pT el rah Colle ge. Des Moines, 1870. Seventh Annual Report of Meere Massachusetts Agric cr ote College. Boston, 1870, Annual Report of Superintenden ? Edu cation of Ontario for 1868. Toronto, 1869. Annual Report of Adjut General aryland for 1:69. Fourth Report of the Massachusetts Commissioners of INE s for the year 1869. Boston, 1870, Catalogue of Officers and Students r4 g iversity y Mic. Maas, Anu Arbor, 1870, Circular and Catalogue of. Union Albany. 1870. Meteorological Observations for 1969 ot ion ow a Cuy y. Tay T. S. Parvin. o e an., 1870. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. New York. Nos. 1, 2,8, Jan., Feb., March, 1870. 8vo. pages each. ($1.00a year. W.H. re 224 E. 10th St. N. TI Bowdoin Scientific Review. Nos. 1, 2, 3, Feb., March, dum. Pu 0. 8vo, pp.16. (Fortnightly, $2.00 a year. Professors Brackett and "Go odale, p veni e.) The Academy 7. Lot ador Scientific Opinion. Nos. ti , Feb., ! = Nature, Nos. 1-9. Nov., Dec., 1869; Feb. 10,17; Meh. 3, 10, 17, 1870. London. McMillan & Co. The Field. June, 1869, to March 5, 12, 19, a April 2. 1870." London. ter. Jan. 15, 22, 29, Feb. 5, 12, 19, 26. on. Petites Novelles Lee viti iie Nos. 16, 17. Feb., March Paris. Le Natur oa poenis i, Nos. 3, 4. Feb., arg ebec, RUE de la Societe Imperiale d'Acclimation. vi, No. 12. Dec., 1869. vii. No. 1, Jan., 1870. ris. Notes on the Later Extinct Floras of North America with dese: erinto g New Species of Creta- ceous nd Lo uM By J. B ew Hee (From pu Lye. N ix, 1868) Verha d ee yet der Eh geologischen Reichsanstait. Vols. for 1867 and 1865, and Nos. 1-13 of Th. wighrbuch de der k. yw gesispiichu Reichsanstalt. Vols. for 1867 and 1868, and Nos. 1, 2, 3, of 1869. en. á Jahresbericht €—— rforsc. wee ed God iban in Emden. 1868. 12mo. rch, April. hri od: x Trés on a ye phere and the Soil as re'ated to the Nutrition of Agri- cultiral F With illustrations, By S. if Be moo Professor in Sheffield Scienti hool w York. Orange Judd & Co. T2mo, pp. 375. 1870, : pps 62 - uralists Note Book. March, 1870. N omia London. Bemrose and Sons. ati On -— ct hite of the Laurentian o; E" nada. By J. W. Dawson. vag ihe Proceedings e Geol gica an Dec., 1869, Montreal The Canadian Entomologist, A 08. 5, E. Maren. & pril. aah Annals of the Lyceum of Natural Hist "New Yor Vol. 9, No. 9. Mika Second List of Birds collected at Conchtas. il or B wae i With otes upon another Col yee Poir the Po ae K . L. Sclater and Osbert Salvin. Urn pss t Zope Sat eje Mi "he Annals owa. By the e sh 0. 8vo. (quarterly). Towa Ci Notice of Fossil Bi — the Cretaci dn aki Tertiary Formations of the nee States. O.C. Marsh. [From merican Journal of Science and Arts. Mareh, 1870.] ^ on "s Wills Readers. rers, By S.S. Haldemann. 1870. 12mọ, pamp UL Et .Im AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. IV.—JUNE, 1870. — No. 4. coc Gu (RO ER > THE | SURFACE GEOLOGY OF THE BASIN OF THE GREAT LAKES AND THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. BY PROFESSOR J. S. NEWBERRY. THE area bounded on the north by the Eozoic highlands of Canada, on the east by the Adirondacks and the. Allegha- nies, and on the west by the Rocky Mountains, though now, and apparently always, drained by two systems of water- courses, may be properly considered as one topographical district ; since much of the water-shed which separates its two river systems is of insignificant height, is composed of unconsolidated “Drift” materials, has shifted its position hundreds of miles, as the water level in the great lakes has varied, and was for a long interval submerged beneath a water connection uniting both drainage systems in one. In this great hydrographic basin the surface geology pre- sents a series of phenomena of which the details, carefully studied in but few localities, still offer an interesting and almost inexhaustible subject of investigation, but which, as it seems to me, are already sufficiently well known to enable us to write at least the generalities of the history which they record, The most important facts which the study of the “Drift ! the r 1870, by the PEABODY ACADEMY OP Entered according to Act of Co in yea m HA - ing SCIENCE, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 25 194 SURFACE GEOLOGY. phenomena" of this region have brought to light are briefly as follows : lst. In the northern half of this area down to the paral- lels of 389—409, we find, not everywhere, but in most local- ities where the nature of the underlying rocks is such as to retain inscriptions made upon them, the upper surface of these rocks planed, furrowed or excavated in a peculiar and striking manner, evidently by the action of one great de- nuding agent. No one who has seen glaciers and noticed the effect they produce on the rocks over which they move, upon examining good exposures of the markings to which I have referred, will fail to pronounce them the tracks of gla- - ciers.* Though having a general north-south direction, locally the ` glacial furrows have very different bearings, conforming in a rude way to the present topography, and following the direc- tions of the great lines of drainage. On certain uplands, like those of the Wisconsin lead re- gion, no glacial furrows have been observed (Whitney), but on most of the highlands, and in all the lowlands and great valleys, they are distinctly discernible if the underlying rock has retained them. 2d. Some of the valleys and channels which bear the marks of glacial action—evidently formed or modified by ice, and dating from the ice period or an earlier epoch—are excavated far below the present lakes and water-courses which occupy them. These valleys form a connected system of drainage, at a lower level than the present river system, and lower than could be produced without a continental elevation of several hundred feet. A few examples will suffice to show on what evidence this assertion is based. * From oe my own observations | on the action of glaciers on ext i desse in. mne Alpe and in Oregon and could have produced such effects. A different view is — of this subject, it is true, but only by those r have never seen the markings in question. The track of a glacier is as unmistakable n that of a man or & bear. SURFACE GEOLOGY. 195 Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Onta- rio are basins excavated in undisturbed sedimentary rocks. Of these Lake Michigan is six hundred feet deep, with a surface level of five hundred and seventy-eight feet above tides; Lake Huron is five hundred feet deep, with a surface level of five hundred and seventy-four feet; Lake Erie is two hundred and four feet deep, with a surface level of five hundred and sixty-five feet; Lake Ontario is four hundred and fifty feet deep, with a surface level of two hundred and thirty-four feet above the sea. An old, excavated, now-filled channel connects Lake Erie and Lake Huron. At Detroit the rock surface is one hun- dred and thirty feet below the city. In the oil region of ‘Bothwell, ete., from fifty to two hundred feet of clay overlie the rock. What the greatest depth of this channel is, is not known. An excavated trough runs south from Lake Michigan — filled with clay, sand, tree trunks, ete. — penetrated at Bloomington, Illinois, to the depth of two hundred and thirty feet. The -rock bottoms of the troughs of the Mississippi and Missouri, near their junction or below, have never been reached, but they are many feet, perhaps some hundreds, beneath the present stream-beds. The borings for oil in the valleys of the Western rivers have enabled me not only to demonstrate the existence of deeply buried channels of excavation, but in many cases to map thein out. Oil Creek flows from seventy-five to one hundred feet above its old channel, and that channel had sometimes vertical and even overhanging cliffs. The Beaver, at the junction of the Mahoning and Shenango, runs one hundred and fifty feet above the bottom of its old trough. The Ohio throughout its entire course runs in a valley Which has been eut nowhere less than one hundred and fifty feet below the present river. The Cuyahoga enters Lake Erie at Cleveland, more than 196 SURFACE GEOLOGY. . one hundred feet above the rock bottom of its excavated trough. The Chagrin, Vermilion, and other streams running into Lake Erie exhibit the same phenomena, and prove that the surface level of the lake must have once been at least one hundred feet lower than now. The bottom of the excavated channel in which Onondaga Lake is situated, and the Salina salt-wells bored, is at least four hundred and fourteen feet below the surface level of the lake and fifty feet below the sea level. (Geddes, Trans. New York State Agricultural Society, 1859.) The old channel of the Genesee River at Portage, de- scribed by Professor Hall in the Geology of the Fourth Dis- trict of New York; the trough of the Hudson, traceable on the sea bottom nearly one hundred miles from the present river mouth; the deeply buried bed of the Lower Missis- sippi, are additional examples of the same kind; while the depth to which the Golden Gate, the Straits of Carquinez, the channel of the lower Columbia, the Canal de Haro, Hood’s Canal, Puget Sound, etc., have been excavated, indi- cates a similar (perhaps simultaneous) cloyution and erosion of the Western coast of America. The falls of the Ohio— formed by a rocky barrier across the stream — though at first sight seeming to disprove the theory of a deep continuous channel in our Western rivers, really afford no argument against it, for here, as in many other instances, the present river does not follow accurately the line of the old channel below, but runs along one or the other side of it.- In the case of the Louisville falls the Ohio runs across a rocky point which projects into the old valley from the north side, while the deep channel passes under the lowland on the south side, on part of which the city of Louisville is built. The importance of a knowledge of these old channels in the improvement of the navigation of our larger rivers is ob- vious, and it is possible it would have led to the adoption of other means than a rock canal for passing the Louisville SURFACE GEOLOGY. 197 falls, had it been possessed by those concerned in this en- terprise. I ventured to predict to General Warren that an old filled- up channel would be found passing around the Mississippi rapids, and his examinations have confirmed the prophecy. I will venture still farther, and prediet the discovery of buried channels of communication between Lake Superior and Lake Michigan — probably somewhere near and east of the Grand Sable— at least, between the Pictured Rocks and the St. Mary's River— between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario through Canada,— between Lake Ontario* and the Hudson by the valley of the Mohawk, — between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi, somewhere along the line I have before indi- cated.. I also regard it probable that a channel may be found connecting the upper and lower portions of the Tennessee River, passing around the Mussel Shoals. This locality lies outside of the area where the Northern Drift deposits were laid down to fill and conceal ancient channels, but the exca- vation and the filling up of the channel of the Tennessee— like that of the Ohio—were determined by the relative alti- tude of the waters of the Gulf. The channel of the Lower Tennessee must have been excavated when the southern por- tion of the Mississippi valley was higher above the Gulf level than now, and Professor Hilgard has shown that at a subse- quent period, probably during the Champlain epoch, the Gulf coast was depressed five hundred feet below its present relative level. This depression must have made the Lower Mississippi an arm of the sea, by which the flow of the Ohio AT atis 4 WIG POOR Ł J A i the lake baila, tae the line of drainage was established in what is now known as Ni- agara River. Though among the most recent of the events recorded in our surface geology, this choice of the Niagara outlet by the lake waters was made so long ago that all the ero- sion of the gorge below the falls been accomplished since. The excavation of the basin into which the Niagara flows — the basin of e Ontario, of which Queenstown i Heights form part of the margin — belongs to an epoch long anterio; 198 SURFACE GEOLOGY. and Tennessee was arrested, their channels filled, terraces formed, etc. If the Upper Tennessee has, as appears, a channel lower than the Mussel Shoals, it must be somewhere connected with the deep channel of the lower river. It should be said, however, that it by no means follows that where an old earth-filled channel passes around the rocky barrier by which the navigation of our rivers is im- peded, it will be most convenient and economical to follow it in making a canal to pass the obstacle, as the course of the old channel may be so long and cireuitous that a short rock cutting is cheaper and better. The question is, how- ever, of sufficient importance to deserve investigation, before millions of dollars are expended in rock excavation. If it is true that our great lakes can be connected with each other and with the ocean, both by the Hudson and Mississippi, by ship canals, —in making which no elevated summits nor rock barriers need be cut through, — the future commerce cre- ated by the great population and immense resources of the basin of the great lakes may require their construction. 3d. Upon the glacial surface we find a series of unconsoli- dated materials generally stratified, called the "Drift de- posits." Of these the first and lowest are blue and red clays (the Erie clays of Sir William Logan), generally regularly strati- fied in thin layers, and containing no fossils, but drifted coniferous wood and leaves. Over the southern and eastern part of the lake basin, these clays contain no boulders, but towards the North and West they include scattered stones, often of a large size; while in places beds of boulders and gravel are found resting directly on the glacial surface. In Ohio the Erie clays are blue, nearly two hundred feet in thickness, and reach up the hill-sides more than two hun- dred feet above the present surface of Lake Erie. On the shores of Lake Michigan these clays are in part of a red color, showing that they have been derived from different rocks, and they there include great numbers of stones. SURFACE GEOLOGY. 199 On the peninsula between Lake Erie and Lake Huron the Erie clays fill the old channel which formerly connected these lakes, having a thickness of over two hundred feet, and containing a few scattered stones. 4th. Above the Erie clays are sands of variable thickness and less widely spread than the underlying clays. These sands contain beds of gravel, and, near the surface, teeth of elephant have been found, water-worn and rounded. 5th. Upon the stratified clays, sands, and gravel of the Drift deposits are scattered boulders and blocks of all sizes, of granite, greenstone (diorite and dolerite), silicious and mica slates, and various other metamorphic and eruptive rocks, generally traceable to some locality in the Eozoic area north of the Jakes. Among these boulders many balls of native copper have been found, which could have come from nowhere else than the copper district of Lake Superior. Most of these masses are rounded by attrition, but the large blocks of Corniferous limestone which are scattered over the southern margin of the lake basin in Ohio show little marks of wear. These masses, which are often ten to twenty feet in diameter, have been transported from one hundred to two hundred miles south-eastward from their places of origin, and deposited sometimes three hundred feet above the position they once occupied. 6th. Above all these Drift deposits, and more recent than any of them, are the “lake ridges," — embankments of sand, gravel, sticks, leaves, etc., which run imperfectly parallel with the present outlines of the lake margins, where high- lands lie in the rear of such margins. Of these, the lowest on the South shore of Lake Erie is a little less than one hundred feet above the present lake level; the highest, some two hundred and fifty feet. In New York, Canada, Michi- gan, and on Lake Superior, a similar series of ridges has been discovered, and they have everywhere been accepted as evidence that the waters of the lakes once reached the points 200 SURFACE GEOLOGY. which they mark. That they are nothing else than ancient lake beaches we shall hope to prove farther on. In the southern half of the Mississippi valley the evidences of glacial aetion are entirely wanting, and there is nothing corresponding to the wide-spread Drift deposits of the north. We there find, however, proofs of erosion on a stupendous scale, such as the valley of East Tennessee, which has been formed by the washing out of all the broken strata between the ridges of the Alleglianies and the massive tables of the Cumberland Mountains, — the caüons of the Tennessee, one thousand six hundred feet deep, etc. Here also, as in the lake. basin, the channels of excavation pass far below the . deep and quiet waters of the lower rivers; proving by their depth that they must have been cut when the fall of these ‘rivers was much greater than now. The history which I derive from the facts cited above is briefly this : lsr.— That in a period probably synchronous with the glacial epoch of Europe, —at least corresponding to it in the sequence of events,—the northern half of the continent of North America had a climate comparable with that of Green- land; so cold, that wherever there was a copious precipita- tion of moisture from oceanic evaporation, that moisture was congealed and formed glaciers which flowed by various routes towards the sea. 2ND.—-That the courses of these ancient glaciers corres- ponded in a general way with the present channels of drain- age. The direction of the glacial furrows proves that one of these ice rivers flowed from Lake Huron, along a channel now filled with drift, and known to be at least one hundred and fifty feet deep, into Lake Erie, which was then not a lake, but an excavated valley into which the streams of Northern Ohio flowed, one hundred feet or more below the present lake level. Following the line of the major axis of e Erie to near its eastern extremity, here turning north- east, this glacier passed through some channel on the Cana- SURFACE GEOLOGY. 201 dian side, now filled up, into Lake Ontario, and thence found its way to the sea either by the St. Lawrence or by the Mo- hawk and Hudson. Another glacier oceupied the bed of Lake Michigan, having an outlet southward through a chan- nel—now concealed by the heavy beds of drift which occupy the surface about the south end of the lake — passing near Bloomington, Illinois, and by some route yet unknown reaching the trough of the Mississippi, which was then much deeper than at present. 3D. — At this period the continent must have been several hundred feet higher than now, as is proved by the deeply ex- cavated channels of the Columbia, Golden Gate, Mississippi, Hudson, etc., which could never have been cut by the Streams that now occupy them, unless flowing with greater rapidity and at a lower level than they now do. The depth of the trough of the Hudson is not known, but it is plainly a channel of erosion, now submerged and be- come an arm of the sea. As has been before stated this channel is marked on the sea-bottom for a long distance from the coast and far beyond a point where the present river could exert any erosive action, and hence it is a record of a period when the Atlantie coast was several hundred feet higher than now. The lower Mississippi bears unmistakable evidence of be- ing—if one may be permitted the paradox—a half-drowned river; that is, its old channel is deeply submerged and silted up, so that the “father of waters,” lifted above the walls that formerly restrained him, now wanders, lawless and ungov- ernable, whither he will in the broad valley. The thickness of the delta deposits at New Orleans is va- riously reported from fifteen hundred feet upwards, the dis- crepancies being due to the difficulty of distinguishing the alluvial elays from those of the underlying Cretaceous and Tertiary formations. It is certain, however, that the bottom of the ancient channel of the Mississippi has never been reached between New Orleans and Cairo; the instances cited AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 26 202 SURFACE GEOLOGY. by Humphreys and Abbot in their splendid study of this river being but repetitions of the phenomena exhibited at the falls of the Ohio—the river running over one side of its ancient bed. The trough of the Mississippi is not due to synclinal struc- ture in the underlying rocks, but is a valley of erosion sim- ply. Ever since the elevation of the Alleghanies—7.e. the close of the Carboniferous period — it has been traversed by a river which drained the area from which flow the upper Mississippi, the Ohio, the Tennessee, etc. Since the Mio- cene period, the Missouri, Arkansas, and Red rivers have made their contributions to the flood that flowed through it. The depth to which this channel is cut in the rock proves that at times the viver must have flowed at a lower level and with a more rapid current than now ; while the Tertiary beds formed as high as Iowa and Indiana in this trough, and the more modern Drift clays and boulders which partially fill the old rock cuttings, show that the mouth and delta of the river have, in the alternations of continental elevation, travelled up and down the trough at least a thousand miles; and that not only is it true, as asserted by Ellet, that every mile be- tween Cairo and New Orleans once held the river's mouth, but that in the several advances and recessions of the waters of the Gulf the mouth has been more than twice at each point. The change of place of the delta has been caused, however, for the most part, by oscillations of the sea level, and not, as Ellet supposed, by the filling of the channel by the materials transported by the river itself. Dnrrr Deposits. The Drift deposits which cover the gla- cial surface, consisting of fine clays below, sands and gravel above, large transported boulders on the surface, and the series of lake ridges (beaches) over all, form a sequence of phenomena of which the history is easily read. Erie Clays. The lower series of blue or red clays—the "Erie clays” of Sir William Logan— over a very large area, rest directly on the plain and polished rock surfaces. These SURFACE GEOLOGY. 203 clays are often accurately stratified, were apparently depos- ited in deep and generally quiet water, and mark a period when the glacial ice-masses, melted by a change of climate, retreated northward, leaving large bodies of cold fresh- water* about their southern margins, in which the mud produeed by their grinding action on the paleozoie rocks of the Lake District was first suspended and then deposited. On the shores of Lake Erie these clays contain no boul- ders and very few pebbles, while farther North and West boulders are more abundant. This is precisely what might be expected from the known action of glacial masses on the surfaces over which they pass. Their legitimate work is to grind to powder the rock on which they rest; an effect largely due to the sand which gathers under them, acting as emery on a lead wheel. The water flowing from beneath glaciers is always milky and turbid from this cause. Rocks and boulders are sometimes frozen into glaciers, and thus transported by them, but nearly all the boulders carried along by a glacier'are such as have fallen from above ; and a mo- raine ean hardly be formed by a glacier except when there are cliffs and pinnacles along its course. In a nearly level country, composed of sedimentary rocks passed over by a glacier, we should have very little débris produced by it, except the mud flour which it grinds. The Erie clays would necessarily receive any gravel or stones which had been frozen into the ice, either as RERE pebbles or stones, distributed to some distance from the gla- cial mass by floating fragments of ice, or as masses of frozen gravel, or larger and more numerous boulders near the gla- cier. In some localities torrents would pour from the sides and from beneath the glacier, so that here coarse material would alone resist the rapid motion of the water, and the stratification of the sediments would be more or less confused. * Cold, b ing from the melting glacier, and depositing v with its sediments iq f life; fresh, 1 eode wood— ver 11. *h 2. T sh - Laat shells. q Champlain” y 204 SURFACE GEOLOGY. In regard to the cause of the gradual amelioration of the climate of the glacial epoch, by which the great glaciers of the lake basin were driven northward and finally altogether dissolved, we are not left entirely to conjecture. osmical causes possibly and probably had the chief agency in producing this result, but we have unmistakable evidence of at least the coóperation of another and perhaps no less potent cause, namely, continental depression. ` If a cosmical cause had simply increased the annual tem- perature till the glaciers were all melted, without the action of any other agent, we should never have had the accumula- tion of drift deposits which now occupy all the glacial area ; but the drainage streams, changed in all their courses from ice to water, would have flowed freely and rapidly away through their deeply cut channels to deposit their abundant sediments only where their transporting power was arrested, in the depths of the ocean. Instead of this, we everywhere find evidence that this flow was checked, and a basin of quiet water formed by an ad- vance of the ocean consequent upon a subsidence of the land. On the Atlantie and Gulf coasts this depression progressed until the sea level was more than five hundred feet higher than now. The effect of this depression was to deeply sub- merge the eastern margin of the continent, and cover it with the “Champlain” clays. It is evident that at this period the drainage from the great water-shed of the continent must have been met by the quiet waters of the ocean almost at the sources of the present draining streams, and as the “dead water” gradually crept up the valleys, arresting the transporting power of their cur- rents, their old channels would be silted up and obliterated, and their valleys partially filled with materials for their sub- sequent terraces. In the advance and subsequent recession of the line of “dead water” we have ample cause for all our terrace phenomena. This continental depression accounts satisfactorily for the SURFACE GEOLOGY. 205 filling of the old channels of the Mississippi and the Ohio, as a depression of five hundred feet would bring the ocean nearly to Pittsburgh on the Ohio, to St. Paul on the Missis- sippi. But I think we have evidence that the continent did not sink uniformly in all its parts, but most at the North. Not to cite any other proof of this,—northern coast fiords, etc. —the altitude of the loess-like deposits of the upper Missis- sippi and Missouri (the lacustrine non-glacial sediments of this period of submergence), the upward reach of the Drift clays of the lake basin, the filling of the valleys of the streams flowing into the Ohio and Lake Erie, the old lake beaches marking the former water-level in the lake basin — all indicate that the continental subsidence was greatest to- wards the north. To this subsidence we must, as I think, attribute the accumulation of water in the lake basin and Mississippi valley to form the great inland sea of fresh-water, of which traces everywhere abound. It seems to me scarcely necessary to suppose any other barriers by which this sea was enclosed than the highlands that encircle it— such as are roughly outlined by the light tint on Professor Guyot’s map of North America—and the sea-water which filled the mouths of the two* straits by which it communicated with the ocean. Yellow Sands and Surface Boulders. I have mentioned that on the Erie clays are beds of gravel, sand, and clay, and over these again great numbers of transported boulders, often of large size and of northern and remote origin. These surface deposits have been frequently referred to as the direct and normal product of glacial action, the materials torn up and scraped off by the great ice pinen in their * Tf pated bat — That there ` was ome in the course of the Mississippi we oo nd that so lo the oth The eastern | sie of the lake waters may not have been by the St. saat but as likely through the gap between the Adirondacks and the Alleghanies. The shallow nnels betwee vei Thousand Islands and v" uri ent seem to indicate that for the lakes. E 206 SURFACE GEOLOGY. long journeys from the North; in fact, as some sort of huge terminal and lateral moraines. I have, however, disproved, as I think, this theory of their transportation in a paper pub- lished some years since (Notes on the Surface Geology of the Basin of the Great Lakes. Proc. Bost. Nat. Hist. Soc. 1863), in which it is urged that the continuous sheet of the Erie elays upon which they rest, and which forms an un- broken belt between them and their place of origin, pre- cludes the idea that they have been transported by any ice- current or rush of water moving over the glacial surface; as either of these must have torn up and scattered the soft clays below. There is, indeed, no other conclusion deducible from the facts than that these sands, gravels, granite and greenstone boulders— masses of native copper, etc., which compose the superficial Drift deposits — have been floated to their resting- places, and that the floating agent has been ice, in the form of icebergs; in short, that these materials have been trans- ported and scattered over the bottom and along the south shore of our ancient inland sea, just as similar materials are now being scattered over the banks and shores of Newfound- land. ; If we restore in imagination this inland sea, which we have proved once filled the basin ot the lakes, gradually dis- placing the retreating glaciers, we are inevitably led to a time in the history of this region when the southern shore of this sea was formed by the highlands of Ohio, etc., the northern shore a wall of ice resting on the hills of crystalline and trappean rocks about Lake Superior and Lake Huron. From this ice-wall masses must from time to time have been detached,— just as they are now detached from the Humboldt Glacier, — and floated off southward with the cur- rent, bearing in their grasp sand, gravel, and boulders— whatever composed the beach from which they sailed. Five hundred miles south they grounded upon the southern shore ; the highlands of now Western New York, Pennsylvania and SURFACE GEOLOGY. 207 Ohio, or the shallows of the prairie region of Indiana, Illi- nois, and Iowa; there melting away and depositing their entire loads,—as I have sometimes seen them, a thousand or more boulders on a few acres, resting on the Erie clays and looking in the distance like flocks of sheep,—or dropping here and there a stone and floating on, east or west, till wholly dissipated. These boulders include representatives of nearly all the rocks of the Lake Superior country, conspicuous among which are granites with rose-colored orthoclase, gray gneiss, and distbed all characteristic of the Laurentian series; hornblendie rocks, massive or schistose, and dark greenish or bluish silicious slates, probably from the Huronian ; dolo- rites and masses of native copper, apparently from the Keweenaw Point copper region. In the Drift gravels I have found pebbles and small boul- ders of nearly all the paleozoic rocks of the lake basin, con- taining their characteristic fossils, namely, the Calciferous Sandrock with Maclurea, Trenton and Hudson with Ambony- chia radiata, C'yrtolites ornatus, Medina with Pleurotomaria litorea, Corniferous with Conocardium trigonale, Atrypa reticularis, Favosites polymorpha, Hamilton with Spirifer mucronatus, etc. The granite boulders are ohen of large size, sometimes six feet and more in diameter, and flenerally rounded. The largest transported blocks I have seen are the more or less angular masses of corniferous limestone mentioned ona preceding page. Along the southern margin of the Drift area, especially on the slopes of the highlands of Northern Ohio, the Drift sands and gravels are of considerable thickness, forming hills of one hdd feet or more in height, generally strati- fied, but often without any visible irs, These de- posits are very unevenly distributed, with a rolling surface frequently forming local basins, which hold the little lakelets or sphagnous marshes so characteristie of the region referred 208 SURFACE GEOLOGY. to. These are the beds to which I have alluded as constitu- ting, in the opinion of some geologists, a great glacial mo- raine, but from the fact that they are locally stratified, and overlie the older blue clays, I have regarded them as trans- ported not by glaciers, but by icebergs. Possibly some part of this Drift material may have accu- mulated along the margin of the great glacier, moved by its agency; but in that case we should expect to find in it abun- dant fragments of the rocks which outcrop in the region under consideration, whereas I have rarely, if ever, seen in these Drift gravels any representatives of the rocks under- lying the south margin of the lake basin. By whatever agency transported, the Drift gravels have, like the boulders, for the most part come from some remote point at the North, and were once spread broadcast along the southern shore of the inland iceberg-bearing sea. In the retreat of the shore line during the contraction of the water surface down to its present area, every part of the slope of the southern shore between the present water sur- face and the highest lake level of former times, i.e. all within a vertical height of three hundred feet or more, must in turn have been submitted to the action of the shore waves, rain, and rivers, by which if, as is probable, the retrograde movement of the water line was slow, these loose materials would be rolled, ground, sorted, sifted, and shifted, so that comparatively little would. be left in its original bedding ; the fine materials, clay and sand, would be washed out and car- ried farther and still farther into the lake basin, and spread over the bottom, to form, in short, the upper sandy layers of the Drift. At certain points in its descent the water level seems to have been for a time stationary, and such points are marked by terraces and the long lines of ancient beaches which have been referred to. A similar "lake ridge" now borders the south shore of Lake Michigan, where it may be observed in the process of formation ; and this seems to be the legitimate SURFACE GEOLOGY. 209 effect of waves everywhere on a sloping shore composed of loose material; storms driving up sand and gravel to form a ridge which ultimately acts as a barrier to the waves that built it. Winds, also, often assist in building up, and some- times alone form these ridges, by transporting inland the beach sand. In other localities, where hard rock masses formed the shore of our inland sea, perpendicular wave-worn cliffs were produced; and many of these now stand as enduring and indisputable monuments of a sea whose waves, perhapé for ages, beat against them. Such cliffs may be observed on Little Mountains: in Lake county, in the valley of the Cuyahoga, in Medina and Lorain county, Ohio, along the outcrops of the Carboniferous conglomerate and Wait sandstone. In all the changes through which the valley of the Missis- sippi passed during the “Drift Period,” its general structure and main topographical features remained the same. Yet the character of its surface suffered very important modifica- tions, and such as deeply affected its fitness for human occu- pation. As we have seen, the glacial epoch was marked by erosion on a grand scale. Then, our river valleys and some of our lakes—though mapped out long before — were excavated to a much greater depth than they notv have. During their subsequent submergence, these valleys and lakes were partially or perfectly filled with the drift deposits which covered all the surface like a deep fall of snow, rounded its outlines and softened all its asperities. When the waters were withdrawn, the rivers again began clearing their obstructed channels; a work not yet accom- plished, and in many instances not half done. Numbers of the old channels were wholly filled and obliterated, and the streams that once traversed them were compelled to find quarters elsewhere. Examples of this kind have been al- ready cited, and they could be multiplied indefinitely. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 27 210 SURFACE GEOLOGY. ORIGIN or THE GREAT LakEs. — The question of the ori- gin of our lakes is one that requires more observation and study than have yet been given to it before we can be said to have solved all the problems it involves. There are, how- ever, certain facts connected with the structure of the lake basins, and some deductions from these facts, which may be regarded as steps already taken toward the full understanding of the subject. These facts and deductions are briefly as follows :— Ist. Lake Superior lies in a synclinal trough, and its mode of formation therefore hardly admits of question, though its sides are deeply scored with ice-marks, and its form and area may have been somewhat modified by this agent. 2d. Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario are excavated basins, wrought out of once contin- uous sheets of sedimentary strata by a mechanical agent, and that ice or water, or both. That they have been filled with ice, and that this ice formed great moving glaciers we may consider proved. The west end of Lake Erie may be said to be carved out of the Corniferous limestone by ice action; as its bottom and sides and islands—horizontal, vertical, and even overhanging sur- faces—are all furrowed by glacial grooves, which are par- allel with the major axis of the lake. All our great lakes are probably very ancients as since the close of idee Devonian period the area they occupy has never been submerged beneath the ocean, and their formation may have begun during the Coal Measure epoch. The Laurentian belt, which stretches from Labrador to the Lake of the Woods, and thence northward to the Arctic sea, forms the oldest known portion of the earth’s surface. The shores of this ancient continent, then high and mountainous, were washed by the Silurian sea, where the débris of the land was deposited in strata that subsequently rose to the surface, and formed a broad low margin to the central moun- tain belt, just as the Cretaceous and Tertiary strata flank the Alleghanies in the Southern States. “ions eae oe : TO ESE Shade M SURFACE GEOLOGY. 211 In the lapse of countless ages, all the mountain peaks and chains of the Laurentian continents have been removed and carried into the sea, and this has been done by rivers of water and rivers of ice. That these mountains once. existed there can be no reasonable doubt, for their truncated bases remain as witnesses, and it is scarcely less certain that gla- ciers have flowed down their slopes of sufficient magnitude and reach to deeply score the plain which encircled them. It will be noticed that all the great lakes of the continent hold certain relations to the curving belt of Laurentian high- lands. Some of them are embraced in the foldings of the Eozoie rocks, and fill synclinal troughs; but most of the series, from Great Bear Lake to Lake Ontario, exhibit the same geological and physical structure, are basins of excavation in the paleozoic plain that flanks in a parallel belt the Laur- entian area. Few of us have any conception of the enor- mous general and local erosion which that plain has suffered. Those who will take the trouble to examine the section across Lake Ontario, from the Alleghanies to the Laurentian hills of Canada, and compare it with the other sections in the Lake Winnepeg district, radial to the Laurentian arch, given by Mr. Hind in his report on the Assiniboin country, will be sure to find the comparison interesting and suggestive; sug- gestive especially of a community of structure and history, and of an inseparable connection between the lake phe- nomena and the topographical features of the Laurentian highlands flanked by the paleozoie plain. In estimating the influences that might have affected the number and magnitude of glaciers on the sides of the Lau- rentian mountains, it should not be forgotten that the Cre- taceous sea swept the western shore of the Paleozoie and Laurentian continent from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean ; and whether we consider this sea as a broad expanse of water simply dotted with islands, or a strait traversed by a tropical current, we have in either case conditions peculi- 212 SURFACE GEOLOGY. arly favorable to the formation of great glacial masses of ice, i.e. a broad evaporating surface of warm water swept by westerly winds that carried all suspended moisture immedi- ately on to a mountain belt, which served as a sufficient con- denser. | This, at least, may be positively asserted in regard to the agency of ice in the excavation of the lake basins, that their bottoms and sides wherever exposed to observation, if com- posed of resistant materials, bear indisputable evidence of ice action, proving that these basins were filled by moving glaciers in the last ice period if never before, and that part, at least, of the erosion by which they were formed is due to these glaciers. No other agent than glacial ice, as it seems to me is capa- ble of excavating broad, deep, boat-shaped basins, like those which hold our lakes. If the elevation of temperature and retreat northward of the glaciers of the lake basins were not uniform and contin- uous, but alternated with periods of repose, we should find these periods marked by excavated basins, each of which would serve to measure the reach of the glacier at the time of its formation, the lowest basin being the oldest, the others formed in succession afterwards. Such a cause would be sufficient to account for any local expansions of the troughs of the old ice rivers. Where glaciers flow down from highlands on to a plain or into the sea, the excavating action of the ice mass must ter- minate somewhat abruptly in the formation of a basin-like cavity, beyond which would be a rim of rock, with whatever of débris the glacier has brought down to form a terminal moraine. = When glaciers reach the sea, the great weight of the ice mass must plough up the sea bottom out to the point where the greater gravity of water lifts the ice from its bed, and bears it away as an iceberg. If it is true, as the facts I have cited indicate, that our SURFACE GEOLOGY. 213 lakes are but portions of great excavated channels locally filled with drift material, the fiords of the northern Atlantic and Pacific coast present remarkable parallels to them ; and I would suggest Puget's Sound, Hood's Canal, and other portions ‘of that wonderful system of navigable channels about Vancouver’s Island, as affording interesting and in- structive subjects for comparison. Like our lakes their channels are for the most part excavated from sedimentary strata which form a low and comparatively level margin to the bases of mountain chains and peaks. They too have their depths and shallows, their basins and bars, and probably all who have seen them will assent to Professor Dana’s view, that they are the "result of subaérial excavation," in which glaciers performed an important part. The " Loess” of the Mississippi Valley. The “Bluff form- ation" of the West, sometimes called "Loess," from its re- semblance to the Loess of the Rhine, I have on a preceding page designated as a lacustrine non-glacial Drift. deposit. It seems to be the sediment precipitated from the waters of our great inland sea.in its shallow and more quiet portions, to which icebergs, with their gravel and boulders, had no ac- cess, and where the glacial mud was represented only by an impalpable powder, which mingled with the wash of the adjacent land, land shells, etc. It is evidently one of the most recent of the deposits which come into the series of Drift phenomena, and was ap- parently thrown down while the broad water surface which once stretched over the region where it is found was narrow- ing by drainage and evaporation, till, by its total disappear- ance, this sheet of calcareous mud was left. It underlies much of the prairie region, and once filled, often to the brim, the troughs of the Mississippi and Mis- souri, so deeply excavated during the glacial epoch. When the system of drainage was re-established the new rivers be- gan the excavation of their ancient valleys in the Loess. When they had cut into or through this stratum, so that it 214 OUR NATIVE TREES AND SHRUBS. stood up in escarpments on either side, man came and called it the Bluff formation, because it composed or capped the bold bluffs of the river-banks. It is often, however, only a facing to the rocky cliffs, which are the true walls of these valleys, and which are monuments of an age long anterior to the date of its deposition. — Annals of the Lyceum of | Natural History of New York, 1869. OUR NATIVE TREES AND SHRUBS. BY REV. J. W. CHICKERING, JR. Ir has long been a favorite aspiration of the writer, at some time in life, to have an arboretum collected from our woods and waysides. But despairing of that, I would in this article give a list of those native shrubs and trees, which seem to promise to repay transplanting, and which would in beauty, and many of them in novelty, to any but the bota- nist, vie with those imported. the trees of early spring, it is a pity that the Silver Maple (Acer dasycarpum), and the Sugar Maple (A. sac- charinum), were not more generally known and valued, as flowering trees. The former is the earliest tree I know in this latitude, and the beauty of the long, yellow tassels of the latter, commends itself to every observer. Then for grounds of any extent the different Birches, the White (Be- tula alba), the Paper (B. papyracea), the Yellow (B. ex- celsa), and the Black (B. lenta), are in early spring most attractive ornaments, for the grace and variety of the spray of their delicate catkins. Then the Tulip Tree ( Lirioden- dron tulipifera), and the Cucumber Tree (Magnolia acum- inata), both perfectly hardy in New York and New England, should be seen much more frequently in cultivated grounds. The Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) forms a pleasing clump OUR NATIVE TREES AND SHRUBS. 215 whether it hang out its bright yellow flowers or its crimson berries. Of course the Sumachs would claim a place with their variety of flower, fruit and leaf, at least the Staghorn Sumach (Rhus typhina), with its red velvety branches; R. glabra, as smooth as the last is shaggy, and R. copallina, with its leaves looking as if varnished. The New Jersey Tea (Ceanothus Americanus), with its spikes of delicate white flowers, demands a place, as well as admiration. Bittersweet (Celastrus scandens), also called Roxbury Waxwork, so well known as having given a name to one of the most charming rural poems in our language, is a hardy climber, vigorous amd luxuriant in summer, and very con- spicuous in autumn, with its scarlet seed coverings set in orange linings, as is its first cousin the Waahoo (Huonymus atropurpureus), with its crimson drooping fruit, not uncom- mon in cultivation. The Red-bud, or Judas Tree (Cercis Canadensis), with its branches all aflame in early spring, is a small, graceful tree. Spirea opulifolia, is an attractive variety, while the Meadow Sweet (S. salicifolia), and the Hardhack (9. to- mentosa), so valuable as a medicine, were they only less common, would be eagerly sought for their beauty. The Shad-bush (Amelanchier Canadensis), heralding along the Connecticut, “the first run of shad,” is a favorite where- ever known, while the Witch Hazel (Hamamelis Virginica), closing the floral procession of the season with its weird, wrinkled yellow flowers in October, and even November, is not to be neglected. The Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida), beautiful alike in its snowy profusion of flowers and its bright red berries, is less known and far less cultivated than its merits deserve. It is hardy, with bright green leaves, and ought to become common, as our most showy shrub or small tree. 216 OUR NATIVE TREES AND SHRUBS. Several other species of this genus are worthy a place in our collections: Cornus circinata, sericea, stolonifera, pani- culata, alternifolia, all of which may be found either in thick- ets or swampy places. The Honeysuckle family is already introduced, but some members of it need a special introduction. The Snowberry (Symphoricarpus racemosus), with its fruit so well known to children as far from liability to stain ; and the Coral-berry (S. vulgaris), are in general cultivation, especially the former. The Trumpet Honeysuckle (Lonicera semperivirens) , and the delicate little Fly Honeysuckles (L. ciliata and ecrulea), are equally as charming as some of their foreign sisters. The Viburnum too is a beautiful genus. The Cranberry Tree (V. Opulus), whose fruit is better to look at than to eat, and the Hobble-bush (V. lantanoides), so called from the facility with which its procumbent branches trip the incautious traveller, are well known in early spring, with their broad eymes of mainly sterile flowers; and the flower-buds of the latter forming in early autumn, afford a beautiful study of nature’s care in affording protection against the winter's cold; while the rusty down upon the leaf-stalks affords under the microscope a most beautiful specimen of stellate hairs. But the other species, V. nudum, prunifolium, den- tatum, pubescens, acerifolium, and especially Lentago, while by no means rare in the woods and copses, are very beau- tiful, with enough of variety to render it desirable to have them all. The Button-bush ( Cephalanthus occidentalis) is odd, with its buttons of white flowers, and worthy of cultivation. Many of the Hricace are no less beautiful than unknown. The Swamp Blueberry ( Vaccinium corymbosum) with its great variety of forms, is a very attractive shrub, with pu- scent leaves, large flowers, and conspicuous and delicious fruit. The Deerberry (V. stamineum) is very peculiar in its habit of flowering, and would be very ornamental. Doubt- OUR NATIVE TREES AND SHRUBS. 211 less this genus will eventually be taken up by the nursery- men, as have the different species of Rubus. The Leather Leaf ( Cassandra calyculata), and Andromeda polifolia, are both worthy of attention. White Alder ( Ole- thra alnifolia) is already somewhat known, and is covered in August with handsome blossoms so fragrant that a clump may be detected at many rods distance. Mountain Laurel, Calico-bush, Spoon-wood (Kalmia lati- Jolia), is one of the most beautiful shrubs ever created, as seen in profusion in its varying shades, in parts of Massachu- setts, but very seldom in cultivation. Kalmia glauca, or Pale Laurel, is less showy, but of great beauty. The Azaleas (A. viscosa and nudiflora) are very common, very beautiful and fragrant, but very seldom cultivated. The Grek Laurel (Rhododendr ‘on maximum), though mag- nificent in its native thickets, cannot probably compete with the foreign species, now so generally introduced, but Rhodora a anal: with its rose-purple blossoms, covering the leaf- less branches, is one of the pleasantest sights of early spring, and Labrador Tea (Ledum latifolium) with its delicate white clusters and leaves rusty-woolly beneath, is likewise full of beauty. The Fandi (Chionanthus Virginica) with its delicate white drooping panicles, ought to be seen much more fre- quently than it is. Sassafras officicinale with its curiously lobed leaves, yellow racemes of flowers, and spicy aroma; Leather-wood (Dirca palustris), also called Wicopy, with pale yellowish flowers is a curious shrub, its wood soft and brittle, its bark so tough that it can be used for thongs, requiring a strong man to break even its .slenderest twigs. From this list have bu omitted very many trees and shrubs in common cultivation. The object has been to call attention to those less generally known. Many of these have their natural station in swampy ground; many resist attempts at transplanting. But a little care in choosing from AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 28 218 A WINTER'S DAY IN THE YUKON TERRITORY. those in dryer locations, or setting out in moist ground, or "better yet, propagating from seed, would doubtless overcome these difficulties, reward the pains taken, and introduce some charming novelties to the lovers of flowers. Sueh an arboretum, shrubbery or lawn, comprising only native species, would not only gratify the botanist and the naturalist, but would surprise and delight the rapidly in- creasing number of amateur cultivators, who as yet have very little idea of the wealth of floral beauty to be found in our swamps and woodlands. A WINTERS DAY IN THE YUKON TERRITORY. BY W. H. DALL. Many of the readers of the Naruratist when they hear Alaska spoken of, picture to themselves a snow-covered country, with at most a scanty summer, and a long and ex- tremely cold winter. A recent “official” report for instance, represents the island of St. Paul as surrounded in winter by “immense masses of ice” on which the polar bears and arctic foxes sail down from the North and engage in pitched battle with the wretched inhabitants. Such romances are due solely to the ardent imagination of the “official” mind, and have no basis in fact. There is no solid, and but little float- ing ice near St. Paul in winter; the arctic foxes found there as well as on most of the other islands, were purposely in- troduced by the Russians for propagation, a certain number of skins being taken annually; and finally, we have no authentic evidence that the polar bear has ever been found south of Behring Strait. The country of Alaska comprises two climatic regions which differ as widely as Labrador and South Carolina in their winter temperature. One contains the mainland north A WINTER'S DAY IN THE YUKON TERRITORY. 219 of the peninsula of Aliaska and the islands north of the St. Matthew group. The other includes the coast and islands south and east of Kadiak, while the Aleutian Islands, with the group of St. Paul and St. George, are somewhat inter- mediate, being nearly as warm as the southern or Sitkan district, and much less rainy. This article will refer only to the northern district, which I have called the Yukon Territory. This is the coldest and most inhospitable part of the country, yet it is far from resembling Labrador or Greenland, although the winter weather may occasionally be very cold. The summers are much warmer and more pleasant than in Labrador, and may be compared to those of the Red River district of the Hud- son Bay Territory. At the first thought one would hardly suppose that a natu- ralist would find much to do in the depth of winter, unless it were to sit by his great Russian oven or stove, and keep himself warm. I would invite the readers of the NATU- RALIST to accompany me on a day’s tramp, similar to.many which I have undertaken without such pleasant company, and see how far their first anticipations will be realized. We will start from Ulokuk, an Indian village on the por- tage between the Yukon and Norton Sound, and bring up at Unaloklik, an Eskimo village on the coast, thirty miles away. We clothe ourselves in the comfortable costume of the country, consisting of a pair of warm American trousers; a deerskin hunting shirt with a hood, made with the hair on, trimmed with wolf or wolverine skin, and fastened by a belt around the waist; a good mink-skin cap with ear-lappets; a pair of otter-skin mittens ; and a pair of long Indian deerskin boots with soles of sealskin, tied around the ankle and just below the knee, and having a bunch of straw below the foot to keep it warm, dry, and safe from contusions. Our equip- ment will consist of our guns, a geological hammer, a good sheath-knife, a small axe, teakettle, bag of biscuit and dry salmon, and a pair of long snowshoes apiece. 220 A WINTER'S DAY IN THE YUKON TERRITORY. We start at ten o'clock, just as the December sun emerges from the southern hills and casts its welcome beams over the broad tundra covered with snow, flecking the green spruce boughs with golden touches of light, and giving a mellow tone to the clear blue sky. The temperature may be about twenty below zero, but in our warm deerskin dresses, we feel that it is only just cold enough to make the blood leap and the nerves thrill with the excitement of a brisk walk, skimming over the snow with our light snowshoes. We just clear the alder bushes around the village when a chirp and twitter in a clump of willows attract our attention. We look, and see a flock of the Pine Grosbeaks (Pinicola enu- cleator), brilliant in searlet and yellow, rifling the willows of their buds, carefully rejecting the scales and eating only the tender green hearts of the young buds. "They look so pretty as they rufle their scarlet coats, defying the winter frost, fat and comfortable with abundance of food, that we hesitate before we bring our guns to bear on them, and reluctantly add half a dozen members of the happy family to our col- lecting bag, with a single shot. They have the large bill which has been thought to distinguish the European form alone, and eannot be distinguished from typical specimens of the enucleator. "They are among the most common of the Yukon birds in winter, and though quite small are usually fat and tender, and not to be despised in a pie. Leaving the banks of the Ulokuk River we strike aeross an undu- lating prairie called tundra by the Russians, and only marked by clumps of dwarf willow (Salix Richardsonii), which project above the snow. Here and there a larch shakes its myriads of little cones in the passing breeze, or a small spruce shows its green tips; but the large spruce, poplar, willow and birch, prefer the vicinity of the river. The snow-covered Ulokuk Hills smooth, serene and beautiful, bear up the reluctant sun, which seems loth to part from the horizon. Does the snow move? or what is that by yonder willow brush? We are answered as a covey of the exquisite A WINTER'S DAY IN THE YUKON TERRITORY. 291 Snow Grouse or Ptarmigan (Zagopus albus) rise with a whirr, showing their black tail-feathers as they seek a more retired spot. Scarcely to be distinguished from the snow, nor less immaculate, we must be more sharply on the lookout if we would secure a brace next time. They are better to look at than to eat; for the dark colored flesh is dry and tasteless, and if we want specimens the better plan is to apply to the next Indian girl we meet. She, for a needle apiece, will furnish us with birds caught in snares, without a feather ruffled, or a speck on their shining coats. Their legs and feet are feathered down to the toes, and other stockings would be superfluous were we ourselves so warmly clad. As we near a clump of poplars on a bend in the river, we see that the bushes are alive with tiny birds. The Black Cap (Parus atricapillus) and the Hudson Bay Titmouse E ue Hudsonicus), chatter to each other from the swaying twigs of alder, and a little farther on is a countless flock of the Rosy Crowned Sparrow (-Zgiothus linaria) bold and saucy, with their crimson crests and rosy bosoms setting off their graceful shapes and lively motions. Chip! chip! chee! cries an angry Squirrel (Seiurus Hud- sonius) from yonder poplar; he evidently wants to know why we intrude on his privacy with guns and things, mak- ing ourselves disagreeable. A look, and he darts behind the trunk, only showing his head and ears, repeating his angry ery in apparent astonishment at our obstinacy in remaining. Finding us unmoved "a change comes o'er the spirit of his dreams” and he seeks refuge in the deserted nest of a Golden-winged Woodpecker (Colaptes auratus), and waits for better times. You ask what is yonder broad trail in the snow; too small for a bear, too broad and heavy for a fox. It is the track of a Wolverine ( Gulo luscus), known here by the more euphonic name of rossamorga. The Indians tell strange stories of his cunning, his perseverence in destroying their traps, and his almost human powers of reflection. The 222 A WINTER’S DAY IN THE YUKON TERRITORY. Hudson Bay men say the same, but between you and I, I don’t believe half of it. Mr. Carcajou is very intelligent, no doubt, but he takes the place of snakes in the legends of the northern trapper, and we all know what stories are told about snakes, in more southern latitudes. The sun, though very low, is at his noonday elevation, and a short time will be devoted with satisfaction to lunch. One takes the axe and starts for a dead dry spruce tree, an- other scrapes away the snow from a hillock, with his snow- shoe. There we see in the depth of winter bright green mosses and other small plants, with the partridge berry and cranberry vines loaded with berries beneath the snow. The white fleecy covering defends them from the frost, and when the snow melts in the spring they have only to put forth their blossoms and continue to grow, under the warm sun which endures almost till midnight in May and June. Here comes the wood, and we proceed to make a white man’s fire, which is built with the sticks laid parallel in layers which are at right angles to one another. This makes a flat top, and taking a dry stick we whittle a few shavings, which are put on top of the pile. Then with a flint and steel (for matches are luxuries in the Yukon Territory) we light a bit of punk, and with our breath as a bellows, in a few moments we have a light with which we proceed to kindle the fire, putting it on top of the pile, so that the air having free access, it soon produces a cheerful blaze. An Indian builds his fire conically, which is much less convenient and takes much longer to boil the kettle. It is a work of time and difficulty to melt enough snow to fill the teakettle, and taking the axe, we go yonder where a low, smooth depres- sion in the snow indicates the position of what was a pool of water. A few minutes vigorous chopping and the welcome fluid gushes up and rapidly overflows the surface of the ice where we have scraped away the snow. It is full of little red crustaceans, like sand fleas, etc., among which we may distinguish members of the genus Cyclops, giants of their A WINTER'S DAY IN THE YUKON TERRITORY. 223 kind, carrying two pear-shaped bunches of eggs, one on each side of the tail. We throw a double handful of snow into the hole to filter out these unbidden guests, and filling the teakettle return to the bivouac where the others are broiling pieces of dry salmon on sticks by the fire. As soon as the kettle boils we put in the tea and let it boil up once, and our meal is ready. ‘Tin cups in hand, we enjoy the grateful and refreshing beverage, which is worth more to the traveller in the north than any amount of whiskey. In- deed the latter is worse than worthless, and no old traveller would wish to have it along with him. After tea, biscuit and salmon are discussed, the one other luxury of voyageur life is enjoyed, namely, a cheerful pipe of tobacco, and re- placing our pipes in our "fire-bags" we continue on our way. By keeping a sharp lookout it is more than probable that we shall see a Marten (Mustela Americana) seeking refuge in some bushy spruce as we pass by. Their tracks are every- where, and they often disturb the traveller's cache of dr salmon used for dog feed, and left by the roadside until his return. We keep on our way through thick spruce groves where the trees may average eighteen inches in diameter and forty feet high. In the interior, on the Yukon, they grow much larger, but. all the trees diminish in size and abundance as we approach the coast, where there are none atall. The Aspen (Populus tremuloides), the Spruce (Abies alba), the Poplar (Populus balsamifera), and the Birch (Betula glan- dulosa), are the largest and most prominent trees. There are no true pines, though the settlers call the spruce “pine.” Leaving the bank as we reach the river we continue on our way upon the ice. Although the thermometer may have been as low as fifty below zero since August, yet you will always find open places in the ice. These are formed by the rapid current or by warm springs. At Ulokuk there are a number of the latter, which keep a large space in the river open all the year round. Over this water a cloud, like steam, arises 224 A WINTER'S DAY IN THE YUKON TERRITORY. in very cold weather. Myriads of fish, particularly a delic- ious salmon-trout, and a small cyprinoid fish, frequent such localities. One would hardly look for insects in this winter weather, yet by watching the snow on the river while the sun shines brightly, a small, shining, pointed creature, like a Podura, may be seen gliding between the particles of snow, and immediately disappearing should a cloud pass over the sun. In September I have found wooly caterpillars, the larve of arctians, crawling on the snow, while the at- mosphere was even below zero; and I once found (October 20th) the caterpillar of Vanessa Antiopa in the same manner, alive; and on yet another occasion I shot a whiskey jack, or Canada jay (Perisoreus Canadensis), with one just killed, in his mouth. A little way farther on, a bluff of dark colored sandstone fronts the river. Here our hammers may well be employed, and with care fine specimens of fossil leaves may be obtained. These are usually Sycamores (Platanus), but . others can be found by searching for them, and in Cook's Inlet some fifty species have been collected, some of which are common to Greenland, Spitzbergen, Northern Europe and Siberia, showing that there was a time when this part of the world was covered with a rich and verdant forest, and the temperature was about that of Virginia. ‘This was be- fore the advent of the hairy elephant, who lived in colder times. It grew at last too cold for him, however, and his bones and teeth may be found scattered over the country, on the surface, and usually much decayed. “His remains have been found imbedded in the masses of ice (not glaciers) which fringe the Siberian coasts, and in a perfect state of preservation, as if he had wandered into an enormous re- ' frigerator and been frozen into it. ; ' You will look in vain here for the familiar drift boulders, so common in the stone fences of New England. What was going on during the glacial period in the Yukon Territory isa mystery. There were no glaciers there, for their traces are entirely wanting. A FEW WORDS ABOUT MOTHS. 225 The sun is now on the point of retiring for the night, al- though it is barely three o'clock, and the sight of the tall caches, like corneribs, which mark the position of the village for which we are bound, is not unwelcome ; for thirty miles on snowshoes is a good day's tramp, especially for the first time. In a few minutes we are seated in one of the com- fortable underground houses and enjoying the hospitality of the friendly Eskimo. Perhaps some summer's day, reader, we will try our luck together again. A FEW WORDS ABOUT MOTHS. BY A. S. PACKARD, JR. Tn opportunity of copying a number of colored figures by Abbot, hitherto unpublished, leads me to say a few words regarding our native moths. The Lepidoptera, both butter- flies and moths (especially the former, from their constant presence by day) from their beauty and grace, have always been the favorites among amateur entomologists, and the rarest and most costly works have been published in which their forms and gorgeous colors are represented in the best style of natural history art. We need only mention the folio volume of Madam Merian of the last century, Harris's Aurelian, the works of Cramer, Stoll, Drury, Hübner, Hors- field, Doubleday and Westwood, and several others, as com- prising the most luxurious and costly entomological works. Near the close of the last century, John Abbot went from London and spent several years in Georgia, rearing the larger and more showy butterflies and moths, and painting them in the larva, chrysalis and adult, or imago, stage. These drawings he sent to London to be sold. Many of them were collected by Sir James Edward Smith, and published under the title of “The Natural History of the Rarer Lepi- AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. * 226 A FEW WORDS ABOUT MOTHS. dopterous Insects of Georgia, collected from the Observa- tions of John Abbot, with the Plants on which they Feed.” London, 1797. 2 vols., fol. Besides these two rare vol- umes there are sixteen folio volumes of drawings by Abbot in the Library of the British Museum. The plate given with this article is selected from a thick folio volume of similar drawings presented by Dr. J. E. Gray of the British Mu- seum to Professor Asa Gray, to whose kindness we are in- debted for an opportunity of figuring the transformations before unknown of over a dozen moths, whose names are given, as far as possible in the present state of our knowledge, in the explanation of the plate. The study of insects possesses most of its interest when we observe their habits and transformations. Caterpillars are always to be found, and with a little practice are easy to raise, and we would advise any one desirous of be- ginning the study of insects to take up the butterflies and moths. They are perhaps easier to study than any other oup of insects, and are more ornamental in the cabinet. As a scientific study we would recommend it to ladies as next to botany in interest and the ease in which specimens may be collected and examined. The example of Madam Merian, and several ladies in this country who have greatly aided science by their well filled cabinets, and thorough and critical knowledge of the various species and their transform- ations, is an earnest of what may be expected from their followers. Though the moths are easy to study compared with the bees, flies, beetles and bugs, and neuroptera, yet many questions of great interest in philosophieal entomology have been answered by our knowledge of their structure and ` mode of growth. The great works of Herold on the evolu- tion of a caterpillar; of Lyonet on the anatomy of the Cossus; of Newport on that of the Sphinx, both in their various stages; and of Siebold on the parthenogenesis of insects, especially of Psyche helix, are proofs that the moths have engaged some of the master minds in science. A FEW WORDS ABOUT MOTHS. 227 The study of the transformations of the moths is also of great importance to one who would acquaint himself with the questions concerning the growth and metamorphosis and ori- gin of animals. We should remember that the-very words “metamorphosis” and “transformation,” now so generally ap- plied to other groups of animals and used in philosophical botany, were first suggested by those who observed that the moth and butterfly attain their maturity only by passing through wonderful changes of form and modes of life. The knowledge of the fact that all animals pass through some sort of a metamorphosis is very recent in physiology. Moreover the fact that these morphological eras in the life of an individual animal accord most unerringly with the gra- dation of forms in the type of which it is a member, was the discovery of the eminent physiologist Von Baer. Up to this time the true significance of the luxuriance and diversity of larval forms had never seriously engaged the attention of systematists in entomology. What can possibly be the meaning of all this putting on and taking off of caterpillar habilaments, or in other words, the process of moulting, with the frequent changes in orna- mentation, and the seeming fastidiousness and queer fancies and strange conceits of these young and giddy insects seem hidden and mysterious to human observation. Indeed, few care to spend the time and trouble necessary to observe the insect through its transformations; and that done, if only the larva of the perfect insect can be identified and its form sketched how much was gained! A truthful and cir- cumstantial biography in all its relations of a single insect has yet to be written. We should also apply our knowledge of the larval forms of insects to the details of their classification into families and genera, constantly collating our knowledge of the early stages with the structural relations that accompany them in . the perfect state. The simple form of the caterpillar seems to be a concen- 228 A FEW WORDS ABOUT MOTHS. tration of the characters of the perfect insect, and presents easy characters by which to distinguish the minor groups; and the relative rank of the higher divisions will only be definitely settled when their forms and methods of transform- ation are thoroughly known. ‘Thus, for example, in two groups of the large Attacus-like moths, which are so amply illustrated in Dr. Harris's "Treatise on Insects Injurious to Vegetation ;" if we take the different forms of the caterpillars of the Tau moth of Europe, which are figured by Godart and Duponchel, we find that the very young larva has four horn- like processes on the front, and four on the back part of the body. The full grown larva of the Regalis moth, of the Southern states, is very similarly ornamented. It is an em- bryonie form, and therefore inferior in rank to the Tau moth. Multiply these horns over the surface of the body, lessen their size, and crown them with hairs, and we have our Io moth, so destructive to corn. Now take off the hairs, elong- ating and thinning out the tubercles, and make up the loss by the inereased size of the worm, and we have the caterpillar of our common Cecropia moth. Again, remove the nake tubercles almost wholly, smooth off the surface of the body, and contract its length, thus giving a greater convexity and angularity to the rings, and we have before us the larva of the stately Luna moth that tops this royal family. Here are certain criteria for placing these insects before our minds in the order that nature has placed them. We have here cer- tain faets for determining which of these three insects is highest and which lowest in the scale, when we see the larva of the Luna moth throwing off successively the Io and Ce- cropia forms to take on its own higher features. So that there is a meaning in all this shifting of insect toggery. This is but an example of the many ways in which both pleasure and mental profit may be realized from the thoughtful study of caterpillar life. — In collecting butterflies and moths for cabinet specimens, one needs a gauze net a foot and half deep, with the wire À FEW WORDS ABOUT MOTHS. 229 frame a foot in diameter; a bottle containing a parcel of cyanide of potassium gummed on the side, in which to kill the moths, which should at once be pinned in a 'cork-lined colleeting box carried in the coat pocket. The captures should be spread and dried on a grooved setting board, and a cabinet formed of cork-lined boxes or drawers; or as a sub- stitute for cork, frames with paper tightly stretched over them may be used, or corn, or palm-pith. Caterpillars should be preserved in spirits, or glycerine with a little spirits, or strong salt and water, while some ingeniously empty the skins and inflate them over a flame so that they may be pinned by the side of the adult. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 2. Fig. 1. ae. es Hübner, female; la, larva, 1b, pupa. Feeds on Sideronytum Fi E 2. Cniodnay pean Pack., male; 2a, larva; 3a, pupa. Feeds on mea coccin Fig. * Dryopteris, dd undescribed, female; 3a, larva; 35, pupa. Feeds on Vibur Fig. 4. Acontia ino tois: male; 4a, larva; 4b, pupa. Feeds on Hibiscus palustris. g. 5. Homoptera edusa EE 5a, larva; 5b, pupa. The plant on CAT it feeds is not na Fig. 6. Hyperetis, species Mat ros female; 6a, larva; 6b, pupa. Feeds on a species of Azalea. TE 7. Boarmia, species not known, female; 7b, larva; Ta, pupa. n Helenium. iz 8. Acidalia, species unknown. 8a, larva; 8b, pupa. Feeds on Tril- lium. Fig. 9. Herminia, Pocta not identified, male; 9a, larva; 9b, pupa. Feeds on Rhexia Fig. 10. Helia puedo CREE? female; 10a, larva; 105, pupa. Feeds on Phlox speciosa. Fig. 11. An unknown species of Phalenide, male; lla, larva; 115, pupa. is. Feeds on Coreops Fig. 12. A species of Botys, male; 12a, larva; 12b, pupa. Feeds on Feeds Ipomea. Fig. 13. A species of Botys, female; 13a, larva; 13b, pupa. Feeds on a species of ‘Crotalaria. "wa bye VLE WS MODERN IDEAS or Dertvation.* — This felicitous title heads an equally expressive and concise summary of the vàrious theories on the origin of vain treated by the strong hand of an accomplished and veteran observer. Prof essor Dawson recognizes that nodes has given form and cohe- ncy to researches upon the origin of species, but omits one very impor- fine consideration, to which we think the Pieta effect of his book is dii. The novel and exact methods of investigation, the analytical character of the book powerfully influenced a much arger class of minds than reptiles (Iguanodons) and the ostriches. ** Yet," writes Professor Daw- son, ** he could not have placed together any two members of the ew OE series inel hel. ten: any naturalist that an enormous gap had t filled between them.” The views of Darwin are summed up as pa ds “That all otganized beings are engaged in a struggle fo r existence; that in this struggle certain varieties arise, which, being better suited to the grins prosper and multiply more than others: that this pad to a ‘Natural Selection,’ similar in kind to the artificial selection of breeders of ick: that members of the same species isolated from each other . and subjected to struggles of different kinds, will in process of time become specifically distinct.” nae Dawson objects to this theory for several reasons. The most important are that **conditions which involve a struggle for SRR by breeders for their purposes,” and that the possibilities of geological his- tory are exceeded by the enormous time demanded by Darwin for accom- plishing the developmental change from one species to another. Seemingly no worse or more contradictory comparison could be made *Modern Ideas of Derivation. By Principal J. W. Dawson, LL. D. Canadian Naturalist, Vol. iv, No. 2. June, 1869, (230 REVIEWS. 231 than that between the laws which govern the transmission of character- istics among races perpetually clashing in the ‘struggle for existence," and those influencing the production of different breeds among animals enjoying the protection of the animal breeder. We, however, think that Professor Dawson would find it difficult to establish the truth of this rta existence necessarily lead to extinction. Darwin himself has shown that it leads to the extinction of those races which are not possessed of cer- tain advantages, and that it cannot according to physiological laws do otherwise than develop in a higher degree those points or changes in the favored races which enabled them to gain their first victories over their weaker brothers. The last objection, with regard to the lapse of time demanded for spe- cific changes ee to the Darwinian theory, is becoming stronger every day. eep sea dredgings have shown us that computations of geological time, side upon the thickness of rocks, and the presence of e other ia geological time, by imagining the lapse of ages and a corres- ponding modification of the organization of the animals included in the lowest bed. A simple change of fourteen degrees Fahrenheit may pos- sibly make the difference between a limestone compose ed entirely of organic remains, and a sandstone containing the fossil remnants of a totally distinct fauna, Hough both of these may have been composed of contemporaneous animals. he authors remarks upon Professor Cope's late paper before the American Association so well ua dp the substance of the new theory of derivation that we quote them "e ETNO Jast of these hypotheses wbich I shall notice, and, du oyn — the most promising of the * Origi G di th do tural Sciences, f and which is t based on the well known analogy between beaches changes, rank in the zoological scale and geological succession. It may be € by the remarkable and somewhat start- ling fact, that while no authenticated case exists of animals chan ging from one species to an- other, y are known to ch | from one zug or family t their individuality. Professor Dumeril, of Paris, and Professor Marsh h, of New Haven; have recenti y directed attention E. the fact that species of Siredon, reptiles of -= lakes of the f Mexico which, like our North American Menobranc. retain their set during life, when kept ih ape bien n a warmer ON MEI than mat w which is D 0 them. s eir gills, and pass into a form hitherto regard: ofa pa amily, APOR us Amblyst toma. In voila case we mar either pete that the ! Ambistoms i it d be- nas 1L s maturity 1 T, 1 of Spi- See Recent "nd of Deep Sea Fauna, by A. E. Verrill. Am ence and Art, 2d series, January, 1870. ladelphia, 1869, 232 REVIEWS. fore it has lost its gills. Siredonl d o have its period of reproduction arrested until it has gone on a stage farther in growth and ni lost its gills. In any case the same species —nay, the same individual— is capable of existing in a State of maturity as a creature half fish and half reptile in regard to its circulation, or in a perfect reptilian state in which it breathes solely by — Farther, we may su se " nly and a change in these conditions inducing the opposite e Here we have for ri first time actual facts on which to base a theory of developm — dun "— point " the operation of two causes —first, the possible Retardation or A , and secondly, the action of outward circumstances on the organism capable of this retardat ion or acceleration. We here substitute for the acon to vary of Owen’s theory, the ascertained fact of repro- physical conditions, and for the questi ion as d the change of one species into another, the change of the same species from one g ther. Farther, instead of vague specula- tions as to possible Sp of amed animals, we are led to careful consideration of the em- ' the s sts tabulated by Mr. hene Mani nay y proceed to ate the limitations hich his views put to the doctrine of derivation. f this the real nature oe Se as a possible Pid] then derivation must follow the same ien wiicdo eta- orphis m n and ombr youte fers? peci ted y have in itself A CAPACI ee Lem M k 1 cates Hani which ever | ti ee with fe influence o of external circumstances. Yet the agar eg ud r orbit of y to pass into a really bt, b A al investi- ng etn inferen nce. As already hinted, it is a most important point o of se siguen that when ain e series of embr ryonie changes of any animal, we have thereby ascer- tained ‘is “possibilities in regard to accelerated development lis bc sensorial in Tepara tor udies of scale. Now, if M we knew the embryonic history of every snimdt, i rec and fossi il, i in its anatom etails, we should be able to construct out of this a table of — affiliation of pa pas should he sam e d classes in t ty mh ; hy which they Saad msi existed in eT time, and to predict what they might become in ime still to come am heats of acceleration we have also shown to be the law of grow among the Nautiloids and Ammonoids. Thus the discoidal vus though an ancient group, do not ae during their entire life, from the Silurian to the Tertiary, such extensive changes in the septa as the Clymeniz do in the course of a single geological epoch, the or i m d is case precisely parallel to that of the growth of the Siredon salamander into the Parallelism between the ge dete of Life in the Individual and those in the supe se Group of the co eng Order, Te anchiata. By A, Hyatt. Memoirs Boston Soci- ety of Natural History, Vol. 1, Part 2, ae * REVIEWS. 233 n Amblystoma, and presents itself to the geologist when compared to je lower Clymenise in the same way, the only difference being that in this case the characteristics of a different order of animals are produced by the acceleration of the growth, instead of a distinct family and genus merely. Other instances are brought forward in the memoir referred to above de whic demonstrate with equal clearness the agency of the law acceleration in the production of varieties and even of individual differences. Thus one of the best known species of the Lower Lias, dead os (Am- monites) obtusum, is divisible into several varieties. For the sake, how- ever, of reducing it as much as possible we will eliminate all of these but three, and consider only the English specimens from one locality, Lyme Regis. These have three distinct variations of form. The first has the exceedingly shallow channels, while the pile (coste) are prominent and ither end. The channels appear on the last quarter of the third, and almost immediately attain their ultimate adult depth and aspect on the fourth volution; the second ame aiite in the larger number of individuals, but accelerates them by a t depth of the channels and the height o keel after.the Nin: volution, producing thereby adults with deeper channels and more prominent keels. There are different degrees of this acceleration in different individuals, some having shallower channels than others. The third variety attains the adult characteristics of the most ciem members of the second variety on the fourth whorl, and on the fifth, flattens the sides. The first and second varieties have gibbous or dime sini but the third is a transitional variety, approximating to Asteroceras stellare. The accelerations show themselves also in the development of the pile; the s rm these lateral projections at an earlier age than the first, and the latter forms pas same parts at an earlier age than in the first variety. This whole progress in the form and characteristics of parts takes place may and probably will be made to this view, that the third is really a va- riety of Asteroceras stellare, and does not belong to Asteroceras obtusum at all. This alternative would be even more favorable to the theory here advanced neis that given above. The difference is less in all re- pect wee Asteroceras obtusum, than between the former and Asteroceras stellare. Therefore any estimation of the value of their characteristics which would join the third variety to the latter species must also include the former AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. - 80 234 : REVIEWS. species as a variety under the same name. If at the other end of the se- ries we should be permitted to add Ammonites Turneri, "as we think will perhaps prove to be merely a local variety of A. obtusu _ evi- den« typical Asteroceras obtusum, and in all respects it is similar to that spe- cies, differing only in the later or c production of the channels and keel and in its somewhat smaller A third opinion that all of icai were distinct species, may be answered first, by reference to the accelerations in the development of the pile oc- curring between the different individuals a the first variety, which in that case become types of varieties, and, o, by citing other species. Thes: one species of a lower genus perg incipiens, all the specimens of which are from one locality, fades by regular and inseparable grada- nels farther be strengthened by showing that this via or absence of chan- nels becomes in the Middle Lias of such importance that it constitutes a Discoceratide (Arietes). Thus Hildoceras thle: en and Wal- cottii) differs from Grammoceras ene striatulus, Amm. Aalense, etc.) principally in these characteristics he presence or absence of eee: therefore, or any change of form to which the abdomen may be subjected, cannot, to use the terms of the modern systematist, be considered as of slight importance even though we find them, when first introduced, subject to simple varietal changes in some species he Iais of a review do not permit us to continue this part of the subject. Lenie many similar instances, therefore, to a in due: group. marks which refer to the possibility of determining beforehand the future course of the changes of a group, but have been accidentally passed over in silence by him. He has also given Professor Cope the undivided credit move all doubt that the aim of a large part of the investigations there Bulletin of the Museum of C 'ative Zoology, No. 5, p. 99. REVIEWS. 235 recorded is identical with those of Professor Cope's more elaborate essay. ave no desire for controversy and regard scientific claims as gener- ally speaking not worth contending for, but feel that silence, in the present instance, would place in a false light the object of these investigations, and vitiate the original value of the results of much labor not yet pub- lished. The quotation below will serve to justify these remarks, and at the same time bring us back to the more agreeable and legitimate subject of this review. “ This law” (of acceleration) ** applied to such groups as have been t growth, greater differences which in turn become embryonic, and so on; but when the same law acts upon some series whose individuals alter the place. The old age characteristics in due course of time or structure, characteristics first found in the old age of the shell, which are Pria at earlier periods hy species standing higher in the series, just as aes characteristics are inherited by them in the young. Thus the oe radation and ultimate extinction of groups of animals may be accounted for by the law of acceleration quite as accurately as their rise and pro- gress in organization. These de adito tendencies bring about in the old age. of the indi- liar unrolled shells of the Cretaceous Ammonites, which are, form for form, the same as those of the earlier Nautiloids in the older formations. e Shown to be degraded species; in their simpler septa when compared with the normal formed ammonites, having in the adult only the six lobes of the young, and in their ornamentation, and simple, rounded, keeless and channelless whorls. e retardation of development which is invoked to account for vet and the group to which it may i. The struggle for exist- M the action of this law, but that it has no controlling influence is of *“On the Paralellism," p. 232. f First noticed by Doa Pi Franeaise. Terr. Cretaces p. 381. 236 REVIEWS. proved, we think, by the fact that degradational or senile tendencies are inherited. In this connection I — suggest that the Turrillites and other allied spiral shells, will ultimately be found to be the legitimate descendants of the defo aed Tur prm described by D'Orbigny from the Lower Lias beds. It is now generally xni oi ER y European writers that these forms are discoidal ammonites that have di cid from the usual mode of growth common to their Sueco, and instead of revolving neue in the same plane the whorl has become slightly assymetrical, and thus be- gun to form the assymmetrical spiral of the genus Turrillites. This tendency is quite common with the septa of Psiloceras psilonotus eem other species, and in.the shell, also, but is so faintly See that i difficult to distinguish from the effects of compression. If this and a instances of a similar kind be finally substantiated we have are still an- other application of the law of acceleration > See ae which naturalists have been hitherto accustomed to c deform prolong their existence by perpetually inheriting the a senate s of their ancestors, and certainly the degradational characteristics as displayed in all the terminal species of the ammonoids cannot be explained in this wa; ere also we have the limitation of the cycle of changes or varia- Mond which a species or form may be supposed to be capable, at least part sin accounted for; and as Professor Dawson and others have pointed out, the theory of natural selection makes no provision for such restrictions rsion cannot be called upon to Born the return of the Nautiloid forms i onoids of the Cre $ boenus they 8 the t of traceable inherited characteristics continually aug- naL T or atrophy of the adult ac in the individual, and in the group, by an unrolling of the closely coiled and deeply involute whorl of the Jurassic ore es, and they occupy the — extreme of structure and life in both c d Mii in ipee that Professor Dawson does not wholly commit himself to the new theory, but regards it as ** holding forth the most promising line ss investigation" as yet advanced. Though the author of the theory in common with Professor Cope, we cannot refuse to until the extent to which it may be modified by physical causes, and per- haps natural selection, be fully understood, an unprejudiced mind cannot consider it as capable of clearing away all our present difficulties. It gives us, perhaps the means of asserting that the plasticity of organs REVIEWS. 237 have certain limits; that a. can arise from natural selection, or physical changes, only when these act in given directious and for a given time, after the — of Bon whether in the individual or the group, if sudden h do not intervene, all changes must be degrada- tional in posit PE causes, and the struggle for existence can no longer improve the vitiated organization when it has assed this period. Its death is decreed as certainly as its line of developmental changes must have been before it was born, and whatever agency other laws may have, they can only act with more or less force and velocity in these usi a RAS paths of progress and decline, or cut them short by the destruction of the organization. — A. HYATT THE TORREY BOTANICAL CLUB, ee under the auspices of its Presi- dent and Nestor, meets at the Herbarium in Columbia College, began with the year to issue its ‘ ahi in monthly numbers of four pages each. The notices and memoranda thus issued relate chiefly to the local flora of New York, which is the special charge of the Club; but matters of more than local interest are touched pics making it well worth the attention of our botanists throughout the country. For example, in the February number, Mr. Leggett, the Wn explains the anomaly of Lepi- cotyledons, in line with the radicle, and in which the bend is made, are in the position answering to incumbent, and so the ee take the ac- cumbent position by a twist of ninety degrees. The *“ Bulletin” is fur- nished, upon application to the editor, 224 East Tenth street, New York, for a dollar a year, or seven copies for five dollars Foss, PLANTS FROM THE Wrsr.*— This report closes Dr. Hayden's report reviewed by us in March, 1870. By some oversight we confused it with a former paper of Professor Newberry, a and thus passed by some a general review of the geology of North America, and as these govern- ment reports, notwithstanding their wide distribution, generally have but few non-scientific readers, we shall rep ublish this for the benefit of our subscribers in some succeeding number e chapter on the ** Cretaceous Flora” gives a concise summary of the rious go overnment expeditions which have made collections d an plants of this period. The conclusions reached are identical with those ich we have already quoted in the review referred to above in March, ien page € Scotland. This and the large number of other identical miocene species, lead to the inference that North America and Europe were connected by O T E * Report on the Cretaceous and Tertiary Plants. By Professor J. 8. Newberry. 238 REVIEWS. an intermediate continent. ‘‘If this inference should be confirmed by ture observations, we should then see how the eocene tropical or sub- tropical flora of Europe was crowded off the stage by the tropical flora east, and now represented by the living Indo-Australian flora, characterized ee its Hakee, Dryandree, Eucalypti, etc., etc., which form echa onspicuous an element in the eocene flora of Europe." Instances in s land connection must have occurred to the northward, and that the country was then in possession of a milder climate than now reigns in the same latitude. In discussing the causes which produced this difference of climate Professor Newberry gives his adherence to none in particular, but thinks that the deflection of the Gulf Stream would be the most natural method space. This cannot be assumed to be the cause in the present instance; for any ‘‘cosmical cause, producing a general elevation of temperature on the earth's surface, would have given us a tropical flora on the Upper Missouri, whereas we find in the miocene flora there, as yet no tropical plants." RELATIONS OF THE ROCKS IN THE VICINITY OF Boston.* — Professor Shaler regards all the Pisa gs of this vicinity as of —_— = and rejects the old theory of their oe origin. In this S sup- rted by the late discoveries of the Eozéon in this vicinity, Di a the Dor T ` he ipsis ood of Quincy is described as consisting of a layer of m slate an tending to the edge of the Charles River flats in Brighton, where they iion pu to a sandstone. * Abstraet of Some Remarks on the Relations of the Rocks in the TAAR g Boston, By N. S. Shaler. Proc. Boston Soc, Nat. Hist., vol. xiii. Dec. 3, 1869. Pamph., pp. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. BOTANY. THE FERTILIZATION OF GRASSES. — In gently flowing rivers of tropi- cal America grow many fine aquatic grasses, species of Luziola, Or arg ideas with deep purple, and with six long yellow stamens hanging out of them, were disposed in a lax terminal panicle; while the slender green female flowers grew on the bristle-like branches of much smaller panicles springing from the inflated sheaths of the leaves that clothed the stem. less, some of it, attain the female flowers disposed for its reception. A parallel case to the above is that of the common Maize (ZeaMays L.), where the male flowers are borne in a long terminal raceme or panicle, and the female flowers are densely packed on spikes springing from the leaf-axils. Here the male flowers must plainly eee before the pollen on the fem organs n. In Pharus scaber (H. B. K.) another tall broad-leaved grass, the spike- lets stand by twos on the spike — a sessile female spikelet, and a stalked male spikelet. In the fine forest gre of the genus Olyra, whereof some species, such as O. micrantha (H. K.). rise to ten feet in height, and have MORE leaves above three Min broad, and a large terminal ri Mp capil- lary branches, like those of our Aira c cespitosa, it is the r flowers that are male, with large innate (not versatile) anthers, pe d upper that are female, with two large stigmas, that are either dichotomously t po male flowers, although placed lower down the axis, are actually sus- pasira over the terminal female flowers It is generally to be remarked of decliuous grasses, that either the male (289) 240 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY flowers are very numerous, as in Zea Mays, or the stamens are multiplied in each male flower, as in Pariana, Leersia, Guadua, etc.; orthe stigmatic apparatus of the female flowers ? LM So as almost to insure im- n the Bambusesz I have ga itera: belonging to the genera Guadua, Merostachys, and Chusquea, the flow re more or less polygamous, a genus in the whole order which is not described as having some flowers by abortion, neuter or male, and especially those that have biflorous ow such as the Panices. Some grasses, of normally hermaphro- orus (Nees), a grass peculiar to the Amazon, quite destitute of stamens, and therefore purely female. i To come home to our own country: Is all the pollen wasted that a touch or a breath sets free from the flowers of grasses in such abundance? Watch a field of wheat in bloom, the heads swayed by the wind, lovingly a too, that throughout Nature, heat or moisture, or both, are essential to truded from the side or from the base of the flower at an early stage, often before the stamens of the same flower are mature — thus as it were inviting cross fertilization from the more precocious stamens if other pente bsp are already shedding their pollen ve gathered grasses will have aukið that some have yel- low ena others pink or violet anthers; and that anthers of both types of color may co-exist on distinct a aaa of the same species. The same peculiarity is just as noticeable in tropical grasses, and (with- = when distended with mature pollen the yellow color of the latter is alone made without any reference to the question now in hand, require to be renewed and tested: and in them, as in all that precedes, I am open to correction. am grasses with bisexual flowers, there are two ways in which the e fertilized, namely, either by pt pollen of its own flower pant or open), or by that of other flowers, after the manner of the de- pean ged dya In the latter case, the pollen may be transported by the the fur of animals (as I have observed the seeds of Selagin- NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 241 ellas in South America), or in the plumage of birds. The agency of in- sects has not been traced in the fertilization of grasses, but may exist. The little flies I have seen on the flowers of grasses seemed bent on de- positing their eggs in the nascent ovaries, but may also have aided in cross-fertilization. In the Amazon Valley grasses are often invested by ants, who, indeed, leave nothing organic unvisited throughout that vast region; and they also, I think, cannot help occasionally transferring grains of pollen from one flower to another. ers of Palms and Grasses agree in being usually small and the thick forest, the sense of hearing would perhaps give the first notice of its proximity, from the merry hum of winged insects — its scented flowers had drawn together, to feast on the honey, and to transport the ers from the grasses seems to show that insect-aid is not needed for ef- fecting their — but does not render its accidental concurrence a whit less unlikel That — “notwithstanding their almost mathematical characters, vary much as other plants do, is plain from the multitude of osculating forms (in Boc enera as Era E Panicum, and Paspalum), which puz- zle the botanist to decide when to combine and when to separate, i order g arriages, er brought about. If the flowers of grasses be sometimes fertilized in the bud, it is probably nepos like the similar cases recorded of Orchids and many other familie To conclude: the more I ponder over existing evidence, the more I feel convinced that in its perfect state every being has the sexes practically _ separated, and that natural selection is ever tending to make this separa- the prototype even of man was hermaphrodite, may one day be proved to e a fact! — Dr. R. Spruce, Scientific — [See his paper in Journ. Linn. ae r cTs. — Dr. Bail of Danzig, in a recent pamphlet, keen iu ee s dis various kinds of fungus that are parasitic upon the larv of different insects, and his investigations are of some practical ‘aise tance in relation to a possible check to the destruction of forest-trees, which goes on to an enormous extent in North Germany, through the AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 31 242 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. ravages of caterpillars. In certain seasons these caterpillars appeared to be attacked by an epidemic, their bodies bei ng swollen to bursting, and Mie threads phis visible between the rings of the body, which seemed to issue fro e body itself. In this cabin great numbers were found still SE to the leaves. The destroying agent had been identified by Dr. Reichhardt of Vienna as the mycelium of a fungus which he named Empusa aulice. The distribution of the Empusa is very con- siderable; the only order of insects which is not at present known to be subject "s their attacks being the Neuroptera (dragon flies, etc.) ; they are known to be parasitic upon sertis Seven Hymenoptera (bees, ants, etc.), Lepid an (butterflies and moths), Diptera em and gnats), eset (crickets, etc.), and aphides, perii in the larva or gu condi- tion, on wate sends and even the same species on tdt. and fishe Not dd is their distribution over so many different animals aes but also the lesan a rapidity of their development in the individual. € common house-fly is, in some years, destroyed i 6 this emp in ast numbers, and vd dung-fly has been in certain districts almost anni- bin In the forests of Pomerania and Posen the caterpillars € been killed by it in such quantities that it may be considered to have saved tion. Cordyceps —— Jsaria farinosa, and Penicillium glaucum ; the two lat- ter forms he inclines to unite as different stages of growth of the same plant. — The rice SECT-FERTILIZATION OF FLOWERS. —In an article contributed to this respect, to the related families, one of which is familiarly repre- sented in our gardens by the Canna, or Indian Shot. Here the arrange- ments depends upon the viscidity of the pollen, and the bursting loose of the style; the pollen is first deposited on an expansion of the style, whence it is taken away by the insect, to be deposited upon the stigma of the flower next visited. N AMERICAN Oaks. — Concluded. A. De Candolle, b teen are synonyms of others. De Candolle proposes three new speci Q. Lindeni (collected in New Grenada in 1842, by Linden), Wislizeni ( 1, n New Mexico by Wislizenus), and omissa (from Seemann's collection, but omitted in ** Plante agii d = ”). Q. dumosa Nutt., and acutidens Torr., are not mentioned. Counting these omitted species, and drop- ping olivæformis and Leana as eg then uniting grisea with oblongifolia NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 243 and pungens, and Fagor hastata in — we have ninety American Species. But n this number may be in the future greatly reduced, particularly in sees Mexican species, i ws are founded on a limited ne of specimens, and with the habitat for the most part not state copiis attempted the first methodical disposition of the Peet as above mentioned, which was after him maintained by Pursh, Nuttall a Elliott. In Europe the important character taken from the ripening » the fruit was entirely neglected. Only Koch, in ** Flora Germanica," 1837, gives notice that Q. Cerris ripened its fruit in the second year. Then Spach, in Vol. XI. of his ** Histoire Naturelle des Veg. Phane- which is founded on the form and being of the leaves, the cup and the ripening. His disposition is thi I. DECIDUOUS LEAVES: ESCULUS. 1. Robur: Leaves sin aa pinnatifid; lobes not bristle-pointed. lobes or teeth aad Female flowers often from buds ehe esh leaves, and so the fruit lateral on d year’s shoot. ration annual. igi of the cup echina b. datni: Leaves late deciduous, bec sa ‘yellow! ish and brownish; lobes or teeth bristle-pointed. Maturation biennial. Scales of ‘the cup short, appressed. II. LEAVES PERSISTENT: ILEX. 6. Suber: Maturation annu T. ee: —,, biennial A nh T3 Endlicher ti , only changing Cerroides into: Elmobalanus, and while Spach considers only the European, Western-Asiatic, and American species, he introduces the Easte rn Asi- cuspidata, which forms his —— Chlamydobalanus; the former are all in his subgenus Lepidobala Gay, in “ Ann. des Sc. Nat., mi Ir pointed out the errors in the above e ? So the whole group Cerris has the maturation biennial. Desf., and hispanica Lam., which Endlicher put as one species under rd 244 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. lifera, belong to Cerris. Spach forms, for the single species, Q. infectoria Oli o the group gallifera, with dai maturation, Endlicher added Q. only European species; the American botanist is more interested in Spach's group, Suber, with the species Q. virens Ait. This species was taken by all the authors from Michaux, the elder, to A. Gray, as maturing the fruit in the second year. Spach puts it with Suber, with annual matu- ration. In the ** Prodromus," and in the latest edition of ** Gray's Manual,” itis annual. Gay agrees with, but does injustice to, Endlicher, when he says that Endlicher's seventy-seven American and thirty-five east Asiatic species, which never have been examined upon their maturation, had been joined with Suber. Endlicher ranges neither virens nor the rest in the group Suber, but into no group at all. His arrangement is thus: Ilex 1. Mediterranez et orientales; VI. Suber. VII. Coccifera. 2. Americans. 8. Japonicer, etc. The disagreement of view in respect to maturation is explained by the fact that until now two different species, with different maturation, have Spain along the Atlantic, and furnishes all the cork used in these coun- tries. It is Quercus occidentalis Gay, with biennial maturation, and was kept before the discovery of Gay for Suber. Itis remarkable that often quite EOGHAE species differ only in maturation, and it is not impossible hat the mistake concerning Q. virens grounds on an interchange o cinerea d pes former. In regard to the flrst groups Gay follows End- licher and Spach; but I think there is an objection to the second group Elxobalanus. The subulate prolongation of the upper scales of the cup is so variable that this character is not profitable to be used.in a natural arrangement. I have seen fruits of Q. macrocarpa, in which the prolon- gation of the scales was scarcely perceptible; on the other hand I have seen fruits of Q. bicolor or Prinus discolor, with very much prolonged scales. It is my opinion that Q. macrocarpa falls under the group Robur, and that in — Elzobalanus should be dropped. There wo essays of A. De Candolle in ** Ann. des Sc. Nat. ser., IV, Vol. poh ” (1862): Sur le fruit Ps chêne and Etude sur Véspéce. De to form artificial subdivisions, which are necessary from the great number of species. A new diagnostic character, discovered by De Candolle, is for the same reason unfit to form natural groups. This is the position of the abortive ovules at the base, or at the apex, of the ripe seed. Workin for the nervation of the leaf, respecting the direction and relative size of the NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 245 nerves of different degrees; their number to a certain point (?), the e pedicelled or sessile; the form of the cup at the base; the termination of the lower scales of the cup; the direction of the scales in the ripe ruit. De Candolle adopts the three subgenera of Endlicher, adding two more from species which Endlicher puts under Lepidobalanus. The subgenus Androgyne, is formed by the single (Californian) species, Quercus densi- flora Hook, which has the flowers of both sexes in an upright spike, male with South Asiatic species. All the other American species belong to the subgenus Lepidobalanus. The arrangement in the ** Prodromus" is thus: I. LEPIDOBALANUS. 8 1. Abortive ovules below. Maturation annual. * Leaves deciduous. Q. LyRATA Walt., Q. MACROCARPA Michx. (with var. abbreviata and mi- nor); Q. OLIVÆFORMIS Michx., Q. BIcoLor Willd. ( Q. Prinus tomentosa Michx., Prinus discolor Michx. f., Michauxii Nutt.). There is a variety cultivated in France, f. platanoides— Q. prinus platanoides Lam.— Q. velu- tina herb l'Her.— Q. pannosa Bosc. (which is, perhaps, Q. mollis Nutt.— Q. filiformis Muhl.). Q. Prinus L.—Q. prinus palustris Michx. (De Candolle refers to this the flgure Q. montana in Emerson's Trees of Mass., Pl. 6, and the text to the next). Q. Prinus B acuminata=Q. castanea Muhl. (Emer- son says the younger Michaux makes this a distinct species. h no so as far as I know). Q. Prinus Y monticola=Q. Prinus foliis obovatis Wangenh.—Q. montana Willd., Q. Prinus à chincapin=Q. prinoides Willd. =Q. Prinus pumila Mich.—Q. chincapin Ph.= Q. Prinus chincapin Michx. n m un et = fil. Q. sa Walt. three varieties f Floridana— Q. Floridana Shutlew, y depressa (Nutt.) on 246 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. the upper Missouri, à Utahensis the only oak hetween Salt Lake s Sierra Nevada, z ALBA L. with two varieties (?) $ repranda, y microca Q. UNDULATA Torr.— Fendieri Lom. Two varieties 9 iode y pe- ui Q. DOUGLASII wie with Poi aq p Gambellii=Q. Gambellii Nutt., y novo-Mexicana=Q. Gam i Lbm. à Neaei, Q. Neaei y Q. lo n glanda Torr. Q. Garrysna Hook. Q. DRUMMONDH Lbm. These five spe- cies are Yery likely varieties of one species nearly related to the European Q. Robur. The following are Mexican and Central American species, ven dentate or entire leaves; the maturation of the fruit is not sufficiently known. . CORRUGATA Hook, Q. 1NsIGNIS Mart. Gal., Q. STROMPOCARPA Lbm., n] T resinosa Lbm., B. OBTUSATA HB.— Q. affinis Mart. puo l; the varieties p pandurata— Q. panduraia HB. y Hartegtbe- Q- ambigua HB.—Q. Hart- ig cQ I €— Q. Laxa Lbm.— Q. callosa Mart., Q. LAETA Lbm.— Q. obtusata var. ., Q. BENTHAMI A. DC.—undulata Bth., Q. TAPUXAHUENSIS A. = A pasa Bth., Q. Cortresu Lbm., Q. SARTORO Lbm., Q. SALICIFOLIA Née, Q. SEEMANNI Lbm., Q. GHIESBREGHTI Mart. Gal., Q. BARBINERVIS Benth., Q. GLAUCOIDES Mart, Gal.—Q. elliptica Lbm. Q. HuxBorpri Bonpl., * CITRIFOLIA Lbm., Q. cosrARICENSIS Lbm., Q LixpENI A. DC., Q. TorriMENsIS HB., Q. rTowENTOSA Willd. edt peduncu- lata Née=@Q. callosa Bth. Thare are four shape zu unis Q. Q. RETICULATA HB.— Q. spicata HB=decipiens Mii Ga "ia ihe variety 8 Greggii, Q. PULCHELLA HB apu GLABRESCENS idi . with the var. 5. integ- rifolia, Q. GRISEA eo (probably Ad s acogida Torr.) Q. REPANDA HB., Q. MICROPHYLLA =Q. repan with var. 9 crispata, Q. OB- LONGIFOLIA Torr., d PUNGENS psy ee HASTATA Lbm. (both below Q. y them the abortive ovules at the apex of the seed!, Q. pingi bm.-— Q. sage] ie =Q. fulvescens Kell., Q. VIRENS Ait.— Q. sem- nian Cat.— Q. os 8. L.-——Q. Virginiana Mill.— Q. oleoides intet Schl.— Q. retusa "es Q. LUTESCENS Mart. Gal. $2. Abortive iue below. "gni gm biennial. es persiste Q. CRASSIFOLIA HB.— Q. kos Née=Q. spi sa Mart. Gal., Q. SPLEN- DENS Née, with the var. 5. pallidior=Q. Frise cae Bth., Q. SCYTOPHYLLA Lbm., Q. SIDEROXYLA HB., Q. La § 3. Abortive ovules above. Metuistion biennial. * Leaves deciduous. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 247 Q. FALCATA Michx.= Q. elongata Willd.— Q. discolor Ait.; there are two.va- rieties, 8 Ludoviciana, Y triloba=Q. triloba Michx. =Q. cuneata Wg., Q. Wg. . Ba with the var. $ runcinata, Q. paLustRIs Du Roi-Q. rubra ramosissima Marsh.—Q. rubra dissecta Lam., Q. GEORGIANA- A. Curt., Q. COCCINEA . coccinea Wg.=Q. rubra a L. There are four varieties: a coccinea— Q. coccinea Michx.=Q. ambigua and borealis Michx. fils.; 8 nigrescens= Q. tinctoria sinuosa Michx.=Q. discolor Willd.—Q. tinctoria Michx. fils. ; y tinctoria=Q. sihaidria Batr.— Q. tinctoria ric Michx.— Q. € Lam.,ó Rugelli, Q. SonoMENSIS Bth. —Q. rubra Bth. in Pl. Hartw., Q. LEANA Nutt. a pmo considers the hy d of this as not bated It is perhaps not so scarce as Suppo osed; there is besides the known indi- viduals one in Fulton Shai Illinois, and one near aie the lege in the immediate neighborhood of Q. coccinea per imbri LENSIS A. . Q. PuELLos L. with the var. p ariei SUD. IMBRICARIA Michx. with a var. f spinulosa, Q. NIGRA L.=ferruginea Michx. fils. = Q. Marilandica Cat. ; there are two varieties, 9 quinqueloba, y tridentata, Q. SKINNERI Bth., Q. XararENsis HB., Q. WARSCEWICZII Lbm.—Q. glabrescens Seem.— Q. odcarpa Lbm., Q. cALoPHYLLA Cham. and $Schl.— C. Alamo Bt th.— Q. — Mart. Gal.— Q. acuminata Mart. Gal. * Leaves persistent Q. GRANDIS Lbm., Q. ACUTIFOLIA , Née=Q. furfuracea, there are five vars. f Bonplandi, 7 augwitifoliacs Q. iq kena Thib., à conspersa Bth. niti Mart. Gal. €. longifolia—longifolia Vae £ microcarpa, Q. WISLIZENI A. DC., . aquatica Walt., Willd.—Q. nigra L. a=Q. uliginosa Wg.=Q. Phellos Mart. Gal.—Q. ome ues four vars. ; cea pademi Y Visi etu sublobata, y tridens=Q. tridens HB., à glabrata=Q. Mexicana var. glab- rata Seem., € Mexicana= Mexicana HB., Q. LANIGERA Mart. Gal., Q. CRAS- 8 HB.=Q. Mexicana Bth., Q. CINEREA Michx.—Q. Prinus 8 L=Q. Phellos cinerea Spach, with four vars. : f dentato-lobata, y humilis— Q. humilis Walt., Ô iens pumila Walt.=Q. sericea Willd.— Q. Phellos pumila Michx., * a, Q. RUGULOSA Mart. Gal., Q. CONFERTIFOLIA HB Then follow Se ine doubtful species. II. ANDROGYNE. Q. DENSIFLORA Hook. and Arn.—Q. echinacea Torr., the var. 8 Hartwegi is Q. densiflora Bth. in Pl. Hartw 248 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. De Candolle supposes that of the species now known and described about S aine are provisional, and that when all the species of America w adopted are as well studied as the European, the **good Species " sin be reduced to about one hundred; then the American spe- cies would scarcely be more than fifty. This is credible when we perceive supposed *‘ good species.” What will become of our — partic- ularly the Mexican species, when once worked out in that w I thought I had a very good character, eges by all fadi in the bud. The Quercus coccinea, wherever I found it here (Peoria) had a con- ical pointed tomentose five-ridged bud, with dui rows of scales, and I was sure I should never see it otherwise. Now I get from northern Illinois a number of specimens with the acorns and all the other characters de- cidedly those of Q. coccinea, but some of them with smooth round buds, just as in Quercus rubra. We have now about half a dozen species united in Q. coccinea ; the difference between Q. rubra and Q. palustris is so insig- nificant that the latter could be taken as a variety of the former, and per- ween the species as now accepted would be very Sosecistü. dos uer- cus bicolor seems to me to be a transitional form between e macrocarpa a . Prinus ; to acs former it is approximate by the often subulate scales, e pubescence of the lower side of the leaves, the buds, and the scaly bar the twigs, which are often corky in Q. macrocarpa. An exact — of the term ‘‘species ” has never been proposed. Since Darwin’s theory has made the stability of species d it has lost much of its importance; but we want a certain t m, be it species, or form, or race, or whatever it be: we want a name "m an object, that it may be understood. That is the task of species. I cannot see more in it.— FRED. BRENDEL, Peoria, T CONT. THE GERMS OF DiskEASE? — Dr. Tyndall, ina recent lecture, asserted: (1), that the dust in the air we breathe is largely composed of organic particles; (2), that they are the germs of plants like the yeast and such-like fungi; and (3), that they are the means by which epidemic diseases are propagated _ The editor of ‘‘ Scientific Opinion,” per that “each and all of these vations such as those of kompr Joly, Musset, Mantegazza and others, all go to show that the germs of many of the lower vegetable organisms which are familiar to botanists, dei pot presen in nd air generally. Thirdly, the hypothesis g small pox, scarlet NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 249 fever, cholera, and the like diseases" is a oo Mig tt rather thar a minute veris of phe iota organic matter, is but an hypothesis and nothing more. So far as it has been attempted to be demonstrated y the apace of eism and eris: it has sevi broken down, and the ablest fungologists in the kingdom — Berkley and others — are distinctly opposed to it, as are, we nee ape the more scientific of our modern physicians. ZOOLOGY. ABITS OF THE STRIPED SQUIRREL. — I lately noticed in my garden a bright-eyed chipmunk, Sciurus striatus, advancing along a line directly towards me e came briskly forward, without deviating a hair’s breadth to the nei or the left, till within two feet of me; then turned square towards my left — his right — and went about three feet or less. Here ng. ground, vndis ing this member with both forepaws, thrust his head and shoulde byte thr ipu the dry leaves and soft muck, half bury- ing seat in an instan t first, I thought “ed after the bulb of an — that grew emis in front of his face and about three inches from it. I was the more dd in this supposition, by the shaking of the Es Present » however, he became ii corta quiet. In this state he the contrary, he was gradually backing out. I was surprised that, in all is apparent hard work (he worked like a man on a wager) he threw back o dirt. But this vigorous labor could not last long. He was very soon completely above ground ; and then became manifest the object of his earn- es rk: he was refilling the hole he had oe and repacking the dirt ied leaves he had disturbed. Nor was he content with simply refilling and repacking the hole. With his two little eset feet he patted the surface, and so exactly replaced the leaves that, when he had completed his took out a dozen seeds or si re-covered the treasure as well as my bu is ling hands could, and withdrew filled with astonishment at the exhibit. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 32 250 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. n of "igi skill and instinct of this little abused denizen of our PRAE rder my actin days I had killed many of the little gies had ced the treasures in their burrows many times; ha n them, as I supposed, under every variety of aspect; in short, I aeui I knew the chipmunk, every inch; but here was a new revelation of chipmunk character, for which I "e ghee unprepared, i t ugs: o you and den readers anything like a complete heiss of the motions, the skill, the carefulness, the completeness of effect, and the consequent satisfaction exhibited by this little harvester. I have never read nor heard of any other man's having witnessed a similar scene, nor do I expect seat ever again to witness one y opportu- nity for observation was perfect as it could possibly be; for he was so near me that I could almost stoop over and lay my hand on him, while he was half buried under the leaves. The lesson is perfect; for what our chipmunk does, all chipmunks do, under the same circumstances. Where does instinct stop, and reason begin? Wherein does instinctive, irrational skill differ from rational skill? — IRA SAYLES, Rushford, Alleghany Co., NCHOLOGICAL Nores. — Mr. C. B. Fuller, of Portland, has recently ania Littorina litorea Linn., at Kennebunkport, Maine. Willis re- i d found so far south. This species is identical with the common Periwinkle of the English coast, and its increase may be hoped for, as it will intro- duce a new article of food to our poorer classes. Immense quantities are consumed in England, one firm in London purchasing seventy thousand bushels per annum. They are very prolific and are ravenous vegetarians. Oyster merchants use them to keep down the growth of seaweed in their oyster beds. For the first time we record the discovery of two species of Melanians from Massachusetts. Specimens have pigs sent by William P. Alcott o North Greenwich, Conn., collected by him on the shores of Lanesboro Pond, Lanesboro, Mass. We identify pues virplcins Say, and Melania Kay. UNCTIONS OF THE FARY I-ON o THE Ene. — Oh gg! E. Goltz of Kónigsberg has been continuing 1 centres of the frog. Afterremoving the cerebrum with as little effusion of blood as possible, the frog remained on the table in exactly the posi- tion of a sound animal, and without any indication of the injury “it had sustained; but, of its own accord, would never change the position once assumed. If pinched or pressed, it would turn itself round, or remove itself by a leap from the external pressure, but would then remain equally unchangeable in its new attitude. It can indeed be induced by external f NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 251 means to go through actions which it would not ordinarily perform volun- tarily, so that to a bystander it would almost appear to have undergone a n be obtained in this manner. The mutilated frog possesses also the power of preserving the equilibrium of its body. If placed on a book, to animal in this respect, that they are performed mechanically, and with the regularity of a machine. It would also appear, from these experiments, at the nerve-centres for the voice and for the power of maintainin equilibrium reside, not in the brain, but in the spinal cord. — Academy. THE COMPRESSED BuRBOT OR EEL Pour. — In the March (1869) number of e NATURALIST is à paper with the above title by Wm. Wood, M.D. r giving the history. locality, number of specimens and their de- spt he then says: ‘‘ The Lota compressa probably visits the salt water, asi it is taken in ascending the Connecticut, or its tributaries, in the spring of the year in company with fish from the salt water ascending to spawn.” My first acquaintance with this rare fish was early in the spring of 1859. A specimen was brought me from West River, about a mile north of our village, where that stream joins with the Connecticut, and where it was * hooked up” while angling for other fish. Afterwards in 1864, another the fact, because I knew t that the specimen of Lesueur, who firs long. As I had lived many years near these waters, and supposed myself to be well acquainted with their different denizens, and, moreover, had never seen won sid before, not even their fry, I was led to inquire whence the t first aa to me that they might have come up from the salt once the entertainment of this idea. Be that as it may, an incident has recently come to my notice which may shed some light on their early history, and certainly on one of their species. 252 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. On our farm is a swamp of about three acres, from which issues a rivulet, getand three feet wide and three to five inches deep. I have coast. l my attempts to obtain a full view of the fish proved fruitless, but I judged bythe ripples it made ou the surface of the water, while passing shallow places that it must be some three or four inches in length. ently whilst our woodchopper was at work in this swamp, he cut down a tree which fell into one of these pools, and a fish was thus thrown out upon the snow. It proved to be a veritable Lota about three and one- quarter inches long. It resembled Lota compressa in every particular, ui thatits thickness might have been greater in proportion to its len m rivulet empties into Whetstone brook, a stream ordinarily about two rods wide and two or three feet deep, and has a bed differing little from that of the Connecticut River. I iive lived by this stream a M n this distance are two obstructions, partly natural and partly artificial, one thirty feet, the other twenty feet high, so that it can — e supposed that there is any egress from the river to the rivulet by w The fishes of the Whetstone are Salmo fontinalis Mit s , Rhinichthys atronasus Agas., Boleosoma Olmstedii Agas., Semotilus argentev. argyrus Americanus Putn., and Holomyzon nigricans Agas. ; a e be formed, whether these swamps are the breeding places of Lota com- pressa, or whether the specimen mentioned above may not be a new species. à The train of thought to which a solution of these questions might give rise, would naturally lead us to examine into the effects that €— local or particular causes may have upon the development and for life. With respect to the size of this specimen, being vint smaller than those found in the Connecticut, we may say, that all fish of the dimensions than in the Wissens i the OMM being as striking in the latter case as in the former. — CHARLES C. Frost, Brattleborough, Vt. A WnurrE Woopcuuck. —It may "nd you and some of your readers to know that I have obtained a perfectly white woodchuck, a perfect al- Gm bino of Arct s monax clin. There is not a dark hair on his body or tail, and his eyes are of a clear, rich, scias color. Hew caught on North-west hill in Williamstown, Mass., and brought to me oug alive. From the first he fed freely on clover, bermas the clover heads, _ ` nest he spent most of his time taking nearly the form of a NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 253 and made a nice nest for himself from the part discarded as food; in this all. He al- ways exhibited a readiness to bite, and it was not safe to touch him with the hand. One day I carried him, in his small cage, to my lecture room, and afterwards put him in my private room and left him alone. When I Without much trouble I secured him in his box again, and carried him home and put him in a large cage in my cellar which is well lighted and ventilated. About midway between the top and bottom of this cage isa shelf which touches the bars or slats in front, and extends backwards about half the depth of the cage. This shelf was put in so that the D » ad © "1 e- E © E 5 fa e 4 E un e © z e = et E p un 2 e n p eb a et 3 et z - 5 Lond et un © e E p et á > 5 ect _ na of eight or ten inches below the lower edge of the vertical shelf for the whole width of the cage, and when he was disturbed he often run through this hole instead of going along on the bottom. I was interested to see that he used everything he could get to enlarge gnawing, he squeezed out through the hole, scaled the cellar wall, and escaped through an open cellar window. A few weeks afterwards he was killed by a farmer’s dog, and I have sent his skin to Mr. Jillson to be mounted. Mr. Hitchcock of this town, informs me that he has seen a living white woodchuck in New Lebano, N. Y.—S. TENNEY, Williams College. Rare Brrps mx Nova Scotia. —I observe in the last number of the NATURALIST a note on the occurrence of the Pomarine Jager (Lestris pom- arinus), on the Susquehanna River, Pennsylvania, in July last. On the o uary last, the Purple Gallinule (Qallinula martinica, Baird). This is the first instance on record of its capture in Nova Scotia. — J. MATTHEW Jowrs, Halifax, N. S. 254 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. GEOLOGY. GIGANTIC FOSSIL SERPENT FROM NEW JERSEY.— Professor Marsh de- Scribes in ** American Journal of Arts and Sciences," under the name of Dinophis grandis, a new and gigantic snake from the Tertiary formation of New Jersey. He says ‘‘the earliest remains of Ophidia, both in Europe and this country, have been found in the Eocene, E nearly all the species from strata older than the Post Pid appear to be more or less related to T constricting serpents. Remains of this vem are not uncommon in European rocks, but in this country two species wi one founded on a single vertebra, have been described hitherto, peo of these were discovered in the d argen of New Jersey." Me vertebra described ** would indicate an animal not less than thirty — in length; probably a sea-serpent allied to ite Boas of the present era.’ In closing, the author states that “the occurrence of closely related species of large serpents in the same geological formation in Europe and America. just after the total disappearance in each country of Mosasaurus and its allies, which show such marked ophidian affinities, is a fact of pe- have led gists, familiar with these groups, to confidently diaaa: will rS at no distant day, reward explorations in the proper geological horizon.” MICROSCOPY. MICROSCOPE OBJECTIVES. — À performance of a 4-10 objective made for me by Mr. William Wales, of this city, is of such a superior character that I have no doubt it will be of interest to many of your readers. With di- rect or central light in i Erico cS s to oblique, and with the diatom mounted not dry, but in balsam, the Pleurosigma angulata is beautifully resolved ; de three sets of lines being Vitis into view with great dis- tinctness, and this with the No. 1 or A eye-piece. Amplification 210 di- ameters. With no equal power of Powell & Leland's of London, of Hartnack of Paris, of Tolles & Grunow of this country, or of Gundlach of Vienna, various objectives of each and all of which makers I have examined, have either, I myself, or other microscopists of my acquain- tance been able to effect this. Another feat which I had recently the honor of exhibiting to several members of the “ Bailey ae sed Club" of this city was a resolution of the podura scale with its "s central markings with this same 4-10. The resolution ed the stri uman muscular fibre by a 3-inch objective,*also made by Mr. Winisió Wales of this city, again challenges our admiration. un J. HIGGINS, M. D., 23 Beekman Place, New York. [We referred this note to Mr. E. Bicknell, who kindly sends the follow- ing reply. — Eps.] NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 255 Messrs. Editors of the American Naturalist :—In answer to your question ` in regard to the.above communication, I would say that while fully con- h D f the opinion that he (Dr. Higgins) has either made an error in his measurement of amplification (210 diameters with the No. 1 or A eye- pu or that the 4-10th objective is very much — in magnifying power. All of Mr. Wales’ 4-10th objectives ess Ihave seen have been as near or nearer 1-4ths than 4-10ths in magnifying power; quin below I give a table of amplification of such 4-10th objectives as are at hand; also two 1-4ths for comparison : MAKER. ANGLE OF AP. EYE-PIECES. 1 2. 8 4-10 J. Zentmayer, " T - " 75° 130 210 400 se I and Tip ee ite AA es 2 « Ww. Wales. dp Y? 110* 175 300 535 1-4 R.B. Tolles * È 4 $ 120° 200 325 615 * Smith and Heck, ME ar es cd 75° 210 340 650 measurements were made with a first-class stand and eye-pieces of some uniform standard adopted by the different makers of objectives, so that the 1-4th of one maker may not be as high as the 1-6th of another maker; or a 4-10th of one be as high as a 1- 4th of another; or, still worse, a 3-inch objective of one maker of precisely the same power as à 2-inch of another maker, which was just the case with two objectives which I had about one year since. If the objectives did not differ any more than the first three in the above table it would be an improvement. The amplifi- cation which Dr. Higgins gives to his 4-10ths is as fig as the highest 1-4th in the above table. — EDwIN BICKNELL, Salem. ANTHROPOLOGY. HE Bone Caves or GIBRALTER. — The four Genista Caves, Martin's Cave, St. Michael's Cave and some others, have yielded evidences of early man, in the form of osseous remains, associated with flint vantages s dn stone axes, polished and chipped; worked bones, servin h , needles and gouges; anklets or armlets of dii sates potte eden rubbing-stones and charcoal With these were found mains of numerous animals,* including Rhinoceros etruscus, Rh. lep- torhinus i (extinct); Equus, Sus priscus (extinct); me scrofa, Cervus ela- Those marked thus §, are abundant; and d thus 88$, very abundant. Asingle molar of Bopha antiquus was obtal ined m many years since by the late Mr. James Smith, of Jordan Hill, hed) at Europa Point, tl I extremity ot the roc 250 ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS, ETC. phus, var. barbarus $, Cervus dama §, Bos (a large form), and Bos taurus nnea, Canis vulpes, Ursus sp.; also remains of the common dolphin, numerous genera and species of birds, a species of tortoise and numerous remains of fishes, of which the tunny is most prominent. The remains are imbedded in red cave-earth and also in a black layer similar to that noticed in the caves of France and elsewhere. In many with them the remains of the various animals which at an earlier period a the thickly-wooded heights, now ently oo of trees and only covered at places by the little Chamarops hum Many human and animal ires attributable » ae rn periods, have been also met with; but the older human remains are distinguished b aie aie in the thigh on io tus closely resemble those met with in the Cro-Magnon Cave. — Quarterly Journal of Science. o ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. W. H. S., Hummelstown, Pa. — The “Canadian Naturalist” is qom tg monthly at Quebec, 4: year gold. ie M. PAbbé Provancher, Quebec, Can uL |J. S., St. Augustine, Fla. No. 1, Pinquicula lutea ; 2, N othing c cran ped this num- die tant ministrum ? 4, Lupinus diffusus; 5, icula mila. See Chapman’s Southern Flora. For naming, fair specimens LULA be sent, — not miser- able and bis roe M "bits KE. Es — Specimens of various species of sea-anemones with two mouths, each Surthanded, byi ee TAY of eee bare often Peon observed and perdas in in Euro Ih eral insta: eda Be kind in o rel eia a. tum. T is, pr hata E dw regarded a "bee rmal bdeifiton, and a i many cases to have been caused by so ege amg which has been ponen. rim Tu diska instead of one. pt daar geoeges division occurs normally, howev n alhe € mals, and a disk-shaped sea-anen ig is fo medi "4 rv Fest: Tediok ni DM hn m Ricordea €—— Duch. and Mich.). — A. E. V resonon); dt p? E Ha oor Sex Say a Con iobasis Pinta ae (Meta >. pec ay (Melan u fart E 2,13, May, argaritana iat van 1 $5 e^ natus Sol. ; 15, dudas eh ntula Say: 16 eee ene mate rper. d ais —MÓ— - BOOKS Viso dant Rer ag fotos nnd "archi a apn g, Ak a Scientific Opinion. DEM The rm ts London. Ni P 8. “Stay. Science G. pom E don. d May. American En omologist ES antes. St. Louis. Vol. 2, No. 6. April, 1870. 2c erai e ogists Monthly Magazine. London (monthly). From mber, 1868, to March, oni Lennon: April 9, 16, 23, ‘ma on the Pig; Breeding, Rearing, Joseph Harris. Ilustra! 12mo, cl. cloth. Sane Judd & € oe New Y« York. i $1.50. T - ketones sof Creation; a lar View rd Some y e Grand Conclusions of the Sciences in ref- the History of M. a ee vn aee xander Winchell, Pe „etc. With illus- a 12mo, cloth, pp. 460, thers. New Yor Uu X A AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. IV. — JULY, 1870. — No. 5. cc GI (t9 eoo» THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. BY REV. S. LOCKWOOD, PH. D. — ÀÁ9—— Ir is proposed to give some results of a summer's study on the ineubation of the eggs of the Horse Foot Crab, and to connect those results with observations made in an ac- quaintance of several years with the animal in its native haunts, in the hope of thereby furnishing something towards a life-history of the species." . Among systematists this crustacean is known as Limulus Polyphemus. It bears also the popular names Horse Foot Crab, Horseshoe, and King Crab. In this article these names will be used as convenience may suggest. The King Crab delights in moderately deep water, say from two to six fathoms. Except in the case of the very young, which are probably carried thither by the tidal flow ; *In October, 1869, the writer read a paper before the Zoological section of the New York Lyceum of Natural History, under the title “ A Contribution to the Natural His- tory of the King Crab," which contained the notes taken during su investi- . gation alluded to above. The article now appearing in the AMERICAN NATURALIST is taken mainly from that paper. — S. L. " by the Pz A or BCIBNCE, he Clerk's Office of the District AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 33 (257) 258 THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. it never seeks the shallow waters, unless for the purpose of reproduction. It is emphatically a burrowing animal—living literally in the mud, into which it scoops or gouges its way with great facility. The anterior edge of its enormous cephalic shield is not unlike in form the sausage, or mince- meat knife of our kitchens (Pl. 3, Fig. 12). The upper shell of the animal is composed of three parts—the forward shield, which is greatly the larger, the posterior shield, and the long bayonet-shaped spine, or tail. In the burrowing operation the forward edge of the anterior shield is pressed downward, and shoved forward, the two shields being in- flected, and the sharp point of the tail presenting the ful- crum as it pierces the mud, while underneath the feet are incessantly active, scratching up and pushing out the earth on both sides. There is a singular economy of force in this excavating action, for the alternate doubling up or inflecting, and straightening out of the two carapaces, with the pushing purchase exerted by the tail, accomplish both digging and subterranean progression. Hence the King Crab is worthy to be called the Marine Mole. The Limulus is carnivorous. Its food is the soft nereids, or sea worms ; so that not only in its mode of burrowing for concealment, but also in its method of procuring food does it resemble that little burrowing mammal of the land. It is sometimes found held in a strange durance, with a limb en- trapped between the valves of the quahog, or round clam, ( Venus mercenaria). It is a pitiful sight to behold—a galley slave with limb confined to ball and chain— "as far from help as limbo is from bliss." The explanation is easy. The quahog too is a burrower, and Limulus has seized the pro- jecting syphon of the molluse, which being suddenly with- drawn, the less agile claw is jerked between the valves, and the same are closed. This, of course, would effectually entrap the limb. But here occurs just this strange fact, that a lobster or a crab would not long be held in such durance, but would give their custodian leg-bail; that is, would cast THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. 259 off, and desert the imprisoned limb, and in due time would reproduce the lost member. The position of the mouth, and the masticating process are so peeuliar, that a description should not be omitted. The King Crab has six pairs of feet; although by some, those constituting the extreme anterior pair are called anten- ns, being greatly shorter than the others. The four pairs between this first pair, and the last pair, have a functional structure differing from the anterior and posterior pairs. Of these four pairs, the basal joint, or haunch, of each limb is flattened and smooth on each side, as though they were a series of plates intended to work upon each other, as the keys of an organ under the fingers of the musician. The external edge of each is rounded, and beveled like the edge of a carpenter’s chisel. Thus these flattened haunches lie against each other, their rounded edges directed backward at a considerable angle. The beveled edges (which are the exposed parts) of these projections are covered with very sharp incurved spines, overhanging and pointing into the oral aperture; for it is between these four pairs of spine- clad haunches that the creature’s mouth is situated. Each of these basal spines is articulated, and is set in the crater, or cup, of alittle teat-like prominence. These then, are the true jaws of the animal’s mouth; and as there are four pairs of these manducatory joints, the creature’s mouth is set in a line between eight jaws. These spiny teeth have, by their articulation, an amount of mobility in their little pits, which is eminently serviceable and preservative. Of these chew- ing teeth, though the number is variable, an individual can scarcely have less than one hundred and fifty. Wishing to see what their food might be, and how they eat it, I placed a specimen, hatched the preceding summer, in a small aquarium, and supplied it with plenty of fresh and tender sea lettuce (Ulva latissima). But this sea salad re- mained untouched, although the young Limulus had no other fare for three weeks. In fact, famishment had rendered it 260 THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. literally diaphanous. I then tried animal food. Having opened a live quahog I routed the little fellow from his hi- ding place in the sand, and gave it a morsel of the clam. It was ravenous, and fed only as a really hungry being could. Though using the round clam principally, I gave it other food at different times. Any molluse was acceptable, if only sufficiently tender. It even ate beef; but not with the relish of the mollusea. This I observed, that being well fed it never would eat carrion; although what it would do if impelled by hunger I cannot say. As yet I had not seen the eating. This was also hidden by the carapace. I was now very anxious to witness the feeding process. The first step was to put the animal on a long fast, and thus to secure a good appetite. This done, a bit of clam was dropped before the hungry crab, which was instantly drawn under with its claws, when I immediately turned it over, holding it with the abdomen against the glass side of the tank. It was kept in that position for full five minutes, the eating process being easily witnessed, and the manducation quite satisfactorily observed. The performance is certainly a very curious one. The animal being in its natural position, the food is held immediately under the mouth by the claws, or nippers, of the posterior pair of jaw- less feet, aided, if necessary, by some of the others. The basal joints, or manducatory haunches, then begin an alter- nating motion of these members upon the food, by drawing one of the spiny or rasp-like joints against the opposite one of the same pair, the food of course being between the two. This chewing by means of these opposing rasps, reminded me of the hand-carding process, in which the card held by the right hand is brought towards and against the one held in the left hand, the wool being between; when the right hand card is held still, and the left hand duplicates the mo- tion, and so on. The fine particles rasped off by the ineurved teeth pass into the mouth. It will be readily seen that food so finely chewed before it passes into the digestive THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. 261 apparatus would afford but a poor chance to the investigator who sought its nature by use of the knife. Of the large number that I have opened of adult specimens, I never found anything to tell me on what they fed; and not until by aetual experiment, above described, did I know whether Limulus was vegetarian or carnivorous. The exuviation of the King Crab is performed several times during the first year, and at very short intervals. How many I do not know, as that must vary according to the time of hatching. But I think the young produced in the latter part of June will accomplish five or six moults be- fore the cold weather comes. Even in the case of the adult — exceptional as it is among the crustacea — I think it prob- able that the shell is cast more than once in the year. The professional oysterman having taken up his best crop with the tongs, secures the gleaning with heavy iron dredges ; and when using this instrument will take up an occasional Horse Foot, even in the winter season. In the unusually fine weather of an open February several years ago, in Rariton Bay, an adult female was in this manner taken out of the mud by the deep sinking dredge, when lo, the animal had but recently “shed,” and its shell was still quite soft. Sometimes the shedding can be witnessed under very un- usual circumstances. A large female taken in August, al- though kept for many days in the open air, yet moulted in captivity. The operation was a very trying one, and re- quired three or four days, as the animal got very dry. A little water was occasionally thrown on it for pity’s sake; and even this was not marine water. Of course moulting - under such extraordinary circumstances was a very dif- ficult, and probably painful operation; the wonder was that it could be done at all. With natural surroundings a few minutes generally suffice for the task. A thin narrow rim runs round the under side of the anterior portion of the cephalic shield. This is in fact the widest part of the ani- mal. Just before the time for exuviating a separation occurs 262 THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. between this rim, and the perimeter of the anterior shield. To the unaided eye this rent is altogether imperceptible, but opens on the exertions of the animal; and at this opening it emerges from the old shell. Now as the opening is at the front, and in the place of the greatest width, and moreover as the shell is sub-coriaceous, and somewhat yielding, and at this particular place is very thin, it may be seen how great advantage the animal has in this matter over the higher crus- taceans whose moult, from necessity, takes place from behind, and whose shell is composed of a more unyielding material. Iu the exuviation of Limulus I fancy a close likeness to that of the insects when leaving the pupa. The King Crab emerges at the forward, but under side of the cephalic cov- ering ; the beetle at the forward, but dorsal side of the same. It is plain that Limulus has an easier time in getting off his old coat than his “more respectable relations" have. To see the King Crab, as it were, coming out of himself, is a sight so odd as to draw from those beholding it the exclamation “it is spewing itself out of its mouth.” When the animal, specially noticed above, had come out of its old shell it was nine and a half inches in the shorter diameter of the cephalic shield ; while the vacated shell was but eight inches by the same measurement. If they moult more than once in the year this would make their growth quite rapid; and if they do not, it seems to me that they must attain an age of not less than eight years before reach- ing the size that indicates adult life. But we must speak of this farther on. I have observed that every spring, that is, so soon as the water has lost its winter temperature, large numbers of the young of the previous summer are found in the shallows. These range from dn inch to two and a half inches in the shorter diameter. As the ereature when begin- ning life for itself, is but a scant quarter of an inch in diam- eter, this would imply rapid growth, and I think that the larger of the above have probably lived through two winters. There are reasons for believing that the spawn is deposited THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. 263 by the same individual more than once in the same season. I have heard this asserted with confidence by some fishermen. But as they could advance no proof no attention was given it until the following fact occurred. Let me first state that it is a eustom prevailing wherever the Horse Foot Crab abounds, to catch it to feed poultry, under the belief that it makes them lay, as it surely does fatten both them and hogs, but imparts a shocking flavor to the flesh of both. The fe- male is always preferred on account of its eggs, of which it has not less than half a pint, crowded within the cephalic shield. These are obtained by inserting the point of a knife into the forward, and under edge of the shield, and running the knife round through the thin rim, already described, when the entire lower part can be torn from the upper part of the shield, thus exposing the eggs, which are like mustard seed, but of an ashy green hue. Now a female that I knew to have spawned in May was in this manner opened in July, and was then to my surprise full of eggs, well formed, and with every appearance of maturity. The Horse Foot Crab spawns at or near the new and full moon, in the months of May, June and July. By this, however, is only meant that they embrace the time of the extra high tides, which depend so greatly on the lunar influ- ence. But mark the nice calcuiation herein displayed. They come up at a great high tide, advancing on the bottom, until they reach a suitable spot near to, but within the ex- treme line of this great tide. Three definite advantages are in this way secured. First, the spawning is performed under water, or without undue exposure ; second, the line of the average high tide is thus selected ; and third, a short ex- posure to the daily low tides is thus secured, by which the proper exposure of the spawning spot to the development- accelerating heat of the direct rays of the sun is obtained. A visit of the adult Limulus to the shore line, except at the spawning season, is a very rare event. At this season | they come up in great numbers in pairs ; and it may be said 264 THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. with no figure of speech, in true nuptial bands, —the male riding on the shield of the female, and retaining himself firmly in this position by holding to the sides of the poste- rior carapace, with the two stout and short nipper feet, which are exclusively possessed by the males, which with the size of the animal, so much smaller than the female, serve to dis- tinguish the sex at a glance. . The female excavates a de- pression in the sand, drops her spawn into it, upon which the male emits the fecundating fluid, and the nest is at once deserted, the parents returning seaward, with the retreating tide. Occasionally, a pair less alert than the rest, is left by the tide, which, however, they will overtake, if unmolested. By the action of the water the eggs are immediately covered up with sand; though if the wind be unpropitious, large numbers are often washed up, and east in windrows on the beach, and soon devoured by the many hungry beings, of bird, fish, and mollusc kind that always abound. Our Limulus is a true monogamist. But it is likely that a new mate is accepted each spawning time. Occasionally a female comes to shore with even three suitors attached, two of them vainly endeavoring to unseat the accepted one. The above has led to the belief among fishermen of a dispropor- tion of the sexes. I think that this point cannot in that way be inferred. Though formerly the Horse Foot Crab was very plentiful in Rariton Bay it has become rather scarce. Accordingly they have to be watched for now. Not having the time to spare I engaged a fisherman to keep a lookout in the month of May, 1869, for an actual spawning. He was instructed to see the pair come up and spawn, and to capture them at once on their attempt to return with the tide; he was also told to scoop up with a tin vessel the whole spawn-mass, sand and all, and not to touch the eggs with his hands. I believe the man faithfully obeyed instructions. Thus the spawn and the parents were brought to me uninjured. My preparations had been carefully made. Hatching jars had THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. 265 been set for a number of days, and the water was in a fine state of oxygenation. One difficulty I had to submit to, of a serious character. I could only subject the water to the reflected light of the sun. The direct light would in the summer season prove too warm, and spoil my water. The result, as will appear, was that the hatching was accom- plished very slowly, a fact which with another should be borne in mind while reading the following, namely, the ab- sence of those conditions of agitation, variation of water depth, and sometimes complete exposure to air and sunlight, consequent on the tidal flow. . May 26, 1869.—To-day my Limulus eggs were set for hatching. Yesterday was full moon. The eggs were of a greenish white, dull, and rather dirty looking. . My notes record no measurement, which I now regret. As incubation progressed the external shell became rapidly darker, and more coriaceous. But for this last fact I had becóme afraid that they were in process of decay. Several ineffectual ef- forts were made to get at the internal changes, but owing to imperfect instruments I gave up in despair, and determined to watch and wait for more advanced developments. There is considerable vitality in the King Crab's eggs. It will bear a good deal of retardation, and yet come out at last. It will be understood that necessarily my arrangements had a good deal of retarding effect. At the real amount I was quite surprised. Those on the surface progressed most rapidly. July 18th.—Thirty-four days after spawning. The opaque chorion has cracked (Pl. 3, Fig. 1) disclosing the white pel- lucid spherieal membrane within. Now a sight met me which gladdened my eyes. It was a living trilobite form. But of course very diminutive. Yet it could be seen with the unaided eye, and quite satisfactorily with a common lens. It is shown greatly magnified (Pl. 3, Fig. 2) in outline. Here the elongate character of the abdominal posterior is noticeable; also the excessive relative width of the thorax. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 34 266 ` THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. The figure shows only the upper side, but it has the feet quite advanced, and the two great eyes have well begun. In two or three days it was considerably changed (PI. 3, Fig. 3). Though not so much, still the cephalo-thorax was relatively greatly in excess of the abdominal shield. The limbs, though not shown in the eut, were quite long, reaching beyond the edges of the carapace. The two sessile eyes were now prominent, but the central oculiform tubercles, as they have been called, but which I prefer to call ocelli, were wanting ; for in their place, that is, the central anterior of the cephalic shield, was still a depression, or cleft, yet to be filled up in the progress of development. To me it seems that so far the development was markedly asaphoidal; that is, it re- minds me of Asaphus, using that term as the typical genus of the Trilobites. Before passing, it should be observed that the embryo had its two segments inflected ; and with short intervals of rest (not many minutes at a time) kept up a very active revolving within its pellucid prison; the effect of this friction on the walls of the hollow sphere would be to bisect it. As the embryo revolves it lies upon its back. August 3d.—Seventy days from the spawning. To-day an embryo has left the ovum. It measures two and a half lines in length and two lines in width. Except for a little space in front the cephalic shield is armed on its perimeter by a series of briar-like spines, in two rows of about twenty- five each, the spines alternating with some regularity as to size. The curved rim of the pygidium, or caudal shield, is also fringed, but with setaceous tufts, each tuft being made up of hairs of different lengths. This new-born creature is in outline almost circular. The cleft in front of the cephalic shield has disappeared. The sessile eyes are now promi- nent, and are well up on the shield, the two ocelli are quite : distinctly marked. But as yet there is nothing of the artic- ulated tail that marks the parent Limulus, or its congener Eurypterus. Such was the form (Pl. 3, Fig. 4) of the little bins be- THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. 261 fore me. Was it not a veritable trilobite? It at once began to shift for itself, making a persistent effort to burrow like its parent. By consulting the figure it will be seen that besides its tail-less aspect every feature is that of a trilobite. The abdominal, or caudal, carapace is relatively much wider than in the adult Limulus. The segmentary lines afford a very distinct trilobed character to both shields. The spiny and se- taceous fringe finds its counterpart in many of the trilobites. The pointed tendency of the keel on the caudal shield seems to me to look towards Pterygotus. But if we take into view the presence of the ocelli already, and the high-up position of the large sessile eyes, we have Eurypterus shadowed forth. Let the reader examine Pl. 3, figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, which give an outline of the telson-plate, or terminal tail- joint of as many separate species of the fossil crustacean , Pterygotus. Fig. 5 is P. Banksii, in which the telson is marked by a cleft. Fig. 6 is P. bilobus, showing the cleft less marked, and the presence of a median ridge or keel. Fig. 7 is P. gigas, in which the keel is more developed, showing a higher relief, and a greater prolongation, and the disappearance of the cleft. Fig. 8 is P. Ludensis. Here the keel is still more acuminated, and the plate itself is mucronated. Fig. 9 is P. bilobus, its size being very much reduced. Fig. 10 is P. acuminatus. Here the keel has attained an extreme length, and great relief, and is with the plate carried to a slender point. And this prolongation of the telson plate into a terminal spine, is, I think, in respect of posterior development, the highest effort of the Pterygotus. I also think that this is shadowed forth in the embryology of Limulus. But it should be noticed that there is not so far, in all this spinal tendency, anything in the direction of an articu- lated spine. That is, there is nothing xiphosuroid, or sword- tailed in all this, as in Limulus, and the fossil crustacean Eurypterus, which have an articulated bayonet-shaped ap- pendage. Now Pterygotus has two sessile eyes, and only two, and these are placed low down on the very edges of the 268 THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. forward shield. But Limulus and Eurypterus have both two large sessile Ap set high up on the shield, and two ocelli set forwar The want of an L'iitiodlatéd tail was soon apparent in the case of our little Limulus. ‘The slightest obstacle turns it on its back, when, not having this organ, which the adult uses so effectively in such emergency, the little thing begins a vigorous flapping of the branchial plates. This causes it to rise in the water; then by ceasing the agitation it at once descends, with a chance of alighting right side up. Should it miss the ascent would be repeated until its desire was accomplished. August 15th.—Eighty-two days from the spawning. A great many had hatched, and many had perished for want _ of care. I had almost given exclusive attention to the one described above. It had its second moult to-day. A few minutes sufficed for it to withdraw itself from its baby suit. I noticed that it stopped a little while, as if to rest, having the caudal appendage only half withdrawn from the old shell (Pl. 3, Fig. 11). At last out it came, a person of dis- tinction possessing the articulated rapier. It is a true Limu- lus now, and fully entitled to carry for life, the sword of honor, which has ever been the family mark of rank. The animal is now quite a fourth of an inch in width, and its tail is the one-twentieth of an inch in length. Where did it keep it while in the old dress? It must have been bent under and upon the abdomen. I have noticed them since at this moult, with the tail considerably incurved, and which re- quired some hours to straighten out. Dorsally the little thing has now nearly the complete appearance of the adult Limulus. The setaceous fringe of the abdominal carapace had disappeared, and had left an, armature of teat-like or half-developed spines; and the spiny fringe of the cephalic shield was quite gone. The posterior projections of this shield are now sharp. The tail is distinctly articulated, but somewhat stumpy. A section of the adult tail would be al- THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. 269 most triangular, the lower side being slightly rounded, the upper sharply edged, while a section of the tail of this young specimen would be almost ovoidal. The tail of the young is also more distinctly marked with lines of segmentation than is that of the adult. As it travelled on the mud before this moult, it made tiny rows of toe-tracks, leaving a plain unmarked space between the rows. Now it moves with tail depressed, and makes a medial line dividing the toe-tracks into two series. Alas, at this point, when I had become intensely interested, a serious illness, against which I had offered a dogged de- termination to keep at work, peremptorily settled the matter by taking from me the use of my eyes. It will be noticed thus far that the observations here re- corded, are almost entirely morphological, and not physi- ologieal. Professor E. D. Cope has given us a lucid phrase, "expression point." He says of development, "while the change is really progressing, the external features remain unchanged at other than those points, which may be called expression points.” It seems to me that “expression points" of generic significance have been pointed out four times in these reniarks. Twice in the ovum I thought there was an "expression point" of a trilobed genus; and in the larval stage, I thought Pterygotus and Eurypterus were shadowed forth And in the metamorphoses of the larval state there are remarkable changes with reference to functional necessities. Already mention has been made of the moult at which the animal receives its articulated tail. Now in the life of Lim- ulus this tail is as indispensable as is the Alpine stock to the Swiss mountaineer. It is constantly liable by the least agi- tation, or obstruction, to be turned on its back, when but for its tail it would be as helpless as a tortoise in the same position. It is then that it deflects the tail, and inserts this sharp spine into the mud or sand, and after a few perse- vering efforts succeeds in turning itself over. So feeble are 210 THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. its limbs that exposure of the under side to the attacks of fishes would soon end its career. In short it must keep its carapace "right side up with care," if it would care to live. I must now mention another functional metamorphosis which seems to me of a very remarkable character. So great is the difference in form between the anterior feet of the female, and the same feet in the male, that the very children on the shore lines at once in this way distinguish the sexes. In the female this limb is long, slender, and weak ; in the male short, stout and ventricose. Intended for strong holding, their nip is like that of a vice. Their use is to hold on to the carapace of the female, so that the male may retain his position as the pair come up in the breeding season. And so strong his hold that no violence of storm, or attack of rival suitors, can displace him. Well does the fisherman know this, as he stands in the water ready to spear the female as she comes up in nuptial embrace. He is only concerned to catch the female, for it would need some force to separate the two. Now functionally, this stout foot, "or hand," as the fishermen call it, has no use in early life. The Horse Foot Crab has its period of puberty ; this is its adult stage. But judging from the size of the males when they couple, which is pretty uniform, and their actual rate of growth, I think that the puberty of Limulus cannot come before the third or fourth year. And it would not surprise me if the latter figure should prove the minimum age. However this is the point— it is not until that age of pu- berty is reached that the male undergoes its last metamor- phosis. It then has a moult, from which it emerges, having received its large claws, or literally, its nuptial hands. What change there may be on the emotional side wlio can tell, when master Limulus assumes the toga virilis and is old enough to "propose." This may be asserted of these very decorous and monogamous people, that among them prema- ture marriages are unknown, for however soon the lady may be ready to give her heart, not until maturity of age can the gentleman possibly extend to her his hand. THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. 211 The above fact was obtained by evidence purely negative, yet not the less convincing. First, there was the suspicion of the fact, then the search for a young male possessing nuptial claws. But albeit the numerical equality of the sexes this was not found, though large numbers of young specimens of different ages were examined. Moreover, I have not found the fisherman who has ever seen one. Although some of the systematists make of Limulus a distinct order, as Xiphosura, or sword-tailed ; yet I cannot but think that in nature the Trilobites are included, making of all one grand order. It would thus have not only a real systematic meaning, but a profound chronologic significance. However this may be in the light of coming knowledge, I think Pterygotus and Eurypterus stand higher than the typi- cal Trilobite proper, and that Limulus leads rank over all. Figure 68 shows Limulus after the first moult (very much enlarged), when not more than a week old. The fringe of the buckler is now less thickly Fig. 68 set, the cardinal spines only being con- served, and these not so stout. The posterior shield shows the permanent spines. Still the contour is asaphoidal while the median ridge of the abdom- inal carapace, terminating in the point of the mucronated shield, is suggestive of the dorsal keel in Pterygotus gigas e and P. anglicus. At this stage, as the Limulue after the rst mouit. facts seem to me, the larval Limulus shows forth more than one generie "expression point" in the career of the trilobite as a "comprehensive type." It should be stated here that thé exuvia represented by fig. 68 was accidentally discovered on the surface of the mud, at the bottom of an hatching jar, used in these observations last summer. At the close of the warm season last year my jars must have contained not less than two hundred young Limuli. We have already said that so soon as 1273 THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. hatched the young burrow like the adult; hence the rare- ness of an opportunity to witness the casting of the skin. Hoping to continue observations upon the dii of my in- teresting family the ensuing year the jars were carefully put away. Little regard, however, was paid to temperature, which, on several occasions, went down to the freezing point. On the 3d of May, 1870, I emptied the jars to see how my charge was getting on, when lo, not one of the last year's hatching was alive! but wonderful to say at least a dozen little fellows, all hatched this spring, and all alive, had taken their place. With these were also at least thirty eggs, in different, but all in advanced, stages of incubation. In some of them the young could be plainly seen revolving. The fact was these eggs had been at the bottom of the hatching jar, and had never had any contact with the sunlight. At once, not without some misgiving as to the result, the proper provision was made to complete the incubation, namely, new sea-water, clean sand, the eggs put on top, and all set in a favorable place. With an eedinary hand lens the progress of incubation could be observed daily. At half-past four o’clock on the afternoon of May 11th, before . my eyes, a new-born baby Limulus left the egg. Just think of it—these eggs are within two weeks only of being a year old! And then how remarkable are these facts also—those eggs were partly incubated last summer. Hence there has been not only a remarkable retardation of development, but also an actual arrest of the same for seven or eight months without sacrificing life. Query: is there any connection here with that indomitable persistence of being, which in the Divine will has carried this comprehensive type through the many Eons of existence, wherein has been unrolled so slowly the life plan of the Entomostraca, from that initial Trilobite of the Pre-siluria to our Limulus of these latter days? It has been hinted already in this article that at different stages of its life the larval Limulus made a different impress ee > poiana. Si o SM ni Mm American Naturalist. Vok IV, Pl. 3, LOCKWOOD ON THE HORSE-FOOT CRAB. THE HORSE FOOT CRAB. 273 when it walked. While tailless there were simply two par- allel sets or rows of toe-tracks, but when tailed those parallel rows were separated by a median line, showing the caudal trail. Is there not here a caution for the interpreters of the “Protichnites” seeing that the same species, at diverse ages, may make widely different tracks? Not more than three or four exuvie were found entire in the mud of the hatching jars. In all the rest the buckler and the pygidium were separate. Now it is not the case that the Horse Foot shells, in the long wind-rows on the shore-line, are entire. The entire ones are decidedly excep- tional. Before certain tides the young are helpless; but the adult never comes shoreward except to spawn. Hence their exuvie are brought up by the wash and the under-tow of storms, thus effecting the separation of the two parts. Is there not here an explanation of the great abundance of the- pygidia, or caudal shields, of the Asaphus Iowensis in the Iowa limestone rocks? I do not regard them as the debris of dead trilobites but as their cast-off shells. They are the tidal windrows of that ancient sea. The articulation of the two carapaces was no doubt feeble; and the specific gravity of the pygidium less than that of the buckler. In this case the debris would be sorted into different depths of water. The bucklers would be less crowded, because in greater depths where the tidal action was less; while the lighter pygidia would, by the same law, form the drift of the shore- lines. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3. Fig. 1. Egg of Limulus just cracked by incubation, showing the pellucid sphere. f Embryo in the egg, much enlarged. Same two days older, much enlarged. Young Limulus just out of the egg, enlarged nine diameters. Terminal tail joint of Pterygotus Banksii. Terminal tail joint of Pterygotus bilobus. Terminal tail joint of Pterygotus gigas. Terminal tail joint of Pterygotus ludensis. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. ie BON NONO SAPS wh $ 274 THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. Fig. 9. Pterygotus bilobus. Fig. 10. Terminal tail joint of Prerygotus acuminatus. Fig. 11. The smaller one is Limulus just hatched, natural size, mere out- line; the larger is the same undergoing the first moult, and leaving the old shell, and having a tail. Fig. 12. Limulus Polyphemus, one year old. The markings on the pos- terior carapace become less distinct with adult age. The adult female will attain a size even exceeding twelve inches across the cephalic hield. Fig. 13. Eurypterus remipes ; size very much reduced. Fig. 14. Sao hirsutus, a trilobite. THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. BY JOHN L. RUSSELL. Tue vegetable productions of the ocean, like those of the drier portions of the earth, are subject to'a similar order of distribution. The most common collector of plants becomes soon aware that there are kinds which are not to be looked for in ordinary places, and soon learns to set a value on those which rarely occur to him. He also desires to extend. the area of his observations so as to embrace different latitudes, orío obtain the same results by ascending lofty mountain heights. So the collector of sea-weeds does not confine himself to particular districts, but endeavors, either by per- sonal inspection or else through the labor and courtesy of others, to ascertain what forms, seemingly familiar or entirely diverse, may grow abroad. The deeper soundings of the ocean-beds, like the higher elevations of the land, afford him a greater variety, affected by different causes, which in their natural course produce different results. — The general plan of vegetable life, especially in the lower plants, seems to point to constant modification of some one typical form, and this modification appears to have its origin in climatic influences. It becomes a most fascinating study to endeavor to join the separate and divided links so as to THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. 275 possess, in a series of specimens, the probable method of development which nature has thus instituted. Let me en- 'deavor to adapt this idea to the thoughts of this present essay, and arrange to some extent the sea-weeds (Alga) of our own and of foreign or distant coasts together. Let us see in what kinds there are corresponding ones ; and when we select some choice specimen from the beach-drift, or pluck it from the rocks, endeavor to tell on what distant strand it is obedient to the pulsing waves, or perchance at- tracts other eyes. The coast of New England presents as great a diversity in outline and in character as perhaps can be found in the same length of the Atlantic shore. We have here the deep inlets like Norwegian fiords in Maine; the bold rocky prom- ontories of Massachusetts varied with the almost level and smooth sands of the South. The noblest in size, as well as most beautiful in color and features, are the algæ which are to be met with throughout this wide range. The would-be successful collector must resort to the dredging apparatus, and like the shell collector needs a strong arm and abundance of patient toil to serve him; else he must wait some vio- lent storm, which shall break from their deeper moorings those more valuable weeds which only can grow perfectly and develop themselves entirely far below the surface, where the sun’s rays but feebly penetrate and the water is of a nearly uniform temperature. Some wonderful waifs are occasionally met with in this way by visiting the beaches and picking over the waste with scrupulous care. In the warmer waters of the Southern States, like those on the Florida Keys, there may be sought singular kinds resembling corals, for whieh they were formerly mistaken by Lamour- oux, some of exquisite beauty in design and shape. Some of these are found growing from the base of a Gorgonia or sea-fan, and secreting from the ocean their covering of lime. And others of richest green ereep over the sand beneath the water, and throw up a turf as verdant as that which clothes 216 THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. the most luxuriant pastures. This field of botanical enquiry is yet open, and many a desirable harvest can be reaped, from season to season, out of the treasures of the deep, and the yet undiscovered or little known species of New England attract the deserved attention of the casual visitor or of the sedulous student. Let then the season be summer, the warm days of June, when many people as naturally resort to ‘the seaside as if the custom were instinctive and migratory. To some the scenery is the same and familiar, and the cool air is the main thing to be realized ; to others, though familiar yet ever new, and to others every object, however minute, is novel. The very rocks and cliffs are different in looks, composition and general features ; the sand composed of curious minerals, tiny shells and comminuted fragments; the wild flowers wierd and unusual; the thick leaved and prickly seeded plants thriving within the spray’s reach ; the beach cumbered with productions of the sea— mineral, animal, vegetable — thrown in wild confusion. Who, for the first time, is not moved with wonder at these sea-weeds? Who would not wish to become better acquainted? And no wonder so many are gathered, floated out into shape, dried, pressed and carefully laid away, silent witnesses that beauty and utility are often combined where little dreamed of. The interest increases with each coming season; the practised eye soon learns to discriminate; the cultivated taste finds the most propitious time of the year for collecting, and such trifles, employed at first to while away an hour or two, are often found indis- pensable and auxiliary to the very enjoyment of life. . Suppose we start on a walk for some gravelly beach con- tiguous to some town or city, and removed from it by the interventions of wild pastures, rocky and almost desolate, or by some level, wide extended marsh. At any season of the year, when walking is practicable, the botanist who ac- companies you, can point out abundant objects of interest long before you come within sea range. The intervening THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. 211 space proves not so dreary or desolate as it appears, for often our most interesting and best friends have the rudest exterior. Perhaps he knows something about the lichens, those dull green, grayish, yellow, bright orange, black crusts, scales, fringes, torn, ragged felts ; or perchance those dry, crisp, brittle, crimson tipped, blunt tipped, sharp pointed, branching anomalies which cover many an acre of sterility where nothing else grows, and where the surfaces of rocks and the rough bark of trees cannot offer them any chance. He will be able to introduce you through these desiccated and seemingly lifeless plants, the lineal descendants of the first forms of vegetation which appeared on the dry - and solid earth, to the wonderful and more grotesque, more developed, sometimes enormous sea-weeds which, at the birth of Creation, sprung into activity as plants in the "waters which covered the face of the deep." Nay, you need not heed these unless you choose, although within every one of them lies enfolded a wondrous tale, locking up in the recesses of their natures, health and healing and joy. Notice too as you walk, the fair lowers springing up on every side. If autumn, or early winter, a bright October’s day or a green Christ- mas, you may yet find for your admiration such seed-vessels, such starry ealyces, such feathered down, such inimitable irifles as no gold could purchase or art fabricate. Such rough and confused pasture lands lie between Rock- port and the sea; between Gloucester, between Marblehead, Cohasset, Scituate and many famous places, and the beat- ing ocean. By the very marge of one such beach I have found plants seen nowhere else by me except on mountain sides. Think of Rockport in July, lovely in the masses of mountain laurel, and this fine native shrub opening its clus- ters of flowers within sight of the very sea. From the land side the very odors of Araby the Blest come over the Man- chester and Gloucester waters from the magnolia, and glad- dens the heart of the returning fisherman. The very rocks, worn smooth by the surf and rounded and polished, extend 218 THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. just so far inland, which the closely attached lichen defines by its persistence in bright yellow colors in the strict line of ter- restrial and maritime growth. They stand there patient senti- nels to denote that the floods shall no more cover the earth ; the lichen the earth's plant, and the alga the sea’s plant, approximate and almost kiss each other in approach. Noth- ing higher in the scale of organization ventures so near; not the sedge, bulrush or hardiest grass dare grow so close to the waves. Nor are lichen and alga far removed in consan- guinity ; in structural difference something; some more ex- posure to sun and rain, to snow and ice, to heat and cold, in existence and continued individual life vastly more in favor of the little crusted slow-growing lichen, patient, untiring, serenely beautiful, doing by day and night its usual work and breaking down the hardest and most obdurate rock formations by the gentlest persuasion of its constant pres- ence to aid the atmospheric influences. Tbe alge are so diverse in their forms, and so many in number, computing only the precise kinds or species, to say nothing of innumerable varieties, many of which have been separately and minutely described, that in orde: to facilitate the labor of finding out what they are it has been found best to divide them into three great groups known by the color of their seed-vessels. Butas it is not always possible to find their seed-vessels, or even those minuter parts which though not seeds serve for similar purposes, because like other plants, and what we call flowers or flowering plants, these too have partieular seasons of the year when they produce them, so to look for strawberries after the vines have done bearing would be precisely like looking for seed-vessels on sea-weeds when they had passed the season. Some kinds, too, like some other and higher plants never bear any seeds in our latitudes, but such seed bearing plants must be sought else- where. Fortunately in this dilemma the chances of success are in our favor, and the usual color of the sea-weed corres- ponds with the color of the seed it bears. The rosy or THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. 219 red-seeded alg: are usually the most popular because the pret- tiest ; but others, even the black or fuscous-seeded alge have many claims on our attention. I will venture, however, to set both these kinds aside for awhile, and speak first of the green-seeded alge, the Chlorosperme, as they are called in the books. In the rear of some beaches, like that known to the old folks about Marblehead, as Devereux’s beach, perhaps it has now another name, surely none more euphonious — may be seen large extended reaches of salt or brackish water, cov- ered with floating masses of a light-green tangled fibre, and which lies in flakes upon the tips of the growing grass, or east ashore to desiccate and fade in the bright sunshine. Lifting carefully a little on the end of a sharply-pointed stick we shall find a great many silky, glossy threads, each slender, sparingly branched with alternate and scattered branchlets somewhat spread apart; sometimes growing on one side, each joint several times longer than broad. "Within each joint look after a green granular mass which answers for seeds, and to do this you must have a pocket lens for your eye; at home a compound microscope would do better, and in this rapidly growing and widely extending Chloro- sperm you have taken your first lesson, perhaps, in studying the alge, having been introduced to the Conferva flavescens, and if possessed with farther curiosity you may learn of other Confervas of equal or surpassing evidence. The ex- treme lightness which these sheets of dead fibres have, renders them easily elevated into the higher strata of the air, whence they have been known to fall in violent showers far into the interior, spreading consternation by their pres- ence in such an unusual manner, and greatly frightening the superstitious and ignorant. Sometimes this substance has been called “meteoric paper," and I have seen in the micro- scopical cabinets of my acquaintances fragments of similar matter from very remote parts of the globe. This single species has been observed extensively in Europe and 280 THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. America; and the few students of our native kinds have been rewarded by meeting with several others, identical with species which grew on the other side of the Atlantie Ocean, such as C. i ycina, rivularis, aerea, refracta, etc. But perhaps the most curious of these water silks, as they may be termed, credited to the northern lakes and to those lovely sheets of fresh-water in Central New York, is the C. glome- rata of the earlier writers, but now called Cladophora, on account of the peculiar manner in which the joints arrange themselves, being either packed together in strata or layers, or flexed and curved in long and delicate lines; and another, far more curious, of which there are many sorts distributed from Sweden in the far north, to Cayenne in South America ; found in Cuba, in New Zealand, in the lakes of Germany and in the fresh-waters of Great Britain; and worth looking after here, is the C. egagopila, its filaments rolled together like a compact ball, and when dry, sometimes used for pen- wipers. I have looked for it, but always in vain; other del- icate and pellucid-jointed water plants sometimes do so, but evidently they are only imitations. In the ditches and by the sides of shaded paths where the water is stagnant, similar Chlorosperms may be seen. Is there any identity and do the same alge grow indifferently in fresh and salt water alike? The question is worth attention, so let us when we retrace our steps examine. Here I have lifted on the end of my cane some of these floating, swollen masses; they also are fibrous and silken, but see! how different is the green coloring particles within the joints! Here are a few in which the seeds are so arranged that the joints which are only about as long as they are broad, and vary in length, are marked by two roundish stars. It is but a rude idea produced by the arrangement of the seeds, but as these stand side by side in the parallel joints of two of the silken filaments of the tangle we have lifted from the ditch, and which are joined laterally by a connection or bridge, they remind us of the mythological story of Castor and THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. 281 Pollux, the twins of Tyndarus, and our humble alga is accordingly called Tyndaridea, and of it are many kinds growing tangled even, in the same mass. In similar and Fig 69. equally unlikely places for beauty to dwell \ and abide we can gather the Zygnema, or Yoke-thread, in the joints of which the green granules are at first arranged in spiral rings, but afterwards collect into a sinele globule as the future seed (fig. 69). In one species the spiral lines become a Zygnema. series of the Roman V, and in another of the letter X. Strangely, too, do the delicate and fragile fila- ments or silken threads bend at acute angles, the coloring matter first fillmg each joint, vig. 70. but soon contracting into a nar- row continuous stripe. In this ‘and others of similar behavior and appearance we have Mou- geotia (fig. 70), named in mem- ory of a botanist, and bearing his surname. They are com- mon in Europe and New Eng- land. Before we leave these rich green, emerald and vivid, or pleasing green weeds of the stagnant and brackish pools, let me tell you of a pleasant surprise I once had in the sunny waters of an overflowed and stagnant pool formed by the rising of the lake, and there permanent through the year for want of means of draining it. Years have fled and the pool is solid ground now, covered by the property of the railroad company, and near Burlington, Vermont. The conchologist may be pleased to learn that Lymnaea megasoma Say, once lived there ; but my finding the elegant water-net, or Hydro- dictyon utriculatum, previous to its being seen by the cele- brated Bailey in Philadelphia and at West Point, will always AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 36 Mougeotia. ^ 282 THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. connect a delightful remembrance with stagnant pools and still waters in my mind. In this pretty aquatic the joints are united at their ends into regular pentagonal or hexagonal meshes, and form a tubular net which floats in the water. Turning again towards the sea let us look into these salt pools among the cliffs, some shallow and others deep and lined with exquis- itely colored alge too. Cer- tainly, so far as looks go, some of these verdant and glossy silks should be Con- ferve, but having been in- structed better by the lens let us see what it will do for’ us here. This flossy silk, how delieately and grace- fully it floats just under the Cheetomorpha. surfuce, but a little of it lifted into the air collapses in a very ungrateful way. Yes! you have gone out of the realm of the Conferve and only resemblances occur. Thus your floss silk, so entangling, inelegant in the air, shows its elegant proportions and finer divisions in its native elements and in water of a denser me- dium. It is a tuft of a true maritime Chlorosperm (fig. 71), one of a very large genus, and as Professor Harvey tells us, difficult to define; so we must be content with our present knowledge to observe and admire. Some tufts of darker green colored and bristle-like jointed filaments stand stiffly in the water; they are worth gathering, and bear the name of Chotomorpha, or Bristle alga; the most common with us is the Melagonium, but several others may be found on the New England shores and the Mediterranean, the Canary Isles, Algiers, New Holland, Tropical America and the East THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. 283 Indies; the northern and southern portions of the globe de- light in their presence. For specimens they only dry indif- ferently, the joints shrinking by dryness, but the algologist cares little for looks. Very marvels are those closely adhe- rent alge, which creep over moistened surfaces, and some of which are found on rocks wetted by the sea, many in springs of flowing water, some in hot springs, and such unlikely places; but I should scarcely forgive myself if I overlooked in this connection the Microleus repens (fig. 72), in masses resembling a green slime of almost black intensity ; but lifted from the wet path and a few of its conferva-like threads magnified, shows its claim to regard. As the little bit. expands under water the microscope assists you to see the oscillating motions of its jointed filaments, creeping apart from each other like the measured progress of the hand over the dial plate of your watch! Similar, but not tied up in little sheathing bundles, are the pretty Lyngbyas, snarls of silky fibres, but each in a mucous sheath by itself and divided into numerous transverse joints of rich deep green, purple, brown and other colors; widely diffused over the globe and extensively scattered over wet surfaces, faces of rocks, and places where we should expect nothing curious or striking. They too, boast of many kinds of residence in the sea, in salt marshes, among pebbles on the shore, in hot springs, and the water of salt works, living alike in fresh or saline homes. Some few larger and more specious Chlorosperms are those rich green crisped and wavy-margined thin alge, which lie upon the soft mud after retreating tides, covering unsight- liness with continuous beauty, and refreshing the eyes. They are known as "lavers," Ulvw, and two or three species are well known. They do not make very pretty specimens, but pieces of them can be advantageously employed in arranging Microleus repens. 284 THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. other kinds. Sometimes they are served up with lemon juice under the name of Oystergreen, and as a diet are con- sidered of good repute. The broadest leafed kind are se- lected. The green particles which correspond to the seeds are deeply embedded in the pulp of the entire plant, and commonly arranged in fours, while those of the Purple laver (Porphyra), which notwithstanding their color, so distinct from the seeds of the Chlorosperms, form an exception to the general rule, and though possessing rounded granules, qua- ternally arranged, are also provided with clusters of oval seeds (fig. 73) besides thus indicating a step forward in the progressive development. To QR find this pretty alga it is well to examine the b piles and timbers of wharves, and the perpen- QD ` dicular faces of rocks submerged by the tides. Other and finer species than our own have a wide dispersion, and in common with the green lavers may be frequently met with, abroad, in similar situa- tions. Not very unlike their cousins, the Ulve, are the grotesque looking, pale green, inflated bullate Enteromor- phas, tossed in wild confusion, and mingled irrespectively together, with the usual rejectamenta of the sea upon the rocks; despised and overlooked as they are apt to be there they are respectable Chlorosperms when growing and thriv-- ing under the water; and a little care and attention to their merits will give them their place among the dried trophies of the ocean gleanings. Singularly alike, and yet different, are the Tetrasporas of the fresh-water, floating quietly upon the stream, their lax netted tissues of pleasant green color having their interior substance dotted over with clusters of seeds arranged in fours; and others of humbler pretensions but of wondrous symmetry and beauty nestling like small disks upon the pebble or upon the submerged log, or throw- ing wide upon the current their elegant beaded filaments like necklaces of strung jewels, embraced by the Chlorosperms or claimed by aberrant forms of the Confervze. ; Seeds of Porphyra. THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. 285 Some tropical sea-weeds belonging to this section now claim the attention. These are the Siphonaces, so-called beeause whatever be the form or size of the alga the different parts have a continuous cavity throughout like a pipe or siphon. And a very great difference exists in these several forms, some of which are very singular, others very beautiful. They are described as green, marine or fresh-water alge, either naked or else coated with carbonate of lime, which they extract by the method of their growth and life from the water. A few kinds, of which the elegant Bryopsis is an instance, are found in our northern bays and waters. It is a pretty little ereen-tufted feather-like alga, parasitic on other weeds, and growing on the rocks near the shores. Yet in its range it reaches to Cape Horn, the Falkland Islands and New Zealand. The green particles within its substance break up into smaller parts, and bursting through the sides of the branches escape to furnish the needed seed dispersion. In a somewhat similar branching kind, but in which the single jointed filaments and branchlets or twigs, as we may call them, are compacted together into flattened bundles, so as to look like a rude fan furnished with a handle or stem, and the sticks somewhat encrusted with carbonate of lime, we have the Udotea, named by Lamouroux after some ocean goddess, known to Hesiod. One species, the U. conglutinata, of Lamouroux, has been seen growing at Key West; and another, in which the lime is uniformly and evenly depos- ited on the entire surface, much more resembles a spread- out fan, and is known in our tropical seas as U. flabellata, while other seas produce still other forms. They are so bizarre and unlike ordinary alge that no one but an adept would recognize their place among sea-weeds. In Halimeda (fig. 74) we have still other singular and anomalous looking plants, short-jointed and broadly dilated for the length of the joints, looking not unlike some smaller truncated cactus of the green-house, but soon fading to a dull white tint, and on drying becoming brittle. Several species are met with 286 THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. on the Florida shores, of which, perhaps the 77. opuntia is the most common, as I have picked several fragments of its clustered stems from gorgonias aud corals collected among the Keys. Removing the lime encrustations, a singular skel- eton of fibres, branching off into clusters of smaller branches, presents itself and which serves as a support to the tissues. In company with these oddities is another singular marine produetion, composed of innumerable slender, single-celled Fig. 74. branching filaments, inextri- cably woven together into the form of a hollow ball, and whieh grows from the size of a cherry to that of the human head, and is known in the European seas as Codium C bursa, or Sea-purse; while another species with a nar- row, long, branching form, but with fibres similarly en- tangled and woven, has been found on the coasts of Cali- fornia, but is not known on the Atlantie shores of New England, a prize perhaps for Halimeda. some sea-weed collector! Of the other siphon-constructed alge may be cited the Cauler- pas, elegant, green, creeping-rooted algæ, mimicking under graceful forms, the ferns, club-mosses, feathery mosses, ground pines, selagines and other higher cryptogamic plants, such as grow in the woods and in bogs remote from the sea ; investing the submarine sands and tide-washed rocks with perennial verdure and loveliness, and found alike in every tropical sea on the globe. These lime-bearing alge so far away from our personal © observation, and to be seen only in our most southern lati- tudes, should have some representatives on our northern THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. 2817 shores, and it is to the Corallines and their allies that we will turn for farther enquiry. Leaving, however, unwil- lingly, the attractive Chlorosperms we will make some ac- quaintance with the beautiful family of the Rhodosperms, or rosy-seeded algæ, plants corresponding in the tints and colors of their external and internal arrangements, with the ele- gance of their seed-vessels and seeds. In outward habit the Corallines present also considerable variety from the sim- plest and lowest in the mode of increase similar to that of the crustaceous lichens, spreading in horizontal concentric cir- cles, or gradually developing upwards and outwards in the form of stems and branches. On every part, encrusted in their lime covering which moulds itself to the joints, swel- lings, depressions, ridges, or into the flutings and channels of the surface, or surmounts the very tips in the form of seed-vessels, one would scarcely suppose that these elegant marine productions — so abundant in every tide pool, and fringing the deep cool grottos beneath the water-covered rocks, or lining with patches of pleasing and varied colors their sides, or laying down tessellated and mosaic pave- ments, by encrusted pebbles presenting to the vision variety springing from their secreted cements — were sea-weeds and marine vegetation. But an immersion in diluted mineral acids dispels the mystery; the usual tender and flaccid tis- sue of cells and pulp appear in due proportions beneath the covering which looks so much like the fabrications of the polyps, and in the absence of microscopical investigation these innocent plants were described and figured as ani- mals related to the corals, and from their smaller size and comparative insignificance were called Corallines. Very rarely found in the colder seas the one species best known at the north is the Corallina officinalis (fig. 75), once in ficti- tious repute in medicine. You cannot miss it, growing as it does in the pools left by the tides, and to be picked from the beaches attached to some shell, most usually the larger muscle (M. modiolus), thus indicating its range even in 288 THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. deeper soundings where that mollusk abounds. A much more slender and delicately jointed kind, scarcely more than simply branching, is the Jania, presenting under the surface of the ocean a violet green tint, which soon changes to a more or less deep rosy or red, and finally becoming shining white if exposed to the air and light, growing parasitically on other sea-weeds and widely distributed. Some elegant species are known in Cuba and on the southern coast of the Fig. 75. United States, and others are found in the oceans about Australasia, Cape of Good Hope, ete. The Amphirow, also widely distributed over the globe, are lime-bearing Corallines, the joints cylin- drical, separated from each other by bare portions of the horny axis, the seeds lodged like those of all the Corallines in conical wart-like conceptacles, the different parts of the little plant on which these occur furnishing some criterion to determine its real name. Beautiful and — interesting as they seem in living condi- tion, a more intimate examination assists in revealing their curious structures. Having in this excursion for northern lime-enerusted sea-weeds stepped into the domains of the odosperms, or rosy-seeded algze, let us take leave of our verdant acquaintances, and cultivate the friendship of a higher series of marine plants, whose seeds and seed-vessels are more curious, elegant and diverse. The alge in this order are by far the most universally attractive of any of our native kinds. That part which looks like their foliage, and is technically called the frond, is liable to a great difference in size, shape, and outline, in some being broad, or flat, or narrow, or thread-like, the main stem frequently dividing. or the disk-like support on which it rests suddenly spreading and ramifying upwards, the branches often arranged in regular pinne, or lateral wings, THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. 289 and these again dividing into smaller branchlets; or the broad, thin, membranous leaf throwing out similar but smaller ones from its edges; the seed-vessels often display- ing much beauty and elegance of design, and variously dis- tributed in the leaves; add, too, that gathered at almost any season, they make pretty specimens for the album, either as portions of the plant or even as fragments, it were no won- der that equally with the child and the adult the Rhodo- sperms become favorites, and are considered foremost among the wonders of the sea. Attracted by the brilliant crimson feathery bit which now comes riding on the crest of the wave, the attempt to secure it as a prize is suecessful. It came from deep soundings, and has been torn off from the friendly support of some gigantic kelp, by a sudden swell or rude wind. Thousands of just such bits, and some of them several inches long and broad, you can pick out of that drift high up on the beach. It is the Ptilota serrata, and though so common here, should you chance to gather alge on the coast of California you will find it there, the denizen of the Atlantic and Pacific alike, while those who collect for amusement from the beaches of Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, etc., may find another, P. elegans, likewise found at Beverly and its neighborhood, a smaller and softer plant with jointed pin- iiis. On the tips of the main branches, and enclosed by the curving of the smaller, are lodged the pretty concep- tacles or seed caskets, giving the plants a feature of interest. The species of Ptilota are not numerous, but they are found in most parts of the world. A still more beautiful fragment is this which I have at this moment rescued; I find it fre- quently with the last but seldom can I find a perfect piece, such as is now lying on my study table at home, from the English coast. In outline and ramification a little like Ptilota, but its dichotomous branches are two-edged with a sort of thickened midrib, its color a dark lake, and it dries into good shape. It has two kinds of seeds, some growing AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 87 290 THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. in the pulp of the frond in clusters (¢etraspores), the others issuing from conceptacles which grow on the outside of the smaller branches. On the French coast it is called P. vulgare, or the Common Ptilota, and Kützing says that it oceurs in the Atlantie, Pacifie, and Southern Oceans. The Carrigeen moss, so well known in the preparation of food, and to many more familiar on the table than on the shores of the ocean, is the Chondrus crispus, really an elegant alga. It is subject to many varieties, and the best way to study them is to go down as far as you can among the rocks at low tides and see the plant growing. A careful drying of some of the most prominent sorts will repay. Those gathered from the beaches are more or less bleached or discolored, and generally filled with sand. In similar sit- uations, and even growing where the water is always deep, some other alge similar yet distinct may be sought. Like others which grow out of reach except by the dredge, they are thrown ashore in tolerable perfection during storms. Of these the Phyllophora membranifolia may be cited, the fronds as much as a foot long when fully grown, the stem cylindrical, filiform, irregularly branched, the branches ex- panding into fan-shaped flattened membranous leaflets, the color a rich purple, inclining to livid, while that of the European species is scarlet. The Gymnogongrus which in- habits similar situations might be mistaken for the Chondrus, looking not unlike some variety of it, but its internal structure forbids this. Something like twenty kinds are known in the world, and the one most seen in this neighbor- hood is G. Norvegicus, having an extensive northern distri- bution. These black tufts growing out of the stems of the larger alge, and from the outside of shells, ete., belong to Poly- siphonia nigrescens, of which the curious student could find a great many distinct varieties. A section of the frond would exhibit a number of tubes, side by side, composing the branch, and indeed the entire plant, and those tubes vary in THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. 291 nuniber, and yet seemingly not in a capricious manner, in different tufts. Though thus inelegant and vulgar or common, they belong to a refined and delicately educated family, having in their circle some of the prettiest alge known in the American seas, of which the Venus’ Comb (P: pecten- Veneris) found parasitic on corals and shells at Key West and the Pine Islands, is a notable example ; and in- deed all require only to be magnified to show what they are. There are numerous species to be looked up on the various sea-weeds and marine objects on which they delight to grow. This almost gelatinous mass of dissolving threads ‘staining the paper with a deep empurpled or crimsoned blotch, is the Dasya elegans, more commonly met with to the south of Cape Cod; it is likewise a parasitic alga and grows in deep water; nor are other beautiful species unknown in distant regions. L2hodomela is worth looking for, being an elegant, much branched, filiform, cylindrical-stemmed alga, of which R. subfusca, gracilis, Rochei, etc., have been collected on the coast of Massachusetts. The several species belong to tem- perate zones. In the English manuals much is said of the beauty of the Lawrencea; in this country this alga is repre- sented by the Chondriopsis of J. Agardh, and some may be sought, of which C. Baileyana is really elegant and graceful, while its conceptacle, or seed-vessel, is of classic outline, mi- nute, yet not to be overlooked! Others similar might be al- luded to, but we must defer mention of them, unless we meet them in their coral groves in waters of a higher temperature. The broad-fronded rosy sea-weeds claim a passing tribute. Our beaches and shores, the resort of summer seekers for pleasure and profit, offer us the Delesseria with a genuine rosy-red, leaf-like; jagged edged, or else delicately branching membranous symmetrical frond, with a pereurrent midrib. The seed-vessels are to be looked for near the midrib, but definite spots containing another sort of seeds occupy the surface or portions of the frond besides. Several species are found both north and south, but by far the finest is the D. 292 THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. Americana, dedicated to Henry Grinnell of New York, in honor of his noble conduct in an expedition fitted out by him in search of Sir John Franklin, and known to American bota- nists as the Grinellia of Professor Harvey. In Nitophyllum we have a ribless frond, traversed by slender irregular veins; the frond broad membranous and variously divided, = hoses in the form of dots deep in the pulp of the leaf. blepharis ciliata has the margins of its rich dark red Fus beautifully ciliated or fringed; Botryoglossum and Hymenena are California species and can scarcely be looked for with any degree of success hereabouts. The Rhodo- menie, with Huthora, are plants of great beauty, and need scarcely more than be named as the species are few; R. pal- mata is parasitic on alge in shallow water; R. palmetta on the larger kinds in deeper soundings, and Z. cristata extends in its range from the Arctic coast to Cape Cod. Among the most abundant of these rosy-seeded alge, and likewise of the most delicate structure, we notice the Cera- miacee, with fronds growing in close tufts, but sometimes ‘solitary, creeping along the surface by fibres or affixed by disks, the stems slender, thread-like, articulated, dichoto- mously or pinnately branched, and sometimes growing so interwoven as to form network or spongy masses. In some species the space between the joints is diaphanous, which gives a strikingly beautiful appearance; in others the joints exhibit no such peculiarity. The species are exceedingly numerous, and the search for rarer ones in any given district would be compensating to him who does not despise trifles such as these at first seem. The last of the Rhodosperms to which we invite your at- tention is Callithamnion, a very large genus of beautiful alge, mostly small and many even minute, the different spe- cies difficult of determination, subject as they are to constant variation. The elegance of their several parts in stem, branches, and branchlets, the delicacy of their subdivisions, their exquisite color and the symmetry of the seed-vessels THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. 293 in spite of the obstacles in correctly addressing them by their correct names, attract the attention of the most superficial. They are not difficult to find, and the same efforts to secure other and more specious kinds will insure many of these. The Melanosperms, black or fuscous seeded sea-weeds, less comely and attractive but by far more useful to savage and civilized man alike, remain for a cursory glance at least. Although our species are of only a respectable size when compared with foreign kinds, yet they assist so much in pro- ducing the effect we witness, wherever the ocean impinges on the land, we can illy spare them. Investing rock and wood structures alike, if built in places subject to the varia- tions of the tides, they bear exposure of a few hours to the dry atmosphere or seorching sunshine, and revive as the cooled waters return to cover them, forming safe retreats to fishes, mollusks and other marine creatures, and affording the most nutritious dressings by way of manure to the exhausted fields. The variety of forms which they present has caused them to be comprised in several families with subdivisions arranged in such a way that they can be more readily studied, and those will claim our notice. About our shores the most abundant sea-weed of this kind is the fucus, of which there are two or three species and several varieties; or according to Professor Harvey five species on the American and seven species on the European shores, and one allied to F. nodosus, found at the Cape of Good Hope. They are usually known as kelp weed, rock weed, etc. Their seeds are lodged in tubercles filled with mucus, and they are discharged through the small pores; the hollow vesicles by which they are buoyed up in the water are not the seed-vessels but air bladders. A section of one of these seed tubercles, under the microscope, affords an instructive and pleasing sight. The Halidrys siliquosa might be readily taken for a narrow fronded fucus, but the air vessels are singularly divided transversely by numerous diaphragms extremely thin and 294 THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. membranous. It is usually found in shallow pools, but where the plant is never left to even temporarily become dry. Though very eommon on the Atlantic shores of Europe it does not seem to have been recognized here as growing on this side of the ocean. The Cystoseira, too, is only recognized as American in a California species though several are known to the British waters, and the Phyllospora Menziesii, detected by Menzies himself when with Vancouver, has elsewhere as yet only occurred in the deeper soundings of the California coast. In this plant we see the same glob- ular air vessels we have noticed in the fuci. To this family belong also the gulf weeds, Sargassum, a vast genus and of which some species extend as near as Nantucket and Provi- dence. One of them, the tropical Sea-grape (S. bacciferum), is seen floating in masses in the gulf stream, and is a familiar object. Kützing gives us a list of one hundred and three distinct species known over the globe ! An excessively branched and bushy mass of dark brown fibres, covered with short harmless prickles, and sometimes growing several feet in length, often presents itself on the sandy beaches, evidently torn from the bottom of deep water. This is Desmarestia aculeata, so variable in appear- ance at different stages of growth as to have led good bota- nists astray. When young, this otherwise stiff, bristly weed is clothed with the most delicate pencils of finely divided . filaments, of a beautiful green color, a condition worth seek- ing. Its mode of bearing seeds is unknown. Another natural order of the Melanosperms, comprising a great variety of kinds, is the Laminariacee, among which — from a simple cylindrical threadlike frond of the diameter of a whip-cord, and often twenty, thirty or forty feet in length, tapering at the extremity, and fixed at the base by a disk (Chorda filum) to a frond of broad dimensions, and sup- ported by a long stalk (Laminaria or oar-weed) — we find a series of modified forms in species found in our waters. Of the sea leaf ( Thallasiophyllum), one of this order, a writer THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. 295 and naturalist thus speaks: “The ocean hardly boasts of a more beautiful production; it is generally about the height of a man, very bushy and branched, each branch bearing a broad leaf at its extremity, which unfolds spirally ; a spiral border winds round the stem ; a number of rather long, nar- row perforations, arranged in a radiate form, give ilie. frond the appearanee of a cut fan; the margin is entire, its sub- stance coriaceous, but liable to be torn. No seeds have been detected. This fine fucus, or sea-weed, is plentiful around the whole island of Amaknak, clothing the rocky shore like a thick hedge, and forming at a little distance a very pleasing feature in the scenery." (Mertens as quoted by Professor Harvey.) Though destitute of this wondrous sea-leaf, our piles of seawrack can display something similar in the highly curious sea colander (Agarum Turneri), which has come ashore after strong winds and gales. Furnished with a short, compressed, coriaceous stem, widening and flattening as it approaches the frond, and clasping by its stout fibrous roots the rocks and stones, its dark olive green expanded leaf per- forated at short intervals with roundish holes, it is quite a re- spectable weed. The shores of Kamtschatka and the Pacific recognize others. Besides several kinds of the oar-weed of respectable dimensions, such as the Sweet or Sugar, the Long- shanked, the Fingered, with its frond deeply cleft into several strap-shaped segments, we have for noble sea-weeds Alaria esculenta, known, as articles of food, under the name of mur- lins among the peasantry of Scotland and Ireland, belongs to a small genus, inhabits the colder regions, and is recog- nizable by a branching root, stalked, membranous frond, with smaller fronds or leaflets springing from the stalk and below the main frond. A definite dark colored patch in the centre of these leaflets indicates the clusters of pear-shaped seed-vessels packed vertically among straight and simple threads. From these we come by easy transitions to some of the most marvellous vegetable productions on our globe, and 296 THE SEA-WEEDS AT HOME AND ABROAD. alge, or sea-weeds, too. How insignificant appear our kelp- weeds in comparison with the Lessonia of the Antarctic Zone, trees with forking and branching trunks covered with crim- son brown, sinuated edged, and jagged-toothed leaves, or with blackish opaque foliage and twisted flexuous trunks, growing like submarine forests; or with the Nereocystis of the Aleu- tian islands, whose stem, never thicker than a packthread, ex- tends to the length of forty fathoms or more, and expands at the summit into an inflated cylinder from which issues a leaf, which gradually grows wider near its top; not singly, not here and there a plant but areas of great extent covered with innumerable plants; or with the Macrocystis whose slender stem and numerous leaves are buoyed up by their expanded and swollen base, the stem so long that fifteen hundred feet has been reported by observers as within the limits of belief. These several kinds of expanded fronds are employed as utensils among savage people, while the trunks of many of these gigantic alg: drifting on desert shores have been mis- taken and gathered for fuel, supposed to be actual wood. The structural arrangement of the cellular tissue on a number of the Melanosperms, giving to their fronds a pecu- liarly netted appearance when viewed through a magnifying glass, suggests a natural order, called Dictyotide, which sig- nifies like a net. Externally there is quite a variety among these sea-weeds, and of them we may search for Punctaria in two species, both parasitic on other and larger sea-weeds about Boston Harbor, or even Asperococcus with an inflated frond, while the others delight in a flattened one. The seeds may be found in the minute dot-like clusters scattered over the surface of the plants. To this order belong the curious Padina pavonia and its allied Zonaria lobata, bearing no inapt resemblance to those richly zoned and velvetty fungi which grow out of old dead tree-trunks; but both these lovely alge are tropical and belong to our most southern states. The rest of the Melanosperms are either parasitic and minute, and to be gathered either accidentally or else FOOT-NOTES FROM A PAGE OF SAND. 297 though strange and unusual in exterior, so infrequently that they hardly claim our present attention. In the structure of their seed-vessels and seeds they are objects of curious in- terest and beauty, but require a quick eye to detect the condition favorable to secure specimens, which when col- lected, must be submitted to the microscope to satisfy the enquirer. t If our excursion and lesson has convinced us that in the distribution of plants, the ocean, which to many, shuts out the chance of minute observation, forms no exception to the law of vegetation; each part of its vast bosom bearing, like the earth, its appropriate flowers, plants and fruits, a day or two among the sea-weeds will be well employed. FOOT-NOTES FROM A PAGE OF SAND. BY DR. ELLIOTT COUES, U. S. A. Ir those whom fashion and the weather drive from city follies and vices to the vices and follies of the seaside ; who live in hotels and carriages and fancy the society of their kind the only sort desirable or possible, —if such read at all by the sea shore, it is not from the broadest and most elo- quent page before them. With eyes to see, blind; deaf, with ears to hear; to them, a blank, a void, beyond the titillation of social scandal. Others go out of doors afoot, looking and listening; in every object by their pathway a familiar thing; with every vibration of the air, a well known voice; with every odour a reminiscence. Alone by the sea? There is no solitude—no escape for the naturalist, even though in a weak moment he wish it, from a multitude—no disentang- ling of self from the web of animate creatures of which he is one slender thread. The sea, we know, is teeming with life—full of shapes AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 38 298 FOOT-NOTES FROM A PAGE OF SAND. useful or curious, beautiful or monstrous; the waves them- selves, in ceaseless change, incessantly battling with the land, seem life-like; but the sand itself, solid and motion- less, looks lifeless. The great broad sheet that stretches along the coast seems to be now, as it always has been, in- animate. A vast bed of silica; and yet if not alive, what a sarcophagus it is of myriad lives since perished !- If the poet says of dust in the crack of a door, "Great Cesar's ashes here!" and attach to the mote and the man common and equal significance, yet farther than this the naturalist; for him, not the greatest pile that ever rose over emperors' re- mains— not the pyramids,* tombs of Pharaohs, are so great, as this monument of life that Nature built —the simple sand. If ghosts be ever laid, here lie hosts, of creatures innumer- able, vexing the mind in the attempt to conceive, never to compute, them ; so minute that a grain of sand is prodigious beside. Creatures of wonderful, beautiful, varying shapes; creatures that ate and drank after their fashion and went on rejoicing or grieving till the day came. Let us write a name in the sand; the wave comes — the ebb, the cradle, — the flow, the grave — of such short-lived creatures ; what to these then, that write their name in the “sands of time ;” the coast of a continent their grave, the beach their monument, each sand-grain an epitaph. How long this book has been making we do not know; no man's time will suffice him to turn and read even a single page. Reflection confounds; still we may stroll on, obser- vant, if not thoughful; a letter, a point, an intelligible note, may catch the eye ; and trifles enough have at least some pith. Say, at the moment, there is no living thing in sight. Asa wave curls away from the mirrored sand, little bubbles play here and there for a few moments, and then too subside. Under the sand, where each bubble rose, lives a creature, * And these too, are of a sort of lime stone, called * nummulitic ” — chiefly pamposed of vast mam bere o certain Foramimfers esecereit es). Ano of din ram- ur millions of these aon FOOT-NOTES FROM A PAGE OF SAND. 299 encased in shell armour, rarely seen alive, and scarcely known except by its casement, when this is thrown upon the beach; what some call a razor-shell, others Solen ensis. When the foot presses in yielding sand, surcharged with moisture, a slender jet of water spirts up; below is a clam (Mya arenaria) ; it dislikes the weight upon its elastic home, and remonstrates. There goes a groove in the sand, as if a child had wantonly dragged ‘its copper-toed boot along, or some curious share had turned as curious a furrow; but the creature that made it has gone below, after what would have seemed to us, had we witnessed it, a tedious journey. Scat- tered here and there are large globular, yet essentially spiral, shells of the sea-snail (Neverita heros); the animal that lives in them made that mark, unfolding a great fleshy "foot," and gliding along, perhaps eating éomethtng as it went, with an organ that is mouth and iiini in one. Where it is now, under the sand, are plenty more mail-clad things, of all shapes and sizes and colors; snug and secure, giving no sign of their presence. The sand is not only a great dut. of foraminiferous skeletons; it is full of flesh and blood. . . But we may look for signs from above as well as under the earth, or from the waters beneath ; the sand tattles many pleasant, harmless secrets, if we only attend. Here are foot-notes again, this time of real steps from real feet; the next tide will wash them out ; but perhaps some one of them, — the one chance of millions— may be left to signal, centu- ries hence, as much as they tell now. They are wedge- shaped, and meaningless as the cuneiform characters upon a Babylonie obelisk, unless the key to the cryptogram is found ; for this, the lock must first be examined to the last detail, and it is surprising how many details there are. The imprints are in two parallel lines, an inch or so apart; each impression is two or three inches in advance of the next one behind ; none of them are in pairs, but each one of one line is opposite the middle of the interval between two of the 300 FOOT-NOTES FROM A PAGE OF SAND. other line ; they are steps as regular as a man’s, only so small. Each mark is fan-shaped ; it consists of three little lines less than an inch long, spreading apart at one extremity, joined at the other; at the joined end, and also just in front of it, a flat depression of the sand is barely visible. So much: now following the track we see it run straight a yard or more, then twist into a confused ball, then shoot out straight; again then stop, with a pair of the foot-prints op- posite each other, different from the other end of the track, that begun as two or three little indistinct pits or scratches, not forming perfect impressions of a foot; where the track twisted there are several little round holes in the sand. The whole track commenced and finished upon the open sand. The creature that made it could not, then, have come out of either the sand or the water; as there are no fire- animals now days, it must have come down from the air; a two-legged flying thing—a bird. To determine this, and next, what kind of bird it was, every one of the trivial points of the description just given must be taken into ac- count. It is a bit of autobiography ; ; the story of an invitation to dine, acceptance, a repast, an alarm at the table, a hasty re- treat. A bird came on wing, lowering till the tips of its toes just touched the sand, gliding half on wing, half a foot, until the impetus of flight was exhausted; then folding its wings, but not pausing, for already a quick eye spied some- thing inviting ; a hasty pecking and probing to this side and that, where we found the lines entangled; a short run on after more food ; then a suspicious object attracted its atten- tion; it stood stock-still (just where the marks were in a pair) till, thoroughly alarmed, it sprang on wing and was off. So much is perfectly plain and intelligible; it may be not quite so easy to find out what the bird was, for we will shut the “back-stairs” door and allow no guessing, but go honestly about our induction, as if we only knew of dead birds in the closet, and had never seen a live one. FOOT-NOTES FROM A PAGE OF SAND. 301 Each foot-print was of three marks only; clearly then made by a three-toed bird ; or, if by one with four toes, the fourth was too shor£ to reach and impress the ground visibly, or else was joined to the leg too high up. The three marks all point forward ; then the hind toe, or hallux, as it is called, was the missing or rudimentary one. Now, unless the bird was of a kind unknown to naturalists, which is highly im- probable, it must have belonged to one or the other of two groups—the Walkers and Waders, or the Swimmers— named, respectively, Cursores and JVatatores, since no bird of the only other remaining group (Jnsessores) has none, or a - rudimentary hind toe.* Birds, however, cannot swim unless their feet are fashioned into paddles of some sort. We only know of this being done in two ways: either by stretching a membrane between the toes, making a webbed foot, or by fringing of the toes by broad membranes, making a lobed foot. But either of these feet, pressing the glassy sand, would have shown its pattern. Clearly then the bird was neither palmiped or lobiped— it was not one of the Wata- tores; it must have been a Wader. Other reasoning, from a different premise, brings us to the same conclusion. The marks were not in pairs, but alternating, each with its fellow of the other line; the bird did not hop or leap, but walked or ran bringing one leg after the other, whence we legitimately infer that it was not one of Jnsessores or Perchers ; for these hop. But it might be asked, how do we know that the perchers hop instead of walking when on the ground, since we are agreed that we never yet saw a live one to find out by observation? Yet it is easy to reason up to such a point, that assumption is virtual certainty. For the hind toe (or each hind toe when there are two) of the Jnsessores is long, is inserted on a level with the anterior ones, and is armed with a curved claw as the others are. This arrangement is *' To this and all other unqualified general statements in ornithology there are technical obiecti 1 1 t ti not. however. i lidati 1 rules. 302 FOOT-NOTES FROM A PAGE OF SAND. for the perfect opposition of the hind and front toes, as the thumb of our hand opposes the fingers; it infallibly suggests the idea of something to be clasped between—of grasping some object; the suggestion amounts to a moral certainty when we dissect and find among typical perchers.a special muscle for the freer and more advantageous working of this hind toe in opposition to the others. Such birds then, live where their foothold is not upon a flat surface, as the ground, but upon slender, cylindrical, claspable supports, as are found in trees and bushes. But there cannot be much plain walking done among twigs; the birds must constantly spring from one to another branch, and when they happen to descend to the ground it is not likely they would at once change a habit inborn and inbred for ages. So with certain exceptions, not necessary to point out here, Jnsessores are hoppers, as distinctively as all birds below them are either alkers or Swimmers. This bird's wings never touched the sand, yet the marks show the shape of the wing as plainly as the character of the feet. The wings were flat, long, narrow and pointed, cut- ting the air like blades. We learn this from the few indis- tinct seratches on the sand just before the prints became perfect. The bird came gliding swiftly and low, an scraped the sand before its wings were closed; to do this re- quires a wing large or at least long. For all heavy bodied birds, or birds with wings small for their weight; or with short, rounded and concave wings—all these, however fast they may whirr along when fairly on wing, must drop quietly, if flying slowly, or arrest their motion abruptly and forcibly, if flying rapidly, to avoid shock on alighting; in either case they drop plump, and find their feet at once. Now of all our true walking or wading birds the Galline (Grouse, Quail, ete.) and the Paludicole (Rails and Galli- nules) conform to these last mentioned particulars; so does the Heron family, and these, moreover, have a long hind toe. It could have been neither of these. The circle of possibili- FOOT-NOTES FROM A PAGE OF SAND. 303 ties is rapidly narrowing; we have only left whence to pick, the families of birds that make up the group Limicole, or the shore-waders, as distinguished from the Paludicole, or marsh-waders. Conning the Zimicole over in mind, we fine there are but two families furnishing in our locality any species so small that the imprint of its toes is less than an inch long. These are the Plover and.the Snipe families (Char qadrii and Scolopacide). We noticed just in front of the point pom the lines of the three toes came together—at the "heel," as it is gen- erally but wrongly called —that the depression of the heel- mark continued a slight distance between the bases of the toes. Clearly there must have been something of a web con- necting the roots of the toes, just as our fingers are joined at the hand. Now our plovers and snipes each furnish us one, and only one, bird that is partially webbed and small ‘enough to have made the tracks; these two are the Semipal- mated or Ring Plover (Ægialitis semipalmatus) and the Semipalmated Sandpiper (Hreunetes pusillus) ; it might have been either, for anything we have yet noticed. Which was it? We have exhausted our foot-data, but still one mark is left, and that decides. The snipes have long bills, vascular, nervous, and sensitive at the tip; these are organs of touch; the birds feel for things they cannot see. The plovers have short bills, comparatively hard at the tip. There were little round holes in the sand, just where the lines tangled up ; this was where the little bird stuck in its bill and probed for something. It would be useless for a plover to do this, for it could not fee! anything if it did; we infer then, that a plover never would. And so at last, the bird stands con- fessed ; Semipalmated Sandpiper, Hreunetes pusillus ; section Tringee, of family Scolopacide, of group Limicole, of order Grallte, of subclass Cursores, of class Aves or BIRDS. REVIEWS. PONGES.* — Professor Heckel in this paper has condensed the results of an extended and very remarkable series of investigations with regard to the affinities of the Sponges. He places them nearest the corals, considering their canal system as hich however, springs from an originally cellular layer, and an inner cellular membrane. This comparison is carried so far that as in the Coelenterata (Acalephs and Polyps) the large vessel, hak conveys away the water admitted through the sides by the smaller branches permeating in proportion as they have one or more afferent openings. Of course Pro- fessor Heckel is well aware of the principal objections to his theory, and states them. The mouthless sponges, for instance, he accounts for by re- ferring to the mouthless Sycocystis, which, however, has young with a well formed mouth. The fact, however, that the water permeating the spon This cavity enlarging finally breaks through one end, and forms a oath opposite to the end which has already become attached to the rocks. At this young stage it is ign : be not essentially different nn. a fresh- water Polyp, or a young The author nowhere etis to the late memoir of Prof. H. J. Clark, the — vesicles and particles of food in various states of digestion. Carter’s observations, as well as Professor Hecke. distinctly confirm the edu. or single-haired, condition of the cells of the internal mem- brane, and the structureless, gelatinous nature of the external layer. fin tha f} ganizati f relationship to apd Corals, By Ernest M (T: lated in the Ann and Mag. : Nat. History Jan 1870, from 207). (304) REVIEWS. 305 orakade Clark found that tne — "cid considered one of the mplest forms of animal life, had a s r flagellum, but that this was ents to procure food, which he Pt saw as it entered the sac-like body through a mouth situated at its base. The D of this mouth spread itself over the morsels which descended into a digestive vesicle in the in- terior of the body. The series from this point to the sponge is completed by a form, Salpingceca, which with the same characteristics also secretes a gelatinous envelope. These anatomical facts fully justified the author of the memoir alluded to in claiming tha discovered the true nature of the sponges, and they appear n nuch closer affinity be- e tween the sponges and the Uniflagellate Infusoria, and appear much more decisive than the coral-like characteristics described by Professor Heckel. The comparison of the aquiferous systems of sponges with the true stomach cavity and circulatory vessels of the coral is more than doubtful. sponges. It is well known that these perforations are common also in the star fishes and Polyzoa, and their precise import in either is as yet unknown. e most rational view would seem to be the opposite of Heeckel’s, i. e., that the pores are the mouths, and the so-called mouths the anal orifices, since out of these is all the refuse of the body thrown. De- scribing the radiating canals of Cyathiscus, the author asserts that the horizontal walls which divide these canals are absorbed, and the vertical species as an individual to possess numerous minute pores to admit food and rapidly enlarging canals, abutting finally in a large trunk to facilitate its emission. This is just the reverse of the economy of the organization of every individual, as such, in the animal kingdom. Individuals are uni- versally possessed of facilities for obtaining and swallowing food in the shape of large pliable mouths and stom machs, whereas the emission of the refuse takes place through the smaller end of the canal or through the mouth again AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 39 306 REVIEWS. the proper support of an individual it is evidently necessary that ae pato whether microscopical in size or not, should be obstructed in its ve in p a creature in which all this is reversed, and a digestive system is presented to us which is dioc aqu) increasing its facilities for getting rid of food as fast as it is swallow ow this reversal of the animal economy can be of service to the race we cannot see, so long as we regard the ies as an individual, or an aggregation of large individuals; but if on the other hand we adopt the opinion of his opponents, then all these ant ties disappear. We then see that the pores act as a strainer admittin ng only bodies of small size, such as are appropriate for the sustenance of the monads, which cover the internal surfaces of the canals. The e grad- ual tede sn of these canals into a central trunk becomes at once ap- propriate, when we compare it with the similar facilities which are found: in al Mn: communities for ism the colony of refuse and deleterious matters. The fact noticed by author, with m arked em- ith lade Soros is also explained, and the vase-like form of these cells noticed by Carter, and the amoeba-like d of the external mem- brane, accords spony well with this view. We do not find in this article upon a question of fact as regards the structure of the single cells of the internal membrane we may look for an early solution of this vexed ques- tion. If we dropped the review here it would be treating aea SEA with great injustice. Though forced to criticise the main point of his h other works of this eminent German zoologist, will "i bargs felt in the history of the progress of knowledge in this departm The account of the function and structure of the orit and of t inne of the ** ova" from special forms of his so-called cells of i^ int 1 membrane are of the greatest interest and importance. That, also, of ine gradual development of the canal system gives us an entirely new and original view of sponge structure. In this connection the re- a however to coalesce again as they approach maturity and uni ari- ous apertures into one viec trunk and single aperture; and also, that we can trace the origin of a species from common stem form To ilustrate this last scel the author instances two species, Guancha blanca and Sycometra compressa, whose variations are so great, and indi- REVIEWS. 307 cate affinities, with so many different groups, that he has been obliged to place them in a separate order by themselves. ‘ Sycometra compressa appears as a sponge stock which bears MUN one and the same cormus the mature forms even of eight different genera. conclusion Professor Heckel begs all of his readers who may be in possession of specimens of calcareous sponges to send them to him for examination and comparison. THE EXTINCT MAMMALIAN FAUNA OF DAKOTA AND NEBRASKA.* — This important work is the final expression, the author informs us, of labors extending over a period of twenty-three years, during which the mate- rials on which it is based, have been accumulating. Sufficient time has elapsed to allow of corrections of first identifications, and we have the result in a memoir of much completeness and accuracy in the topograph- ical descriptions of the remains preserved in such unusual perfection and y Mes have seen the light. As it is, the execution both in printing and litho- graphy, is a credit to all concerned. The species hitherto discovered in the Bad Lands belong to two series of strata, determined many years ago by Dr. F. v. Hayden to be Miocene and Pliocene respectively. Fossils from these, and a few of Postpliocene age are included. derived from the area in question. The whole d described is eighty-six, distributed as follows: Carnivora, fifteen; Artio- — thirty-four; Perissodactyla, twenty-nine: Rodentia, pus Insect- ivora, two. With reference to the relations of the genera and species, | we dee the author speak, by quoting his valuable summary at the close of the descriptive portion of the work: *In comparing the two lists ts representing the North American tertiary essen. mainly from the states of Dakota and Nebraska, the quaternary mam: mals of the same continent, a remarkable dissimilarity is Sbenived, p the we is also a tst esemblance of the former with the tertiary and quaternary mammals of - old Miaflo f nan. nol 4 one qua rs in the quaternary formation of North America; and of tuünihone wenera a of procesy terrestri mammals, ch iefly from is Niobrara River of Nebraska, only f Nort eríca, and of these eight three are abse nt in the existing fauna of the continent, The ma rsa alluded to as common to the pliocene tertiary and the quaternary formations are Canis, Cervus, Dicotyles, Mastodon, Ele- p It is uncertain how far the s spies es of Canis attributed to the Niobrara pliocene formation are peculiar to it. Part of the fossils may be em aternary, or 66 a eae even er remains. Of Cervus, part of the specimens referred to it may be of a reversed Bere the antler viewed as as pertaining to the same may represe xia a peculiar genus, vnus, subeequen ay extinguished, Th Ane only longed to a quaternary or perhaps a recent species. The remains of the piceo. Mastodon be f Matat. A Nah i ata TNI " > y f the Mammal- ian Remains of North America. on the Geology of the Tertiaries of Dakota and aka, by Professor F v. Hayden, M. D. 308 REVIEWS. pertain to the subgenus Tetralophodon, while those of the quaternary period belong to the er emgins ‘of kiephas probably indicate a species herd from the quaternary E. a h it is not posi y d. The ain E from thos he E. fraternus, Th s Bip parion is clearly common to both the pliocene and quaternary perio ut the species are different otohippus, one of the soli- pedal genera of the Niobrara pliocene, appear: ave existed during the quaternary s also to period, in Obi. oath America. A small —_ of Poe of the Niobrara pliocene, is re- presented by n T he quaternary fauna Sad both American continents was ane rey. seenguiened n the eg -+ n sloths, no trace of w prese the tertiary aas of North America. cumstane «Te esi remains of ations of Eon je presence o nad d fauna of North America of the great sloths, together with This appears the ne repareabie from the Vias other ordinal and ge c forms, w kewise existed, and in part still continue to exist, iu South America, Med to ihe hopresetor that the North American continent during the Th r similitude of thé hick l g he p k, with the contem- poraneous oe of De mes world, ugg he p lity that the North American continent P from. a continent whose a Mer w forms the bottom " the great Faci > bns tiary t ana of Asia with its peninsula. Europe, o on nthe other, h he remains fro om the Mauvaises Terres and the Niobrara River, we observe the slink A act that upwards of fifty = cniin belonging " the T faunæ together, seuroey a genus is com- mon to bo "S In view o ft he 41 1 . Thus, for instance, t the pliocene Merychyus s y bed "od as identical oes 4 with eo 00) on as e Vi id ocene Rhino- ros occide: ppears to have been an Aceratherium, while that of the pliocene formation was probably a true or horned Rulsoesnds. t, those of Dakota and Nebraska, under consid- eration, appea in thei p with the tertiar unz of Europe. Of the seridbrons of the former | liti prising . the genera, or more than one-h If, f : Can Amphicyon, Hysnodon, eerste and Drepanodon. The feline Diets o of the Buen miocene has not elsewhere been vered. The re o carnivorous genera are too gph tate nowh for compariso n. It is ur R i d 1 that b f i , none, excepting the genus s Cervus, bel gs t y other kno fane ‘cuties’ or rece; f th iti ble tl f the remains attributed to k may belong to a peculiar subgenus, while others may be of a recent species. p the North Amer ings fexnary nee quaternary ruminants, " fiud pemnrkapie differences, A liar famil P e latter by a single genus. This family has nowhere in been discovered, neither in the American quaternary nor the foreign tertiary PM CHE Another v: the Agriochcerida, nearly allied to the former, is peculiar to the miocene of the Mauvaises Terres. p and quaternary de- posits, but partieularly in the miocene, and they are yet represented in the existing fauna of South dienen. The M osch E y but not in the l later formations of " North. cita. erica. The — are represented by a genus in the Niobrara pliocene. The SOT: and Bovide represented in North America prior to the quaternary period, REVIEWS. 309 Of icti m exclusive of n» Je pe — of seven species of six genera belong to the Dakota miocene, h erium and us are mon to the European te “tt tiary, The remaining genera in an but imperfectly known, appear to be pes ES - Niobrara pliocene presents us with traces of a peccary, but rahe ‘probably may neriod e of the artiodaety le genera of the Dakota miocene, the huge pasion: was repre- ienn by the nearly allied Chalicotherium of the European and Himmalaya miocene period, Of uneven-toed Pachyderms or Perissodactyla, the Dakota egre presents one Acera- therium, a peeuliar genus of the same family, the Hyracodon, and a species of Lophiodon. The former and latter are both European tertiary forms. Another member of the Rhinoceros family, R. hesperius, from California, was probably an Aceratherium of miocene age. A. merid- ianus of Texas was probably of the sume CART as the latter. The Niobrara plioeene p m tl Rhinoceros, odon and Elephant. The for A gh ab aiaa t in its Europear equiva alen ai and continuing to exist in Asia and Africa, nh qct E ed to the sub- genus Tetralophodon, wine that ea me qM period was a Trilophodon. Elephants of other species were nearly y e but two Fiunt now live in Asia and Africa. Five genera of So lipeds appear to have lived in North America during the miocene period. Three of them are peculiar, and appear st to have been discovered elsew ere They have been named Anchippus from Texas, Hypohippus from the Niobrara Rive pappaa from New Jersey. The remaining genus ppsa characterized sg ud Pe of maius from the Mauvaises Terres belongs also to the European miocene. he Niobr: The pliocene formatio: Niobrara is remarkable for the abundance of its equine mains, which have been referre e genera, of which Merychippus and Parahippus ae pecu bu r, and Protobippus has been discovered cleewhe ag - ly in a America. The re- American quaternary and like- " The miocene “Rodents of the. Án Terres belong to four peculiar genera of as many still existing families. D genera, Palzocastor, may be identical with the European ene f Cotemporan The pliocene Rodents e a Me pa appear to belong to the still existing g Castor and irri, but the latter now exists only in the old wor! Of t w discovered qua ternary rodents o f North America, one genus, Hydrocherus, now S RR The miocene Insectivora of North America belong to three genera no discovered else- where." pp. 359-362. viewing the character of the work, the care and accuracy of t spect constitutes its great merit. On the other hand, however, we d to in many cases, that exact comparison and clear diagnosis of era proposed or adopted, by which the zoological affinity is alone RE and by means of which the analysis of the subject in the broad sense is so greatly facilitated. Without it, the student gropes in a mass of detail, 'and unless he fortunately have access to a good museum, will fail of acquiring a mastery of it. This refers also to a precise comparison with Eur DEYS nem for which we have so many standards in figures and The EEN of extinct mammalia is of equal or greater value to the student. The whole number of species enumerated is two hundred and . three, of which Dr. Leidy has stood sponsor to one viget and twenty. 'The speen are distributed into the orders as follow ; Cédivbes, thirty- three iodactyla, fifty-two; Perissodactyla, hcec Rodentia, iwastr! Insectivora, five; Marsupialia, one; Edentata, seven; Sirenia, 310 REVIEWS. two; Zeuglodonta, two; Cetacea, forty-four. There are several species described for the first time, and the literary references are very complete. he system adopted by Dr. DUM requires some comment. He adopts the order Bimana, a step which we regard as retrograde, since modern ae fresh in the mind m every student, have proved beyond cavil that t group is equi to the order Quad hace The di- vision of MUR o Ruminantia and EM aS orders, rank- ing with other medaia ea on Bons d eoe or pred of the of a homological system. The sian spin of the ae Kai from Carnivora has in the same manner little better foundation. The bri oft case the Squalodons, which embrace ten of the twelve species included, must certainly be referred to the Cetacea. "The separation of the Sirenia order has met with favor from Owen and others, and is well adopted in the present work. THE putas EVIDENCES OF PLANT-LIFE.* — In this pamphlet Pro- fessor Dawson reviews the different substances which have been sup- posed to show Zh plants existed contemporaneously with the Eozóon in the Laurentian of Canada. nd First, that e organie strueture can be detected in ‘the Laurentian graphite; condly, that the general arrangement and microscopic structure of the substance corres- mds wi the mo and bitu mmer matters 3H Grextae IDreuntons of won odern date; thirdly, that if the L it has only undergone a metamorphosis similar dn kind to that which organic miaiter in meta- morphosed sediment of later age has experi en dotem that the association u the gra ph- itic matter witli organic limestone, bed iron o lli the probability of its vegetable origin; fifthly, ius t when we consider the immense thie kh ess and extent of the Eozoonal and graphitic limestones and iron-ore deposits of the — if we admit the organie origin of the limestone of graphite, we must be pre pe ared elie that the life of that early period, thongh it ay h ously developed. d that it lled. accumulation that of any subsequent period." sum up these facts TE copi d, in its results, in the way of sinapsia FossıL Birps. t — In this little pamphlet Professor Marsh imposes a ne hir apud on the science of Paleontology, by the discovery of five iia f Cretaceous birds. Among the species there is one, Paleotringa m dastribed from the original specimen found by Dr. Morton. he first fossil bird bone found in this country, and though referred to by Dr. Morton in his Organic Remains of the Cretaceous period, has been hith- erto considered a recent specimen, which some accident had been b the Cretaceous marl deposits. The forms embrace one large ‘swimming bird ( Laornis Edwardsianus), two gulls (Paleotringa littoralis * On th^ m of the Laurentian of Canada. By J. W. Dawson, LL. D., Proceed- ings of the Geolog ety, Postponed Papers, Vol. xxvi, chant l. Pamphl vm n + Notice of = Foss Birds from the hited and Tertiary Formations of ‘ie United States. st C. Marsh. From American Journal ar Science and Arts. March, 1870. "adieu 4 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 311 and P. vetus), and two rails ( Telmatornis priscus and T. affinis). Besides these there are descriptions of four species of Tertiary birds, the first that have been regularly described from that formation in this country. These are sl to be more closely allied to existing species than those of the Cretaceou They are — Conradi, Catarractes antiquus, Grus Haydeni, and in Idahen Though the discovery of man remarkable bird, the Archeopteryx, in the Jurassic beds, led naturalists to suppose that Cretaceous forms would be eventually discovered, to Professor eia energy we owe the fulfilment of these anticipations. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. BOTANY. HIBERNATION OF DUCK-WEED. — It has long been known that some spe- cies of Lemna, or duck-weed, produce, at the approach of winter, leaves of a different character to those formed in the spring, which fall to the th nd or i winter. A series of more accurate observations on this point is recorded by M. Van Hoven in the ** Bulletin de la Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique." The species of Lemna indigenous to Belgium are the same as those found in this country; of these M. Van Hoven finds that two only, the L. polyrrhiza and gibba, produce leaves of a different form in winter; while with the three other species, L. minor, trisulca, and arrhiza, the ena leaves live through the winter, remaining on the surface. In oe these winter-leaves first make their appearance in August or Septem They are much smaller than the. ordinary leaves, reniform or Musici elliptieal, olive-brown on both sides, and not gibbous be- neath; their roots are exceedingly minute, and at first hidden within the first frost. At the e ordinary gran of the Mu AC of vegetation, a small bubble of oxygen appears on the upper surface of these submerged: leaves, which carries fpe to the surface, from which they again descend [n ertai t. m Lemna gibb x water, differing in shape, size, and structure from those developed during summer. — Quarterly Journal of Science. 912 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY Tue FRAGARIA GILLMANI AGAIN.—In simple justice to those concerned, I think it but right to state that specimens of this food have lately been examined by Dr. Asa Meta and that he confidently considers it F. Mexicana Schieck senda: At the same time he admits that Schtechenda in his description has cereals all mention of the well-developed leaf ou the scape, which Dr. Gray sin ud idcm to be, or to be Rassen the distinguishing charac ‘the species," adding that **no one could tell from Sc er vin inensis whether or not he had a plant like this in view.” It w hus be seen that he does not entertain the idea that it is merely Ve accidental variation of F. vesca,” as som z Ld er ~~ everbearing ocn (F. Gillmani eR has held this everbearing character for ten years in the State of higan. Plants removed to the house from ilie open ground last RM are now (March 22d, 1870) in e plant has been raised from seed during the past season, and the besito continue to produce all the characteristics of the parent plants, with dichotomous stem and racemose flowers, even to the blos- soming and fruiting of the stolons, and that when but four months old! —the leafy character of the stem being a marked feature. — Henry GILL- MAN, Detroit, Michigan VITAL FORCE AND COLOR IN PLANTS. — In my remarks on the yellow- flowered variety of the purple Sarracenia, in the March number of the NaTU A ST, the parenthesis, on page 44, contains an evident lapsus penna stead of reading **(white being taken as absence of color)," it might be corrected and improved so as to read ws :— “(white y about thí interesting subject, and more clearly deflning the laws which govern it. As we better understand the effects on vegetation of different gi constituents of the soil, more light will be shed in this dam I s bee marked that when a flower is of two colors, they a most potes DIE of each other. Familiar instances of ux are forg i the fairy bird's-eye primrose of the rocks (Primula farinosa Linn.), bear- ing pale lilac gewo with yellow eyes, powdered with silvery farina, and the peerless calypso, nymph of the hemlock groves (Calypso borealis Salisb.), with br don purple petals, and lip maculated with a darker purple, almost hiding the flush of rare yellow glory within. Where there NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 313 are three 1 the third is commonly white, — the union of the other two, as it were. A fine illustration of this is seen in the showy moccason- flower (C; bebo spectabile Swartz.). The snow-white petals spread ted lip i ich in rpie pends the singular petal-like diu stamen of a pale lemon-color blotched with tawny spots. Another elegant example of this is presented by the Calopogon pulchellus R. Br., the club-shaped hairs in the beautiful beard of which are pure white, bright yellow, and rich purple. The white is dis- tributed, if we may use the expression, into yellow and purple. — HENRY ILLMAN, Detroit, Michigan HE LIANIS OR Woopy CLIMBERS of the Isthmus, form, as is well known, bora codes in the forests, which can be penetrated only by aid of the axe or m un ie. M. Lévy, a botanical traveller in Nic- the new roots were now so slender and feeble that he desisted. The plant was a species of Bignonia. JAPANESE SEA-WEEDS. — At a recent meeting of the Royal Academy of Amsterdam, a collection was au to illustrate the care taken by the Japanese in applying to beneticial purposes the natural products of their country. The collection consisted of sixteen species of alge which are useful for Mod: or other purposes, inu with fabrics manufactured from some of them. Several of the species were altogether new; in other instances the application was nid novel. — Quarterly Journal of cience. ZOOLOGY. New INsECTICIDE. — M. Cloez, who is engaged at the garden of the Paris — has invented what he considers a complete annihilator for plant-lice and other small insects. This discovery i is given in the ** Revue rière, To reduce M. a preparation to our measures, it will be sui- d dium of hme seed ud red TRUN are to be put in seven pints of water, and boiled until reduced to five pints. When the iquid is cooled, strain it, and use with a watering-pot ge, as may be most convenient. We are assured that this sisi has been AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 40 9514 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. most efficacious in M and it will be worth while for our gardeners o experiment wit Quassia has long been used as an insect-destroyer. The stavesacre duce are the seeds of à species of larkspur, or Delphi- nium, and used to be kept in the old drug stores. Years ago they were much used for an insect that found its home in the human head, but as that has fortunately gone out of fashion, it may be that the seeds are less obtainable than formerly. The stavesacre seeds contain Delphine, which is one of the most active poisons known, and we have no doubt that a very small share of it would prove fatal to insects. — Scientific Opinion. Fauna OF ROUND Istanp. — The remarkable discovery has been made By feet deep, no animals of that Pita being natives of the Mauritius. The flora was also found to be to a great extinct specifically distinct. — The Academy POSITION OF THE BRACHIOPODA IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. — For some time past the writer has had reasons for believing that the Brachiopods, with the Polyzoa, had greater affinities with the worms than with the mol- lusks. He has studied attentively Terebratulina and Discina as well as their early stages, and in all points of their structure interprets articu- lated characters, and not t nr characters. Without entering into particulars at this time, he would state that in the structure of the shell he finds the greatest resemblance to the shell of crustacea, both as nb the peculiar baer structure, and the scale-like appearance, and i chemical composition. In Lingula, while the carbonate of lime amounts to only six per cent., the phosphate of lime amounts to forty-two per et in Arie sete which fringe the mantle are remarkably worm-like. wo t bristles are enclose d in muscular sheaths, while in e viri animals the hairs are simply tubular prolongations of the epi- dermallayer. In the Brachiopods these bristles are secreted by follicles and are surrounded by muscular fibres, and are freely moved by the animal. The structure of iini sete differ but little, if at all, from those im the ipa i boten with the cirri is to be compared to similar parts in the aeons worms, and the mantle which covers and conceals their arms, s to be compared to the cephalic collar, as seen in Sabella, for instance, ere we find it split laterally, and a portion reflected. If this were sime developed so as to cover the oT fronds of cirri, we should recognize quickly the relation between the Dr. Gratiolet has compared the aea — of the Brachiopods to that of the crustacea, and Burmeister has shown a resemblance between e oviducts of Brachiopoda, with their trumpet-shaped openings and, similar organs in the worms. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 315 In the little knowledge we have of their € the strongest proofs exist of their affinity with the worms. .Lacaze-Duthiers figures a positive articulate and worm-like character. From the body of this embryo, prominent bristles project. Smitt figures the same in the embryo of Lepralia, wherein he describes six bristles that appear loco- motive; and Claparéde figures the embryo of Nerine, a worm, in which we find similar bristles Matias from the body. In this condi lMon it is interesting to note that in the winter eggs, or statoblasts, of Polyzoa we have a relation to Mb ecu among the lower crustacea, the ephippia of Daphnia, and the winter eggs of Rotifers, for example Leuckart places the Polyzoa lih the worms, and the close affinity of ea resemble in almost every essential point of their eiectum the hippo- € Polyzo e many of i foregoing points need ample illustration, and as the iter has in preparation a memoir on the s subject, he will now only call fatis to the facts supporting these views, evolved from the study of living Lingule. It is but justice to state that six months previous to the observations made on Lingula, he had come to v ge on herein ex- pressed, and had freely argued it with his colaborator He sàw the necessity of examining Lingul i karea before advancing and a Macon, North Carolina, for their ‘cans aid sd sympathy in further- ance of the object of his visit there. i After nearly a week’s eere search, Lingule were found in a sand shoal, left at low tide. They were found buried in the sand. The pe- annelids. In many instances the peduncle was broken in sifting them from the sand, yet the wound was quickly healed and a new sand-tube promptly formed. When placed on the surface of the sand they were noticed to move quite freely, by the sliding motion, in all directions, = the rsal and ventral n me aided at the same time by the rows of s bristles, which swung back and forth like a galley of oars, ea a peculiar track in the The peduncle was aioe: and the blood could be seen coursing back and eben in its channel. It was distinctly and — ringed, and presented a remarkably worm-like appearance. It had layers of circular aud lon; ngs tudinal muscular fibre, and coiled Re. in numerous folds 316 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. or unwound at full length. It was contractile, also, and quickly jerked the body beneath the sand when alarmed. But the most startling discovery in connection with this interesting animal was the fact, that its blood was red. This was strongly marked in the gills, which were found in the shape of a series of rows of simple lamelle, hanging from the internal surface of the mouth; thus proving the correctness of Vogt's observations from alcoholie specimens times the peduncle sepu become conjeste E nd a deep rose blush was markedly distinct. The es were distinc iter believes Bde Matos ods to = true articulates, having cer- tain affinities with the crustacea, but properly A penetra to the worms, coming nearest the tubicolous annelids. They better be regarded as forming a comprehensive type, with general pond features. Possibly they have affinities with the mollusks, through the homologies pointed out by Allman as existing between the Polyzoa and Tunicates. It is interesting to remember that Lingula, though one of the earliest animals created, has yet remained ee the same through all geo- logical ages to the present time. — Epwa ORSE Fig. 76. Fig. 78. Fig. 76. Peduncle pu retaining a portion of the sand tu Fig. 77. Showin, e valves in motion; the n broken ania new sand case being formed. Fig. 78. Pedunele broken close to erm and sand ease being formed, uE RuBY CROWNED WREN. — In reply to Mr. Allen's question, I ma state positively that, according to my experience, the adult fertile Aem is **ruby-crowned " like the male. She is perhaps a trifle smaller, not quite so brightly colored, and with the flame-colored patch possibly of alittle less extent; but she cannot be distinguished from the male with certainty, except on dissection, and even then it is not always easy to determine from slight inspection, unless the organs are enlarged in functional activ- ity. The barren or sickly female may possibly not acquire the ornament Birds of both sexes Tack it for at least a year; whether they breed or not with plain heads I do not know. These come along in spring in the rear of the mature birds; they are most abundant at the time when the latter are about leaving. — ELLIOTT Cougs. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 317 GEOLOGY. GEOLOGICAL Survry or Iowa.— The legislature of this state has FO too ánxious about the next election t any attention to the de- elopment of the natural resources and mining interest of the state Provision. has been ma owever, for the publication of the State Geologist's Report, which is to be completed in the same style as the Illinois Geological Survey. New Fossit Turkey. — At the meeting of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, March a, Professor O. C. Marsh of Yale College, exhibited a number of fossil remains from the Post-tertiary deposits of Monmouth E New Jersey, which indicate a new and distinct type of birds, closely related, apparently, to the turkey, and not unlikely the progenitors of the existing species. The specimens shown were portions of three skeletons, of different ages, which belonged to birds about the esting remains were refe ferred provisionally by Professor Marsh to the genus Meleagris, and the species they represent was named Meleagris altus. MICROSCOPY. CULATION OF THE LATEX IN THE LATICIFEROUS VESSELS. — Within a few days I have repeated some experiments (first made more than fifteen years since) upon the circulation of the latex in the laticiferous vessels of ore de Amici, Dutrochet and Mohl deny any visible motion in them except such as is the result of injury; while Schleiden says **that in the uninjured vessels, the motion of the latex can very seldom be successfully shown ;” even in Chelidonium majus it is only occasionally possible, and then pre- sents great optical difficulties Now, I find, by potting a young plant of this kind, and placing any young leaf between two strips of glass (upon which a drop of glycerine as been put) in such a manner as to bring the under side of the leaf up- 318 NATURAL ILISTORY MISCELLANY. ermost on the stage of the microscope, so as to throw the strong re- flected sunlight upon it from the mirror below, that; First, there is occasionally either a nearly total want of motion or only the particles to be seen, running from right to left, if the vessel happens to run horizontally on the stage, or n me if the vessel runs from the outer to the inner border of the stage Secondly, that while watching the eieolndon as seen through the lenses in the reflected sunlight, if I move the diaphragm from left to right, so as o a c 4 Lond et B ün oO [97 c D co -— oO "Z 2 tn n 9 gs oO o ^ e CR o bs £e Z7 c e et z e ec B et > c n a irror. The actual direction in the plant is from the apex of the leaf in sunlight body properly placed will quicken the circulation, as will cold retard it. If I mistake not we have here a fine demonstration of the conversion of light into heat by its passage through the vegetable tissues, and of heat into motion by its action upon the laticiferous vessels. Prof. Balfour in the Article Botany, ** Ency. Brit.,” says that in plants with milky and colored juices evident movements have been viii and mentions the calyx leaves of Chelidonium majus, as also the Ind rubber plant, the gutta-percha tree, the dandelion, and the Pagi pant and through your journal, should you think this article worth insertion, . by mixinga little of the colored juice with alcohol, and adding a little water, it will be seen that the motion of the liquids in the vessels cannot be the result of evaporation. And that it is not an ocular illusion may be argued from the fact that three independent vie witnessed the changes of motion as above described. — H. C. Perkins, M. D., Newburyport. Note, May 12. I have just examined the circulation of the latex in the laticiferous vessels of Leontodon taraxacum under the same circumstances as that of Chelidonium and am pleased to find precisely the same results. ES BOILING DESTROY GERMS?— This question cropped up in the course of the Pasteur and Pouchet controversy on Heterógeny, and it a boiling. This is another simple problem for microscopists. — Microscopical Journal. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 319 ANTHROPOLOGY. AR RCH ROLOGIOAL IMPOSTURES.— To hoaz 1s eminently an American pro- always reckless, which pervades our society far and wide, and which is gratified by creating what is called **a sensation." Sometimes there is a sinister or selfish motive hehind, and a deliberate imposture is practiced with the view to pecuniary advantage. Of this the ‘Aztec children” and the ‘Onondaga giant” are clear examples. The latter fraud, it is to be hoped, is bani ; the former flourished for years after it had been ie md exposed. I have hu —— down a score or more of these frauds on popular cre- just as though two spoons of equal size could not fit into or over each y canons of Rear River in the Uin ountains. I quote from n article : * Having secured the help of some half dozen men, Professor Scott immediately directed his, cour: hast the T where a bastard men? starts out eee one of the sad pars Fortunately he 2 with him a half-br ge all through that section, and through the interpretor he _ warned from Wenn i a sub-chief of sme ipcdiod Mies, f of extraordi- nary dimensions. Tl and to his ; great gratifica- tion discovered a tumulus of as fair and positive proportions as any described by Squier and Davis wi gok eet, was : of half a gallon, cone-shaped, an s um atte any mark or engraving whatever onit. Along the left side lay a mica bracelet ser a spring clasp, perfectly preserved. On each side of the Skull were two medicine stones, shaped like a cigar, full of holes, and of half-pound weight. 320 ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS, ETC. The Scotch granite. Onthe right side of the debe. pda rdg bund à silver plate about the size and exactly the shape of an a pale re No mark Mur was distinguishable on this piece, but it is of the purest silver. 1t may h e poen u sed an * sngel, though » he Professor fueliabe to ue »-— that it was a » din? Yas UAL OF I replied to my bebés that I thought the ien story a ‘‘ hoax," but if it would please him would soon find out if it were or not. I ac- cordingly addressed a letter to the editor of the paper in which the article originally appeared, asking him on what authority the publication was made. He answered that it had been written by a sub-editor (giving his name) who, however, had left his employ, but to whom he would forward my letter. A few days ago I secured a note from the sub-editor afore- said, in which he says: “To be frank with you, ‘Explorations in Utah’ was a sensa ffset tl coming report of Profteiés Powell in the Colorado Canons,’ d ooa Samuel necp à in Colorado,' both of which have since appeared. From personal observation in the region me us.” I should perhaps mention that ** Professor Scott's" explorations were alleged to have been undertaken under the belief that the race of the mound builders of the Mississippi Valley had migrated to Mexico and Central Mexico, and that traces of their transit might be found on the way. — E. G. SQUIER. Oo ATE. TO CORRESPONDENTS. T. D jM r specimens though inconvenien any x small for determination, &re: 1, "Po Ln e) 2i Aspidium patens : * Parmelia I. var amilina fraxinea; 5, Parmelia speciosa variate grad ifera. Southern spe- cies of liihens and — are d erac e. end aime Taco ore. Your eei BOOKS RECEIVED. Annual cg ee Synopsis. By J. B. Trembley, M.D., Toledo, Ohio. Pamph. 1870.. ndred Dollar Mn Essay on the Cultivation vé the ae By D. H. Compton. 8yo. eg ig "iwetruzed. pe iae &Co. New York, 1870. oed The Geological Surv of Ont es 869. ite py eee ee bag! meni re of Ohio, Fe mar y A By J. S. Newberry Enit. OEC" p^ pamph. 1870. of a Bear Hu A the — Read ‘bet ore the Albany Institute, January-18, X pias Colvin.. ave: pamph. J. Munsell. Albany, 1870. Proceedings Academy of Natur ai Sciences of sigs telphia, 0. 4. "Decem ber, 1869, Discourse on the Lie and Character of Geor; eae: a By S. T. Wallis. Peabody Institute re . 8vo, pam rnal of the Queckett Micro scopical Ol Club. .No. 10. April, 1870. 8vo. Plates.» London. Alaska and iis Resources. By W. H. Dail. La Lar 8vo. Cloth. 628 pages. Many lllustra- I a to e ard. First Annual Report of the quit nhe y rH made during the year 1869, y E. T. mee State Geologist, assisted by Messrs. Bradley, Haymond and Levette. 8vo, Mod "pp. AR rendi Indianapolis, 869. = "gia M l rom e Ibis" tor rv 1870. Y ih e-Fowl (Alea impennis). By Alfred Newton. [F Contributions to the Theory Natural Selection. A Series of Essays. AMréd Russel of Wallace. pp. 384. 12mo. eih. London and New York. 1870. P pen. ir Co. The Naturalist's Guide in Collecting and Preservin ects of Natural History, with a Com ete Catalogue of the Birds a Eastern Massachusetts. C. J. Maynard. Illustrated. pp. 170. 2mo, cloth. Boston, 1870. Fields, Osgood & Co. [$2.00. Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New e Vol. ix. No.10, April, 1870, Naturalist's Note Book. April and May, Londo) Iai e Get i prt alae dett, Cte o TUUM L ri of Noi rn Americ reference to Erian ese ue Period, Aberats of the Bakerian Lecture. Lecture. By J. W. Deseo (From yal Society. London, 1870.] LL EE E AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. IV. — AUGUST, 1870. — No. 6. coc Gu eS € THE LIEBE Si RD BY GRACE ANNA LEWIS. > Maat X NNA TN D 7^5 c «MM Cram Siig SY AM T "as. (f NS SY " (M, OA € ý Z- = fe 3 e e e z ey =x a T TuE Lyre Bird finds in the south-eastern portion of Aus- Entered ding tó A gr h 1870, by the PrABODY ACADEMY OP SCIENCE, in the Clerk's Offi ha Di AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 41 (321) 223 THE LYRE BIRD. tralia a region peculiarly adapted to its nature. At a variable distance from the sea rises a range of mountains, the swell of which is undulating rather than precipitous, while the summits expand into immense open downs and grassy plains. These are studded with belts and forests of trees, and appear like a succession of vast parks. As the hills and plateaus sink into the cup-like depression of the interior, marshy grounds alternate with parched and sterile barrens; but sea- ward, the soil is of almost inconceivable richness. Here, a tropical luxuriance prevails. Forests of immense, ever ver- dant, blooming trees, are broken by rich meadow-like dis- triets admirably suited to grazing purposes. Indeed, the country as described, is so charming, that it might be con- sidered almost a Paradise were it not for the intense heat of summer, increased, as it is, by the hot dry winds which blow southward from more northerly regions. Parching droughts are succeeded by torrents of rain, which, collecting on the hills and plains, and advancing through their stream- lets, pour in swollen floods down the mountain sides to the sea, carrying destruction on every hand. Thus are the sea- ward slopes washed into gullies and ravines, which are left obstructed by fallen trees and branches. Over these active nature soon spreads a mantle of greenness and bloom, by means of rapidly growmg creeping vines, forming almost in- accessible fastnesses. In these secluded haunts the Lyre Bird hides itself from the gaze of man. It is found over a large extent of country, but is peculiar to the mountain dis- tricts of Australia, and especially to those on the south- eastern face of the continent. Two species are known; one, Menura superba, the well-known Lyre Bird, the other a closely allied species, Menura Albertii. Australia is a country of wonders, where even the leaves of the trees are so disposed that they present but little surface to the scorching sun, and, consequently, are almost valueless for shade; and where, both in the vegetable and animal world, are curious furms existing nowhere else on the globe. THE LYRE BIRD. $23 Here is a rich display of birds with gorgeous plumage, and here also are found many remarkable only for their unlike- ness to all others. Among the latter is a family, the mem- bers of which, with their peculiarly large feet, scratch up grass, herbage, and soil, and throwing these backward, in concentric circles, finally raise a mound which forms a verit- able hot-bed. In this they deposit their eggs, and the heat engendered by the decaying vegetable matter quickens the life-germ, as in ordinary hatching does the warm body of the brooding mother. What is especially curious is that the Lyre Bird, while in- cubating its eggs in the method common to birds, has a sim- ilar habit of raising mounds which it devotes to a wholly different purpose. These elevations seem to be intended as orchestras for the display of musical powers, and both morning and evening they betake themselves thither, frequently while they whistle, sing, or imitate the notes of other birds, raising and spreading their tails with all the pride of the peacock. M. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, refers both the Lyre Birds and the “Mound Builders” to one family, that of the Megapodide, or the Great Feet. It is by no means won- derful that this thought should have suggested itself to the mind of the learned naturalist, for there certainly is, in several respects, a striking similarity between the Lyre Bird and the Megapodes, a resemblance so strong as to be per- ceived even by the casual observer. But this similarity seems capable of explanation on other grounds than those of a family relationship, nor need we even suppose that the birds in question belong to the same order. The Lyre Bird has been known for more than half a cen- tury, but possibly, our fullest information is derived from the English naturalist, Gould, who, with his wife, travelled in Australia for the purpose of ornithological investigation more than twenty years ago, and who since has, from time to time by his correspondence, obtained facts of much im- portance to ornithological science. To his pen, and to her 324 THE LYRE BIRD. almost magie pencil, we are largely indebted for our knowl- edge of Australian birds. The pictures of both artists are so life-like that we might well be pardoned for forgetting that we had never heard the musie of their songsters, nor beheld the flowering vine where it grew. The whole collection of birds, forming the originals of Gould's “Birds of Australia," was purchased by Dr. Thomas B. Wilson and presented to the Academy of Natural Sci- ences in Philadelphia, —a gift to a noble institution of his native city, in which America has reason to rejoice. In this collection, along with other specimens of the Lyre Bird, may be seen that which furnished the half size illustration of Gould. It is somewhat faded by time, but otherwise is in a good state of preservation. From this bird our artist has given the cut heading the present article. The bird is about the size of the common fowl. Its gen- eral plumage is of a dull leaden, or chocolate brown color, Fig. 80. brightened on the wings, chin and front part of the throat with a reddish tinge, which is much richer during the mating season. The peculiar beauty of the bird, however, lies in its tail, which is in perfection only four or five months of the year. This appendage consists of six- teen feathers, twelve of which, (icin EM M NS in the engraving, are natural size, ' furnished with loose, slender and flowing barbs, which are so distant from each other that their effect is that of a background of light and elegant tracery. Figure 80 shows a section from one of these feathers, the barbs, many of which are seven inches in length, having been cut away on either side of the central stem. Four of these feathers are of a closer texture near the base where firmness is required. The two unpiiant middle feathers are, THE LYRE BIRD. 325 on the outside, destitute of barbs, except a slight fringe near the termination. On the inner side there is a narrow vane gently expanding to a little more than half an inch at the widest part, but contracting towards the end. These feathers bend on either side over the delicate tracery, heightening its effect by their decided lines, as best seen in fig. 79. Figure 81 pre- sents two sections, æ from the ter- minal curve, and 6 from the middle of one of these rigid feathers. But that which gives character to the whole is the arrangement of the Fig. 81. external feathers. These curve in "terminal curve; > nom middle such a manner that the two together terminal curve; 6 from middle portion of one of the central, rigid feathers. form the outline of an ancient lyre, an appearance so striking Fig. 82. o> a, manung uide, from o of ee Mp ei cg Maihora: devoid of color. as to confer on the birds their popular name. These two feathers contrast with the middlé ones by presenting vanes, wide on the inner side, on the whole length of the shaft. These vanes, are apparently frilled, but this singular effect exhibited at a in figure 82, which is a section, half size, from one of the exterior feathers, is pro- duced by an alternate omission of bar- bules on the barb, as seen at 5, fig. 82 which is a single barb. As the barbs are seen edgewise, they present, in the naked spaces, the appearance of trans- parency, and are usually so described. The microscope, however, proves that in these portions the barbs are not These two outer feathers are of one or more shades of brown and ash color, lighter than the general 326 THE LYRE BIRD. plumage, and are tipped with black. In running the tail is lowered and held horizontally, and when of full size it is nearly two feet in length. Gould describes the Lyre Bird (Menura superba) as soli- tary, never more than one pair, and frequently only one bird being found in the same covert. It is extremely shy, and of all birds is the most difficult to capture, this being ascribed in part to its extraordinary powers of running and in part to the nature of the ground it inhabits, traversed as that is by immense, obstructed gullies and ravines. It seldom or never attempts to escape by flight, but like the Texan Guan, belonging to the Penelopide, frequently ascends trees to a considerable height, by leaping from branch to branch. One mode of procuring specimens is by wearing the tail of a full plumaged male in the hat. The poor bird is deceived, and, approaching to greet a companion, easily falls a victim to the gunner. Any unusual sound, such as a shrill whistle, generally induces it to show itself for an instant; if this favorable moment is not seized instantly, the next it may be half way down a gully. None are so successful in the capture of these birds as are the native blacks of Australia. Restless and active, the Menura is constantly engaged in traversing the brush from one end to the other, and the mountain sides from the top to the bottom of the gullies, whose steep and rugged acclivities present no obstacle to its long legs and septal) and muscular thighs. It is also said to be capable of performing the most extraordinary leaps, frequently using this method of escape from its enemies. Independently of its loud, full call, which can be heard reverberating over the gullies at least a quarter of a mile, it possesses an “inward and varied song, the lower notes of which can only be heard when the listener is within a few feet of the singer.” This animated strain frequently ceases suddenly and then recommences with a low snapping sound, ending in an imitation of another Australian singer, the THE LYRE BIRD. 321 Satin Bird, and is always accompanied with a tremulous mo- tion of the tail. Through a letter written from Sydney, Australia, by Dr. George Bennett, and published in the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society," London, we learn something of the Lyre Bird in a state of captivity. The bird, described in the letter of Dr. Bennett, had been captured when so young that it was only just able to feed itself. It was in the possession of a gentleman who, when he first obtained it, fed it with great care and regularity on worms, grubs, German paste and beef chopped very fine, but as it grew older he added hemp seed, bread, etc. ; in short, treating it as he would any member of the Thrush family. Of many specimens, of all ages, which he pur- chased as companions, this was the only one which survived, the others, brought from the Illawara district, lived but a short time. Apparently healthy and well when they whistled at dusk in the evening, the morning would present only a lifeless form. Others kept in an aviary in Sydney, survived their captivity but six months. On the fourth of January, no indication of sex could be ascertained from the plumage of the individual described. Twenty days afterwards, when the bird was two years and four months old, two of the peculiar feathers of the male were developing. This bird was in a constant state of restless activity, run- ning rapidly about the spacious aviary in which it was con- fined, and leaping upon and over the stones and branches placed in the enclosure, yet with all its restlessness it would follow the call of its owner and take food from the hands of those to whom it was accustomed. It mocked with great accuracy the Piping Crow, Wonga Pigeon, Parrots and various other birds in the same aviary and in the vicinity, and about dusk in the evening was often heard to utter its own peculiar whistle. Even in Australia this bird was so highly prized that a 328 THE LYRE BIRD. liberal offer could not induce the possessor to part with it to send to England. Another letter from Melbourne, Australia, written to Gould, informs us that the nestling bird is extraordinarily helpless ; when taken forcibly from the nest, it walked most awk- wardly, with its legs bent inwards, frequently falling, appa- rently from want of strength to move the large and heavy bones of its legs properly, and this at a time when its height was sixteen inches, and when its wings and tail were already furnished with feathers, although the body was still clothed with down, which, as well as the feathers, was of a dar brown color. When taken from the nest, the bird screamed ` loudly, and the mother, notwithstanding the proverbial shy- ness of the species, actuated by her maternal fondness, tried in various ways to deliver the captive. A shot was the re- ward of her devotion, and with its mother near it, the young Menura soon became silent and quiet. Afterward its cries for its natural protector being answered by an imitation of ` the mother's voice, it was easily led by the sound and soon became very tame. It was exceedingly voracious, but ate wholly in the manner of the Passeres, the nestlings of which hold the open beak in a vertical position, requiring food to be dropped therein. It was sustained principally by worms and the larve of ants, and when occasionally it picked up the latter for itself it never was able to swallow them, the muscles of the neck not having gained sufficient power to effect the required jerk and throwing back of the head. Remaining for an unusually long time in the nest, the young Menura, like the passerine birds in general, possesses the instinct of cleanliness. The habits of Menura Albertii are very similar to those of its better known relative; the former, like the latter, being famous for its most extraordinary mocking capabilities. Commencing his song before the dawn of day, in fact being the earliest of song-birds, he continues till about an hour after sunrise, besides his own peculiar note imitating the THE LYRE BIRD. 329 cries of all the birds in the bush. He then becomes silent and remains so during the day until about an hour before sunset, when he again commences singing and playing about until it is quite dark. This species chooses sandy localities and feeds wholly on insects, mingled with a considerable proportion of sand, but is without the crop found among the gravel-using Rasores. It commences building in May, lays its eggs in June, and hatches its young in July. Choosing some bare rock where there is a sufficient shelter for a lodgement, it builds an oven-shaped nest, outwardly constructed of sticks or roots, tendrils, or the leaves of palms, and lined with soft green mosses, or the skeleton leaf of the parasitical tree ferns, — a substance almost as elastic as horse hair. This nest is completely rain proof and has the entrance on one side. A nest of this species, with two eggs, is deposited in the British Museum. The nest is about two feet in length, by sixteen inches in breadth, and is domed over except at one end. The eggs, about the size of those of the common fowl, are of a deep purplish chocolate, irregularly blotched and freckled with a darker color. The nestling is covered with white down and remains six weeks in the nest. In this species the male bird is about four years old before he acquires his full tail; the two centre curved feathers are the last to make their appearance. Of the nest of M. superba we find no FORUM clear descrip- ` tion, but it appears very nearly to resemble that of M. Al- tii. The eggs of the former species are said to be of a lighter color, and the young to be blind as well as helpless. The method of nest building, the helplessness of the young, and their passerine manner of feeding, taken in con- nection with the structure of the Menaul. all point to a position considerably higher than the Megapodes. It is true, the young are covered with down, but exceptions occur among the Fissirostral birds, as for instance, the Night Hawk AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 330 THE LYRE BIRD. and the Whip-poor-will of the Caprimulgide, both of which are downy at birth ; and the Menurid@ may present a similar exception in the group of the Passeres, where the young are nearly if not entirely nude. Gray placed Menura among the Wrens. Jerdon assigned it a position intermediate between the Walking Birds, —in- cluding the common fowl and the Pigeons and Doves, — and the higher Land Birds. Most ornithologists of the present day unite in consider- ing it as a member of the Passeres, that group which in- cludes our Thrushes, Wrens, Pewees, Humming Birds, Sparrows, Crows and all the multitude of their kind. Professor Huxley has examined a portion of its anatomy with care, and while referring Menura to a group equivalent to the Passeres, sees so many distinctions between this and all other passerine genera, that he places it in a section of this group alone, no other birds in the world answering to the Lyre Birds. Nitzsch, who with equal care, examined Menura in refer- ence to plumage, reaches the same conclusion, that it is un- doubtedly a passerine genus, but that in certain respects it differs from every other, while manifesting a relationship to the Wrens, the Thrushes, the Dippers and several other allied families. From all these considerations the probabilities of the case seem to be, that the Lyre Birds are neither Wrens nor shes, nor members of any other family to which they appear to be most nearly allied; but that they may be the living representatives of a group which preceded one, or either, or all of these various families; and, that under a passerine form, they repeat some of the peculidrities of the Megapodes and of their near connections, in the line of ascent, the Cracide and Penelopide; at the same time reasserting, in a general way, their resemblance to the Walking Birds, while exhibiting a fundamentally passerine nature. In the same manner does each of the vertebrate classes repeat, MUSSEL CLIMBING. 331 within its own type, characteristics of lower forms of life; and thus do all the higher animals in their embryonic condi- tion, pass through stages representing the lower vertebrates. MUSSEL CLIMBING. BY REV. S. LOCKWOOD, PH.D. Can any one see a snail travel, and not del mentally, “how it does it?” The method certainly is curious. A fleshy disk is protruded, and caused to project in the direc- tion of locomotion; it is then spread out flatly, and while slightly adhering to the object over which it is passing, a contractile energy is exerted, and the little animal bearing its house is drawn onward. Thus by the repeated protru- sion, expansion, and contraction of this soft organ, in due time its journey is accomplished. Because of this method of progression on a ventral disk, all those shell-fish, or properly speaking, molluscan animals, so constituted, are called by the systematists, gasteropods, a term which means ventral-footed. And in rank these gasteropods stand next to the most highly organized of the mollusca. But some of these shell-encased creatures do not travel at all. Take, for instance, the oyster, called a monomyary, because the valves are held together by a single muscle. This sedate bivalve once settled, probably never moves from that spot. But a 332 MUSSEL CLIMBING. the dimyaries, or two-muscled bivalves, well represented by the common edible mussels, possess a foot, which is not greatly unlike that of the snails. The mussel’s foot, how- ever, presents in its class, the least developed condition of this organ, for it is a spinner, rather than a walker; or, as Owen says, "it is subservient to the function of a gland, which secretes a glutinous material analogous to silk, the filaments of which are termed the byssus,” which often serves for attachment to rocks. He farther says, "in most dimyary bivalves the foot is an organ of locomotion.” Some of the river mussels in babyhood spin a byssus with which to moor themselves against the currents of the stream. When older grown this necessity is overcome, and the capac- ity just mentioned is lost. Then the adult turns its foot into a plow-share, and is dragged along in the furrow it makes in the mud. The razor-shell alternately bores down- wards and propels upward, the foot doing all the work. With the foot as an elastic spring the heart-shell leaps along. But the common black mussel, Mitylus edulis, and its de- spised neighbor, the brown horse mussel, Modiola plicatula, who ever saw them walk? Propulsion is not always walk- ing. The scallop with its large adductor muscle, by snap- ping together its light valves, thus forcibly ejecting the. water within against the water without, flits through, and sometimes even skips upon its native element, like an aquatic butterfly. But no pedestrian does so in all Mollusca-dom. Why then should not these pedate bivalves, the mussels, walk as others of their own people do? "For want of brains!” says one. You are mistaken, sir. They have brains, the right kind too, and in the right place, — a real pedal nerve-mass, or ganglion; a little bilobed brain at the very bese of the “understanding” itself, that is, exactly un- der the foot, as was fabled of a very agile dancer, that his brains were in his heels. Now, if seeing is believing, mussels can walk. We once saw a young brown mussel, of the species Modiola plicatula, MUSSEL CLIMBING. 333 about five-eighths of an inch in length, turn his foot to most excellent account. We had pulled the youngster's beard off, and then had deposited him at the bottom of a deep aqua- rium. The water was probably but poorly aerated, hence he was evidently ill at ease, and to our astonishment he at once began travelling over the pebbly bottom, then up the glass side with the utmost facility and grace. The foot moved precisely as any univalve gasteropod would do, and with the same easy gliding motion. The movement was continued without interruption until it had reached the sur- face of the water, a distance of not less than ten inches, which added to the distance travelled over the bottom, was probably equal to fourteen inches. At the surface it lost no time in spinning its byssus, which it fixed to the side for a permanent abode. For its lively colors, perhaps rather ruthlessly, we had picked this little fellow out of a large family cluster, snugly packed in a hole in one of the piles of the dock. It wasa large group of all sizes, literally bound together by the silken cords of —attachment shall we say ? A fellow captive was a full grown, black, edible mussel, torn from its anchorage, a stone near by, at low tide. e afterwards found ensconced in this black shell, an amount of intelligence, which filled us with astonishment. If his youthful fellow prisoner could beat him at walking, he was about to accomplish the feat of climbing to the same posi- tion by means of a species of engineering of a very high order. In order the better to understand this singular feat, let us introduce it by the narration of some spider tactics we once witnessed. The insect had captured a large beetle, but could not get it to its web, and seemed indisposed to prey upon it away from its den. It had dragged the prey under the web, which was about two feet above. It ran up toa point close by its web; there it attached a thread, by which it speedily descended, and then attached the other end to its 334 MUSSEL CLIMBING. booty. Again it ascended, affixed another thread, then de- scended and affixed to the prey as before. Each thread, in sailor phrase, was made taut. After a good many threads had been in this manner attached, each being stretched tightly, and each pulling a little, the weight was seen to ascend a small fraction of an inch. Again the threads were increased, and again the weight ascended a little more, until at last, after incredible labor, perseverance and skill, the little en- gineer had the satisfaction of success; for its well earned booty, with one final, tiny jerk “brought up” at the desired spot. The explanation of all this is simple. Suppose we take a cord of the material known by the ladies under the name elastic, and attach it to an ounce weight. If but very moder- ately stretched it would certainly pull at least a grain. Sup- posing it to do that, a second one would pull with equal force, and it would be but a simple estimate to determine how many threads would be required to raise the entire weight. But enough of this. Now for the mussel. Placed at the bottom of the aquarium, where it had been for a couple of days, it had succeeded in wiggling itself up to one of the glass sides of the tank. This coor plisbed it protruded its large foot, stretching it up as high on the glass as it could reach, this organ seemingly adhering very tightly. A little hole opened near the extreme forward end of the foot. This tiny hole was really the extremity of a folded or closed groove. Out of this a drop of white gluten, or mucus, not larger than the head of a pin, was exuded, and pressed against the glass. There was then a slight withdrawing of the foot, simultaneously with an un- ` folding, or opening of the groove, which contained, as if moulded there, the already completed delicate thread. This done, the partly contracted foot (not drawn into its shell at all, be it understood) was again extended, this time a little higher than before. The groove, or spinneret, was again closed, except the little opening on the surface of the foot, whence another little drop of mucus appeared, which also MUSSEL CLIMBING. 335 was pressed against the glass. Again the foot was with- drawn a little, the lips of the groove unfolded, and the moulded thread set free. This gave thread number two. Each was evidently set at a considerable tension. And in this wise, thread after thread was formed and set. I regret that I did not record the exact number, but am sure that it was about twelve or sixteen, and the time occupied was be- tween two and three hours, when lo! up went the mussel, about three-eighths of an inch high. Yes, he was drawn up by his own cords. He was literally lifted from terra firma. Not at all suspecting what was to follow I mentally ex- claimed. “This little fellow knows the ropes." There was next a period of rest. Whether it was due to exhaustion of material, and was meant to allow the secreting gland time to evolve a fresh supply or not, I cannot affirm ; but must say that such was my belief, for after an hour or so it set to work again, precisely as before, attaching a new cluster of threads. This cluster was set about five-eighths of an inch higher than the previous one. When this new group of filaments was finished, the same result followed, another lift of a fraction of an inch, but not quite so high as the first. I now suspected its motive—the animal was actually in this singular manner attempting to reach the sur- face. It wanted to take an airing, and was really in a fair way to bring it about. While setting its third cluster of threads, I foresaw a seri- ous diffieulty in the way, and one against which the spider never has to contend. It was this: after the third lift had been achieved the threads which had accomplished the first lift had changed direction; that is, the ends of the threads, Which had pointed downward when pulling up the mussel, were now pointing upward, and were actually pulling it down. Of eourse the lowermost thread, or threads, would exert the most retrograde traction. Thought I, *Sir Mussel- man, you will have to exercise your wits now.” I rejoice to say that the ingenious little engineer was complete master 336 MUSSEL CLIMBING. of the situation. The difficulty was overcome in this way —as each lowest thread became taut in an adverse direction, it was snapped off at the end attached to the animal. This, as I think, was done by two processes ; the one by softening that end of the thread by the animal's own juices, purposely applied, as the pupa in the cocoon moistens its silk envelope, when wishing to soften the fibres, so that it can break a hole through which the imago may emerge; the other by a moder- ate weeded pulling, thus breaking tiie filament at its weak- est point. The next day our little engineer had accomplished the wonderful feat of climbing to. the surface by ropes, fabricated during the ascent. Without delay it moored itself securely by a cluster of silken lines at the boundary where sky and water met, and was there allowed to enjoy the airing it had so deservingly won. Bravo! my little Mussel-man! No acrobat can beat thee on the ropes! And what are we to say to all this? Blind instinct, for- sooth! Who believes it? The wise men of the ages have written as the tradition of the elders— " byssus-bound," of our Mytilus. But it can make of its bonds, mooring lines of safety against the storm, and with consummate skill can build a silken stair-way into its, own wished for elysium of delight. It is some three years since the writer witnessed the facts here recorded, and to this day, the sight of a mus- sel inspires him with profound reflection on the ways of Him who made these creeping things of the sea. — It has seemed to the proa that in the perfection of movement shown by the Mo diola plicatula, as given above, a high stage of foot CE is indicated, such as would hint at a grade outranking a op ual edulis. gure inserted is th M. edulis ; but the process o —8S. E FLOWERLESS PLANTS. BY DR. A. KELLOGG. THE great coal measures of our continent are the grand storehouses of preserved plants from this richest realm of the vegetable kingdom ; they are the entombed pioneers that have paved the way, and still light the path of higher forms of life, both vegetable and animal. However much we may to-day value these humble and lower steps on the stage of existence, we are apt to fall far below a due appreciation of their value in the economy of nature ; our health, wealth, com- fort, nay our very existence more or less, directly depends on the uses they subserve ; and still every new dawn brings some novel use crowding the advancing ages until we look back but a few days to our early years, and wonder how we, as well as our forefathers could do without this or that neces- sary of life. As coal they are the familiar friends of our la- bors, and the cheerful companions of the domestic fireside. It is not, however, to the dead and fossilized forms alone, but mainly to the living, that we invite a moment's attention. An idea of minuteness and insignificance too often follows any reference to the simplest plants in nature; yet many at- tain a great size, such as Tree Ferns and certain Sea-weeds —the former forty feet high, of the size of one's body, and the latter of prodigious length, besides myriads of inter- mediate forms. e Fungi, a brief account of which follows, are cellular plants, without flowers, living in the air, often nourished through a stem by an amorphous spawn, or mycelium, in- stead of a root, and propagated by very minute spores, serving the same purpose as the seeds of flowering plants. The largest species found in California, is the kind com- monly known as Touchwood, or Hard Tinder ( Polyporus) ; of a semicircular shape, between one and two feet across, ` AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 43 (837) ` 938 FLOWERLESS PLANTS. and six to eight inches thick; this large species we have only seen attached to the living trunks of the Laurel Tree ( Oreodaphne Californica). Its name signifying many pores, describes itself, the lower surface being a mass of little tubes or pores, angular like honey-comb. As tinder it makes a slow but sure fire and good coal, wind proof, so that as a slow match for blasting purposes it is perfectly safe. It burns at the rate of an inch in five min- utes; this rate, of course, will vary a little with thickness. Dipped in nitre and dried it is even more sure on gunpowder than fate itself. The corky kinds of fungi to which this belongs continue to live and increase for many years, al- though in general mere size is no reliable index of age in this field of inquiry, for we know that under favorable cir- cumstances the Scaly Polyporus (P. squamosus), found on the trunks of dead trees, attains, perhaps, the largest size of any known. Instances have been recorded of its measuring seven feet five inches in cireumference, and weighing thirty- four pounds avoirdupois, growing to these vast dimensions in the short space of three weeks. The power of these plants to disintegrate the hardest wood is very remarkable, causing it to yield much more rap- idly than the ordinary influences of the weather. Among the greatest agricultural obstacles in the vast timber clear- ings of the South and West, and indeed of most new coun- tries, are the old stumps, which, if left simply to the action of the weather, might be something less than half a century in decaying; yet if these were simply sprinkled with water in which fungi had been washed, they would shortly crumble beneath the magician’s wand, a mere shreddy mass of inter- laced cottony touchwood, the tissues and cells of which would be seen to be traversed and disorganized by this amor- phous mycelium. We know from actual observation that where heavily timbered land is required to be cleaned off entirely, it often costs from fifty to one hundred dollars per acre. Perhaps to estimate it in human flesh, we might adopt FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 339 the western proverb, that it wears out one generation to bring the land into tolerable tillage for the next. Only a few of these plants are known to us, nor do we know their uses except in a few instances. Many of the species we know are very destructive to the trunks of living trees, on which they grow. In the first instance they may giow on parts which are diseased, but the insidious mycelium spreads with great rapidity ; the moment any growth of this kind appears the tree should be felled, or if a valuable ornamental tree, the parts affected should be carefully removed, and a strong solution of sulphate of copper or corrosive sublimate be supplied. Most Polypori are close and tough in their texture, and rather indigestible; still some are eaten. Berkley declares that the most delicious of all fungi is the P. casareus. Sev- eral other species besides our P. igniarius are used as tinder and moxa, and some are said to make famous razor-strops. Certainly a more satiny cushion could not be devised. © The common small species, with variegated. concentric rings (P. versicolor), is used to lure insects from the mycologist's more valuable specimens. One is used in Russia, pounded and put in snuff, to improve its narcotic properties ; another has been manufactured into coarse clothing. Only one, I be- lieve, is worshipped, i.e., the P. sacer, a most striking object, much venerated by the negroes on the West African coast. Perhaps many of us have experienced the kindred pleas- ures of paradise on a walk in the woods after a thunder- storm in the warm days of August, and felt our lungs swell with a thrill of strength to the very fingers’ ends, while breathing the balmy odors of the wood; it was not all the breath of flowers, nor foliage, nor any conspicuous form of commonly recognized vegetation. Some may remember having searched for the sweet knots to take home with them, hiding the uncouth thing in the house in order to excite the pleasing wonder and prying curiosity of the loved ones, as 340 FLOWERLESS PLANTS. to where that sweet odor came from! It was the sweet scented Polyporus, another species of the same plant. Sim- ilar fragrance is observed in one species growing on the bireh which is used to scent snuff; another like the soft con- tents of the puff ball, is celebrated for staunching blood. This fungus has been much used as a remedy, and its virtues . vaunted in this country for the cure of consumption in its early stages; so also have similar surprising effects been attributed to the use of Agaricus emeticus. The phospho- rescent agaries of the olive and palm are luminous like large fire-flies, and a few suffice to light up a large room sufficient to read by. It is often said that some allied mushrooms are unwhole- some, and therefore there is danger, and upon the whole, it is best to let them alone. In reply, might we not inquire if the carrot, celery, parsnip, angelica and anise are not allied to the deadly hemlock? ‘The potato, egg-plant and tomato are also close akin to the poisonous night-shade. The inno- cent arrow-root, too, is the actual product of the fearful woorai, or maratia arunamacea, with which the savage pois- ons his arrow-points in war. The universal practice in Russia is to salt fungi; and beside they are often subse- quently washed and treated with vinegar, which would be likely to render almost any species harmless. Any one fa- miliar with our coast and bays will not fail to hear of cases of poisoning with shell-fish, and there are also sad cases on record of death from these as well as the edible mushroom, or Agaricus campestris. Fungi vary in quality with climate, meteorological conditions, soils. etc., so that the safest way is to eat ul: those raised in garden beds for the purpose ; always bearing in mind that much depends upon the mode of erui and cooking. The Grape Disease ( Oidium Tuckeri), is the result of a parasitie fungus, terribly devastating to the wine crops of Europe, the losses of which are estimated by millions, and so frightful as to threaten starvation to thousands; fortu- FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 341 nately, the native vines of America are not subject to it, even when cultivated m proximity, on the European Conti- nent. This fungus plant is easily destroyed by dusting on them flowers of sulphur with a soft brush, when the fruit is well set, about the size of a pea. One application, the Hon. George Hobler, of Alameda, assures me, has proved an in- fullible remedy with his foreign grapes; had he known its value sooner it might have saved his English gooseberries, which he had plowed up and cast away in utter despair. Currants, and other fruits, are also victims at times. Indeed, one species, Oidium albicans, called Thrush, grows in the mouths of children. This can be transplanted and eulti- vated; a weak solution of potash or saleratus will dissolve out the albumen and leave the plant wholly exposed and unchanged. Now, the use of this knowledge is, that the same law and similar remedies are indicated here, as where it attacks the vine, namely, to kill the parasite and cure the disease. It is always pleasing to be able to see in rational light why our grandmothers were right in being so partial to sulphur. One dram of sulphite of soda to an ounce of water is a sure cure. The Oidium fructigenum is often seen in whitish puberu- lent spots of a greenish gray on oranges ; and on apple trees it destroys the fruit while still hanging to them; beans, plums, peas and hops, ete., are also often destroyed, or much injured by its ravages. A digression into the rationale of remedies for these evils would greatly interest us, but we must forbear; they turn, however, upon a tew simple physiological facts —in a word, the Flowerless Plants on land or sea have an oily or shiny coating to the spores, neither the sea water nor air actually touch them; but the moment this adhesive oily or mucila- ginous matter is destroyed, they perish ; hence the use of ley, lime, ashes, etc., together with many chemical washes. It is impossible in a short article like this to dwell upon 342 FLOWERLESS PLANTS. all the mildews, white and black (Puccinia and Antennaria) which ruin wheat fields in the North, and orange groves in the South. Rust, or red mildew ( Uredo rubigo), which, however, is not so injurious as some others, but is still a serious evil—the smut (Urego segetum)—bunt ( Uredo caries), where the grain looks well, but is a mass of black fetid sporidia when crushed. If any one of these fungi, out of a thousand, would spread famine and death broadcast over the earth, is it of no use to investigate the subject? As on his rolling main no navigator, coasting its dangerous shores ever contemns the chartings and soundings of science, so let the landlubbers learn to do on theirs. A brief allusion to a few points in so large a field is all it is hoped to do: but the bald botany of the subject is only to aid the end in view, namely, the practical use of the knowl- edge; this requires that we add a few words upon the ill effects on men and animals, as well as the gross wealth and prosperity of a country. That the diseased or fungoid cere- als referred to are very dangerous to man and beast, no one of proper information will doubt or deny ; why they are less dreaded than the larger poisonous fungi, is sufficiently mani- fest. The Ergot of grasses (e.g. Agrostis, Festuca, Ely- mus, Dactylis, etc.), but chiefly of rye, is one of this class ; the fungus is perhaps better known as spurred rye —the symptoms of poisoning from eating it, are general weakness, intoxication, creeping sensation, cold extremities and insen- sibility ; then follow excruciating pains, and lastly, dry mor- tification — the fingers and toes drop off. I have known only one case so suddenly serious that the patient lost the fingers and toes; but very many instances where ultimate death of both men and cattle have followed the use of fungoid grain; and also mouldy provisions. Cheese, however, is supposed to be improved by it, and in parts of Europe they inoculate with a plug taken from a mouldy, and introduced into a new cheese; or the curd is exposed for a day or so before making up, so that the float- FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 343 ing spores in the air may inseminate the mass. If to some they are improved, there is a species or condition of mould that I have every reason to believe is dangerous to persons of a consumptive predisposition. The black dust of hay fields ( Ustilago) acts in a more direct manner—hay makers are attacked by violent pains and swellings in the head and face, and great irritation of the entire system. The blue bread mould (Pencillium), or a condition of it is found on the inside of casks, the spores of which prove poisonous ; this is well illustrated by the two coopers who entered a great tun to clean off this mould, when they were seized with violent pains in the head, giddiness, vomiting and fever, scarcely escaping with their lives. Alluding to fungi on forests, fruits, shrubberies, grapes and grains, a passing word will not be amiss on the potato disease, caused by the Botrytis infestans; its ravages, how- ever, are too well known to this generation for particular details. Another, the B. bassiana, attacks the silk worm in China and Syria. The Achorion microsporon, Trico- phyton and Lychen agrius, are well known to attack man, to say nothing of the strong probability of their being the origin of malaria, typhus, cholera, and the plague, etc., be- sides numberless epidemics, which, at least, are preceded and unduly accompanied by these strange and often micro- scopic wonders of the vegetable kingdom. Unlike other plants the fungi in place of purifying the air—at least, so manifestly — from the poisonous carbonic acid and the other elements of injury, and giving us back the vital oxygen, steal away this, and shed on the shadowing wings of every dark corner of the earth an element, which, if it exceeded a tenth, would annihilate the race ; besides all this, they throw off hydrogen, which causes abrasions and sores—mostly of the mucus membranes and air passages ; and, finally, as we have seen in some cases, they exhale specific poisonous sub- stances; while myriads of spore-seeds so minute and light as to be scarcely less volatile than ether itself, are poured forth 344 FLOWERLESS PLANTS. upon the gentlest breeze, were it even so slight as to leave the gossamer unmoved. Let us not, however, look alto- gether upon the dark and dismal side of the picture. They all may be, nay, are, beneficent forms of life, only less poisonous and otherwise injurious than would be the fleeting noxious vapors they catch from the atmosphere, as their kindred do the filth of the mighty deep, and hold it back from its fiendish mission of misery to mankind. They come mostly in the melancholy autumn days when the flow- ers are fading away, and the leaves are falling to decay, when the beautiful fairies have fled from the grassy lawns ; when no naiads dance in glee down the glittering wavelets to the boundless ocean; for then. even the brook itself loathes and leaves its slimy bed, which, with the aid of crypts, reptiles and creeping things, can scarce suffice to stay or temper the impending plague. Like a grizzly beast of prey, it walks in thick darkness, or sits at bey in the sun- sucked fogs; or, perchance, winds its slow length invisibly along, like a spirit serpent in the stagnant air of the vales and deep mountain gorges; or coils its envenomed form in the dismal cellars and filthy by-ways of our cities. It is notorious that in stagnant water, or in that other fluid, the air— where decomposing organisms take on innumerable forms of life—there is the purified and purest portion of the pond. Even the noisome mosquitoes, dragon flies and reptiles, with flowerless plants, render fluids salubrious that were hastening to putrefaction and death. That like assimilates to like in the realms of spirit and of matter is a universal law that will be seen, and, sooner or later acknowledged. From the vegetable kingdom many examples might be drawn in illustration, and, perhaps, few will be more strikingly in point than the Fly Agaric ( Agar- dcus muscarius), so named from its being used to poison flies. This intoxicating fungus is often seen in hilly or subalpine regions, particularly in our forests of fir and birch, where its tall, trim, white stem, and rich scarlet cap, studded with FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 345 white, scaly warts, form a beautiful contrast to the soft, green carpet of moss from which it springs, and the elegant emerald foliage that overshadows it. This very poisonous fungus is to the north-eastern nations of Europe and North- ern Asia, what opium and hemp are to India and China, awa to the Sandwich Islanders, cocoa to the Peruvians, and what tobacco and various spirituous liquors are to Europe and America. Thus we see, as a reverend writer justly re- marks, that the indulgence of these narcotic cravings has at last degraded itself to so low an object in the scale of nature as a common toadstool; and that, too, in the most revolting manner possible to conceive. The Kamtschatkan and Koriae races are so dreadfully degraded that they personify this fungus under the name of Mocko Moro, as one of their household gods —like the god Siva of the Hindoo Thugs; if urged by its effects to commit suicide, murder, or some other heinous crime, they pretend to obey its commands, and to qualify themselves for premeditated assassination, they have recourse to additional doses of this intoxicating product of decay and corruption. When steeped in the ex- pressed juice of the native whortleberry, it forms a very strong intoxicating kind of wine, which is much relished. ut the more common way of using the fungus is to roll it up like a bullet and swallow without dowiug, otherwise it would disorder the stomach. Dr. Greville in the fourth volume of the “ Wernerian Transactions,” says, one large or two small fungi are a common dose to intoxicate for a whole day, i.e., by drinking water freely, which augments the narcotic action. The desired effect comes on from one to two hours after taking the fungus. Giddiness and drunk- enness follow in the same manner as from wine or spirituous liquors; cheerfulness is first produced, the face becomes flushed, involuntary words and actions follow, and sometimes loss of eonseiousness. Some persons it renders remarkably active, proving highly stimulant to muscular exertion; but by too large a dose violent spasmodie effects are produced. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. zi 346 FLOWERLESS PLANTS. So exciting is it to the nervous system of many that its effects are very ludicrous; a talkative person cannot keep silence or secrets —one fond of music is perpetually singing, and if a person under its influence wishes to step over a straw or stick, he takes a stride or jump sufficient to clear the trunk of a tree. It is needless to say delirium, coma and death often results as in the case of alcoholic spirits. The most remarkable fact is that the fluids of the de- bauchee become similarly narcotic, and are therefore pre- served in times of scarcity. Thus a whole village, as some suy, may be intoxicated through the medium of one man, and thus one fungus serves to prolong these most fearful and disgusting orgies for many days together. It is worthy of note that the very same erroneous impression as to size and distance produced by this plant, are also created by the hasheesh of India, and are also frequently noticed among idi- ots and lunatics. It has been suggested that many of these may have suffered martyrdom at the stake during the witch mania of Scotland, owing to their natural and temporary defect — inability to step over a straw being considered the conclusive test of familiarity with evil spirits. And with those devoted to its intentional use, we should say it really does come within one of it. It is curious to observe how the effects produced by various species of poisonous fungi should be so very similar to alcoholic liquors. The effects in both eases may be traced to a kindred cause. Alcohol, as all know, is the product of fermentation or corruption, arrested at a certain stage of fungoid growth, as also is the case with the yeast and rising process of the pastry cook and brewer. Having, hence, one common origin, it is less won- der their effects should be similar; and, we may add, they tend to produce a like poisoned condition in the human body. This is exemplified in excessive beer and liquor consumers, the slightest accident or even scratch on which will often cause death. _ Thus they become the short-lived mushroom humanity $ FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 341 that blooms on the very verge of decay. That these things are nevertheless intended to subserve some good purpose is not denied; every degree of life is wisely provided for, even the worst. This is most manifest from the lowest lichen to the highest vegetable structure ; and when mankind observe the true equilibrium of order, the race is justly represented and designated a microcosm, in which from the highest to lowest all things are duly subordinated to an end or use. The common Puff Ball (Lycoperdon bovista and pratense) requires special notice. When slowly burnt and the fumes inhaled it produces intoxication, followed by drowsiness and then by perfect insensibility to pain, with loss of speech and motion, while one is still conscious of everything that happens around— realizing the truth that it is possible for one to lie stretched on the funeral bier sensible to weeping friends ; aware of the last screw being fixed in the coffin and the last clod clapped down upon us in the churchyard, and yet unable to move hand or lip for our own deliverance. Experiments have recently been made on eats, dogs, and rabbits, and simi- lar effects have been found to invariably ensue. And for ages it has been used in this manner for stupifying bees, and thus robbing their hives with impunity. If the inhalation in man, however, be continued too long, vomitiug, convulsions, and ultimate death results. Much of this lore is still closeted, perhaps, mainly in the secret chambers of the past; the fumes of many plants have been used as spells, enchantments, and to induce spectre seeing, etc., of which we may name some on a proper occa- sion. In the order of nature, all auras are adapted to human requirements, and under the influence of the last named, unlike our artificial chemicals —chloroform and ethers—the individual remains conscious all the time. I have myself, as well as thousands of others, experienced similar slight trance states of rapture, sweetly and softly celestial, and yet most of all alive to consciousness, with only a dread less some gross vociferous burst from beneath should break the spell ; à dread lest some one should speak to you. 348 FLOWERLESS PLANTS, That these fungi are sometimes purely meteoric, is proven by their fastening upon iron and rapidly extending them- selves; here the matter is manifestly conveyed to them by the air and moisture. Many Polypori, too, grow on hard tufa of volcanoes without a particle of organic matter. Nevertheless, unhealthy conditions of air, soils, and the ob- ject attacked, we have often seen to be true concomitants, so that in most cases they may be deemed consequences, rather than causes, if one prefers that view of the subject—our chief concern being a review of the facts. Some of them, indeed, require certain specific conditions so well known that they can be grown to order, leading shrewd observers to the plausible conjecture that they are of spontaneous generation. — . Berkley and McMillan, from whom we collate, mention that in Italy a kind of Polyporus, greatly relished, is grown simply by singeing the stump or stems of hazel-nut trees and placing them in a moist, dark cellar; other instances of ex- tinet fires being followed by fungoid scavengers, imps of the pit, are too well known. Now, as charcoal and other ack bodies absorb many hundred times their own bulk of foetid gases — for the color, black, is philosophically and dev- ilishly filthy, and it ardently desires or affiliates with, and pertinaciously clings to foul air and odors; and, as a very fiend, only yields them up readily as contagion, eluding, perchance, the. alchemist's wand — the vile spell is hardly broken but by that great power of the universe, heat. Hence we see why they make such apt servants and meteoric media for their masters, the Fungi. These plants and other para- sites sometimes invade living organisms, both animal and vegetable, in their most vigorous state, but we may safely say, in general terms, that whatever fouls or lowers the standard of life in the human, in the animal, or in the plant, surely invites these disorder-inspecting gnomes from beneath ; which move to and fro in the earth— messengers of the shades !— ready to alight upon and claim as their own all such trenchers upon the outer realms of death. It is therefore FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 349 not wise, neither naturally, morally nor spiritually, to ven- ture too near that other place. I well recollect, many years since, while residing in the pine forests of Russell county, Alabama, one of my neigh- bors (Oliver) was desperately annoyed by some mysterious feetor, like carrion—only more so. A general search was instituted, and at length an abominable fungus was found growing beneath the steps of his log cabin. I have only known of two instances of this kind. It may, however, be common in the piney wood sections of our country. This is a species of Clathrus, a putrid, revolting, jelly-like mass of raw flesh just beneath the loosely-lifted soil. It diffuses such a loathsome stench that none could endure it. One might object that this stench was owing to its putrid state; not so at all; it is the natural foetor of the fungus, just as we find in our common pole-cat weed and cabbage, several arums, stapelias, etc. Unless the hiding place of this pest is discovered — and little peace is likely to come to the premises until it is—and the intolerable nuisance abated, with its surroundings, they are apt to repeat themselves. There is a popular superstition that if any one should acci- dentally touch this monstrous mass it would produce cancer. Hence the custom of carefully covering it over with leaves, moss, earth, etc., to prevent the possibility of a contagion. Now, whatever we may think of such superstitions, let us respect —I had almost said reverence—the intuitive prompt- ings from that purer and better world within and above this lower region of filth and contagion, which causes the sensi- tive and tidy spirit to shudder at, shrink back from and shun such exposures. We do most solemnly warn the reader that the most vig- orous health may not too rashly presume upon a forced, fool- hardy or wanton and careless contact with these, or with those other fungi—the moral mildews, moulds and blites of man’s paradise. Recent researches seem to show us how little we yet know, 350 FLOWERLESS PLANTS. and well do they warn us not to form too hasty conclusions ; nevertheless, with one voice they proclaim these fungi to be more abundant and much more important than is com- monly supposed. They are undoubtedly the secret or ob- scure and often unsuspected- proximate causes of many diseuses of animals and. of man— operating either directly or indirectly. We have already seen that the ergot fungus of ill-drained localities found on the Broom-grass (Bro- mus), and Meadow or Spear-grass (Poa), ete., but chiefly on the Rye, sadly deteriorates the blood in every degree from intoxication, inveterate ulceration, and mortification to absolute death, or from first to last, both in man and animals. We cannot dwell here upon the indirect dangers of eating the flesh or drinking the milk of such disordered brutes; the effects are scarcely less deleterious than the fungus itself. These remarks are true in general as respects other causes or other kinds of vicious vegetation. The black dust of hay fields alluded to ( Ustilago hypodytes) acts directly, throwing . one into a most violent and dangerous fever; so also, the spore dust of the common blue mould (Peneillium), as in the case of the coopers previously mentioned. Thus we see that these plants act powerfully and strangely on man, whether their etherial fumes are inspired, snuffed, or their substances taken into the stomach, or even vegetate on the outer or inner surfaces of the body. They are also known to abound in the lungs of web-footed quacks, and the brains of many animals, but we believe they rarely reach the brains _ of some Esculapians. A French chemist and botanist, M. Dutrochet (as quoted by the Rev. E. Sidney), says he found every sort of vege- table matter, with only a drop or so of almost any acid, yielded a mould; but when albumen contained a neutral salt none appeared. If salts of mercury are present the mould is stopped. On the contrary oxides of lead hasten it; ox- ides of copper, nickel and cobalt retard it; oxides of iron, FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 351 zinc, antimony and other minerals have no effect; all per- fumes stop it. Passing in this flying review some of the lower forms of flowerless plants of forests and fields, with a few parasites on man and animals, only touching here and there an inter- esting and suggestive fact, we finally offer a word on tbose found upon our farm fixtures, houses, and especially all timber structures, although not confined to them alone, for even the wall, in the pride of its strength, erumblingly bows beneath their stealthy tread. Builders have a woful knowledge of numerous fungi found on wood, e. g. the Polyporus destructor, truly as its specific name signifies, a destroyer ; also P. thelephora, from a Greek word, meaning nipple, by reason of its teated surface; and P. sporothricum, from the little pore-tubes having hairy fila- ments hanging out; the one, however, most familiar to me from my Sarti recollection is the Weeping Morel (Meru- lius lachrymans), a crying evil. Both this and the M. vas- tator are sufficiently devastating to all timbers in warm, moist situations where there is no free circulation of air, as in hollow trees, cellars, wainscoting, timbers of ships, sills, sleepers, etc. These invaders, little less than legion, all pass under one common designation, the dry rot. eeping morels at first appear in a white spot, or point, spreading their filaments flat over the surface of the timber in rounded white cottony patches from one to eight inches broad, and so onwards; near maturity it forms folds of yel- low, orange or brown, weeping Madeira wine colored tears ; they soon after mature myriads of dirty, rusty-colored spor- ules which spread destruction far and wide ; wood, books and walls. crumble in its consuming path ; buildings often, though taken down and the stones scraped and fired, scarcely suffice to stay the scourge. Is this the leprosy of the wall spoken of in Leviticus? Heat applied to dry wood only hastens the malady. It can be forestalled by cutting the timber in win- ter when the sap is out; and, better still, by immersion in a09 VARIATIONS OF SPECIES. water for a long time, to fully supplant or extract the entire juices, as is often practiced by the best ship-builders and honest wheelwrights, carpenters, etc., who regard a worthy and enduring reputation. It is said that the ships in the Crimea Sea suffered more from this insidious foe than from the ravages of fire, or the shots and shells of their enemies. We have seen samples of this light, crumbly, papery shelled wood, with its weight and strength totally consumed. A strong wash of corrosive sublimate solution over the timbers of cellars on which these deliquescent or weeping morels so dampen it, are at once rendered dry, and the evil often entirely arrested in the midst of its havoc. Lastly, most of us have heard, and many have no doubt seen, specimens purporting to be a caterpillar turned into a plant, or some such similar foolishness. We have one in the herbarium which any one may see at their leisure. This is one of those parasitic fungi, that rob and kill in order to supplant and live on others gains; the dying grub’s head never sprouts up as a plant, but the seeds or spores of the Spheria Robertsii alight upon the caterpillar of a moth, the Hepialus, when it buries itself in the mossy woods to undergo metamorphosis, and by its growth destroys the napping grub. Two species of these are used by the Chinese, who sell them in bundles of eight or nine, with the worms at- tached, which they place in the stomach of a duck and roast for the patient to eat. VARIATIONS OF SPECIES. BY A. H. CURTISS. Ix the March number of the NATURALIST we observe an account of a remarkable growth of Bidens chrysanthemoides, and as the writer seems to fear that his story may be con- sidered an exaggeration, we come to his support with one VARIATIONS OF SPECIES. 353 twice as /all, which, happily, refers to the most nearly re- lated species, Bidens cernua. While collecting along the alluvial, marshy borders of the Potomac below Alexandria, some years ago, we found this species (not before discovered so far south) growing to the extraordinary height of five feet. This, compared with Gray's maximum height, will be seen to be in the ratio of six to one ; while in the instance of B. chrysanthemotdes, it was only three and a half to one. Our press would barely admit of smaller branches, while in collecting the same species in New York, we nave easily pressed two entire plants side by side. As if this were not a sufficiently surprising effort of nature, on proceeding some distance farther, we came upon some plants of Oxalis stricta (an eccentric plant in more than one respect) fully five feet in height, and widely branched. We do not apprehend that such statements will be discredited by any person familiar with the vegetation of such localities. We mention them as curiosities in vegetable growth, and not as matters worthy of permanent rocorii or of a place in a work of the nature of the " Manual." Such variations in the size of plants appear to be seldom attended with any material change of specific characters, and are therefore of less interest than those produced by differ- ence of latitude and longitude, or by change of station, as from wet to dry locations, from sunny exposures to shade, from marine to fresh-water localities, or from mountain to valley, and vice versa. These are all fertile in effects of the greatest interest to modern theorists, and no botanist should fail to make them a subject of special study. Such observa- tions inevitably suggest a former unity of many of our spe- cies and genera, Mid result in the correction of too wide distinctions. The two species of Bidens referred to, to- gether with B. connata, are strongly suggestive of a common parentage; and when Bidens frondosa is compared with Coreopsis bidentoides (especially since the former has been found with upwardly barbed awns), it is difficult to perceive AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 354 VARIATIONS OF SPECIES. a proper dividing line between the two genera. We do not anticipate a loss of the genus Bidens, however, though prob- ably no collector would object to its thorough extermination from our flora, with all its “pitchforks” and "Spanish needles," together with the Desmodiums, which in autumn force the herborizer so extensively into their service in trans- porting their "fearfully and wonderfully made" legumes. As examples of the manner in which one genus may merge into another, and one species into another, we cite two in- stances which have lately fallen under our observation. The first is that of the G'ymnostichum Hystrix of Schreber. This remarkable grass was apparently separated from the Linnsean genus Elymus, upon the single character of the absence of glumes. In this section of the country, however, we find it with well developed glumes, which are persistent after the spikelets fall. The glumeless and intermediate forms also occur, but the one most common has rigid, awn-like glumes situated precisely as in Hlymus, of nearly an inch in length, and with one prominent nerve, being therefore triangular, though appearing terete. We have never found the pales dentate (as figured in Pl. 11 of Gray’s Manual) in any form of the species, and the “pedicels” are evidently the joints to which the glumes are attached, and are but little longer than in some species of Elymus. Were the spikelets appressed as in Elymus, it would strikingly resemble some species of the latter in aspect, and as there appears to remain no constant technical distinction of any importance, we see no reason why its former name, Elymus Hystrix L., should not be restored. Our second case is that of Eupatorium aromaticum L., which we are convinced is but a variety of K. ageratoides L. The latter species is very common at the North in low, rich woodlands, and has large, thin and smooth leaves, which, we think, vary very little in size and shape. On reaching Maryland (except in the mountains) and the coast this species seems to be supplanted by one having the same peculiar flower-heads, but lower and less branching, with VARIATIONS OF SPECIES. 355 smaller corymbs, and smaller, thicker and pubescent leaves. This species is common in Virginia in dry copses and open woodlands, but varies greatly, so that we are puzzled in se- lecting typical specimens. On coming to the Piedmont region, however, the problem was soon solved, for here we found that it was no longer confined to dry and somewhat exposed and sterile situations, and that in proportion to the degree of shade or richness and dampness of soil in which it grew, so the leaves became thinner and larger, and the whole plant more robust, till it could no longer be distinguished from the true E. ageratoides; and on visiting the neigh- boring mountains, we found the latter species growing in great abundance. .If, therefore, the generally aecepted rule be applied to this case, EZ. aromaticum must be considered to be a variety of E. ageratoides. Ina very similar manner Acalypha gracilens Gray, varies into A. Virginica L., and it has very properly been reduced to the condition of a va- riety by Professor Gray. In this connection we would men- tion that we have found Eupatorium aromaticum with leaves beautifully whorled in threes. As the same arrangement has been observed in another species, it would seem that the genus is inclined towards this mode of leaf-arrangement, which makes that of Æ. purpureum appear less anomalous. Before closing we would add to the list of monccious and dicecious plants which have been found with androgynous inflorescence (see March number of the NATURALIST, p. 46) an instance of the same mode of inflorescence in Fraxinus Americana. In the spring of 1867 we observed in this county (Bedford Co., Va.) a tree of this species with pani- cles thoroughly androgynous; but in this instance, as if a violence had been done to nature, every flower afterwards became changed to a mass of small, contorted leaves, bend- ing the branches with their weight, and presenting a truly remarkable appearance. NOTE, — Bidens cernua and B. chrysanthemoides might also have been adduced as Species which run together. We beg for a sight of th tall Virgi T iu A STROLL ALONG THE BEACH OF LAKE MICHIGAN. BY W. J. BEAL. Tut south-west extremity of Lake Michigan is surrounded by a low, sandy beach, back of which are low land and marshes. Let us take a stroll with our NATURALIST friends along the lake shore south of Chicago. In place of the rocks and sea-weeds, radiates, shells and crustacea of the Atlantic coast, here are only fragments of cork, chips, sticks, now and then a mutilated specimen of an Unio, or a few small, dead gasteropods, or their empty shells. Among the land plants we shall find more to interest us. The student from Salem (Mass.), or the coast of New Jersey, recognizes the Beach Pea (Lathyrus maritimus) which we believe is never found far from the salt water, except along our great inland lakes. Here also is the Sea-rocket ( Cakile Americana), a radish-like plant, and the Shore Spurge ( Euphorbia polygo- nifolia), growing in the loose barren sand, just as they do near the ocean. Of true marine grasses we find the Sea Sand-reed (Calamagrostis arenaria), the graceful Squirrel- tail Grass (Hordeum jubatum), and the pest of barefooted boys called Bur-grass or Sand Bur (Cenchrus tribuloides), and a rush (Juncus Balticus). Our seaside botanist is ac- customed to see the Arrow-grass (Triglochin maritimum), on every salt marsh. It is likewise common on the marshes a little way back of the lake. In the "basin" near the city flowers a Pond-weed (Potamogeton pectinatus). Silver-weed (Potentilla anserina), is plenty in the sand, and in some places last season it sent off runners each way full seven feet in length. We have never seen the Seaside Crowfoot ( Ranunculus cymbalaria) near the lake shore, but it is very common a little way back on the low pastures and meadows on richer soil. Some of our neighbors tell us that they find the Prickly Pear ( Opuntia vulgaris) on the bluffs just north of (856) : A STROLL ALONG THE BEACH OF LAKE MICHIGAN. 351 the city, where it was once much more abundant. The _ grasses Calamagrostis longifolia, Card-grass (Spartina cyno- suroides), Porcupine-grass (Stipa spartea), are common enough and look as though they ought to be dwellers by the sea. We find in the sand beach of the great lakes, Pitcher’s Thistle (Cirsium Pitcheri), a curious plant which we should look for along the sea beach. It is white, wooly all over, the stem leafy and sprawling, the flowers cream color, and about the size of our common Cirsium lanceolatum. The Dwarf, or Sand-cherry, usually trailing six to eighteen inches high, characteristic of true western enterprise, occasionally grows along our shore to the height of eight or ten feet, and has a stem two inches in diameter. In the walk first proposed one finds thrifty specimens of the Bearberry (Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi). Its pinkish white flowers are too pretty to be known by two such long, ugly names, as those given by Adanson and Sprengel. There are now and then tufts of the Early Wild-rose (Rosa blanda), abundance of common Milkweed (Asclepias cornuti), and A. obtusifolia, several Willows and Poplars, Scrub Oak, Shrubby St. John's-wort, Climbing Bitter-sweet (Celastrus scandens), Grape-vines, Vetches, False Solomon's Seal, Asters, Huphorbia corollata, Panicum virgatum, Lead-plant (Amorpha canescens), and at the mouth of a brook, its kin- dred, the False Indigo (A. fruticosa), Poison Ivy, and Fragrant Sumach.* We have found several specimens of the curious Aphyllon Jasciculatum, a parasitic ghostly plant of the Broom-Rape Family. In August we find two species of Prairie Clover (Petalostemon violaceum and P. candidum), the former has been pronounced the belle of Chicago, notwithstanding the want of grace in its straight flower-spike. Back in the ponds flourish the Pond-lilies (JVympA«a odorata and N. tuberosa), and Nuphar advena. The Yellow Nelumbo Ue In dry places flourishes a curious Umbellifer, the Rattlesnake-master, or Button- M. Eryngium yuccaefolium), with leaves like the Yucca, and head and stalk resembling the onions of our gardens. 358 REVIEWS. lumbium), has been found in the mouth of Calumet River, ten miles south of Chicago. In the groves are beautiful Violets, Phloxes, Oxalis violacea, the unique Dodecatheon Meadia ; on the marshes Buckbean (Menyanthes trifoliata) ,* Indian Plaintain (Cacalia tuberosa), Valeriana edulis, and away back on the prairies are hundreds of acres of tall. sedges and grasses abounding in several species of Liatris, showy Sunflowers, rank Rosin-plants (Silphium), and mul- titudes of Asters and Golden Rods. REVIEWS. D THE AMAZON. t— This racy account of a six months’ trip across the continent of South America is really a valuable contribu- tion to American geographical science. The author's ** general route was from Guayaquil to Quito, over the Eastern Cordillera, thence over the Western Cordillera, and through the forest on foot to Napo, down the Rio by canoe to Pebas, on the Maraiion, and thence by steamer to Pará.” This is a new route of travel, and after a trip to the Pacific shores of our own continent, we should prefer this safe, romantic and unfrequented journey to any other we know of. The ascent of the Nile, the great rivers of Asia, and even the Congo itself, are hackneyed subjects compared to scaling the Andes, passing around Chimborazo, and plunging for a long month into the depths of a South American forest, seeking the sources of the Napo River, with that magnificent sail down the Marañon and Amazon to crown all. As an illustration of the author's pleasant style (though his facts are not ics well arranged) we a his Dee of Chimborazo :.— “Coming up from Peru through th f Loja, f m: C ee traveller reaches Rio tama, seated on the thresbold ut ie a Da- f Co En wy iirrounada with a splendid P Si ts WR € n our left is the most sublime speetaele in the New World. “It an a x mjeti pile kel sla great giant. His feet ternall ‘ingly white; but they LA h ai aii PH " P f the Pacific coas Roussea disappoi i ; and the frst glimpse of Niagara often BRnt Mimh * Habenaria Cai —Á three or four species dum. +The Peta and the Amazon: or, Acro: eia Continent of South America. By James Orton, With» a Dew map of St Enuatorial America an s illustrations. New York. Harper and REVIEWS. 359 whelming grandeur breaks upon the traveller. You feel that you are in the aia Coda ae of the monarch of the Andes. There is sublimity in his kingly look, of which the oc n might be proud. * All that expands the spirit, yet tum à Gathers e ound this summit, as if t How earth may pierce to heaven, ss tid vain man below,’ It looks d fr ons the ~~ first. Now and then an expanse of thin, sky-like vapor, would cut the mounta n twain, and the dome, islanded in the deep blue of the upper decret seemed to be elong n more uà heaven em to Paa We knew that Chimbor razo was more twice tl = g p the moun- tain's side till he ed lik } i the mighty white, , but giving scd n de- spair four thou sd ami w thesumm tl B but the hero of Spanish- Americam Independence ponpes = dubated man. Las! : p € the philosophic ebrius . and attains t f 19,600 fee e hi "e point reached by m cis a the aid of a balloon; but the dome remains nee ci pze his foot. Yet none of these seie increase our admiration, The mountain has a tongue which speaks ery ni gni tnde Steiniohes the Impression of oye ee wonder, rad pier which ud mee are env tif rolativo elev: reduced by incite with the surrounding m tains. Its ioo » 21,420 feet, or forty- five times the height of Strasburg — d gus hee ac it otherwise, the fall of one pound rom the top of ea e would mpera of water 30°. One fourth of this is perpetually covered with snow, so that ed acide pnm, . Chimpurazu—the. = untain of snow— d DERE very approp t , gleamed with voleanic fires, There is a hot ing on the nor! th side, an imm ount of debris EM the slope pem w “the erty const chiefly ‘of fine-grained, peteca l y Chimbo- tr PI sels razo 1s very lik 1 i hyti Bouguer found | it made the plumb-line deviat eT or 8", PE Narrower, but ou than those of the Alps, the — bina and sinks in the effort to com- st t im m ain appears e be much thin crust, and the strata thrown on their vertical edges, teveatag dee p, dark ehasms, at seem to lead to the confines of sp lower world. init that of Ordesa in the Pyrenees, is 3,200 feet dee els but here are rents in the side of Chimborazo in look u out as i condor, Tiie -€— in ibit read, guter in the - Fw the proud bird fearlessly wheels over the orig h and t sails over the dome of Chimborazo. Could ireen speak, g ld h gi f the landscape beneath him whe: e pied isa dandis miles in diameter. If what cH E] " hateht Rit ti Ditata t e t Chimborazo is steeper than the Alp-king; and steepness isa "ur more quickly ap- ud ted . *Mont Blanc (says a w zae r in ers Magazine’) 1s preciate rur epi Segrar A? ett a Ar 1e d ard t stability; but € aig eras reckless architecture of the Matterhorn brings th reris n fairly on his knees, respect akin to that felt for the leaning tower of Pisa, or the soaring pi niwerp. : rt White Mountain’ is the natural and almost uniform name of the Highest m ED tad in all countries; thus Himalaya, Mont Bla mo B Hoen — Sierra Nevada, Ben Nevis, Snowdon, Lebanon, ‘l tates, Us a hi seid than Chimboraz 0 has been questioned; bebes D iboldv’s statement t that the condor fic r dies ‘ sand feet above th d summit of Pichincha. Baron > p. in his ascent of ie saw us pee flying at the height of wi 18,000 feet; Dr. Hooker found crows and ravens d the Himalayas at 16,500 feet; and flocks o: wild geese are said ^ fly over the peak of Kintschinghow, 22,756 feet. 360 REVIEWS. Chimborazo was long supposed to be the tallest mountain on the globe, but ds X has been supplanted by NAR CR verest in Asia, and Aconcagua in Chile, In mo n glo and glory, howeren, » still sta nds unrivaled. The Alps have the avalanche, Avg ensi Niaga of snow," g * ras » beautiful and gr run. eve they are wanting. The monarch of the ionl y n silence. ‘The silence is absolute and actually oppressive. Tl Quit t the elevation of 14,000 feet. Save the rush of the trade wind iii the afternoon, as it sw o the roar of t ma, nor the m waters. Mid never ent. You can almost hear the globe turning o; s axis, The a tim en the monarch deigne speak, and € with a voice of se for the lava on its sides is an isthaec T volcanic activity. But eve o has sat 2 sullen silence, ‘satisfied to look ‘from his throne of clouds o'er half the ears There is mething very suggest ve in this silence of Chimbor: razo. It was once full of noise and fury; The Suthors description of the great crater of Pichincha is alike inter- esting. The naturalist will enjoy the sketches of animal and vegetable life, and the visio geology and anthropology of the varied tracts passed over be = 2 e ct e 5 ad o [=] et o 2 in =] (d [en © = o et c = d with hints about the best routes, the expenses, the best outtit, and the precautions and dangers, with a final word on the consolations of travel: dangers: First, from the people, Traveling is as safe in Ecuador as in New York, and eid than a Missouri. There are n picos nish banditti, though some places, as Chambo, ani ise t a penni : P e ut no more so in ador tha an vein e We have tr rave elled from Guayaquil to Da- T Hah PRE E otis. eso ee P "Secondly, from brases s. Some af- sreveliet woua have us infer that it is impossibl irinS g“ onatel ined by pent, T g upon by a Jaguar, or bitt: jig i y sand-heap and pi der ev y st ' (Edinburgh "Review xliii, 310). Pa- x “he paucity « of animal life. We were two months on the ‘Andes (August and Septem ber) before we saw alive snake, They are plentiful in the wet season in cacao plantations; but the a majority harm Pi ell, who particularly studied the reptiles of India, found that out of forty-three specles which he e ined not more than seven had poi s fangs; a ir E. Tei t, a long residence in Ceylon, declared he had never — e vs eue of by the bite of a snake. owever, that the num of mber us species are greater in South America than in any other part of ni wise ped A is * Mount Everest is 29,000 feet, and Aconcagua 23.200. Schlagintweit enumerates thirt cy —X over 25,000 feet, and "Ms above 20,000. OM have little ret redu s the Bolivian mountains, Chimborazo has nearly the same latitude and alti- REVIEWS. 361 * some manion to know that, zoologically, they are inferior in rank to the harmless ones; ‘and certainly,’ adds Sidney Smith, ‘a snake that feels fourteen or fifteen stone stamping on his "Ki: vine little time for reflection, and may be allowed to be e poisonous.’ If bitten, apply am- monia externally immediately, and take five drops in water gai it is an almost certain antidote. The discomforts and dangers ricas: from the anima Hin MN n are no greater than 11 erland fr w York to New Orl SEMN of one thing the —— in oor America may be assured that dear to him, as it 1s to us, vang of nature, the adventurous walk through the primeval forest, the "uc canoe-lifo n the Napo, and the long, monotonous sail on the waters of the Great River. SKETCHES OF CREATION.* — The scope of this book is fully set forth in the rather SARI us The aim of hys author is an excellent one and just such a work as this is intended to be is much neede ed, and we wel- come every Eua: at popularizing ds latest facts and theories of sci- ence. Our ideal of such works às these are the writings of Hugh ice: e Faraday, Gosse, Quatrefages, and others, who, added to the charms of a pure, simple, pellucid style, present "ep story of eas or a ciam at fragments of it, in a thoroughly artles fo and Figuieresque, the r sometimes becomes grandiloquent, and his aiios falls far short a d sprightly style of his French prototype. In Spite, however, of these faults of style the book is a very readable one; the facts are correctly stated; the theories presented with much fairness; the illustrations excellent, and if the whole book had been as well and simply written as the chapters on salt and gypsum, and oil, where the learned author is fully at home, our duty as a critic would have almost been a Fpa As regards his choice of subjects lovers of the sensa- tional and marvellous will find their cravings fully satisfied in the chap- ters entitled > “ The Ordeal by Water,” ** The Ordeal o pet The ** Solar ystem in a Blaze," * The Reign of Fire," **'The T of Time," ** The Reign € Universal Winter," “The Sun Cooling Off,” a “The Machinery of the Heavens Running Down." When the author has endeavored, as he seems to think salintectaclly: to settle so many vexed points in the science of our day we wonder that he “refrains from been attempt to lift the veil which conceals the destiny of other firmaments! e close with a few special criticisms. The Orthoceratite may have been a very formidable monster to a trilobite’s mind, but for the life of us we do not understand how, considering the probable structure of the T a Sketohes of Creation: a popular view or some of the grand conclusions of the sciences in together ig d — of the intimations of scienc of the earth and the solar System. By Alexander Pete LL.D. With illustrations. New York. Harper and Broth- ers. 1870. 12mo, pp. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 46 * 362 REVIEWS. limbs and its stiff armor and its habits of burrowing in the mud, T corals do not usually live, it could when “alarmed, shoot with a Stroke of his tail under cover of some coral crag." imagine this acrobatic feat performed by alobster. And Bis the way the author is at fault in allying the trilobite to the Idotean — Glyptonotus antarcticus, figured on page 322, when its ^ sest ally orse Shoe Crab, Limulus. Our author adopts the nebulous denies How can he logically discard a theory of a gradual development of vege- un a o $7 a "s £e e E' © ^ o e Cuverian types, and must form a fifth “corner stone on diis Nature has built the superstructure of "ty animal creation" (p. 3 We would question whether there is not a successional relation d the four subkingdoms of animals, as much as in the classes of the vetebrates. T anatomist, and shown to have been composed of the bones of mastodons with a sprinkling of Zeuglodon bones HAND-BOOK OF ZooroaYv.*—In this little manual the author id claims to give a skeleton of the subject, with illustrations taken from species which the student can collect for himself within the limits n Hou m ght ordinarily to be used. The and second chapters, on Physiological Zoology and Zoological pieces contain much F sense, and de- * Handbook of Zoology; nd fossil. By J Dawson, LL. D., F. R.S., etc. Part I. Invertebrata, with 215 Arni Montreal. ue Price $1 50.. REVIEWS. 363 serve to be widely read by a class of pa educated ‘‘ species describers " p vex good naturalists the world o regret that the distinguished uico lip the ces in the ier for what radiate feature do the cebas, Foraminifera, Sponges and Infusoria possess? are sb Tu ila which 4p om so ue with the E placed between the Poly- à and Brac $ -. We ar no means satisfied with the author's treatment of the class of Insects, comprising in his estimation the subclass Hexapoda and Myri- apoda. He consi roptera even! Notwithstanding all we know of the Fleas, they are also consigned to a separate ** order," though proven to be a family of diptera. Arachn placed as a “class” above the insects ode of development, their want true metamorphosis (except in certain genera of Acarina), their morphology — all convince us that the are inferior to the Hexapo nd do not show class characters, any more than do the Myriapo s definition of the class the author says “ antennæ rudimentary or mandibuliform.” Th æ as proved by anatomy and especially embryology (see Claparéde’s great work on th p embryology of the spiders) do not exist in the Arachnids. The so-called antennz are the mandibles. What are the “ tentacles ” in this group, the palpi? Of his order Dermophysa, of which we see no necessity, the Demodex represents a family of the mites, and the Tardigrades are in all probability the types of another and the lowest family of Acarina, while the Sea Spiders (Pycnogonids) are traly crustaceous, as proved very sat- isfaetorily by the able embryological researches of Dr. Anton Dohrn. eer are to our mind ler than the Scorpions and Phrynidz cuts are for the most part indifferent, and the printing only dh to O plainly alluded to could be easily corrected, and a cheap, practical, very readable and exceedingly useful manual be produced, and one that would deserve a wide circulation. AN ' GUIDE. *—This is an excellent little work—one so g in faet, that we only wish there were more of it. It is difficult, if not im- * The Naturalist’s Guide in collecting and preserving objects of Natural History, with a complete list of the Bi p of Eastern Massachusetts. By C. J. Maynard. With Illustrations by E.L. Weeks. Boston: Fields, Osgood & Co. 1870. (For sale at the Naturalists’ Agency. Postage paid $1.90, : * 364 REVIEWS. €— to give the novice in collecting and taxidermy all the informa- on h little space as Mr. Maynard occupies; and in easet to the utmost, he vp left some thin ings that it would ct =| -— " fa") wm - mie 5 m o i= E birds — of the pleasures and difficulties of taking them — and his pictures of field- work, are true to the life. e have abundant evidence that he has put himself in no danger of tripping by compilation. Thus, for example, his remark upon page 84, “that birds for a certain period in- crease in size, after which they gradually decrease," is none the less true because it expresses a fact of which few are aware; and it is one not likely to be found out except by long continued and repeated observation. We endorse the imde without reserve. Most birds are at a maxi- mum size before they are perfectly **adult;" on reaching which state, a certain condensation or compaction of the frame seems to take place, so that they become somewhat smaller. Of this the Bald Eagle is an excel- lent illustration. The art of preparing birds for the Scientific cabinet, no less than that to judge of the real merits of his method — still less of the degree of skill he may have acquired in using it. But we are bound to add, that we see no reason why excellent results should not be obtained by following his in employs, we fear it may be found by ihe beginner a little obscure at places — or at least, not so full and plain as it might have been made. This brings us back to the thought that prompted our opening sentence; on the abdomen, and keeping them out of the wound afterwards; REVIEWS. 365 nor of the very next trouble —to avoid attempting to take off the thin w. u of the bone by introducing the closed scissors between the muscles, and opening them t wid o pac to grasp the bone; then we strip the muscles from above downward, and snip all the tendons at a single stroke below. Practically; iei small birds at least, this is done with the thumb-nail, in an instant. in the cases of certain long-winged we rem arate from both the other bones and all the muscles by cutting its head away from the elbow-joint, stripping the muscle off from above down- ward, and then removing humerus, radius and all the muscle by a trans- verse stroke of the scissors just above the carpal joint. A description should have been given of the neat and rapid way of removing the brain and all the head-muscles by the four special cuts that may be made in an instant; instead of the general directions for scooping out and scraping the skull. We think the writer hardly puts the tyro sufficiently on his guard against stretching a skin unduly, particularly at the neck, and so producing that ugly bare space on each side, difficult to rectify afterwards. Except in the cases of large birds, where main strength and awkwardness do well enough, no skin should be pulled, or even drawn, off; but should am more than told, and then spoil his specimen. We should like to make a few sug- gestions regarding this matter, but want of space prevents, as it does our even alluding to a score of little points which will not be found in this or ania than any trestibó upon the subject can possibly be m ee In Part II, Mr. Maynard gives what we find to be a very complete and otherwise exostiont list of the birds of Eastern Massachusetts. e do the changes that Dr. Coues has shown to be necessary or advisable in certain families; and in ala specific he is nearly as conservative * as * Thus he does not admit Turdus Alicie ger Viendo beige Aud., Ægiothus ez- ilipes Coues, Larus Hutchinsii Rich., and L. S onianus Coues. Our Certhia and Eremo- Vlil eee Gouna he refers to the European C. enter and E. prises V our hand is rss e order, where the writer might have con- e 366 REVIEWS. Mr. Allen. The notes of habits, etc., are very valuable and useful, and, (its main points, if we recollect rightly, having been already presented in the NATURALIST by Mr. Allen), several of the entries are of special inter- est and importance. Ano ong these way be mentioned siia Bairdii, Argytira maculata (accidental), Xant hal (accidental) Tyrannus Weapon n. tal), Paster domestica (introduced), Chon- destes grammaca (ac tal), Turdus nevius (accidental), Helmintho- phaga per penis an. sacer (unusually southern), Strix pratincola (rarel so northe iind Micropalama himantopus (rare), Macrorhamphus scolopa- ceus, Thalasseus acuflavidus, Pelecanus trachyrhynchus, and P. fuscus (both of these an accidental). 'The first named Mr. Maynard considers as more likely to be a winter visitor from p north, than a straggler from Nebraska. Quiscalus major, acne Wilsonius, and a few other species occurring in Allen's or Coues’ lists, he dismisses as resting upon insuffi- cient evidence; probably in most instances he is correct in so doing. The supposed Buteo ** Cooperi” turns out to be a state of B. lineatus. A good voisin a of the nest and eggs of Helminthophaga chrysoptera is given. h mages of Scops asio, and the relationships of Sterna macrura and discussed at some length. In of the Scops it is evident that Kbps e mds will not be likely to come to any agreement, until they onc e did long ago, that the variations in the plumage are purely secos In an appendix, Mr. Maynard etim all the species in conveni form We have "un so 6. ponti impressed with the book, and others will doubtless find it so useful, that we feel the less hesitation in criticising some things in it that we cannot praise. A little care would have pre- vented such slips as *'carpel" for carpal (p. 20), ** coccygus " for coccyz, or for os coccygis, **arctea" for arctica (p. 152), ** Argyria" for Argytira (p. 164), ** penguin" for peregrine (p. 184), etc. We fear, however, that the ter himself is responsible for such awkward blunders as — ** where the humerus joins the sternum" (p. 40); and the mention of the wrists and heels of sheep and deer as ** knee ncn " (p.49). The figures we cannot speak well of; in fact, they are very bad, and we should judge that "s will hardly answer the purpose for which they were designed. Thus sistently questioned specific validity: Falco anatum, Astur atricapillus, Pandion Carolinensis, Otus Wilson ianus, piae Cassini, Nyctale Richardsoni, There are many others, as nearly allied to European types, th at be allows to stand, Though | we agree hase the writer in be that arise from ou Mei acceptation of the term ** species," he had ado pted i oori man and less itr cal definition than this: ‘Species consists in a bird's having certain charaeters so w well defined, although inconstant pe never variable beyond a certain point), , p. 85. that it aJ readily REVIEWS. 367 trust that Fig. 3, Plate vim, was not taken from an example of the au- thor’s handiwork! The book is well printed and handsomely — up. We hope it may acquire the popularity to which its merits enti ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE EXPLORATION OF THE NORTH-WEST.* This memoir gives the first published results of the Russo-American Tel- egraph Expedition, organized to explore preparatory to the connection of San Francisco and St. Fet ersburg by electric telegraph. The officers Academy, in broad and liberal spirit, for the scientific exploration of the country by a corps of young naturalists headed by Major Robert Kenni- cott. The party left San Francisco in July, 1865, by several vessels, touching at various points, where cond doni were m made e arting again, December, 1866, and remaining there all hito In the spring they pro- gence Mies mendis of the termination of the enterprise. Notwithstanding this Mr. 1 decided to finish the scientific reconnoissance of the Yukon River, Sint im in the country alone and at his own expense. He pro- ceeded with Eskimos to Unalaklik, where her emained until November, the country both east and west of Nulato. Crossing the portage in June he descended the Yukon to its mouth, and shortly afterward embarked for several years of travel and exploration, are worked up e the paper now under consideration, and in the one we shall presently notice. We fin memoir to be one of special interest ii itiha, as was to have been anticipated, no less from the character of its authors and of the other naturalists whose collections contributed towards it, than from the nature of the ground explored, and other fortunate circum- stances. Itis not too much to say that no single paper has appeared for the last decade, and perhaps for a longer period eap we do not for- get the results of Mr. Xantus’ explorations), that has added so positively ol senting some of the leading ain in dent though even à seit epitome of all the ada obtained would exceed our li mits. Before Be he gale ei A Sle Sa SE TET UE * List of the Birds of Alaska, with Biographical Notes. By W. H. Dall and H. M. Bannister. l.i Art. ix. 1869. 368 REVIEWS. doing we have only to add, in expressing our sense of the intrinsic value of the paper, and in according all the praise to its authors, that they so justly deserve, our impression that the symmetry of the paper is some- what marred by the circumstances, unknown to us, which resulted in the eastern birds occur in s Husa! jan Ameri Poli either associated with, or re- ee vocis speci was rather to have been antici- pat e fact has pain Sdn more and more apparent, of late years, by We have lately found that this fish, when grown, feeds largely upon small shells (Physa and Lymnea). We have seen them seize the animal, crush and then drop the shell, and then, by nibbling at the extruded soft parts, finally suc- ceed in devouring all but the shell. Young crawfish are also worried to death by this cyprinodont, which at first bites off the larger claws, and ultimately succeeds in crushing the whole shell. On the other hand they are themselves ex- posed to attacks from a voracious animal, which takes advan- tage of their lying buried in the mud. We refer to the odoriferous Cinosternoid ( Ozotheca odorata). This turtle appears to be able to discover the whereabouts of the mud- MUD-LOVING FISHES. 389 minnows without alarming them ; and cautiously approach- ing from behind, they seize the head of the fish that is scarcely extruded from the mud. This they generally com- pletely sever from the body, cast aside, and then draw from the mud the decapitated body. We doubt the ability of this turtle to catch a mud-minnow not concealed in the mud. When lying on the mud, like an Etheostomoid, their move- ments are very rapid when disturbed. In speaking of the habits of certain species of fishes as ‘mud-loving,” or dwellers in and upon mud, we really indi- cate merely those species that are most truly nocturnal. We judge that, to a certain extent, all fish are nocturnal. We have often noticed that fish will leap from an aquarium, if uncovered during the night; but this occurs but seldom during the day. Fishing with a line has always been more fruitful with us at night than fishing during the day ; even when fishing for yellow or white perch, and other active day fish. Nets set over night entrap a greater number, and larger specimens, than when set for the same number of hours between sunrise znd sunset. These remarks are peculiarly applicable to the two Cato- stomoids we have mentioned above, Moxostoma oblongum : and Hylomyzon nigricans. Unless quite small, less than six inches in length, these "suckers" remain quiet throughout the day; but as night approaches they leave the shallow, muddier portions of the creeks, and swim towards and into the. deeper waters. About sunset we have often noticed them coming to the surface, and with their nostrils above the water, they make a low, sibilant sound, and leave in their wake a long line of minute bubbles. When attacked, as they frequently are at this time, by turtles, they give a very audible grunt, similar to that of our chub when drawn from the water. Both of these “suckers” are occasionally found, even during the day, in running water, hunting among the stones upon the bottom; but still water and soft mud are never far distant. The “suckers” of our rivers are very 390 MUD-LOVING FISHES. different in their likes and dislikes. Coming up the stream in February and March, the large-scaled species, Teretulus macrolepidotus, and the common Catostomus Bostoniensis, seek out rapid waters, rocky bottoms, and are so active and fearless during the day, that many are seen and killed in the shallow waters they have entered. . This is very noticeably the case at Trenton, New Jersey, where the Assunpink creek enters the Delaware. The “suckers” come up to the foot of the dam and congregate there in large numbers. Both of these species bite readily at a hook; but the “mullet” and "black-sucker" never do with us. We can imagine nothing more devoid of interest than a mud-catfish (Amiurus DeHayi), at least as we have them here in New Jersey. Occasionally one of unusual size is met with to give it some characteristic worthy of attention. The largest specimen we have ever seen weighed five pounds, thirteen ounces. The greatest width of the head was five and one half inches. This species wallows in the mud in the beds of streams of all sizes; it is abundant in many of our largest creeks, in every mill-pond, and in average sized dibdlios with overhanging banks, this “mud-lover” frequently congregates in large numbers. It is a little curious to notice kaw soon matters right themselves, as to the distribution of fishes, after a fritt has subsided which had obliterated the previous boundaries. We have in mind now an extensive tract of meadow, through which meanders two rapid current creeks, and also through it are cut innumerable ditches. In these ditches dwell several mud-loving fish. Of course the freshet produces considerable of a “scatter” among them; but on the subsidence of the water we very seldom find mud cat-fish in the clear-water creeks, and the running water species caught napping in the ditches very promptly leave, as a few days suffice to restore to each locality its characteristic species. In our report in the “Geology of New Jersey,” we gave but three fresh-water siluroids. Since then we have had our MUD-LOVING FISHES. 391 attention called to the stone cat-fish ( Noturus gyrinus), from the Delaware Water Gap, Warren County, New J ersey. Be- sides the specimens from this locality in the Museum of the Philadelphia Academy we have seen one living specimen in an aquarium, taken in the Assunpink Creek at its mouth. This is the only living specimen taken in New Jersey that we have ever seen, but learn that it is common in some of the rocky creeks in the northern part of the State. The Eel (Anguilla tenuirostris), as elsewhere we suppose, is abundant in all our water courses. A careful examination of specimens from various localities, and comparison of re- ports of local fishermen, tend to the fact (?) that the largest eels are to be found in the rivers and streams directly tribu- - tary to them ; and that in isolated mill-ponds far distant from the main water courses, they are not so large or numerous. We do not admit that such is really the case, but it does appear to be true. The experience of other observers would be interesting to know; and how large do our various spe- cies of Anguilla grow, as found in fresh-water? In the Delaware and its many small tributaries we find the Lamprey (Petromyzon nigricans) very abundant. Although occasion- ally found sticking to the sides of large fish, shad, rock-fish, white-perch and chub, they do not appear to feed upon fish thus exclusively. We have frequently found a large quantity of them adhering to the carcasses of dogs and other drowned animals, and judge that they subsist upon dead, rather than living animal matter. In an aquarium they adhere to the glass sides and remove the green scum very effectually, but whether they devour it or not we could not ascertain. We ve known the Lampreys to suck their way up the facing of mill dams and so wander far up from the river. In suc cases they bury themselves in the mud, in the winter, as do eels instead of following the river out into the sea. VARIATIONS IN NATURE. BY THOMAS MEEHAN. THE idea that art has made most of the variations we find in gardens is far removed from the truth. It has done much to prevent a true knowledge of the origin of species. Art has done little towards making variations; it has only helped to preserve the natural evolutions of form from being crowded out. There is scarcely any species of wild plants but will furnish numberless variations, if we only look for them. To-day I examined a large patch of ox-eye daisies (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum). The first impression is that they are remarkably uniform, yet there were some with petals as long only as the width of the disk; others with petals double the length. In some the petals taper to a narrow point; in others they are tridentate on the apex. Again, some flowers have petals uniformly linear. Others have them tapering at both ends. Some have recurved and others flat petals. In one plant the scales of the involucre were very much reflezed, a very striking difference from the usually closely appressed condition. I have frequently found that these very common things which nobody looks at, furnish as many new facts to an enquiring mind, as the rare species which every one loves to see. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FAUNA OF THE SOUTHERN ALLEGHANIES BY PROFESSOR E. D. COPE. I. On the so-called Alleghanian Fauna in General. The terms Canadian and Alleghanian, have been applied by Pro- (392) FAUNA OF THE SOUTHERN ALLEGHANIES. 393 fessors Verrill* and Agassizt to faunal associations of spe- cies of animals, characteristic of Canada and. adjacent territory, and the Middle and Eastern United States, etc. The former author, in the later essay quoted, attempts to define these faune in a more or less precise manner, regard- ing the southern boundary of the first as “coincident with a line which shall indicate a mean temperature of 50° Fahren- heit, and the southern boundary of the second, to be the line of 559." In accordance with this view the southern boundary of the Canadian fauna, commencing at the mouth of the Penobscot River in Maine, extends parallel with the coast into New Brunswick, and returning through middle Maine passes south of Moosehead Lake and the White Mountains, along the eastern base of the Green Mountains to the south, and up their western foot to the river St. Law- rence. From near Montreal it turns to the south-west, and, passing through Lake Ontario, crosses Michigan from St. Clair to Milwaukee, and rises following the valley of the Mississippi northwards. The Adirondack Mountains were regarded as a portion of this fauna, surrounded, like an island, by the Alleghanian. The southern boundary of the Alleghanian was traced from near Norfolk, Virginia, up the valley of the James River to the Alleghany Mountains, southward along their base to their termination in Georgia, and then north again along their western slope to Kentucky and the Ohio River. The Southern, or Louisianian, fauna included the lower por- tion of the Ohio basin, and an undetermined extent of that of the Mississippi north of the latter. The boundary line then descended to the south to the west of that river. I may suggest here that the most northern habitat of the Siren lacertina might prove to be near the northern extreme of the boundary in question. This point, so far as I am aware, is * Proceedings Essex Institute, III. 136. Proceedings Boston Society of Natural His- Ty, 1866, . t Nott and Gliddon, “Types of Mankind,” 1853. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. I. 50 394 FAUNA OF THE SOUTHERN ALLEGHANIES. Alton, Illinois, from which place I have a specimen of that species. My object at present is to show that the region, including the crest of the Alleghany Mountains to their southern ex- tremity in Georgia, possesses a fauna in many respects entirely different from that of the southern two-thirds of the Alle- ghanian fauna as defined by Verrill, and in some respects as similar to the Canadian. My conclusions are based more on observations on the distribution of birds than on animals of | other classes, as were also those of Professor Verrill. They are very imperfect, and I have no doubt that additional ob- servations will increase the weight of evidence in the direc- tion here pointed out. Among Mammalia three species may be noticed, namely : Sciurus Hudsonius, Cervus Canadensis, Lynx Canadensis. The first named species is characteristically northern, and little known in the southern part of the above defined Alle- ghanian fauna. In southern and eastern Virginia it is un- known, as well as in North Carolina and Tennessee. It is, however, not uncommon on the summits and crests of the Alleghanies in both the former states. In North Carolina and southern Virginia it is so restricted to the heights as not even to descend into the mountain valleys. I resided for nearly two months at the Warm Springs, Madison county, North Carolina, and in Henderson county, in the same state, at an elevation of two thousand five hundred feet above the sea, without observing a single individual; yet the inhabi- tants are well acquainted with them as game of the moun- tain tops, under the name of the “Mountain Boomer,” a name they bear in Virginia, also. This distribution and name are mentioned by Audubon and Bachman in their great work, The elk is recorded by Baird as having left remains, during human habitation, in West Virginia. Of this fact I was also assured when in the same region. Dr. Hardy, of Asheville, North Carolina, states that horns of the elk were found in FAUNA OF THE SOUTHERN ALLEGHANIES. 395 the woods on the Black Mountains at that southern point, when he was younger, and that he is satisfied that its range extended nearly to South Carolina during the human period. This species formerly ranged over the Alleghanian fauna, but is now nearly confined to the Canadian. Like the red squirrel the Canada lynx extends to the southern limits of the Alleghany ranges, occupying the highest ground, though apparently not so restricted to the elevations as the first named. It is distinguished, by the name catamount, from the Lynx rufus which is called wild cat, and is well known to the hunters. It is known to be a northern species, being unknown in the wilds of the lower country of Virginia and North Carolina, where the L. rufus takes its place. What its southern limit is, in eastern and western Pennsylvania, I am unable to ascertain. In Giles County, E. Virginia, at an elevation of five thous- and feet, I observed in August, 1867, the following species of birds: Junco hyemalis, Dendreeca icterocephala, D. Black- burniæ, D. cærulescens, D. maculosa, D. virens, Myiodioctes Canadensis, M. mitralus, Parula Americana, Mniotilta varia, Setophaga ruticilla. From the season at which these were observed, they evidently bred in the locality in question. They were most of them abundant. In the high valley of Henderson county, and on the Black, Rich, and other mountains in southern North Carolina in September, 1869, I observed the following: Junco hyemalis, Vireo solitarius, Dendræca coronata, D. maculosa, D. virens, D. cerulescens, D. Blackburniæ, Parula Americana, Mnio- tilta varia, Myiodioctes mitratus, Setophaga ruticilla. These were also abundant, and no doubt bred in the localities in question. These species are enumerated as especially northern forms. They pass Philadelphia in latitude 40° in early spring (April and May), on their way to northern breeding places. Rarely a Setophaga ruticilla breeds in that region, but the great majority accompany the northern Dendrocas and the 396 FAUNA OF THE SOUTHERN ALLEGHANIES. Vireo solitarius. Of the list, Verrill states that Mniotilta varia, Parula Americana, Dendreca virens, D. Blackburnie, D. icterocephala, Myiodioctes Canadensis, Setophaga ruticilla and Vireo solitarius, breed at Norway, Maine, at the north- ern limit of the Alleghanian fauna. Dendreca coronata. and Junco hyemalis migrate still farther north to within the lim- its of the Canadian fauna, to breed: D. maculosa, not breeding at Norway, may have similar habits. The two former birds are regarded by Verrill as true types of the Canadian fauna, the Junco representing in part Spizella so- cialis of the Alleghanian, and the D. coronata the D. pinus of the same. The southern localities now given for the species of the two lists, I have not found recorded, except in the case of Junco . hyemalis, which according to Audubon breeds in the Vir- ginian Alleghanies. The species mostly, and especially the last named, are confined like the red squirrel to the most ele- vated mountain crests. In North Carolina these range from five thousand to six thousand seven hundred and forty feet. It is also evident that a number of species of birds, mostly wood-warblers (Dendreca and other Tanagride) have an east and west, as well as north and south migration; passing to and from the Alleghany Mountains, instead of going to the New England States and Canada. Among the Batrachia a single species is found on the high peaks of the Black Mountains, and its faunal relations are similar to the preceding. This is a species of Sala- mander, the Desmognathus ochrophea, which is common in that Canadian island, the Adirondack Mountains, and in the Alleghanies as far south as the South of Pennsylvania. In the lower country of New England and New York it appears not to be known to naturalists, though it may occur there, while in Southern Pennsylvania it is not found. Its range extends to the Georgian Alleghanies, as a specimen similar to those from the Black Mountains was sent to the Smith- sonian Institution by Dr. Jones. FAUNA OF THE'SOUTHERN ALLEGHANIES. 397 The preceding species of mammals, birds, and batrachia, accompany very exactly the range of the trout (Salmo fon- tinalis). This well known fish is already in South-western Virginia, confined to the most elevated peaks and knobs, and does not even occur in the streams of many of the mountain valleys. In North Carolina its distribution is quite similar. I took it in the headwaters of the French Broad, and was satisfied that it occurs in the head of the Catawba. Dr. Hardy, of Asheville, who is very familiar with the Southern Alleghany Region, assured me that it is found in the headwaters of the Chattahoochie in Georgia, the only example of its occurrence in a river flowing directly into the Gulf of Mexico, with which I am acquainted. At the same _ time Dr. Peck of Mossy Creek, Tennessee, who has fished for trout in most of the Alleghany streams, is of the opinion that the fish does not oceur in any streams in the Cumber- land Mountains. The wood frog (Rana sylvatica) also occurs on the moun- tains of North Carolina, but what the southern limit of its range in the low lands is, I do not know. Of the eighteen species above enumerated, at least ten are not found in the southern half or more of the Allegha- nian fauna, that is, are not known as residents about Phila- delphia, and most of them are not found within a consid- erable distance north of that point. Of this number at least two belong exclusively to the Canadian fauna, while of the remaining eight, five ( Lynx Canadensis, Sciurus Hudsonius,* Cervus Canadensis, Setophaga ruticilla and Salmo fonti- nalis), are absent or rare in the low countries south of Philadelphia. ` The value of the isothermal of 65° during April, May and June, as a boundary of faune may thus be questioned, though it is probably as determinative as any other that * A friend long resident in Loudon Co., Va. (on = Potomac), informs me that the red squirrel does not occur there. Prof. Baird give in the 8th VoL, U. S. Pac. R. R. Rep’t, measurements of specimens from Mississi 398 FAUNA OF THE SOUTHERN ALLEGHANIES. could be fixed upon. Thus the limit of the breeding region of the ten northern species above alluded to might be re- garded as such a boundary. This would be about the par- allel of the mouth of the Connectieut (or Hudson), and it would coincide with the northern limit of several genera and species of fishes. Thus Lepidosteus, Clinostomus, Ennea- canthus, Acantharchus and Carpiodes, do not exist north of this point, nor the widely distributed species Semotilus cor- poralis and Hypsilepis analostanus. There is, however, nearly as much change at the latitude of the Susquehanna, while at the James, Micropterus, and probably Campostoma, have their northern Atlantic limit.* II. On the fauna of the Upper Valley of the French | Broad River, North Carolina. —'This valley is probably the most extensive for its elevation above the sea, in the Appa- lachian region. It may be said to extend from near Ashe- ville at the southern extremity of the Black Mountains, to near the line of South Carolina, or the Saluda Mountains, north and south. On the east and west it is bounded by the Blue Ridge and the Cold Spring and other ranges, respect- ively, embracing the counties of Henderson and Transyl- vania and part of Buncombe. The French Broad River traverses it from south to north, taking its rise in the south- ern and western bounding mountain ranges. This fine val- ley is comparatively level, and the soil, though loamy, contains a considerable proportion of sand. The river pur- sues a level course with but few rapids, and through broad meadows susceptible of high cultivation. ` The climate is delightfully equable, being without summer heats and win- ter snows. The magnificent scenery, in views of the sur- rounding mountains, especially to the westward, have made it the Saratoga of Charleston and Mobile; and its claims, say an essay on the — of Ashes : in the Alleghanies of Ree western Vir stated, p. 245, tha I have since vine ae gi through pias. Agassiz, that it is found in Lake Champlain. FAUNA OF THE SOUTHERN ALLEGHANIES. 399 80 superior in scenery to that watering place, will no doubt be some day recognized by the citizens of our northern cities. According to the measurement given by Prof. Kerr, in his first report on the progress of the Geological Survey of the State, the elevation of this valley is twenty-five hundred feet above the sea. The highest point in the great valley of the Alleghanies, on the line of the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad in south-west Virginia, is nineteen hun- dred feet, according to the railroad surveys. The Black Mountains rise from the Upper French Broad Valley to six thousand seven hundred and forty feet. On the south, three ranges separate it from the upper country of South Carolina, the southern escarpment of each of which presents a much greater descent than the northern. As might have been expected, the products of this valley approximate, in some respects, those of the North. It is the source of supply for the immediately adjoining southern regions, of apples, potatoes, and cabbages that will head. In its fauna it partakes of a few northern traits. I observed the following birds there in September, so that I cannot be sure that they breed there, or that they had not descended from the surrounding mountains: Mniotilta varia, Parula Americana, Dendreca virens, D. carulescens, D. maculosa, Setophaga ruticilla. The reptile fauna presented on the other hand a marked peculiarity, and I write the present notice to call attention to it. The lizard Oligosoma laterale Say, was common; the salamander Spelerpes guttolineatus was excessively abundant, and a single example of Ambly- stoma talpoideum was found there under a log, during my residence of a week. These three species have been looked upon as representing our extreme southern Reptile fauna. They have not been found hitherto north of the low country of the Gulf States, and its prolongation up the low valley of the Mississippi. The Amblystoma only, of the three, has occurred near Cairo, Ill. (Mus. Smithsonian). The Speler- 400 FAUNA OF THE SOUTHERN ALLEGHANIES. pes guttolineatus seemed to take the place in habit and man- ners of our Plethodon erythronotus, which did not occur there. The occurrence of these species at that elevation seems quite peculiar, as I did not meet with either of them in three weeks in the valley of Tennessee from ten to thirty miles north of Knoxville, nor in two months in the low country of western, middle and eastern North Carolina, in the latitude of this valley. Besides these species, there were abundant the widely dis- tributed Spelerpes bilineatus, S. ruber, Amblystoma puncta- tum, and Desmognathus fuscus. D. niger and D. ochropheus of the neighboring mountains were not there. As to the flora of the valley I made but few observations. The buckeyes and Gordonia of the Cumberland Mountains had disappeared, and the universal “ stick-weed" (-Actinome- ris squamosa) of the Great Valley was rare. Aconitum un- cinatum adorned the thickets with its twining stem bearing large blue flowers. The coarse Silphium terebinthaceum was conspicuous in the old fields, along with abundance of a common Crategus. In the woods there were three species of Viburnum, and the swamps were often well protected against intruders by the Smilax laurifolia. ‘The moss sup- ported abundance of the Sarracenia purpurea, and a second species, perhaps S. rubra. The latter plant is interesting as furnishing another in- stance of the dependence between species of different king- doms, for means of subsistence. The tubular leaves of this species are erect and slender, or trumpet shaped. The del- icate hairs with which they are lined increase in coarseness to near the base, while they are so delicate on the inside of the free portion of the leaf as to produce the effect of iri- descence. Insects which enter are imprisoned by this ar- rangement, and I did not examine a specimen, of the many observed, which did not contain at least an inch of dead insects of all orders, in the bottom. On the top of this mass of decay a large dipterous larva was invariably found. FAUNA OF THE SOUTHERN ALLEGHANIES. 401 It was not of a kind familiar to me, and seemed evidently to depend for subsistence on the animal matter furnished by the trap-like qualities of the Sarracenia leaf. I did not observe any such tenant in the J. purpurea, where the hollow pe- tioles were frequently more or less filled with water. IIl. On some species of Spelerpes. — In his original descriptions of North American Salamanders, published many years ago by Professor Jacob Green, he mentioned one under the name of Spelerpes cirrigera, which was said to have been discovered in Louisiana. This animal was small, and furnished with a marked peculiarity in the shape of a dermal appendage or tentacle, dependent from the upper lip near the nostril. In other respects the animal was allied to the Sp. bilineatus, the small speeies so generally distributed over the United States. In Holbrook's extensive work on herpetology, this species is again described and figured, but no new specimens are mentioned as having been discovered, and it is regarded as very rare. In 1869 the writer made a study of the North American salamanders preserved in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, and examined with much interest, among others the types of Green's description of Spelerpes cirrigera from Louisiana. A narrow investiga- tion of these convinced me that no other character existed by which to distinguish them from a usual southern variety of Sp. bilineatus, than the two peculiar cirri originally ob- served by Green. Now these cirri are evidently remnants of an early larval character universal among tailed Batrachia, namely, the balancers. These are a long process on each side of the head immediately in front of the branchial pro- cesses, which appear very early, indeed almost simultane- ously with the latter. They are probably homologous with the beards of the larval Dactylethra of Africa described by Wyman and Gray, which give those tadpoles so much the appearance of Siluroids, or cat-fish. In our salamanders they disappear at various periods of growth, and sometimes leave AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 51 402 FAUNA OF THE SOUTHERN ALLEGHANIES. traces in the form of an angle or swelling beneath the nos- tril on the lip, and sometimes as in the supposed species Spelerpes cirrigera, as a tentacle, or cirrus. Influenced by this consideration I referred Green's salamanders to his Sp. bilineatus.* In the course of collecting in the Alleghany region of Tennessee and North Carolina, I became satisfied of the pro- priety of this step. While in the recesses of a cave in the valley of Tennessee, in Jefferson county, I found a very fine specimen of Spelerpes longicauda of a red orange color, which had well developed tentacles on each side, precisely as in the cirriferous Sp. bilineata of Green. Subsequently in ascending the Black Mountains in Buncombe county, Nort Carolina, I found five specimens of the typical form of Sp. bilineata, of which three were tentaculate, and two were not. Finally, in a considerable number of the Sp. guttolineata, from the headwaters of the French Broad in North Carolina, one presented the same feature of well developed tentacles. This irregular preservation of a larval character, is o interest in connection with the theory of evolution. Should the presence of these tentacles be permanent in any species, it is not to be doubted that the character would be regarded as generic, and justly so. Its history would in that case be like the history of all other generic characters as represent- ing the undeveloped stage of another type, if not itself the ne plus ultra. Should it be constant in a color variety only of some species, and wanting in other varieties, and in other species, the first would become the type of another genus, whatever its claims to specific distinction might be. The latter would of course follow the former! If, however, the naturalist of the old school had any suspicion that the two forms may have had a common origin, he would ignore the distinctions. The proper course appears to me to recognize characters as definitive when they are constant, and discuss their history afterwards. * See Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, 1869. p. 107. ON THE DEEP-WATER FAUNA OF LAKE MICHIGAN, BY DR. WILLIAM STIMPSON. A knowledge of the character of the animals and plants living at the bottom of the great North American Lakes, the largest bodies of fresh-water in the world, has long been a desideratum ; and dredging operations have this year been initiated by the Chicago Academy of Sciences which have al- ready produced interesting results. The first dredgings were made off Chicago, where the waters were found to be shal- low, and the bottom sandy or gravelly. At a distance of eighteen miles from land the depth was but fourteen fathoms. The bottom was nearly barren of life. We obtained, how- ever, specimens of the larva of some neuropterous insect, a Clepsine, a flesh-colored leech belonging to a new genus; a Lymnea, two Melanians and a Plumatella. The plants consisted of a moss, a Chara, a Nostoc,and one other alga. The next investigations were made in the more central and deeper parts of the lake. Dr. Hoy of Racine had been for some time endeavoring to ascertain the nature of the food of the whitefish, which had previously remained entirely un- known, These fish being caught in gill-nets and “pounds,” are generally taken from the water some hours after being actually entrapped, and the food in the stomach becomes thoroughly digested, and its character undistinguishable be- fore it can be obtained and examined. Dr. Hoy, however, after long search, succeeded in obtaining some fish in which the eontents of the stomach was in a comparatively fresh state, and ascertained it to consist mainly of remains of small crustaceans. These he submitted to me for examina- tion, and among them I had the pleasure of detecting indi- cations of the existence of marine forms in the lake. It thus became highly desirable to examine the ground upon whieh Dr. Hoy's fishes had been obtained, and accord- (403) 404 ON THE DEEP-WATER FAUNA OF LAKE MICHIGAN. ingly on the 24th of June last we started out from Racine for the purpose in a tug belonging to that place. The party consisted of Dr. Lapham, Dr. Hoy, Mr. Blatchford and Dr. Andrews of Chicago, and myself. We dredged at various points from twelve to twenty-six miles from land, the great- est depth found being sixty-four fathoms, with a bottom of blackish impalpable mud. Between the distances of twelve and twenty-two miles from shore the depth was tolerably uniform, averaging forty-five fathoms, the bottom being generally a reddish or brownish, sandy mud. On this plateau we obtained alive the crustacea found by Dr. Hoy in the stomachs of the whitefish, consisting of a Mysis and two species of Gammarus. A small white Planaria, and a new species of Pisidium also occurred. All of these animals were found in abundance, showing this portion of the lake bottom to be rather densely inhabited. Mysis is a marine genus, many species of which occur in the colder parts of the North Atlantie and in the Arctic seas. One species, M. relicta, was found by Lovén in com- pany with Zdothea entomon and other marine crustacea in the deep fresh-water lakes, Wenner and Wetter of Sweden, indicating that these basins were formerly filled with salt- water, and have been isolated from the sea by the elevatory movement of the Skandinavian peninsula which is still go- ing on. That the same thing has occurred to our own lakes is shown by the occurrence in their depths of the genus Mysis, notwithstanding the non-occurrence of marine shells in the quaternary deposits on their shores. Kingston on Lake Ontario, is, I believe, the highest point in the valley at which such shells have been found. Very probably, at the time when the sea had access to these basins, the com- munication was somewhat narrow and deep, and the influx of fresh-water from the surrounding country was sufficient to occupy entirely the upper stratum, while the heavier sea- water remained at the bottom. After the basins had become separated from the ocean by the rise of the land, the bottom CLIMBING PLANTS. 405 water must have become fresh by diffusion very slowly to allow of the gradual adaptation of the crustaceans to the change of element. Possibly the occurrence at the bottom of salt springs like those of the adjacent shores of Michigan may have had something to do with the slowness of the change. At present the bottom water, judging from a speci- men we obtained from a depth of fifty fathoms approxi- mately, is entirely fresh. I am informed by Professor Gill that the Triglopsis T'hompsonii of Girard is a marine rather than a fresh-water form. This fish inhabits the depths of the lakes, having been found by Professor Baird in the stomach of Lota ma- culosa, taken in Lake Ontario, and recently by Dr. Hoy in those of trout caught off Racine. Our Mysis is allied to certain arctic forms, which would lead us to refer its original entry into the lakes to the cold period of the quaternary epoch. While the marine species usually live near the surface of the water, this one appears to be confined to the bottom, a result of its seeking the colder and at a former period the more saline waters. The investigation of the materials obtained by the dredg- ing parties of the Academy is now in progress, and the re- sults will be published in full with illustrations at an early period. CLIMBING PLANTS. BY PROF. W. J. BEAL. following remarks upon this interesting subject, can scarcely be called a review, but more properly a summary given nearly in the words of the author.* It has been made *On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants. By Charles Darwin, E F.R.S., F.L.S., etc. [From the Journal of the Linnzan Society.] pp. 118. London, 1895. 406 CLIMBING PLANTS. quite full, as it is likely the original paper has been read by but few readers of the NATURALIST. Climbing plants may be divided into those which spirally twine round a support ; those which ascend by the movement of, the foot-stalks or tips of their leaves; those which ascend by true tendrils; those which are furnished with hooks, and those which are furnished with rootlets. The last two ex- hibit no special movements and are of less interest than the first three. Spirally Twining Plants. —I begin with a special case, one depending upon my own observation, similar to the one taken by Mr. Darwin. A thrifty hop-vine in my yard went up nine or ten feet to the top of a stake. Still aspiring it ran above the support, at the same time reaching off and swinging round and round following the course of the sun. When about two feet above the stake the tip of the vine cir- eumscribed a circle two feet in diameter. While it grew longer the extent of the circle was about the same, as a part of the vine had become strong and remained nearly stationary. By observations made at different times in the ay it was found to perform one revolution in from one to two hours, moving most rapidly in the warmest part of the warmest days. It is now four feet and two inches above any artificial support, and has just tipped over to the north-east in the direction of the prevailing wind. The revolving movement lasts as long as the plant continues to grow, but each separate joint or internode, as it grows old, ceases to move. In the ease of the hop and most other twining plants, about three internodes at a time partake of the motion. : The Hoya carnosa (Asclepiadacew) revolves opposite to the sun in five or six hours, making a circle of over five feet in diameter. The tip traced thirty-two inches per hour. It was an interesting spectacle to watch the long shoot sweeping night and day this grand circle in search of some object round which to twine. Sometimes it described nar- CLIMBING PLANTS. 407 row ellipses. After performing thirty-seven revolutions the stem of a hop was found to be twisted three times round its own axis in the direction of the sun. To prove that the twisting of the stem does not cause the revolutions, as Hugo von Mohl supposed, some stems are not regularly twisted and others twist in an opposite direction to the revolving plant. In many twining plants the end of the shoot is hooked so as the more readily to hold fast to any object of support which may be caught. This support once found, the point of contact ceases to move, but the tip continues to twine above and around the support as a rope swung around a stick will coil in the direction of the swinging rope. If a stick shortly after having been wound round be with- drawn, the shoot retains for a time its spiral form, then straightens itself and again begins to revolve. Mohl be- lieved that plants twined because of a dull irritability of the stem, but experiments prove that this is not generally the case. If the support of a twiner be not lofty it falls to the ground, and resting there the extremity rises again. Some- times several flexible shoots twine together into a cable and thus support each other. Single thin shoots will fall and turn abruptly back and wind upwards on themselves. The majority of twiners move in a course opposed to that of the sun or the hands of a watch. Rarely plants of the same order twine in opposite directions, but no instance is known of two species of the same genus twining in opposite direc- tions. Of seventeen plants of. Loasa aurantiaca, eight re- volved in opposition to the sun and ascended from left to right, five followed the sun and ascended from right to left, and four revolved and twined first in one direction, and then reversed their course. One of these four plants made seven spiral turns from right to left, and five turns from left to right. Climbers of the temperate zone will not generally twine around thick trees, while those of the tropics can. Unless this were the case those of the tropics could hardly 408 CLIMBING PLANTS. ever reach the light. In our temperate countries twiners which die down every year would gain nothing as they could not reach the summit in a single season. With most twining plants all the branches, however many there may be, go on revolving together; but, according to Mohl, the main stem of Tamus elephantipes does not twine—only the branches. On the other hand, with the asparagus, given in the table, the leading sboot alone, and not the branches, revolved and twined. Some produce shoots of two sorts, one of which twines; the others not. In others the uppermost shoots alone twine. One twines during the middle of the summer but not in autumn. Some grow erect in dry South Africa, their native country ; but near Dublin, Ireland, they regu- larly twine. Leaf Climbers. — The stems of several species of Ole- matis are twiners like the hop. But in addition to this mode of holding fast, the petioles are sensitive to the touch, slowly bend into the form of hooks, and if successful in catching a stick they clasp it firmly and soon become greatly enlarged and strengthened by an extra growth of woody fibre. If they come in contact with no object they retain this position for a considerable time, and then bending up- wards they reassume their original upturned position, which is retained ever afterwards. In Clematis calycina the clasped petiole becomes nearly twice as thick as the leaf- stalk which has clasped nothing. The petiole of the un- clasped leaf is flexible, and can be easily snapped, whereas the clasped footstalk acquires an extraordinary toughness and rigidity so that considerable force is required to pull it into pieces. The meaning of these changes is plain, namely, that the petioles may firmly and durably support the stem. In some species of Clematis furnished with compound leaves the main petiole alone is sensitive, while some have two or three sub-petioles, also sensitive; still others have the en- tire number, as many as seven, sensitive. Some petioles are extremely sensitive to very light weights, as one-eighth CLIMBING PLANTS. 409 of a grain. They will clasp thin withered blades of grass, the soft young leaves of a maple, or the lateral flower pe- duncles of the quaking grass Briza; the latter are only about as thick as a hair from a man's beard, but they were completely surrounded and clasped. The first petiole of Tropceolum tricolorum var. grandi- lorum bear no lamine or blades, and are very sensitive to touch, sometimes bending into a complete ring in six min- utes. The next filaments above have their tips slightly enlarged, and those still farther up the stem still more enlarged ; so we find all grades, from tendrils to leaves with large blades. All of these petioles are sensitive; those without blades acting in every way like genuine tendrils; the latter are short lived, however, dropping off as soon as the petioles of the true leaves have clasped the support above. The most remarkable fact, and which I have ob- served in no other species of the genus, is that the filaments and petioles of the young leaves, if they catch no object, after standing in their original position for some days, spon- taneously and slowly move, oscillating a little from side to side towards the stem of the plant. Hence all the petioles and filaments, though arising on different sides of the axis, ultimately bend towards and clasp either their own stem or the supporting stick. The petioles and filaments often be- come, after a time, in some degree contracted, presenting features much like true tendrils. Maurandia semperflorens (SScrophulariacem) has flower peduncles which are sensitive like tendrils, and exhibit re- volving powers. These spontaneous movements seem to be of no service to the plant as they lose the power when the flower is old enough to open. The leaf-stalks and internodes of this plant do not twine. hospermum scandens var. purpureum when young has sensitive internodes. When a petiole clasps a stick it draws the base of the internode against it; and then the internode itself bends towards the stick, which is thus AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 52 410 CLIMBING PLANTS. caught between the stem and the petiole as by a pair of pincers. The internode straightens itself again, excepting the part in contact with the stick. With Solanum jasminoides (Fig. 88) as in no other leaf- climber examined, a leaf grown to its full size was capable of clasping a stick ; but the movement was extremely slow, requiring several weeks. On comparing a thin transverse Fig. 88. slice of this petiole with one from the next or older leaf beneath, which had not clasped anything, its diam- eter was found to be fully doubled, and its structure greatly changed. In the section of the petiole which had during several weeks clasped a stick, the two upper ridges have be- come much less prominent, and the two groups of woody vessels beneath Molanum Macalasddes, them much increased in diameter. The semilunar band is converted into a complete ring of very hard, white, woody tissue, with lines radiating from the centre. The three groups of vessels, which, though closely approximate, were before distinct, are now com- pletely blended together. This clasped petiole had actually become thicker than the stem close beneath; due chiefly to the greater thickness of the ring of wood. Plants belonging to eight families are known to have clasping petioles, and plants belonging to four families climb by the tips of their leaves. With rare exceptions the peti- oles are sensitive only whilst young; they are sensitive on all sides, but in different degrees in different plants. Tendril-bearing Plants. — By tendrils are meant fila- mentary organs, sensitive to contact and used exclusively CLIMBING PLANTS. 411 for climbing. They are formed by the modification of leaves with their petioles, of flower-peduncles, perhaps also of branches and stipules. The species of tendril bearers de- scribed belong to ten natural families. Species of Bignonia and some others taken together, afford connecting links between twiners, leaf-climbers, tendril-bearers, and root climbers. Some little time after the stem of Bignonia Tweedyana has twined round an upright. stick, and is se- curely fastened to it by the clasping petioles and tendrils, it emits at the base of its leaves aérial roots which curve partly round and adhere to the stick; so that this one species of Bignonia combines four different methods of climbing, gen- erally characteristic of distinct plants, namely, twining, leaf- climbing, tendril-climbing, and root-climbing. The movements of Bignonia venusta are quite compli- cated. Not only the tendrils but the petioles bearing them revolve; these petioles, however, are not in the least sensi- tive. Thus the young internodes, the petioles, and the tendrils, all at the same time, go on revolving together, but at different rates. Moreover the movements of the opposite petioles and tendrils are quite independent of each other. . One other curious point remains to be mentioned. Ina few days after the toes have closely clasped a stick, their blunt extremities become, though not. invariably, developed into irregular disk-like balls, which have the singular power of adhering firmly to the wood. The simple undivided tendril of Bignonia speciosa ends in an almost straight, sharp, uncolored point. The whole ter- minal part exhibits an odd habit, which in an animal would be called an instinct ; for it continually searches for any little dark hole into which to insert itself. The tendrils slowly travel over the surface of the wood, and when the apex came to a hole or a fissure it inserted itself, often bending at right angles to the basal part. The same tendril would frequently withdraw from one hole and insert its point into a second one. Mr. Darwin says: "Improbable as this view may be 412 CLIMBING PLANTS. I am led to suspect that this habit in the tendril of inserting its tip into dark holes and crevices has been inherited by the plant after having lost the power of forming adhesive disks." A plant of Bignonia capreolata was several times shifted in position in a box where one side only was exposed to the light; in two days all six tendrils pointed with unerring truth to the darkest corner of the box, though to do this each had to bend in a different manner. Six tattered flags could not have pointed more truly from the wind than did these branched tendrils from the stream of light which en- tered the box. When a tendril does not succeed in clasping a support it bends downwards and then towards its own stem, which it seizes, together with the supporting stick, if there be one. If the tendril seizes nothing it does not con- tract, spirally, but soon withers away and drops off. A unch of wool was placed in the way of the tendrils; they caught one or two fibres and then the tips began to swell into irregular balls above the one-twentieth of an inch in diameter. The surfaces of these balls secrete some viscid resinous matter, to which the fibres of the wool adhere, so that after a time fifty or sixty fibres are all deeply imbedded in one ball of tendril. These tendrils quite fail to attach themselves to a brick wall. These plants are especially adapted to climb trees clothed with lichens and mosses which abound on the trees in the native country of the Bignonia. Cobea scandens (Polemoniacee) is an admirable climber. The terminal portion of the petiole which forms the tendril is sometimes eleven inches long. The tendril performs one revolution against the sun in an hour and a quarter. The base of the petiole and the internodes do not move at all. A large majority of the tendrils of Corydalis claviculata still bear leaflets, though excessively reduced in size. We here behold a plant in an actual state of transition from a leaf-climber to a tendril-bearer. Whilst the plant is young, only the outer leaves, but when full-grown all the leaves, have their extremities more or less perfectly converted into tendri CLIMBING PLANTS. 413 Echinocystis lobata. A thin, smooth, cylindrical, stick was placed so far from a tendril that its extremity could only eurl half or three-quarters round the stick. It was always found in the course of a few hours afterwards that the tip had managed to curl twice or even thrice quite round the stick. . Measurements showed that this was not due to the growth of the tendril. Whilst the tendril was slowly and quite insensibly crawling onwards it was observed that the whole surface was not in close contact with the stick. The onward movement is supposed to be slightly vermicular, or that the tip alternately straightens itself a little and then again eurls inwards, thus dragging itself onwards by an in- sensibly slow, alternate movement, which may be compared to that of a strong man suspended by the ends of his fingers to a horizontal pole, who works his fingers onwards until he can grasp the pole with the palm of his hand. Experiments upon this interesting plant were made and the results pub- lished by Dr. Asa Gray, in 1858. This led Mr. Darwin to more extended observations upon many other climbing plants. He is only one of a large number of persons who are indebted for valuable hints from the sagacious botanist of Cambridge, Mass. Hanburya Mexicana. In a few days after the tips of the tendrils have grasped an object the inferior surface swells and becomes developed into a cellular layer, which adapts itself closely to the wood, and firmly adheres to it. This is not the extreme tip of the tendril but a trifle back of it. This layer apparently secretes some resinous cement, as it is not loosened by water or alcohol, but is freed by the action of ether and turpentine. Tendrils of plants belonging to Vitacee, Sapindacem, assifloracee, and perhaps others, are modified flower pe- duneles, but their homological nature makes no difference in their action. Figure 89 shows part of the tendril of a grape- vine bearing flowers. From this state we can trace every stage till we come to a full-sized common tendril, bearing on 414 CLIMBING PLANTS. the branch which corresponds with the sub-peduncle one single flower-bud ! Ampelopsis quinquefolia (Fig. 90, tendril, with the young leaf. Fig. 91, tendril, several weeks after its attachment to a wall, with the branches thickened and spirally contracted, and with the extrem- Fig. 89. ities developed into disks. The unattached branches have with- ered and dropped off.) climbs by tendrils like the grape-vine, but in addition. has a way of holding fast to plain surfaces by means of little disks or cush- ions. . These disks are apparently never de- veloped without a con- tact with some object. A tendril which has not become attached to any body does not contract spirally ; and in course of a week or Grape-vine, two shrinks into the finest thread, withers and drops off. An attached tendril, ou the other hand, contracts spirally, and thus becomes highly elastic ; so that when the main foot-stalk is pulled, the strain is equally distributed to all the attached disks. During the following winter it ceases to live but remains firmly attached to the stem and to the surface of attachment. The gain in strength and durability in a tendril after its attachment is something wonderful. They adhere still strong after an exposure to the weather for fourteen or fifteen years. One single lateral branchlet of a tendril, estimated to be at least CLIMBING PLANTS. 415 ten years old, was still elastic and supported a weight of exactly two pounds. This tendril had five disk-bearing branches of equal thickness and of app: wently equal strength, so that this one tendril, after having been exposed during ten years to the weather, would have resisted a strain of ten pounds! Spiral Contractions. — Tendrils of many kinds of plants if they catch nothing, contract after an interval of several Woodbine. days or weeks into a close spire. A few contract into a helix. The spiral contraction which ensues after a tendril has ‘aught a support is of high service to all tendril- bearing plants; hence its almost universal occurrence with plants of widely different orders. When caught the spiral contrac- tion drags up the shoot. Thus there is no waste of growth, and the stretched stem ascends by the shortest course. A far more important service rendered by the spiral contraction is that the tendrils are thus made highly elastic. The strain, as in Ampelopsis, is thus equally distributed to the several attached branches of a branched tendril. Tt is this elasticity which saves both branched and simple tendrils from being torn away during stormy weather. In one case observed 416 CLIMBING PLANTS. the Bryony (Fig. 92) safely rode out the gale, like a ship with two anchors down, and with a long range of cable ahead to serve as a spring as she surges to the storm. When an uncaught tendril contracts spirally the spire always runs in the same direction from tip to base. A tendril, on the other hand, which has caught a support by its extremity, invariably becomes twisted in one part in one direction, and in another part in the opposite direction; the oppositely turned spires being separated by short, straight portions. Sometimes the spires of a ten- Fig. 91. dril alternately turn as many as five times in op- posite directions, with straight portions between them; even seven or eight have been seen by M. Léon. Whether few spires, or many, there are as many in one ‘Woodbine. direction as in the other. To give an illustration; when a haberdasher winds up ribbon for a customer he does not wind it into a single coil; for. if he did, the ribbon would twist itself as many times as there were coils; but he winds it into a figure of eight on his thumb and little finger, so that he alternately takes turns in opposite directions, and thus the ribbon is not twisted. So it is with tendrils, with this sole difference, that they take several consecutive turns in one direction, and then the same number in an opposite direction ; but in both cases the self-twisting is equally avoided. Passiflora gracilis has the most sensitive tendrils which were seen; a bit of CLIMBING PLANTS. 417 platina wire, one-fiftieth of a grain in weight, gently placed on the concave point, caused two tendrils to become hooked. After a touch the tendril began to move in twenty-five sec- onds. Dr. Asa Gray saw tendrils of Sicyos move in thirty seconds. Other tendrils move in a few minutes; in the: Dicentra in half an hour; in the Smilax in an hour and a quarter; and in the Ampelopsis still more slowly. Tendrils move to the touch of almost any substance, drops of water excepted. Adjoining tendrils rarely catch each other. Some tendrils have their revolving motion accelerated and retarded in moving to and from the light; others are indifferent to its action. America which so abounds with arboreal animals Fig. 92. Bryony. abounds with climbing plants; and, of the tendril-bearing plants examined the most admirably constructed come from this grand continent, namely, the several species of Big- nonia, Eccremocarpus, Cobea, and Ampelopsis. Root Climbers.— Ficus repens climbs up walls just like ivy; when the young rootlets were made to press lightly on slips of glass they emitted, after about a week’s interval, minute drops of clear fluid, slightly viscid. One small drop the size of half a pin’s head, was mixed with grains of sand. The slip of glass was left exposed in a drawer during hot aud dry weather. The mass remained fluid during one hun- dred and twenty-eight days; how much longer was not ob- served. The rootlets seem to first secrete a slightly viscid AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 53 418 CLIMBING PLANTS. fluid and then absorb the watery plants, and ultimately leave a cement. Plants become climbers, in order, it may be presumed, to reach the light, and to expose a large surface of leaves to its * action and to that of the free air. This is effected by climbers with wonderfully little expenditure of organized matter, in comparison with trees, which have to support a load of heavy branehes by a massive trunk. Because these climbing plants graduate into each other they have " become" climbers by gradual changes. This looks too much like the old fanciful theory that has again and again appeared, namely, the giraffe acquired his long neck by a constant desire for high twigs, and an effort to reach them ; the elephant his long trunk by a similar desire and effort to reach the grass at his feet. We cannot see how homology iudicates descent. We do not be- lieve because the various modes of inflorescence run into each other (homologous) that they have all been derived from one common form. Mr. Darwin believes that leaf-climbers were primordially twiners, and tendril-bearers were primordially leaf-climbers ; and thinks he understands how the change has been brought about; yet he says "if we inquire how the petiole of a leaf, or the peduncle of a flower, or a branch, first becomes sensitive and acquires the power of bending towards the touched side, we get no certain answer." We are again silenced if we inquire how the stems, petioles, tendrils, and flower peduncles first acquired their power of spontaneously revolving. Below we give a good sample of Darwinism. “If these views be correct Lathyrus nissolia must be de- scended from a primordial spirally-twining plant; that this became a leaf-climber; that first, part of the leaf, and then the whole leaf became converted into a tendril, with the stipules by compensation greatly increased in size; that this tendril lost its branches and became simple, then lost its re- volving-power (in which state it would resemble the tendril of the existing L. aphaca), and afterwards losing its pre- REVIEWS. 419 hensile power and becoming foliacious, would. no longer be called a tendril. In this last stage (that of the existing L. nissolia), the former tendril would reassume its original function of a leaf, and its lately largely developed. stipules being no longer wanted would decrease in size." He be- litros that the capacity of acquiring the revolving power on which most climbers depend is inherent, though undevel- oped, in almost every plant in the vegetable kingdom. Notwithstanding his peculiar views, which are so enticing to many, we must kan leds that he is a shrewd and accurate observer, and that in this paper, as in many others, he has patiently collected a vast amount of valuable information upon a great variety of subjects. REVIEWS. RAL SELECTION.* — Mr. Wallace has here brought together, ina the mad of the reader, which the ous style of treating the different subjects greatly strengthens. In fa e have rarely read a wore which has given us so much’ pleasure and i iiia and we recommend it to all those who desire to get the principles of Darwinism but have not the patience to spend a longer time over Darwin's work. The first chapter shows that geological changes determine the varia- tions which take place in the geographical distribution of animals and plants; that closely allied animals are closely associated geographically and geologically, so that * every species has come into existence coinci- bo reversions of domesticated types when returned to a feral condition. A domesticated type, when allowed to become wild again, generally speak- *Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection. A Series of Essays by Alfred Russell Wallace, McMillan & Co., London and New York, 8vo, p. 384, 420 REVIEWS. ing possesses modifications which are exceedingly disadvantageous; thus they must either regain the original characteristics of their ancestors or become extinct. n treating of mimicry, or the protective resemblance which many in- sects have to the bark and leaves of trees, Mr. Wallace is particularly for- cible and happy in his illustrations. The Kallima inachis and K. paralexta c these insects never alight except on withered bushes, they are almost sure to escape detection. ** We thus have size, color, form and habits all cause of variation. fore natural selection can act. Thus in the jail et of all ste i c wit e same locality. Again, as cited by i Danger the rise of à mountain lirai and corresponding revolutions in the flora and pope of a a EM upon with equal facility by physical causes, natural selection being only the secondary means by which these variations are perpetuated or trans- ferred from individual to individual. To our minds one of the most remarkable portions of this book is the bold and successful application of the theory to man, and the last chapter 1 n It is shown that natural selection nore cease act upon the body after man had once reached a period at which am gari tnu ralio began to — since then all eae for farther physical change would be at (Fn cei nnn: Wang *ind$aK &. + "n + logists this ipe. M con Gon ance et de l'stranger, Paris. Dec Petites Nouvelles JEntomologiques, Nov. 25 and 26, The North American Lakes, considered as Ch: Po By Dr. Edmund janes Woyal 8vo, pp. 2 ronometers of Post Glacial Time. By ID JE OH AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. IV. —OCTOBER, 1870. — No. 8. c—c0 G3 (9t re DF RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY.* BY J. W. FOSTER, LL. D. Mr. President, and Gentlemen of the American Association for the Advancement of Science: — THERE is an article contained in our Constitution which requires the retiring President to address the Association in general meeting ; and custom has prescribed that he select for his theme some new and important discoveries in science, or some new inventions and processes in the arts. ; It is in the discharge of this duty that I appear before you on this occasion, and solicit your attention for the passing hour. So vastis the domain of science, and so numerous have become its cultivators in almost every part of the world, that, even if I had the capacity, the labor of embody- ing the results of a single year, in a brief address, would be a mere accumulation of details devoid of that spirit which gives them value— generalization. I shall, therefore, restrict myself to the researches which have been made in those departments of science which with me have been the subjects of special investigation ; and shall * Address of the retiring president of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, J. W. Foster, LL. D., delivered at Troy, New York, on the evening of August 18, 1870. ZO he the P. " g fn & Entered accordi AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 57 (449) 450 RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. seek to set forth what others have accomplished, rather than to advance original views. . It will be found that, throughout all time, since the earth became fitted for the habitation of organic life, that there have been great cycles of heat and cold, and that these cycles have exercised a marked influence in the modification of all terrestrial forms. To traverse the whole ground, would employ too much time ; and I shall, therefore, restrict myself to the changes which barely antedate the Human. Epoch. We know that the Tertiary Age, so far, at least, as re- lated to the northern hemisphere, was characterized by a - warm and equable climate, extending even to the Polar Sea. Where now blooms the Andromeda close by banks of per- petual snow, at that time grew a luxuriant forest vegetation. McClure’s sledging party gathered fragments of fossil wood, acorns, and fir cones in the interior of Banks’s Land, far within the limits of the Arctie Circle. As high as latitude 709 N. in Greenland, large forests lie prostrate and encased inice. At Disco bta the northern verge of European settlement, the strata are full of the trunks, balo leaves, and even the seeds and fruit-cones of trees, comprising firs, sequoias, elms, magnolias, and laurels, —a vegetation char- acteristic of the Miocene Period of Central Europe. Pro- fessor Heer particularly notices the Sequoia Langsdorfii, which is very closely allied to the Sequoia sempervirens of the Coast Range of California. Spitzbergen was clothed with a forest vegetation equally luxuriant, amongst which the Swedish naturalists recognize . the swamp-cypress ( Taxodium dubium) in a fossilized state, at Bell's Sound (769 N.), and the plantain and linden in King's Bay (78° and 799 N.). The same Sequoia was ob- served by Sir John Richardson within the Arctic Circle west of MacKenzie River. The lignite beds of Iceland have yielded to the botanists, Steenstrup and Heer, fifteen arbor- escent forms identical with the Miocene plants of Europe. RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. 451 In the flora of the Great Lignite Basin of Nebraska, which is referred to the Miocene age, Hayden has detected the oak, the tulip or poplar, the elm and walnut, and a true fan- palm, with a leaf-spread of twelve feet ;—all, however, of extinct species. These forms he regards as characteristic of a sub-tropical climate, such as now prevails in the Gulf States. The fan-palm (Sabal Campbellii) is the representa- tive of the Sabal major of the European Tertiaries, and the Sabal palmetto of our Southern States. The Cinnamonium, an unquestioned tropical type, while not thus far detected in the Missouri Basin, has been found by Lesquereaux in the Cretaceous (?) beds of Bellingham Bay, on our Northwestern coast; in the Eocene of the Lower Mississippi, and in the lignite beds of Vermont. Professor Newberry, in a review of the flora of the Cre- taceous and Tertiary Ages of North America, thus re- marks : "We have, therefore, negative evidence, though it may be reversed at an early day by further observations, that the climate of the interior of our continent, during the Tertiary Age, was somewhat warmer than during the Cretaceous Period; and that during both the same relative differences of climate prevailed between the western and central por- tions that exist at the present day." The Drift Epoch was ushered in by a marked change in physical influences, by which the whole flora of the extreme northern hemisphere was so far affected that certain forms were blotted out of existence, while other forms were forced to seek, by migration, a more congenial climate, and accom- modate themselves to altered conditions. In the higher regions we find a predominating growth of mosses and saxi- frages, and at the southern limits of the Drift a buried vegetation of an Alpine character. f we examine the faune of the two epochs— particularly the land animals which we may suppose to be peculiarly susceptible to atmospherie changes— we shall find that there 452 RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. was a marked modification of forms. Dr. Leidy, in his late work on the extinct mammalian faune of Dakota and Ne- braska, states that, of the thirty-two genera of Miocene animals, not one occurs in the Quaternary formation of North Ameriea. In comparing the Miocene and Pliocene faunæ with each other, as represented mainly by the remains from the Mauvaises Terres and the Niobrara River, scarcely a genus is common to both. “In view,” he continues, “of the consecutive order and close approximation of position of the two formations and fauns, such exclusiveness would hardly have been suspected." The greater similitude of the Miocene and Pliocene fauns with the contemporaneous faunæ of the Old World, has led him to suggest that the North American continent was peopled, during the Tertiary Epoch, from the West. ‘Perhaps this latter extension,” he continues, “occurred from a continent whose area now forms the bottom of the Pacific Ocean, and whose Tertiary faunæ is now represented east and west by the fossil remains of Ameriea.on the one hand, and of Asia, with its peninsula, Europe, on the other." The topographieal features of the two continents and the hydrographieal soundings of the two oceans, render this supposition probable. Between Ireland and Newfoundland there is a great plateau, which an elevation of the earth's crust to the extent of a few thousand feet would convert into dry land; and Behring's Straits, which now separate Asia and North America, are, at their narrowest points, but thirty miles wide, and their shallowest depth is but twenty- five fathoms. And here the paleontologist comes to the aid of the hydrographer, and, by their joint labors, the one renders probable what the other has conjectured as possible —the former union of the two hemispheres. Zoology would indi- cate that such was the fact during the Pliocene Epoch, in which will probably be found the origin of those mammalian types eontemporary with the elder man, and represented by RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. 453 the extinct Proboscidians and Ruminants. None of these large animals could probably have passed over the straits which now divide these regions, and the close alliance in form would indicate a common origin. We infer, therefore, that the subsidence during the Drift Epoch cut off the com- munication between the two hemispheres, and the refrigera- tion which then took place, served to disperse the colossal animals, who sought by migration to lower latitudes a cli- mate congenial to their nature. s in Europe we find the remains of these northern types intermingled with those of an African type— the hippopota- mus, which in his summer migrations strayed as far north as England; so on this continent we had, during this epoch, the great sloths, represented by the megalonyx and mylodon, whose congeners at this time exist in South America. Thus there was an inosculation, so to speak, of two distinct and contemporaneous faune. It is an inquiry of the highest interest— perhaps as much so as any connected with the physical history of the past: How far has man been a witness of these stupendous changes ? It is not until towards the close of the Drift Epoch, that we are enabled to detect unmistakable signs of his works, although there are not wanting proofs which would refer his origin to an earlier date— the Pliocene. So numerous and well-attested are the facts, that we must now regard him as the contemporary of many of the great mammals which have ceased to exist, and the subject of physical conditions very different from what now prevail. To account for these changes requires the lapse of a longer period of time than has heretofore been assigned to his existence upon earth. Thus within a few years has been opened a sphere of in- vestigation which has enlisted a large class of able observers, and their labors have thrown a flood of light upon the origin of our race. Ethnography has become aggrandized into one of the noblest of sciences. However conflicting these revelations may be to our preconceived notions, they 454 ; RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. must not hereafter be disregarded in treating of the past and present condition of' humanity. We must weigh the value of observations and press them to legitimate conclu- sions. The investigator at this day is not to be tram- melled, in the language of Humboldt, by “an assemblage of dogmas bequeathed from one age to another"—by "a physi- cal philosophy made up of popular prejudices.” The periods of the prehistoric man have been divided by M. Lartet, into two ages :— 1. The Stone Age, and (2) the Metal Age. The Stone Age has been subdivided into three epochs. 1. That of the extinct animals, such as the mammoth and cave-bear. | 2. That of the migrated existing animals (Reindeer Epoch) 3. That of the domesticated existing animals (Polished Stone Epoch). The Metal Age has been divided into two epochs: 1. That of Bronze, and (2) that of Iron. - The elder man differed widely from the intellectual and much-planning man of this day. The conditions of climate greatly modified his modes of thought and physical pursuits. The northern hemisphere was just emerging from a long- continued state of glaciation. The snows which had wrapped the earth as in a mantle, were melting, and the great glaciers were reluctantly retreating within the Arctic Circle. Every depression became a lake, and every lake a sea for the reception of the accumulating waters, whose re- sistless foree swept along mud, and sind, and shingle, and fragments of rocks. As "the barriers gave way, the waters cut out channels on their route to the sea, and the terraces and ridges which border our lakes and rivers are but the monuments of their erosive action. It was a sad and deso- late land, to be paralleled only in the Arctic Circle. But man was not alone. On the European Continent there was a strange assemblage of: animals; the elephant, with his RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. 455 compound clothing of wool and hair; the rhinoceros simi- larly protected; the cave-bear and cave-hyena; the tiger; and the great ox, not patient of toil as at this day, but fierce and indomitable. On this continent was the elephant of a closely-allied species; the lion and bear, and at least two species of the musk-ox, gigantie as compared to their mod- ern congener. In such a climate and on such a soil we can well imagine that agriculture formed no part of the occupation of the primitive man. He gathered not the kindly fruits of the .earth, but was essentially a predaceous animal. The few skulls that have been recovered would indicate that he was low in the scale of intellectual organization —a small brain, a retreating forehead, and oblique jaws. In capacity he was below the Australian and New Zealander. In stature he was dwarfed, but was broad-shouldered and robust— the result, perhaps, of vigorous exertion and out-door exposure. He was carniverous, and, perhaps, a raw flesh-eater; for in the jaws which have been disinterred, the incisor-teeth are much worn—a peculiarity which has been noticed in those of the flesh-eating Esquimaux. This fact ought not to be cited to his disadvantage, for in an Arctic climate, where the animal heat is so rapidly abstracted, man requires a highly nitrogenous food. Thus we find our own countryman, Kane, when imprisoned in the ice of Rensselaer Harbor, resorting to raw walrus-meat, and rolling it as a sweet morsel under his tongue. It cannot be gainsayed, however, that man was a cannibal. In Scotland were found the bones of children which, accord- ing to Owen, bore upon them the marks of human teeth, and the:evidences produced in.the Archeological Congress at Copenhagen established this fact beyond controversy. He was not destitute of skill in the art of delineation, for we have restored to us, on a slab of slate, a very good profile of the great cave-bear— the earliest instance extant of pictorial representation. 456 RECENT ADYANCES IN GEOLOGY. But we must accord to him one redeeming trait. That homage which, in all ages and among all nations, the living pay to the deaa : those ceremonies which are observed at the hour of final separation; that care which is exerted to pro- tect the manes fron) all profane intrusion; and those delicate acts, prompted by love or affection, which, we fondly hope, will smooth the passage of the parting spirit to the happy land—all these observances our rude ancestors maintained. These facts show that, deep as man may sink in barbarism, brutal as he may hecome in his instincts, there is still a redeeming spirit which prompts to higher aspirations, and that to him, even, there is no belief so dreary as that of utter annihilation. Perhaps, among the existing tribes of the human race in the Aretie Highlander, as described by Sherard Osborn, we have the nearest approach to the prehistoric man : — * Although dwarfed in stature, they are thick-set, strong-limbed, deep- singe pa base-voiced, and capable of vigorous and prolonged exer- tion. I tables and cereals, they have of course no conception, and I know of no other people on the earth's surface, who are thus entirely carniverous." After the lapse of a period whose interval cannot be measured, the great animals which characterized the dawn of the Human Epoch, began to disappear, and were replaced by other forms of diminished size, but of improved type. Among these, on the European continent, were the reindeer, the pinot, the stag, the bison, and urus, together with the horse, not distinguishable from the existing species. The reindeer and musk-ox, which only thrive in a cold cli- mate, not only oceupied England, but wandered as far south in France as the shores of the Mediterranean and the slopes of the Pyrenees, which interposed effectual barriers to theit further progress. The reindeer must have existed in vast herds, und to the primeval man have proved the most useful of animals. RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. 451 Every portion of the carcase was economized. His flesh furnished food; his skin, clothing; his sinews, thread; and his horns were fashioned into harpoons, javelins, and sockets for the reception of spearheads and hatchets. On this continent we find the musk-ox and reindeer, iden- tical in species with the European forms, in a fossilized state. The reindeer ranged as far south as Kentucky and New Jersey, but the existing musk-ox has not been found fossil- ized outside of his present limits. The Bóotherium, how- ever, which exceeded him in size, and to which he was closely aliied, had a range co-extensive with the reindeer. The stag (Cervus alces) and the bison (B. latifrons), were in existence, while the horse, which is abundantly repre- sented in the Pliocene, and is continued into the Quaternary Period, had become extinct before the discovery of America. His remains are found in Eschscholtz Bay (latitude 66° 20’ North) in connection with those of the Elephas primigenus, the urus, deer, and musk-ox, embedded in a deposit of clay and fine micaceous sand. The rhinoceros (R. merianus) appears in the Miocene of Texas, and is represented in the Pliocene of the Upper Missouri as R. crassus, and in the same formation in California as R. hesperius; but thus far the Rhinoceros tichorhinus so intimately associated with the great Proboseidians of Europe, has not, to my knowledge, been found in North America. In addition to these forms may. be mentioned the great mastodon, which came into being subsequent to the elephant, and survived his extinc- tion. The fact of the existence of the mammoth or mastodon, was certainly known to the founders of the cities of Central erica, for in more than one instance there is graven with elaborate care, on the walls of their structures, the form of a Proboscidian, which cannot be mistaken for one or the other of these animals; but the works on which these delineations are made, indieate a far higher order of art than was ever attained by the prehistoric man of Europe. These AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 58 458 RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. delineations, I am disposed to think, are of the mastodon, and, found as they are upon the walls of stone-built palaces and temples, there is strong evidence to believe that this great Proboscidian survived almost to the Historic Period. The men of the Reindeer Epoch made gradual advances in the industrial arts. They did not cultivate the soil, for the climate was still inhospitable. While their progenitors were content with knives flaked from flints in the form of rude fragments with cutting edges, they wrought out tools more symmetrical, but without any attempt at polishing. They attained to a very creditable degree of artistic skill, as shown by their designs traced on tablets of ivory, and carved out of the antlers of the reindeer. We have thus represented the stag, the ibex, the horse, a reindeer couch- ant forming a dagger-hilt, and also the great elephant with his characteristic markings; the small oblique eye, the pon- derous trunk, the recurved tusks, and the shaggy mane. The human form even is delineated. We have an ivory statuette of the female figure, and traced on a stag's horn the outline of a male figure with a caudal appendage like that which was conjectured by Lord Mondoddo, the eccen- tric Seoteh philosopher, to appertain to the primitive man. On this continent the evidenees of the existence of man at this age, while obscure, are yet, I am disposed to believe, authentic. The human bone found in the Loess at Natchez, and the flint implements found in connection with the Mis- souri mastodon, may claim as high an antiquity as the oldest of the European “finds.” The discoveries in California would seem to carry back the existence of man to a remote date. As far back as 1857 Dr. C. F. Winslow sent to the Boston Natural History So- ciety a fragment of a human cranium found in the “paydirt” in connection with the bones of the mastodon and elephant, one hundred and eighty feet below the surface of Table Mountain, California. It was in this region (Angeles, Cal- averas County) that a human skull was subsequently found RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. 459 by a miner named James Matson in a shaft one hundred and fifty feet deep, which passed through five beds of lava and four deposits of auriferous gravel. The statements of Pro- fessor Whitney as to the authenticity of this skull have been received with extreme distrust; but does not this earlier discovery of human remains in the same formation confirm the correctness of those statements? Our country is yet new, and it is only recently that atten- tion has been directed to these investigations. It is hardly to be expected that a competent observer will be present at the precise time when any relic of the past is disinterred ; and there is an universal feeling of doubt and distrust as to the authenticity of all such finds. With the evidence before us that both hemispheres have been subjected to the same dynamie causes, and peopled by the same races of animals, often identical in species, is it not philosophical to infer that here we shall be able to detect the traces of man and his works, reaching back to as high an antiquity as on the Euro- pean continent? The Reindeer Epoch terminates the earliest known record in the career of man. It was signalized by a series of phy- sical events too important to be slightly passed over. The glaciers again advanced, and again the land became refriger- ated; but the cold period was not so long continued, and was less intense. To this succeeded a period of warmth, and as the glaciers dissolved under its influence, there en- sued a flood which swept over the lowlands and forced the cave-dwellers to flee to the high grounds. The water in Belgium, according to Dupont, rose to the height of four - hundred and fifty feet, and the calcareous mud, known as the Loess, was then deposited in the Rhine Valley. The caves were also invaded, and the “bone-earth” which forms the division between two distinct faune, is of the same age. It was during this epoch that the great mammals disap- peared from the earth; the elephant, the rhinoceros, the cave-bear, the cave-hyena, the tiger, and the Irish stag. 460 RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. The reindeer, the musk-ox, and the elk, migrated to the north where the changed conditions of climate were more congenial to their nature. The musk-ox has disappeared from Europe, but he sur- vives on this continent, restricted in his range to what are known as the “Barren Grounds,” lying between the Wel- come and Coppermine mountains. The auroch, protected by stringent laws, still survives, while the horse, domesti- cated by man, has vastly multiplied. . The ure-ox, living through the great catastrophe, has disappeared within his- torical times. The greatly augmented thickness of the Loess on this con- tinent, would indicate that the ice action was exerted more powerfully, and its effects are traced over a larger area; and the same destruction overtook the larger quadrupeds, extend- ing even to the gigantic sloths, who lived in a milder cli- mate. From this era we may date a change in the physical con- ditions of our planet, so far at least as relates to the north- ern temperate zone. The climate became milder, and the soil yielded more bountifully those seeds and fruits which contribute to human support. Man for the first time began to show signs of progress in the industrial arts. His weap- ons of flint were more symmetrically fashioned, and in some instances were polished. The dog became his companion, and some of the other animals were domesticated. This was the Polished stone Epoch. n the Bronze Epoch we trace still greater advances. Man dwelt in fixed habitations. He surrounded himself with such domestic animals as the ox, horse, pig, goat, and sheep, and retained his companionship for the dog. He cultivated wheat and barley, whose flour he kneaded into bread and baked between heated stones. Apart from berries he gath- ered the fruits of the pear, cherry, and plum. The discovery of the art of smelting copper, and of the additional art of hardening it by a slight admixture of tin, was an immense RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. 461 stride towards civilization. Ere long followed the discovery of the art of iron-smelting, —a discovery which has done more to advance the welfare of our race than all others com- bined. Then it was that man, for the first time, was fur- nished with a weapon which enabled him to achieve a conquest over Nature, and this assertion will not appear extravagant when we reflect how intimately this metal is connected with all the industrial arts. The Iron Epoch approaches so near the Historic Era, that, as forming a portion of geological history, the events are too insignificant to be dwelt upon. The Mound-builders of our own country, in the scale of civilization, were intermediate between the Polished stone and the Bronze Epochs of Europe. They resided in towns, many of which have since become the sites of flourishing cities. They practiced agriculture, making use of maize as their chief cereal; but there was not on this continent a domestic animal who could aid them in their labors or con- tribute to their sustenance. Strange as it may seem, that while the Danish kitchen-middins and the Swiss refuse-heaps contain abundant traces of mammalian bones, thus far they have been but rarely detected in the mounds. They chipped with great skill the limestone-chert into spades, spear- heads and arrowheads. Out of porphyry or greenstone they wrought their hatchets and battle-axes, and these were often ground and polished. The same material, too, was often used in making pipes, which were carved into forms representing quadrupeds and birds, so faithful in detail that the species to which they belonged can be identified. The specular iron-ore of Missouri was elaborately wrought and Polished into slung-shots or “plummets.” They mined ex- tensively the native copper of Lake Superior, which they beat, and perhaps smelted, into knives, chisels, spearheads, arrowheads and bracelets. They wove cloth with a regular Warp and woof, out of a fibre as yet undetermined. They modelled clay into vases, water-coolers, and othet utensils, 462 RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. and ornamented them with elaborate designs, and the human face, even, is portrayed with rare fidelity ; and finally, they must have maintained an intercourse with distant and widely separated portions of the continent. Since the close of the Reindeer Epoch the changes which have taken place in the flora and fauna of Europe have been slight. We may note, however, the disappearance of the Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris) from Denmark, where it is found entombed in the peat-swamps, and the introduction of the sessile oak, which in turn is becoming supplanted by the common beecli. In the Baltic the oyster flourished in places from which it is now excluded, and certain other marine forms that attained a full growth, are now dwarfed. There is an instance or two of the disappearance of mammalian forms, but this may be traced to the direct agency of man. These slight changes in physieal geography have modified the dis- tribution of animals and plants, but they have not affected, in the least, their form. Whatever ehanges have been observed are due to domestication. So far as relates to our own country, there are evidences in the Great Basin and on the Colorado Plateau, that at no remote day there was a much more genial climate and a soil more productive than now prevail. This is seen in the dead forests that line the mountain side ; in the waterlines of the lakes and streams high above the greatest floods; deep eafions through which now course trickling streams, but which must have formed the channels of voluminous rivers; and alluvial bottoms now bare and desolate, in which are imbedded a robust vegetation. I have, perhaps, dwelt too long upon these changes which have so essentially modified the surface of the earth, and at the same time the destinies of our race. Had an Arctic cli- mate continued to prevail over what is now the temperate zone, man would have made no advance in civilization ; life to him would have been a continued struggle for existence. It is only in a genial climate, and on a soil so-generous as to RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. 463 yield with moderate exertion a support, that he can cultivate his intellect ; and such culture, I need hardly affirm, is at the base of all civilization. How great the contrast between the primitive cave-dweller and the practical man of to-day, who, availing himself of the conquests of science, subjects the forces of N ature to his will; who spans with bridges, deep chasms ; who stretches his iron rails over high summits; who traverses the trackless deep with unerring course; who flashes intelligence over a hemisphere. Hw different from the intellbctan] man of to- day, who weighs the earth as in a balance ; wlio measures the distance of the sun and assays its elements; who maps the comet's path; who penetrates the deepest mysteries of the Universe. The one was almost a brute; the other is almost a god ! While these revolutions have taken place on the surface of the earth they have, at the same time, been sufficiently powerful to modify the marine fauna in the disappearance of old and the introduction of new forms to the depth of 1,500 feet; but in the profounder abysses of the ocean, age after ` age, the conditions of life have remained comparatively unchanged. It is only within the past year that this inter- esting fact — a fact which must lead to a material modifica- tion of our previously formed views—has been prominently developed. The soundings made as far hack as 1857, over the great telegraphic ‘plateau which stretches from Valentia to New- foundland, disclosed in all instances a fine caleareous mud which entombed countless millions of shells belonging to the family of Rhizopods, and some peculiar bodies which are known as Coccoliths and Coccospheres, which were found to correspond with the organic contents of the true Cretaceous Period. In 1861, among a number of living mollusea and corals found adhering to a telegraphic cable between Algiers and Sardinia, taken up for repairs, Milne-Edwards detected certain shells which were only known as Tertiary fossils. In 464 RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. the same year Sars, the Swedish naturalist, described the Rhizocrinus Lofotensis, obtained on the Scandinavian Coast, a new and living type of Crinoidea belonging to a family characteristic of the Oolite. The soundings, prosecuted under the direction of Count de Pourtales, attached to the United States Coast Survey, between Florida and the outer edge of the Gulf Stream, have yielded important results which have been in part reported upon by de Pourtales, the elder and younger Agassiz, and Lyman. The deep-sea dredgings prosecuted during the past year on board of her Britannic Majesty’s ship Porcupine, placed at the disposal of a scientific committee, consisting of Messrs. Carpenter, Jeffrys, and Thompson, have yielded results of the highest interest. The supposition of an Azoic zone must now be abandoned. The profoundest depths of the ocean, in which the Himalayas or the Andes might be engulfed, are now believed to be inhabited, and inhabited, too, by organic forms which, since the dawn of the Cretaceous Age, have undergone no considerable modification. The littoral de- posits, on the other hand show the most marked diversities. 1n organic forms. In one sense, as declared by Dr. Carpen- ter, we are living in the Cretaceous Age; in another, since the close of that age we have witnessed repeated dispersions and modifications of organic forms. Dr. Wyville Thompson, generalizing on these facts, says that there is no direct evidence that oscillations have taken place in the Northern Atlantic greater than 1,500 feet since the commencement of the Mesozoic Period, and that the great depressions in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans are due to causes that acted before that period. : "There have been," he continues, "constant minor oscilla- tions; but the beds formed during periods of depression, but now exposed by an upheaval of this minor character, are com- paratively local and shallow-water beds, as shown by the na- ture and richness of their fauna." : The dredgings which have been made in the fresh-water RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. 465 lakes of high northern latitudes have proved of equal inter- est. In the Swedish lakes, Wetersee and Wenersee, have lately been discovered crustacea which, though differing from those now living in the sea, are clearly related to marine forms of a northern and even Arctic character. Thus have been found the Mysis relicta, whose congeners live altogether in the sea, and those resembling the species in the most northern latitudes ; the Que loricatus thus far found only in the Arctic Ocean, Baffin's Day, Greenland, and Spitz- bergen; the Zdothea entomon, in the Arctic Ocean and the Baltic Sea; and the Pontoporcia affinis, still found in the Baltic, but whose related species occur in the Greenland seas. These lakes are three hundred feet above the sea- level; but these results show that at no remote day they communicated with the ocean, and were originally tenanted by a marine fauna of an Arctic type. As these waters be- came first brackish and then“ fresh, most of the forms died out during the transition, leaving in the depths a few crusta- cea which i correspond in part’ to the species in the Baltic, and in part to those of the Arctic Ocean. Within the past year Dr. Stimpson has. obtained results equally interesting, from dredgings brought up from the deeper parts of Lake Michigan. The lake-level is five hun- dred and eighty-three feet above the ocean, and the greatest depths extend below that line. At the depth of sixty fathoms he obtained à Mysis which, although not specifically identical with the Swedish form, is closely allied, and its occurrence authorizes us to draw the same conclusions as to the marine character in former times of the Great Lakes, which the Swedish physicists . have arrived at as to the former condition of their own. Much discussion has been had in former years, and even in this Association, as to the nature of these lake waters dur- ing the Glacial Age. It is well known that on the borders of Lake Champlain, and at intervals along the St. Lawrence from Quebec to Kingston, and up the Dita the terraces 59 AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 59 466 RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. attaining an extreme height of between four hundred and five hundred feet, contain marine remains; but when we pass over into the Great Lake-basin, these remains disap- pear. Hence it has been inferred that, at that time, as now, the Great Lakes were filled with fresh water; but the dis- coveries of Dr. Stimpson, I think, disprove the correctness of this inference; and further discoveries may show that these lakes formerly had communication, not only with the Atlantie through the St. Lawrence, but with the Arctic Ocean through Hudson Bay. We are now led to the inquiry: What has caused these great changes of temperature, affecting the whole economy of terrestial life? Between the Arctie an Antarctic regions, there are great diversities of climate and physical conditions. The one is characterized by a vast expanse of land, and the other by a vast expanse of ocean. The one enjoys a short- lived summer in which the flowers blossom and fructify ; in the other reigns unmitigated winter, and. even mosses and lichens are absent. In the one the reindeer and musk-ox are hunted to the verge of the sea; in the other, animal life disappears below latitude 56 deg. Man has been able to penetrate North to 82 deg., 40 min., 30 sec., or within nearly five hundred miles of the pole; but to the south he has only reached 78 deg., 10 min., or about eight hundred and fifty miles. There are several causes which combine to produce this result. The great continental masses which characterize the northern hemisphere, warmed by the summer sun, radiate heat into surrounding space, while the narrow expanse of land in the Antaretie circle, bathed by chilled waters, and encased in ice, acts as a refrigerator of the atmosphere. Be- sides, as we shall hereafter show, owing to the earth’s move- ment, the southern summer is shorter by at least eight days, and the amount of heat received during that period by the northern hemisphere cannot but exert an appreciable influ- ence. The Arctic region, then, enjoys a milder climate than RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. 467 it would if, as in the Drift Epoch, it were submerged to the depth of at least two thousand feet. In the Great Year of astronomers, the southern pole, after having passed through its great winter solstice, is now entering upon its summer climate. Lyell has conjectured that these phenomena are due to a different distribution of land and water, combined with a different distribution of oceanie currents; but with an ex- panse of land occupying almost the whole of the northern hemisphere, and with the Gulf-stream diffusing its warm breath over the western coast of Europe, and the Japan Cur- rent over the western coast of America, we find that the domain of ice and snow remains fixed ; and we can conceive of no conditions, dependent upon these causes, whereby the Cinnamonium should again flourish at Bellingham Bay, or the Sequoia on the Greenland coast. Others have inferred that these great cycles of warmth and cold may be due to the increased or diminished heat transmitted from the interior of the earth. If we adopt the theory of a cooling globe, there must have lapsed a very considerable period between the time when it passed from ‘an incandescent state and when it became fitted for the sus- tenance of organic forms. Sir William Thompson, basing his observations on the well known laws of heat and conser- vation of energy, infers that it has only been habitable within the last one hundred millions of years. It is, then, if his estimates be true, that within this interval we are to include all the changes in the organic world — the flor: and faunz which have successively come into being, and have successively displaced each other. n the process of solidification the earth is supposed long ago to have arrived at that stage when the radiation from the cooling surface is no greater than that derived from the sun, and therefore, a stable temperature has been established. We would infer, then, that any violent reaction of the inte- rior upon the external crust, would affect more sensibly the 468 RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. deep-sea animals than those dwelling on the land; but the investigations which I have cited, show that while the sea- fauna has undergone slight modifications since the dawn of the Cretaceous Epoch, the land-fauna has been subjected to the most marked deviations. May not, then, these fluctuations of temperature be due to causes which operate from the exterior? It is necessary to assume that, throughout the lapse of all time, our planet has occupied its present relation to the sun, or the solar sys- tem? Is not the recession of Sirius, which is now going on, an argument against the fixity of the siderial heavens? We are assured that ours is not a central sun, but one in the great possession of stars which is sweeping towards the constellation Hercules ; and that in the region of either there are spaces of densely-clustered stars, and other spaces which are comparatively barren. Now every star is a sun, emitting light and heat, a portion of which is transmitted to us. Our planet at this time is moving through one of those starless spaces, and therefore is not in a position to receive the full influence of such a cause. The distinguished Swiss botanist, Heer, to whom we are so largely indebted for our knowl- edge of the Miocene flora, has suggested that it is to this’ source rather than to telluric causes we are to resort to explain the varying distribution of p as mani- fested in past geological times. Again: Have we the right to assume that, throughout all past ages, the poles of our planet have pointed in the same direction? We can conceive that, if its axis were to form with the plane of the ecliptic, the same angle which it now forms with the equatorial plane, there would ensue an entire change of climate, and consequently of organic forms. Why should the astronomer insist on the immutability of the siderial system, when to the geologist is unfolded a record. of seas displaced and continents elevated; of great cycles of heat and cold; of the disappearance of old, and the ap- pearance of new forms of organic life? Change, not con- ` stancy, is inscribed on every leaf in the volume of Nature. RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. 469 I am not a believer in the doctrine of multiplied shocks. I would not, in the explanation of natural phenomena, resort to blind catastrophes. But is there not behind all, and over all, and pervading all, a great governing principle to whose operation we can refer these changes? Does it not exist in the celestial mechanism itself? To the solution of this prob- lem the attention of several physicists has been directed. The speculations of the French savant, Adhemar, are not altogether to be overlooked, based as they are on the preces- sion of the equinoxes and the movement of the apsides; a movement which, I believe, was unknown to the elder astronomers. If we compare the movement of the earth with the stars, it requires the lapse of 25,000 years to bring the equinox to correspond with the same point in space it now occupies; but the orbit itself being movable, this period is reduced to about 21,000 years. This is called the Great Year, being the measure of time before the winter solstice will again exactly coincide with the perthelion, and the summer solstice with the aphelion, and before the sea- sons will again harmonize with the same points of the terres- trial orbit. : The earth, at this time, approaches nearest the sun in the northern hemisphere during autumn and winter, and it is only when it recedes the farthest from the source of heat that the northern hemisphere receives the full effect of its vivifying warmth. As the earth between the vernal and autumnal equinox traverses a longer circuit than during the other half of the year, and also experiences an accelerated movement as it draws near the sun, the result is, that the northern summer is longer than the southern by about eight days ; but after the lapse of ten thousand five hundred years these conditions will be reversed. It was in the year 1248, . according to Adhemar, that the Great Northern Summer culminated, since which time it has continued to decrease, and that decrease will go on until the year 11,748, when it will have attained its maximum. 470 RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. This compound movement, the precession of the equinoxes and the shifting of the line of apsides, it is claimed, exerts a marked influence in the distribution of the earth’s tempera- ture. While the Great Winter prevails at the north pole, the refrigeration is so excessive that the heats of summer are insufficient to melt the snow and ice precipitated during the winter, and hence, year after year and century after century, they go on accumulating, until the cireumpolar region is in a state of glaciation, and the added weight becomes sufficient to displace the centre of gravity, which would be equivalent to a subsidence at one pole and an elevation at the other. M. Adhemar has even caleulated the extent of this move- ment, and states that it would amount to about 5,500 feet. Now, let it be borne in mind that Professor Ramsey has shown that in Wales the submergence of the land during the Drift Epoch amounted to 2,300 feet, and our own observa- tions show that in the northern portions of this country the glacial action proper may be traced to the height of 2,000 feet; although there were mountains which served as radi- ating centres, on whose flanks the Drift action may be traced much higher. These. geographical points, roughly esti- mated, are about midway between the equator and the pole, and the extent of the subsidence would correspond very well with the calculations before referred to. In the year 1248, the Great Winter terminated at the south pole, where for 10,500 years the aceumulation of snow and iee had been going on, attended with the phenomena which we have described. “Here then,” says M. Julien, an advocate of this theory, "is an irresistible foree which, fol- lowing the invariable law of the irregular precession of the equinoxes, must make the earth's centre of gravity periodi- cally oscillate.” Mr. Croll, an English physicist, has elaborately discussed this question in a series of papers in the “Edinburgh New Philosophical Magazine,” which have excited profound atten- tion. With great labor he has prepared tables showing the RECENT ADVANCES IN GEOLOGY. 411 amount of the earth's eccentricity for the period of three millions of years, at intervals of 10,000 years for a greater portion of that time, and 50,000 years for the remainder. He infers that a glacial period occurs when the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is at a maximum, and the solstices fall when the earth is Zn perihelio and in aphelio; and that only one hemisphere has a glacial climate at the same time, which occurs when the winter is in aphelio. In this connection, I may mention the labors of our own countryman, Mr. Stockwell, who has prepared a paper, now on file in the Smithsonian Institution, embodying his own calculations as to the earth’s eccentricity for the past two millions of years. There is such an intimate connection between the several branches of science that the researches in one field often throw light upon the obscure points in another. In the solu- tion of this difficult problem, the geologist may invoke, and I trust not unsuccessfully, the aid of the astronomer. That a set of causes were active during the Drift Epoch, in one hemisphere, which remained dormant in the other, admits of little doubt; and the advocates of the astronomi- cal theory, as evidences of the shifting of vast amounts of water from one pole to the other, point to the marked differ- ences in the topographical features of the two hemispheres. In the Austral region we meet with projecting headlands and peninsula-like terminations of continents, and groups and chains of islands in the Pacific and Indian oceans ex- tending over vast areas, which rise up like the peaks and crests of mountains. These are the evidences of a gradu- ally engulfed hemisphere. In the Boreal region we have wide expanses of land diversified by mountains, prairies, and plains; elevated sea-beaches and river-terraces, most con- Spicuously displayed on the borders of the Arctic Sea; vast Oceanic shoals; a marine fauna of a northern type preserved in beds of 1,400 feet, and stratified beds of gravel and sand 2,000 feet, above the ocean-level; clusters of lakes yet re- 412 VARIATIONS IN TRILLIUM AND WISTERIA. taining their bitter waters; shallow seas once salt, but each decade becoming more brackish ; vast desert tracts which up to a recent time formed the ocean bed ;—all these phenomena indicate a hemisphere gradually emerging from the waters. Perhaps the physicist ean discern in these great periodic oscillations, the method by which Nature perpetually renews the youth of our planet, and maintains its fertility. Gentlemen of the American Association: — The hour which, in your eourtesy, had been assigned to me, has now lapsed, and I must bring these remarks to a close. The topies which have passed under review open up spheres of thought with regard to time and space too vast to be com- pr essed within the limits of a mere oral discourse. Assert- ing no ability by reason of profound research to pass duthorifatively on these results, may I not inquire: Have they not disclosed new paths in the great domain of Nature, which may be profitably explored jointly by the geologist and the astronomer ; and is there not a probability that there will be found to exist an intimate relation between the peri- odie fluetuations of temperature on our planet, and the peri- odie pertubations to which it is subjected as a part of the solar system? Great as have been our achievements in sci- ence during the past, we profoundly believe that new tri- umphs await the patient observer. VARIATIONS IN TRILLIUM AND WISTERIA. BY THOMAS MEEHAN. Iw a recent number of the “Bulletin of the Torrey Botan- ical Club,” of New York, Mr. J. H. Hall describes a plant of Trillium erectum, which he has had under his observation for several years, and which produced some years white, and other years the regular brown purple flowers. I have made VARIATIONS IN TRILLIUM AND WISTERIA. 413 a similar observation this year in a Wisteria sinensis. Plants on my grounds have made an unusual second flowering. There were more blossoms in July than in April. Among them is a snow white variety, which has flowered annually for six years past at least. At this second flowering it took a notion to flower blue, — not quite as deep a blue as the regular tint of the well known kind ; but still anything but the white we have always had before. It was very difficult for my gardener to believe that in some way or another "some hybridization " had not been going on. Potatoes fre- quently change this way in the color of the tubers, when the intelligent farmer is sure " there must have been some mixing of the pollen which in some way affected the circulation and changed the color." Dahlias, chrysanthemums, balsams, and many other things with parti-colored flowers, frequently have some wholly of one of the mixed colors; but all this in | Some way is supposed to be the work of art. : These natural variations I regard with much interest as teaching us that the law of evolution is not wholly through seed, and that those botanists who look for it in the embry- ology of the reproductive organs are not wholly on the right track. Physiologists usually commence their treatises with “the seeds ;” as if the seed was the primary element in the organ- ization of vegetation, instead of the final result. Not that they really teach it, but this order of treating the subject gives the public mind that impression. Mr. Darwin’s ideas Seem to arise from some such reasoning as this. It seems hardly possible to conceive of first existences from eggs or seeds. True we see most of the changes through this medium now; but if we find cases in abundance (and I think we might if we looked for them) like these of Trillium and Wisteria, where changes occur independently of sexual in- fluence, they will at least suggest another law to account for the origin of species. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 60 THE PRIMITIVE VEGETATION OF THE EARTH. BY J. W. DAWSON, LL. D. TWENTY years ago scarcely anything was known, even to those engaged in the study of vegetable fossils, of a land flora older than the great coal formation. In 1860, Goep- pert, in his Memoir on the plants of the Silurian, Devonian, and Lower Carboniferous, mentions only one land plant, and this of doubtful character, in the Lower Devonian. In the iddle Devonian he knew but one species; in the Upper Devonian he enumerated fifty-seven. Most of these were European, but he included also such American species as were known to him. The paper of the writer on the Land Plants of Gaspé was published in 1859, but had not reached Goeppert at the time when his memoir was written. This, with some other descriptions of American Devonian plants not in his possession, might have added ten or twelve spe- cies, some of them Lower Devonian, to his list. In the ten years from 1860 to the present time, the writer has been able to raise the Devonian flora of Eastern North America to one hundred and twenty-one species, and reckoning those of Europe at half that number, we now have at least one hun- dred and eighty species of land plants from the Devonian, besides a few from the Upper Silurian. We thus have pre- sented to our view a flora older than that of the Carbonifer- ous period, and, in many respects, distinct from it; and in connection with which many interesting geological and botanical questions arise. Geologists are aware that in passing backward in geologi- cal time from the modern to the Paleozoic period, we lose, as dominant members of the vegetable kingdom, first, the higher phenogamous plants, whether exogenous or endoge- nous; and that, in the Mesozoic period, the Acrogens, or (474) : THE PRIMITIVE VEGETATION OF THE EARTH. 415 higher cryptogams, represented by Ferns, Club-mosses, and Equiseta, share the world with the Gymnosperms, repre- sented by the pines and Cycads, while the higher phæno- gams on the one hand, and lower cryptogams on the other, are excluded. Hence, the Mesozoic age has been called that of Gymnosperms, while the Paleozoic is that of Acrogens. These names are not, however, absolutely accurate, as we shall see that one of the highest forms of modern vegetation can be traced back into the Devonian; though the terms are undoubtedly useful, as indicating the prevalence of the types above mentioned, in a degree not now observed, and a cor- responding rarity of those forms which constitute our preva- lent modern vegetation. It is my present object shortly to sketch the more recent facts of Devonian and Upper Silurian Botany, and to refer to a few of the general truths which they teach. The rocks called Devonian in Europe being on the horizon of the Erie division of the American geologists, which are much more fully developed than their representatives on the Eastern Continent, I shall use the term Hrian as equivalent to De- vonian, understanding by both that long and important geological age intervening between the close of the Upper Silurian and the beginning of the Carboniferous. Just as in Europe the rocks of this period present a two- fold aspect, being in some places of the character of a de- posit of "Old Red Sandstone," and in others indicating deeper water, or more properly marine conditions, so in America, on a greater scale, they have two characters of development. In the great and typical Erian area, extend- ing for seven hundred miles to the westward of the Apala- chian chain of mountains, these rocks, sometimes attaining to a thickness of fifteen thousand feet, include extensive marine deposits; and except in their north-eastern border are not rich in fossil plants. In the smaller north-eastern area, on the other hand, lying to the eastward of the Apala- chian range, they consist wholly of sandstones and shales, 416 THE PRIMITIVE VEGETATION OF THE EARTH. and are rich in plant remains while poor in marine fossils. Hence it is the Devonian of Gaspé, of New Brunswick, and of Maine, with that of eastern New York, which have chiefly afforded the plants to be described below; and it is exclu- sively in these areas that we find underclays with roots, or true fossil soils. Most of the localities of fossil plants in the distriets above mentioned have been visited, and their plants studied ¿n situ by the writer. The Gaspé sandstones were first studied and carefully measured and mapped by Sir W. E. Logan. The Devonian beds of St. John's, New Brunswick, have been thoroughly examined and illustrated by Professor Hartt and Mr. Matthews, and those of Perry by Professor Jackson, Professor Rogers and Mr. Hitchcock. Professor Hall, of the Survey of New York, has kindly communicated to me the plants found in that State, and Professor Newberry has contributed some facts and speci- mens illustrative of those of Ohio. In the Sandstone cliffs of Gaspé Bay, Sir W. E. Logan recognized in 1843 the presence of great numbers of ap- parent roots in some of the shales and fine sandstones. These roots had evidently penetrated the beds in a living state, so that the root-beds were true fossil soils, which, after supporting vegetation, became submerged and covered with new beds of sediment. This must have occurred again and again in the process of the formation of the four thousand feet of Gaspé sandstone. The true nature of the plants of these fossil soils I had subsequently good opportu- nities of investigating, and the most important results, in the discovery of the plants of my genus Psilophyton, are embodied in the restoration of P. princeps. This remark- able plant, the oldest land plant known in America, since it extends through the Upper Silurian as well as the Devonian, presents a creeping horizontal rhizome or root-stock, from the upper side of which were given off slender branching stems, sometimes bearing rudimentary leaves, and crowned when mature, with groups of gracefully nodding oval spore- THE PRIMITIVE VEGETATION OF THE EARTH. 477 cases. The root-stocks must in many cases have matted the soils in which they grew into a dense mass of vegetable matter, and in some places they accumulated to a sufficient extent to form layers of coaly matter, one of which on the south side of Gaspé Bay is as much as three inches in thick- ness, and is the oldest coal known in America. More usually the root-beds consist of hardened clay or fine sand- stone filled with complicated net-work or with parallel bands of rhizomes more or less flattened and in various states of preservation. In all probability these beds were originally swampy soils. From the surface of such a root-bed there arose into the air countless numbers of slender but somewhat woody stems, forming a dense mass of vegetation three or four feet in height. The stems, when young or barren, were more or less sparsely clothed with thick, short, pointed leaves, which, from the manner in which they penetrate the stone, must have been very rigid. At their extremities the. stems were divided into slender branches, and these when: young were curled in a crosier-like or circinate manner. When mature they bore at the ends of small branchlets pairs of oval sacs or spore-cases. The rhizomes when well pre- served show minute markings, apparently indieating hairs or scales, and also round areoles with central spots, like those of Stigmaria, but not regularly arranged. These curious plants are unlike anything in the actual world. I have com- pared their fructification with that of the Pilularie or Pill- worts, a comparison which has also occurred to Dr. Hooker. On the other hand, this fructification is borne in a totally different manner from that of Pilularia, and in this respect rather resembles some ferns; and the young stems by them- selves would be referred without hesitation to Lycopodiacez. In short, Psilophyton is a generalized plant, presenting char- acters not combined in the modern world, and, perhaps illustrating what seems to be a general law of creation, that in the earlier periods low forms assumed characteristics subsequently confined to higher grades of being. 418 THE PRIMITIVE VEGETATION OF THE EARTH. A second species of Psilophyton (P. robustius), also abundant at Gaspé, shows stouter stems than the former, more abundantly branching and with smaller leaves, often quite rudimentary. Its spore-cases are also of different form and borne in dense clusters on the sides of the stem. Masses of very slender branching filaments appear to indi- cate a third species (P. elegans) which is also found in the Devonian of St. John, New Brunswiek. These species of Psilophyton occur both in the lower and middle Devonian, and, as will be mentioned in the sequel, they extend also into the Upper Silurian. Decorticated and flattened stems of Psilophyton cannot be readily recognized, and except when their internal structure has been preserved, might be mistaken for alge, a mistake which I believe has in some instances been made. Speci- mens of the barren stems (var. ornatum) might readily be referred to the genus Lycopodites. Another genus of generalized type is that named by Haughton Cyclostigma. As found at Gaspé it presents slender stems with rounded scars, placed either spirally or in transverse rows, and giving origin to long rigid leaves. It had a slender axis of scalariform vessels, and fructifica- tion of the form of elongated spikes or strobiles is found with it. In many respects these plants resemble Psilophy- ton, and their affinities were distinctly Lycopodiaceous. Specimens from Ireland, in the Museum of the Geological Society, kindly shown to me by Mr. Etheridge, appear to show that in that country these plants attained the dimen- sions of trees, and had roots of the nature of Stigmaria. Mr. Carruthers has even suggested that they may be allied to Syringodendron, a group of Carboniferous trees connected with the Sigillarie. The genus Lycopodites is represented by a trailing spe- cies, bearing numerous oval strobiles (L. Richardsoni), a species quite close to many modern club-mosses (L. Mat- thewi), and a remarkable pinnate form (L. Vanuxemit); THE PRIMITIVE VEGETATION OF THE EARTH. 419 Which, though provisionally placed here, has been variously conjectured to resemble Ferns, Cycads, Alge and Grapto- lites. But the most remarkable Lycopodiaceous plants are the gigantic arboreal Lepidodendra, plants which, while they begin in the Middle Devonian, become eminently expanded in numbers and magnitude in the Carboniferous. The com- mon species in Eastern America (ZL. Gaspianum) was of slender and delicate form, very elegant, but probably not of large size. In the same family I would place my new genus Leptophleum. he Calamites, afterwards so largely developed in the Carboniferous, and to be replaced by true Equiseta in the Trias, make their first appearance in a large species ( C. in- ornatum) in the Lower Devonian, and represented in the middle and upper parts of the system by two other species, which extend upward into the Carboniferous. They are also represented in the Devonian of Germany. and of Devon- shire. The peculiar type indicated by the internal casts known as Calamodendron is likewise found in the Devo- nian. More beautiful plants were the Asterophyllites, with more slender and widely branching stems, and broader leaves borne in whorls upon their branches. These plants have been confounded with leaves of Calamites, from which, how- ever, they differ in form and nervation, and in the want of the oblique interrupted lines common to the true leaves of Calamites and to the branchlets of Equisetum. The Aster- ophyllites, and with them a species of Sphenophyllum, ap- pear in the Middle Devonian. No plants of the modern world are more beautiful in point of foliage than the Ferns, and of these a great number of Species occur in the Middle and Upper Devonian. I must refer for details to my more full memoirs on the subject, and in the present paper shall content myself with a few general Statements. Some of the generie forms of the Devonian, and perhaps a few of the species, extend into the Carboni- 480 THE PRIMITIVE VEGETATION OF THE EARTH. ferous; others are peculiar to the Devonian; and among these forms allied to the modern Hymenophyllum and Trich- omanes appear to prevail. One remarkable type, C'yclop- teris (Archeopteris) Hibernicus, with its American allies, OF Jacksoni, etc., extends in the Upper Devonian over both continents, yet is wanting in the Carboniferous. Tree ferns also existed in the Devonian. Two species have been found by Dr. Newberry in Ohio, and remarkable erect trunks have been obtained by Professor Hall from Gilboa, in the State of New York. The latter are surrounded by aerial roots, and thus belong to the genus Psaronius; a genus which, however, must be artificial, since in modern tree ferns aerial roots often clothe the lower part of the stems while absent from the upper part. The only indication as yet of a tree fern in the Old World is the Caulopteris Peachii, of Salter, from the Old Red of Scotland. It is further remarkable that the ferns of the genus Archeopteris are much more large and luxuriant in Ireland than in America, and. that in both regions they characterize the upper member of the system. Of the plants of the Paleozoic world, none are more mysterious than those known to us by the name Sigillaria, and distinguished by the arrangement of their leaves in ver- tical series, on stems and branches often ribbed longitudi- nally, and by the possession of those remarkable roots furnished with rootlets regularly artieulated and spirally arranged, the Stigmarie. It seems evident that this group of plants included numerous species, differing. from each other both in form and structure. Still, as a whole, they. present very characteristic forms dissimilar from those of their contemporaries, and still more unlike anything now living. Ibelieve that many of them were Gymnosperms, or at the least, Acrogens with stems as complicated as those of Gymnosperms. In the Carboniferous period these plants have.a close connection with the occurrence of coal. Nearly every bed of this mineral has under it a “Stigmaria under- THE PRIMITIVE VEGETATION OF THE EARTH. 481 clay," which is a fossil soil on which a forest of Sigillariz has grown, and the remains of these trees are very abundant in the coal and the accompanying beds. Hence the Sig- illariæ of the coal-period are regarded as the plants most important in the accumulation of coal. ln the Devonian, as far as we yet know, they did not attain to this utility, and in the lower part of the system at least, the rhizomata of Psil- ophyton seem to have occupied tbe place afterwards held by the Stigmarie. In connection with this it is to be remarked that the Sigillarie of the Erian period seem to have been few, and of small dimensions in comparison with those of the coal. Rising still higher in the vegetable kingdom, and arriving at unquestionable Gymnosperms, we find in the Devonian of Eastern America, and also, I believe, in that of Scotland and Germany, trunks which may be referred to Conifere. In the Middle and Upper Devonian these present the struc- ture of modern Araucarian pines, or that modification of it belonging to the Carboniferous trees of the genus Dadoxy- lon. In the Lower Devonian we have what seems to be a simplification of the Coniferous structure, in the cylindrical wood-cells, marked only with spiral threads, found in the genus Prototaxites. These trees are very abundant as drift trunks in the Lower Devonian, down almost to its bottom beds, and sometimes attain to a diameter of three feet. Though of a structure so lax that it is comparable only with the youngest stems of ordinary Conifers, these trees must have been durable, and they are furnished both with medul- lary rays and rings of annual growth. Unfortunately we know nothing of their foliage or fruit. But for one little fragment of wood we should have had no indication of the existence in the Erian of any trees of higher organization than the Conifers. This fragment, found by Professor Hall at Eighteen-mile Creek, Lake Erie, has the, dotted vessels characteristic of ordinary Exogens, and unquestionably indieates a plant of the highest kind of AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. 1V. 61 482 THE PRIMITIVE VEGETATION OF THE EARTH. organization. Until confirmed by other facts this discovery may be received with doubt, but I believe it can be relied on. Our knowledge of the flora of the Upper Silurian is at present nearly in the same state with that of the Middle and Lower Devonian ten years ago. I know in the Upper Silu- rian of Canada but two species of Psilophyton, both appar- ently identical with Devonian forms. In England, besides the spore-cases known by the generic name Pachytheca, there exists in the collections of the Geological Survey frag- ments of wood and bark which I believe indicate two additional species. In Germany three or four species are known in rocks of this age. All of these plants appear to be Acrogens allied to Lycopodiaceze. That these few spe- cies constitute the whole flora of the Upper Silurian we can scarcely believe. They occur in marine formations, and were probably drifted far from the somewhat limited land- surfaces which existed in the explored parts of the Upper Silurian areas. When we obtain access to deposits of this age formed in shallows or estuaries, we may hope to find a flora of greater richness; and, judging from present indica- tions, not dissimilar from that of the Lower Devonian. With the exception of some remains which I believe to be of very doubtful character, the Lower Silurian, has as yet afforded no remains of land plants, and in North America, at least, this is very significant, inasmuch as we have, in the Potsdam sandstone, extensive sandy flats of this period, in which we might expect to find drifted trunks of trees, if such had existed. But the search is not hopeless, and we may yet find some estuary deposit on the margin of the an- cient Laurentian continent, in whose beds the plants of that old land may occur. Lastly, for reasons stated in a paper lately published in the Proceedings of the Geological Society, I believe that the extensive deposits of graphite, which exist in the Laurentian of Canada, are of vegetable origin, and possibly in part INDIAN STONE IMPLEMENTS. 483 produced by land plants, as yet altogether unknown to us. If the Palzeozoic was the age of Acrogens, the Eozoic may have been that of Anophytes and Thallophytes. Its plants may have consisted of gigantie mosses and lichens, present- ing us with a phase of vegetable existence bearing the same relation to that of the Palæozoic which the latter bears to that of more modern periods. But there is another and a more startling possibility, that the Laurentian may have been the period when vegetable life culminated on our planet, and existed in its highest and grandest forms, before it was brought into subordination to the higher life of the animal. The solution of these questions belongs to the future of geology, and opens up avenues not merely for speculation, but also for practical work. The above must be regarded as merely a Ne of the present aspect of the subject to which it relates. Details must be sought elsewhere. — Nature. INDIAN STONE IMPLEMENTS.* BY J. J. H. GREGORY. THE stone selected for arrowheads and tomahawk points, was, as a rule, very hard in its nature, compact in structure, and fine grained, presenting a conchoidal fracture when bro- ken. In the valley of the Connecticut these conditions were satisfied by a variety of hornstone, along the sea coast in the porphyry. In each of these localities I have found some arrowheads made of jasper, some of white granular quartz, and occasionally one from slate, but the greater propor- tion of these are collectively small, though it is evident Mii ptr deir qn on the Stone used by the Indians within the limits s Eee er in the manufacture of their a with some remarks on the ess of man facture, Se at the Troy meeting of the American Association for the signum of Science, 484 INDIAN STONE IMPLEMENTS. that beauty in the material had attractions. One great source of supply for the jasper and quartz implements, was in part or wholly scattered boulders, while the porphyry came from the ledges on Marblehead Neck, and thé small boulders washed up along the coast. That boulders were frequently used is proved from many half formed imple- ments which show some of the rounded surface yet remain- ing. That the porphyry ledges on Marblehead Neck were an extensive source of supply, is proved by the cart loads of chippings of stone around and in the vicinity of them. That these pieces and fragments were artificially broken is proved by the many conchoidal surfaces, the fresh appear- ance of the surfaces, and the rough design which some of these present. That the practice of the aborigines was to cut out but rough designs at the quarry, and work out these designs at their camping grounds, is proved by the large size of the fragments chipped off near these ledges, and the scarcity of even rough designs; while in the town of Marblehead, about a mile from the porphyry ledges on the Neck, the chippings are smaller, and the designs are nearer to completion. In the township of Marblehead I have found a multitude of implements, over a thousand in number, that were broken in every stage of the process of manufacture, while I have rarely found in the Connecticut valley fragments of un- finished implements; such as I have found are usually those of finished implements. The chippings of stone on Marble- head Neck, as I have shown, average quite large; those in the township considerably smaller, and the chippings found in the Connecticut valley are yet smaller. The hornstones so commonly used for arrowheads and other implements there I have never found in Marblehead, and I have never found among implements of the Connecti- cut valley any manufactured from the porphyry of Marble- head. In one of the Reports of the Smithsonian Institution is an account of the finding of a mass of half finished imple- INDIAN STONE IMPLEMENTS. 485 ments buried in the ground ; such deposits simply prove that the aborigines having cut out rough outlines of implements, at times carried these to their camping ground, and there buried them, to be finished at leisure. I exhibit specimens of a lot that I dug up in Marblehead, on the Freeto farm, about a foot below the surface; such deposits are called "Indian pockets." There were over forty pieces in the lot. Here is one of a lot of nearly a peck, found in Hadley, Mass. The quantity in every case appeared in each instance to be about equal, apparently limited by the weight one per- son might conveniently carry. From a study of the break- age we learn that in making their arrowheads and toma- hawk points they chipped the stone from the edge towards the centre, which, while it gave a sharp edge, left a central ridge that gave strength to the weapon. In finishing arrow- heads there was a great deal of slow, careful work, which finally consisted in breaking off particles almost as fine as dust, by gentle pressure against stone. I had one arrow- head brought to me by a friend from California, made from the bottom of a glass bottle; it was very sharp and exquis- itely finished. It was mostly made in his presence by an Indian squaw and nearly three days were spent in its manu- facture. It can be safely stated that with the same tools no white man can make an Indian arrowhead; I am informed that even Flint Jack, skilled as he was in the business, after many years of practice, failed in his “Celts,” as stone arrow- heads are ealled in England. From the very few arrowheads made from red jasper, found in Marblehead, I doubt whether the fine ledge of jas- per loeated in Saugus, about five miles distant, was known to the aborigines, as the rich color of the stone, with its fine conchoidal fracture, would have been likely to have made it very popular. The material for the few arrowheads found, made of red jasper, I presume was procured from rocks of the drift deposit. The rocks used by the Indians on the coast in the manufacture of their larger implements, such as 486 INDIAN STONE IMPLEMENTS. axes, gouges, skin dressers and grain pestles, were green- stone and syenite, and in the Connecticut valley a large por- - tion were made from trap rock. Evidently one reason why the greenstone and syenite were preferred to the porphyry was that these would take the fine finished design far more readily than porphyry. We find the difference between these rocks, illustrated by the ocean worn stones on the beach; while those from trap and greenstone, are as smooth as polished metal. Porphyry stones under the same circum- stances, while they have a fine general polish, will yet often- times have many minute fractures below the level of the polished surface. These large implements appear to have had their forms first roughly hewn out, then to have been worked into shape by picking with sharp pointed stones after which they were sometimes polished. The axes as a rule were not polished, while the implements used in the dressing of skins were, almost uniformly. Sometimes when the natural form of the material favored, such as fragments of trap rock for pestles and for hoes, but little additional work was put upon it, and the implement was but a rough affair. Of the large implements, as would be presumed from their character, it is rare to find any that were broken in the process of manufacture, while such as have been marred or broken, after having been manufactured, are very common. It is stated by those who have made a comparison between the large implements of this country and of Europe, that those manufactured by the aborigines of this country are hewn, picked and sometimes polished ; those of Europe are simply hewn. This marked difference, if it is a fact, is not so sin- gular as appears at first sight; the material, to a large ex- tent, of the European implements, is flint, which, while it cannot be surpassed as a material for hewing, yet for pick- ing and polishing, would prove very refractory, and it is probable that the same motives that led our own aborigines to avoid the porphyry, led those of Europe to be content INDIAN STONE IMPLEMENTS. 481 with simply hewing, having to deal with a still more stub- born material in their flint. The skin dressers, gouges and some other implements were made as sharp at the working : edges as such stones were capable of, and this was doie by rubbing them on fine grained stones. On the sea coast pieces of the finest grained greenstone were mostly used, some of which, whei found, were as much worn as any modern carpenter's hone. I have never seen among the relics on the sea coast any resembling the scalping knives of the West, or of Europe, or any whose peculiar shape suggested that it might have been used as a scalping knife. I infer from this that on the sea coast the large chippings of stone, having a sharp edge, were used as scalping knives. Among some fifteen hundred specimens of Indian implements, collected on the sea coast, I have never seen more than one, that, from its shape and size could possibly have been used as the conventional toma- hawk, an axe shaped weapon to be thrown from the hand. The illustrations in some of our modern school books are more correct when the tomahawk is shown to have been a wooden club terminating in a hard woody knob, in which had been inserted a large stone point. The form of the metallic axe was doubtless copied from the same implement used by the inhabitants of the stone age. From time to time the metallic axe has varied in form, and all the several forms of stone axes I have in my posses- Sion have been represented in some of the forms of the metallie axe, and as that of the standard axe of to-day is precisely that of one of these forms, I cannot doubt but that the stone implement supplied the model. REVIEWS. ——9Ó——— THE POLYPS AND CORALS OF THE NonrH Paciric EXPLORING EXPE- DITION.* — Professor Verrill here describes, with numerous figures by Dr. Stimpson, all the Polyps and Corals collected, with notes on their colors appearance in life, by Dr. Stimpson, which are new to science. It is d metrical distribution. An excellent summary of the class of ** Cnidaria,” the polyps, or single animals, protruding from the surface. These sea pens (so called from the resemblance, in the genus Pennatula, of the whole colony to a pen) move freely about in the mud or sand at the bottom of the sea. They belong to the most highly organized polyps, the order of Alcyonaria, in which the number of tentacles of each polyp is juo. to eight. All the above named sea pens are from Hong Kong. Of th 6, the coral stock, and 62 the animal of Muricea divaricata V.; and Fig. 7, the animal of an allied coral, Acanthogorgia coccinea V., of which 7a repre- sents a top view, with the eight tentacles outspread. All three are from Hong Kong. Of the soft Alcyoniums, called in England Dead Men's Fingers, which x not secret a coral, our author figures the animal of Nepthya thyrsoidea V. (Fig. 8, 8a, a polyp), from the Cape of Good Hope; Anthella lineata Stimps., Fig. 9; 92, a polyp; 95, one of the tentacles much enlarged, from 08i Hong Kong; and Telesto ramiculosa V. (Fig. 10, polyp-colony; 10a, a polyp), from the same 1 ty. An interesting sea Anemone, Sagartia? paguri V., was dredged in twenty to thirty fathoms, and D said Stimpson to be always parasitic on a hermit crab, Diogenes Edwardsii of emg Another form, Cancrisocia expansa Stimpson, Fi “Is the only genus of Actinidz, except aptum (A. palliata), in which a solid secretion is formed is pd basaldisk, In Canerisocia it a concentrically striate structure, the gene * Synopsis of Pacific E under Com- modore C. Ringgold and Capt. John mana U. S. N., TA HN t6 1856, Collected by Dr. Wm. Stimpson, Naturalist to the ipsum By A. E. Verrill. [From the Proceedings of the Essex Institute. Vols. 4-6 1866-1869. 8vo,pp. With inde es.] REVIEWS. 489 being evidently lines of veis sr The e of formation seems to be this: The crab when very young, selects a very small fragm sorta of shell or pebbles, bere it here upon its back by its posterior claws, as other species of Crabs (Hypoconcha) do, -— f Pecten, or some other bivalve shell. Upon this small she elly, or epus: Popes elio ei eie ng Caneris ocia finds a congenial sie but soon — mpi. af its — = a ae m rt "T depesiting i a "e, of horn-lil t peated, in proportion to its s own growth, and that of the crab jm car ries it. In this das there is soon fo ian a broad thin pellicle, having its concentric ele- aen» v. ranged around a nucleus of sto shell, which is usually excentric, the increase id in ps nt than be bind. This basal secretion is held upon the back of tiui by its recurved posterior legs, in the same manner as the original bit of shell.” The division of Corals he raises to the rank of an order, under the term Madreporaria, thus making it parallel with the Alcyonaria. Among these corals numerous new forms are described and figured. Cancrisocia expansa. A number of species from various parts of the world are added in a supplement. The geographical list shows that most of the species are from the Seas of East India and China, the South Seas, Cape of Good Hope, and the West Coast of America REVUE pes Cours ScrexTIFIQUES.* — This journal, now in its eighth year, is valuable as giving us reports of the olla: a of prominent scien- tists in Europe, and occasionally our own country. Late numbers contain lectures by Marey on the flight of birds and insects; by Agassiz and ra Academy relative to the qualifications of Ms. Darwin to be she member of that t body. Considering the bigotry and unstleniile spirit, to Say nothing of the surprisingly low grade of scientific acquirements dis- Played by some of the members, we should judge that if an opportunity Should offer Mr. Darwin would decline the honor (sic) of membership. * Edited by MM. Eug. and Yung Em. Alglave. 15 francs a year. 4to, eq im 15. as Each volume about 900 pages. Germer Balliere, 17 Rue de 'Ecole-de-Medicine, Pa AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. American Naturalist. Vok IV. Phu ee NORTH PACIFIC POLYPS AND CORALS. ) American Naturalist. VoL IV. Pw Fig. 9b. Fig. 7a. ~ NORTH PACIFIC POLYPS AND PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. NINETEENTH MEETING OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE AD- VA E, HELD AT TRO , AUGUST l7 TH- 24TH, 1870 The nineteenth meeting of the Association opened with about one hun- dr ers. During the meeting about fifty more members red their pee a e gemi and detis el new members taries, Messrs. B. H. Hall and H. B. Nason, who, as nonet, had the greater part of the Local Committee work on their hands, did all in their power to make the meeting à Vae: and to furnish aecommodations and aid to the members in attendan A large and brilliant dm was given to the Association by His Honor Mayor GILBERT, on Thursday evening, and an equally brilliant one by Hon. Joux M. Francis at his residence, on Monday evening. Monday was occupied by an excursion to Saratoga and dinner at Congress Hall, at the invitation of the citizens of Troy. On Friday mornin e ALBANY INsTITUTE and were most hospitably entertained, and visited the Dudley Observatory, State Cabinet, and the large private collection of Professor Harr. Gathering at the State Library at half past four o'clock most delightful evening was passed at a levee given by the Albany In- stitute, after which a fine sail up the river brought all back to Troy before night. **Section Q" was well carried out on Tuesday n ight. During the evenings of the session many members called themselves Burden Iron Works, and the Rensselaer Iron Works; the proprietors and ND of all the works being most obliging and courteous to e throngs of visitors who invaded their firey quarters. The address of the Retiring President, J. W. FosTER, was delivered on evening, at the First Presbyterian Church. This address is of The following were the officers of the Troy meeting:— T. SrERRY Hunt,* of Montreal, President ; JosepH LOVERING, of Cambridge, Perma- nent Secretary; F. W. Foram} of Salem, General Secretary; A. L. EL- *In the absenee , detained by illness, Vice-President HUNT be- came the presiding Mir of the meeting. ofessor HARTT being absent on his expedition in Brazil, Mr. PUTNAM was elected as General è (492) PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 493 WYN, of Philadelphia, Treasurer. Standing Committee—T. STERRY Hunt, JOSEPH LOVERING, F. W. PUTNAM AM, ASA Gray, F. A. P. BARNARD, J. W. FosrEn, O. N. Roop, JOHN Torrey, E. D. Corr, E. N. Hon RSFORD, J. E. HILGArD, A. AUS H. B. Nason. Section A.— Mathematics Physics, and Chemistry—F. A. P. BARNARD, of New York, Permanent Chairman; . W. Hovan, of Albany, rpm ary; G. W. MAYNARD, of Troy, ELIAS Taian. of New Haven, S. D. TILLMAN, of New York, Sectional Com- mittee. Subsection C M Section Hec Mick oscopy—S. S. HALDEMAN, of Philadelphia, Permanent Chai: R. H. Warp, of Troy, Secretary. Section B.—Geology a Pavo irit. Gray, of Cambridge, Per- manent Chairman, and afterwards A. H. WORTHEN, of Springfield, Ill., and James HALL, of A bany; HENRY Hartsnorne, of Philadelphia, Sec- retary, and afterwards THEODORE GIL L, of Washington; James Hatt, of Albany, J. G. Morris, of Baltimore, ALPHEUS Hyatt, of Salem, Sectional Committee. pen E of Section B.—for one day, T uesday, Section B. as subdivided, and THoMAs HILL, of CURA MM, was elected Chairman, and W. H. ah ie: of Washington, Secretary. At the last session of the meeting 3 was voted to accept the invitation of the CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE to hold a future meeting of the Association at San Francisco, and a committee was € to make arrangements for holding the meeting of 1872 in that c It was also voted to accept the py from d presented by the State Geologist of Indiana, E. T. Cox, to hold the twentieth meet- 4 Asa Gray, of Cambridge; Vice-President, GEORGE F. BARKER, of Ne Haven; Permanent Secretary, JOSEPH LOVERING, of Cambridge; General Secretary, F. W. PUTNAM, of Salem; Treasurer, WM. S. Vaux, of Phila- delphia. We give abstracts ae several of the papers read in Section B. in this Short one, and at this time popas those authors who have not yet sent us the promised abstracts to do so Prof. Enwanp S. Morse read a Ped = On the early stages of Discina.” i s phore, sustaining a few cirri, the stomach hanging below, and other features in which a resemblance was seen. 494 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 'The perivisceral wall is made up of two layers of muscular fibres which cross each other, giving it a reticulated appearance. While the young shell is oval in shape there is marked out a perfectly circular area, indi- cating that at the outset the embryo possesses a circular plate above and below. The muscles were very large and occupied most of the perivis- ceral cavity. The sets fringing the mantle were very long, those from the anterior margin being nearly three times the length of the shell. The mantle margin, the blood lacuns, and the bands of muscles to move the with the cavity of the peduncle. The circulation was voluminous an rapid; no trace of pulsation could be detected. The fluid was not blood proper, but chyle-aqueous, cate distinct from this was the proper heart and blood as bic out by Hancock From repeated sca tenis of the hiro crs he could state itum regarding the nature of these organs. 'The internal mouth was plaited and turned towards the sides, the remaining partion of the heti was reddish in color, and glandular, eh dbo A performed a renal function as in similar organs among the The sexes were sepa icto. ie estis: arms had a limited power of mo- tion. The coils could be raised or depressed, and the axis of the coil could be at boom angles to the longitudinal axis of the body or parallel to it. ontents of the stomach were found in all the lobules of the liver, nating that the food circulated in these hepatic prolongations, as in t nelids. Upon young Lingula a perfectly circular area could be seen near hé beak of the shell; this indicated the form of the embryo shell the specimens he had brought from North Cavell in May were alive at this date, August 19th. They had been confined in a small cid ees a little sand, and the water changed every two or three days. This i was Bees tbs since Lingula had existed from the earliest pend ages to the present time. In describing pode he mentioned in detail, the muscular, alimentary, he rt Hancock were traced to a ganglionic enlargement in the divaricator muscles, and were unquestionably nerves as pointed out by Owen. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 495 Professor EDWARD S. MORSE also made a communication **On Brach- iopods as a division of the Annulata.” A brief abstract of these views was published in the July number of this magazine. A few new facts have been added which have been noticed under the description of Lingula. g a sc n e bilobed lophophore of its young, as described by Kowalewsky, as further proofs of the annulate character of the Brachiopods. Dr. Tuomas HILL read a paper on ** The Compass Plant." In J une, 1869, Dr. Hill was coming from Omaha to Chicago, on a very dark rainy day, so dark that he could not form any estimate of the points of compass from the sunlight. At three different points on the prairies he noticed young plants of Silphium laciniatum, and estimated from them, while going at full speed, the course of the railway track. On reaching Chicago he procured by the kindness of the officers of the C. & N. W. road, detailed maps of the track, and found where he had estimated the zog at 359, 75°, and 90°, the true bea arings were 31°, 78°, and 90° In October, 1869, being detained by an accident wn Tama, he gathered with fourteen leaves. Ten of these fourteen leaves showed a strong dis- position, when about four inches high, to turn to the meridian; the other four showed a feeble disposition in the same direction. These ten leaves on coming up in June, had an average bearing of 42°, and the mean bear- ing was nearly as large. But in August, the same ten leaves showed an average bearing of only 44°, and the mean bearing was but 24°. r. Hill refers this polarity to the sunlight, the two sides of the leaf boli equally estre and struggling for equal shares. He hoped in a more favorable summer to test this, and several other points which had S: Professor James ORTON read a paper upon the ** Condor and the Hum- ming Birds of the Equatorial Region." He remarked that probably no bird is so unfortunate in the hands of the curious and scientific as the Condor. Fifty years have elapsed since the first specimen reached Eu- peated in many of our text books, and the very latest ornithological e can lift an elephant from the ground high enough to kill it by the fall ; nor the story of the traveller, so late as 1830, who declared that a Condor y fee s or even equals twelve feet. Ihave a full grown male from the most celebrated locality in the Andes, and the stretch of its wings is nine feet. Humboldt 496 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC. SOCIETIES. never found one to measure over nine feet; and the largest specimen which Darwin saw, was eight and one half feet from tip to tip. Ano male in the Zoological Gardens of London, measures eleven feet. It is not yet settled that this greatest of unclean birds is generically distinct from the other great vultures. My own observation of the structure an habits of the Condor, incline me to think it should stand alone. Asso- ciated with the great Condor is a smaller vulture, having brown or ash- colored plumage instead of black and white, a beak wholly black instead of black at the base and white at the tip, and no caruncle. It inhabits nounced it the young of the xi sips A gryphus —a conclusion which the = did not seem wholly to endorse to the royal Condor, Acsi Orton aered the following observa- Mus either new or corroborative: Its usual habitation is between the altitudes of. ten thousand and sixteen thousand feet. The largest seem coast, where they may be seen roosting on pean on the E te rarely perch, but stand on the rocks. ey are most commonly seen around vertical cliffs, perhaps because their nests are there, and also be- cause cattle are likely to fall there. Flocks are never seen except around a large carcass. It is often seen singly, soaring at a great height in vast narrow pen is therefore sufficient to imprison it. In walking the wings carrion bird it breathes the purest air, spends much of its time soaring three miles above the sea. Humboldt saw one fly over Chimborazo. I have seen them sailing at one thousand feet above the crater of Pichincha. ts gormandizing power has hardly been overstated. I have known a single Condor, not of the largest size, to make way in one week with a calf, a sheep, and a dog. It prefers carrion, but will sometimes attack authenticated case of its carrying off children, nor of it attacking adults, xcept in defence of its eggs. In captivity it will eat everything except pork and fried or boiled meat, When full fed it is exceedingly stupid, and can be caught by the hand; but at other times it is a match for the: stoutest man. It T" sses the greater part of the day sleeping, searching for prey in the morning and evening. It is seldom shot (though it is not invulnerable as once PYTA but is generally caught in traps. The nly noise it makes, is a hiss like that of a goose — the usual tracheal muscle being eines It lays two white eggs on an inaccessible ledge. It makes no nest proper, but places a few sticks around the eggs. By no PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 497 amount of bribery could I tempt an Indian to search for Condor's eggs, panion. As may be inferred the moulting time is not uniform. Though it has neither the smelling powers of the dog (as proved by Darwin), nor the bright eyes of the eagle, somehow it distinguishes a carcass afar o He described in full the appearance of the Condor, remarking that the female is smaller than the male, an unusual circumstance in this order, the feminine eagles and hawks being larger than their mates. Professor Orton next spoke of the Humming Bird, of the habits and economy of which our knowledge is very meagre. The relationship be- quarters seem to be near New Granada; some species are confined to particular volcanoes, or an area i afew miles square. Of the four hun- q e i edd species f Homm ming nus pad de are found the wanton destruction of Humming Birds for mere decorative purposes, continues for the next decade, as it has during the last, i al genera à year. He noticed one fact in regard to the nests of Humming Birds, which he could not explain. Our northern hummer glues lichens all over the outside; so do a number of species in Brazil, Guiana, etc. But in the lar variation is seen in the nests of the chimney swallow — our species building of twigs glued together with saliva, while its Quito representa- tive builds of mud and moss. The time of incubation at Quito is twelve days, and there is but one brood in a year. AMER, NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 63 498 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Dr. A. 8 Limulus Polyphemus." 'The eggs on which the following observations were made were kindly sent me from New Jersey, by Rev. Samuel Lock- od, who has given an account of the mode of spawning, and other habits, in the AMERICAN NATURALIST. They were laid on the 16th of May, but it was not until June 3d that I was able to study them. The eggs measure .07 of an inch in diameter, and are green. In the ovary they are of various hues of pink and green just previous to being laid, the smaller ones being, as usual, white. The yolk is dense, homogeneous, and the yolk granules, or cells, are very small, and only in certain speci- mens, owing to the thickness and opacity of the egg-shell, could they Not only in the eggs already laid, but in unfertilized ones taken from the ovary the yolk had shrunken slightly, leaving a clear space be- Embryo of Limulus. tween it and the shell. Only one or two eggs were observed in- process of segmentation. In one the yolk was subdivided into three masses of unequal size. In another the process of subdivision had become nearly completed , of three minute, flattened, rounded tubercles, the two anterior place * t H of Savigny), being much smaller than the others. The mouth opening is situated just behind them. In a succeeding stage (Fig. 95, ar, areola; am, blastoderm skin; ch, chorion) the embryo forms an oval area, SUT- rounded by a paler colored areola, which is raised into a slight ridge- This areola is destined to be the edge of the body, or line between the ventral and dorsal sides of the animal. There are six pairs of appen- dages, forming elongated tubercles, increasing in size from the head PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 499 backwards; the mouth is situated between the anterior pair. The whole embryo covers but about a third of that portion of the yolk in sight. At this time the inner egg membrane (blastoderm-skin?) was first detected. he outer membrane, or chorion, is structureless; when ruptured the torn edges show that it is composed of five or six layers of a structure- less membrane, varying in thickness. The inner egg membrane is free from the chorion, though it is tm contact with it. Seen in profile it con- sists of minute cells which project out, so that the surface appears to be finely granulated. But on a vertical view it is composed of irregularly E waved, or have from three to five long slender projections, with the ends sometimes knobbed, directed inwards. These cells are either packed e ce: asubsequent stage (Fig. 96) the oval body of the embryo has in- creased in size. The segments of the cephalothorax are indicated, aud Fig. 98. Fig. 97. cephalothorax, the sides of which are not spread out as Ina later stage. At this stage the egg-shell has burst, and the “amnion” increased in size several times exceeding its original bulk, and has admitted a correspond- 500 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. ing amount of sea water, in which the embryo revolves. At a little later period the embryo throws off an embryonal skin, the thin pellicle floating about in the egg. Still later in the life of the embryo the claws are developed, an addi- tional rudimentary gill appears, and the abdomen grows broader and lar- becomes broad an at, the abdomen being a little more than half as es oO 3 B © ct ü o mS ct zm © e e "3 BE £e — o c zz o 5 = nu 2g 5 4 m» EB e t n $ e e a p: un =, =] q f p! vn a 4°) £g e | ct whole embryo bears a very near resemblance to certain genera of Tri- lobites, as Trinucleus, Asaphus and others. ut six weeks from the time the eggs are laid the embryo hatches. It differs chiefly from the previous stage in the abdomen being much lar- ger, scarcely less in size than the cephalothorax; in the obliteration of scarcely projecting beyond the edge of the abdomen. It forms the ninth segment. The young swim briskly up and down the jar, skimming about on their backs, by flapping their gills, not bending their bodies. Conclusions. The eggs are laid in great numbers loose in the sand, the male fertilizing them after they are dropped. This is an exception to the ularly laminated chorion, there is an inner egg membrane composed of rudely hexagonal cells; this membrane increases in size with the growth of the embryo, the chorion splitting and being thrown off during the PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 501 latter part of embryonic life. Unlike the Crustacea generally the prim- itive band is confined to a minute area, and rests on top of the yolk, as in the spiders and scorpions, and certain Crus- Fig. 101. tacea, i. e., Eriphia spinifrons, Astacus oyee Palæmon adspersus, and Crangon maculosus, in which oe is Fig. 99. : t : Larva of Trinucleus orna- plius skin about tus, natural size, and en- ; larged. embryonic life. Fig. 102. This Nauplius m skin corres- nds in some " e un "3 oO i) e n ct o e o c D Larva of Limulus, natural size, nå . of eee em- enlarged. ryol The recently hatched young of pet ae wes lm rira, "esf H4 can scarcely be con nsidered a Nauplius, like t Fig. 103. Fig. 104. Larva of Agnostus nudus, Adult Agnostus nudus, nat. size, and enlarged. nat. size, and enlarged. a Laces ot Apst. b Larva of Branchipus. figured by Barrande qne. 101, larva of Trinucleus ornatis ; Fig. 102, larva of Sao hirsuta; Fig. 103, larva of Agnostus nudus) which are in Trinu- cleus and Agnostus born wits only the cephalothorax and pygidium, the 502 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. oracic segments being added during after life. The circular larva of ~ hirsuta, which has no thorax, or at least a very rudimentary Mo gion, and no pygidium, approaches nearer to the —€— form of t Piyllopods, though we would contend that it is not a Naupliu larva passes through a slightly marked Pan e oe It differs om the adult simply in possessing a less number of abdominal feet (ilis), and in having only a very rudimentary s pine. Previous to hat tch- ing it strikingly resembles Trinucleus and ERES trilobites, suggesting that the two groups should, on embryonic and structural grounds, be included in the same order, especially now that Mr. E. Billings* has de- monstrated that Asaphus possessed eight pairs of five-jointed legs of "d rae - © = e EA — B L © "i E o of pr o U e © Th D = B c af [1 zt £o n et E" ®© ted e ° =] ee Qa =] o et E p A ®© g E et e £e ba sexually, and the eggs were probably laid in the sand or mud, and im- pregnated by the sperm cells of the male, floating free in the water. The muscular system of the trilobites, must have been highly organized as in Limulus, as like the latter they probably lived by burrowing in the mud and sand, using the shovel-like expanse of the cephalic shield in digging in the shallow palæozoic waters after worms and stationary soft bodied invertebrates, so that we may be warranted in supposing that the imentary canal was constructed on the type of that of Limulus, with its large, uae gizzard and immense liver. ILL presented a verbal communication ** On the Relations of the Orders of Mammals.” He stated that in order to render at once appreci- ate the guiding principles by which he had been influenced. 'These were ve: 1st. Morphology is the only alb guide to the natural classification of organized beings; teleology or physiological adaptation the most unsafe an ications of any single organ. Rus ee er ye * Proceedings of the — Society of London. € = T » June 2, 1870. In this communication Billings announees the impo very of a — of Asaphus platycephalus, probe that the e anim mal possessed PPA pes of five-jointed PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 503 38d. The animals and plants of the present epoch are me derivatives with modification of antecedent forms to an unlimited extent 4 An arrangement of organized beings in any iia series is, therefore, impossible, and the system of sequences adopted by genealo- ern taxonomy (Linnzeus) must be followed, subject to such deviations as our increased knowledge of structure necessitates. e adoption of such principles compels us to reject such systems as are based solely on modifications of the brain, those of the placenta, and those of the organs of progression, such modifications not being coinci- dent with corresponding modifications of other organs, and therefore not the expressions of the sum of agreements in structure. Commencing with the highest forms of mammals we have, by univer- sal consent, the Primates. This Linnean order, purged of the Chiroptera referred to it by its founder, includes man, the monkeys, and the lemurs, with their respective allies. It is divisible into two suborders —the An- thropoidea and the Lemuroidea The subjects of the next highest group are not so universally recog- nized, but the Ferz or Carnivora, on account of the nature of the skele- ton, the development of the brain, and the organs for "e perpetuation of ai kind, seem to be most entitled to that rank. s order seems to mbrace as suborders the ordinary gressorial E (iesipsäia) and ipe Pinnipedia, or Seals, Walrus, etc An extinct type — the Zeuglodentes — is related on the one hand to the Seals, and on the other to the toothed Pacta The relation with the latter is, however, the most intimate, an may be combined with them and the whale-bone whales into one in aika Cete — of which each form represents a suborder. The relations of the order with the Fere is only masked by the extreme teleological modifications. : Evidently the derivatives from the same stem as the Ferm, the Insect- ivora, may be placed next in order. The affinity of the Chiroptera to that order is now universally recognized, aU ay ag the extreme teleo- T n org to indicate, with sufficient ipis uia i sees egraded are their rank. he relations of the subclass Didelphia, with its single order Marsupi- alia, and of the subclass Ornithodelphia, with another unique order Mon- otremata are now recognized beyond dispute. esuming now the consideration of the sequence by linear series, we may approach by normally specialized forms, the more generalized of each series, and thence in such cases as are necessary diverge in another 504 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. direction to the abnormally specialized. We would then have something like the series thus represented on the blackboard (some suborders being omitted), the index hands representing the respective nature and direc- tion of the groups. Subclass MONODELPHIA. I.— PRIMATE SERIES. rder ATES. Suborder ANTHROPOIDEA. Suborder LEMUROIDEA. IIl.—FERAL SERIES. r FERZE Suborder FISSIPEDIA. -&r Agar Suborder PINNIPEDIA. Order CETE. Suborder ZEUGLODONTES. Suborder ODONTOCETE. Suborder MYSTICETE. III.—INSECTIVOROUS SERIES. Order INSECTIVORA. 3 LE" Order CHIROPTERA., IV.— UNGULATE SERIES. Order UNGULATA. Suborder ARTIODACTYLA. Suborder PERISSODACTYLA. Order HXRACOIDEA..£&2 Order PROBOSCIDEA. Q~ Order SIRENIA. V.— RODENT SERIES. Order GLIRES. Suborder SIMPLICIDENTATA. Suborder DUPLICIDENTATA. VI.— EDENTATE SERIES. Order BRUTA, or EDENTATA. Subelass DIDELPHIA. Order MARSUPIALIA. Subelass ORNITHODELPHIA. Order MONOTREMATA. Any orders than those admitted seem problematical, and the adoption of an order Bimana for man alone — much more a subclass — seems to be pro- position in biology more demonstrable than that man is the derivative from the same immediate stock as the higher anthropoid apes, and prob- ably after the culmination to nearly the same extent as at present of the differentiation of the order into families and subordinate groups. Professor A. WINCHELL read ** Notes on some Post Tertiary Phenomena in Michigan." This paper was intended simply to make note of three roides Ohioensis), have been recently found in Michigan. What is pu haps most interesting of all, is the discovery of a flint arrowhead in à PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 505 similar t This arrowhead was found seven feet beneath the sur- face in a ditch excavated in the southern part of Washtenaw county. The coe remains found near Tecumseh, but a few miles distant, lay but two and a half feet beneath the surface. The Adrian mastodon was buried but three feet deep. The second note related to the occurrence of enormous beds o bog iron in the upper peninsula of Michigan, on the tributaries of the Monistique river. It occurs in a half desiccated bog covering several townships. It is of remarkable purity, and of great but unknown depth. It lies directly in the track of the projected railroad, intended to connect the North Pacific Railroad with the railroad system of Michigan. The ore can be pe down er ERGEN and its tributaries, to Lake Michi- gan, in the immediate vicinity of an excellent harbor. This immense dipòsit is enr doc sete’ from the desintegration of the hematites and magnetites of the contiguous region on the West. sie ore will possess great value for mixing with oes other Lake Superio es. The third note was on the discovery of an ancient salle of Lake Superior. Following the White Fish river from the head of Little Bay de Noc, we find it occupying a broad and deep valley walled in on both sides by limestone cliffs attaining an elevation of one hundred and twenty feet. The head waters of this river literally interlace with those of the Au Train river, which runs north into Lake Superior. Here is a vast valley of erosion but little elevated in any part above the present level L gh thi ear the head of the valley, point North and South. In short, the evi- dences lead to the conviction that a vast glacier stream once traversed this valley and was probably the agency by which it was excavated. Little Bay de Noc is but the prolongation of this valley at a lower level; and, indeed, the whole basin of Green Bay seems to be but a phenomenon of erosion belonging to the epoch of the same glacier system. Prof. E. D. Corr read a paper ** On the structural Characteristics of the Cranium in the lower Vertebrata (Reptiles, Batrachia and Fishes),” giving à new systematic arrangement of the Reptilia, and determining for the first time the struc nm of the posterior regions of the crania in Dicy- nodons and Ichthyosa He first pointed out cen homologies of the squamosal bone, stating that identical, with the “ temporo-mastoid ” of the frog, and the preoperculum of osseous fishes, by comparison with Lepidosiren. This was proven by AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 64 506 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. the development of this element in the Dicynodons and Ichthyosaurus, where it had heretofore been erroneously determined. ‘Thus in Ichthyo- saurus it was the ‘*‘supratemporal” of Owen, e besides forming the posterior i of the zygomatic arch it descended posteriorly to about opposite the middle of the posterior face of the os-quadratum. Further reaching round nearly or quite to the postfrontal, and sending down a columella to the pterygoid. This supero-anterior portion was the parie- talof Ow The true parietal was in advance of this, and embraced the usual vpisa while the frontals were the nasals of Owen. The Fig. 105.* true nasals he i i in small bones, one at the posterior extremity of each exterior nostril. ` Turning to the Dicynodont genus Lystrosaurus, he stated that the form of the squamosal bone was very similar to that seen in Ichthyosaurus, quadratum when viewed f nd; the latter was small and occupied a position at the inferior extre on the intero-anterior side of the squamosal, and was hed to the pterygoid iny dly He hought Urodela, and Dipnoi, which Huxley had suggested was the preoperntm of the Teleosts, was truly the squamosal of the higher verte the presence of the parietal arches as distinct from the opisthotics was insisted on, they having been united by Owen. He then gave new deter- * Fig. 105.—Iehthyosaurus; lateral view (fi peci from B , Leicestershire). x. . Premaxillary bone. nadra tojugal Mx... Maxillary. Geos ses Qua oe her x B — DD. «v ec cipio Hus ve Prefrontal. jesus TTA : : . stfroi An.... Angular, £t SIN etal. l Àr, . . . Articular. Ta ...Lachrymal. S. Ar.. etas e ERR *.. Malar. Pter. . Pterygoid. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 507 minations of the opisthotic bone in e various orders of oA aah recti- der Fig g. roótic as in Clidastes. The desiit ee of the ear bones in the Fig. 107.¢ same groups g was then des- So a ae cribed, and the ô am Pter «9 — D j— À— PAR eX is postero- interior to the didis: and below the opisthotic. He ‘ai not found it Fig. 106 m cranium; posterior view. Lettering the same as in 105 with the i addition O bono Ex, p; Base T Stap.. ` Suprastapedial or hyomandibular. p. O. oceipt Lettering Fie 7107. Suprecceipital. frontosus (from Cape Colony); profile. y credendi with the following additions tvi om., ONES Col..... Columella. sev. B Ectp.. . Ectopterygoid, - x Iovem Subart. . Subarticilar. Pter. ., Pterygoid. 508 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. described. He thought that the element in Ichthyosaurus, called by eer the squamosal, was really the quadratojuga ext pointed out the various origins of the eulinmetiss a bone pecu- liar dí esie , and designed to support the roof of the cranium. In Ichthyosaurus and Dicynodon it originated from the squamosals, in tor- toises from the parietal, in crocodiles from the alisphenoid, and in lacer- tilia the origin could not be discov ered. He spoke of the proposition of Huxley, that some of the earlier types of reptilia in geologic time were not more generalized than those now existing. He took exception to goes and stated L the Dicynodon, ( Thus he showed it had five characters of eheu xia, three of Tes- tudinata, two of Rhynchocephalia, three of Dinosauria, one of Lacertilia, and one of Crocodila. The system of Reptilia : oposed was the following: (A). Attached quadra I. Parts of M. de dinei, ribs two eaded to c i A Ichthyopterygia. II. Se ism differentiated : 1. Hes ad of rib sessile on centrum tubercle to Testudinata. 2. “Copa sariko on PE ihri on neura Archosauria. 3. sails stid biterdi — Wiking to acid ch. a Synaptosauria. (B) Qu dinte, iia ioti lé. 1. Ribs double headed; a quadratojugal. . -> Ornithosauria. ibs single headed; no quadratojugal. (2). No cisci a columella; opisthotic, all at- attached ; Lacertilia. (b). Alis snot no abot; ipiéibollt fixed, styloid; paddle Pythonomorpha. (c). alisphenoid; no aii opisthotie free mobile Ophidia. R J. B. ‘Peay rea d & paper on “The gopročćá Elevation and De- pression of the Continent during the Glacial Period.” Many geologists ane of the ages. Intense cold being thus occasioned by cosmical influ- s, the formation of an ice sheet of vast extent would naturally follow, pid if there were abundant moisture. The fact of intense igneou us activity, near the close of the Tertiary Period, suggests the occurrence of immense evaporation, and thus a source of aqueous supply. An ice- PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 509 sheet might thus be formed. Great cold prevailing on its northern limits and serving as a barrier to its motion in that direction, there being at the same time a partial melting of its southern face, the waters from the wasting S on its surface percolating the icy mass, there also being MSS AAA and expansions cons ru ent upon alternations in the temper- ature; all these being connected with the gravitating force of a mass from five thousand to ten thousand ria in thickness, motion to the south would pd result, even on a horizontal surface, and much more if there were a southward inclination of the country. Under these circum- stances we n e an instrumentality fully able to plane, smooth, and striate the rocky floor of the continent as it now áppears, and thus to account for the debris almost everywhere met with in great c RR But if there were no elevation of the country, how are we to explain the ocean. Thus its waters must have undergone a great depression, per- haps one of several hundred feet; and this enables us to account for the mud-flats and other like deposits, which were probably laid down when the ocean was at a dud level than it is to-da It has been, moreover, thought necessary to suppose that a depression of the tuque na. do followed its conjectured elevation. The land havi ing been lifted up, it must be got down again, in order that there cause a return of Rx while the cosmical agencies already referred summer of the ages thus coming on, the ice-sheet as gradually melting must retreat northward. And the waning of the glacial mass wou accompanied by results which require an explanation. 510 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. The ice thawing, the detrital matter which lay beneath it, and is now known as typical drift, would be laid bare and left substantialy as we find it. In this view a resort to a depression of five thousand or six n ? icebergs could not furnish the material of New England typical drift, since it is for the most part of local origin; while bergs of ice from the White Mountains could not have supplied it, for it is a continuous sheet, far to the.north of these mountains. So iceberg posited it, because, as they slowly wasted, the particles of matter must have been scattered by the flux and reflux of the tides, and thus to a large ' extent stratified. Again, from the southern border of the wasting ice- laying down those deposits known as modified drift. These constitute in part the terrace formations, which usually slope with the rivers along which they occur. In some instances there were barriers obstructing the waters; thus were formed ponds and lakes, in which deposition took place in more nearly horizontal layers. Finally from the wastin ice-sheet the surface of the ocean must be elevated, its waters spread in which we'now find them. In conclusion it may be asked whether the explanation suggested be not in consistency with the facts, and thus whether we ought not to ac- r. described three new generic forms of Brachiopoda, princi- pally ffom the collections of the United States Exploring Expe ition. Two of these o the group of articulated Brachiopods, while the third was that animal, which, under the name of Lin been described by Mr. Morse. Mr. Dall then spoke of several special points of structure, especially the peduncle of Lingula, demonstrating its construction to be analogous to that of the siphons of bivalve mollusks, as the common clam, Mya arenaria. He then described the bristles io Mr. Dall took the opposite view, and, while admitting all the facts PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 511 brought forward by Mr. Morse, and fully appreciating the careful and thorough nature of his researches, contended on the other hand that these facts were susceptible of quite another interpretation. Mr. Dall then went on to take up, one by one, the circulatory, nervous, muscular, and digestive systems of the Brachiopods, and to compare each with the same organs in the Annelids and the Mollusks, and came to the one of two great primary divisions of the Mollusca— one. the true Mol- lusks, typified by the Gasteropoda, and second the Molluscoidea, typified by the Brachiopoda. The second division would include the Polyzoa, Tunicata, and Brachiopoda, and Mr. Dall was of the opinion that these groups were essentially related to one another, and cannot be separated without violence to their affinities. In reply to Mr. Dall’s communication and objections advanced, Prof. Morse replied in brief 2s the time for adjournment had passed. He would only take a few moments in correcting some points in which Mr. Dall gen tacea, and does not occur in the mollusks. Mr. D d not know of any ubicolous worms having a blind intestine. Professor Morse referred him to certain worms in the inferior gr ws on on were development, the presence of a dorsal vessel, the terminal opening of ntestine, and the forward opening of oviducts. As to a comparison between the peduncle of Lingula and the syphonal tubes of Mya, the relations were so different that they could not enter the discussion what- ever. The related points, as indicated by the structure of the oviducts, demand a molluscan character in the Brachiopods. He then carried out the points raised by Mr. Dall, by citing other mollusks, with strong articulated features, which Mr. Dall had overlooked. : MAS MEEHAN read a paper “On the Laws of Fasciation, and m out in thick masses, which botanists called ‘‘fasciations,” and the people **Crow’s Nests.” An over supply of nutrition was the received theory of their origin. He believed the reverse to be the fact. In proof of this he stated that the shoots forming the bunch of branches never grew as vigorously as the others, the leaves were of a paler hue, and in evergreens, the leaves were deciduous. Many of the shoots died in severe winters. 512 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. All these results were due to imperfect nutrition, the effect of which was alow state of vitality. That we eakness produced the or was also n his r nati niy cohesion with the stem in proportion as vitality was low. Here were the same facts. The leaves on the fascicle of the Balsam Fir were of the same nature as the weak leaves described in the paper referred to. Mr. Meehan had also shown, at the Salem meeting, that sex was influenced by the condition of vitality. The male sex followed from a loss of vigor. Here the same law followed fasciation. The fasciated bunches in the numerous branchlets, an increase of petals follo In a variety known as Willson's Early, the number of branchlets in the bunch was often greater than in other instances female organs were once that weakness was unfavorable to the female sex, and proportion- ately favorable to fasciation. The conclusion reached, was that fasciated branches, or ** Crow's Nests,” are the consequence of impaired nutrition or vitality Mr. THOMAS MEEHAN read a paper ** On ete to Darwin’s Theory of Fertilization through Insect Agency.” He said that the discoveries - of Darwin had steps wonderful apparent seas for fertilization through insect agency; but occasionally instances were found where with had been considered as objections to a full acceptance of Mr. Darwin's theories. The Salvia was an instance. The lower division of the anther acted as a petaloid lever, closing the throat of the corolla tube, which is this probable, as in cultivation the Salvia produces very little see "LC WX GU AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. IV. — NOVEMBER, 1870. —No. 9. THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF SOME OF THE MARINE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. BY JAMES H. BLAKE. Fig. 108. The Mackerel, Scomber vernalis. THE part of Natural History relating to the habits of fishes is far behind other branches of this study, compara- tively little being known of this interesting subject. The reason of this is plainly understood when we consider how small is the number of persons interested in such studies, who have the opportunity of observing the fishes a sufficient length of time to enable them to gain any great amount of information concerning them. Those who have the oppor- tunity for gathering such information are of the class who look more to the financial profit from this business than to the benefit in knowledge they may gain. There is fortu- nately another class of individuals; who, while striving for their own maintenance, are careful to record the numerous he Diet Entered accordins to A , fa a 1970. bw the P Acapemy or Science. in th AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 65 (513) 514 THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF SOME OF THE interesting facts which come under their observation; but, unhappily for science, this class is too small to occupy the field, and consequently we are kept in ignorance of this im- portant matter. he migration of the fishes on our coast may, in a meas- ure, be compared to that of the birds on the land, both being governed by the seasons. The song birds, for instance, which frequent our villages during the summer and attract our attention by their musical strains, we greatly miss during the winter months, and we know that they have gone to parts where the temperature is better adapted for their subsistence and comfort. Those who reside at the seashore all the year observe movements among the fishes similar to those seen in the birds, and the time when each species of fish that is of value to the fishermen will make its appearance in any par- ticular locality on the coast is practically known. Nearly all | the fishes change their habitat as the different seasons ad- vance, some by going to more northern or southern latitudes, while others move simply from deeper to shallower water, and vice versa to find the temperature they require. There are no fish which remain in one and the same lo- cality or fishing-ground the year around. Consumers of fish are acquainted with the fact that all our marketable fishes are found at a regular and limited period in our markets. The Mackerel (Scomber vernalis), Fig. 108, come into the shallow water near the land directly from their winter habitat, the deep water of the Atlantic, during the months of May and June, and their annual appearance is very regular. They approach the coast for the purpose of spawning, and on reaching a favorable situation, immediately deposit their eggs, and leave them without farther protection. The num- ber of eges deposited in one season by each female is esti- mated to be between five and six hundred thousand. After spawning the fish move northward, following the line of the coast till they are checked by the chill of the water, when they return, and, in the month of November, seek the deep MARINE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 515 water again. Those mackerel which first come in contact with the land at Cape Cod will migrate as far as the northern part of the coast of Maine. They are not easily caught with the hook during their spawning season, and it is at this time that “gill-nets” are used to the best advantage. The mack- erel at this time are very lean, and the flesh has a darkish appearance, while at the time of their departure from the coast they are flat and plump, and are then considered to be in the best condition for food, and oo bring the - highest price. In comparing the number observed in one season with another the difference may be very great, but on the whole they cannot be considered as either increasing or decreasing in numbers. Some seasons they will be very plentiful, and schools of them may be seen near the surface of the water one or two miles in extent. When seen thus manceuvring in such great abundance they will not allow themselves to be taken with the hook very extensively; it is then that the purse-seines are used to the best advantage in capturing them. At other times, perhaps the following day, the fish will be entirely unobservable in the water, but when " tole- bait” is thrown over to “raise them,” they will perhaps soon be seen by the side of the vessel in vast numbers, and will readily take the hook. Sometimes a crew of fifteen men will catch over a hundred barrels of them in a few hours. In those years when many fish are seen it has been observed that they are small, and that in those seasons in which the number is less they are large. This is probably owing in part to the number destroyed when young, and in part to the fact of a larger number than usual spawning on the outer banks. Mackerel are always on the move and migrate in schools. In the spring, when they are caught in gill-nets, the quantity taken in the different nights varies considerably. Fishing with “drift-nets” is practiced in the night, for the fish can- not be caught in this way in the daytime, as the net is then 516 THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF SOME OF THE easily seen by them and avoided; they also swim deeper during the day, and would thus pass under or below the nets. The fishermen cast their nets about dusk; soon after, the fish are observed in them, and often before ten o'clock in the evening the nets will contain thousands of mackerel. The fishermen may visit the same locality the following night and be very unsuccessful, while the reports from other boats will show that the greater proportion of the fish were in another direction, and also that they move constantly and in large schools. Mackerel, like most fishes, have their choice in respect to food. This consists of the young of other species and of Fig. 109. The Codfish, Morrhua Americana. erustacea. The “tole-bait” consists chiefly of Menhaden (Alausa menhaden) ground very fine, with which clams are sometimes mixed, as they are believed to improve its quality. The bait commonly used for the hook is a piece of white skin cut from the throat of a mackerel, but when they are abundant and ferocious any white material will do; some- times a small silver coin is used, and it is not uncommon for them to be taken on the bare hook. The Codfish (Morrhua Americana), Fig. 109, is another familiar marine species, but one which differs very consider- ably in its habits from the mackerel. It is found in our markets all the year, but is not taken at all times from the MARINE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 517 same locality or fishing-ground. This fish does not migrate along the coast, but acquires its desired temperature by gradually moving from shallower to deeper water, and re- turning as the season grows colder. Nearly all fish which go in schools migrate more or less along the coast after coming from the deeper water, while those which are distributed over the bottom, as the Cod, Haddock, ete., do not migrate ex- cept from shallower to deeper water. Codfish visit the shallow water of Massachusetts Bay to spawn about the first of November, and towards the last of Fig. 110. The Haddock, Morrhua xglefinus. this month deposit their eggs on the sandy banks and rocky ledges.* About eight or nine millions of ova are annually deposited by each füindlé/ The codfish remain in the vi- cinity of their eggs till June, when they again retire to deeper water, the shallow water having become too warm for them. The codfish, like the mackerel, takes no care of its eggs, and only a small portion of these ever arrive at maturity. Nature so regulates the destiny of these eggs that only a portion of them are permitted to mature, prm the * G. O. Sars of Christiania, Norway, has observed that codfish deposit their spawn at the surface of the water, where the fen float throughout the whole of their develop- ment. He has followed up the evelopment a the egg, and as fa young, during the first fortnight after exclusion. The the egg 16th day. See Giin- ther’s Zoological Record for 1868, — EDITORS. 518 THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF SOME OF THE codfish would soon monopolize the whole ocean. These eggs are eagerly devoured as food by the various animals which inhabit the bottom, and the proportion of eggs de- stroyed in this and other ways cannot be readily estimated, but we know it must be enormous by the comparatively few young fish we see. If, during its stay in shallow water, the weather should suddenly become cold, and so remain for two or three days, the codfish immediately retreats to water of some forty fathoms in depth, and does not return till the temporary change has passed ; then they gradually seek their Fig. 111. The Bluefish, Temnodon saltator. former resort, which is a depth of fifteen or twenty fathoms. The Haddock (Fig. 110) at such times likewise retreats, but does not so soon return to its former station. The quantity of codfish annually taken does not differ so much in the different years as does that of the mackerel, yet the amount is somewhat variable. The cause is the same in both cases, but as the codfish has a shorter distance to come the annual number is naturally less variable. The number of codfish existing at the present time does not ap- pear to differ from that of twenty or more years ago, and I think we are safe in assuming that there has been no percep- tible diminution for a century. The food of the codfish consists of smaller fish, mollusks and crustacea. The bait considered by the fishermen as best adapted to their tastes are the common Herring ( Clupea elongata), squid, ete., but clams (Mya arenaria and Mactra MARINE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 519 solidissima) are more generally used, as only this bait can be obtained at all seasons of the year; clams are also found to remain longer on the hooks. Nearly all the codfish obtained on our coast are brought to market in an unsalted condition, but they form only a small portion of the number sold.in Massachusetts. The majority of the codfish sold here are brought from. the Banks of Newfoundland and other great banks, and are always brought in a salted state. We have already stated that although many hundred thousands of mackerel and codfish are captured through the agency of man, and many more are destroyed by other influ- ences, there has been, notwithstanding, no noticeable change Fig. 112. "The Herring, Clupea elongata. in their numbers. But there are some species of fish which Visit our coast that are constantly diminishing in numbers, and our shores were formerly frequented by some fishes in great quantities, which have now nearly, if not quite, dis- appeared. The Bluefish ( Temnodon saltator), Fig. 111, which inhabits our waters from the last of June till September, has had very marked periodic variations in numbers. This fish, as his- tory informs us, was captured and esteemed as an article of food by the earlier settlers of this state. Previous to the year 1763 bluefish were very plenty on the southern coast of Cape Cod, but about this year they all disappeared, and none were taken till sixty or seventy years after. For the 520 THE HABITS AND MIGRATIONS OF SOME OF THE past thirty years specimens have been taken, but they did not arrive in any noticeable abundance till within the last sixteen years, and are at the present time again vanishing. During the last mentioned period I have observed them about Provincetown in great abundance, where they often presented a beautiful spectacle. At times the splashing of the water caused by these fish in their rapid motions in pur- suit of their prey, could be seen as far as the eye can reach. They make great havoc among their weaker neighbors, and some fishes have been entirely driven from our waters by this ferocious species. All fish which are a prey to the bluefish migrate on its first appearance. In the case of the mackerel, fishermen have noticed that when a few bluefish. have been caught during the mackerel season, that a few days after not Fig. 113. LA , EZ The Bill-fish, Scomberesox Storerii, a mackerel could be found, having been driven from the vicinity by the bluefish. I think it may be affirmed that the disappearance of so many of our smaller fish is due to the destructive nature of the bluefish; it even drives fish much its superior in size. In respect to our smaller fishes, the Herring ( Clupea elon- gata), ete., we observe a considerable decrease in the num- bers which now annually visit our shores, as compared with their former numbers. The Pogey (Alosa Menhaden) and the Herring ( Clupea elongata), Fig. 112, have comparatively almost deserted the waters about Provincetown, where I have _ formerly seen them in immense schools very near the shore. Fishermen made nets and other necessary preparations every year to capture them on their arrival in the spring, and the business was carried on extensively and profitably for many years, but at the present time no such fishing there exists. MARINE FISHES OF MASSACHUSETTS. 521 L/ The Bill-fish (Scomberesox Storeri?), Fig. 113, which but fifteen years since I saw stranded on the shore by the thou- sands, driven in by its devouring pursuers, has gradually decreased, till at the present time it has nearly, if not quite, been driven away, and I think that during the past year there was not one specimen seen at Provincetown. , CULTIVATION OF ALPINE FLOWERS. BY ALFRED W. BENNETT. Mr. RonBiNsoN is no mere enthusiast in his subject when he says:— "This book (‘Alpine Flowers for English Gardens ?) is written to dispel a very general error that the exquisite flowers of alpine countries cannot be grown in gardens, and as one of a series of manuals having for their object the im- provement of our out-door gardening, which it appears to me, is of infinitely greater importance than anything that can ever be accomplished in enclosed structures, even if glass sheds or glass palaces were within the reach of all.” His first concern is with the structure of rockeries, in the mode of building which not only is the taste still displayed, or at all events till quite recently, barbarous and inartistic in the extreme; but it would seem as if the very conditions necessary for the health of the plants were studiously neg- lected. The ordinary idea of the treatment of rock-plants, judging from the hideous monstrosities which may be seen in many a gentleman’s garden, is that you have nothing to do but to poke them in between the chinks of perfectly bare stones or clinkers piled together in a promiscuous heap, in order to present them in their native habitats. A gardener’ who commits such an absurdity as this, can never have as- cended a mountain with his eyes open. To quote again from Mr. Robinson :—“ Mountains are often bare, and: cliffs are AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 66 522 CULTIVATION OF ALPINE FLOWERS. usually devoid of soil; but we must not conclude therefrom that the choice jewellery of plant-life scattered over the ribs of the mountain, or the interstices of the crag, live upon little more than the mountain air and the melting snow! Where will you find such a depth of well-ground stony soil, and withal such perfect drainage, as on the ridges of débris flanking some great glacier, stained all over with tufts of crimson saxifrage? Can you gauge the depth of that narrow chink, from which peep tufts of the diminutive and beautiful Androsace helvetica? No; it has gathered the crumbling grit and scanty soil for ages and ages; and the roots enter so far that nothing the tourist carries with him can bring out enough of them to enable the plant to live elsewhere." Al- pine plants are peculiarly exposed to sudden alternations of heat and cold, of moisture and dryness. The cold, almost frosty, night will be followed, in July and August, by an unclouded day, when the rays of the sun beat on the un- sheltered surface of the rock with an intensity that would scorch up many an English meadow plant. Only a very small proportion of alpine plants are annuals; and they are frequently provided with a storehouse of nourishment in the form of rosettes or tufts of thick succulent leaves; but their chief water supply is through their roots; and thus we find that while our garden annuals have fibrous roots of insignifi- cant dimensions, and even our forest trees will seldom strike their roots to a greater depth than the height of their foliage, the roots of alpine plants, scarcely an inch in height, will be found to penetrate the chinks between the rocks full of rich earth, to the depth of sometimes more than a yard, or forty times the height that they venture into the air. The neglect of this most essential condition for the growth of alpine plants is of itself amply sufficient to account for the failure which has generally accompanied the attempts to introduce these lovely flowers to our rockeries. A good depth of soil is in- deed more indispensable to these plants than the presence of rock and’ stone. They no doubt prefer to expand their CULTIVATION OF ALPINE FLOWERS. 523 flowers and extend their green shoots over the bare rock; and where rock-work is artistically managed, this faint at- tempt at a reconstruction of their native habitat adds greatly to the picturesqueness of the effect. But many of them will flourish equally well in open borders, and even when planted in pots, with a few stones about them to protect the roots from the direct action of the sun, if only the two requisites are attended to, of constant moisture and perfect drainage ; and hence they are invaluable acquisitions to the cottage or window gardener. The Saxifrages, the beautiful purple Aubrietia, with respect to which Mr. Robinson says, "rock- works, ruins, stony places, sloping banks, and rootwork suit it perfectly ; no plant is so easily established in such places, nor will any other alpine plant clothe them so quickly with the desired vegetation,” the various species of Arabis, the alpine Primulas, all make excellent bedding plants. The ease with . Which a new alpine can be domesticated in our climate is shown by the rapid spread of the lovely early forget-me-not, Myosotis dissitiflora, brought not many years since from the Alps near the Vogelberg, now to be had from every nursery- man, and the treasure of many a cottage garden, with its exquisite sky-blue flowers, continuing from mid-winter till early summer. i But it is not alpine flowers only which will repay the small amount of trouble neċessary for their introduction. Many plants which are never grown without the protection of a greenhouse, do not require any elevation of temperature for their successful growth, but merely an absence of great changes of both temperature and moisture. This is especially the case with not a few of the most delicate ferns, such as the elegant maidenhair, and the two fragile little filmy-ferns ; and the requisite uniformity of temperature and moisture can be obtained out of doors by the erection of a partially underground grotto or ravine of rocks, through which water is perpetually trickling, the 'entrance being protected by a screen of foliage from the direct influence of the weather. 524 WHAT IS THE ' WASHINGTON EAGLE”? It is astonishing how equable a climate can be obtained by a simple device of this kind. The drawing given on p. 359 is from such a rock-cave constructed in the grounds of one of our most scientific and successful nurserymen near York, where he grows not only our royal so-called "flowering fern," the Osmunda regalis, and several foreign allied species, but the most beautiful of all this beautiful tribe, the moisture- loving Killarney fern, which clothes the soil of the damp dark woods by the Tore waterfall. The beauty of these horticultural experiments is that they ean be tried on so small a seale, and are thus within the reach of almost every one; yielding a source of pure and healthy enjoyment which few other pursuits will afford. Mr. Robinson almost promises us that his little book shall be the first of a series of similar manuals on different departments of gardening ; and we can hardly conceive a greater service than this to a large number of his countrymen, who merely require to be told how to set to work to cultivate this fasci- nating science. — Quarterly Journal of Science. —— WHAT IS THE “WASHINGTON EAGLE"? BY J. A. ALLEN. Editors of the AMERICAN NarURALIST: Sirs :— Will you please inform me through the NATURALIST or otherwise, whether you have ever known of the Washington Eagle (Haliaétus Washingtonii), being captured or seen in New Hampshire. I have an eagle in my possession which I think is the ** Washington Eagle." It was caught last spring in Goffstown, near Manchester, N. H. It isa large bird, measuriug eight feet from tip to tip of wings, three and one-half feet in length, and weighs fourteen and one- half pounds. I have also two other eagles, a Golden, and a Bald Eagle. The Golden le mea seven and one-half feet from tip to tip, three feet in length, and weighs twelve and one-half pounds. The Bald Eagle measures seven feet in extent of wings, and three feet from point of beak to end of tail, and weighs eleven pounds. Ithink that the Bald Eagle has a differently shaped beak from the other, and that is why I am in doubt WHAT IS THE "WASHINGTON EAGLE"? 525 as to its species. Besides, I never knew of a Bald Eagle being so large. If you will please inform me in regard to the Washington Eagle you will oblige me very much. — WILLIAM JARVIS, Hanover, N. Tue " Washington Eagle” ( Haliaétus ees Aud.) appears to be still inakaa upon, especially by amateur orni- thologists, as a probably valid, though little known species. The question of its true character was formerly a source of perplexity to professional naturalists, some of which may still regard it as having claims to recognition as a “good spe- cies." As our knowledge of the birds of this continent be- comes more perfect, the existence as valid species of several of the hypothetical species, especially of the rapacious birds, . becomes less and less probable. This results principally from two facts. First, through the constant accession of materials in our museums we are every year finding out more and more definitely the variations resulting Pi sex, age, individuality and locality to which each species is subject, and in these variations the forms which with greater or less probability gave rise to some of the doubtful species in our catalogues. Secondly, the continent itself and its fauna are becoming too well-known to render tenable the suppositions, formerly entertained, that some of the strange birds de- scribed in early times may have their habitats in unexplored districts, whence they have occasionally wandered to better known localities. The opinion long since advanced by some writers that the * Washington Eagle" is but a very large im- mature Bald Eagle, is hence gaining ground. Audubon described his "Bird of Washington" from a large specimen taken by him in Kentucky more than fifty years ago. The original specimen from which Audubon made his drawing and description is not known to be extant, and seems to have never been preserved. Audubon appears to have been the only naturalist who examined it. He re- garded it as a very rare bird, and states that he saw not "more than eight or nine” specimens. He does not seem, however, to have actually examined more than one. It dif- 526 WHAT IS THE ‘‘ WASHINGTON EAGLE"? fered, according to Audubon, in three important particulars from the common Bald or White-headed Eagle (Haliaétus leucocephalus) ; namely, in size, habits, and in the scutella- tion of the tarsi. Its size (length, "three feet seven inches ;" alar extent, "ten feet two inches ; folded wing, “thirty-two inches") greatly exceeds that of any known North American eagle, while it differed in habits from the Bald Eagle in being a true fishing eagle, and the scutellation of the tarsus, as represented in Audubon's plate, is a character quite un- usual in any of the eagles. Tt is now well-known that the common White-headed Eagle will catch its own fish, instead of resorting to piracy for them, as is its usual habit. In respect to the scales of the tarsus, those in front are repre- sented as being considerably larger than they are in the common eagle, but as this is one of the first figures Audubon published, it seems not unreasonable to suppose that they may not have been quite accurately drawn, and that his description of them was made from the plate instead of the specimen itself. It is difficult, however, to account for its great size, since the proportions of length of body and folded wing, to the alar extent are the same as in the common eagle, and hence leave little ground for the theory that through a typographical error the alar extent should read seven feet two inches instead of ten feet two inches, as has been sug- gested. As already remarked, Audubon really obtained but a single specimen; and, as Mr. Cassin has observed, no specimen precisely corresponding to Mr. Audubon's bird having been obtained since its discovery, it has latterly, as Mr. Cassin adds, "been looked upon by naturalists, especially in Eu- rope, as an unusually large specimen of the White-headed Eagle.”* Numerous local observers have, however, re- ported it as occurring occasionally at different localities, and Mr. Cassin himself has doubtfully referred specimens to it taken in New Jersey. He even includes it as a good species * Illustrations of the Birds of California, Texas, etc., p. 111, 1854. WHAT IS THE ‘‘ WASHINGTON EAGLE"? . 527 in his “Synopsis of North American Birds,” * and in his re- port on the rapacious birds in Professor Baird's great work on the “Birds of North America.” If not a valid species, of which there seems to be but slight evidence, it must be either an immature Whité-hénded Eagle or an immature Northern Sea Eagle ( Haliaétus albicillay, since these are its only known near allies, though neither of these are known to ever quite equal it in size. The White-headed Eagle ranges in alar extent from a little less than seven feet to a little more than eight; and the Northern Sea Eagle is of about the same size. That it is not the latter is evident from the fact that Audubon describes his bird as breeding in Kentucky, a locality far south of the known range of ‘ie truly arctic Sea Eagle. It would be one of the strangest facts in natural history that a bird like Audubon’s Washington Eagle should remain undiscovered for more than fifty years, when its alleged habitat is within the settled parts of the United States. On the whole it seems to me tolerably evident that this supposed species should be considered as based on a large example of H. leucocephalus, and that a “few grains of bikinia may be safely made for slight inaccuracies on the part of its enthusiastic discoverer. "The bird referred to above by Mr. Jarvis I regard as unquestionably referable to the H. leucocephalus.t t Farther remarks concerning the “Washington Eagle” may be found in the writer’s “Catalogue of the used Trae of vic rion ètc., in the * tech of the Museum of Comparative Zoology,” Lis as well as conce a Bartram’s hi “Sacred Vulture,” “satires a ne combination igi ain characters of = Caracara Eagle e (Polyborus maeh Cassin), the White headed } Cok: Haliaétus leuco Lesen and the John Crow (Sarcorhamphus papa) of the West Indies. Reasons oe H. albicilla. ACCLIMATIZATION OF FOREIGN TREES AND PL BY ALFRED W. BENNETT. Tue introduction of new forms of vegetable life into our gardens and greenhouses has made considerable progress during recent years. The Acclimatization Societies of Paris and London have, it is true, paid more attention to the do- mestication of foreign animals than of plants; something, however, has been attempted in this direction, and with con- siderable success. This branch of acclimatization would, indeed, seem likely to be the most fertile in results beneficial to mankind. For one fresh animal introduced that will be of real utility, there will probably be a dozen plants that yield important economical products. The early races of | mankind appear to have exhausted our powers over the lower animals—the horse, the ass, the dog, the camel, the ox, the sheep, were all brought under subjection to man at the earliest period of his history ; and within historic times no important addition has been made to the number of our domestic animals. Not so with plants. A large number of the vegetable substances used as food at the present day, and of the vegetable articles of manufacture, were unknown to the ancients; and the field for farther extension of our utili- zation of the vegetable kingdom seems indefinitely large. The power of cultivation in modifying plants is also much greater than any corresponding power of domestication in modifying animals. The oldest extant drawings of the horse, the ox, or the camel, scarcely point out any distinctive fea- tures from their descendants now living; the potato and the apple, on the other hand, may almost be considered as man- Ahi: E i many hints of use to florists and gar- deners in the middle states e where many subtropical plants can with care be grow.— EDITORS (528) ACCLIMATIZATION OF FOREIGN TREES AND PLANTS. 529 ufaetured products ; while many gardeners' flowers, such as the Pelargonium and the Tulip, differ so widely from their ancestors as, in some cases, to obscure their parentage. The term acclimatization has been objected to by some scientific men, on the ground that the descendants of any animal or plant which has been transported from one climate to an- other have no more power than their ancestor of adapting themselves to that climate, unless the principle of Natural Selection has come into play to eliminate the individuals least able to adapt themselves to the new climate, those only surviving which, from some cause or other, are most suited to the fresh conditions. Be this as it may, there is no ques- tion about the fact that the farmer and the gardener have it in their power to naturalize plants foreign to our climate and our soil. But the conditions of this naturalization are by no means so simple as might at first sight appear. It might naturally be supposed that all we have to do is to introduce those plants which grow spontaneously in a climate and a soil sim- ilar to our own, and that they will necessarily flourish, and will scarcely be aware of the change. Or, if they come from a warmer country that all that is needed is to protect them by glass and artificial warmth from the inclemency of our winters. But in practice this is not found to be the case. A plant will frequently obstinately refuse to become natural- ized in a country, the climatal and geological conditions of Which are similar to those that occur in the region where it is indigenous. Our commori daisy, a native of almost every country of Europe, is said to have resisted all attempts to introduce it even into the gardens of the United States. Some plants seem to have an unconquerable aversion to the ` fostering hand of man, even in their own country. A well- constructed and carefully kept fernery will contain speci- mens, more or less luxuriant, of nearly all our native ferns; the polypody and hartstongue from shady banks and tree- stumps ; the so-called male and female ferns from the woods ; AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 67 * 530 ACCLIMATIZATION OF FOREIGN TREES AND PLANTS. the spleenwort from dry walls; even the royal "flowering- fern" from bogs; and some of the semi-alpine species will flourish with the exercise of a little care. One kind, how- ever, is almost invariably absent, and that the most widely distributed of all our ferns, the common break, a native of every county and almost of every parish in the country, but which can seldom be induced to remain a denizen of soil that has once been brought under man’s dominion. On the other hand some of the greatest favorites of our gardens, which display no coyness whatever in overrunning our flower-beds, are natives of countries where the climate presents very dif- ferent features to our own, or of very limited tracts of our own country, to which they seem strictly confined by im- passable barriers of soil or meteorological conditions. To take instances of the latter phetiomenphi: — There is no gar- den flower more cosmopolitan in its tastes, more certain to thrive under any conditions of light or heavy soil, sun or shade, care or neglect, even in the heart of a town, as its very name seems to indicate, than the London Pride. Yet the Saxifraga umbrosa is one of the most restricted in dis- tribution of our native plants. Abundant enough where it does grow, it is yet entirely confined to the moist equable climate of the hilly country in the south-west of Ireland and a few other similar localities, beyond-which it is never found in the wild state. Botanists will think themselves amply repaid for a toilsome day's march by gathering the beautiful Polemonium cæruleum in its native habitat among the calca- reous hills of the west of Yorkshire; yet the Jacob’ s Ladder is an ornament of every garden on the very stiffest part of the London clay. Probably ever y piece of cultivated ground, which contains a laburnum tree, produces each spring a plentiful crop of self-sown young trees, which come up without the least care or protection until destroyed in the process of weeding; yet the laburnum shows no disposition to take a place among the naturalized trees of our woods and hedges, although the seeds must often be carried there by ACCLIMATIZATION OF FOREIGN TREES AND PLANTS. 531 birds. It is remarkable that many of our common vegeta- bles, the cabbage, the asparagus, the sea-kale, the celery, are natives of our own shores, never growing spontaneously out of reach of the salt spray; and yet requiring, when transplanted into our gardens, no peculiarity of soil or treat- ment to enable them to support a vigorous existence. These. are instances of plants to which our climate appears entirely congenial, and yet which seem as if they could not propa- gate themselves with us or spread, except under man's pro- tection. Others, again, appear to require only to get a footing in a foreign soil to become established in it with extraordinary rapidity, even to the overmastering or expul- sion of some of the indigenous inhabitants. When Australia and New Zealand were first colonized by Europeans, their flora presented an aspect of perfect strangeness, very few of the native trees or flowers belonging even to genera common to Europe. The seeds of some of our English weeds were, however, introduced, intentionally or accidentally, by the early settlers; and now the thistle covers the waste lands of Australia as it does in England, and the clover and the groundsel everywhere remind the Englishman of his far- away home, and have become às completely at home as the mustangs or wild-horses on the pampas of South America. In our own country a very remarkable instance of this rapid naturalization has occurred in the case of the Elodea Cana- densis or Canadian water-weed ; which, introduced not many years since into our canals from Canada, has now become such a pest in many places as seriously to impede the navi- gation. Other instances might be mentioned of foreign plants introduced with seed having in a very short time be- come common weeds in all eultivated land. Indeed, many of the species included in our handbooks of British plants are so entirely confined to arable land or to spots in the immediate vicinity of human dwellings, that it is impossible to say how many of them may be really indigenous to the soil, and how many naturalized aliens. 532 ACCLIMATIZATION OF FOREIGN TREES AND PLANTS. There is no doubt we have a great deal to learn as to the mode in which plants propagate themselves in nature, which may be of the utmost value to our gardeners. Every one is familiar with the fact of the apparently spontaneous appear- ance in immense abundance, of plants in soil when subjected to certain farming operations, or on the sowing of some par- tieular crop. Whenever a new railway cutting or embank- ment is made, some ,plant unknown in the neighborhood is almost sure to appear, and either permanently establish itself or again disappear after a few years. The "sowing" of lan with lime is invariably followed by the appearance of a crop of white or Dutch clover. When certain kinds of wood are cut down it is said that during the next year a particular species of moss will always be found covering the ground. Immediately after the great fire of London in 1666, the London Rocket (Sisymbrium Irio) sprang up in enormous quantities on the dismantled walls, but is now no longer to be found in the metropolitan district. The usual theory to account for this sudden appearance of new plants is the existence in the soil of large " stores of seeds" ready to ger- minate on the first favorable opportunity. In his Anniver- sary Address to the Linnean Society in 1869, Mr. Bentham, however, pointed out that if this explanation was the true one, it ought not to depend merely on theory, but would be capable of easy practical verification. He suggested whether a hitherto insufficiently acknowledged part in the rapid dis- semination of plants may not be played by birds. The whole subject presents a wide field for farther investigation, and must amply reward any one who takes up the inquiry, if endowed with the qualities of accurate observation and patient research. Mr. Mongredien’s "Planter's Guide” deals chiefly with the introduction into this country of foreign trees and shrubs. Within the last twenty or thirty years the appearance of our lawns and plantations has been greatly changed by the num- ber of new forms which have made their appearance. The ACCLIMATIZATION OF FOREIGN TREES AND PLANTS. 533 stately Wellingtonia, the formal self-asserting “Puzzle- monkey,” or Araucaria imbricata, the massive Deodar and Cryptomeria, the elegant Pinus insignis and Cupressus Lawsoniana, are all still of too recent introduction to permit us to judge of what their effect will be when grown to their full stature. The number of cone-bearing trees from all parts of the world, perfectly hardy in this climate is extra- ordinary ; and, partly from their graceful shape, partly from the evergreen character of their leaves, the attention of cul- tivators has been perhaps too exclusively confined to them, while deciduous trees have been comparatively neglected. Recent experiments have shown that in this quarter also there is abundant room for an extension of our powers of domestication. In one of the London Parks least frequented by the upper ten thousand, that at Battersea, great success has attended the introduction, during the last few years, of half-hardy trees and shrubs, the precaution being ‘taken of protecting their roots during winter by a layer of some sub- stance impervious to frost. The French have paid more attention to the perfect naturalization of half-hardy plants than we have done; notwithstanding the greater severity of their winter, species are grown by them out of doors which are never seen with us except in greenhouses; even as far north as Paris, the bamboo, for instance, is frequently met with in gentlemen’s gardens; and there is no doubt that many shrubs and herbaceous plants, which we never think of attempting to grow except under protection, might, with a very little care and attention, become permanent denizens of our gardens and shrubberies. Probably few are aware that the common Camellia will stand with impunity an ordi- nary English winter. Mr. Mongredien says that "if pro- tected during the first two or three years after being planted out, and when once established, it proves in the climate of* London quite as hardy as the common laurel, and blooms as profusely as in a conservatory. It is true that, from its habit of flowering early in the spring, the blossoms are sometimes 534 ACCLIMATIZATION OF FOREIGN TREES AND PLANTS. damaged by the nipping easterly winds, but this occurs only in unfavorable seasons; and even if the tree never flowered at all, its lovely foliage would still make it one of the most beautiful evergreens of which our gardens can boast. A plant of the variety Donkelarii has stood out for twelve years in a garden at Forest Hill with a northern aspect, without the slightest protection during the severest winters, and now forms a good-sized bush, densely clothed with mag- nificent foliage. "The Camellia ought to be planted out in every garden, and with a little attention for the first year or two, it would prove quite hardy, at least in the more south- ern — and each season it — increase in attractive- ness.” The climate of the south of Blip is far more congenial to the introduction of foreign trees and shrubs than that of the northern counties, not from the greater severity of the winters in the north, for the minimum temperature of the year is often as low in Kent or Hampshire as in Yorkshire or Northumberland, but from the shorter and cooler sum- mers. Many plants absolutely require a considerable per iod of high temperature to enable them to ripen their wood suf- , fiiently to withstand the winter frosts, and especially to induce them to flower. In many parts of Scotland, how- ever, the climate is as favorable to horticulturists as in any district in England. In the Duke of Sutherland's estate at Dunrobin, on the east coast of Sutherlandshire, Hydrangeas, myrtles, and other half-hardy plants, grow as freely and as unchecked out of doors as they do in Devonshire or Corn- wall. The equalizing effect of the Gulf Stream on the tem- perature is no doubt the cause of this special immunity from frost. The proximity of the sea-coast is not generally fav- orable to the growth of trees and shrubs, not so much from the saltness of the air as from the prevalence of high winds, which are very injurious to growing vegetation. Young and tender shoots which will bear a moderate amount of cold, will sometimes. be scorched as if by fire by a tempestuous night. — The. Quarterly Journal of Science. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE MOOSE IN NEW ENGLAND. BY Js A.-ALLEN. In consequence of their large size, the value of their flesh, and the pleasure attending their chase, the different members of the deer family ( Cervidæ) are among the first to disappear before the progress of civilization in a newly settled country. The moose (Alce malchis), like the caribou ( Tarandus ran- gifer), doubtless once existed in Southern New England, though I have seen no record of its occurrence in the south- eastern portions since the settlement there of Europeans. It probably remained in the mountainous districts till a later period, but for many years has been extinct in Massachu- setts, Southern Vermont and New Hampshire, and Southern Maine. In answer to my inquiries in respect to its present southern limit in Maine, Mr. J. G. Rich, the well-known hunter and trapper, writes me in substance as follows: "Al- though now scarce in that state, it is first met with on the Penobscot at about eighty miles above Bangor; on the Ken- nebee north of the Forks in Somersett county ; at Kennebago Lake, and to the northward of Rangely Lake in Franklin county; and north of the Agiscohas Mountain on the Marg- alloway River, in Oxford county.” A few also exist in the extreme northern parts of New Hampshire and Vermont. and in the Adirondacks of New York. As the experienced hunter finds it a not very difficult animal to capture, the moose unless protected by law, must soon become extinct throughout the New England States. The legislature of Maine has already passed a stringent game law for their pro- tection, which it is to be hoped may be carefully enforced. Mr. Rich’s long experience as a trapper and hunter in the Maine woods, has rendered him thoroughly familiar with the (585) 536 NOTES ON CERTAIN INLAND habits of the moose and the other large mammals of this region; and some years since (in 1860) he published an interesting series of articles in the now defunct * Bethel Courier," on the "Wild Animals of Maine," in which he brought together facts of great value to the naturalist, in- cluding the most complete history of the moose yet extant. It is to be hoped that he will be able to soon reissue these valuable sketches in a more permanent form. NOTES ON CERTAIN INLAND BIRDS OF NEW JERSEY. BY CHARLES C. ABBOTT, M.D Tue ornithological fauna of New Jersey having undergone some changes within the last few years, it may prove inter- esting to ornithologists to have the results of ten years con- stant, careful observation as to the movements of our inland birds; comprising those that are resident; those coming from the South in the spring, and visitors from the North in win- ter. Certain species formerly abundant are now rare; and others formerly but seldom met with, are now abundant. As an instance we will mention the Summer Red-bird (Pyranga estiva), which may no longer be accounted a summer resident, although prior to 1857 it was abundant; and on the other hand the Snow-bunting ( Plectrophanes nivalis), which previous to 1865, was a very rare visitor, and then only during very severe winters, and since has as regu- larly appeared as the Junco hyemalis. They do not appear, like them, early in October, but after considerable snow has fallen. During the winters of '67, '68 and 69, they were so abundant that hundreds of dozens killed on the outskirts of the town (Trenton, Mercer Co.), were offered for sale in our markets. Every additional snow storm seemed to in- BIRDS OF NEW JERSEY. 991 crease their numbers. They were very fat, and, considered as delicate as the Rice bird, Dolichonyx orizivorus, in Octo- . ber. It may be proper here to state that the climate, during the past thirty-eight years, has undergone no change other than a slight diminution in the quantity of snow. ` The species to which I desire to call particular attention are l. Pigeon Hawk (Hypotriorchis columbarius). During the early autumn, when the Reed-birds (Dolichonices), have gathered in the marshy meadows, and the Red-winged Star- lings (Agelaii), fairly blacken the drier lowlands; when the “Flicker” (Colaptes), is rattling off the thin bark from the hickories, and congregated Blue-birds twitter from every panel of fence ; when the unsought Meadow-lark ( Sturnella) challenges you to discover his retreat, with his saucy “ you- can't see-me," and timid snipe (Gallinago), with a nervous "scape" endeavor to avoid the gunner's aim with a most ec- centrie flight, —then really are the days proper of our birds of prey, and all of our species, from the magnificent Black- hawk ( Archibuteo Sancti-Johannis), to the saucy Sparrow- hawk ( Tinnunculus sparverius), are more or less abundant. Ever on the alert for wounded birds or rash Meadow-mice, they sail over the meadows from morning till night and add no little charm to the attractive scene; but while all this is the order of the day upon the lowlands, there is skulking along the fences of the uplands, and about the yards of the farm-houses, a shy, cunning falcon, ever watching the farmer’s poultry and pouncing thereupon continually. We refer to the Pigeon-hawk (Hypotriorchis columbarius), a species numerous throughout autumn and winter, but espec- ially interesting from the fact that it remains throughout the year quite frequently. In May, 1863, a nest of this species, with young birds just able to fly, was found by the writer in a large sycamore, on Duck Island, Delaware River, near Trenton, N. J. In AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 68 538 NOTES ON CERTAIN INLAND February (22d) 1865, a nest with eggs was also found by the writer, in a large elm, on the Shabbaconk Creek, near Lawrence, Mercer county, New Jersey. Young specimens in pin-feathers have been killed, in August and November, by a cousin of the author, which were seen and identified by the latter. New Jersey seems to be a sort of neutral ground, as well as half-way house in the matter of NEGERI RAE distribution. It is the northernmost limit of the range of some ; the south- ernmost limit of the range of others ; and occasional breeding ground of many species. From unascertained, and we im- agine unascertainable causes, there are many visiting species that remain or pass on, as it may happen. An: ornitho- logical note-book will for one year record probably a dozen species, of which no trace will be found during the following year, except during their passage north or soothe, In 1859, a cold storm overtook the Red-starts (Setophaga ruticilla) as well as many of the warblers. During the following month (June) there were more nests -of aio about Mercer county than the writer has found in the ten summers since. Since 1865, we have seen no Pigeon-hawks between the dates of March 15th and October 15th. They may have es- caped our notice, but we opine not. Next summer Mercer county may have a dozen nests of this species. 2. Red-bellied Woodpecker (Centurus Carolinensis). This Woodpecker makes its appearance in April very regu- larly, and reappears in equal or greater numbers in October, and some few have been met with during the winter. It seems strange that it does not breed within state limits, but it certainly does not, except in a few isolated instances ; at least this is the conclusion the writer has airived at, as in accordance with his own observations. Correspondents in the extreme northern and southern sections of the state have written me, however, that they have found both them and their nests in May. These letters were from Sussex and pe May counties. As it undeniably breeds in Pennsyl-. BIRDS OF NEW JERSEY. 539 vania and in New York, it is probable that the reason of the author's failure in finding their nests, except in one in- stance (vide Geology of New Jersey, p. 765), arose from the faet that the natural features of the sections of the state he happened in were not such as attract the species. It, however, does not breed, as uniformly within state limits, as the five other species of Picide common to the state. The cutting off of the heavier growths of timber, and general alteration, and rendering of the country's surface tame by cultivation, must have the effect either of changing the habits of the birds, or of driving them from their former haunts. . The latter is generally the case, and undoubtedly is so with reference to this species. The other Picide are still abundant except two species, Melanerpes erythrocephalus and Hylatomus pileatus. Throughout the winter the “ Sap- sucker (Picus villosus), and Downy Woodpecker (P. pu- bescens), are very sociable, and appear as much at home in the maples along our town streets, as in the orchards beyond the village TER 3. Taille Flycatcher (Empidonax Traillii). The great influx of feathered life that comes to our state in the month of May is so varied as to species, and the many varieties having their particular haunts whereto they hie, that it is no easy matter, even after several attempts, to learn just what have come; and later in the season just how many have re- mained. That the list will vary year after year is unquestion- able; but the species now under consideration is not one that simply remains during the summer occasionally. They do so now regularly, although their numbers vary very consid- erably. During the past seven summers the writer has reg- ularly met with them. Previous to 1863 they are not mentioned in any of his note-books. They are, with us, a very restless, wild bird, remaining among the topmost branches of tall trees, and in such situations building their nests. A nest of the Yellow-bellied Flycatcher ( E. flaviventris), 540 NOTES ON CERTAIN INLAND was found at Princeton, New Jersey, during the past sum- mer, containing young birds. This is the only nest of this species we have ever seen, but have met with the bird during the breeding season. 4. Wilson's Thrush (Turdus fuscescens). 5. Hermit Thrush (Turdus Pallasi?). 6. Olive-backed Thrush ( Tur- dus Swainsonii). Early in May, with the Chat (Jcteria viridis), and House- wren (Troglodytes ædon), and spring birds generally, there appear in our gardens in town hopping close along the fence, upon the ground,. modest little Thrushes, that at once attract the attention of the most careless observers by their general similarity to the grand Song-thrush (Turdus mustelinus), only abridged. With the same jerking of the tail, and a very similar chirp, they industriously overturn the dead leaves fallen the autumn previous, and gather from beneath them innumerable spiders, insects, and small worms. Every half hour this search for food is disturbed by a quarrelsome Wren, that is generally driven off when the Thrush becomes fairly angered, when it will resume its hunt for food. They at this time constantly chirp—never sing. These small Thrushes are referable to one, or all, as the case may be, of the three species we have named above. Wilson's Thrush (Turdus fuscescens) is the less numerous of the three species previous to June lst, and from then until October, is the most so. It breeds within state limits in greater numbers than do the “Olive-backed” or * Hermit,” but is more retiring in its habits at this time of the year, and appears to wander very seldom any great distance from its nest, during incubation, and to remain in the neighbor- hood of the nest until those of its fellows and the allied spe- cies have begun to reappear from the north, when again they frequent town gardens as well as more retired * country " localities. This species at this writing (November 24th, 1869), is now in Trenton, New Jersey. The Hermit-thrush ( Turdus Pallasii) is said by Audubon BIRDS OF NEW JERSEY. 541 to be quite abundant in New Jersey during the summer (vide Birds of America, Vol. 11, p. 30), but I cannot en- dorse this statement altogether; but there may have taken place a change since he wrote in the movements of this bird, especially as he gives the northern mountainous portions of Pennsylvania as the southernmost limit of the breeding local- ity of the Turdus fuscescens, which is now common to New Jersey. The “Hermit,” as the writer has met with it, is about as one to eight in the numbers that breed here, comparing it with Thrghis fuscescens; and as one to twenty, compared with the whole number of Turdus Pallasii that arrive here in May. They disappear from general observation about June 1st,'and as Audubon has written "throwing itself into the depths of the forests, there spends the summer montlis, frequenting the lowest and most shady thickets." During the latter part of the month of August last, the writer heard one of these birds singing, for the first and only time. The song excelled that of Turdus mustelinus. Its usual note is a shrill chirp, not as frequently repeated as that of Turdus Suscescens or Swainsonit. They were last seen in Trenton, New Jersey, on the 20th of November. * The Olive-backed Thrush (Zurdus Swainsonii) which was formerly more abundant than of late years, makes its ap- pearance in May, with the two preceding species, and re- sembles them in all its habits. It is unquestionably the least abundant of the three, either as a migratory or resident bird. During the summer of 1866 (vide Geology of New Jersey, p. 768) the three species of Thrushes were unusually abun- dant; and during the summer, many Olive-backed Thrushes remained and bred. During the past ten years they have remained as compared with those of their numbers that went North, about as one to fifty. Certainly the proportion re- maining is not less. The habits of these Thrushes suggest the probability that changes in the climate must be taking place in the northern- most limit of their range, and to preserve an equal extent of 542 NOTES ON CERTAIN INLAND territory as breeding grounds, must come South in propor tion as they are compelled to relinquish territory at the North. At all events, there is a steadily increasing list of those mi- gratory birds that formerly never remained in New Jersey during the summer, and that now do so, raising one or more broods during their sojourn. To this statement the writer would add another, that the number of "isolated instances" of migratory species remaining, is also increasing. How many such “isolated instances” must occur to make the breeding of the bird within state limits a fixed fact? One nest a year or a dozen? Is it probable that the young birds raised in an "isolated instance" recognize their birth-place the ensuing spring and so remain? Thereby we would have as the result of an accident, a permanent habit established among that particular species. Would we not? 7. Ruby-crowned Kinglet (Regulus calendula). 8: Gold- en-crested Wren (Regulus satrapus). In the Kinglets, of all other birds, it would be supposed that we had those that were strictly, so far as New Jersey is concerned, a northern-breeding, Jersey winter-sojourning species; and, indeed, the great bulk of them are so, except that they go farther South, of course, as well as remain here. Nevertheless, they too, break in upon long established rules and the records. of the books, and have both been found breeding in Sussex county, New Jersey. At least, we have as evidence of this their presence in June, and also that of their young in August. Of those that spent the winter and left in the spring of 1869, there remained probably one per cent. The impression I may have given of their numbers during the summer, in the Geology of New Jersey, p. 169, is erroneous, in so far as one might suppose that they were common at that season. They are rare, but diligent search will generally discover two or three in the course of the summer. The Kinglets do not seem to be much affected by the severity of the winter; except that during severe snow- BIRDS OF NEW JERSEY. 543 storms they seek the sheltered woods. In the depths of winter they and the Winter-wren (Troglodytes hyemalis), the Creeper (Certhia Americana), and the Black-capped Titmouse (Parus atricapillus), enliven the woods, especially a wooded hillside with a southern exposure. Such a position is the most favorable by far, for finding these and other small winter resident birds. Unlike the Winter-wren C hyemalis), the Kinglets are not quarrelsome, but quietly from limb to limb, and tree to tree, flit incessantly, gather- ing the dormant insect life beneath the bark. To recur to the subject of their summer sojourn is it fair to suppose that those that do remain are old and too feeble to perform the journey north? If so, would they not also be too old for nidification and incubation? We think so; and so cannot account for the specimens in pin-feathers. At this date (November 24th), both species of Kinglet are very abundant about the trees in the streets, and are remarkably tame. 9. The Worm-eating Warbler (Helmitherus vermivorus). 10. Blue-winged Yellow-warbler (Helminthophaga pinus). ll. Golden-winged Warbler (Helminthophaga chrysoptera). 12. Yellow-rumped Warbler (Dendroica coronata). 13. Hooded Warbler (Myiodioctes mitratus). We have now to take up the question of the geographical distribution of certain birds in a somewhat different manner, and to discuss, or rather to assert that we are not entitled to that usually or heretofore accredited to us. Of the five species of Warblers we have named above, four (except Dendroica coronata) have so far eluded us, although we have Searched earnestly for them, after the spring visitors had gone. Coming as they did with them, and leaving simulta- neously we supposed, like them, they, too, had gone north. This was our experience up to the time of completing our report for the “Geology of New Jersey.” Three summers have since passed, and as yet we have found not even one Specimen of the four species later than June 5th, and no 544 NOTES ON CERTAIN INLAND 5 authentic nest. Of the many Warblers nests we discovered there were four that we failed to identify, the birds belonging thereto not appearing when we had opportunities of watch- ing. The general appearance of these nests which had eggs in was that of species common with us, although the eggs were a little peculiar. We have not had, since 1866, during any one summer, very good opportunities for hunting birds ; but being ever on the lookout for the four species in ques- tion, we think it strange if they did remain throughout the breeding season sibus our detecting them. As we have shown that some species that have heretofore always sought breeding grounds north of us now remain, therefore why should not others, formerly with us, conclude also to make a change, even though it be the opposite from that of their cousins? The SPI of our state has materi- ally changed in its general aspect within the past thirty years, since Audubon' visited it; and these changes may have driven off certain species that probably are abundant no farther north or immaterially so, say Pennsylvania and New York. The changes we refer to are the very general cutting off of the woods, and clearing out of swamps. Cer- tainly nine-tenths of the shelter that existed for birds in 1840 is now no longer in existence. The question may now be pertinently asked that if there is less shelter, why are there more new comers than there are departures of former residents? This we admit seems strange, and we can only answer it by asking another question; why should birds so similar as the Sylvicolide be of so many minds? Again, the four species in question are not at all sociable in their habits, and the new comers are; so we can see that the latter could be contented where the former would not, provided that the climate suited them. The Yellow-rumped Warbler (Dendroica coronata), pre- sents to us an instance of climatic geographical distribution which has not been published we. believe; and that is, that from September to June this species has been met with in ý BIRDS OF NEW JERSEY. 545 New Jersey, on each of the intervening months. My at- tention was first drawn to it, by noting several in March, before any other species of the family had appeared. In February of the following year one specimen was seen and shot, and since then (1863), it has been met with sparsely in November, December, and January. These seattered Warblers are associated with the regular winter residents, Creepers, Nuthatches and Titmice. 14. Butcher Bird (Collyrio borealis). We have seen the Shrike as early as September quite abundant, but more generally it is in December and January that it is to, be readily met with. No species visiting us from the North is more uncertain in its movements, and occasionally a winter passes without any being seen about. The snowy winters are those in which they are most numerous, and during such a winter their peculiarities are more readily studied, as they are during "open winters" far more shy and retired in their habits. With us they follow closely after loose com- panies of Snow-birds (Junco hyemalis), and seem to live very largely upon them. On the approach of warm weather they do not all go beyond the boundaries of the state, as the- writer has seen them in Sussex county during the breeding season. But very few individuals do remain however. 15. Winter Wren (Troglodytes hyemalis). So like them in its appearance, and arriving in as large numbers so closely upon the disappearance of the Troglodytes edon, there is a wide spread impression among persons with a smattering of disjointed ornithology, that they are one and the same bird, and that simply the former habit of migration has ceased. This absurd idea has gained ground in consequence of the very great accession to their numbers of the T. hye- malis that now annually appear. During the winter they are one of our most numerous species, ranking with Passer- ella iliaca and Lophophanes bicolor in this respect. Like the “Shrike” ( Collyrio borealis), they, too, do not depart wholly from us in the spring. Their numbers with AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 69 546 NOTES ON CERTAIN INLAND : us in summer are much less than might be supposed, how- ever, from my note in the "Geology of New Jersey," p. 116. ! 16. Red-bellied Nuthatch (Sitta Canadensis). A careful observer of the birds that now (November) are enlivening our generally leafless trees will not fail to notice continually a woodpecker-like moving little bird that has as unmusical a note as ever fell upon one’s ear or added cacophonic va- riety to a harsh mixture, for verily the music of the woods hath now departed. Of the three birds to which these re- marks are applicable, we refer particularly to that named above. A strictly northern species, early in November by ones and twos they make their appearance in company with Sitta Carolinensis, and to the casual observer they appear to be one and the same. In their habits, they, with us, present nothing distinctive. "They number, we should judge, about one to twenty compared with “ Carolinensis,” and three or four per cent. remain during the summer. The locality of their nests and breeding habits are generally the same as in S. Carolinensis. 17. Black-throated Bunting (Zuspiza Americana). Al- though abundant during the summer in Pennsylvania, less than one hundred miles from the state line (Delaware River), we had never, up to the end of the summer of 1867, been able to see these birds later than May, until they appeared in numbers in September. In the spring of 1868, and again during the past spring and summer, we found in various lo- ealities colonies of them breeding in low bushes, several nests being found in one field. We believe that for some reason we have not ascertained, they have annually left the state to breed and then reappeared. They are now with us (November) and we think that a féw remain during the winter. 18. Rusty Black-bird (Scolecophagus ferrugineus). Dur- ing the summers of ’67, ’68 and '69, these birds have been quite abundant about Trenton, New Jersey, associating with ^ BIRDS OF NEW JERSEY. 547 the Quiscalus versicolor and Agelaius phomiceus. The built their nests invariably in trees growing upon the banks of streams, raising one brood only. 19. Snipe ( Gallinago Wilsonii). We find on conversing with intelligent observers throughout the state, that in the immediate neighborhood of all those tracts of meadows where the Snipe first appear in March, or even earlier, that quite a number remain during the summer and breed. This has been our opinion and coincides with the results of our observations about the extensive tract of meadow extending along the Delaware River from Trenton to Bordentown, New Jersey. During the past few years we think the number remaining has increased steadily. In the autumn many ar- rive from the North and remain a longer or shorter time according to the weather. Indeed, so long as the ground is not too much frozen to enable them to feed, they are abun- dant; and after the formation of thick ice some still remain, resorting to spring-holes, and such open water as gives them a chance to thrust their bills in the mud; but we cannot im- agine what they then find to eat. During the winter we have examined the stomachs of many, but the mass contained therein was invariably so far digested as to render it impos- sible to recognize anything, except that it appeared to be largely animal matter. 20. Tell-tale Sandpiper (Gambetta melanoleuca). 21. Yellow-legged Sandpiper ( Gambetta flavipes). Early in May, following the course of the Delaware River, these birds in company with other Scolopacide arrive in the neighborhood of Trenton, New Jersey, and on the muddy shores and marshy inland of Duck Island, and the exten- sive sand bars and grassy islands near and above the city mentioned, make themselves at home. By the first of June the great majority have gone North; but with the few smaller species that remain, and the myriads of Tringoides macularius, the “Tell-tale” and “Yellow-legs” now reduced in numbers, associate, and when feeding along the river act 548 NOTES ON CERTAIN INLAND as guides, apparently, and certainly as guards. Being at this time of the year very shy, they give notice of the approach of danger, and leading the flock, “Tell-tales,” * Yellow-legs,” “Solitaries” and “Teeter,” fly in large circles, at a great height, and then resume their feeding near where they were previously to being flushed. During the breeding season, if frequently disturbed while feeding, they fly to their nests. Both the “Tell-tale” and SYehor-loge? have been found breeding in Mercer county, New Jersey; They seek some quiet nook along a small stream, and in the high grasses build quite a substantial nest, raising one brood that leaves : the nest before being able to fly. At this time they are a dull mouse color, and when approached, squat so closely to the ground and remain so motionless, that it is nearly im- possible to detect them. 22. Solitary Sandpiper (Rhyacophilus solitarius). Al- though the numbers remaining in New Jersey during the summer vary very much, we have never failed to find them during June and July, and August brings them again plenti- fully from the North. They breed as regularly in the state as the Spizella socialis, if not as abundantly. While the number of isolated specimens we meet with is large enough to warrant the descriptive name solitarius, yet many are seen associated with the other Sandpipers, especially in May and early autumn. 23. Mallard (Anas boschas). 24. Green-winged Teal (Nettion Carolinensis). 25. Blue-winged Teal ( Querque- dula discors). 26. Bufile-headed Duck (Bucephala albeola). There is generally in April or May a freshet in the Dela- ware River, and one that usually overflows the tract of meadow mentioned when speaking of the Snipe (Gallinago Wilsonii). During the prevalence of this high water the ducks usually make their appearance in lar, ge gambeta feed- ing over the meadows in loose flocks, ibd; species being the Mallard (Anas boschas), Black-duck (Anas obscura), Sprig- tail = acuta), the two Teal (Nettion Carolinensis and qo : Sia | EPS ES or ears a ae BIRDS OF NEW JERSEY. 549 Querquedula discors), Shoveller (Spatula clypeata), Widgeon (Mareca Americana), Wood Duck (Aix sponsa), Whistler (Bucephala Americana), and Bufle-head (Bucephala al- beola). i | After the waters have subsided they generally congregate at the river, and after a week or more, during which time many are killed, they have left. But not wholly so, as during the summer months, besides the beautiful Aix sponsa, . which we always have, there are quite a number of Anas obscura always to be met with, and not unfrequently the four species we have mentioned above. Of the four species the Mallard is the most abundant, and the " Buflle-head" least. That they all breed in the state there can be no question. ` We conclude with the above, the selections from our notes, made in the field and at various times, on the peculi- arities, if we may call them such, in the ornithology of New Jersey, with the thoughts they have suggested, believing they will be of interest to those especially giving attention to the subject of geographical distribution. Of the three hundred species of birds included in the ornithic fauna of New Jersey, of course there are many that are exceedingly rare in our territory. Among some species there have hap- pened freaks of habit, unique instances so far as our experi- ence goes, that though entertaining, are doubtfully of suffi- cient value to warrant their publication; but as apparently trivial occurrences have sometimes proved a help in the solution of difficult questions, we propose to give a plain narration of one or more such occurrences. In January, 1869, an acquaintance in hunting over the Delaware (Trenton) meadows for hawks came to a lively spring in a hillside having a southern exposure. As he was about leaving it he flushed from grass still green and long, a pair of Virginia Rails (Rallus Virginianus), and fortun- ately killed them. They were both fat, showed no signs of having been previously wounded and thereby detained, and 550° FORMER EXISTENCE OF LOCAL GLACIERS flew as rapidly and with as much apparent vigor as in Sep- tember. Farther search failed to discover others at the time. Two weeks later three others were killed, and in the first week of February, one more. These latter specimens were equally fat and vigorous. No similar circumstance has come under our notice. Similar instances of the presence of the Night Heron (Nyctiardea Gardenii) have three times come under our no- tice. We have found these birds sitting on trees near springs, from whence the water flowed swiftly, and about which the grass remained quite fresh. Leaving them undis- turbed, but watching them frequently, they were never seen to leave their perch. From the accumulation of droppings it was evident that the particular branch even, on which they were first seen, was that on which they had‘been resting for some time past. Only single specimens have been thus found, all male birds, and they have always been much emaciated. When forced to move they all proved able to fiy, but returned to their accustomed place, after a circuit- ous flight of short duration. Were they too old to go South? Did they get any food? If so, what and where? On dis- section the stomachs of these three specimens proved to be empty, but the uppermost droppings were fresh! THE FORMER EXISTENCE OF LOCAL GLACIERS IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS.* BY PROFESSOR L. AGASSIZ. TWENTY-THREE years ago, when I first visited the White Mountains, in the summer of 1847, I noticed unmistakable evidences of the former existence of local glaciers. They * Read, in the absence of Professor Agassiz, by J. B. Perry, before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Troy meeting, Aug., 1870. IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 551 were the more clear and impressive to me because I was then fresh from my investigations of the glaciers in Switzer- land. And yet, beyond the mere statement of the fact that such glaciers once existed here, I have never published a detailed aceount of my observations, for the simple reason that I could not then find any limit or any definite relation between the northern drift and the phenomena indicative of local White Mountain glaciers; nor have I ever been able since to revisit the region for more careful examination. This year a prolonged stay among these hills has enabled me to study this difficult problem more closely, and I am now prepared to show that the drift, so-called, has the same gen- eral characteristics on the northern and southern side of the White Mountains. Whatever, therefore, may have been the number of its higher peaks which at any given time, during the glacial per id; rose above the great ice sheet which shew covered the country, this mountain range offered no obstacle to the southward movement and progress of the northern ice fields. To the north of the White Mountains as. well as to the south, the northern drift consists of a paste more or less clayey or sandy, containing abraded fragments of a great variety of rocks, so impacted into the minutely comminuted materials as to indicate neither stratification nor arrangement or sorting, determined by the form, size or weight of these fragments. ‘Large boulders and pebbles of all sizes are found in it ilirnghéok its thickness, and these coarser mate- rials have Writ been ground together with the clay and sand under great pressure, beneath heavy masses of ice; for they have all the characteristic marks so unmistakable now to those who are familiar with glacial action: scratches, grooves, furrows, ete. These marks are rectilinear, but they cross each other at various angles, thus showing by the change in their direction that the fragments on wdiich they occur, though held for a time in one amd the same position while its straight lines were engraved upon their surface, nevertheless changed that position more or less frequently. 552 FORMER EXISTENCE OF LOCAL GLACIERS A few flatter fragments with more angular outlines show only one kind of scratches, having evidently been held for a longer time in the same position. This drift, however it may vary in its mineralogical components in different localities, exhibits everywhere the same characteristic treatment over the whole country, from the shores of the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains and beyond. In the White Mountain re- gion it has the same mineralogical character north and south of the range, and rests everywhere upon the well known roches moutonnées, in one word, upon the planed, grooved, polished and scratched surfaces of the rocks underlying it. Observation has taught us that materials such as those de- scribed above, so combined, exhibiting the same characters in their surfaces and having the same diversity.of composi- tion and absence of all sorting or regular arrangement, occur now at the bottom of the great glaciers of our time, and nowhere else; being found between the ice and the rocks over which it moves,—the result in fact of the grinding action of advancing glaciers. On account of their unvarying position I have called these deposits “ground moraines,” because they are always resting upon the rocky floor of the country, between it and the under surface of the ice. Our typical unaltered so-called northern drift is synonymous with. the ground moraines of the present day, differing only in its greater extension. It is in fact a ground moraine spreading over the greatest part of the continent. All its characteristics, identical in every detail with those of the. deposits underlying the present glaeiers, show that it can only have been formed under a moving body of ice, held between it and the underlying mass of rock. The great ice sheet of the glacial period which fashioned the drift must therefore have been co-extensive with the distribution of the latter. It is very important to distinguish this drift from the moraines formed under other circumstances, and from the so-called erraties and perched blocks. Moraines, as commonly understood, that is, lateral and frontal mo- IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 558 raines, consisting of loose materials collected along the sides and at the terminus of a glacier, always indicate, and, where undisturbed, actually define the margins of a moving mass of ice; whereas the so-called median moraines PIGH along the line of junction of the glaciers are carried upon the back or upper surface of the ice, and always consist of angular materials, the shape and arrangement of which are deter- mined by their mode of accumulation. Just as among the glaciers of the present day we discriminate between ground moraines, lateral, frontal and median moraines, so must we also distinguish between the same phenomena in past times. The glacial period had also its ground moraines, its lateral, its frontal and its median moraines, its erratics and perched boulders. But the huge ground moraine of the earlier ice time stretched continuously, like the ice sheet under which it was formed, over the whole country — from the Aretics to the Southern States, and from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains. I do not speak of the western slope of the Con- tinent, because I have not examined it personally. The great angular erraties of that period were scattered irregu- larly over the country, as the few large boulders are icutéétud: on the upper surface of a glacier now. It is the contact of the more limited phenomena of the local glaciers which suc- ceeded this all embracing winter (their lateral, frontal, me- dian and limited ground moraines and their erratics), with the more wide-spread and general features of the drift that I have been able to trace in the White Mountains this summer. The limits of this paper will not allow me to do more than record the general facts, but I hope to give them hereafter more in detail and with fuller illustrations. The most diffi- cult part of the investigation is the tracing of the erraties to their origin; it is far more intricate than the identification of the origin of ordinary drift, or of continuous moraines, be- cause the solution of the problem can only be reached under favorable circumstances where boulders of the same kind of rock can be followed from distance to distance, to the ledge AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 70 554 . FORMER EXISTENCE OF LOCAL GLACIERS tn situ from which they were detached. Now, in the neigh- borhood of the White Mountains, we find beside the typical or northern drift, large erratic boulders as well as lateral, frontal and median moraines. A careful examination of these shows beyond a doubt that they came from the White Mountains and not from the northern regions, since they overlie the typical drift which they have only here and there removed and modified. A short description of the facts will leave no doubt upon this point. The finest lateral moraines in these regions may be seen along the hillsides flanking the bed of the south branch of the Amonoosuck, north of the village of Franconia. The best median moraines are to the east of Picket Hill and Round Hill. These latter moraines were formed by the con- fluence of the glaciers which occupied the depression be- tween Haystack and Mt. Lafayette, and that which descended from the northern face of Lafayette itself. These longi- tudinal moraines are partieularly interesting as connecting _ the erratic boulders on the north side of the Franconia range with that mountain mass, and showing that they are not northern boulders transpor ted sodthewnidj but boulders from a southern range transported northward. But by far the most significant facts showing the great extent of the local glaciers of the White Mountain range, as well as the most accessible and easily recognized, even by travellers not very familiar with glacial phenomena, are the terminal moraines to the north of Bethlehem village, between it and the north- ern bend of the Amonoosuck river. The lane starting from Bethlehem street, following the Cemetery for a short distance, and hence trending northward, cuts sixteen terminal moraines in a tract of about two miles. Some of these moraines are as distinct as any I know in Switzerland. They show un- mistakably by their form that they were produced by the pressure of a glacier moving, from south, northward. This is indicated by their abrupt ipei slope, facing, that is, toward the Franconia range, wbile their northern face has a i d d E D IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 585 much gentler descent. The steeper slope of a moraine is ‘always that resting against the glacier, while the outer side is comparatively little inclined. The form of these moraines, therefore, as well as their position, show that they have come down from the Franconia mountains. A few details con- cerning their loeation may not be out of place, in order that any visitor interested in the facts may readily find them with- out a guide. The ground to the north of Bethlehem slopes gently northward, and is not wooded for about half a: mile rom the street. Following the lane above mentioned, the first moraine reached skirts the edge of the wood and is near the houses of Mr. Phillips; there are four others more or less distinct before reaching a little trout brook called * Barrett's Brook." The lane descends more rapidly toward the brook than before, and where the descent begins to be steep the eye commands the space between the brook and a higher ground on which stands a house owned by Henry McCulloch. Over that interval six very fine moraines may be counted, one of which is perhaps the finest specimen of a terminal moraine I have ever seen. Beyond McCulloch’s there are five more, not quite as distinct. The ground beyond the termination of the glacier of the Rhone in Switzerland is celebrated for its many distinct concentric terminal moraines ; but here we have a field over which within the same area a larger number of such moraines may be seen, and I believe that a pilgrimage to this spot would convert many a sceptic to the true faith concerning the transportation of erratic boulders, especially if he has seen the glacier of the Rhone and ean compare the phenomena of the two localities. The Littleton road from Bethlehem, and the roads to Fran- conia Notch from both these towns frequently intersect ter- minal moraines. Those familiar with the topography of the Franconia range and its relation to Picket Hill and the slope of Bethlehem, will at once perceive that the glacier which deposited the front moraine to the north of Bethlehem vil- lage must have filled the valley of Franconia to and above 556 FORMER EXISTENCE OF LOCAL GLACIERS the level of the saddle of Picket Hill, making it at least fifteen hundred feet thick, if not more; thicker in short than: any of the present glaciers of Switzerland. It will be ob- served, also, that as soon as the northern portion of that glacier had retreated to the wall which encircles the Fran- conia Valley on the north, the glacier occupying henceforth a more protected valley within the ranges, must have made a halt and accumulated at this point, that is, south and west of the saddle of Picket Hill, a very large terminal moraine. This moraine actually exists to the present day, and is one of the most characteristic features of the distribution of erratics in these regions. From the moment the glacier was reduced to the level of Franconia bottom it must suddenly have vanished entirely from the whole valley, and thus it happens that no other large terminal moraines are seen be- tween that just mentioned and the higher range of Fran- conia. . Moraines similar to those observed on the northern side of the White Mountains exist also on their southern side in the vieinity of Centre Harbor. Lateral moraines may be traced at the foot of Red Hill, a little above Long Pond ; also along Squam Lake. Median moraines are very distinct near Centre Harbor Hotel. "Terminal moraines are also numer- ous near Centre Harbor-and in the neighborhood of Mere- dith. At the southern end of Red Hill the lateral moraines trend westward and show their connection with the terminal moraines. These facts, taken in their relation with those enumerated above, show that there were local glaciers, on the southern as well as the northern slopes of the White Moun- tain ranges, moving in opposite directions; those on the northern slope moving northward, and those on the southern slope moving southward. I have seen no evidence thus far of these northern glaciers extending beyond the range of hills which separates the Amonoosuck River from the Con- nectieut River valley west of Laneaster, nor have I traced the southern glaciers beyond Lake Winnipesaukee. Traces IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 557 of an eastern glacier moving westward may be seen near the Twin Mountain House ; but I have not examined that region with sufficient care to give minute particulars. All these moraines rnd traces of local glaciers overlie the typical or northern drift so-called, wherever the latter has not been entirely swept away by the local glaciers them- selves; thus showing that the great ice sheet was anterior to the local glaciers, and not formed by a spreading of smaller preexisting glaciers. At least, wherever I have recognized traces of circumscribed glaciers in regions where they no longer exist, it has always appeared to me that the minor areas covered by ice were remnants of a waning sheet of greater extent. If the glacial period set in by the enlarge- ment of limited glaciers already formed and gradually spreading more and more widely, as Lyell and the geologists of his school suppose, the facts which would justify such a view are still to be made known. I have not seen a trace of them anywhere. On the contrary, throughout the ranges of the Alps, in the Black Forest, the Vosges, as well as in the British Islands, in Scotland, Wales and Ireland, I have everywhere satisfied myself that the more extensive the glaciated areas, indicated by polished surfaces and moraines in any given locality, the older they are when compared with glacial phenomena eircumscribed within narrower limits. It therefore follows from the facts enumerated above, as well as from a general consideration of the subject, that the local glaciers oF the White Mountains are of more recent date than the great ice sheet which fashioned the typical drift. On another occasion I hope to show that the action of the local glaciers of the White Mountains began to be circum- scribed within the areas they covered, after the typical drift had, in consequence of the melting of the northern ice sheet, been laid bare in the Middle States, in Massachu- setts and Connecticut, after even the southern portions of Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine had been freed, and when the White Mountains, the Adirondacks and the Ka- 558 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. tahdin range were the only ice clad peaks in this part of the continent. When in their turn the glaciers of the White Mountain region began to melt away, the freshets occasioned by the : sudden large accumulation of water remodelled many of these moraines and carried off the minute materials they contained, to deposit them lower down in the shape of river terraces. I have recently satisfied myself, by a eareful ex- amination, that all the river terraces of the Connecticut River valley and its tributaries, as well as those of the Mer- rimack and its tributaries, are deposits formed by the floods descending from the melting glaciers. What President Hitchcock has described as sea-beaches and ocean bottoms near the White Mountain and Franconia N otches, as well as in the Connecticut River valley and along the Merrimack, have all the same origin. The ocean never was in contact with these deposits, which nowhere contain any trace of marine organic remains. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. BOTANY. RICHARDSONIA SCABRA, à tropical American Rubiaceous weed, has every now and then been picked up and sent us from Georgia or Alabama; and if it is Pursh's Spermacoce involucrata, as is probable, it was introduced more than half a century ago. It appears that it is now taking wide pos- very common throughout the piney wood region of Alabama skirting the Gulf coast. It seems to choke out all the grasses by its more luxuriant growth. It is known by farmers, as “ Mexican Clover," and may possi- bly have been introduced during the Mexican war, as it is said to grow in the rear of Vera Cruz. It is relished by all kind of stock, either green or cured. à í In my capacity, during our late war. as botanist and chemist for the de- 4 me epi hr Ust RRO SE ATE ee NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 559 partment of the Gulf, I introduced the roots of this plant into the supply table of the Confederate States Army, qs an indigenous succedaneum for their operation, and I can say that in increased doses it answered every purpose." ACCLIMATIZATION OF PALM Trees. — In addition to the date-palm and the Chamarops, which have long been naturalized on the European shores of the Mediterranean, M. Naudin has succeeded very well with several other kinds at Collioure, in the Pyrenees, notwithstanding the exception- ally unfavorable character of the winter of 1869-70. The severe cold of the last week o cember, when the thermometer descended to — 4?, and in some caine even to— 6 was fatal to only one species. The epee iade iti w of snow Which took place in January, last- ing for forty-four hours without intermission, was expected to destroy the young Ru AES dE After, however, they had been entirely cov- ered up with snow for nine or ten days, so that the boughs were com- pletely flattened, when the thaw came they almost immediately recovered their former position, even the green color of the leaves not being in- jured. 'The same fall of snow caused a fearful amount of destruction among the olives and cork-oaks. — Quarterly Journal of Science. ZOOLOGY. LONDON ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS. The — number of animals in the Zoological Society's Gardens, usually somewhat exceeds 2000. On the first of January last, it was 2,031, Misc of 598 mammals, 1245 birds, and 170 reptiles and batrachians, besides the fishes in the aquarium which do not appear to be included in the annual census. Constant additions are made to the series, not only by purchase, but also by gifts of corres- pondents in every part of the world, and by exchange with the continen- tal establishments. — Nature Tur NESTING OF THE Fish Hawk. — Mr. Samuels in his ** Birds of New situated about twenty miles east of Portland, I know of at least fifteen nests of the fish hawk within one square mile. I think Imight safely call the number twenty, but as I am writing I can only distinctly remember three miles, and I can find more places like it.” These nests that Ispeak of were all on two small islands. These islands I — exclusively, but Isee no reason why there should not be nests onthe rest also. On of these islands the great blue heron and the night ei breed together 560 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. in quite large numbers. Mr. Samuels also says that they never molest their feathered neighbors. I hawe repeatedly seen the fish hawk attack the night heron and pursue it for a short distance. There seemed to be no reason for these attacks, but the hawk appeared to be venting his ill- humor upon the poor heron for want of some other object. Once when fowl (the distance was too great to make out with certainty what it was), that was swimming by near its nest. The bird dove and the fish-hawk hovered about till it reappeared, when it renewed its attack. This per- formance lasted for a few a and ended by the fish hawk’s desisting from his assaults. — WALTER WOODMAN. GEOLOGY. GLACIERS IN PaLmozo1c TrMES.— In “Notes on an ancient Boulder Clay of Natal," Dr. Sutherland describes an ancient ** boulder clay," con- solidated into a clay stone porphyry, ‘“‘ perhaps of Permian age," which rested generally upon old Silurian sandstones, ps upper surface of which was often deeply grooved and striated. Mr. T. M'K. Hughes, while ad- atal beds, under discussion, enormous blocks of rock occurred, which were sixty or eighty miles from their original home, and still remained angular; and there was a difficulty in accounting for the phenomena on anl other hypothesis than that suggested. He still maintained the proba- bility of the occurrence of. glacial npa not only in the Permian, but in other ages, as he had done, now fifteen years ago 0.” — Proceedings of the eire Society of London, bera in Nature T AND FosstL CoPar. — At the meeting of the Linnean Society m thy 5th, Dr. J. D. Hooker read a communication from Dr. Kirk, Her Majesty’s Vice-Consul at Zanzibar, on the distinction between the recent and fossil states of the resin known in commerce as Copal. One characteristic by which fossil copal is known from the recent resin is the so-called **goose-skin." Dr. Kirk has ascertained that the fossil copal but pieces of the resin n a very high price even in that country. — Quar- terly Journal of Science. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION. NINETEENTH MEETING OF THE dapat ASS@CIATION FOR THE ÅD- VANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, HELD aT Troy, N. Y., AUGUST l7TH-4TH. 87 [Abstracts iie papers esi from the October Nwmnber.] ve a short account of some researches into the Strait were essentially the same, while many of the adjectives, verbs and prepositional terminations differed in tribes which were closely adja- cent. He then gave a description of the multiform changes of the term- ination of the verbs, showing that the Eskimo of Repulse Bay had, in the indicative mood of a transitive verb, five forms, only one of which (the present) had an exact equivalent in English. 'They were the present form or tense; the past imperfect, indicating an action just MM qp the past perfect, indicating an action performed long ago; the future, re- lating to an action about to be performed; and the future perfect, whic denoted an action to be performed in some future time The termination alaha with the singular. dual di plural numbers, and the various cases of subject and object, result in a total number of indicative mood is eleven hundred and ninety, and of the whole verb is over three thousand one hundred, including the affirmative, negative, and eid be forms. The non-transitive verbs have a smaller number. T “to be” and “to have” are identical and possess very few ED also gave an account of the anatomical characters of the e plum cordon of lamellar gills all around the bo y. His recent investigation of the anatomy of many species, principally from the American coasts, had Shown that the value of these distinctions was less than had b een here- the Li il sub wW respectively bear the names of Abranchiata, and ee The AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 71 (561) 562 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION ipt Eu and Polyplacophora, included by Troschel in this order, o be eliminated; the former having the value of a subclass, while ae test form a well marked order. He concluded with some remarks on the synonymy of some of the genera most abundantly represented on our coasts. Mr. Tuomas MEEHAN read a paper on “ Nutrition and Sex in Plants." He referred to his **laws of sex," read last year, and now proposed to show that a decreased power of nutrition was one of the operating causes rme before the supra-pistillate ones opened. These were extremely weak, owing to the superior absorptive power of the females below them. He then exhibited some specimens of these, as well as some from a es large Chestnut tree, which had always borne abundant fruit, but had this year produced nothing but male flowers. The leaves were all striped with yellow and green, j inóloatini; as every PEO RAEE gardener knows, that. nutrition was obstructed. ants over watered, by which the young feeding roots rotted, always put on this yellow cast. The yellow tint always followed “ringing” the branches, or any accident done to the of the agents € Frei on the as of vitality that governed the sexes. rof. E E of Philadelphia, read a paper on the ** Reptilia of the 'Triassic e cacao of the United States.” He stated briefly the distri- bution of the rocks of Triassic sui and the localities at which verte- brate remains have been found. He stated that fourteen supposed species es = pigs which had not "Pm sb red to ien epotopriMes ons e then pointed out that three of the ge — Megadactylus of Hiteheoek, Clepsysaurus of Lea, and Bathygnathus E Leidy, longe to the order Dinosauria. This he had been unable to determine from the d r eyen the Ai bones, but from the pis elements. ec when in a sitting position. The fore limbs of the Megadactylus were rather long. The genus Clepsysaurus was, as Lea has pointed out, nearly related to Paleosaurus of the Bristol (England) conglomerate, while Ba- thygnathus was also related to the same and to Teratosaurus. Of the wW was established on remains from ee PER poni ered by FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 563 eee M. Wheatle ey. A portion of these was — They included bones of the extremities, pelvis, and vertebrae. The femora measured about thirteen inches in ——— It was bitis Belodon ote us. wiTh ican Trias that such was the case. us there was much greater diffi- culty in distinguishing the Crocodiles and Dinosauria of the Trias, than those of the Cretaceou This was to be es lly seen in the forms o the vertebræ, and the femora. The Rhynchocephalia and Thecodontia were Triassic groups still more generalized and intercalated between the preceding and the later orders Lacertilia and Crocodilia. In the case of ^ period Sandstone and Montrose Sandstone of Vanuxem with the Hamilton and r The sandstone referred to had been termed in the annual reports of Mr. Vanuxem the Montrose sandstone and Oneonta sandstone; the former a well marked locality in Pennsylvania; the latter n New Y York. This sandstone had been regarded as the terminal rock ee the series; and as section from near the ind to the top of the dign without recognizing any important subdivisio In the final nom NN. the term Pita group was adopted for the entire series. A red sandstone, which had been observed farther to the . Westward, along the Tioga River and ipo the borders of New York and Pennsylvan ia, containing "eats and bones of Holoptychius ae regarded as part of the same group. Since this red sandstone of Tioga was known to thin out to the westward, it gave support to the hypothesis that’ it was only the thinning western extension of the formation which was so largely developed in the Catskill Mountains. In the central and western parts of the State the limits of the Hamilton, Portage in Chemung groups, had been pretty well defined, the two latter occupying a great breadth in the southern counties. In the coloring of the map the great breadth given to the Catskill group in the eastern coun- ties reduced the Chemung and Portage to a narrow belt giving an incon- . 564 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION gruous aspect to the area, especially when we recognize the generally ac- cepted inse that the source of the sediments has been to the eastward of these its. - A few years after the close of the survey it was ascertained that in Delaware nu lying above the sandstones of Oneonta, there were sev- eral hundred feet of gray greenish and other sandstones and shales, con- taining the characteristic fossils of the Chemung group At the same time it was ascertained that the beds below the Oneonta sandstone in Schoharie and Otsego counties contained no characteristic . i i han cing t common characteristie species of that group. Waiting opportunities for farther investigation the results of these observations were not published, though the error has been partially corrected in the geological map pub- lished by the Geological Survey of Canada. Later observations have served to verify the earlier conclusions, but there has been no opportunity of tracing out in a complete and satisfac- tory manner the limit of this sandstone formation An examination of the Hamilton group along the valley of the Scho- harie creek, has shown that the more argillaceous deposits, with marine fossils, are succeeded by coarser beds with remains of land plants, and in the neighborhood of Gilboa numerous trunks of large tree-like plants have been found standing in the position in which they had grown. The entire thickness of the formation is not less than three thousand feet, and this is succeeded by the red and gray sandstone and shales originally de- scribed as the Oneonta and Montrose sandstones The entire thickness of this sandstone in Schoharie and Delaware counties has not been ascertained, but in the adjacent county of Otsego it is not less than five hundred feet, and is characterized by the diagonal lamination especially in the gray beds, and many of the layers contain remains of land plants. The characteristic fossil Cypricardites * of Vanuxem is found in a shaly bed at the bas the sandstones in Richmond's quarry near Mt. Upton, immediately ife a plant bed which, so ee; as at present determined, belongs to the upper part of the Hamilton p. iai: sandstone so far as observed, Pie contains remains of fishes, and ong them scales of Holoptychius, but all those seen had proved of in species from those of the Tioga red sandstone. Lyin he south and above the sandstones we have the series of beds before referred to. containing the characteristic fossils of the Chemung group, and above this the sandstone and conglomerate of the top of the Catskill mountains. ia EE E tincidu Cairill on. si C. angusta are both varieties of form due to pressure. The shell. ae is not a true Pa e * FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 565 The parallelism of the groups in the eastern and western parts of the State may be thus presented : — Old Red Sandstone of Tioga, etc Catskill Mt. aperi: Chemung Group, Chemung Gro Portage Group, Oneo ta Sandstone, Hamilton Group, Ha "icm Gro In the central part of the State there is no sandstone iid the char- ceous matter, and the absence of the evidence of cross currents pro- ducing diagonal virens anie d the ise of the same epoch to be Spread out evenly o We are not yet m teva to dl that the Oneonta sandstone of or followed the epoch of the slates and flagstones of the Portage as seen o th EGERIBASPR ade a communication on ‘ Boulder-trains in Berk- Shire county, spinis iP " In Richmond, Berkshire county, Mass., here are six or seven nearly parallel trains of angular boulders, two of them particularly well defined. Attention was called to them years ago by Dr. Reid of Pittsfield. They have been also referred to, and in part phép by Sir Charles Lyell, and the late President Hitchcock. e trains originate partly in a range of hills consistiug of chloritie naan, C o of the larger for some dise iens 'Their direction during the first heir course is south about 55° east. Somewhat farther on, they uth. President Hitchcock prosening that there was a submergence of the 566 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION region, speaks of these lines of boulders as osars. Sir Charles Lyell also supposing a depression, thinks these boulders were transported by coast- ere being no evidence of any eerie depression of this part of the continent during the Glacial Period, even if a submergence would afford an adequate opti which it rane not, how are we to account for these boulder-tr. As the vast ice- Bee which spread over the country gradually wasted, the FEL din from which these boulders were derived would be at last laid bare. 'The ice no longer passing directly over the tops of the hills, here is eirik that the mass was parted, moving around the north- septum. and South: westers sides of the several peaks. Of course, under h n thickness, and continuing to thaw, the boulders would be carried for- ward for some dett and finally left above the typical drift, as we now d As the ice wasted there would be changes in the direction of the moving mass, determined by the character of the un nderlying surface of solid rock, thus I us to account for the variation in the course of the boulder-tra Such, in brief, is Bd explanation suggested for these trains of angular o Professor ORTON presented a paper ‘On the Evidence of a Glacial Epoch at the Equator,” geriet controverted Professor Agassiz's theory of the glacial origin of the Amazon Valley. He briefly reviewed the state- The o si and plainly siiis that side toni of the Amazon, like the Pampas Plata as shown by Darwin, is an estuary creation, or the relic of à FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 561 not visible, and in their stead extinct shells are abundant. Professor Agassiz has declared that the Amazon clays are “ drift" from the Andes transported by glaciers and ground down to an impalpable powder. But these fossils, some of them very delicate, are marvelously well preserved. Two explanations of the existence of saya fossils have been given: (1) That they are accidental, being fragments of some formation elsewhere, mingled with the drift. But this hypothetical formation cannot be found. x e not be later than the Pliocene. Moreover, the terraces which would re- sult from submergence are not discernible within or on the borders of the valle Professor Orton then alluded to the glacial transmigration hypothesis, ite t Andean highlands, that there had been no mingling of plants such as would have resulted had a vast glacier covered the whole or even the greater part of North America. And the conclusion reached was that facts were incompatible with the existence of an equatorial glacier and even of an intertropical cold epoch.* Mr. UR W. Ray — United Stat es Commissioner of Mining, gave a cific slope. The speaker, to save the time of the meeting, condensed em vts rapid talk the substance t his "e papers on ** The Lava-ducts — epee 575 “ The Great Salt Marsh of panes Peak,. hanes Ney The mer, he said, was a picture from the heart of the great prec ptione of the North, and the latter an equally characteristic scene from the region of solfataric and thermal-aqueous metamorphosis in the South. The accumulation of ice in the subterra- nean lava- euni the disappearance in them of streams (“lost r rivers”), various other features were eet vente to. The speaker ascribed ihe ikalia deposits of the Ne Bs n to the decomposition of the soda-felspar abounding in the rocks, "ea means of hot gases and waters, Professor C. H. Hrrcucock presented a paper upon ** The Geology and Topography of the White Mountains." The topographical results were embodied in a model which he exhibited — a raised model on the scale of three-fourths of an inch to one thousand feet. This model is about four b aes fossils aboye €— were given to PE. Conran for RES nein He eee eia Seven extinet, I , of which only three are no: nted. The species are 7saca Ortoni, I. lintea, Liris daga ee don crassilabra, E. Mis: paea sulcatus, Dyris gracilis, Neritina Ortoni, Bulimus — Pachydon (Anisothyris) tenuis, P. carinatus, P. mih wus, P. Mid P. a ete. F. vafa $, P. altus, and a bivalve allied to Mulleria, Duplicates f Professor Orton. 568 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION feet long, and shows the territory bounded by the Ellis, Saco and Peabody rivers. It is colored to show the distribution of the several formations. M in ries; (2) granite; (3) e tcs si granites and traps; (4) Staurolite and andalusite rocks belonging to t 06s group. he first group composed. main range of mountains in sies from north to south, namely: Mad- ison, Adams, Jefferson, Clay, Washington, Monroe, Franklin, Pleasant, Clinton, Jackson and NA bster. Contrary to previously received opinions, it was said that the structure of this ridge is anticlinal and not synclinal, and the force crowding it up came from the north-west instead of south- east, as is the case everywhere else in the country. The relations of the granite to the schists is interesting. Ir is plain that the immense d ea was eruptive, for at the boundary of the two en granite had been injected into the schists. In the Saco hin ene di Notch, the granite occupies the lower area, and the schists upon th is the softest rock among the mountains, and therefore it is Ofen chiefly in the valleys. These valleys have very abrupt sides, thus resembling the Yosemite a in California. The Professor could not agree with the theory of the California geologists, that the bottoms of these valleys had fallen out, sis rather believed in the old-fashioned theory of denudation. The Coós group is à new one, it is not less than ten thousand feet in Teten ap is dpi of à quartzite Pin limestone with staurolite slates and schists. It is characterized by the presence of silicates of alumina destitute of — — and the minerals are staurolite, andalusite, and kyanite. Formations containing these minerals occur in New Hamp- shire, Vermont, Medus Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and they were referred to this new group. The same had been described by te Hunt a eeks previous in the ** American Journal of cience” as the Terranovan series, and some fossils of the am Pe- ri ad been found in it in Nova Scotia. It would hence appear that this ciently supposed position of the inita System. — system had been results would not follow the proposal ms ae new Coós Grou e next exhibited specimens of a new species of idee (Acidaspis ieu from New Jersey, obtained from a boulder which was trans- ported from New York by the glaciers. It came from the Marcellus slate. No other species of this genus had derer num been found above the Scho- harie grit. Professor C. H. Hrrcncock presented an argument to prove that a large portion of the North American Continent had been submerged beneath the interior along the great lakes. These were specified by name and locality, extending up the Hudson River and Champlain valley and the = FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 569 lakes of Ontario and Erie to Minnesota. He argued that these plants were originally introduced by natural emigration along an ancient estuary, and that many of them remain to the present day in consequence of the M of conditions favorable to their preservation. He supposed at the plants about the salt springs in Northern New York were intro- — in the same way. The pre-glacial flora has been completely de- Stroyed by the'intense cold, and while a new creation might explain the existence of salt water plants about the springs, it would not show w these marine plants could exist in the far interior. There should be a questions, and therefore it was urged "o botanists should faithfully pre- serve the localities of all their specimen Professor T. SrERRY Hunt said the ecd of black iron sand upon many sea beaches has long been noticed both in Europe and America. Their origin is to be found in the crystalline rocks, from the disintegration of which these sands have been derived. The action of the waves, b virtue of the greater speci vity of these sands, effects a process of concentration, so that considerable layers of nearly puré black sand are ften found on shores expos nd & These black sands vary New England and the Gulf of St. Lawrence consist of magnetic oxyd of an garnet, the purest specimens holding from thirty to fifty per cent. of mag- netic grains. Such sands have long been es as sources of iron in India, where they are directly converted in mall furnaces into malleable rking it were, however, made in cont game onn., where the Rev. he London Society of Arts in 1761 awarded a medal to Mr. Elliot for his discovery. The working, however, was abandoned, and for a century no ttempts were made in America to use these sands. Some four years AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. T2 * 510 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN. ASSOCIATION since the large quantities of them in the lower St. Lawrence attracted attention, and successful trials were made for their reduction in the bloomary fires of Northern New York, after which an establishment for working them was erected at Moisie in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where, under the direction of skilled workmen from Lake Champlain, the treat- ment of these iron sands has been successfully carried on. These sand ores are remarkably free from both sulphur and phosphorus, and hence yield an iron of great purity and toughness. e working is effected in forges like those used on Lake Champlain, and prs no difficulties. Prof. W. C. Kerr remarked ** On some points in the Stratigraphy a Surface Geology of North Carolina." ispum wo ibn narrow belts piedi of coal-bearing triassic rocks in North Carolina, lying, nearly parallel, in a direction a little north of east, A: separated by an elevated and rolling tract of metamorphie and granite rocks sem to seventy-five miles wide, are found to constitute the fragmentary fringes of an eroded inticindi the one dipping north-west at an angle of 30? to 75?, the other south-east ism plateau or mountain chain lying eastward, between the mesozoic e petens which **has left no sign" of its existence but this. I jum found no trace of glacial action in North Carolina, even in the most elevated mountain plateaus, but abundance of Quaternary gravels, whose position is such as to negative the existence of glaciers in iM latitude, y ad cut position is very Viet at an elevation of more than one thousand feet above the sea, and near the top of a hill one hundred feet above the val- ley of the Catawba Sce (which is one mile distant), and twenty-five miles from the Blue Ridge. It is covered and protected by eight to ten . feet of fluvial gravel and sand. It is peculiar also in its contents, being made up in considerable part of drift wood, and containing abundance of pine and hemlock cones (there being no hemlock forests nearer than the Blue Ridge) and other seeds, and also of charcoal, partially burned pine knots and charred logs. Another peculiarity is that the peat, occupying the middle of the nearly vertical face of the cut d Arce vas deep), and being exposed but one season, has put forth an abun > swamp vegetation, €— of carex, juncus, and several etna ws Swamp grass and wee There are evidences in eastern North Carolina of A oscilla- tions of sea level during the prehuman period (probably synchronous with the Da epoch). The accumulations of stratified gravels on the summits and slopes of the hills, at an elevation of more than three hundred feet above the present sea level, extending entirely across the State, at a distance of one hundred and on to one hundred and fty miles xtent direction, while the minimum of elevation is bug by the excavation of the channel of the Cape Fear River (e. g.) for more than thirty miles to a depth exceeding one hundred feet below the present tide level. * FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 511 Professor W. C. Kerr on the **Probable Origin of the South Carolina Phosphates.” The physical circumstances of tie deposition of these beds in their present situation, have been explained in a manner suffi- terials which compose them,—the elimination and accumulation of such enormous quantities of phosphate of lime in so peculiar a situat The recent discovery of the singular Brachiopod, Lingula tasters ig in the shoals along the sounds of North and South Carolina furnis lution of the mystery. This shell, it will be remembered, consists of phos- . phate instead of carbonate of lime. Its habitat is at the precise level of eA l loses its form and furnishes only its solid material, to be agglomerated by some concretionary or other chemical or chemico-mechanical force into the nodular masses which are so peculiar to this formation THE MICROSCOPICAL SUBSECTION OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, Which was initiated at the Salem meeting last year, was continued with renewed interest and increased numbers at the Troy meeting this summer, and promises to be a permanent and use ful division of the Association. Under the Constitution, as amended this year, this department is removed from Section B (Natural sane and recognized as Subsection C of Section A (Mathematics and Physics croscopy applied, the use of the instrument, being chiefly a department of Natural History. To avoid confusion at this Spi nesa of Natural History papers designed for this department should n a memorandum to that effect upon their MSS., as a request to the doen committee to B. Professor S. S. HALDEMAN, of Columbia, Pennsylvania, was elected Vaid Chairman this year; and Dr. R. H. Warp, of Troy, Secret petals this subsection, having been recently formed, has necessarily fraction, and which cannot fail to be a valuable addition to the resources f the working microscopist; and **on the Illumination of Binocular Mi- oscopes," by Dr. R. H. Ward, of Troy, suggesting convenient means of : a illumination in the naturalist’s every day work with the micro- cope, and urging that professional microscopists make their Lea + 512 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION more distinctly felt in regard to the lower classes of instruments that are furnished to be iras and particularly in regard to popularizing the Binocular Microscope. In exhibiting photographs by Dr. Maddox of the Podura scale, Presi- dent Barnard gave an exhaustive review of the discussion in regard to th structure of the fine The traditional ‘note of exclamation,” or goose- is difficult with sufficiently high powers. Professor Smith, of Kenyon Col- lege, orta to make the objective its own illuminator. Others have replaced the mirror M placed behind the lenses by a plate of glass or à prism ; ne all these means P^ a glare of light by reflection from the sur- panad the lenses. The speaker had proposed mirror behind the outer pair, an in- mele abs rkuhn (fig. 100) which works exceed- ingly well with medium powers, say one-third ` Fig. 100. - ipiertind in high powers, As ared si above the front pair), it Ped more light, and illuminates from any part or all parts of the circumference at will; on the other hand it is ut oe less easily applied, requiring the front lens to em ed in glass in : i shown in the photographs where the wedge- c pushing an pasakose far beyond its ordinary power were received with general distrust. In the itc which followed the reading of this paper, Dr. Ward remarked that the production of a beaded appearance, as a purely optical effect, should be —À am longer sienne vis rather an occasional accident to persons using high powers. As reme instance, in the case of a coarse and pisci si ese he aria vm while experiment- : ing upon an elater of Marchantia polymorpha, that beautiful double spiral FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 518 was *'resolved " into three rows of “beads” or ** hemispheres," perfectly distinct and unmistakable, which occupied, of course, the position of the middle and edges of the spiral. They were illuminated by parallel light, very enoda under a 1-15 objective of 175° worked at a power of 3,000 diameters Mr. E. Bicknell, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Mass., exhibited some diatoms recently thrown up by the sea at Marble- head, Mass. The deposit first found belonged to brackish water, as in- proof of the recent encroachments of the ocean upon the shore-line in tha vicinity. The Test Plate of Nobert, who has now “gone to the war,” and Dr. Woodward’s photographs of the same, were exhibited by Dr. Ward, chiefly in the interest of that part of the audience who were not profes- sional Agee eis and might be unfamiliar with these wonderful works an ists had seen the eden jio with powers of only five or six hundred diameters, In regard to the use of photography as a test of structure under high powers and difficult cireumstances, we may learn a lesson lines, which manifestly have nor da ta ce to the appearance of Scratches on glass as seen under suitable pow Dr. Ward had also been Gia te the idees of seeing two planes of the object at the same time with the Wenham's Binos ular. The eye -pieces conjugate foci below do not coincide. Some microscopists have attri- buted much of the stereoscopic effect to this fact, which, however, does ff difference of planes is most considerable), either to the stereoscopic ef- fect, or to the increased distinctness of definition above and below the plane of most perfect vision. An abundance of instruments were furnished by members to illustrate their discussions, or for the general work of the subsection. The first class stands were mos stly of the make of Powell and Leland, sus Beck, and Crouch, of London, of Nachét of Paris, and of Zentmeyer in this coun- try. The “Jackson” model of stand, with a curved arm, seems to be 514 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION growing in favor here; and it is to be hoped that those makers who have heretofore made only one style of stand will soon offer both; so that buy- ers can choose their style of stand irrespective of their choice of makers. In objectives and accessories Tolles; Wales, Zentmeyer, Grunow, Spencer, to be assumed by all members as a settled question. Few members, o the other hand, fall into the present fashion of high power objectives, — preferring to use lenses of 1-15 or 1-16, and downward, and gain greater amplification by other means than by ^pnind the nominal focus of the objective. Dr. Josiah Curtis exhibited a micro-telescope, or microscope and tele- scope combined, made to his order by Tolles. It is an ordinary Cutter's pound microscope acts as an erecting eye-piece. Furnished with a proper support this makes an admirable pocket telescope, defining well at pow- ers of forty or fifty diameters. Mr. Tolles had mounted a 2 1-2-inch lens with the society screw on each side of the shoulder, so that it can either be screwed on in the usual posi- giving, by approaching the eye-piece, about the power of a 4-inch lens at e usual distance. Microscopists have been accustomed to gain a lower power than could be focussed by their rack, by screwing a low objective not be used with the ordinary Binoculars. 'The lens, though of second class, was very good. i r. Tolles has also arranged a 4-inch objective in which a short work- ing focus is obtained by a reducing lens in the rear. This reducing lens, for convenience, is mounted in a sliding tube, and gives when pushed in a fair 3-inch power. As a 4-inch the combination is extrem mely good. _ Mr. Bicknell applies this expedient to ordinary objectives; placing in the draw-tube, instead of the concave amplifier sometimes used, an ach- pene convex lens as a reducer, with which an extremely low power n be obtained with good definition, flat field, and working focus not in- wr tibeten long. A4 1-2 or 5-inch lens (solar focus) may be used. A ow objective of two combinations may be sii is using one part as an objective: and placing the other in the draw-tu r. Ward had contrived a “clinical” ipse for use with the mi- donc of the same name. The clinical microsc cope is very convenient for examining mounted specimens, which is exactly what it is not wanted FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 515 for— except by teachers. He had used it for years in teaching, but not much as a ‘‘clinical.” A glass slide to hold the object, with a thin cover laid on by capillary attraction, is well for once, but does not satisfy a busy man. It applies to too limited a range of objects; and the cover is inconvenient to carry, awkward to handle, and easy to break. He had used Wenham's compressor until lately, but that is inconvenient under the springs of the “clinical” stage. The new compressor, figured below, is simple (and d inexpensive) and can be used with great bes both for clinical and class use, and for much of the ordinary work of th microscopist. It is E except upon a large stage, in hii case it would require a few pins to serve as legs. The want of parallelism is less than in most compressors, and is not inconvenient in clinical use. The two brass plates seht entirely for apto the object or clean- ing the glass. The upper plate fits into a notch filed in a ledge at the left of the lower, the Prata of the two plates ss secured by a pin through the lower and a notch in the upper. The screw which attaches them at the right is permanently fastened in the upper plate by a groove ‘sia a pin. It has a coarse thread, which may be cut double to screw out . more rapidly, or — AG may be reversed near the centre so that it will at the same tim e the upper se depress the lower plate. Should a steadier motion [n pecus a spring may be riveted upon one plate to press against the other. The rie i is adjusted for a glass of 1-20 Fig. 101. mess Ward's Clinieal Compressor. inch below the object and 1-125 above, cemented upon the inner surface of the brass plates. This is strong enough to carry in the pocket safely; it can also be used with the parabolic illuminator, or with any objective or achromatic condenser except those of large angular aperture. uld thin glass be required for any purpose, a glass or tin cell of sufficient thickness to e putres should be cemented on one of the plates, or both if necessary, and the thin v fastened upon the rim thus form Should no cell of UE thickness be at hand, select a glass cover of the required thickness, fasten i iih marine glue on one of the plates, punch out with a file the part corresponding to the opening in the plate, and then fasten the thin glass with Canada balsam upon this extem- zed Ti Mw Mr. E. B. Benjamin, of New York, exhibited a microscope by Gundlach of Berlin. This was a sma cheap instrument, according to the 516 ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. Hanaman and others. They have already vindicated their name in this sense as well as at home. r. Charles Stodder, of the Boston Optical Works, exhibited Cutter's rn microscopes, and Tolles’ students’ microscopes, of various degrees f comp them. In buying a students' microscope, however, the beginner should always be advised, in the writer's judgment, to have it —€— witha first class l-inch objective or something very near it. So much of his early work is, or ought to be, done with this power, and his success as well as pleasure depends so much upon its light and ae that it ought to be the last point economized upon. The sliding stage upon some of these instruments would seem to be easily convertible, for those inim wish it, into a White's lever stage. Mr. F. Miller, of New York, exhibited a good students' microscope of very low cost. It is chiefly ewe for its large body, which admits à large ions piece and gives a good r. Miller also exhibited excellent illuminating prisms and various accessories and objects, including Mól- ler's beautiful type pla Crouch's educ E rhet abs had a larger body than even Miller's, admitting the use of the same eye-pieces as the first class stands: e y Swift of eme was exhibited by Dr. Ward. Also Murray and Heath's *sea- side. Of the general business of the subsection the most important was the appointment of a committee to report in relation to uniform standards in the power of a; eye-pieces, etc. President F. A. P. Barnard of New York, Mr. E. Bicknell of Cambridge, apes ss., Dr. R. H. Ward of Troy, N. Y., Professor C. E. Pickering of Bost s Prona r O. N. Rood of New York, and Dr. Josiah Curtis of Plum. diese di this committee. Oe ANSWERS TO eS E oo. 4h d e Humming Bird you describe is the male of the common Ruby- throated H e Bird erre moi L.) The female and "cs eru are without the yy eek rlet color on roat seen in the males fter midsummer the paoata throated individuals are d Rd numerous thon the baies There is but one species of Humming Bird in the Northern States. — J. A. A J. M. J., Halifax.— We will endeavor to name the collection of marine invertebrates you 8: A. W., Bucks eos Pa. — Your fern is Osmunda regalis. —J. L S. L., Freehold. N. J Piola: con hag fos is eg pa ees rape Surak, which was in- troduc ed Ears Togian and t 0 Quebe aa R statea to to de estroy annually cabbages in de lreid da m city. It thence spread into New ots and is now common about New York. d Philadelphia. It feeds con- €— on the heart of enden ere | yiee the two other species of Pieris, P. Protodice virak pia orn -— yd upæ of a ies of Syrphus fly, which feeds.on the plant. lice, Sca d wir on the ses in dio saiem Tihe 8 yrphus fly is of course AES We AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. IV.— DECEMBER, 1870.— No. 10. CTP ORDOD > THE FLORA OF THE PRAIRIES. BY J. A. ALLEN. PnosasLY the vegetation of no two adjoining regions, both of which are situated between the same parallels of latitude and at nearly the same height above the sea, presents greater differences than exist between the vegetation of the fertile prairies of the Mississippi Valley. and the forest re- gion that extends from their eastern border to the Atlantic coast. To one who has always lived amid the diversified scenery of the Eastern or Middle States, where distant mountains almost everywhere bound the view, and forest- crowned hills and cultivated valleys so agreeably alternate as to dispel the possibility of monotony, a first view of the primitive prairies, — ** The unshorn fields, boundless and beautiful,” as Bryant has so felicitously described them, which * stretch In airy undulations far away the ocean, in his gentlest swell, Stood still, with is rounded billows fixed And motionless forever," — is extremely novel and full of interest. But the prairies, “unshorn” of their primitive wildness will soon be things of the past, so great are the attractions they hold forth to the emigrant, and so rapid the transformation that follows their oes disks cM E AR ML Tw Lustziot Entered aocordine to A "Ad TD. he tha D A & ha fikia OUR * AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 78 . (577) 518 THE FLORA OF THE PRAIRIES. settlement. Already there are few localities east of the Missouri where their primal simplieity and beauty have not already been more or less modified. Great changes in the vegetation of a new country neces- sarily result from its settlement by an agricultural people, but the rapidity and ultimate completeness of the transform- ation greatly depend upon the relative susceptibility of the country to cultivation. Since vast areas of the prairies offer no obstruetions to the revolutionizing plow, the aston- ishing rapidity of the change in the flora that follows its march can scarcely be conceived by those who have not witnessed its actual progress. No sooner is the sod inverted than scores of species of the original and most characteristic plants almost wholly disappear; in a few years the luxuriant wild grasses, overtopped with showy flowers, varying the hue of the landscape with the advancing season, have be- come supplanted by the cultivated grasses and the cereals, and that constant scourge of the agriculturist, the ever intru- sive weeds. The timber no longer remains confined to narrow belts skirting the streams, for besides the newly-set orehards, rapidly growing kinds of trees, planted to afford shelter from the fierceness of the summer's sun and the fury of the bleak winter winds, everywhere diversify the land- scape, while comfortable log cabins, or neatly painted, com- modious houses give an air of civilization to districts that at no distant period were the undisturbed home of the buf- falo and the elk. Far more slow has been the change at the eastward, where the forests have slowly yielded to the axe of the woodman, and where much of the land is too uneven for cultivation. Here the forests, though in the longest set- . tled districts perhaps once or twice removed, still cover no inconsiderable part of the country, and consist, for the most part, of the indigenous trees in nearly their original propor- tions, while the lesser shrubs and the herbaceous plants they primitively sheltered are still persistent, and to a great de- THE FLORA OF THE PRAIRIES. 519 gree occupy the neglected pastures, the roadsides and the waste nooks of the farms. In short the transformations of the flora of the prairies are often far more complete after a period of settlement covering but two decades, than are to be seen in those portions of New England which have been occupied by Europeans for as many centuries. In the present article it is proposed to sketch briefly some of the peculiarities of the primitive flora of the Upper Mis- sissippi prairies,* which not improperly, either in respect to their fertility under cultivation, or the luxuriance and beauty of their native vegetation, have been styled the "Garden of the West." The wild plants of the prairies present at every season features peculiarly attractive. In spring ane- mones and violets, as elsewhere, are among the early flowers, the latter of which are particularly numerous and character- istic, peering brightly out among the young fresh blades of grass. To these soon succeed several species of beautiful phloxes, the painted cup, and the prairie rose. Later still ^ appear the purple and the white turban flowers (Petaloste- mon violaceus Michx., and P. candidus Michx.), the ceano- thus, the hoary-leaved, purple-flowered lead plant (Amorpha canescens Nutt.), the purple cone flower (Echinacea angus- tifolia DC.), and, from its abundance perhaps the most con- spieuous of all, the beautiful Coreopsis palmata, which here and there gives its own bright color to large patches of the undulating landscape. Blazing stars of several species (Liatris squarrosa Willd., L. pycnostachya Michx., L. sca- riosa Willd.), with their long nodding spikes of rose-purple flowers soon follow, ranking among the most showy of the many showy plants. To these are soon added sunflowers of various species, most common of which are the Helianthus rigidus Desf., the H. giganteus Linn., the H. grosse-serratus Mart., the Actinomeris helianthoides Nutt., and the Lepachys pinnata T. & G. ; the tall compass plant (Silphium lacini- * The region more especially under consideration is Northern Illinois, and Central and Western Iow 580 THE FLORA OF THE PRAIRIES. atum Linn.) ; the Indian plantain ( Cacalia tuberosa Nutt.), the tall verbena ( V. hastata Linn.), and the yucca-leaved rattlesnake master (Eryngium yuccefolium Michx.); all generally remarkable either for their large showy flowers, or the peculiar character of their foliage or habits. Finally the season closes with the later sunflowers and coreopses, some of which are of gigantic size, towering far above one’s head ; the purple- llomamd gaurias and the golden epilobiums. From the first springing up of the early flowers till the frosts of autumn end the floral season, the prairies are arrayed in bright and showy hues by a succession of species of larger and taller growth, each later set not only overtopping their predecessors, but the rapidly growing prairie grasses. Ever varied too are the prevailing colors. Here blue prevails, there white or purple, and again large tracks are golden, as everywhere a few prevailing forms give character to the veg- etation. Generally they are coarse, large plants, often res- inous, with thick, harsh leaves and large flowers, and nearly all are species never or rarely met with in the Atlantic States, and never as characteristic species of the eastern flora. The Composite and the Leguminose are preéminently the prevailing families, far more so indeed than at the eastward. Many of the species are in various ways remarkable, but none more so perhaps than the plant popularly known as the compass plant (Silphium laciniatum), whose large, thick, rigid, upright root-leaves, one to two and a half feet long, are reputed to uniformly present their edges north and soul) whence its name. Though they do aot thus invariably ar- range themselves, they generally stand in this direction, so uniformly in fact that they well serve as a convenient guide to the traveller in determining the points of the com- pass.* Another species of the same genus, called the cup nA dec NEUE bec onde dai Ti ME * Since the above was written an interesting paper on the Compass Plant was read by Dr. Thomas Hill at the Troy meeting of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, an abstract of (Vol. iv, p. 495, October, 1870). Dr. Hill refers this polarity to the a the two sidan x the leaf being equally sensitive, and struggling for r equal THE FLORA OF THE PRAIRIES. 581 plant (S. perfoliatum), from the large opposite leaves of the stem being connate at their bases, forming a considerable cup-like cavity, capable of containing water, is common in the moist ravines. Other remarkable forms are the Indian plantain (Cacalia tuberosa), conspicuous for its thick, smooth, plantain-like leaves, deep-green on both sides and strongly ribbed; and the yucca-leaved rattlesnake master, or button snakeroot (Eryngium yuccefolium), with its linear grass-like, bristly fringed leaves, and its bracted flowers, closely sessile in dense heads, —an umbelliferous plant, but wholly unlike the generality of the species of the Umbellif- er&, both in its foliage and in the form of its inflorescence. The prairie clovers, or turban flowers (Pentalostemon) , are among the most interesting of the leguminose species, and among the most characteristic. Their oblong or cylindrical heads . of white or purple flowers are evidently: suggestive of the latter name. Each head continues in flower for many days. At first the flowers form a band at the base of the head, which, gradually moving upward, later occupies the middle of the head, and finally its summit, recalling the Oriental head-dress, in allusion to which these plants here received one of their common names. The habits of some of the sunflowers, but especially those of the Helianthus rigidus, present one feature of interest. The H. rigidus is one of the earliest flowering species and one of the most abundant ones, it being in some locali- ties one of the most conspicuous and characteristic plants. By the middle of August it has attained nearly its full height, which commonly ranges from two and a half to four fees the terminal heads of ae earlier specimens have already begun to unfold their yellow rays, and those of the rest are nodding on their flexible stalks. It isa popular belief that the sunflower always turns its flowers towards the sun, but in reality so numerous are the exceptions to this rule in our garden sunflowers and in our common wild species of the East, that few observing people regard it doubtless as other- 582 THE FLORA OF THE PRAIRIES. wise than an idle whim. With many of the prairie sunflow- ers, however, the facts are different; especially is this so in the case of H. rigidus. Morning after morning, at flowering time, the heads of this species may be seen bending gently towards the east; they are erect at mid-day, and at evening gracefully droop towards the west. This continues day after day for weeks, with surprising regularity and uniformity. Later, however, the stems grow rigid and remain nearly ver- tical. In this case at least the popular notion referred to above seems well founded. Aside from the open prairie species already mentioned — which embrace the greater part of the most conspicuous ones — numerous others of almost equal interest are found grow- ing in the low grounds, and in the open forest belts that skirt the streams. Prominent among these are coreopses aud sunflowers of several species, especially the C. aristosa and C. tripteris, Helianthus strumosus, H. decapetalus and H. tracheliifolius; the ground nut (Apios tuberosa Moench.) with its fragrant, dark purple flowers ; the western iron weed ( Vernonia fasciculata Miehx.), the great St. John’s-wort (Hypericum pyramidatum Ait.), the broad-leaved polygonum (P. Pensylvanicum Linn.), and, in more open and drier places, the rag-weeds (Ambrosia), the wormwoods (Arte- misia), the tick-trefoils (Desmodium), the bush clovers (Lespedeza), and the psoraleas. Many species of such east- ern plants as love rich moist woods, are also found here. One of the strangest features, perbaps, in the flora of the prairies, and that which of course constitutes them prairies, is the entire absence of arboreal or even suffruticose species, the timber of this region, as is well known, forming open park-like belts along the streams, which with great propriety have received the name of “groves.” Here the species, as might be expected, more strongly recall the flora of the East, the resemblance extending not only to the trees and shrubs, but to the herbaceous species that flourish beneath their shelter. But the predominant species can hardly be regarded THE FLORA OF THE PRAIRIES. 583 as properly eastern forms, while the entire absence of repre- sentatives of some large groups of trees and shrubs that are common at the East makes the difference greater than at first seems. One may traverse hundreds of square miles in the prairie districts without meeting a single birch, alder, a chestnut, beech, or aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.), nor any species of pine, spruce, hemlock or other coniferous tree, all of which are so abundant in the forests of the Atlantic States as to constitute the prevailing species. Two species of cottonwood (Populus monilifera Ait., and P. angulata Ait.), so closely allied as to be confounded as one by the casual observer, but neither of them exclusively western, are probably the most characteristic trees, as they are certainly the most abundant and important. The sugar maple, the linden, elms, bitter-nut and other hickories (chiefly the former), butternuts, black walnuts, burr, white, black and other oaks, several species of ashes, the beautiful ash-leaved maple (JVegundo aceroides Mench.) and the locust (Ztobinia Pseudacacia Linn.), are the principal and almost the only important kinds of timber, the greater number of which are more or less common trees. Among the shrubs are several species of sumach (Rhus) and the hazel bush ( Corylus Americana Walt.), which here, as at the East, principally compose the thickets, whilst the Ceanothus, or Jersey tea, is a frequent inhabitant of the prairies. One searches in vain, however, for any whortle-berry bushes ( Vaccinium), of which so many species abound at the East, or for any repre- sentatives of the large family Hricacee, than which no fam- ily is more characteristic of the woodlands of the Eastern States. Viburnums are common, and the elder ( Sambucus Canadensis Linn.), the honeysuckle (Lonicera), the snow- berry (Symphoricarpus), and other caprifoliaceous shrubs are more or less frequent. The wild apple, the Washington thorn (Crategus cordata Ait.), and the wild plum are com- mon among the rosaceous shrubs, but blackberries and raspberries are rare. The wild plum grows in the river 584 THE FLORA OF THE PRAIRIES. bottoms in unsurpassed perfection. "Though they are all, or nearly all, of the same species (Prunus Americana Marsh), the varieties in respect to the form, size, color and quality of the fruit are almost endless, the plums varying in form from spherical to egg-shaped, and from nearly white through every intermediate stage of color to yellow and even dark red, and in flavor from bitter, uneatable kinds to those as delicious as the highly cultivated varieties of the garden. From the abundanee of woody climbers the forests of the river bottoms sometimes present an almost tropical aspect. The Virginia creeper (Ampelopsis quinquefolia Michx.), and the winter grape ( Vitis cordifolia Michx.), climb to the tops of the highest trees, with a diameter of the stem exceeding any specimens I have elsewhere seen. Other climbers are frequent, including the singular wild cucumber, or balsam apple (Echinocystis lobata T. & G.), which assumes an al- most tropical luxuriance, here and there abundantly envel- oping the trees. The restriction of the forests to the river bottoms and their banks has previously been alluded to as a remarkable feature, of which various explanations have been offered. The fact of the rapid encroachment of the forests upon the prairies wherever they have been protected from exposure to the annual fires that formerly swept over the country, and the rapid growth of the timber whenever it becomes estab- lished, indicate clearly that not only have the fires had much to do with their restriction, but that there is nothing either in the climate or the soil unfavorable to their rapid spread. The damper northern slopes of the streams being also gen- erally better wooded than the necessarily drier southern slopes, also points to the fires as the great agency that has operated through long ages to check their increase, and that their circumscription has had little to do with the peculiar origin of the prairies and of their present flora, as some have formerly supposed. As has been already incidentally remarked, the vegetation THE FLORA OF THE PRAIRIES. 585 of the open prairies, as compared with the herbaceous vege- tation of regions to the eastward similarly situated geograph- ically, is mostly made up of coarse, large species, and of forms peculiar to the prairies. It consists, moreover, prin- cipally of a comparatively few predominant forms,—features strongly in contrast with those of the neighboring regions. The grasses, like.the exogenous species, are also few in spe- cies, but coarse and luxuriant, as they are the product of a soil of unsurpassed fertility. Yet the flora as a whole is one singularly susceptible to the inroads of civilization. Even the grazing of cattle for a few years is sufficient to materially alter its character. The grasses, according to the testimony of early settlers, soon dwindle in size and luxuriance, while the relative abundance of the other plants becomes materially altered. As already remarked, the breaking and turning of the soil at once exterminates a large number of the previ- ously dominant species, and instead of lingering as trouble- some weeds, the more hardy exotics, that through man's influence assume an almost cosmopolitan habitat, usurp their places, the cereals, the cultivated grasses and the noxious weeds of the old world thoroughly crowding out the original occupants of the soil. "With all the beauty and the novelty of the primal flora of the prairies, the traveller, after a few weeks of constant wandering amid their wilds, is apt soon to experience a monotony that becomes wearisome, the full degree of which he scarcely realizes till the soft green sward and the varied vegetation of cultivated districts again meet his eye. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 74 DISTRIBUTION OF THE MARINE SHELLS OF FLORIDA.* BY DR. WILLIAM STIMPSON. OxE of the most striking peculiarities of the zoology of Florida is the diversity in the character of the littoral shells of the two sides of the peninsula. The naturalist passing from St. Augustine to Cedar Keys finds upon the western beach a group of shells so different from those he had seen upon the Atlantie shore, that he is reminded of the similar (though vastly greater) difference in the fauna which exists on the two sides of the continent itself; for instance, at the isthmus of Panama. This diversity is seen in the common large shells as well as in the fauna taken as a whole. Thus on the east coast Busycon canaliculatum, B. carica, Dosinia discus, Arca incongrua and A. Americana are the most abundant shells, while they are not found at all on the west coast; and at Cedar Keys and Tampa Bay we find the sub- tropical species Cassidulus corona, Busycon perversum, Py- rula papyratia, Strombus alatus, Bulla occidentalis, Callista gigantea, Dosinia elegans and Arca Floridana? strewed on the beaches in great numbers, while they occur but rarely on the east coast; some of them not at all. The list presented contains the names of three hundred and fourteen species collected by me on the two coasts, of which only one hun- dred and forty-five, or less than half, were common to both ; fifty-eight being peculiar to the east and one hundred and eleven to the west coast. Several of these species are in- deed representative, but specifically quite distinct. These results will no doubt be considerably modified by future re- searches, as some of the smaller species may have escaped detection on one or the other of the two shores, although really existing upon both. But the fact will, nevertheless, remain that a marked difference exists between the faune of these shores notwithstanding their proximity and notwith- * Abstract of a paper read at a recent meeting of the Chicago Academy of Sciences. (586) DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHELLS OF FLORIDA. 581 standing the comparatively recent origin of the peninsula which separates them. Of the recent origin of the Floridan peninsula (or at least of the northern part which makes the separation between the great Carolinian Bay and the Gulf of Mexico), we have not only geological but zoólogical evidence. Although, as shown above, the littoral fauna * of that part of the gulf which bathes the west coast of Florida is of a character far more tropical than that of the east coast, the fauna of the latter is reproduced in the northwestern part of the gulf. The correspondence between the shells of Galveston and those of South Carolina was noticed by Roemer many years ago, and the fact is now confirmed by an examination of the shells brought by Dr. Durham from several points on the coast between Point Isabel and Pensacola. The peninsula and warm waters of the southern cape of Florida now form an impassable barrier to the western migration of species of the temperate fauna into the colder parts of the gulf, but of their connection within a comparatively recent geological period there can be no doubt. The connection was probably through sandy straits and lagoons, too shallow to allow of the passage of the gulf-stream, but perhaps permitting the westward flow of the cold waters of the Carolinian Bay. The present tropical character of the shells of the west coast of Florida is plainly due to the influence of the gulf- stream, which is not here, as in the northwestern part of the gulf, crowded off the shores by the waters of a great river, or by cold northwest winds. On the other hand the east coast, as far south as Cape Canaveral, forms a part of the shore of the Curolinian Bay, along which, inside of the guif-stream, a cold current runs, giving to this part of Flor- ida a coast fauna similar to that of South Carolina. * By the littoral fauna, that of the true ocean shores is here meant. The waters of the shallow inlets "rer estuaries of the west coast are subject to great changes of tem- perature, which, dar ing the w inter *morthers," may fall to the freezing point, at Which times fish ca s > i t numbers i expected, ; mig the fauna of these adag E vet uy e from that of the beaches, and such northern forms as Modiola poenis and Cardium Mortoni, which are adapted to such extremes €f temperature, find here a congenial station. THE BORERS OF CERTAIN SHADE TREES. BY A. S. PACKARD, JR. IN no way can the good taste and publie spirit of our citi- zens be better shown than in the planting of shade trees. Regarded simply from a commercial point of view one can- not make a more paying investment than setting out an oak, elm, or maple or other shade tree about his premises. To a second generation it becomes a precious heirloom, and the planter is duly held in remembrance for those finer quali- ties of heart and head, and the wise forethought which prompted a deed simple and natural, but a deed too often undone. What an increased value does a fine avenue of shade trees give to real estate in a city? And in the country the single stately elm rising gracefully and benignantly over the wayside cottage, year after year like a guardian angel sending down its blessings of shade, moisture and coolness in times of drought, and shelter from the pitiless storm, recalls the Létddiost associations of generations after genera- tions that go from the old homestead. Occasionally the tree, or a number of them, sicken and die, or linger out a miserable existence, and we naturally after failing to ascribe the cause to bad soil, want of mois- ture or adverse atmospheric agencies, conclude that the tree is infested with insects, especially if the bark in certain places seems diseased. Often the disease is in streets lighted by gas, attributed to the leakage of the gas. Such a case has come up during the past year at Morristown, New Jersey. An elm was killed by the Elm borer, Compsidea tridentata of Olivier, and the owner was on the point of su- ing the Gas Company for the loss of the tree from the sup- posed leakage of a gas pipe. While the matter was in dispute, Mr. W. C. Baker of that city took the pains to peel off a piece of the bark and found, as he writes me, (588) THE BORERS OF CERTAIN SHADE TREES. 589 “great numbers of the larve of C. tridentata in the bark and between the bark and the wood, while the latter is 'tat- tooed’ with sinuous grooves in every direction and the tree is completely girdled by them in some places. . There are three different sizes of the larve, evidently one, two and three years old, or more properly six, eighteen and thirty months old." The tree had to be cut down. Dr. Harris, in his Treatise on injurious insects, gives an account of the ravages of this insect which we quote: "On the 19th of June, 1846, Theophilus Parsons, Esq., sent me some fragments of bark and insects which were taken by Mr. J. Richardson from the decaying elms on Boston Com- mon, and among the insects I recognized a pair of these beetles in a living state. The trees were found to have suf- fered terribly from the ravages of these insects. Several of them had already been cut down, as past recovery ; others were in a dying state, and nearly all of them were more or less affected with disease or premature decay. Their bark was perforated, to the height of thirty feet from the ground, with numerous holes, through which insects had escaped ; and large pieces had become so loose, by the undermining of the grubs, as to yield to slight efforts, and come off in flakes. The inner bark was filled with burrows of the grubs, great numbers of which, in various stages of growth, together with some in the pupa state, were found therein; and even the surface of the wood, in many cases, was fur- towed with their irregular tracks. Very rarely did they seem to have penetrated far into the wood itself; but their operations were mostly confined to the inner layers of the bark, which thereby became loosened from the wood be- neath. The grubs rarely exceed three-quarters of an inch a length. They have no feet, and they resemble the larve of other species of Saperda, except in being rather more flattened. They appear to complete their transformations in the third year of their existence. “The beetles probably leave their holes in the bark during 590 THE BORERS OF CERTAIN SHADE TREES. the month of June and in the beginning of July; for, in the course of thirty years, I have repeatedly taken them at vari- ous dates, from the 5th of June to the 10th of July. It is evident, from the nature and extent of their depredations, that these insects have alarmingly hastened the decay of the Fig. 115. elm-trees on Boston Mall and Common, and . that they now threaten their entire destruc- | tion. Other causes, however, have prob- ably contributed to the same end. It will be remembered that these trees have greatly suffered, in past times, from the ravages of canker-worms. Moreover, the impenetrable state of the surface-soil, the exhausted con- dition of the subsoil, and the deprivation of all benefit from the decomposition of accumulated leaves, which, in a state of nature, the trees would have enjoyed, but which a regard for neatness has industriously removed, have doubtless had no small influence in diminishing the vigor of the trees, and . thus made them fall unresistingly a prey to insect-devourers. The plan of this work precludes a more full consideration of these and other topics connected with the growth and decay of these trees; and I can only add, that it may be prudent to cut down and burn zll that are much infested by the borers.” ee The Three-toothed Compsidea (Fig. 115), tridentata, is a rather flat-bodied, dark brown beetle, with a rusty red curved line behind the eyes, two stripes on the thorax, and a three-toothed stripe on the outer edge of each wing cover. It is about one-half an inch in length. The larva (Fig. 116, drawn from the living specimen) is white, subcylindrical, a little flattened, with the lateral fold of the body rather prominent; the end of the body is flat- tened, obtuse, and nearly as wide at the end as at the first abdominal ring. The head is one-half as wide as the pro- Compsidea tridentata, THE BORERS OF CERTAIN SHADE TREES. 591 thoracic ring, being rather large. The prothoracie, or seg- ment just behind the head, is transversely oblong, being about twice as broad as long ; there is a pale dorsal corneous transversely oblong shield, being about two- -_ thirds as long as wide, and nearly as long as the four succeeding segments; this plate is smooth, except on the posterior half, which is rough, with the front edge irregular and not extending far down the sides. Fine hairs arise from the front edge and side of the plate, and similar hairs are scattered over the body and especially around the end. On the upper side of each segment is a transversely oblong ovate roughened area, with the front edge slightly convex, and behind slightly arcuate. On the under side of each segment are similar rough horny plates, but arcuate in front, with the hinder edge straight. It differs from the larva of Saperda ves- lita Say, in the body being shorter, broader, more hairy, with the tip of the abdomen flatter and more hairy. The prothoracic segment is broader and flatter, and the rough portion of the dorsal plates is larger and less transversely ovate. The structure of the head shows that its generic distinctness from Saperda is well founded, as the head is smaller and flatter, the cly- peus being twice as large, and the labrum broad and short, while in S. vestita it is longer than broad. The mandibles are much longer and slenderer, and the anteunz are much smaller than in S. vestita. Saperda vestita. Fig. 118. Saperda vestita, larva. 592 THE BORERS OF CERTAIN SHADE TREES. The Linden Tree-borer (Saperda vestita of Say, Fig. 117) is a greenish snuff yellow beetle, with six black spots near the middle of the back; and it is about eight-tenths of an inch in length, though often smaller. The beetles, according to Dr. Paul Swift, as quoted by Dr. Harris, were found (in Philadelphia) upon the small branches and leaves on the 28th day of May, and it is said that they come out as early as the first of the month, and continue to make their way through the back of the trunk and large branches during the whole of the warm season. They WX immediately fly into the top of the ç S#erda calcarata, larva. tree, and there feed upon the epidermis of the tender twigs, and the petioles of the leaves, often wholly denuding Fig. 120. the latter, and caus- ing the leaves to fall. They deposit their eggs, two or three in a place, upon the trunk or branches, especially about the forks, making slight incis- ions or punctures for their reception with their strong jaws. As many as ninety Prionus brevicornis and pupa. eggs have been taken from a single beetle. The grubs (Fig. 118e; qd; enlarged view of the head seen from above; b, the under view of the same; ¢, side view, and d, two rings of the body enlarged), hatched from these eggs, undermine the bark to the extent of six or eight inches, in sinuous channels, or pen- Fig. 119. THE BORERS OF CERTAIN SHADE TREES. 593 etrate the solid wood an equal distance. It is supposed that three years are required to mature the insect. Various ex- pedients have been tried to arrest their course, but with- out effect. A stream, thrown into the tops of trees from the hydrant, is often used with good success to dislodge other insects; but the borer- beetles, when thus dis- turbed, take wing and hover over the trees till all is quiet, and then alight and go to work again. The trunks and branches of some of the trees have been washed over with Fig. 122. various preparations without benefit. Boring the trunk near the ground, and putting in sulphur and other drugs, and plugging, have been tried with as little effect. The city of Philadelphia has suffered grievously from this borer. Dr. Swift remarks, in 1844, that " the trees in Washington and Independence Squares were first observed to have been attacked about seven years ago. Within two years it has been found nec- essary to cut down forty-seven European lindens in the former square alone, where ! there now remain only a few American foret tetnator, arra TOGENE, and these a good deal eaten.” (Ost In New England this beetle should be looked for during the first half of June. The Poplar tree is infested by another species of Saperda (S. calcarata of Say). This is a much larger beetle than AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 75 Fig. 121. 6 Saperda inornata and larva. 594 SPRINGTIME ON THE YUKON. those above mentioned, being an inch or a little more in length. It is gray, irregularly striped with ochre, and the wing-covers end in a sharp point. The grub (Fig. 119a; b, top view of the head ; c, under side) is about two inches long and whitish yellow. It has, with that of the Broad-necked Prionus ( P. laticollis of Drury, Fig. 120 and pupa), as Harris states, "almost entirely destroyed the Lombardy poplar in this vicinity (Boston). It bores in the trunks, and the Fig. 123. beetle flies by night in August and Sep- tember. We also figure the larva of another borer (Fig. 121c; a, top view of the head; b, under side; e, dorsal view of an abdominal segment; d, end of the body, showing its peculiar form), the Saperda inornata of Say, the beetle of which is black, with ash gray hairs, and without spines on the elytra. It is much smaller than any of the foregoing species, being nine-twentieths of an inch in. length. Its habits are not known. We also figure, from the manuscript work of : Abbot, the larva and pupa (Fig. 122, d, pupa; 5, larva) of Monohammus titillator of Fabricius, but he does not state on what treo it feeds. We copy also a figure of the larva and pupa of Chion cinctus (Fig. 123, 4, pupa; 5, larva), from the same work. The author gives no account of its habits. | i à Chion cinctus, larva and pupa. SPRINGTIME ON THE YUKON. BY W. H. DALL. Havine joined the readers of the NarvRALIST in a winter day's journey on the Ulukuk portage not long since, We may, if so inclined, try our fortune again together, in the SPRINGTIME ON THE YUKON. 595 more pleasant springtime, and gather what facts we may of interest and value during another day, spent on the great river of the northwest, and its shores. The spring, after the middle of March, comes on with eager steps in the Yukon Territory. The days lengthen so rapidly that the change is almost perceptible from one day to another. The great snow blanket, from six to eight feet thick, which covers the whole country, sinks and hardens from day to day. A tremulous mist, quivering like the hot air above a heated iron, hovers over the brilliant surface of the snow crust, and to this is due the painful inflammation of the eyes (conjunctivitis) which is only too familiar to the northern voyageur under the name of "snow blind." To avoid it, we don a. pair of dark green glass goggles, or the wooden goggles of the Eskimo, which admit tbe light only through a narrow slit in the blackened wood, warding off the reflected light; yet even through these the surface of a hill or river appears most dazzling, so intense is the snow glare. Early in April the long hot days and short nights are felt and their results indieated, by the water which covers and softens the ice sheets on lakes and rivers. Shirt sleeves are the rule, and open casements let in thé unaccustomed sun- light without stint, while the dark parchment windows of winter are laid aside. On the tenth of April, though the whole country was white with the half melted snow sheet, flies, to all appearance the familiar blue bottle and housefly, clustered in myriads . on the sunny side of the wall of the Nuláto trading post. The same day I found the velvety crimson catkin of the alder (how many of our readers have ever seen it?) side by side with the silvery one of the river willow, and search- ing among the poplars for new arrivals, brought down a white-winged crossbill, the first of the season. A day or two later, the turfed roof of my log dwelling was alive with small steel green beetles, redolent with a musky odor, and by carefully scanning the few spears of dry grass and green 596 SPRINGTIME ON THE YUKON. tufts of moss which appeared above the surface of the snow, I found several other smaller species sunning themselves, unconscious of the presence of an enemy. The short-tailed field mice (Arvicola xanthognathus and A. Gapperi) were waking up to a sense of the situation and enjoying them- selves on the river bank wherever a projecting root or stone offered a shelter from the keen eyes of the numerous hawks whieh ever and anon sailed overhead. Another reason for coming abroad was, that the melting snow was making their underground establishments very damp and uncomfortable. he Canada jay, known all over the northern country by the less euphonious name of " whiskey jack," had already laid and almost hatched its eges. The goshawk and the duck- hawk (Astur atricapillus ‘and Falco anatum) had put their nests in order, and some of them had one egg as an earnest of what was coming. The ptarmigan (Lagopus albus) be- gan to show rich dark brown feathers on the head and neck and on the edges of the wings. Owls (Syrnium cinereum, Nyctea nivea, Nyctale Tengmalmi, etc.) , were abundant and attending to pressing domestic affairs. Toward the end of April I climbed a tall, dead stump, once a noble birch (Betula incana?), and found, in the cavity at the upper end, six smooth white eggs. While transferring them to my knapsack the head of the family came home, and careless of personal risk or even death, dashed wildly about my head, knocking off a loose cloth eap which I wore, and screaming with sorrow and anger. The female owl, for it was a hawk owl's nest (Surnia ulula), soon joined him; and they flew to the top of a neighboring spruce, uttering cries of indignation to each other. Reaching the ground I soon quieted them, bringing both down with a single shot, and thus devoted the whole family to the interests of science. ~ On the third of Máy; Kurilla, my indefatigable Indian hunter, killed a white-cheeked brant (Bernida - leucopareia) and two ducks, a mallard and a golden eye (Bucephala SPRINGTIME ON THE YUKON. 597 Americana), receiving therefor the usual perquisite of a pound of tobacco for the first goose of the season. From this time forward, wild fowl might be expected in abundance. On the twelfth of May the ice came down with a rush in the small rivers; and that on the Yukon grew every day more unsafe. No salmon were to be expected for some weeks, but large numbers of “blanket fish” (a species of Thymallus) were to be seen ascending the small rivers. They would not take the hook, though the greatest induce- ments were offered, nor will any other fish found in the Yukon, as far as I know. The ice on the Yukon breaks up about the twentieth of May. The earliest season known for many years brought open water on the sixteenth, and the latest on the twenty- fifth of the month. On the twentieth of May I saw a fine specimen of the Camberwell beauty ( Vanessa antiopa) and after that other butterflies were not uncommon, though they are more plenty toward the middle of June. Waiting until the ice and logs are well out of the river and the freshet has somewhat subsided, let us take a small skin canoe and spend a day on the river. The sun is bright and warm; the weather clear and delightful; every living thing is pulsating with the energetic life of the Arctic spring. A gun, ammunition, axe, teakettle, and a few other indis- pensable articles constitute our equipment. Shoving off from the muddy shore of the Nulato river- bank, the blood springs, and the nerves tingle with the smart strokes of the paddle, which send us shooting over the turbid waters; laden as they are with sticks, refuse, and small cakes of ice, the remnants of the freshet, which last has carried the heavier logs and larger fragments seaward some days ago. f Hugging the bank to avoid the swifter current, the feathery willows and glistening tender leaves of the poplar (P. balsamifera) overshadow us, and small curculionid 598 SPRINGTIME ON THE YUKON. beetles frequently drop into the boat from the overhanging boughs finding a safe harbor in our collecting bottles. The species are numerous but the individuals few. Two or three Indians in their small, frail, birch canoes, accompany us, on their way to some small river flowing into the Yukon. There they will spend a week or two hunting the beaver, driven from his house by the rise of the spring floods. These dusky aborigines notice our eager capture of beetles, and such small game, with unconcealed amusement, but are keenly alive to the fact that good specimens will buy needles, caps, or tobacco, and regulate their actions accordingly. As we round a bare point where the sun shines warmly on the fragrant grass and the saxifrage is already in blossom, a flight of swallow-tailed butterflies (Papilio Turnus and P. Aliaska) come sailing along, and immediately all is exeite- ment. Paddles are wildly brandished in the air, the light eanoes dart swiftly hither and thither, and the unconscious insects, thus assailed, escape with a loss of half their num- ber. Then our Indian companions, with some incomprehen- sible wittieism passing between themselves, bring in the results of their foray, and so some eight or ten passable specimens are added to our collection at the expense of a few needles and half a dozen percussion caps. Away go the light canoes again, keeping admirable time with their paddles to a chant of which the following may be taken as a free translation : — Where is the salmon, the big chief salmon? | Hah? Hat Het Ha! Hah! Hah! His sides are scarlet, his tail i " mighty, Ha Ha! Het! I e! Ha! F uscious the steam i the kettle; Hunger flies, wh salmon Ric d sw: the tails of beaver, Fat the deer, in the summer " And the bear in mn; Better still is the vines fat salmon? Ho! Ho! Ho! Ha! Ha! Ha -and so on with an indefinite amount of interpolated chorus. A little break in the green bank, where a small stream SPRINGTIME ON THE YUKON. 599 dashes its clear cold water into the muddy Y ukon-tide, offers an inviting nook, and into it we haul our bark, and, making fast to a projecting willow root, scatter in search of “speci- mens.” A tough climb of ten minutes takes us to the top of the brown sandstone bluff, broken and weatherworn; yet showing, in its successive layers of clayey and sandy rock with thin lamine of fossil vegetable matter, that, in ages gone by, the same forces were at work there, that we now observe on the recent river bank; each series of three layers shows how some flood came down and deposited first its sand, next its clay in the form of fine mud, and lastly any fragments of wood or vegetable matter which the re- ceding waters left behind them. In the rocks above, how- ever, a different state of things may be observed. Instead of the fragments of leaves of sycamores (Platanus), of carbonized wood, and of unrecognizable vegetable matter, we find remains of fuci, here and there a fragment which may have been of terrestrial origin; and, especially, remains of mollusca, mostly bivalves, such as oysters, mussels, and similar shell-fish, and very rarely a mass of remains which may once have been a fish. These fossils, though metamor- phosed, broken, crushed, and frequently existing only as casts, are sufficient to indicate a miocene age for the rocks in which they occur, and no fossils of the older rocks have yet been found on the lower Yukon. By turning over some of these prostrate trunks we shall obtain rare prizes in the shape of Carabide, beetles, fre- quently of brilliant colors and large size, of which some are so rare that an enthusiastic entomological. friend once ex- claimed to us, when parting: “Oh, if I thought I could discover the Carabus Vittinghevit, I think I should leave my business and go with you!” In the same locations are to be found minute land shells (Helix chersina, striatella, electrina and others, as well as minute species of Pupilla and Vertigo, all common to the northern zone of the world, from Sweden to Labrador, though known under various local names. 600 SPRINGTIME ON THE YUKON. Diptera, in the shape of mosquitoes, are only too common, as we have discovered long since, and one does not wonder that the deer and moose, to escape their persecution, plunge into the Yukon under the very eye of the hunter, to meet a certain doom. Birds of the season are vocal in every bush; and here again we meet familiar aequaintances, perhaps the very same whieh have built their nests and reared their young under the roses and lilacs of Massachusetts. The common robin (Turdus migratorius), the much more beautiful and musical varied thrush (T. nevius), the gray-cheeked thrush (T. alicie), the ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calendula), the yellow, black-capped, and yellow-riimped warblers: (Den- droica estiva, striata and coronata), the wax wing (Ampelis garrulus), the rusty blackbird (S. ferrugineus), and a host of others are everywhere about us, hardly noticing our pres- ence, and intent on pleasing their newly found mates, by song, and twitter, and pretty, arch gymnastics, which, to the tender-hearted make the use of powder and shot, even for scientific purposes, little better than deliberate murder. Kurilla, at our side, says “the bushes are boiling over with birds!" And this reminds us that the sun is now high in the south, and we make our way toward the boat abandoning sentiment to boil the teakettle. On our way, a few low musical notes attract our attention just in time for us to see the author, a water ouzel (Hydrobata Mexicana), dive with a splash and patter into the little brook before us, and away, out of sight. Yonder is a beautiful rounded dome of moss, woven as closely as a Turkey carpet, and as smooth and even as the dome of St. Peter's, with a small round hole at one side, where our timid songster in due time will rear his family. Kurilla's gun is ever ready; he has reached the waterside before us and a magnificent mallard lies at his feet, which he has just shot, as it rose from yonder stump hidden in a bunch of alders. Parting the bushes we see him point triumphantly to an excavation in the decayed wood where IMPREGNATION OF EGGS IN TROUT BREEDING. 601 lie six eggs, just laid and left in an evil moment by the parent. While we are thinking of the bereaved niother Kurilla’s thoughts tend toward omelets, and the frying pan and a piece of deer-fat are soon produced. Duck roasted on 4 stick before the fire, is quite another thing from the em- balmed remains which the hotels offer us, by way of game, and to our mind it is far superior. Our meal of duck, ome- let, tea and bread being finished, we seat ourselves in the boat, east off the lashings, and shoot out into the rapid cur- rent, leaving the mosquitoes, for a time at least, behind us; when, an hour afterwards we haul up on the beach at Nuláto and survey our trophies, some of us may conclude that pleas- ure as well as profit may be found, even in the wilderness which borders on the Yukon. THE IMPREGNATION OF EGGS IN TROUT BREEDING. BY A. S. COLLINS. Four or five years ago the subject of this article would have been considered of little practical importance. Now, however, fish-breeding establishments in our country can be counted by the hundred ; and every detail of the business is receiving close attention. I propose briefly to describe the method in which trout naturally impregnate their eggs, and then the various methods or modifications adopted by fish- breeders. Natural Method of Spawning. Some time about the month of October (the time varying with the temperature of the water), the trout which have hitherto been scattered through the stream, begin to run up toward its sources. The place which they choose for a nest has always certain char- acteristics. It is chosen as near a spring head as possible, AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 76 602 IMPREGNATION OF EGGS IN TROUT BREEDING. having a gravelly bottom and being in comparatively swift water. But as these conditions are necessary only to the hatching of the eggs they need not be dwelt upon here. The females spawn but once in a season ; the males, on the other hand, milt several times. So that there is always an excess of males. The females do not choose their partners. As soon as the female begins to make her nest some one of the males around swims to her side. If a stouter or pluck- ier male chances to come that way, a battle royal ensues, and the victor takes the place of the vanquished. This operation is often repeated, and it seems to make little difference to the female which one lies by her side. It is to be noted that by this order of nature, the healthiest and strongest trout pair together. When the female is ready to emit her eggs the male glides to her side, and his milt is emitted simultane- ously with, and over her eggs. The male swims off, the fe- male covers the eggs with’ gravel, and the operation is complete. This description of the action of spawning is very incomplete; but is sufficient for our present purpose, which is to compare with it the methods in use among trout breeders, Stripping the Fish. This was the earliest method and is still in more extensive use than any other. At certain times the ripe males and females are taken from the races. By a very slight pressure of the hand, the milt is forced from a male into a pan partly filled with water; by a similar pres- sure the eggs of a female are forced as quickly as possible into the pan, and the operation is continued in the same order until all the fish are handled; the water being gently agitated from time to time with the hand or the tail of a fish. The eggs are then supposed to be impregnated and after standing some twenty or ‘twenty-five minutes, are placed in the hatehing troughs. This plan has its advantages; among which, the first and foremost is that more eggs can be im- pregnated in this way than in any other. If the eggs of a trout be taken from their bed in the natural stream and ex- IMPREGNATION OF EGGS IN TROUT BREEDING. 603 amined, it will be found in the majority of cases that a very small percentage are impregnated (in one case standing as low as six per cent). While by the stripping process any- where from eighty-five to one hundred per cent. can be impregnated. If we consider that in natural spawning, the milt is ejected into comparatively swift water, which sweeps it almost immediately away from the eggs, we shall cease to wonder at the difference. Another advantage is that the eges in the stripping process are exposed to the milt of sev- eral males; and as the milt of one male will impregnate thousands of eggs, if only one male out of a dozen used be good, we may fairly expect that all the eggs in the pan will be impregnated. It is also an incidental advantage of this process, that as the fish are all handled the stripped fish may be put into a spare pond, so that they may not again run up into the raceway and hinder those about to spawn. For this reason and also because it is not intended that the fish should lay any eggs, a race for stripping purposes takes up com- paratively little room. On the other hand the disadvantages of the process are manifold; the principal one being that it is very difficult to take the eggs and milt at the precise time when the fish would naturally yield them. With much ex- perience, however, a trout breeder will succeed very well in doing this, and at our own place* we would even now about as soon have stripped eges of our own taking as any others. But a novice would not probably succeed very well. An- other disadvantage is that the handling of a struggling fish is a thing to be avoided if possible. Even the most experi- enced can hardly help killing a few, and the least experienced will kill many. The bruised fish do not show'the hurt at once, and will often live some weeks after receiving the injury. This difficulty increases with the size of the fish. The large fish which give the most eggs are the hardest to handle safely. Then the operation itself is not the most pleasant in the world. A ten or fifteen minutes immersion * Trout Ponds of Seth Green & Collins, Caledonia, N. Y. * 604 IMPREGNATION OF EGGS IN TROUT BREEDING. of the hands in cold water in the middle of winter is not very desirable, and if this has to be repeated a half dozen times every day, it becomes a thing to be avoided if possible. Then, too, all the fish in the race have to be taken at the same time, whether ready or not; and the interruption to those who are just commencing to spawn is bad for many reasons besides the danger of handling them two or three times to see if they are ripe. These disadvantages and es- pecially the first mentioned, induced Mr. Stephen H. Ains- worth to prepare and use what are known as the " Ainsworth Screens.” This invention is an imitation of a natural trout bed. Coarse gravel is placed in a wooden frame two feet square and three or four inches high with a bottom of wire Screen eoarse enough to permit trout eggs to pass through readily. A similar frame with sides only one inch high and fine wire bottom is placed beneath the first, and both are sunk eight or ten inches in the raceway. Trout making their nests in the boxes lay bare the coarse screen. The eggs; being at the same time impregnated by the milt of the male, fall through the meshes of the upper screen and are caught and retained by the fine meshes of the under sereen. The two frames fitting closely together make it impossible for any fish to get at the eggs, and they are kept safely until the screens are removed and the eggs taken to the hatching house. The advantages of this plan are very great; but they are obvious and may be summed up in a few words. There is no danger by this method of getting unripe or immature eggs, as the eges are all naturally spawned. It is also certainly reasonable to suppose that a fish can do this part of the- business best. There is also no danger of loss from handling the fish; and a comparative novice can take the place of a more experienced hand. Then in this way the fish select their own partners; and probably when left to themselves those pair which are best adapted to each other; whereas in the stripping process, the pairing is arbitrary and no rules for selection are known. IMPREGNATION OF EGGS IN TROUT BREEDING. 605 But the inconveniences attending this plan in its first shape were very great. The frames could not be made smaller than two feet square, as that is about the amount of space a trout requires for spawning. Nor could they be made larger, as the weight of the gravel on larger frames would render them unwieldly to handle. Therefore, in order to fill a trout race, a series of boxes— say from ten to forty is required. All these have to be looked over at least once every week during the season, and if there are many fish, two or three times a week. Each: time the screens are looked over every fish is necessarily driven from the race, although they may be just commencing their nests, or in the very act of spawning. The upper screen with its load of gravel is first lifted out of the water. The lower screen will then float to the surface if it is not water-logged. The eggs lying upon it are brushed to, one corner with a feather ; à pan is placed underneath the corner, the screen is tipped up and the eggs feathered into the pan sometimes, for the cur- rent often sends them in any direction except into the pan, and cold fingers are not always reliable. India-rubber gloves are no protection from cold, nor woollen gloves from water ; and the two combined are too clumsy for the purpose. After the eggs are taken, the fine screen is returned to its place, the upper sereen fitted exactly to it and both sunk again to their place ; unless as often happens a stone or two has fallen out of the frames upon the supporting ledges, in which case the screens have to be taken up again and the stones re- moved. It will take two men five or six hours to properly look over forty of these screens. In order to make this process easier the writer invented and patented what he calls the “Roller Spawning Box." This box answers for se- curing the naturally impregnated eggs of salmon, salmon trout, speckled brook trout, whitefish, shad, etc., etc. The principle used is that of the " Ainsworth Screens,” and the improvement consists in a new and convenient method of collecting the eggs. e 606 IMPREGNATION OF EGGS IN TROUT BREEDING. Figure 121 represents a small spawning box with a portion of the side removed. Figure 125 is an enlarged view of the front of the same box. At A is seen a double row of frames each two feet square with a bottom of coarse wire cloth. Instead of being made singly they are put together in one piece. These screens are to be filled with coarse gravel and the eggs pass through as in Ainsworth’s screens. Under these is an endless apron of fine wire cloth, D, pass- ing over rollers at the two ends of the box. This apron is about one inch beneath the upper screen, and is kept from Fig. 124. Roller Spawning Box, sagging by small cross-bars (two of which are seen in the cut) corresponding to the divisions of the upper screen. These cross-bars are supported by and, when the rollers are turned, slide on an inch square strip nailed to the side of the box. A similar strip one inch above supports the larger screens, The eross-bars also keep the eggs from being carried down by the current. By using two small beveled cog-wheels the front roller can be turned by the handle seen at G. As the roller is turned forward the endless apron moves with it, and the eggs as they come to the edge of the roller will fall off. The pan, C (fig. 125), is placed in front of the roller, and receives the eggs as they fall. The box need not be more IMPREGNATION OF EGGS IN TROUT BREEDING. 601 than two feet deep; the depth depending upon the size of the rollers, which in a short race may be quite small and the box not more than eighteen inches deep. The box is set directly in the raceway, and intended to fill it completely. The water enters in the direction of the arrows, and may either enter with a fall over the top of the box, as seen in fig. 124, or the top of the box may be cut down until the water will enter on the level at - Fig. 125. which it is intended to stand over the screens. E F (fig. 124) is a screen intended to prevent the fish from running beyond the race, or getting into the lower part of the box. It may extend to the bottom, or be arranged as seen in the engraving. D is a screen at the front of the box, also intended to prevent the fish C&S St from getting below. When Peet of opui POr the eggs are to be taken this screen is raised on hinges to an upright position, and confined by a spring catch or latch as seen at E (fig. 125). This confines the fish which may happen to be in the race and none of them can get below. The pan is then lowered to its position, the roller turned and the eggs taken. When the operation is finished the screen D is again lowered, the button turned and the work is done. If the box is wide, say four feet, it is more convenient to have the pan made in two or three sections, inserted in a light frame, as. the eggs can be more easily carried in and poured out of a shorter pan. It is better perhaps to make the screen D to open in the middle, having hinges at both sides. Then one half will keep the fish in the pond, and the other half the fish in the race, from running into the well. The box can be made of any length from four feet to forty 608 IMPREGNATION OF EGGS IN TROUT BREEDING. feet or even longer, and of any width from two feet to six or eight. If it is made very wide an additional longitud- inal support must be provided for the revolving screen. We recommend the following dimensions for speckled trout races: two feet wide and from ten to twenty feet long; or four fect wide and from twenty to forty feet long. The upper screens may be made in convenient sections, the whole width of the box, and six or eight feet long. The sereens F and D are so made that while a full current is permitted to flow over the upper screens (A), only a gen- tle current ean flow through the under part of the box. This current is meant to be so regulated that when the pan, C, is placed about an inch from the turning roller, all the small stones which the trout may whip through the upper screen will fall short of the pan; the eggs being lighter will be carried by the current into the pan, while a great part of the dirt, ete., which may collect on the under screen will be carried up over the pan and entirely out of the box. The revolving screen may be made of tarred muslin or some sim- ilar fabric. But wire cloth (of ten or twelve meshes to the inch) keeps much the cleanest and we are inclined to think it best for the purpose. I make my aprons, half wire cloth and half tarred muslin, furnishing the wire only with cross- bars and always leaving it uppermost. This apron is fast- ened around the rollers by a lacing of cord. At the end of the season the water in the pond can be drawn down a foot and everything taken out but the rollers. Give the screens a coat of paint or gas tar and lay them away in a dry place until the next autumn. A stiff brush may also be placed un- der the forward roller, so that every time tbe roller is turned to remove the eggs the screen will be perfectly cleaned. A few of the advantages of the plan are as follows: Let us compare a double row of forty Ainsworth screens, each two feet square and occupying a space in the raceway forty feet long and four feet wide, with one of the new spawning boxes of the same dimensions. IMPREGNATION OF EGGS IN TROUT BREEDING. 609 lst. By the old way it would take two men a good half day to remove the screens singly, feather off the eggs ina careful manner, and return each (double) screen to its proper place. It would take the new spawning box about fifteen minutes to do the same work with one man. 2d. The weight of the gravel which has to be lifted in the old way every time the eggs are removed, amounts to many tons in the course of a season. In the new box the gravel is not lifted at all. 3d. By the old way the operator's hands must of necessity be more or less wet during the whole operation. Now as the trout and salmon spawn during the winter season, when the thermometer generally stands below the freezing point, taking eggs in the old way is not only inconvenient and painful but often impossible. By the new way the hands are not made wet and may be kept comfortably gloved. 4th. By the old way more or less of the eggs are lost by careless feathering, exposing the eggs to the freezing atmos- phere, clumsiness in handling the screens (caused by cold fingers) tipping of the screens, wash of the current, etc. By the new way every egg is saved. 5th. By the old method every fish is driven out of the race when the eges are taken. Some of them will not re- turn, but will seek a spawning place in the pond and many eggs will be unavoidably lost. By the new way the fish are not driven from the race. And as the boxes are always covered duriug the season, the fish will not even be disturbed. In fact they may spawn while the eggs are being taken, and yet not a single egg be lost The advantages of this method when compared with the stripping process are many. It is much less trouble to take the eggs. Itis much more comfortable. It avoids bandling the fish, and the consequent loss. It saves all the eggs which AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. Ti 610 REVIEWS. are lost in the intervals of stripping. It does not disturb the fish in the process of spawning. It insures a perfectly natural impregnation. The question whether naturally impregnated eggs are better than the stripped eggs, is not yet settled. Iti is cer- tain that more eggs can o» impregnated by the stripping proeess, but that the resulting fish are as healthy as those grown from naturally fertilized eggs, is not yet definitely proved. We are inclined to think that when the stripping is properly performed there is little difference. However this may be, a: few eggs more or less are of little conse- quence to the trout-breeder; while convenience and speed together with certainty of resu!t are, as in every other art, of prime importance. REVIEWS. ECONOMICAL ENTOMOLOGY IN Missounr* — The annual appearance of & volume containing so much that is new t regarding the common injuri- ous insects of a single State, is a proof that people are giving increased attention to the subject of applied entomology, and that it is considered nce to i the country at large. There should indeed be an entomologist in each State ł whose sole business it should be to acquaint himseif with the hab- its of the injurious insects, the best remedies against their attacks, and above all the habits of their insect parasites, which keep them under, as * Second Annual Report on the Noxious, Beneficial and other Insects, of the State of Mis- souri, made to the State Board of Agriculture. By C. V. Riley, State Entomologist, Jefferson City, 1870. 8vo. pp. 141. With numerous wood cuts. For sale at the Naturalist's Book ile a large proportion of this report is reprinted from the ** American Entomologist,” of which Mr. eer is the editor, yet the observations were made by him as the State Ento- mo —À and that able m ne may be said to be in a sense the entomological organ of the Misso ard of Agriculture. [W that the ** American Entomologist” will simi nded for a year. We trust to see it revived at the end of that time, and meanwhile shall sorely miss its monthly visits.] this report was printed the State of Illinois has appointed Dr. Le Baron to succeed the late Mr. Walsh as State Entomologist of Illinois; and Dr. A. S. Packard, jr., has been this year aiti ee State Entomologist, by the Board of Agriculture of the State of Massachusetts. The e of New York has published nine reports on noxious and beneficial insect shad Dr. Fitch, a rie I ESSI. REVIEWS. 611 well as the habits of birds, which also hold them in check; and lastly, the State should liberally EN print and —(— the entomologist's eport. By so doing, not on ould the interests of agriculture be pro- inatéd and thousands of oi patents ea to the State (though each legislator who unwil- Fig. 126. lingly votes a oe E dollars or more sin- cerely believe ge he is robbing the ury, while actually refilling it to t at amount), i i ^" CT TI m ee ee knowledge; and science \ I £ e), UY [o ion - Se 336 State of Massachusetts, are known all over Europe; in other words, throughout nearly the whole civilized world, and so are those of Dr. Fitch, the State Entomologist of New York. while the writings of Mr. Walsh, late State Entomologist of Illinois, containing so much that is novel and interesting to theoretical as well as practical entomology, are Pickle Worm. read and sought after by European authors. true knowledge of practical entomology may well be said to be in its infancy, when, as is well known to agriculturists, the cultivation Fig. 197. of wheat has almos 2a [d 4 ® A ot e average annual rate of interest, according to the United States census, in the State of Illinois, the wheat crop of 1864 612 i REVIEWS. ought to have been about thirty millions of bushels, and the corn crop about one hundred and thirty-eight num bushels. Putting the cash value of wheat at $1.25 and that of corn 50 cents, the cash value of the corn and wheat destroyed by this ser nidi little bug, no bigger than a grain of rice, in one single State and one single year, will there- fore, according to the above figures, foot up to the astounding total of OVER SEVENTY-THREE MILLIONS OF DOLLARS!” "The cabbage butterfly (Pieris rape), recently introduced (p. 28) from Europe, is estimated by M. Provancher, to annually destroy two hundred and forty thousand dol- lars’ worth of cabbages around Quebec. The Hessian fly, according to Vine Dresser and Pupa. Dr. Fitch, destroyed Sh million dollars worth of wheat in New York State in one year. The worm of the North (Leucania m which was so abunda: Pas in 1861 from New England to s, was reported to have d that year ín Eastern Mp etts nly checking its attacks, resulting from a "dede Mind of its snm m deliver a wasted fields from its direful a Indeed the cry of waste, waste, arises city over the land. The money and material that is wasted annually in-bad roads, in the loss of fertilizers from wanton waste, the loss from ignorance of geology and mining engi- neering, the waste involved in the process of extracting ores. the waste from bad cooking, poor housewifery, and above all, the loss of human life REVIEWS. 613 from ignorance of scientific laws,* iy resulting from te at and vice, the offspring of ignorance, —the amount that is thus w we venture to assert would, if saved, pay off our national debt in one year, and change our world as it were into a new planet! A century hence when the country is crowded tenfold its present amount, our pem pae will Fig. 129. the hilrodusiló to his report that “we have in inda country altogether f f th d- m attention, and are considered Apis as as very serious evils in Europe, would not be deemed worthy of notice in . ravages, and each State loses annually from fifty to sixty "n dollars from this cause alone, though but four states bave as yet m attempt to prevent this serious loss." e may reasonably a the annual loss in our country alone from noxious animals and the lower Amey such as rust, smut and mil- ol as not far from one thousand ie Y dollars! Of thi un at least one tenth, or one hundred million of dollars annually, could probably be saved by human exer? i St ainai tell us that a doubled; the average man lives forty ears, where in Spencers time he lived but twenty. The world since Sh time has become richer and better Eudryas grata, Science will do for agrieulture and the arts. However RI our 3 +h *'" In Great Mm mpra more than h least five times s many sicken bro out of pure ignorance of the laws of health, whieh are never Mn Od t6 pies em at school.” — Dr. Playfair's Address at the British Social Sci Congress, 614 REVIEWS. figures may appear, they at least tend to show that our material wealth „and prosperity depend most intimately on the favor shown to science and the enco PM GU given to original research, however abstruse, by men of scientific t To save a iere of this annual loss of food stuffs and fruits should be the first object of farmers and gardeners. They eke out a bare livelihood n the "dst amount raised. Fig. 131. P Could they save what is wasted by e ' insects they would grow rich; a e ined use of proper remedies against the canker worm, and other noxious caterpillars and cut worms? A few of the more enlightened and indus- trious sort are forehanded and cae in restraining these pests. A law carried out by a proper State Entomological constabulary, if we may so designate it, would compel idle mma shiftless neighbors to clear their farms and gardens. We doubt that if a State would appoint a State Entomologist with ane cone ane who should dio the fields and report neglect in killing injurious insects to the town authorities, by whom delinquents should be fined, many times the cost of iE such a bureau would be saved to the State. Indeed, why should we n have an Insect law, as well as Fish and Game laws? Among some of the injurious insects reported on by Mr. Riley is a new st to the cucumber in the West, the Pickle worm ( Phacellura nitidalis Cramer, Fig. 126). This is a cater- pillar which bores into the cucum- "b n large enough to pickle, and it is occasionally found in Three o worm Fig. 132. a single one will cause the cucum- ber to rot. He also gives us excellent drawings of the Vine Acolcithus Americana. pupa; Fig. 128 adult ;), a sin ae ad of idea will som rat * strip a small vine of its leaves in a few nights," and sometimes nips off bunches of half-grown grapes. Another caterpillar, which sometimes is so abundant as to nearly defoli- e the e is the Alypia 8-maculata Fabr. (Fig. 129; a, larva; b, REVIEWS. 615 side view of a segment). This must not be confounded with the bluish larva of Eudryas grata Fabr. (Fig. 130) which differs from the Alypia cater- pillar in being bluish, and in wanting the white patches on the sides of the ` body, and the more prom- Fig. 133. Larva of Acoloithus. va i gregarious (Fig. 133) REI in companies of a dozen or more and eating the softer nri of the leaves. It is quite common in the Western and Southern Sta ere are over a hundred cuts in this pamphlct, and the mere dissem- ination of these illustrations will do much towards creating a taste for entomology in the young. The author sie ibd admits inelegancies of expression, which mar an otherwise clear and readable style. He com- per. We trust that the next report will be improved in this respect, as the excellent cuts need good, hard paper. AMERICAN CRABs.*— In this admirable paper, describing many of our Peabody Academy of Socii The desc ations seem to be carefully and conscien ntiously prepar The specimen of Gelasimus palustris, with the large fingers Airis nearly equal in size, and mentioned as a remarkable anoma aly in vol. iii, p. 557, of the NATURALIST, is now referred by the author to a new species, Gelasimus pugnar. Not 1, No.1. Ocypodoidea, with four peque Lp By Sid- ney I. hh Tres the Transactions of M Don. Academy, vol. ii). p.63. 1870. 616 REVIEWS. Tue Craw Frsu or NORTH AMERICA.* — The Cambridge Museum has issued another of its sumptuously illustrated and printed catalogues, which Res liberality of the State of Massachusetts has given it the means to do. From the hands of Dr. Hagen we have, as might be expected from his known care and accuracy in research, a monograph of much in- terest and value. The craw fish have been much neglected by naturalists in this eue though these ua tane lobsters have already made their mark in the local histories of the times, by the injury they occasionally do by ik ating our river dams, and Deine #3 the levee of A Missis- sippi near New Orleans, and the rice fields of the Southern stat As the author refers very briefly to their: burrowing habits, esa allud- ing to the fact that a species ‘severely damages the rice fields of the accordi vspaper ac counts they have by tunnelling the artificial banks o T Aeee e caused devastating floods; and while in Northern Maine we were to that the craw fish so undermined the dam at the mouth of the Aroostook River, that it was partially carried iind While craw fishes are most abun- dant in the Middle, Western and the Southern States, they are more com- mon in New England than one would be led to suppose from Dr. Hagen's quently under stones in lakes in Northern Maine, and has had specimens from Williamstown, Mass., presented him by Mr. S. H. Scudder. Passing over the cinseticstibn and distribution of the species, we will glean some results of the author's study on the sexual peculiarities and dimorphism of these creatures. He finds that some of the females show ferences, such as the greater development of the limbs, the tarsal third of which are pening when they are not in the males of the first form, and the ** hooks on the third article of the third, or in some groups of the third and of the id pair of legs are smaller and less developed. The whole body has less size and width, the sculpture is not so well finished, while the claws are shorter, narrower, and more like those of the fe- male.” He adds that ‘the existence of a second form of the male, if it were no more than a passage or metamorphotic form, would not be ex- * Illustrated Catalogue of the Museum of yerge Zoology. No. Monograph of tne North American Astacidæ. By Dr. H. A. Hagen. Cambridge, 1870. pe al 8vo, pp. 109. With eleven lithograph plates REVIEWS. 617 traordinary. But the great number of full-grown second-form specimens n every species, which are often even larger than the first-form males, seems to prove that they are individuals which have remained in a sexual stage that does not agree with their corporal development, — in short, that they are perhaps sterile." "This conjecture he finds supported by an anatomical examination. We quote all the author's general remarks on Dimorphism in Crustacea and Insects (p. 24). We have noticed in the NATURALIST, vol. iii, p. 494, iv, p. 55, the recent discoveries of Malmgren, Ehlers, Claparéde and oth- ers, regarding dimorphism in the worms, which our readers would do well to read in this connection. imorphism in other Crustacea.— Perhaps this fact of the existence in the crustacea of two orms, one always sterile, is not unique. In " e genera Lupa and Callinectes, there are not rarely females with a very narrow and acute postabdomen. siete t is very easy to separate from the ordinary females, with a large and cireular eset vane n. Professor L. Agassiz in- ino me em he decr satisfied bimaal A of 1 iving specimens, met wW ith A LHGILUYM v some other g f Brachyur I am indebted to Mr. Alexa andes Agassiz for the information that F. Sagen Fuer Darwin, MS has described two forms of the male in M hestia Darwinii and in is dubius, He re- arks that when found upon die shore the form of the second pair of gna pista varies from dint of the specimens found at: a distance pia i where D lives under mouldy leaves in loose earth. In ith large and those with small pragak are y Het; tö be detected, but in two other species, 0. tucurauna a € S tucuratinga, the shap the hands changes even in the full-grown oid Q sts that 4} Bunt? burrowing = pem hahit The Veces of two different forms of males in Cambarus is very important in the oen tion «o species, and the fact that these forms are n Mee by all preceding au may e wor "Dimorpham in Insects, +The Areora © of morp Wresting 1 di hi was known only ing the PERRE re H 11 4 H which a general review " vy desirable. An ee examination bos mese dimorphic ibis is Still wanting, only t The dimorphism seems to be represented in two different ways; a difference only in the colors (dichroic forms of Brauer), or a difference in size and shape, and mostly in the female, we same ld m m I s Species, and atio? nthe female. Perhaps in the ants and in the white ants— it seems more natural to r ange all the socially living insect, Mts the ants, bees, wasps, and white pie under the same] Dim l ally in Lepidoptera 2 — hind etae of many Orthoptera, and in =e females of ppe gt es latter genus the sterile, og difference in the der opti of the wings. The ar ither e and well-devel- ped, or short, or entirely wai The n thoptera (Gryllus, Loeust lat bie ag T ocus) have n carefully described by Messrs. Fischer, Von ld, Lu- S, Brauer, and m iod Fideles ely r apterous Hemiptera, by Westw l the -winged Diptera by Schaum ( Lip- Ornithobia an ra). Mr. resda is mit wolar an goiat = per upon dimorphism in the genus a. e win ith whi : complicated neuration and different colors. There ripe even a case of morphism in some but- ; s of j Cel t . according to the observation Mr. Wallace. Papilio Orm om Celebes, has three distinet forms of females, a n some cases inde number of female forms appear: be four. Dimorphism desse in different shape d size is observed in the Lepidoptera (Equites, ete.), in the Coleoptera, in the Lame nior, and in the Longicornia, and perhaps AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 78 618 REVIEWS. in the Lymexylon and Hyleceetus; in the Hymenoptera ver in the Diptera (Enant The dimorphism in the Dipterous genus hasia, discove oew, is very remarkable. thong seen fy ae onec I may be permitted to add here a ae communication by Mr. oe ent t some ye = ago ma still kanvipquasr ^ti E m "o gems "— "em spors laf, nd more colored, d ame the body more color ed. The tw forms fly at the Terg time and unite with tħe same form of females. The genital parts of pang lar: es are in shape and m Menon with Those or the — m secs There exist — Waca forms e WM Isay seems, because I have never seen a male whieh I hesitated to Lived in - or the two nos? f di variable in t Pichena: ABA and genera is the m ode of Hosting even from that Publier n the Asa cidz. Perhaps a closer examination will disclose even gome di: Ference, in me. pamal paria certain dim Mti insects. s distinct species, will be hereafter recognized as only —€ variations, Still, it is ate that very different facts are to-day united under the same na of dimorphism. sere nty the eaae of a di imorphism in another part or ven PL viz.,in the Crus- au iv WOII. E LIFTED AND SUBSIDED ROCKS OF pa ICA.* — The author’s name is well known from his admirable paintings and portraits of Indian life and physiognomy. Catlin’s * North American Indians," was one of the wonder books of our childhood and youth, Sharing the interest of Irving's Astoria, Cooper's Leather Stocking Tales, and Tanner's Narrative, those y boy delights in reading ; and leading them all in careful detail, arid distinguished from all in rich, pictorial ébsitfioue t. We turn with a de egree of sadness to the present little volume, and wonder how the author could have brought himself to publish such scien- tific nonsense. The author has been a great traveller over the American Continent, on both hemispheres. He has studied the faces and habits of o noes, the floods moving northw and thus forming the Gulf-stream. Such a “cataclysm of the bete ah " adiri disturbed the minds of the J elevated waters, the Gulf-stream first bursting out of the sunken Gulf of oe pnto Poeta erige n * By George Catlin. London, Trubner & Co. 1870. 12mo, pp. 228. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 619 Mexico, and travelling at a pace which modern days have seen nothing “Throwing out, as it were, by explosion, the shattered fragments of [Aztec] str aia civilization to the savage nations of the globe." r. Catlin, with reason, protests against the discredit thrown on Pn state M regarding the Mandan religious ceremonies, by Mr. Vemm and memorializes s Congress for simple justice, by order- bne dently plundered from Catlin. We would suggest that Mr. Catlin has nothing to fear from Schooleraft's heterogeneous and illy digested vol- umes, which do no credit to the Congress that ordered their publication. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY or New HawrsHIRE.* — By his annual report we should judge that Professor Hitchcock was pushing on the work of the survey with diligence and success. Much attention has been paid to that indispensable means of geological research, a good t UB map, and Mr. G. L. Vose, one of the assistants, has **taken a large number of observations for the purpose of nd the exact position of as many of ‘He ha part of Coós County, and besides gives an account of his winter's occu- pation of the summit of Mount Moosilauke. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND AnmTs.f— This long established journal — ehh has from its commencement been the leading vehicle for the original papers of American scientists — will be continued after the close of the present year, As A MONTHLY JOURNAL. This increased fre- quency of publication will meet a wish often expressed by authors, for a more rapid interchange of views, and an earlier knowledge of the pro- gress of research. We hope that the friends and patrons of science will aid in promoting its wider circulation. ual I tence of - State of New Hampshire. nd Ann and M y C. H. Hitcheaek. 1870. (Svo, pp. a “with a piece T Founded by Professo risp 100 volumes, in two Series of each Editors and Pr. I DANA. Sop somete eh genes GRAY - GIB 8 of Cambridge, and NEWTON, JOHNSON, BRUSH and VERRILL of . Devo T Chemistry, Physics, lg ag alogy, Nat tural irai Astronomy, M vest ology, zon third series in monthly n foe 450 pages each, from s uary, — i diris preda mes) 4 "86.00 a year, or 50 cents a number. w com- plete set f the and second series, Address SILLIMAN & DANA, New ‘ices Ok 620 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. THE CHEMICAL History OF THE SIX Days or CREATION.* — In mak- ing another attempt to reconcile Geology and Genesis, the author has ex- hibited much more knowledge, fairness, and a truly scientific spirit than ments of the Scriptures, clothed as they often are, in the peculiarly rhe- torical style of the languages of the East, and most difficult to translate, will command the assent of fair minded scientists and theologians. The bigoted of both classes of minds will perhaps disagree with hi He explains by the recent discoveries regarding the correlation of forces, e ous elements. He contends that the “nebular hypothesis and the devel- opment hypothesis may both be true, and God still remain the Creator of the Universe." A scriptural day of the Hebrew writer with our author, **is simply an evening and a morning— a period of darkness and a period of light, and the duration of such a day is not at all limited by anything contained in the text." He shows that the introduction of plants and the lower animals, and of fixed time, and the introduction of the higher pba, and man himself, are mentioned in the same order in Genesis n geological history, and that there is no fundamental disagreement veni nd the Hebrew cosmogony and the facts of modern science. With this general comparison the author is content to stop. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. ZOOLOGY. THE CAUDAL didis OF INsECTS SENSE OnGaNs, i. e. ABDOMINAL AN- NNZ.— Dr. Anton Dohrn has published a note in the “ Journal of the Entomological Goiats of ia (1869), to the effect that the abdominal appendages of SE female of the Mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa) are true sen- sory organs (tastorga e n the “ emt oco " of the Boston Society of Natural History, May, 1866, the writer states that ** while, as we have shown above, the genital In the same ‘ Proceedings” for Feb. 26, 1868, he dia VW rites: “ Re- garding the insect as consisting of two fore and hind halves, the two ends being, with this view, repetitions of each other, these anal stylets *By John Phin. New York, American News Co. 1870. 12mo, pp. 95. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. _ 621 may be considered as abdominal antenns, so that the antenne look one way, and their homologues, the many-jointed antenniform anal stylets, 398.) The subject is also referred to in the ** Guide to the Study of Insects," page 17, and the remarkable antenniform abdominal appendages of Man- tis tessellata figured in illustrati I have been able to seein sense-organs (probably endowed with the Sense of smell) in the short, stout-jointed, anal stylets of the Cock- roach (Periplaneta Americana), beautifully mounted by Mr. E. Bicknell. _ I have recently, after reading Dr. Dohru’s note, observed the sense-organs and counted about ninety * minute orifices on each stylet, which are prob- ably smelling or auditory organs, such as are described by Hicks (see "n Guide," p.26). ‘They were much larger and much more numerous than smelling than geo to enable the males to smell out the females. I have observed the same organs in the lamella of the antenne of the car- rion beetles, which pede sen depend more on the sense of smell than that of touch or hearing to find eiim carcasses in which to place their eggs. — A. S. PACKARD, JR., June 87 A REMARKABLE MynrAPOD.—Whhile IU over a chip with Myriapods and Poduras on the under side, brought in from the Museum grounds by Mr. C. A. Walker, I detected a lively little yellowish white creature, which immediately suggested Sir John Lubbock's Pauropus, to which we have alluded on p. 45, vol. iii, of the NATURALIST (where the six-legged It may be called Pauropus Lubbockii, in honor of the original discoverer of this remarkable type of Myriapods. No more interesting articulate has been discovered for many iuit E the occurrence of a species in America is worthy of note. It has but nine pairs of legs eh geni when hatched), and in some points in pe organization seems to be a con- necting link between the Myriapods and Podurids, which are ik in- Sects, probably de gom gape pibe Our species is yellowish white, and .03 of an inch in len Mr. Walker assures me, after seeing this specimen, that he saw a inte one last May under the bark of an apple- tree in Chelsea, Mass. — A. S. PACKARD, Jr., November 10. dding, ** there were 3. E o xr ta * Mr. P geen yes counte more carefully than I ey: the exaet number of these pits, and made a rnp Pea S ace OL pp 623 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS. — The first meeting of this new society was held July 19th, at Madison, Wisconsin. The president, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, reported the preparation sha publication of the first number of the Academy’s ** Bulletin." It was also stated that a bill had passed the Legislature for a topographical survey of the lead region of the State under the direction of the Academy. A paper was read on the “ Classification of the Sciences," by Rev. A. O. Wright. Mr. Englemann and Judge Knapp spoke on the destruction of the forest trees, the latter concluding that the pine forests of Michigan and Wisconsin would be wholly destroyed in twenty-five years, if their present reckless E studies on the fish of Lake Michigan, and of the recent dredgings in the lake in connection with Drs. Thompson and Lapham, vage in the eee number of the Wines Other papers were e have also to note the existence of a flourishing Mid History heir in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. TO MOUNT SPIDERS FOR CABINETS. — In M. Thorell’s fine 4to on emos Spiders, which singularly enough, is published in Upsala, and yet printed in the English language, the following instructions are given: — '' The spider is first killed, either by the vapor of ether or by heat, and is impaled by an insect-pin, which is passed through the right side of the cephalothorax; the abdomen is then cut off close to the cephalothorax, and the cut surface dried with blotting-paper. The head of another insect-pin is cut off, and the blunt extremity introduced through the inci- sion into the abdomen, up to the spinners. The abdomen thus spitted is inserted into a large test-tube held over the flame of a candle, the prepa- ration being constantly rotated till dry, avoiding the extremes of too much or too little heat — the firmness of the abdomen being tested every now and then with a fine needle, till it is so firm as not to yield to pres- sure; the front extremity of the pin is now cut off obliquely, and the point thus made inserted into the cephalothorax, the two halves of the body being thus again brought into Sahat The animal may then be mounted as usual.” — Popular Science Rev ` Tovcaw's BEAK. — Permit a few words in answer to the question * Wherefore such a beak” for the Toucan. On page 306, of that most lively and interesting book for a denizen pro tem., or longer, of the tropics * The Andes and the Amazon," by Professor J. Orton, the author has & rather piquant discussion of this question. I answer it by saying, to feed th, to be sure. What else? Perhaps also for defence and pluming. heavy, serrated mandibles. Like the shovel-nosed tribe, or the digger- NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 623 like tribe, or the curved-beak tribe, wn form, size, is everything for their peculiar method of obtaining ratio The Toucan feeds on insects, which s 2 in the corolla of flowers; it especially delights in tubular corollas, and has a great fondness for kem rich, scarlet, fuschia-like clusters of the Rose de Monta, of Guayan These clusters he seizes near the calyx, and by longitudinal i of his powerful mandibles, aided by their serrated edges, saws them off, and then by his horny and fimbriated tongue, separates the insect portion from the vegetable, and swallows that which his palate approves of, like any other sensible bird. To see him hop from branch to branch, reach out his long, ponderous jaws, seize his breakfast, saw it off, as one sees a butcher in his stall, to see the parts rejected fall to the ground in petal- iferous showers, and he maintain his equipoise, has been one of the most ost mortem examinations of his injestæ, and have always found the shields and remains of insects the most abundant in his craw. —R. P. STEVENS. PHYSELLA NOT A FRESH-WATER SHELL. — Mr. Tryon called the aem tion of the Lig sa section of the Sahai ak Academy of N Sciences, to the curious error committed by several oap rains in treating Berendtia pris sella) Nim as a fluviatile mollusk. He sup- posed that the resemblance of the first generic name given to Physa was of species as illustrated by the “groups” or subgenera of Helices, estab- lished by Albe ers, and stated his conviction that nowhere in the animal ingdom could more conclusive evidences of the truth of Darwintanian be adduced GEOLOGY. Dm a GLACIER FLOW FROM LAKE HURON INTO LAKE ERIE? I find on page 193, of Vol. 4 of the AMERICAN NATURALIST, an article by Professor B. M i Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario, are basins excavated in undisturbed sedimentary rocks. Of these, Lake Michigan is six hun- dred feet deep, with a surface level of five hundred and seventy-eight feet above tides; Lake Huron is five huudred feet deep, with a surface 624 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. level of five hundred and seventy-four feet; Lake Erie is two hundred and four feet deep, with a surface level of five hundred and sixty-five feet; Lake Ontario is four hundred and fifty feet deep, with a surface level of two hundred and thirty-four feet above the sea.” “An old, exca- vated, now filled channel, connects Lake Erie and Lake Huron.” Andon of these ancient glaciers corresponded in a general way with the present one of these ice rivers flowed from Lake Huron, along a channel now filled with drift, and known to be at least one hundred and fifty feet deep, into Lake Erie, which was then not a lake, but an excavated valley, into which the streams of Northern Ohio flowed, one hundred feet or more below the present lake level." It will be granted, no doubt, that a glacier occupies the bed, or lowest part of the valley through which it flows, and, that like water, it flows from a higher to a lower point of elevation, or in other words, that it flows down hill, instead of up hill. But if Profes- sor Newberry's position, that formerly a glacier flowed from Lake Huron States that the surface of Lake Erie is five hundred and sixty-five feet above the sea level and is two hundred and four feet deep, which locates its bed at three hundred and sixty-one feet above the sea level, and two hundred and eighty-seven feet above that of Lake Huron. If it be true, which is granted, as stated, that “an old, excavated, now filled channel connects Lake Erie and Lake Huron, then must it also be true, granting that the beds of these lakes occupied the same relative position to each other in the glacial period that they now do, that whatever glaciers flowed through it must have flowed from Lake Erie in the direction of Lake Huron, and found an outlet in that direction, instead of from ‘‘ near the length, by abont twenty-five miles in width, saying nothing as to its thickness, lifting itself, by the mere force of gravity, from a lower up to a higher plane of elevation, which would appear to be impossible. The probabilities are that the furrows in the ** old, excavated, now filled channel, connecting Lakes Erie and Huron," were made by running or floating icebergs, long ages after the work of excavating the beds of the great lakes by the glaciers had been completed, and not by true glacial ice. The difficulty of reconciling the observed facts in the case, seems to accrue from allotting too short a space of time to the glacial period. It would appear more perspicuous to allow an excavating period, corres- EN UL 4 2 o o o ood e yeu NATURAL HISTORY. MISCELLANY. 625 ponding in time with the period of the greatest continental elevation, during which period the glaciers would naturally flow in the direction of completely filled, and the surface elevated above them from one to two hundred feet, and even more. Then comes another continental elevation, the beginning of the present status of appearances. — L. J. Stroop, Waxahachie, Ellis County, Texas. MICROSCOPY. AMERICAN Micnoscorzs. — The able refutation by your correspondent, C. S., in your issue of September, of the statements made by Dr. Hagen, Writers, as to drive them to the most obviously, to use Dr. Hagen's own mild epithet, “ comical” conclusions. Referring to German stands, for whose glorification Dr. Hagen seems to have written the papers in question, any one who, like myself, has AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 79 626 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. that has ever used one of them; and still it is, to this i the favored One iPods by students thr ouifnaus France and Germ t objectives and eye pieces, I have nothing to mk in " dE to e giv hands of one observer, often proves an we failure in the hands of an- other, though both acknowledged ** adepts " in the use of the microscope. This undisputed fact should make one very careful before pronouncing ex cathedra upon the merits of objectives produced by artists of unques- tioned ability. In connection with this last remark, allow me to state that I shall be most happy to show to Dr. Hagen the Surirella gemma and its markings, which he only saw dimly with a 1-10th inch objective of Tolles; to show him, with a 1-8th inch immersion lens of W. Wales, the ** basket work," as we call the elongated hexagons of that fine test at the Bailey Club, as near to Hartnack's theoretical diagram, as it is practicable to accomplish in a microscope view of that diatom. This very same 1-8th play of the lines in question with his No. 11 — almost equal to the 1-15th of our makers — pronounced my poor 1-8th an ‘inferior pen ine **as long as I lived, would never resolve the Surirella gemma." mu for hasty judgments. The determination of the abstract, as well as ies tive merits of objectives, must stand, in the opinion of all experienced plexing and difficult problems to settle in practical op ties Although not having the right to claim thirty years aduperienos in the use of the microscope, and although one of the most insignificant dilet- tantis in the realm of microscopy, I venture to bring to bear my humble testimony, and some little experience gained in long European peregrina- tions, in favor of the superiority of English and American instruments, for both their mechanical and optical excellence, over all continental pro- ductions in the same line, begging here to mention, that in my statements I am influenced by no national prejudices, as I do not belong by birth, to either of the two aforesaid nationalities; neither am I a member of the Boston Optical Association. — T. O., Cornwall Landing, Sept. 16, 1870. WALES’ LOW POWER OBJECTIVES.*— May I ask of you the favor of a few lines in reply to Mr. Bicknell’s note in the NaTURALIST for June last. Mr. cknell agrees with me in according to Mr. Wales' objectives the high rank to which they are undoubtedly entitled, but in some way seems to the microscopic world. It was not that Mr. Wales’ 4-10 had an amplifica- tion of two hundred sna ten diameters, or that Mr. Wales’ did or did not deii a dad * This reply, with a ber of stponed on account of the space devoted to tq reports of the meeting of tlie American kadilo NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 627 underrate his lenses in the naming of them, ay point — presented was, that lenses of such low power should do so much, there not be- ing any great liability of material difference E the enini present , in a of such low power as 38-inch. No measurement of its power was give Not so, however, in the case of the 4-10, for as is well known, and as Mr. Bicknell states, objectives of various makers rating the same, differ greatly in their magnifying power. And this again occurs, not only with the objectives of different makers, but even the objectives of the same maker differ, although rated the same, e. g. in R. & I. Beck's Cata- logue, 1868, are advertised 1-4 inch objective (No. 234) magnifying power two hundred and ten, and on a succeeding page 1-4 inch objectives (No. 296) magnifying power one hundred and forty diameters. "Therefore I lacie’ f London, of Hartnack deg n of Tolles and Grunow of this dea or of Gundlach of Vienna, various objectives of each and all of which makers I have examined, have either I myself, or other microscop-. ists of my acquaintance, been able to effect this.” Ido not say with a 4-10 objective, for firstly, they all differ in their amounts of amplification, and secondly, neither Hartnack nor Gundlach thus denominate their objectives, but as usual with Continental makers, number them as 1, 2, 3, and so on. The word power, however, I thought could not be ee di: such equality of power being most — attained by the use of the draw-tube. That an objective ee two — and ten diameters ils used in connection with a No. 1 or an A eye-piece, should resolve the Pleurosigna angulatum, mounted, not grs but in balsam, and by direct light, instead of oblique, is what I wished to put on record, and such I think the generality of microscopists would infer on perusal of the arti- cle. As, however, Mr. Editor, Mr. Bicknell is of the opinion that I have current, I would state that not only have I myself remeasured the ampli- fication present on the use of said objective in said resolution, but that I am permitted to use the names of Dr. Edward Curtis, formerly of the Army Medical Museum, Washington, D. C.; of Mr. Joseph vik Ward, the well known microscopist of this city; and of Mr. O. G. Mason, Photog- rapher of Bellevue Hospital, names familiar to all mieroseopists in New . York, in testimony of the correctness of said measuremen As regards the second point raised, namely, the Bionic of object- ives by their various makers, it is, undoubtedly, the fact, not however I think from any intention to mislead, but rather from an inherent want. or defect in the nomenclature in use. The denominating of an objective a 4-10, 1-5, 1-8 and so on, answers a certain purpose of informing us of about what power is meant, but if, in addition, the makers would engrave 628 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. upon their objectives the amplification present when the image formed by such objective is thrown upon a screen at the recognized normal distance .of ten inches (or 254 millimeters) from the object we should then have something de e hich I find most convenient for obtain- ing this amplification of the objective considered in and by itself is as E a f the lines or di ns of a stage micrometer is —the collective or field glass of the same having been previously removed. The plane or distance from the stage micrometer at which the eye-piece micrometer should be placed, namely, ten inches, may easily be effected by means of the draw tube. By comparison of the lines of the stage mi- crometer as thus Projected, with those of the eye-piece micrometer the eye-piece enlarging both sets of lines equally, decer SEAS the reading. In this use of the eye-piece micrometer i ary t the exact value of its scale should be known, a gt erer when otherwise used. The scales upon the micrometers which I use and find in general best adapted to the purpose, are a millimetre divided into 1-100 for the stage micrometer, sunt a centimetre divided into 1-100 for the ocular or eye-piece microme With the highest respect sak kindliest of feelings towards Mr. Bicknell, who has contributed so largely to the advancement of microscopic sci- ence in America, I intended in my original communication, not the bring- ing before the public the superior boc cu of Mr. Wales' lenses, for their merit in this country we are all agreed, but to place on recor Mags resolutions as attained by itane low amplification. — J. J. HiGGiNS, M. T PLEST FORM OF MICRO-TELESCOPE. — At a fleld meeting of tlie Fire ose, held in Hoosic Falls, on the 24th of September, Dr. H. Ward of , N. Y., exhibited a simpler form of micro-telescope than has wikci-eo d boni proposed. He screws an ordinary 4-inch objective (5-8 inch wide, 2 3-4 inches solar focus) into an adapter (about 2 inches acts as an erecting ej c gii, as in Tolle queue and Curtis' micro- light of a 1-inch opening; but the new arrangement gives a really useful field-telescope without re quiring a single addition to the microscopist’s apparatus. Solid (single pras oce objectives act best as erectors iu this case, but the ordinary objectives, from 2-inch to 1-2-inch, answer very well. The same arrangement, by raising the tube [pica and perhaps substituting a 1-inch objective for the 4-inch. furnishes an erect- ing compound microscope which is excellent as a hand-magnifler p fleld use; and by removing the lens below the stage we have the ordinary fleld microscope on which the object may be placed in the * clinical compres- sor,” or otherwise. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 629 > ANTHROPOLOGY. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CRANIAL CHARACTERS IN Max. — Professor John Cleland has communicated to the Royal Society a paper in which he gives an account of some careful investigations into the cranial measurements of various races, and criticises the various methods of craniometry in use — pointing out what facts of growth and feit of parts Pu observed measurements really indicate. He observes that if the terms dolicho- cephalic pe "pss are to retain any scientific value as applied to skulls, the **cephalic index” (that is, the breadth in terms of the length which is called one rendre) must not be depended on. Other points of importance, as pointed out by Retzius, must be attended to. According 9 Dr. Cleland, the relation of the height to length of a skull is of great importance. There is no foundation whatever for the supposition, which is a wide spread one, that the lower races of hum manity have the forehead less developed than the more civilized nations; neither is it the case that the forehead slopes more backwards on the floor of the anterior part of the brain-case in them than it does in others. — Quarterly Journal - Science. TARY GENIUS. — In his late work on “ Hereditary Genius,” Mr. idite Galton thus describes his PE “Wha rofess to prove is Mies that if t 1 taken, of dene one os a ee excoptionaly itd in a high degree—say ne d or as one in a million—and th r has not, the former r child gem ioc aste a éreider chance of turning out to ue ited in a Miet ph than the other. Also, I argue that, as a new race can be obtained in animals and n ber plan bis raise ed t o SO great a degree of purity 1 thes i will makntaln itself, with n mo e ríe e eare, men might be obtained, under exactly similar conditions," AMERICAN ASSOCIATION. NINETEENTH MEETING OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE AD- VANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, HELD AT Troy, N. Y., AUGUST 17TH-24TH. 1870. [A hn of papers continued from the November Number] r. F. W. PuTNAM made a communication **Om the young of Ortha- piti mola." He had been led to his investigations by the statement, e by Messrs. Lütken and Steenstrup,* that the young of Orthagoriscus venei cine iiem the adult, and that Molacanthus was not a distinct genus, but simply the young state of Orthagoriscus. This statement of the redii Copenhagen zoologists led him to believe that they had not seen the young of Orthagoriscus and had been misled by the singular form of Molacanthus in considering that genus as the younger state of * (Efversigt Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Forhandl. 1863. p. 36. 630 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. LJ the sunfish. He exhibited drawings of Molacanthus, of the adult form of Orthagoriscus mola and O. oblongus, and of the young of the last two. The drawing of the young of O. oblongus was copied from Harting's work. Harting had figured the specimen in connection with remarks Fig. 134. Fig. 135. Molacanthus Palassii (1-2 grown, natural Size). Orthagoriscus oblongus (young, natural size). o the effect that he thought the young of this genus were not so dif- Fus from the adult in form as ae by Liitken and Steenstrup. € drawings of the young of O. mola were from specimens taken in Pichtibienmii Bay and now in the Piee) Academy of Science, having Fig. 136. een received from the Essex specimens, four m wo inchesi in length, Orthagoriscus mola (young, natural size). doubt could be entertained as to their being the young of O. mola. In these young spec- the eye is proportionally very large, and is placed at the margin margin. In the young the dorsal fin and the upper portion of the caudal AMERICAN ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 631 are thrown respectively a little penn sre of the anal fin and the ee e caudal which culminated in the formation of the projecting “nose” so charac- teristic of the old specimens, he was Fig. 151. led e'c fn the caudal be- Orthagoriseus mola (adult, greatly reduced). came a pointed fin. Along the asc portion of these young fishes is a fleshy ridge, ran deta saisis d from the body, and armed with several rows of small s The back, for Ll half the distance in front of the dorsal fin, jm a 2 raised fleshy ridge. dai red Sais were mentioned in connection with the skel- vee of the young and the changes which take place in its growth. The neural spines of the 5th to the 15th vertebra -are closely packed to- gether with the interneural spines, and extending backwards support 632 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. the dorsal fin, while the hæmal spines of the 10th to 16th vertebra are in. close connection with the expanded interhzemal spines supporting the anal fin. The 16th vertebra gives off large neural and hemal spines, the former having five interneural spines anchylosed with it as in the adult, while the hæmal spine supports nine interhemal spines, the vertebral column, has been as often considered as an interspinous bone as a vertebra. In the young specimens this vertebra, though separ- ated from the column as in the adult, has in close connection with it two ien above and two below, probably indicating that this vertebra is in reality the consolidation of two vertebral bodies, the 17th and 18th, while central rays of the caudal fin, and they and the 17th, 18th, and 19th ver- tebre are only represented by the free or “ floating " 17th vertebra which lies in the chain of interspinous bones of the caudal. 'This is the only _ instance of a vertebra existing as distinctly separated from the vertebral column known to the author. A dissection of the soft parts of the young shows the same arrange- ment as in the adult; the large liver extending in two lobes and enclos- ing the stomach and portions of the intestine, and the long intestine with its five or six oda The arrangement of the bundles of muscles is the same as in the ad j On comparing er Legs with Molacanthus an entirely different structure is observed. First, the external form of Molacanthus differs while the reverse is the case in Orthagoriscus. There are many largely spines of the 4th to 17th vertebra, and those of the anal with the hemal spines of the 10th to 17th vertebre. The vertebral column in Molacanthus AMERICAN ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 633 terminates abruptly with the 17th vertebra, and no caudal chain of inter- spinous bones can be traced. The liver is small, when compared with that of the young Orthagoriseus, and is composed principally of a large right lobe overlying the stomach. The stomach is small and the intestine is short, making but two sii like the letter S, while in Orthagoriscus it is long and has five or six turns, or coils. The arrangement of the mus- cles and the bones of the head are, in general, about the same as in Orthagoriscus. Figure 134 is from a specimen of Molacanthus Palassii,* natural size. This specimen was taken from the stomach of a dolphin caught in the Figure 135 is the po of MM (Cephalus) hee i from Harting’s Memoir. This specimen was taken from t ‘ Thon ” caught in the Auaris pode and is represented of cin size. Figure 136 is from one of the young specimens of Orthagoriscus mola taken in Massachusetts Bay. Natural size Figure 137 represents the adult form of Orthagoriscus mola from a draw- in their outline. The best is that of Harting, under the name of Orthago- riscus ozodura, in the Transactions of the Academy of Amsterdam for 68. An intermediate stage between the young and the adult, mm fig- ured, is represented by the figures of Bloch, Donovan, and Yarr Dr. R. D read a paper before the Section of Microscopy ‘On. the Illumination of Binocular Microscopes.” The object of this paper is ot the opticians, has brought into existence the sumptuous first-class stands and their elaborate accessories, but to make some suggestions in the in- terest of that larger class, microscopical amateurs, who, incidentally to , 9f the market, and their choice of apparatus, and consequent success in Work, e xt. upon the chances of trade and the interested par- tiality of dea It is not ipie but unfortunate, that this class of apparatus, students' — Vei ao of these fish will be discussed in full in the Memoirs of the Academy. The nam: Mr. Pata s paper will be ! published Ri full m a future number of the Memoirs ot the Peabody Academy p in this a nns AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 80 634 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. microscopes, et id omne genus, should latest and least feel the control of real science in their construction. Only a few years ago in London, and . much later in this country, was there any serious effort to make students’ microscopes worthy of the times. Even now some of the best of these are sold without a diaphragm below the stage, or with so small a body that the lowest (and, for beginners, best) eye-piece gives a ridiculously mall field, and too many are still built upon the old vertical plan which um been iin te for twenty years. In regard to stereoscopic micro- scopes the case is still worse. Tolles’ binocular eye-piece **for microscopes only ” is not yet in the market, though expected for years, and Wenham "8 binocular, long since popularized in England, is nearly unknown here ex- cept on large and costly instruments. Grunow, of New York, has done something during past years to furnish small bi nocular instruments. When will he, and Tolles, and Zentmayer, and Miller, and McAllister, ^ others, do for us what Crouch, and Collins, and Murray and Heath, Beck, and many others, have long since done for England in Fares an abundant variety of good binoculars of moderate size and cost? If the binocular microscope were unnecessary for anybody it would be for the diatomist; yet I can scarcely believe that such a person, after s So Móller's ipa plate a illuminated under a 4-10 objective of Mans 120° in a good binocular, would ever advise any person to purchase a monocular instrument except as a necessity of price. While we are waiting ro still further a nts in the binocular, promise of whic ma Mr. Holmes' bisected lens, the erecting binocular of Mr. Stephenson, and the binocular by double ee of Dr. Barnard, let t on s croscopical work, the Eq the ie cd , s, and the light, the e is be still better; and probably Tolles’ orthoscopic eye-piece would answer ~ the same purpose. e illuminating angle would be varied by focussing below the object, with much less logs pa definition ae in the old style of using an objective for the same purpose; or, preferably, various stops of blackened card would be oe below th sese lens to stop off any desire used to correct the yellow glare of preside Hue. Rebbe slight mechan- ical ingenuity the student can combine th diaphragm of blackened card or brass, and sonaat josreane the convenience of AMERICAN ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 635 his really excellent achromatic condenser. The effici iency of his -— ratus will be vastly increased by adding the graduating diaphragm mad dá Collins and others in London and occasionally offered for sale in this n vate London dealers. At first sight it cmo uld seem that this apparatus ould not be used on stands of the *: Jackson ". model; but, by a little Far cci filing, it can be used on large ie of this style, as I have been accustomed to do for years. After using a graduating diaphragm in the ordinary microscopical work of natural history, the orthodox wheel à i changes of light, seems simply absurd. For use irae ERS - or arg phragm should be used on all stands to whieh it can be applied; dim i ati iris diaphragm as made by Beck. There is often some difficulty in getting the graduating diaphragm sufficiently near to the lenses in the small lens condensers, but none in the eye-piece condensers. The easiest and most fascinating use of the stereoscopie microscope is doubtless with opaque or translucent objects with the paraboloid or other means of Misi aaa illumination. In lighting transparent objects under the binocular we have only one new condition introduced, the ne- cessity of a wide horizontal illumination in order to give an even light over the whole of both fields. Focussing the condenser upon the object and gradually opening the diaphragm, we shall probably find, with a 1- inch of 259, the best definition and resolution accomplis ished just at the cones of light each having an angular width about one-half or one-third of that of a objective, and converging hori detta upon the object at an angle nearly as atas that of the chet, v hall have both fields fairly « m piede lighted, and no glare he same zu is attained by a stop with a Pei slit, giving a dr umi and narrow vertical pencil of lig This Bs may be applied with some dps even to instru- ments without €— by placing a disc like Fig. 1 of Plate 5, hav- ng an opening of suitable width, over the pele) to shape the cone of light from the concave abi ee r the regular wheel of apertures may be replaced by a somewhat larger one containing one or "-" openings of this shape. Next comes the spotted lens, which may be applied to any microscope and which will greatly increase its working power at an almost nominal 636 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. expense, giving sufficiently good black-ground and oblique-light effects for small microscopes. This lens is used for transparent illumination of both fields of the binocular with 1-2 or 1-4-inch objectives (the Webster condenser, with its smallest centre stop, and graduating diaphragm, at- tains the same end in a much finer manner), but much of the light passed even by it is detrimental, and its performance may be improved by a cap of card or paper, pe: over it, having a horizontal opening, or a vertical stop (Plate 5, figs. 2 and 3), one of the openings in Fig. 3 being closed when oblique light is Pianist A horizontal opening of —ÓÀ width may be easily combined with the brass mounting of the spotted le 1 usin objective or similar tna: as achromatic s the horizontal slit is still more applicable. It (Plate 5, fig. 4) may be added, for instance, to the stop-plate of Powell and Leland's achromatic condenser, or -— in the supplementary aperture of Ross' 4-10 con- denser, or in small microscopes screwed in between the lenses of a con- densing Suite. pe ae t stops must be used for different angles of o9 regulated by the Paci plate, or by Zentmayer's graduating dia- phragm, or Brown's iris diaphragm which. instead Z the diaphragm- plate, should be combined with condensers of this clas ut the real value of this stop, and the real ease ba banding the light in the every-day work of the d microscope, is attained with the large-lens condensers, with which a 1-4 of 75?, or, when more resolv- ing power and less depth of field is d ed, a 4-10 of 110° to 120°, can be as easily managed as a 1-inch, both fields being softly and evenly lighted. Plate he fig. 6, ind placed in the same fr vias or the stop-plate may b modified as to furnish a horizontal slit as in Plate 5, fig. 7, the Nap of the slit hens controlled by the aaa spi An ad- justable slit may be extemporized by using a nen edge of card in width and curved direction of the slit any serious inconvenience in prac- prin e graduating di e We ia for facility of use and certainty of results, teg fairly superseded the original wheel of apertures; perhaps the time nothing left to remind us of our circular diaphragm-plate. If the optic- ians would give us something having the general arrangement of the EAE AS ETON ENE EEE NEN E aa sau E E N S OE, E Eg REENE A Pu Nou eS FEAN REET, E American Naturalist. VoL IV, PL &, WARD, ON THE ILLUMINATION OF BINOCULAR MICROSCOPES rpo” (627) 638 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. Webster condenser, but of 110°, perfectly achromatic and adjustable for thickness of the glass slide, and mounted over a graduating diaphragm, a pair of shutters for an adjustable horizontal slit (one of them, or an- other single shutter, capable of moving independently for oblique illum- the ordinary investigation in natural history would consider the combi- nation rather as a ET part of their stand than as an accessory to be sometimes used with it Dr. WALKER of ^ Orleans, La., read a paper prepared by Professor EuGENE W. HILGARD, State Geologist of Louisiana, on ** The Upper Delta Plain of the Mississippi." The paper is one of a series by the same au- thor, the preceding ones having treated of the older formations which characterize the geology of the Great Enlargement of the "pss Gulf Basin, of which the Mississippi River, below Cairo, forms the delta or alluvial deposits proper, cover the older formations paratively slight depth only, the river running on paludal pdt w then on an ancient sea bottom, of corresponding (late quaternary) age, from above New Orleans to near its mouth, It thus appears that Artesian bores in the vicinity of New Orleans, tubed through the (chiefly marine) seen to have swept over the southern coast with sufficient force to trans- port pebbles of five to six ounces weight from far distant regions, the nearest being Tennessee and Arkansas. This great eroding agent seems also to have so cut and worn the older formations into ridges and chan- nels, that the overlying ones vary greatly in thickness, while level at the surface. The singular phenomena known as the New Orleans Gas Wells, are also mentioned. When bores were sunk for water, the gas rushed up with such force as to carry up several cart loads of sand in a single night, and when the gas became ignited, it was extinguished with great dif- culty. An abstract of a second paper by the same author, “On the Mudlumps of the Passes of the Mississippi,” was given by Prof. J.E.Hmaarp. The Mudlumps are islands formed by upheavals of the bottom, off the mouths of the Passes, inside the bar. They often rise in mid-channel, obstruct- ing navigation and diverting the current, and at times bringing up ob- jects long ago lost from vessels. They form a number of pretty large islands, especially near the mouth of the South-west Pass. On them we frequently find springs of liquid mud, accompanied by bubbles of com- bustible gas; these springs often exhibit all the phenomena of mud vol- canoes — extensive cones of mud, with an active crater in the middle. Most of the material of the Mudlumps seen above water, bears evidence of having once belonged to active cones, now extinct. MEE USt eem EE TN S cue cani e A EMI e AMERICAN ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 639 The author investigated the origin of these springs, by an examination of their ejecta — gas, water, and mud. The gas he found to be such as is produced by vegetable matter in its first stages of decay. The mud con- tains evidence of à mixed fluviatile and marine origin; while the water in which it is diffused, has the composition of sea-water changed under the influence of ferrugino-calcareous river mud, containing fermenting vegetable matter. The conclusion reached is, that the mud is the same as that which is deposited on the **blue clay bottom” of the Gulf, outside the bar, in a semi-fluid state. In its annual advance, the bar covers this mud stratum, which exists equally higher up the Passes; the increase in weight by vegetation, alluvion, etc., of the new formed land above, as well as that of the bar below the mouth, causes the bottom to bulge upwards at the points of least resistence, 7. e. in the deepest channel. Attention was called to the fact, that of all rivers known, the Mississippi is the only one exhibiting either mudlump action, or the peculiar narrow lands of bank, advancing rapidly towards deep water, which are known as **necks," and are obviously dependent on the mudlumps for their origin. It is therefore permissible to infer, not only that all the similarly Shaped alluvions above the head of the Passes, at least as far as the forts, have been formed by mudlump action, but also that the latter will cease so soon as the bar, in its advance, shall pass beyond the shelf of ‘blue clay botton” (presumably of the Port Hudson age), into the deep water of the Gulf; which point is now nine miles out from the mouth. Professor W. C. Kerr read a paper on **A Point in Dynamical Geol- ogy.” This paper called attention to the agency of the sun as a probable and sufficient explanation of the well-known remarkable coincidences or the coast lines, mountain systems and chains of islands, — nearly all the great ** feature-lines" in the physiognomy of the globe,—with the arcs of great circles tangent to the polar circles; the exceptions being generally arcs of great circles perpendicular to the former; inasmuch as the sun os- globe in its plastic and formative state. Similar considerations are appli- cable to the lunar influence, wbich was cumulative in the same direction. THE ONEONTO AND MONTROSE SANDSTONE, ETC. — In the Report of my paper on the Oneonto and Montrose Sandstone etc., the language may convey the idea that the sandstones of both these localiies have been identified with the Portage Group, which was not intended. The Oneonto Sandstone is pretty clearly an equivalent of the Portage Group of Central 640 . BOOKS RECEIVED. and Western New York, while up to this time no positive determination has been made regarding the Sandstone of Montrose. The latter may be the equivalent of the Red Sandstone of Tioga a sun of the summits of the Catskill, but we have not yet the facts necessary for the d — Will you have the kindness to make some note of correction in the nex number of the NATURALIST. Yours, etc. — JAMES HALL. The following papers were also read before the Association : — PAPERS READ IN SECTION B. — NATURAL HISTORY. Notes on Granitic Rocks. By T. St fie Hun On the Oil-Bearing Limestone of Chicago. T. St. rry Hun On the Lignites of West America, their te ae and geret Value. By J. S. 'ewberry. On the character of the TT necessary to interpret the record of the last Glacial Period. haler rnit Circuits of Generation : Zymotic Fungi: 6. Of the (nominal) Genera of Fresh water Alge, as Pisa Peli iom of Bryacem, etc, c. Of Vorticel- kcPlamrinm. By T. C. Hilgard. nee recep T sree Arietes. By Alpheus Hyatt. e iron, "not — oriec. E. M A ad On the salt deposit of pede stern Ont. y T. Sterry Hun On the Relation of Organic Life ed e ek coded rs the Physical Character hal The oe. and ‘Old Age of the Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods. By A. Hyatt. On a method of collecting cer t Geological facts, adopted by the ' Social Science Pis schon ” By N.S. Shaler On the eras and Chronology of the Drift Phenomena in the Mississippi Valley By J. S. Newber BOOKS RECEIVED. Archie fur pepers al M pria vol. iv. Heft, 1, 2, 1870. 4to. zology of Peru, By E,G@. Squier. London, 1870. 8vo. Feuille edens ure die ei 5, May to August, 1870. Dornach, Haut-Rhin. ($1.00 arta rer) Me Report on s thee 2 ao "Long Island, N, Y., and of tts Dependencies. By Sanderson Smith und abc ru me. ork. 8vo, pp. 30, u ^ 8vo. a Ireland, 1870. 8Y0, m 12, 25. peers Addres. Dr. Wi Thompson, November 10,1869, Belfast. Treland. 40. geni Phil bi rnal of Microscopy. Vol. i, No.1. Chicago, Movember js ng "published mber, 1870, teal Club. Vol. i, No. 10. October, 1870. eee Ai emist Minerals of Colorado, By J. Alden — Contial Pagi eei 8vo, pp. 16. Journal of Popular Science. oo of t Collections of the Minnesota Historic Seti. Vol M. ei T St. Paul, 1870. 8vo, TD EE CH AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. IV. JANUARY, 1871. — No. 11. coc GU (ede ex THE ANCIENT LAKES OF WESTERN AMERICA: THEIR DEPOSITS AND DRAINAGE.* BY PROF. J. S. NEWBERRY, LL. D. siio THe wonderful collections of fossil plants and animal remains brought by Dr. Hayden from the country bordering the Upper Missouri have been shown by his observations, and the researches of Mr. Meek, to have been derived from deposits made in extensive fresh-water lakes ; lakes, which once oceupied much of the region lying immediately east of the Rocky Mountains, but which have now totally disap- peared. The sediments that accumulated in the bottoms of these old lakes show that in the earliest periods of their his- tory they contained salt water, at least that the sea had ac- cess to them, and their waters were more or less impregnated with salt, so as to be inhabited by oysters and other marine or estuary mollusks. In due time the continental elevation which brought all the country west of the Mississippi up out of the widespread Cretaceous sea, raised these lake-basins altogether above the sea level and surrounded them with a broad expanse of dry land. Then ensued one of the most interesting chapters in the geological history of our conti- nent, and one that, if fairly written out, could not fail to be read with pleasure by all intelligent persons. The details of *From Dr. Hayden's forthcoming “ Sun Pictures of the Rocky Mountains.” PS Clerk's Of; Tus Entered VM he tha Pa AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 81 (641) 642 THE ANCIENT LAKES OF WESTERN AMERICA: this history are however, in a great measure, yet to be sup- plied ; inasmuch as the great area of our western possessions is still but very partially explored, and it is certain that it forms a great treasure-house of geological knowledge, from which many generations will draw fresh and interesting material before its riches shall be exhausted. The enlightened measures adopted by our Government for the exploration of the public domain, the organization and thorough equipment of the numerous surveying parties that have traversed the region west of the Mississippi within the last twenty years, together with the more extensive explora- tions by private enterprise of our great mining districts, have resulted in giving us materials from which an outline sketch can now be made that may be accepted as in all its essential particulars, accurate and worthy of confidence. It has happened to me to be connected with three òf the Government surveys, to which I have referred, and to spend several years in traversing the great area lying between the Columbia River and the Gulf of Mexico. The observations which I have made on the geological structure of our West- ern Territories supplement, in a somewhat remarkable way, those made by Dr. Hayden, so that taken together, our re- ports embody the results of a reconnoissance stretching over nearly the whole of our vast possessions west of the Missis- sippi. Our knowledge of the geology of this region has also been largely increased by the no less important contributions of other explorers. Among those who deserve most honorable mention in this connection are Mr. George Gibbs, to whom we are indebted for most that we kdo: of the geology of Washington Territory; to Professors W. P. Blake and Thomas. Antisell, to Prof. Whitney and the other members of the California Geological Survey; to Baron Richtofen, the lamented Rémond, Drs. Shiel, Wislizenus, and others. The results obtained by the last, largest and best organ- ized party which has been engaged in Western explorations, THEIR DEPOSITS AND DRAINAGE. 643 that of Mr. Clarence King, have not yet been given to the public, but from an examination of some of the materials which are to compose the reports of this expedition, I feel justified in saying that it will prove to be among the most important of all the series of explorations of which it forms a part, and that the published results of this expedition will be not only an important contribution to science and our knowledge of our own country, but a high honor to those by whom the work has been performed, and to the Govern- ment by which it was organized. Without going into details or citing the facts or authori- ties on which our conclusions rest, I will, in a few words, give the generalities of the geological and topographical structure of that portion of our continent which includes the peculiar features that are to be more specially the subject of this paper. It is known to most persons that the general character of the topography of the region west of the Mississippi has been given by three great lines of elevation which traverse our territory from north to south: the Rocky Mountain Belt, the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges. Of these, the last is the most modern, and is composed, in great part, of Miocene Tertiary rocks. It forms a raised margin along the western edge of the continent, and has produced . that "iron bound coast" described by all those who have navigated that portion of the Pacific which washes our shores. Parallel with the Coast Mountains lies a narrow trough Which, in California, is traversed by the Sacramento and San Joachin Rivers, and portions of it have received their names. Further north, this trough is partially filled, and for some istance, nearly obliterated by the encroachment of the neighboring mountain ranges, but in Oregon and Wash- ington it reappears essentially the same in structure as further south, and is here traversed by the Williamette and Cowlitz Rivers. These two sections of this great valley have now free 644 THE ANCIENT LAKES OF WESTERN AMERICA: drainage to the Pacifie, through the Golden Gate and the trough of the Columbia, both of which are channels cut by the drainage water through mountain barriers that formerly obstrueted its flow, and produced an accumulation behind them that made these valleys inland lakes; the first of the series I am to describe of extensive fresh-water basins that formerly gave character to the surface of our Western Terri- tory, and that have now almost all been drained away and have disappeared. ; East of the California Valley lies the Sierra Nevada; a lofty mountain chain reaching all the way from our north- ern to our southern boundary. The crest of the Sierra Ne- vada is so high and continuous that for a thousand miles it shows no passes less than five thousand feet above the sea; and yet, at three points there are gate-ways opened in this wall, by which it may be passed but little above the sea-level. These are the eaüons of the Sacramento (Pit River), the Klamath and the Columbia. All these are gorges cut through this great dam by the drainage of the interior of the continent. In the lapse of ages the cutting down of this barrier has progressed to such an extent as almost com- pletely to empty the great water basins that once existed behind it, and leave the interior the arid waste that it is— _ the only real desert on the North American Continent. The Sierra Nevada is older than the Coast Mountains, and projected above the ocean, though not to its present altitude, previous to the Tertiary and even Cretaceous ages. This we learn from the fact, that strata belonging to these formations cover its base, but reach only a few hundred feet up its flanks. The mass of the Sierra Nevada is composed of granitic rocks, associated with which are metamorphic slates, proved by the California Survey to be of Triassic and Jurassic age. These slates are traversed in many localities by veins of quartz, which are the repositories of the gold that has made California so famous among the mining dis- tricts of the world. THEIR DEPOSITS AND DRAINAGE. 645 East of the Sierra Nevada we find a high and broad pla- teau, five hundred miles in width, and from four thousand to eight thousand feet in altitude, which stretches eastward to the base of the Rocky Mountains, and reaches southward far into Mexico. Of this interior elevated area the Sierra Nevada forms the western margin, on which it rises like a wall. It is evident that this mountain belt once formed the Pacific coast; and it would seem that then this lofty wall was raised upon the edge of the continent to defend it from the action of the ocean waves. In tracing the sinuous out- line of the Sierra Nevada, it will be seen that its crest is crowned by a series of lofty volcanic cones, and that one of these is placed at each conspicuous angle in its line of bear- ing, so that it has the appearance of a gigantic fortification, of which each salient and reéntering angle is defended by a massive and lofty tower. The central portion of the high table lands, to which I have referred, was called by Fremont the Great Basin, from the fact that it 4s a hydrographic basin, its waters having no outlet to the ocean. The northern part of this area is drained by the Columbia, the southern by the Colorado. Of these the Columbia makes its way into the ocean by the gorge it has cut in the Cascade Mountains, through which it flows nearly at the sea level; while the Colorado reaches. the Gulf of California through a series of caiions, of which the most important is nearly one thousand miles in length, and from three thousand to six thousand feet in depth. In vol- ume VI. of the Pacific Railroad Reports, I have described a portion of the country drained by the Columbia, and have given the facts that led me to assert that the gorge through Which it passes the Cascade Mountains has been excavated by its waters; and that previous to the cutting down of this barrier these waters accumulated to form great fresh-water lakes, which left deposits at an elevation of more than two thousand feet above the present bed of the Columbia. Similar faets were observed in the country drained by the 646 THE ANCIENT LAKES OF WESTERN AMERICA: Klamath and Pit Rivers, and all pointed to the same con- clusion. i In all this region I observed certain peculiarities of geo- logical structure that have been remarked by most of those who have traversed the interval between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains. In the northern and middle por- tions of the great table lands the general surface is some- what thickly set by short and isolated mountain ranges, which have been denominated the <‘‘Lost Mountains.” These rise like islands above the level of the plain, and are composed of volcanic or metamorphic rocks. The spaces between these mountains are nearly level, desert surfaces, of which the underlying geological structure is often not easily observed. Toward the north and west, however, ` wherever we come upon the tributaries of the Columbia, the Klamath or Pit Rivers, we find the plateaus more or less cut by these streams and their substructure revealed. Here the underlying rocks are nearly horizontal, and consist of a variety of deposits varying much in color and consistence. Some are coarse volcanic ash with fragments of pumice and scoria. Others I have in my notes denominated “concrete,” as they precisely resemble the old Roman cement and are composed of the same materials. In many localities these strata are as fine and white as chalk, and, though con- taining little or no carbonate of lime, they have been re- ferred to as “chalk-beds” by most travellers who have visited this region. Specimens of this chalk-like material gave me my first hint of the true history of these deposits. These, collected on the head waters of Pit River, the lamath, the Des Chutes, Columbia and elsewhere, were transmitted for examination to Professor Bailey, then our most skilled microscopist. Almost the last work he did be- fore his untimely death was to report to me the results of his observation on them. This report was as harmonious as it was unexpected. In every one of the chalk-like deposits to which I have referred he found fresh-water diatomacee. THEIR DEPOSITS AND DRAINAGE. 647 From the stratification and horizontality of these deposits, I had been fully assured that they were thrown down from great bodies of water that filled the spaces separating the more elevated portions of the interior basin, and here I had evidence that this water was fresh. Since that time a vast amount of evidence has accumulated to confirm the general view then taken of the changes through which the surface of this portion of our continent has passed. From South- western Idaho and Eastern Oregon I have now received large collections of animal and vegetable fossils of great va- riety and interest. Of these the plants have been, for the most part, collected by Rev. Thomas Condon, of the Dalles, Oregon, who has exposed himself to great hardship and danger in his several expeditions to the localities in Eastern Oregon, where these fossils are found. The plants obtained by Mr. Condon are apparently of Miocene age, forming twenty or thirty species, nearly all new and such as repre- sent a forest growth as varied and luxuriant as can be now found on any portion of our continent. The animal remains contained in these fresh-water depos- its have come mostly from the banks of Castle Creek, in the Owyhee district, Idaho. The specimens I have received were sent me by Mr. J. M. Adams, of Ruby City. They consist of the bones of the mastodon, rhinoceros, horse, elk and other large mammals, of which the species are probably in some cases new, in others identical with those obtained from the fresh-water Tertiaries of the “Bad Lands” by Dr. Hayden. With these mammalian remains are a few bones of birds and great numbers of the bones and teeth of fishes. These last are cyprinoids allied to Mylopharodon, Miloche- ilus, etc., and some of the species attained a length of three feet or more. There are also in this collection large num- bers of fresh-water shells of the genera Unio, Corbicula, Melania and Planorbis.* All these fossils show that at one A EE db uin oni uoc tdi uiia TE One of the most common is a species of Tiara closely resembling an East Indian one, fla th. P" " 1 ahi ntinent “o 648 THE ANCIENT LAKES OF WESTERN AMERICA : period in the history of our continent, and that geologically speaking quite recent, the region under consideration was thickly set with lakes, some of which were of larger size and greater depth than the great fresh-water lakes which now lie upon our northern frontier. Between these lakes were areas of dry land covered with a luxuriant and beautiful vegetation, and inhabited by herds of elephants and other great mammals, such as could only inhabit a well-watered and fertile country. In the streams flowing into these lakes, and in the lakes themselves, were great numbers of fishes and mollusks of species, which, like the others I have enu- merated, have now disappeared. At that time, as now, the great lakes formed evaporating surfaces, which produced showers that vivified all their shores. Every year, however, saw something removed from the barriers over which their surplus water flowed to the sea and, in the lapse of time, they were drained to the dregs. In the Klamath lakes, and in San Francisco, San Pablo and Suisun bays, we have the last remnants of these great bodies of water; while the drainage of the Columbia lakes has been so complete, that in some instances, the streams which traverse their old basins have cut two thousand feet into the sediments which accumu- lated beneath their waters. The history of this old lake country, as it is recorded in the alternations of strata which accumulated at the bottoms of its water basins, will be found to be full of interest. For while these strata furnish evidence that there were long in- tervals when peace and quiet prevailed over this region, and animal and vegetable life flourished as they now do nowhere on the continent, they also prove that this quiet was at times disturbed by the most violent volcanic eruptions, from 4 number of distinct centres of action, but especially from the great craters which crowned the summit of the Sierra Ne- vada. From these came showers of ashes which must have covered the land and filled the water so as to destroy im- mense numbers of the inhabitants of both. These ashes THEIR DEPOSITS AND DRAINAGE. 649 formed strata which were, in some instances ten or twenty feet in thickness. At other times the voleanie aetion was still more intense, and floods of lava were poured out which formed continuous sheets, hundreds of miles in extent, pen- etrating far into the lake-basins, and giving to their bottoms floors of solid basalt. When these cataclysms had passed, quiet was again restored, forests again covered the land, herds dotted its pastures, fishes peopled the waters, and fine sediments abounding in forms of life accumulated in new sheets above the strata of cooled lava. The banks of the Des Chutes River and Columbia afford splendid sections of these lake deposits, where the history I have so hastily sketched may be read as from an open book. But, it will be said that there are portions of the great central plateau which have not been drained in the manner I have described. For, here are basins which have no outlets, . and which still hold sheets of water of greater or less area, such as those of Pyramid Lake, Salt Lake, etc. The history of these basins is very different from that of those already mentioned but not less interesting nor easily read. By the complete drainage of the northern and southern thirds of the plateau through the channels of the Columbia and Colorado, the water surface of this great area was reduced to the tenth or one-hundredth part of the space it previously occupied. Hence, the moisture suspended in the atmosphere was di- minished in like degree, and the dry hot air, sweeping over the plains, licked up the water from the undrained lakes until they were reduced to their present dimensions. Now, 4s formerly, they receive the constant flow of the streams that drain into them from the mountains on the east and west, but the evaporation is so rapid that their dimensions are not only not increased thereby, but are steadily dimin- ishing from year to year. Around many of these lakes, as Salt Lake, for example, just as around the margins of the old drained lakes, we can trace former shore lines and meas- ure the depression of the water level. Many of these lakes AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 650 THE ANCIENT LAKES OF WESTERN AMERICA: of the Great Basin have been completely dried up by evap- oration, and now their places are marked by alkaline plains r "salt flats.” Others exist as lakes only during a portion of the year, and in the dry season are represented by sheets of glittering salt. Even those that remain as lakes are necessarily salt, as they are but great evaporating pans where the drainage from the. mountains — which always contains a portion of saline matter—is concentrated by the sun and wind until it becomes a saturated solution and deposits its surplus salts upon the bottom. The southern portion of the great central table land — that which has been denominated the Colorado Plateau—is al- most without mountain barriers or local basins, and we, therefore, find upon it fewer traces of ancient lakes, though they are not entirely wanting. It is apparent, however, that this high plateau, which stretches away for several hundred miles west of the Rocky Mountains, was once a beautiful and fertile district. The Colorado draining then, as now, the western ranges of the Rocky Mountains, spread over the surface of this plateau, enriching and vivifying all parts of it. When it reached the western margin of the table land, however, it poured over a’ precipice or slope five thousand feet in height, into the Gulf of California, which then reached several hundred miles farther north than now. In process of time the power developed by this stupendous fall cut away the rock beneath the flowing water, and formed that remarkable gorge to which I have already referred. This gorge is nearly one thousand miles in length and from three thousand to six thousand feet in depth, and is cut through all the series of sedimentary rocks from the Tertiary to the granite, and has worn out the granite to a depth of from six hundred to eight hundred feet. Just in proportion as the Colorado deepened its channel, the region bordering it became more dry, until ultimately the drainage from the mountains passed through it in what may be even termed und channels," and contributed almost nothing THEIR DEPOSITS AND DRAINAGE. 651 to the moisture of the surrounding country. The reason why the walls of this cañon stand up in such awful preci- pices of thousands of feet is, that the perennial flow of the stream is derived from far distant mountains ; almost no rain falls upon its banks, and when any portion of the bordering cliff has passed beyond the reach of the stream, it stands almost unaffected by atmospherie influences. On the east of the Roeky Mountains lies the country of the "plains," a region not unlike in its topography to the great plateau of the West, but differing in this: that it is not bordered on the east by a continuous mountain chain ; that it slopes gently downward to the Mississippi, and that its east- ern half has been so well watered that the valleys have been made broad and all its topographical features softened down. In former times, however, the topographical unity now con- spicuous on the plains did not exist, and the surface was marked by a series of great basins which received the flow ef water from the Rocky Mountains and formed lakes, less numerous, it is true, but of greater extent than those of the far West. The northern portion of the eastern plateau has been Dr. Hayden's chosen field of exploration for many years; a field he has well tilled, and from which he has ob- tained a harvest of scientific truth which will form for him an enduring and enviable monument. l Among the most interesting researches of Dr. Hayden in this region, are the studies he has made of the deposits which have accumulated in these great fresh-water basins. The story he has written of his explorations of this district ` has been so well and fully told that I shall not attempt to repeat it. Suffice it to say, that the series of fresh-water basins discovered by Dr. Hayden in the country bordering the Upper Missouri have proved to be as rich in new and in- teresting forms of animal and vegetable life as any that have been found upon the earth's surface. The vertebrate remains collected by Dr. Hayden have been studied, described and illustrated by Dr. Liedy, and the splendid monograph which 652 THE ANCIENT LAKES OF WESTERN AMEBICA : he has published of these fossils, forms a contribution to paleontology not second in value or interest to that made by Cuvier in his illustrations of the fossils from the Paris basin ; nor to that of Faleoner and Cautley, descriptive of the fos- sils of the Sewalik hills of India. The scarcely less voluminous and interesting collections of fossil plants made by Dr. Hayden have been placed in my hands for my examination. Of these, the first instalments were described and drawn some years since as a contribution to the report of Colonel W. F. Reynolds, U.S.A., a report not yet published by the Government. The descriptions, however, were printed in the Annals of the Lyceum of Nat- ural History of New York, vol. ix, 1868. The general conclusions drawn from a study of this por- tion of Dr. Hayden's collections as regards the floras of the Tertiary and Cretaceous periods, the topography and climate of the interior of the continent, form a part of my contribu- tion to Colonel Reynolds’ report. Since that report was written, however, very large additions have been made to our knowledge of our later extinct floras, by collections of fossil plants made in different portions of the western part of our continent by Dr. Hayden, Mr. Condon, Dr. Le Conte and myself; and also by the collections made by Mr. W. H. Dall and Captain Howard in Alaska, and by several explor- ers on the continent of Greenland. Deferring for the present a comparison of the plants de- rived from strata of similar age in these widely separated localities, and the inferences deducible from them as regards the physical geography of our continent, I will say that the flora and fauna of the lake deposits on both sides of the. Rocky Mountains apparently belong to one and the same geological age, and tell the same story in regard to the to- pography, climate, conditions and development of animal and vegetable life. There is this striking difference, how- ever, perceptible at the first glance between the fresh-water Tertiaries of the east and west. In Oregon, Idaho and THEIR DEPOSITS AND DRAINAGE. 653 Nevada, voleanie materials have accumulated in the lake basins to a much greater extent than east of the Rocky Mountains ; and we have abundant. evidence that during the Tertiary period the western margin of the continent was the scene of far greater volcanic activity than we have any record of in the Rocky Mountain belt. The deposits formed by the lake basins of the Upper Mis- souri region are shales, marls and earthy limestones, with immense quantities of lignite, but with almost no traces of volcanic products. The number of fossil plante and animals is much greater there than farther West; and we have, in these deposits, proof that during unnumbered ages this por- tion of the continent exhibited a diversified and beautiful surface, which sustained a luxuriant growth of vegetation and an amount of animal life far in excess of what it has done in modern times. This condition of things existed long enough for hundreds and even thousands of feet of sediment to accumulate in the bottoms of extensive fresh- water lakes. These lakes were gradually and slowly dimin- ished in area by the filling up of their basins and by the slow wearing away of the barriers over which passed their gently flowing, draining streams.” Since the deposition of the fresh-water Tertiaries, which occupy the places of the old lakes, great changes have taken place in the topography of this region by the upheaval of portions of the Rocky Mountain ranges. In some localities these lake deposits are found turned up on edge and resting on the flanks of the . mountains which border the plains on the west. ]t is cer- tain, however, that much of the Rocky Mountain belt existed anterior to this date. We have in these, and many other facts that might be cited, proofs of the truth of the assertion I have elsewhere made that these great mountain chains, though existing at least in embryo from the earliest paleo- zoic ages, have, since then, been subject to many and varied modifieations—that they have been, in fact, hinges upon Whieh the great plates of the continent have turned — lines 654 THE ANCIENT LAKES OF WESTERN AMERICA : of weakness where the changes of level experienced by the continent have been most sensibly felt. It is a somewhat remarkable fact that the collections of fossil plants made by Dr. Hayden from different localities differ so much among themselves. In every newly discov- ered plant-bed he has obtained more or less species of which we before had no knowledge, and it is even true that between some of his collections there are no connecting links. It is also true that much of the material he has collected has not yet received the study it needs. From these facts it will be seen that much yet remains to be done before the great inter- val of time during which this series of fresh-water Tertiaries accumulated can be divided into definite periods, and before we can venture to affirm that a flora of any epoch had such or such a botanical character and, therefore, this or that average annual temperature. Some interesting facts came out, however, at once in the examination of these materials ; to these I will briefly refer. In the beginning of the Cretaceous age, North America, as we know, presented a broad land surface, having a climate similar to the present, and covered with forests consisting, for the most part, of trees belonging to the same genera with those that now flourish upon it. In the progress of the Cre- taceous age, the greater part of the continent west of the Mississippi sank beneath the ocean, and the deposits made during the later portions of the Cretaceous age contain a vegetation more tropical in character than that which had preceded it. It seems probable that at this time the lands which existed as such, west of the Mississippi, were islands of limited extent, washed by the Gulf Stream, which appar- ently had then a course north and west from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Sea. The earlier Tertiary epochs were, however, marked by an emergence of the continent and a gradual approach to previ- ous and present conditions. This is indicated by the fact that the oldest Tertiary deposits (Eocene?) contain a flora THEIR DEPOSITS AND DRAINAGE. 655 less like the present than is that of the Miocene or Middle Tertiary. In this category of older deposits with a more tropical flora, I would place the Green River Tertiary beds, those of Mississippi studied by Lesquereux, and those of Brandon, Vermont. In tbe Miocene age, the continental surface was broader, the lake basins of the West contained only fresh water, and the land surface was covered with a vegetation very much like that of the present day; a number of Miocene’ species still existing. The climate of the continent in the Miocene age was much milder than now. Fan-palms then grew as far north as the Yellowstone River, and a flora flourished in Alaska and on Greenland as varied and as luxuriant as now grows along the fortieth parallel. At this time there must have been some sort of land connection between our conti- nent and Europe on the one hand and Asia on the other. The flora of all these regions was essentially the same, and a large number of plants were common to the three continents. In this age the mammalian fauna of our continent exhibited the same remarkable development that it did in Europe and Asia; and over our western plains roved herds of great quadrupeds rivalling in number and variety those that have Struck with wonder and surprise every traveller in South ‘ica. — This state of things seems to have continued through the Pliocene age and up to the time when the climate of the continent was completely revolutioned by the advent of the “Ice period.” The change which took place at that time was such as taxes the imagination to conceive of, as much as it taxes the reasoning powers to explain. We have seen that in the Middle Tertiary age the climate of Alaska and Greenland was that of New York and St. Louis at present. In the next succeeding period, the glacial epoch, the present climate of Greenland was brought down to New York, and all the northern portion of the continent wrapped in ice and snow. This change was undoubtedly 656 THE ANCIENT LAKES OF WESTERN AMERICA: gradual (for nature does not often "turn a corner"), but it is plain that it must have resulted in the gradual driving south- ward of all the varied forms of animal and vegetable life that were spread over the continent to the Arctic Sea. When glaciers reached as far south as the fortieth parallel it is evident that a cold-temperate climate prevailed in Mexico, and that only in the south of Mexico would the average an- nual temperature have been what it was previously in the latitude of New York. We must conclude, therefore, that the herds of mammals which once covered the plains of the interior of North America were forced by the advancing cold into such narrow limits in Southern Mexico that nearly all were exterminated. Plants bore their expatriation better; inasmueh as a tree, even of the most gigantic size, will live upon the space occupied by its roots provided the climatic. conditions are favorable; while one of the larger mammals would require at least a thousand times this space for its support. As a consequence, we find the present flora of our continent much more like that of the Miocene than is our fauna, though the change to which I have referred seems to have been fatal to quite a number of the most abundant and interesting of our Miocene forest trees. Of these, the Glyptostrobus may be taken as an example. This was 4 beautiful conifer which, in Miocene times, grew all over our continent and over Northern Europe. In the change to the glacial period, however, it was exterminated, both there and here, yet continued to exist in China—where a Miocene col- ony from America had taken root—and it is growing there at the present time. This great ice-wedge iih came down from the north separated very widely many elements in our Miocene flora which have never since been re-united, so that when the storm had passed and better days had come, and the Mississippi Valley and the Atlantic States were re-pos- sessed by the descendants of the Tertiary plants, they were still separated, by many thousand miles, from their brethren which had formerly crossed the now submerged bridge of THEIR DEPOSITS AND DRAINAGE. 651 Behring's Straits; and thus the two kindreds have been growing, and flowering, and seeding, and dying in each col- ony far beyond the reach of the other, and developing their peculiarities each in its own way from generation to genera- tion. When now we come to compare the present flora of China and Japan with that of the eastern half of our conti- nent we find the strongest proofs of their intimate relation- ship. Many of the species are identical, while others are but slightly changed and, on the whole, the differences are less than such as have grown out of separation in human kindred colonies in an infinitely shorter period. Among the great mammals that formerly inhabited our continent but such as are now extinct, there were some which seem to have bid defiance to the changes I have detailed. These were particularly the mastodon and elephant, both of which were probably capable of enduring great severity of climate. The mammoth we know was well defended from the cold by a thick coat of hair and wool, and was probably capable of enduring a degree of cold as severe as that in Which the musk-ox now lives. We know that both these great monsters —the elephant and mastodon — continued to inhabit the interior of our continent long after the glaciers had retreated beyond the upper lakes, and when the minutest details of surface topography were the same as now. This is proven by the fact that we not unfrequently find them em- bedded in peat in marshes which are still marshes where they have been mired and suffocated. It is even claimed that here, as on the European continent, man was a cotem- porary of the mammoth, and that here as there, he contrib- uted largely to its final extinction. On this point, however, more and better evidence than any yet obtained is necessary before we can consider the cotemporaneity of man and the elephant in America as proven. The wanting proof may be Obtained to-morrow, but to-day we are without it. . The pictures which geology holds up to our view of North America during the Tertiary ages, are in all respects but AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 83 658 THE ANCIENT LAKES OF WESTERN AMERICA: one, more attractive and interesting than could be drawn from its present aspects. Then a warm and genial climate prevailed from the Gulf to the Arctic Sea; the Canadian highlands were higher, but the Rocky Mountains lower and less broad. Most of the continent exhibited an undulating surface ; rounded hills and broad valleys covered with forests grander than any of the present day, or wide expanses of rich savannah over which roamed countless herds of animals, many of gigantic size, of which our present meagre fauna retains but a few dwarfed representatives. Noble rivers flowed through plains and valleys, and sea-like lakes broader and more numerous than those the continent now bears di- versified the scenery. Through unnumbered ages the sea- sons ran their ceaseless course, the sun rose and set, moons waxed and waned over this fair land, but no human eye was there to mark its beauty or human intellect to control and use its exuberant fertility. Flowers opened their many- colored petals on meadow and hill-side, and filled the air with their fragrance, but only for the delectation of the wan- dering bee. Fruits ripened in the sun, but there was no hand there to pluck, nor any speaking tongue to taste. Birds sang in the trees, but for no ears but their own. The surface of lake or river was whitened by no sail, nor fur- rowed by any prow but the breast of the water fowl; and the far-reaching shores echoed no sound but the dash of the waves, and the lowing of the herds that slaked their thirst in the crystal waters. Life and beauty were everywhere; and man, the great destroyer, had not yet come, but not all was peace and har- mony in this Arcadia. The forces of nature are always at war, and redundant life compels abundant death. The in- numerable species of animals and plants had each its hered- itary enemy, and the struggle of life was so sharp and bitter that in the lapse of ages many genera and species were blotted out forever. The herds of herbivores — which included nearly all the ee EER moka THEIR DEPOSITS AND DRAINAGE. 659 genera now living on the earth's surface, with many strange forms long since extinct— formed the prey of carnivores commensurate to these in power and numbers. The coo of the dove and the whistle of the quail were answered by the scream of the eagle; and the lowing of herds and the bleat- ing of flocks come to the ear of the imagination, mingled with the roar of the lion, the howl of the wolf, and the des- pairing cry of the victim. Yielding to the slow-acting but irresistible forces of nature, each in succession of thesi va- rious animal forms has disappeared till all have passed away or been changed to their modern representatives, while the country they inhabited, by the upheaval of its mountains, the deepening of its valleys, the filling and draining of its great lakes, has become what it is. These changes which I have reviewed in an hour seem like the swiftly consecutive pietures of the phantasmagoria or the shifting scenes of the drama, but the eons of time in which they were effected are simply infinite and incomprehensible to us. We have no reason to suppose that ferra firma was less firm, or that the order of nature, in which no change is recorded within the historie period, was less constant then than now. At the present rate of change— throwing out man's influence —a period infinite to us would be required to revolutionize the climate, flora and fauna, and there is no evidence that changes were more rapid during the Tertiary ages, Every day sees something taken from the rocky barrier of Niagara ; and, geologically ipeaking; at no remote time our great lakes will have shared the fate of those that once ex- isted at the far West. Already they have been reduced to less than half their former area—and the water level has been depressed three hundred feet or more. This process is likely to go on until they are completely emptied. The cities that now stand upon their banks will, ere that time, have grown colossal in size, then gray with age, then have fallen into’ decadence and their sites be long forgotten, 660 THE CHINESE IN SAN FRANCISCO, but in the sediments that are now accumulating in these lake- . basins will lie many a wreck and skeleton, tree-trunk and floated leaf. Near the city sites and old river mouths these sediments will be full of relics that will illustrate and ex- plain the mingled comedy and tragedy of human life. "These relics the geologist of the future will probably gather and study and moralize over as we do the records of the Tertiary ages. Doubtless he will be taught the same lesson we are, that human life is infinitely short, and human achievement ut- terly insignificant. Let us hope that this future man, purer in morals and clearer in intellect than we, may find as much to admire in the records of this first epoch of the reign of man, as we do in those of the reign of mammals. THE CHINESE IN SAN FRANCISCO. BY REV. A. P. PEABODY, D.D. Tue Chinese form from a seventh to a fifth part of the entire population of San Francisco, and are seen in consid- erable numbers in all parts of California. They mingle with no other race; they learn or profess to know enough and only enough of the English tongue to transact their neces- sary boss with their paces: and in San Francisco they live almost wholly i in their own crowded quarters, which constitute in all respects a city by itself. In the street they are the cleanest and neatest of people. Every man and boy has his queue of hair, as long as himself, nicely wrapped in silk braid, and generally rolled round the head. Their principal garment is a dark blue, close-fitting frock. Their shoes are of silk or cloth, with felt soles. Their houses are dirty beyond description. Scores and even hundreds of them are sometimes huddled together in the same building, with blankets for their only beds, and THE CHINESE IN SAN FRANCISCO. 661 almost their only furniture. In these houses their simple cooking is performed in the long halls into which their apart- ments open, over furnaces, with no legitimate outlet for the coul-smoke, which leaves its black and greasy deposit half an inch thick on the ceiling and walls. I went into several of their fashionable restaurants, and found them hardly less | filthy than their lodgings, yet with a marvellous — of complicated and indescribable delicacies, which a year's in- come of the establishment might have tempted me to touch, but certainly not to taste. Their provision-shops contain little except pork, and that, seldom in a form in which it would be recognized by an un- practised eye. Every part of the swine, even the coagulated blood, is utilized; and the modes in which the various por- tions of the beast are chopped, minced, wrapped in intes- tines, dried almost to petrifaction, commingled with nauseous Seasonings, pique the curiosity as.much as they offend the nostrils of the American observer. Their theatres offer an amazing spectacle. Their perform- ances commence early in the forenoon, and last till midnight. Their plays are said to be historical, and they are often con- tinued for several days. The scenery is simple, cheap, and gaudy, and is never changed. The costumes are splendid, With a vast amount of gilding and of costly materials, but inexpressibly grotesque, and many of the actors wear hide- ous masks. The orchestra consists of a tom-tom (which Sounds as if a huge brass kettle were lustily beaten by iron drumsticks), and qiie of the shrillest of wind-instru- ments. The noise they make may be music to a Chinese eur, but it consists wholly of the harshest discords, and each performer seems to be playing on his own account, and to be intent on making all the noise he can. This noise is uninter- rupted, and the. actors who are all men (men playing the emale parts in costume), shout their parts above the din in a falsetto recitative, monotonous till toward the close of a Speech, but uniformly winding up with a long-drawn, many- 662 THE CHINESE IN SAN FRANCISCO: quavered whine or howl. The performance is for the most part literally acting. A crowned king or queen is commonly on the stage, and almost always comes to grief. Parties of armed men meet on the stage, hold sham-fights, kick each other over, and force the sovereign into the melée. Then a rebel subject plants both his feet in the monarch's stomach, - knocks him down, and himself falls backward in the very act. Thus the fight goes on, and gathers fury as its ranks are thinned, till at length the whole stage is covered with prostrate forms, which lie for a little while in the semblance of death, then pick themselves up, and scud off behind the scenes. The actors live in the theatre, though they might seem to have no living-room. I went into the principal theatre one morning, before the actors, who had been per- forming until a late hour, had arisen; and I found them lying in one of the passage-ways in several tiers of holes, so nearly of the size of the human body that they could only have wormed themselves in feet first. Gambling is one of their passions. There are numerous gambling-houses where the playing goes on through the whole day and night, with an orchestra like that of the thea- tre, enriched by a single female singer, whose song seems & loud, shrill, ear-piercing monotone, so horrible as almost to compel the belief that the Chinese ear must have as unique & structure as if it belonged to a different species from ours. The Chinese exercise, with marvellous skill, all the me- chanical arts and trades, and have as large a variety of shops as the Americans, with wonderfully rich assortments of goods, including works in wood-carving, ivory and filigree, which can nowhere be surpassed in delicacy and beauty. Their temples or josh-houses, are small upper rooms, with hideously grinning idols, overlaid with tinsel, and covered with tawdry ornaments, on an elevated platform at the ex- tremity of the apartment. Before these idols a dim lamp is always burning, and a table is spread for votive offerings. which are generally cups of tea or fruits. These apartments THE CHINESE IN SAN FRANCISCO. 663 are in the buildings maintained by the Chinese Emigrant Aid Societies as reception-houses and hospitals, — vile dens as we should deem them, but, it is said, fully level with a Chinaman's notions of repose and comfort. These people are by no means unintelligent. It is said that there are none of them who cannot read, write, and cast accounts ; and there are among them some men of high edu- cation, polished manners, large business, and friendly, yet never intimate relations with their brother-merchants. There is a mission-house, with a school and a chapel; but the missionary, an intelligent man and an indefatigable worker (by the way, my guide and mentor among the theatres and gambling-houses, in which he seemed very much at home, on the principle of becoming all things to all men), told me that he had gained a firm hold on very few ; that he found it almost impossible to keep a small congregation to- gether through a very short service, though many came in to listen for a little while ;* and that the slightest disturbance in the street, even the passing of a hand-organ, would instantly empty his chapel. These Chinamen are generally without their families; the numerous women that live in their quarters -being with very few exceptions persons of bad character. The men come to this country with the purpose of remaining but a few years; and if they die, their bodies are embalmed, and sent home for burial, Chinese corpses sometimes forming a vessel's entire freight. he Chinese question I cannot undertake to discuss here. Suffice it to say that, in my opinion, all that can be hoped from the Chinese is the supply of cheap labor which is needed for the rapid development of a new country. As to making these people citizens who will even prize their rights, still more exercise them judiciously, or changing their older and to them satisfying type of civilization into the Anglo-Saxon Christian type, — this is utterly beyond proba- bility or hope. If the Chinese are to be Christianized, it 664 THE LYCOSA AT HOME. must be on their own soil, and with no invasion of their an- cestral habits, except the engrafting upon them of the morality of the New Testament. THE LYCOSA AT HOME. BY J. H. EMERTON. Lasr spring Mr. J. A. Lintner noticed on the sandy hills west of Albany, N. Y., a number of holes about half an inch in diameter, each << surrounded by a ring of "v sticks and bits of leaves | loosely fastened together by SN fine threads. A few days Wwe afterward (May 6), I care- Sw fully opened several of these x holes and found in the bot- 3 tom of each a large spider, A a Lycosa. The holes were Ww from six to eight inches deep * and lined with a delicate web, which near the top was stout enough to be separated from the sand, forming a silken : tube attached to the ring of ws chips around the mouth of N NS S Www the hole. When the holes SN NS SS XV were opened the spiders lay st of Lycosa NS still in the bottom and al- e lowed themselves to be taken out without attempting to escape. The sand at the bottom LICHENS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. 665 of the holes was of a grayish color, but there were no remains of insects and no cast skins of the spider. Before opening the holes we sounded them with straws and tried to provoke the spiders to come out, but they took no notice of it. The drawing represents the ring of leaves and sticks, a section of the tube, and the spider at the bottom, all of the natural size. LICHENS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. BY H. WILLEY. Tue Lichens, though among the lowest, are also among the most abundant and widely distributed orders of plants. They are the earliest to 'cover the naked rocks with vegeta- tion (though none, that we are aware, have been found in a fossil condition), and by their decay, to prepare a soil on which more highly organized plants can flourish. In the | Arctic zone some species are so abundant as to furnish the reindeer with the food necessary for his subsistence, and are even used as fodder for cattle and swine, and are said to in- crease the quantity of milk. Recently they have been used for the manufacture of brandy—a very poor use to put them to—and were formerly much employed in dyeing. Hoff- man, in his work on the uses of lichens, gives plates of over seventy-five tints obtained from them. But the recent sci- entific discoveries in this art, have greatly diminished their use for this purpose. Some were formerly used for medical purposes, frequently in accordance with the old doctrine of signatures. Peltigera canina was supposed to cure hydro- phobia; Sticta pulmonaria, the consumption, ete. But they are now considered of little, if any importance, in medicine. Arctic travellers have found in Umbilicaria, called ripe de roche, a poor and bitter substitute for food, when nothing AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 84 666 LICHENS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. better could be obtained ; and in Sweden bread has been made of the reindeer lichen in times of famine. Lichens abound, also, in the temperate zone, especially in the mountains and the moist regions of the coast. Nearly three hundred species have been found in this vicinity (New Bedford). The number of known species, according to the most recent estimate (Krempelhueber, 1865), is about five thousand. They are to be met with everywhere. In swamps the trees are festooned with the pendulous Usnea. The foli- aceous Parmelias, Stictas, etc., cover their trunks. The rocks and stones are everywhere covered with their spread- ing crusts. Some species grow on rocks covered with fresh or salt water. The brown, or scarlet fruited Cladonias, or “cup mosses,” which the French call "herbe du feu” are spread over the earth. Some attain a diameter of two feet or more, while others are so small as hardly to be visible to the naked eye. Many of them are brilliantly colored, and exceedingly beautiful. They may be collected at any season of the year, are easily preserved, and their study, though not common among our botanists, owing, in a reat degree, to the want of books on the subject in this country, and the necessity of using the microscope in order to become prop- erly acquainted with them, is full of interest and instruction. In the natural system of plants the lichens belong to the Cryptogamous, or flowerless series, which includes the ferns, mosses, alge, and fungi. They rank below the mosses, having no distinct stem or foliage, but bearing their fruit on a foliou shrubby, or crustaceous expansion, called a thallus, whence they are sometimes called Thallo- phytes. They have affinities on the one side with the alge, and on the other with the fungi, and by some botanists have been included under one or ‘the other of these orders. recent writer, Schwendener, has propounded the theory that they are a compound plant, the thallus being a true alga, and the apothecium a fungus; but to this etry: no true lichenist will be likely to assent. LICHENS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. 661 The distinctive features of lichens consist in their having a thallus containing peculiar green cells, called gonidia, au] in their spores being contained in asci, or spore-cases. In the latter particular the ascomycetous fungi resemble them, but these are always destitute of gonidia. A bluish reaction of the gelatinous substance of the apothecia is also character- istic of most liehens, though in some it is brown or red. In the fungi the reaction with Fig. 139. iodine is yellow, except in a : very few instances, where it is blue. In order to investigate more closely the structure of the lichens, let us take any folia- ceous lichen, Theloschistes pa- rietinus ( Fig. 139), for instance, the eommon orange-colored wall lichen, which occurs every- where on stones and trunks; and having inserted a portion of the thallus in a slit made in Section of thallus of Theloschistes parie- el, rtical layer; g, A ml, à piece of soft cork, with a razor medullary layers sh Inferior lay slice off as thin a cross-section as possible, and put it on a slide, with a drop of water, beneath a piece of thin glass, v under the lens of our microscope. W e shall see that it is com- posed entirely of cellular tissue, differing in this respect from those plants which have a vascular tissue. The upper sur- face, cl, we shall perceive to consist of a layer of cells composed of this tissue. poena ailas; 6, tucnilitorm Next beneath this is a stratum of round, em greenish yellow bodies, g, called gonidia ; then a stratum of elongated cells or filaments, ml, crossing each other in various directions, constituting the medullary layer; and lastly another row of cells forming the lower sur- F'g. 140. 668 LICHENS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. face, sl, and from which proceed the slender fibres by which the plant is attached to the matrix on which it grows. These four layers make up the thallus of lichens. In some genera, Fig 141. as Collema (Fig. 140), the upper cel- lular layer is wanting, and the gonidia lie close to the surface; in others, as Peltigera, the lower is deficient, and bundles of long fibres proceed imme- diately from the medullary layer. These are very conspicuous and cu- Parmelia colpodes; c, cortical rious in Parmelia colpodes (Fig. 141). t er; I, ‘conidia ml, ine ae ary layers A, hypothallus. They constitute the hypothallus, which forms the substratum on which the other parts of the thallus are built up. In the fruticulose lichens, which bear some resemblance to the stem of a plant, the thallus is Fig. 142. more or less rounded, and the gonidia are arranged around the medullary layer as an axis. In Usnea (Fig. 142) the thallus is solid, and the centre is com- posed of a mass of compact filaments lying parallel to the axis. In other genera it is hollow, or composed of loose filaments. In some genera, as Lichena, the medullary filaments, in- stead of running parallel to the axis, diverge from the centre to the circum- ference. In many crustaceous lichens the thallus consists of hardly more than a collection of gonidia, sometime buried beneath the bark, and of few filamen- Usnea barbata; a, longitu- dinal seetion of th allus; Gi tary elements. In these the hypothallus ^ eross-section of the same. often forms a black border around the margin of the thallus. The gonidia constitute the peculiar characteristic of the lichen thallus, and are present in all true lichens, their presence being almost the only mark by which some can be LICHENS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. 669 distinguished from fungi. There are some parasitic plants, consisting only of apothecia, which grow on the thallus of other lichens, called by Massalongo and Koerber, Pseudo- lichens, which are considered by some as lichens, by others as fungi. Most of them give the characteristic blue reaction with iodine. In examining a section of a young specimen of one of these, Scutula Wall- rothii Tul. (Biatora Heerii Hepp), which grows on the thallus of Peltigera canina, I have seen a stratum of true gonidia un- derlying the apothecia, and extending around it. Some of these parasites are doubt- less lichens, while others must be relegated to the ascomycetous fungi. Section of apothecium of Theloschistes parie- The gonidia are either of X toja, greenish yellow color, as men- tioned above, as in Physcia, Parmelia, and the greater number of lichens; or of a bluish green, as in Collema, Peltigera, some Stictas, ete. These latter are called granula gonima, or collegonidia. In Collema Fig. 145. they are strung together like a chaplet of beads, and are called moniliform (Fig. 140, 6). In some genera they spring from the end of thalline filaments, in others they are grouped together, enveloped in a trans- Fig. 143. Granula gonima of Sticta fuliginosa, Fig. 144. Portion of same more enlarged; ch, 3 pe rape i parent gelatinous substance, and ae wa; jum vomer: f " y layer. araphyses surrounded by a thin membrane kondia; mi — (Fig. 143). In Synalissa both kinds of gonidia occur. They frequently burst into mealy excrescences, cà ed s0- redia, on the surface of the thallus, and have the faculty of mültiplying by self-division and of propagating the plant, 610 LICHENS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. and in this way many lichens on which apothecia rarely or never occur, are multiplied. In some Verrucarias there are small gonidia, called hymenial gonidia, included in the hymenium. The gelatinous substance which is found in the thallus is called lichenine. It is of a starchy nature. In many crus- taceous lichens, oxalate of lime is present in considerable quantities, and may be easily recognized by its octahedric erystals. Phosphate of lime, salt, sugar, oil, with various peeuliar acids, also occur, but not in great abundance. Having thus viewed the principal features of the lichen thallus, let us now turn our attention to its organs of fructi- fication. On looking at the lichen (Theloschistes) already selected, we shall see its surface covered with small round disks of nearly the same color as the thallus. These are the apothecia (Fig. 144), and contain the spores, the reproduc- tive organs of the plant. Making a thin perpendicular sec- tion of one of these, and placing it under our lens, we shall see that it is surrounded by a margin containing gonidia like the thallus. The interior (Fig. 145) is composed of a mass of parallel filaments, called paraphyses, among which are the asci, or Spore-cases. This interior portion is called the hy- menium. That part which contains the paraphyses and asci is called the thalamium, and the portion below it, the hy- pothecium. Those lichens whose fruit has an open disk, are called gymnocarpous. The margin of the disk is called the exci- ple. When formed from the thallus, and containing gonidia, it is called a thalline exciple ; when otherwise, a proper exci- ple. The thalline exciple is usually pale, yellow, brown, red, or of the same color as the thallus, though it often blackens. The proper exciple is either black, as in Lecidea, or colored, as in Biatora. But in many lichens with a thal- line exciple, it often assumes a biatorine form. The exciple is sometimes double, asin Gyalecta. The color of the disk varies greatly, being flesh-colored, yellow, red, brown, OY LICHENS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. 611 black. In some species, as Vephroma arctica and Parmelia perforata, the apothecium attains a large size. In Cladonia it is borne on the summit of a hollow stalk, called a pode- tium; in Calieium on a slender solid stem. Fig. 146. In the Graphides, or "written" lichens, the apothecia are elongated and narrow, branched or stellate, and bear a rude resemblance to written characters. In many genera, such as Verrucaria, the apothecia are closed, and these are called angiocarpous. These apothecia are usually black, conical, with a small opening at the summit. Their covering is sometimes called Spore-c: S tlie the perithecium. But there is no fixed line Wi» spores- of demarcation between the gymnocarpous and the angio- arpous lichens. The paraphyses are sometimes long and thread-like, and Fig. 147. simple colored spore of Calicium uevcenetm. Spores. a, sim 5, diblastish Ramalina calica ietrabla sti * Buellia mean spool d, acic ul: * Biatora rubel i - * Collema Aaccidum. ^ muriform " " Buellia pe easily separated, sometimes short and closely agglutinated, and, as in Arthonia, are sometimes entirely wanting. In this genus the exciple is also wanting. The paraphyses pm Spore-cases are generally colored Hm sometimes red « brown, by a solution of iodine. The spore-cases, which lie among the paraphyses, are sacks usually of an oblong or club-shaped form, sometimes lanceo- 672 LICHENS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. late or globose. In some genera, as Calicium, they disappear early, and the spores then appear to be free. But they are usually persistent, and a little pressure is required to sep- arate the parts and bring out the spores. In the plant under ex- amination there are eight of them in each spore- case. This is the usual number. But many species have one, two, Section of Spermogonea of Theloschistes parietina. cl, cortical four, sixteen, or layer; g, gon o o, ostiolum; c, cavity; s, sterigmata; ml, me dullary laye more, or even several hundred spores in each spore-case. The spores differ greatly in size, form and color. In Theloschistes they arc colorless, of an oval form (Fig. 146), with a small cavity at each end, sometimes connected by a small canal, and measure from twelve to sixteen thou- Fig. 149. sandths of a millimetre in length. In other species they are of a brownish yellow, or a deep brown approaching black. The smallest spores are hardly two thousandths of a milli- metre in diameter, while the largest are nearly two-tenths of a millimetre in length. In form they are globose, oval, elliptical, fusi- form, needle-shaped, ete. (Fig. 147). Many spores are divided by one or more transverse partitions, and these again sometimes by per- pendieular ones. The former are called di- Sterigmata and sper- tetra-pleio-, or poly-blastish ; the latter mu- "a? rnesm* riform, and spores like those of Physica, polar-bilocular. Their great variety of form and eolor renders them most interesting objects under the microscope, and they are of LICHENS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. 613 great importance in the determination of species, so that the study of lichens cannot now be successfully or thor- oughly prosecuted without an acquaintance with them. Their general form and Fig. 150. color being constant in each genus and species, they have, as Professor Tuck- erman observes (Li- chens of California), “added a new con- tent to the conception of species.” While their study opens fresh difficulties and perplexities to the student, it affords him a deeper insight into the inscrutable mysteries of nature, who, whatever we Spermatia, Fig. 151. à may strive to ascer- tain, ever holds some secrets in reserve which are beyond our grasp. In its earliest stages the spore-case appears filled with small globular gran- ules, in which lines of division appear, and the spores grad- ually assume their regular form and number. The spores are at first colorless Section of pyenide or Biatora Heer. s, tylosporesz £ thal- and simple, and their cy: pipes internal divisions all gradations in the ed with a mass d in à linear and vdd of color may be seen in same hymenium.. They frequently remain fill of oil globules: They are sometimes arrange AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 85 674 LICHENS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. series in the spore-case, sometimes irregularly grouped, and sometimes spirally twisted around a central (ideal) axis. When ripe they are expelled from the spore-case by the pressure of the paraphyses, which when moistened, absorb water co- piously. Many observations have been made as to the manner of the development of the thallus from the spore, but the matter is still in- volved in a good deal of obscurity. On the thallus of most lichens are to be seen a number of small P more ily magni, showing te black dots , either scattered irregu- larly over its surface, or along the margin. These are the spermogonea (Fig. 148), and they contain, in great numbers, the spermatia, which are ex- tremely minute, cylindrical, or needle-shaped bodies, situ- ated on the extremities of simple or branched filaments, called sterigmata (Figs. 149, 153). Their forms appear to be constant in each species, but are much less diverse than those of the spores, and they are always colorless. They have been supposed to be the male organ of reproduction, but nothing is certainly known of their functions. Nylander, who attaches much import- ance to the spermatia in his Syn- opsis, distinguishes five forms of them. Ist, the acicular slightly swol- len at one end, as in Usnea; 2d, acicular slightly swollen near the ex- Spores (a), sterigmata and sper- tremity, as in Evernia; 3d, straight ual hres ma NEA acicular or cylindrical, as in most Lecanoras; 4th, bowed acicular, or cylindrical, as in some Lecanoras ; 5th, ellipsoid or oblong, as in Calicinm, which last, he says, approach rather too near the short cylindrical spermatia. There are no spherical spermatia. But he is not fortunate in attempting REVIEWS. 675 to apply these distinctions, and it seems difficult to render them of any great systematic value. Leighton, who has de- scribed and figured the spermatia of a large number of lichens, has failed in many instances to recognize the dif- ferences in form indicated by Nylander, especially in regard to the first two forms. and points out a great confusion in the application of Nylander's idea in his Prodromous and Synop- sis in regard to the spermatia of Platysma (Cetraria). In figure 150 (a, spermatia of Pyrenula lactea Mass. ; b. Ver- rucaria epigea Pers. ; c, Synalissa phylliscina; d, S. phao- cocca Tuck.; e, Lecanora athrocarpa Duby; f, Parmelia colpodes Tuck.; g, Cetraria ciliaris Ach.; h, Placodium camptidium Tuck.), we give a few additional illustrations of the different forms of spermatia. A slight but distinct crackle is almost invariably heard on crushing the spermo- gonia under the thin glass, which seems peculiar to these organs. Besides the spermogonia, there are also other small bodies, resembling them in external appearance, called pycnides (Fig. 151), but containing spore-like bodies called stylospores (Fig. 152), on the extremities of short filaments. They are often septate. Their office is unknown, and they are of comparatively infrequent occurrence. : REVIEWS. dade THE EARED ined aiias to the year 1866, comparatively little atten- tion had been paid to the systematic relations inter se of the seals, and in that year, Dr. John Edward Gray, in the “Catalogue of the Seals and Whales in the British Museum,” iby essentially the same classifica- maaa enana it E ansa *On the Eared Seals (Olariadz), pens detailed pe ae ge of the North Pacific species, by J. A. Allen. Together with an account of the habits of the northern fur seal (Ca/forhinus we nus), by Charles Bryant. [l pl. 108 ax 3 pl. 3l. exp.] Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative NY logy [ete.]. Vol. I. No.1. copy which we owe Aa the kindness of the author, is graphic plates of Zalophus Giltespit. is further illustrated by two photo- 676 REVIEWS. tion which he had presented in 1850, in his catalogue of the seals—a ' singularly unnatural one, based chiefly on the number and development of the teeth; all the Pinnipeds were regarded as forming a single family, divided among five sub-families, namely : — A. Grinders two-rooted ; [etc.] * a. ating teeth 4 [above]; 4 [below] [etc.] ee b. 6 [above]; 4 uet [eto. ] Phoci B. Grinders with singl grind f Halicherus). c. Ears without any conch; [et e}. * Muzzle large, truncated, simple; canines large; grinders lobed, when old, truncated. Trichechina pinion Trichecus Rosmarus and Halichærus! ** Muzzle 0! M e with a dilatable appendage; cutting teeth 4 [above] 2 [! below]; ved hes — d. Ear li 1 distinct ext l ; [ete.] Arctocephalina * Only the Vir v contr: ip characters are noticed here; the others are often binant only to a portion of the groups diagnosed. If classification is really intended to represent the natural relations of . organized beings, as determined by the sum of their structural agree- ments, and the subordination of the respective groups differentiated, à more unfortunate classification than that noticed could scarcely be de- vised; if even it is only regarded as a means to enable us to ascertain the second prime division), having the ** grinders with single root (except the two d not being distinguished, even by Gray's own diagnosis, from Lobodon of the Stenorh; inchina (first prime division), which e of the genera Pagomys, Halicyon, (the latter based on intangible charac- ters,) and Callorhinus. same year, 1866, appeared a ** Prodrome of a Monograph of the Pinnipeds, by Theodore Gill, " in the Proceedings of the Essex Institute (V, pp. 1-13), in which those animals were distributed among three fami- lies (Phocide, Otariide, and Rosmaride), equivalent to the three sub- families recognized by Turner, and the Phocide were divided into three sub- uated Mec iit by important osteological characteristics pre- vionsly unn by systematists. In the Otariide, five = were rec- the Otariids, two by Gray and two by Peters nos “Dublished in the same year. The former, after a first passionate outburst of anger, finally ac- cepted as valid the three families just noted, and, like Peters, adopted the genera of Otariids first defined in the Prodrome (i. e. Eumetopias and * REVIEWS. 671 Zalophus), raised to generic rank two additional groups named as sub- The extreme to which differentiation was carried may be judged from the fact that Mr. Allen has reduced two of his genera to one species, and was strongly inclined to reduce three others to a second species. Those sub-families in the main agreed with the genera defined in the ** Prodrome of the TTE but were rendered unnatural by the combination — in face of the characters used as diagnostic — of Arctophoca (a sub-division of sil cn with d and by the Marcum of Phocarctos (a form inseparable from Otaria) in the ** Arctocephalin As an example of the mode of differentiation, a follo wing diagnoses will suffice. ** Nerphoca. sti large, thick, all equal, in a continuous uniform Series. Austra S will be eau E the same feature is indicated Prod: rom Much anc PUR had also accumulated as to the distribution, habits, ‘Was with t investigation of the North Pacific species of s family, and incidentally f the classification of the entire group. He has, like his immediate pe decessors, admitted the validity of the family ee by him ** Otariade, and has admirably contrasted the characteristics of the pelvis and hind that **these appear to be natural groups, of true generic rank, and prop- erly restricted; and, after a careful examination of the subject,..... " nd appear to [him] to include all the natural genera of the family." * e genera are considered by Mr. Allen as separable among two se sub-families, the author remarking (p. es * that if the Otariade constitute à group entitled to family rank. — and the so-called sub-families of the neater * Allen, op. cit., p. 38. . 618 REVIEWS. Phocide have truly a sub-family value, —the Otariade must be considered ` as divisible into two sub-family groups, of which the hair seals consti- and Oulophocine t for the fur seals, in m to the different character of the pelage in the two groups." To the Trichophocine, are referred the genera Otaria, Eume es tor a Zalophus; to the Oulophocine, the genera Arctocephalus aud Callor. Mr. Allen has riens uem A ENEA for his sub-families, solely from the nature of the pelage, the size and form of the entire animal, the length of the ears, the length of the toe-flaps of the hinder limbs, and the number of molars. His definitions are as follow T VONT ily I. Trichophocine. under-fur; size large and form robust; ears short and broad; molars either 6 Minen 5 [bélo ow] 5 itin 5 [bibowinime [above] 10 [below] or 5 [above] 5 [below] ae [above] 10 [below smalle of the hinder limbs much longer than in ameg molars 6 ahai 5 Yit 6 [above] 5 [below]=12 [above] 10 cedi m dari m 4 44.) We may at once concede the MUN of the distinctions based on the pelage, remarking, however, that the character is not as absolute as the homologue of the under-fur of the fur-seals, and Gray attributes to difference in the extent of the under fur in the species of Arctocephalus, A. antarctica (Otaria pusilla ehe i having very thin under hair (‘‘ Mit e (“ Haar mit dichter Unterwolle”) ; the difference between the extremes of those two iacu seems thus to. be very much reduced, when we take Mr. Allen had access, will demonstrate the truth of our criticism. We have in every case taken the measurement » the adult males only, a have reduced all the measurements to millimetres ^ Arctocephalus nigrescens, WE aul doas E OE woo Maw ans Falklandicus, M s d cra f ‘ 235 Peters. ^ Cerne ME o 7. V oO aor TM Gray. * p.c, hair, and $óx7, seal. T OvAos, soft, and $óx. REVIEWS. 679 4. — á golf EIU te Maite 238 Peters. 5. Callorhinus ursi T iibris dab iioad bacc da C o o Mr, 6. Arc den vi lr is aas Pipes EE MINUS RAD 262 . Gray. 7. Zalophus ee sl (aponica, UU MUR. 8 o, D a 8. Callorhinus ursin $ o an a eae i ei 975 Allen. 9. Zalophus Gimespiys e ode e oet RH Roane 0 OR eg 10. "t st i ‘ . . ` 290 Allen 1l. O HrOvL | ol E E AET T A EE S a 12. Zalophus Gillespii (Japonica), . . +. «.« -. >œ 310 Peters, 13. e « À : $ : : : i r . 830 Allen. M.íOtatii])ubiMa, (^ "Lose ead: Sa 835 Gray. 15. Eumetopias "C ‘ ane Reine Vau s . A . 85 Gray 16. ee al ea og lel 374 Allen. 17. i ud - 889 Allen. As it may be objected that the skull of Otaria Ullow was of a female or young, we will at once dismiss that from consideration. But the forms still remaining, and concerning which no objection, it appears to us, can plies a greater relative total length for those animals than the head alone would verde and thus the inapplicability of the diagnosis is still fur- ther enhan As to us PE VER — from the comparative robustness or slen- derness, the following measurements by Mr. ^P M of the hair and fur seals of Alaska, show the usta proportion Ratio of skull to Unmounted. Mounted Skull. length of male skin. Callorhinus weinus (2, M 2,470 245 I-X. 20- 2,311 2,390 275 I-VIII. 190-275 Eumetopias — G mo, 2,750 2,790 874 L-VII. 300-374 : 2,896 3,010 385 .— L-VII. 315-385 When we thus become cognizant of the comparatively slight differences between the two members of the family observed, when too, we notice the range of variations in one of the species, and when we reflect that such difference may be created by the mode of preparation of skins, and that other forms appear to be intermediate, to say the least, the character be- ngible. The length of the ears is the next character noticed; ge following measurements will strate the relative lengths in millimetre Otaria ETE T Eumetopias, $ Allen. Zalo tiai BEI ters Arctocephalus è 30-40 Peters. E aw is cos E Pete Callorhinus, à . 85-50 Allen. These measurements, by Mr. apes are from the same individuals, before * No data are given concerning the pu E the girth to the length, and no very appreciable MM dn constant differences appear to exist, : hough Pee is said to be considerable diference 680 REVIEWS. and after mounting, the ears appearing shorter when mounted. We thus learn at once to distrust and be cautious respecting such characters, eve admitting their value. But in view of these tables, and the conclusions no differences of form have been referred to, nor has the reviewer by autopsy been able to convince himself of the existence of any of mo- other character remains; in Oulophocine ‘‘the toe-flaps of the hinder limbs much longer than in Trichophocine.” The statement is per- faetiy ^ dmi c whatever may be our estimate of its value, if only Cal- , offers an intermediate condition. There is no difference See as to dentition, as the alternatives for the Trichophocina indica Mr. n, W o D © et w- ka z s Ea zy et p$ © s now made of sub-family value, if only for the reason that they are not trenchant; but we must add that even had they been absolute, we should have been extremely doubtful as to the propriety of assigning them such a taxo- nomic value. But if we have been obliged — and most unwillingly we have — to dis- sent from Mr. Allen in his view of taxonomic values, we rejoice to testify to our concurrence with him in the main, and if Mr. Allen will simply re- ject Zalophus from the company of the other hair seals, we will at once admit t e has made an important advance in the appreciation of the relations, inter se, of the members of the family; the comparàtive rela- tion Otaria and Eumetopias appears indeed to be more intimate a T and if ere skull is a correct index, it should, in our judgment, be e group, composed of all its members save Zalophus, while d. group shea be lioika afar. All the species, except of that the muscular attachments. Zalophus, on the contrary, has a narrow and regularly attenuated muzzle, which is straight or even slightly concave, and in of seam has elevated and trenchant crest; (p. 6 may add that we know of no indications, from other sources, which belle REVIEWS. 681 this evidence of isolation. But while we would thus insist on the isola- tion of Zalophus, we would not consider it as entitled to rank other than are the relations between the members of that family and the groups which have been distinguished as sub-families in the apet and which we are happy to learn meet with Mr. Allen’s approbation. Availing ourselves now of the data that have adicit up to the present time, and which have been so well digested by Mr. Allen, we be- lieve that the relations of the Otariids may be expressed by the following synoptical table, in which only the most obvious and distinctive charac- ters are introduced. I. Skull with a more or less decurved front rostral profile, and with a sagittal groove from which are Mai ted the low ridges indicating the limits of the temporal mus A. Pelage with under-fur: vidas normal : rent 5 aee s above j Mnt dnos a. Snout much decurved above, and abbreviated, its length being , les SS than the longitudinal ver of the orbits, Callorhinus. in le ceeding the longitudinal — of the orbit, «itf . Arctocephalus. B. take without defined under bove 6-6; the Sr little remote from the preceding ‘aad in a line with, or in advance of the transverse max! illo- palatine suture; bony palatal margin much nearer the pterygoid hamuli than the teeth; hinder feet with swimming membrane much produced and deeply incised, Otaria. b. Molars above 5-5; the last remote from the srepeding. and B hind the transverse maxilo palatine suture; bony palatal and m Eumetopias. II. Skull om as poma incurved fron to rostral profile, a and with. a st, solid, t ed and iu elevated sagittal cre Zalophus. -Although we are not inclined to place much stress on the sequence of forms when so many gaps remain unfilled, and when "f unknown might reverse the opinion that we have with more or less reason derived from me acquaintance wit th the seen, we are disposed to believe that the pre- of relationship, but such a system, especially when the genera are very numerous, becomes too complicated, and is of really little or no use. We Dpr.G i d on artificial groups, Tm, age "i 3. E are entirely differently limited. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 86 682 REVIEWS. do not speak of taxes on the memory, for memory has nothing to do with the existence of natural groups, although some scs are in the habit of objecting to names because, forsooth, they tax the m With respect to species, Mr. Allen carries vba MH to an extreme. h concludes that analogous variations are only of like value; the inference is by no means a perfectly safe one, though it may be best in proposing at least ten species have been admitted by one of the most accomplished Three such species are considered by Mr. Allen, who had never seen them and was only guided by analogy, as variations of one; Otaria jubata, O. Ulloc, and O. (Phocarctos) Hookeri,* being referred to O. jubata extended; and three other species —— admitted by those who have exam- ined them, are admitted as very doubtful, i. e., Arctocephalus Falklandicus, A. cinereus (Gray), and A. antarcticus. It may be that Mr. Allen is correct; after years the nomenclature is again disturbed by the revival of the unjustly buried names. It is to be feared that some of the species which Mr. Allen has doomed to annihilation will yet arise and assume a healthy — w words as to the relations of the family. Mr. Allen, treating of e. primary groups of the Pinnipeds, remarks (p. 21), that * d that they have a higher value than a sub-family value, I d for the present the classification elaborated by Dr. Gill, in his Prodro they seem intermediate in general features between the earless s dint * Since the transmission to the printer of the copy of this review, a number of the ** Anales f the 0. Hi at th th anf cha Bin De f eit. T deit a P ae 2 ei a E S n RUE a SERT ^ REVIEWS. 683 the walruses. Their affinities, as they appear to me, may be indicated as follows OTARIADZ, ‘t RoSMARIDJE, PHOCIDÆ. * The evidences of the superiority of the Otariade over the Phocide, consist mainly in that modification of their general structure, and especi- ally of the pelvis and posterior extremities, by means of which they have freer use of their limbs, and are able to move on land with considerable rapidity; the Phocide, on the other hand, move with great difficulty when out of the water. But the higher rank of the former is also indicated by their semi-terrestrial habits, the scrotal position of the testes, and in the nearer approach in general features to the terrestrial Carnivores, especi- i la. Most of these zoology are often very ambiguous terms. So far as Mr. Allen means the generalized, by high, and by lower, the more modified types, we perfectly agree with him, for the Otariids seem indubitably to be the least removed in structure from that stock which has diverged from the old feral stem and culminated into the existing Pennipeds; nearly equally plain does the evidence appear that the Walrus is in general a type which possesses re of the primitive characters of the stock than do the Phocids, al- i ch a in this sense, as an abstract question, we have no objection to the employ- ment of the term low, for there seem to be too many proofs of the exist- ence of such cases doubt. But Mr. Allen leaves us in uncertainty as species and subordination, or, with the many, interprets appearances as indicative of facts. In the former case there would be no basis for argu- ment, but if we still call low, iu comparison with the gressorial carnivores, the Pinnipeds and the whales, believing in their evolution from the same stock as the former, it is only because we connect, with adaptation for 684 REVIEWS. ^. In this connection it may be recalled that while in the monogamous Pinnipeds, or Sei living in small communities, there is little difference in size between the males and females, in the social species, or rather those of Un the males have Miss; the males are vastly larger than the females. Macrorhinus, of the Phocids, e all the Otariids belong sexes in the forms above enumerated, furnishes not the slightest evidence of more intimate primordial affinity, for like causes would in each special case, pues as this, produce like effects. e have already lingered so long over the systematic portion of Mr. Allen's dcn that we are perforce obliged to omit any observations on the habits or physiological relations of the species, but the work is replete with information on the subject contributed by Captain Bryant respect- ing the fur-seal (Callorhinus ursinus), and judiciously edited, with notes and comparisons with the habits of other members of the family, by r. Allen. And finally, cordially thanking Mr. Allen for his most valuable contri- bution, and the Museum of Comparative Zoology, under Professor ssiz’s superintendence, for its publication, we close by a recapitula- tion of its most noteworthy elements, nfmely:— A nearly complete rè- n information ee their ved dad comparison thereof with those of other species. — THEODORE GIL . INJURIOUS Insecrs.*—In this contribution to applied entomology, We rva is a little brown caterpillar which eats the buds in May. Itis diffi- cult to kill it without also injuring the tree itself. It also injures the buds ^ *Injurious Insects, New and Little Known. By A. S. Packard, jr., M. D. oss the Massa ehusetts Agrieultural Report, 1870.] 8vo, pp.31. With a plate and wood-cuts REVIEWS. 685 and erumples the leaves of the cherry, and rici the pear. A minute moth is also described as mining the leaves of the apple, a single leaf sometimes containing five or six larve. hi is a Micropteryx (M. pomivo- rella n. sp.), allied to the European M. oi te though about half its Size. This is the only species of this interesting genus yet found in America. Of the two moths infesting the cherry, the v-marked tortrix is the yellow cranberry worm (Tortrix vacciniivorana n. sp.), of the New Jersey cranberry fields, while the habits of the cranberry weevil (Pl. 6 tig. 10, enlarged; 10a, larva, enlarged), are described from the observa- . tions of Mr. sh, who has paid more attention than any one else to the insects infesting the cranberry. Two Fig. 154. insects not before known to feed on the cur- rant, are the Cherodes transversata of Walker, and Halia wavaria, a species introduced from - Europe, where it has long been known to feed on the gooseberry. a aspberry is einig a a beetle (By- s turus unicolor Say, Pl. 6, , enlarged), 3 = ic s the fruit buds, ate kes long = slits in the leaves during June. Of forest = nen the many-teethed Priocycla (P. bili- E nearia n. sp.), is a span worm feeding on the E: oak. Tul pine Vninbh (P. piniata n. sp. bi W. Saunders, to whom our entomologists are e di benet Xu: descriptions of the larve of many of our butterflies and moths. Besides ese pine insects, the singular saw-fly larva of a species of Lyda (Fig. 154), which has been found on the Austrian pine in a garden in Salem, deserves mention. It is a reddish olive green worm, with a pale reddish head, and two appendages to the end of the body like its antenne. A species of the Snout moth, of the genus Botys ( B. syringicola n. sp.) a clear winged moth (Ægeria syringe Harris) to be often destructive to lilacs, Of uM to gardeners is an account of the bean weevil (Bruchus granarius of Linneus, Pl. 6, fig. 8, bean containing several grubs; 8a, pupa). is is the wen known and very destructive bean weevil of Europe, concerning which Mr. Angus writes from West Farms, N. Y., to the author: = I send you a sample of beans which I think will stabile you 686 REVIEWS. if you have not seen such before. I discovered this beetle in the kidney or bush beans a few years ago, and they have been greatly on the increase every year since. I might say much on the gloomy prospect before us in the cultivation of rad important garden and farm product if the work s insect is not cut short by some means or Mons Fig. 155. wW A AM els , A-—-À f which: Mr. R. Howell of Tioga Comijn - York, have infest ed the newly planted corn in this vicinity. e enclosed specimens were taken on the llth in- stant. I presume that they have been in every hill crm RA Pupa of Robber-fy. I found a number last Friday about an inch under ound hanging to young stalks with much tenacity. When very range every stalk is killed. Some fields two or three years ago were wholly destroyed by this insect. The habits of a robber- fly (Proctacanthus pides fig. 155, pupa), which burrows in the sand of the shores of Plum Island, Mass., are noticed, together with those of the large horse fly ( Tabanus oen, fig. 156, pupa), which in its early stages lives in garden mould. Among plant ipio insects is noticed the white scale bark louse (Aspidiotus bromelie, Pl. 6, fig. 6, magnified ; 4, young magnified; 4a, end of body still more Maitea It is often destroyed by a minute chalchid fly, Coccophagus(?). Bois- duval's fern bark louse (Lecanium filicum Pl. 6, fig. 7a, scale enlarged seen from above; 7b, the same, seen from be- neath, and showing the form of the body surrounded by the broad flat edge of the scale; ^ 1c, an antenna, enlarged; 7d, à leg, enlarged; 7e, end of t Acai oii the flat- tened hairs fringing the edge V4 com hot-house plants, as also me pud ues bark oos (Lecanium pe cerii n. sp. Pl. 6, fig. 5, magnified; 5a, a tenn larged). and the p Won coccus (C. a PA c ri fig. 3, magnified) ; the plant house aleurodes (A. vaporarium of Westwood, Pl. 6 fig. 9, enlarged; 9a, pupa enlarged), is more common perhaps than one would suppose. It gone Pupa ot Horse-fly. out ptg cap on enc dics and we found it not in n strawberry plants on the boa of the State iieiea prann si porcis The list of hot-house insects is com- pleted by one of the most injurious of all, the minute thrips huie hemorrhoidalis), from Europe, Pl. 6, fig. 2, greatly magnifled, which by its punctures, causes the surface of the leaf affected to turn red or white, while at at times the entire leaf withers. Vol. IV, Pl. 6. American Naturalist. 8 (687) PACKARD, ON INJURIOUS INSECTS. E Gabel oe urged Priv rer RCM NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. BOTANY. FERTILIZATION or Satvra By HUMBLE Bees. — Mr. Meehan's state- observations on the same subject, that I cannot allow them to pass un- challenged. r. Meehan affirms that the humble bee does not enter the corolla of the Salvia to obtain the honey, but **bores a hole on the out- side” for that purpose. He says, after describing the "E of the flower — ** The principle is perfect. But no insect is seen to enter.” This statement is certainly not in accordance with facts. I have sida and again observed the conduct of the humble bee on the Salvia; and I affirm that a large majority of the bees do enter the corolla, and that the anthers rest on the back of the insect exactly in the way that Mr. Meehan says they ought to rest. It is true that some of the bees do cut the tube of the corolla to get the honey. This, however, is only done by those bees which are too large to get into the flower. — E. H. T., —Q Delaware Co., Penn., Oct. 15, 1870. MOTION IN THE LEAVES OF RHUS TOXICODENDRON. — Botanical writers peculiar jerking motion. Un de r the name of *' Australian mdp I have all times, — Tno: N. Bun Grass. 2. enclose a e. that is very annoying to farmers on the eastern shore of Maryland. I am not botanist enough to determine its Place, The natives call it *« Sand Burr.” Will you be kind enough to say Something in the NATURALIST about it? —Joun W. NOTT. oe Hedge-hog or Bur-grass, is peculiar for a general r blance to ur Couch or Quitch-grass, and in its habits is equally ag AMER, NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 87 (689) 690 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. with aversion by the farmers. But this latter is a Northern grass, not found at the South, while the Bur-grase is to be found only beyond the i fN 4 ham, from Wisc Minnesota; and in the Middle and Southern States, according to other observers. The specimen sent to us by Mr. Nott is C. echinatus Muhlen- burg (Descriptio Uberior Graminum, p. 51) and figured by Plunkenet (Phy- tographia tab. 92-3). It is described by Dr. Chapman in his ‘‘ Flora a of the Southern United States," p. 578; and another species, the C. tribu- loides, which grows on the seashores of Delaware, Carolina, etc., known as the Coc ckspur or Bur-grass, is also familia» to farmers, an much dreaded. As much as we detest the Couch-grass of our northern farms, we are to rejoice in the absence of these spiny and thorny spiked and urred-grasses in our northern soils. In some sections where the land is light, the Couch-grass makes a nutritious fodder and hay, being ee eaten by horses and cows; but we suspect that these sagacious anima would not care to aor the flowers and seeds of the ‘‘ Sand me although the leaves and stems of C. pend ior tender and abund- ant, and we can p understand that it is very annoying where it T grows.—J. L IN BrossoM.—I have just found Angst 98th, 1870) the ai es anes orn. flowering abundantly in a pool at Sandwich, Ontario, on she Detroit River. I enclose specimens. I discovered this quarters of an inch thick. We find it, also (though not fertile), some miles higher up the river, at Connor's Creek, Michigan, but nowhere eise along the shores. Though Gray says “flowers and fruit not seen," it has, t b wig next "n in my aquarium, the little plants at once ‘‘ righted them- sion of the pool, driving out the Lemna, which is ** few and far between," and of a sickly, degraded type. — Henry GILLMAN, Detroit, Michigan. ZOOLOGY. ABDOMINAL oo IN A ou Ly. — While engaged in naming & — of microscopic preparations of insects mounted on slides by . W. Sta icm PEDE. ei me collection of Dr. T. D’Oremieulx and Paus York, my attention was drawn to a sense-organ situated on the female anal appendages of a "ind of Chrysopila, allied to C. ornata NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 691 (Say); a genus of flies allied closely to Leptis. The female Bete s are rounded, somewhat spatulate, and of the usual form s n other species of the genus. The appendage is covered with stiff Violin hairs, about fifty in number, arising from conspicuous, round, clear cells, while the whole surface, as seen under a Zentmayer's 4-10 (A eye-piece), is densely covered with minute short hairs. On the posterior edge of the upper side of each appendage is situated a single, large doin sac, with the edge quite regular. Its diameter is equal to a third of the iir of the appendage on which it is situated. Dense fine hairs, ul those cov- ering the appendage, project inwards from its edge. The bottom t this shallow pit is a clear transparent membrane not bearing "n in There are no special sense-organs on the antenne of the same in With these organs, which I suppose to be pou in diae func- tion, may be compared a very similar single sac situated on the under side of the end of the labial and maxillary palpi of a species of Perla, mounted on a slide in the same collection. Its diameter is nearly half as great as the palpal joint itself. Instead of being depressed, the sac in Perla is a little raised, forming a slightly marked, flat tubercle, which is ace the mem ne (tympanule of Lespés) is naked. It is strongly probable that this P an olfactory organ, and placed on the under side of the palpi, next to the mouth, so as to enable the insect to select its proper food by its odor, giving an additional sensory function to the palpi of insects. There are no special sense-organs in the antenne. Lespés in his note on the auditory sacs, which he says are found in the antenne of nearly all insects, states that as we have in insects com- pound eyes, so we have compound ears. I might add that in the abdom- inal appendages of the cockroach we apparently have a compound nose. {n the palpi of Perla, and the abdominal appendages of Chrysopila the ** nose" is simpl On examination, I have found sense-organs in both pairs of antenna of Homarus xvii the Lobster, such as are described by Farre, and also the more rudimentary form of supposed auditory organs in the com- mon spiny Lobster (Pilinurss) of Key West, Florida. — À. S. P., Nov. 30. NOTE ON THE EXISTENCE OF TRANSVERSELY USCULAR FIBRES IN Acmxza.— While engaged in the p ESD pr: "a lingual ribbon of a species of Acmæa (A. (Collisella) Bickmorii D.), brought from Amboyna by Mr. Bickmore, I noticed that, among the fibres adher- marked, though exceedingly fine, transverse stris j ctüre of the fibre itself was mpl sparent tube or cylinder with nuclei irregu- tractores radule, or the principal, if not the only agents in pulling back 692 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. ribbon. They were evidently voluntary muscles acting with consid- erable rapidity. It was noticeable that, of all the muscles of the buccal mass, these only —— striation. They differed from so he dorsal muscles of a smal mp (Palemon sp.), in being more pss stri- ated. I have had no elei al as yet, of examining other species, and therefore cannot say whether the phenomenon is tant throughout the genus. is is the fourth class of the aang ae path the Mollus- Labs in which striated muscular fibre has been shown to exist; it has een demonstrated in Polyzoa (Eschara) by Milne-Edwards; in Con- "hom SEM by Lebert; in Ascidia (Salpa and dattadiiuum by Es- ch d Moss; and finally in Gasteropoda in the present case. — W. H. A. CEDAR BIRD WITH WAXEN APPENDAGES ON THE TAIL. — I have not seen it mentioned in any work, nor do I think that many are aware that the Cedar bird prets Resin Baird) is occasionally, though very rarely, rated found with the tail dec with those singular wax-like, really horny tips, which " is well nem own adorn the wings. I have recently been n a specimen taken in New York State in which the four middle tail- specimens here mentioned gave evidence of being unusually old birds.— ENRY GILLMAN, Detroit, Michigan. WoonprPEckER.—In the spring of 1869 some Melanerpes erythrocephalus, ‘can pecking a hole for a nesting place, at about sixty-eight feet from the ground, in the steeple of one of the churches that is situated in our village. One of our citizens, Mr. J. C. : Gibson, in order to put a stop to their operations and prevent the farther disfiguration of the edifice, Ade. to kill all the birds he saw engaged in pecking at the hole thus commenced; he kept up his deadly assaults upon them until this spring, Mii his absence from home stopped his at- info are now engaged in rearing a brood in it. Is not such persistency of pur- pose worthy of admiration, notwithstanding it is exhibited by à harmful bird? — L. J. Stroop, Waxahachie, Ellis county, Texas, pedem 24, 1870. the wild regions of the Adirondacks. Mr. H. H. Bromley of the Chasm House informs me that dead ones have often been found in the woods, having been killed by the spines of hedge-hogs which they had attacked. M. OE NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 693 NOTES oN SOME OF THE COAST FISHES OF FLORIDA. — During a resi- dence of three months in East Florida last winter, I sailed up and down the Halifax, Indian, and Hillsboro’ rivers, and enjoyed fine sport with the fishes of € bert many of which I found to be of the first excel- lence on the t Shee epshead cali ovis Mitchell). At New Smyrna, near the Mus- [o] by trolling with a mullet bait and hand line. At about half flood we caught them by casting a hand line, with mullet bait, far off into the surf, or by fishing with a rod and line where the channel ran near the beach. This fish much resembles the striped bass (Labrax lineatus), in habits, a fish on th and is quite as game a e hook. I had many ks and man yards of strong bass line taken away by them, as they fight fiercely to the last. This is a very sh on the table; rich, firm and delicate. a golden copper hue on the sides, an white beneath; scales large; tail square; first and second dorsal with sharp spines; teeth numerous and small in the jaws; large and enamelled on the vomer. Cavalli or Crevallé (Lichia Carolina DeKay). Family of Scombridse. also take a red rag or spoon, trailed behind a boat; a very activ strong fish; good eating, though rathe M sepes in his i Panis to w tter, I am deu es by old fishermen on the Florida coast, never takes à Ae and can c be TUN in nets, and at night. It much resembles the Crevallé in Sea-trout ( Otolithus AG es ). This belongs to the same fam- ily as the Weak fish of the New York coast. In shape and color it resem- bles the jake tront of Lr Adirondack region, but wants the adipose fin course is not a true trout. It is it or clam; weight from two pounds under part teeth strong, tail waved in form, with a double dorsal fin, with spines. Black Snapper ( Mesoprion pargus Cuv. ). Belon cide; is in form like the tautog; a bottom fish, with larg ) ) strong teeth; bites eagerly at clam or mullet, and pulls hard; silvery in 694 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. color when first taken, then turns red, and lastly black; is one of the best of the southern table fishes; weight, from four to sixteen pounds. Crab-eater, Sergeant fish (Elacate Atlantica Cuv.). Family of Scom- bride, or mackerels; found along the shores of the inlets, where it lurks for prey among the mangrove roots; very voracious; takes clams or mullet bait; color, Silvery, with a black stripe along the sides; hence its local name of Sergeant fish; the under jaw longer than the upper; weight up to twenty pounds; a good table fish, though inferior to the former. hiting or King-fish ( Umbrina alburnus DeKay). Shaped like a perch, double dorsal with strong spines; color, gray and black above, yellowish white beneath; mouth and teeth small; bottom fish of deep water; takes clam bait; very good table fish; weight, from one to two pounds. Croker (Micropogon undulatus Cuv.). A southern fish of the perch family; in form, deep like the sheepshead; color, silvery; takes clam bait eagerly; weight, from one to two pounds; a good table fish. og-fish, Sailor's Choice (Hemulon Julvomaculatum Mitchell). Shaped like the last; a good pan fish; weight, from half a pound to a pound; takes clam bait on the bottom. Cat-fish, of the salt-water (Galeichthys marinus DeKay). Handsomer in fi of the perch family, much resembling in appearance and habits the black bass of the western waters, except that it has a larger head and mouth, and grows to a larger size, say to twelve or fifteen pounds. It takes live bait, spoon or bob, which is a bunch of colored feathers with three hooks concealed among them. Besides the above fishes, these waters contain blue fish, Spanish mackerel, beluga, mullet, Jew fish, drum, sha l, lady fish, porpoise, sharks, saw fish, sting ray, the hawk's bill turtle, the soft-shelled turtle, the green turtle, clams, oysters and crabs, of various kinds.— S. C. CLARKE, GEOLOGY. Discovery or LOWER CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS ON THE Rro TAPAJOS. — Iam just returning from a very interesting and profitable trip up the Rio able. Of the Brachiopods I have some magnificently preserved speci- mens, showing interiors. I am going back to Pará to give up my little Stea divide up my party. I then return to the Tapajos with a very small party, including a photographer, to examine more carefully, NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 695 not only these rocks, but to study the Amazon sandstones and clays. I have scen nothing to cause me to change my opinion about the age of the last named formation. I have not succeeded in finding any fossils in hem. I have found beautiful nc leaves of apparently recent plants, in a recent ironstone. In the hill of Creré, Monte tpe m and near Santa- rem, beds of basalt occur. — C. F. Hartt, on boa M Steamer ‘“‘Jurupensem,” near Monte Alegre, Rio BSR i a. 5th, 1870. New Fossit Fisnes.— Prof. Corr has Berend studied a genus Sauro- cephalus and allies, from the Cretaceous, and states as a result, that these fishes are not in the least related to the Sphy AEA where they have been placed heretofore. The structure of the mouth is like that of the Chara- cinidæ, while the neural arches are distinct and the tail vertebrated as in Amia. The pectoral se i have been described by Leidy, as those of a new inq Ichthyodectes, type species I. ctenodon ; the former differs from the known genera, Saurocephalus and Saurodon, in not having the series of Neisdcts foramina on M inner side of the alveolar ridges. He refers ese fishes toa new family, under the name of Saurodontide. PrasriCciTY or Rocks.— The old cobble-stone pavement in Waverly Place, between Broadway and Mercer street, being now in x tan have taken place on their perpendicular surfaces, and I am therefore convinced that they have been moulded into one another by pressure only. On conversing with the rotii: they all “concurred as to the fact, and the foreman stated that his attention had been called to it before. Very probably I am myself only repeating what is already well known to ers. — GEORGE GIBBS, New Yo Satt Puarns IN New Mexico. — Brevet Major General August V. Kautz, U. S. Army, writing from Fort Stanton, New Mexico, informs me that there is a valley of some two hundred miles long and twenty wide, lying between the Sierra Blanca and the San Andreas and Occura moun- tains, in that Territory, in which there is no stream, and only a few alka- line springs and salt lakes, or ponds. Where the road from Fort Stanton to El Paso crosses it, about sixty miles south of that post, is a plain of white sand, sik I gypsum, which has drifted into mounds, forty and fifty feet in height. Water of a strongly alkaline character is obtained by difghig i a few feet, and around the edges of this district, salt marshes exist, where in the dry seasons, great quantities of almost pure Salt may be collected. The sand is so white and the plain so extensive as 696 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. to give the effect of snow scenery. As I do not remember to have seen a description of the place in print, I send you this note with a specimen of the sand forwarded by General Kautz. — GEORGE GIBBS, New York MICROSCOPY. EW FoRM oF BINOCULAR FOR USE WITH HIGH POWERS OF THE Microscopr.* — Of the several forms of binocular arrangement for the microscope which et hitherto been constructed, only such as are ee. for use with low powers exclusively, have as yet come into gen- eral use. Of these, en Wenham prism is the bape m and hardly any bd form is employed at all by British or American constructors. with the field is so imperfectly and so unequally illuminated that it ceases to be available. he Wenham binocular, like the original binocular of Dr. Riddell, and like the different forms constructed by Mr. Nachet, divides the light, P i gh aaia, With objectives of low power, the base of each conical tionable; but with high power objectives, the pencils are very slender; and at the distance behind the combination at which it is necessary to place the binocular construction, many are very disproportionately di- vided, and many escape division altogether. By the introduction of an erector into the body of the microscope, the l years since, constructed a binocular eye-piece which solves completely the optical problem under consideration for all powers; but this instru- *Read by F. A. P. Barnard LL. D.. Hán ere = Columbia College, N. Y., before icro- scopieal Ameriean Association the Advancement of Science, of aiii NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 691 ment is costly, and apart from this vin it has for some reason or other failed to become a favorite with those who have used it. t is now two or three years since Mr. We nham suggested the emet cability of constructing a binocular for high powers, by means of a co trivance which should reflect one-half the light of each pencil iid transmit the other half. is plan was to take a glass prism with par- On this account, or for some other reason not stated, Mr. Wenham did not pens up his invention In the January number of ‘¢Silliman’s Journal" for 1868, Professor Hamilton L. Smith, now of Hobart College, described a binocular arrange- in the body or the microscope: As both surfaces of such a mirror will tant saving of light. Hitherto Professor spent binocular has not been constructed by regular opticians, and its merits are not fully known. e oonstruetions by Professor eise himself perform very well, but have a rather limited field. MR and Lealand, of London, have patented a binocular t mirror are parallel, and the image from the second surface is got rid of by giving to the glass considerable thickness. The reflected rays are re- flected a second time by means of a right angled prism. As this arrange- when very high p cally unavailable for any useful purpose. This evil might be remedied by increasing the angle of incidence at which the rays from the Penn fall upon the first reflecting surface ; but this expedient would be attended AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 88 698 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. by a large increase in the amount of light lost at the second reflecting surface, and by a corresponding diminution of the brightness of the im- -— seen pe transmission oculars estre d on.the principles of those last described may be SHE cata-dioptric, in contradistinction from those which split the body of the light geometrically, and which are properly denominated stereotomic. ey have not the advantage which belongs to stereotomic binocular of presenting the object viewed in all its three dimensions. But re pennt what most observers regard as very desirable, or find at least very comfo dp the use of both eyes at the same time. It is true that there are many whom practice has so accustomed to the use of a single eye, that vam profess to suffer no inconvenience from this mode of observa- tion, and regard binoculars with indifference except so far as they are BARE A by their stereoscopic effect. But ; however slight may be for a series of years, without finding that his eyes have lost the equal power which they once possessed of accommodating themselves to dis- tances. It seems iy iy sible to prevent this result from supervening sooner or later, unless by maintaining a strict impartiality in the employ- ment of the eyes praia at the microscope; and this is what few re- a good form of this instrument adapted to the higher powers desirable. Such a form is believed to have been found in the construction now to be described. If a rectangular prism of calc spar be cut with four of its faces parallel and the other two perpendicular to the direction of the optic axis, a ray of light incident perpendicularly upon any one of the lateral faces will be divided by double refraction into two rays, but both of these two rays will plane. And the diner ray will 2 mex. total reflection at an angle at transmission occurs for the extraordinary ray is e P From M^ th ray originally incident upon the prism. If, therefore, the supposed calc spar prism were cut by a plane, making an angle of 37° 11' with one of its lateral faces, a ray incident perpendicularly upon this lateral face and meeting the plane of section, would be half reflected and half transmitted, NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 699 or so nearly so that the MEN would be imperceptible. Moreover, the very minute portion of the extraordinary ray which would undergo Euro: would deviate more than two mue from the direction of the reflected ordinary ray; and so, supposing this prism to form part of a p binocular arrangement for Me microscope, would be thrown out of the eld. But the pencils of rays which go to form the image in the body of the microscope have a certain angular spread. If, therefore, the axis of the central pencil be ae to a given plane, those of the lateral pen- cils will be inclined to the e plane. Accordingly if this central axis were to be incident on the Pise plane of section at 379, the inciden- between limits somewhat larger. Also as the lateral rays of each pen- cil are inclined more or less to the axes of the same pencils, the limits of maximum and minimum incidence would be more largely reip by this circumstance. For low powers we should have to allow for a range of incidences goena perhaps eight or nine degrees of ehk For very high powers this range would hardly exceed six If the ition of the central axis is fixed at 37° 1l, the angle of total reflection for the ordinary ray, then the lateral pencils of this ray, whose incidences are less than 37° 11’, will be to a certain, but not very con- siderable, degree, transmitted. This does not affect the definition of the image seen by transmission, but it gives it a slight wc fa to ist other in respect to an If, however, the inciden axis is made as tiga as 39°, the two images become eiis eq ws in brightness. In this case some of the ideni pencil of the extraordinary ray Will attain an "i ien of 429, at which point the amount of reflec- tion is quite sensible, but this does not materially affect the middle of the field, nor is it sufficient to impair, perceptibly, the brilliancy of the image Seen by transmitted light. is now about three years since the plan of a binocular founded. on the applied to in London, and in this country, but no one was found willing to attempt the preparation. In the spring of 1869, Professor Rood, of Co- lumbia College, kindly lent his aid to the accomplishment of this under- nearly the same index of refraction, of which the first surface was placed 100 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. parallel to the terminal plane of the calcite. It was thought that the very nearly equal and opposite refractions thus suffered by the ray would suffice to prevent sensible esee and this is nearly true. But the unequal dispersive power the two substances makes itself slightly manifest when the Pichina used are low; though this defect disappears in the case for which the instrument is intended — that is with high pow- ers. Nevertheless, it has been thought best in new constructions now preparing, to give such an obliquity to the terminal plane of the ca cite that the reflected ray may be incident upon it perpendicularly, and to modify correspondingly the flint glass prism. On the whole it appears to be the plane of section an inclination of about 38° in- stead of 39°. Indeed it would appear that, for low powers, the lower S case, there is a larger reflection of the voies ray, which is greatly vg ced by a very small change ín the angle of incidence. For this rea- son it is convenient to have the system of prisms so cuisse. that it can sive a slight rotation about an axis perpendicular to the plane of re- flection, and to adjust it to the position most satisfactory with the power employed. The annexed figure (140) will serve to give an idea of the form of con- struction now employed. ABCD i section, parallel to one of the lat- Fig. 140. Ae faces, of a calcite prism, origi- ki u nally rectangular, of which the optic iii B F axis is parallel to the section, and to T ee PA [I> : the sides AB and DC. This prism is divided by a plane perpenre iim ABCD, making an angle of 38° wit y AB and 52? with AD. Also, the face, E ae inclined 14° to the original face igo" | 10. f the rectangular prism, is made to ed pee e that face. The prism, when completed, sliootd have its lower face square, and the side of the square which is equal to DC, should be six- tenths of an inch. The remaining dimensions will be determined by this, and 2 d which 5 wi be three-twentieths of an inch. The surfaces of section, BE, may be brought very near to each other. In the con- icon actually pets they have been separated only by a single Esso of tinfoil, introduced at each of the angles. ism, FGH, is of flint glass with a refracting index as high as 1.56 or higher. It is isosceles, having an obtuse angle of 92? at F, the acute angles being equal and each 44°. The side, FH, being parallel to BC, à the second, reflected by BE, passes perpendicularly through the two sur- and FH, is a second time reflected by GH, and finally emerges NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 101 at right angles from the face FG. The inclination of o to e is twelve de- grees. It would be preferable to make it somewhat less, as this inclina- tion allows only a length of body to the microscope of about seven inches. By employing in the prism, FGH, glass of higher refracting power, it may be made less, and by using calcite for this prism, or in other words, by making BCDE and FGH all of a single piece, the same object may be at- tained to any desired degree. The objections to this latter plan are two- "S The first relates to the difficulty of construction. It is said that e Wenham trapezoidal prism of glass is troublesome to make. The he would be much increased in the use of such a material as calcite, especially when it is necessary to preserve an exactly prescribed relation between the faces of the prism and the optic axis. The second objection is found in the consideration that, in order to adapt the tubes of the bi- nocular to the eyes of different observers, it is necessary to give to one of the tubes an angular movement, moving the prism, FGH, at the same time, by half the same angular amount, as is done by Mr. Nachet in one of his forms of binocular; or to move this tube and prism laterally, as Mr. Nachet has also done in another of his forms. This necessity arises from the fact that, if the tubes are sufficiently inclined to each other to a it vide construction, and of greater size than is desirable. there is another objection to the crossing of the pencils which is i serious. This binocular, as actually constructed, dese when ib t used with moderate powers, à Sensibly stereo- Fig. 14 scopic effeet. Nor is it difficult to understand why Wa Py it should do so. any stereotomic binocular, T 5 un = "t e» er ® € c e E <4 A om n g E e e e o ct E e o 5 5 9 n Los = © z seen that if aa'a'! be the axial ray of a converging pencil of which bb'b” and cc'c/ are the lateral lim- iting rays, and if a transparent reflector, MN, be in- terposed obliquely in the path of this pencil, the angles of incidence of all the rays intermediate between a! and b' will be larger than those of the rays between a! and c'. Of the reflected rays, therefore, those between al!!! and b!!! will be more abundant than those between a!” and c; while b a e ill be a corresponding deficiency between a!’ and b". Now if all 102 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. the light except these excesses should be extinguished, it will appear at once that the illumination still outstanding would be such as is required to produce stereoscopie vision; that is, each half of the pencil would go to the opposite eye. In our calcite prism, we have seen that in, for instance, nary ray, on the other hand, is almost totally transmitted between a! and c', and loses something by reflection toward b’. These effects are more marked in some of the oblique pencils, and the consequence is, that, with low powers, the stereoscopic appearance is very perceptible. O cross the reflected rays upon the transmitted behind the prisms would there- fore be productive of a pseudoscopic effect which would be objectionable. But with high powers, on account of the small difference of incidence existing in that case between bb! and cc!, the image appears plain. and with the B oculars, the Providence Grammatophora is thus resolved with great facility. When the power used is below one-fourth, there is a little haziness pro- duced in the image seen by reflection, in consequence of the mingling of the, to some extent, reflected extraordinary ray, from the clear field sur- rounding the object. This effect is immediately removed, by placing over the slide a card, out of which has been cut a slip having the width of the field. Such a card, or a similar thin plate of metal, may be easily secured to the stand, so that the stage and slide may move beneath it while it mains fixed. This haze is moreover suppressed still more easily by _ Slightly tilting the system of prisms, so as to diminish by a degree or two the angle of incidence upon the reflecting plane of section. ‘This really gives to the image seen by transmission the advantage in respect to il- lumination; but as, with low powers, both images are strongly illumi- mounting the prisms, to provide some system of adjustment by whi e position may be varied to correspond to the power emp e ex me ave been made with calcite prisms cut in such a manner that the extraordinary ray p ding from common light pe t reflection is ábout the same as before. The construction employed at first gives results which are very satisfactory; but it is designed to pur- NOTES. 703 sue experiment further, and with the able assistance of Mr. Joseph Zent- mayer, whose zeal for the improvement of the microscope has induced him to undertake the rather i dgio task of preparing the prisms, it will soon be ascertained w er ot any material advantage can b gained, by adopting a pase ss iy cutting them. NOTES. Our readers are doubtless aware that Congress at the last session made an appropriation of $50.000 for Arctic er with the promise that the scientific operations of the expedition were to be prescribed by the E a my or Sciences. Erer in uu was appointe ted by the i che t enry are to act in concert with him. and prepare a manual of scientific inquiry for the use of the expedition, which will, undoubtedly, interest a large circle of readers when published. . Hyatt has been appointed Professor of dtes at the Mas- saints Institute of Technology. Mr. E. S. Morse has been chosen Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Zoology at pd doin College, and has been appointed Lecturer in the same branch at the Maine Agricul- tural College. Dr. A. S. Packard, jr., is * oh on Economic Entomol- ogy at the same institution. Mr. B. K. Em n has recently been elected Professor of Geology at Amherst Soler. ‘as chair filled for so many years by Dr. Edward Hitchcock, Senior. Chicago offers a new publication for general patronage, under the title of the ‘ Pemba Journal of Microscopy.” The first number, for November, is of quarto size and contains sixteen page h nal is to be pub- u contributions on TOE and kindred subjects are requested from all parts of the w Dr. Hagen has rege returned from Europe, having purchased, through as furnished by a lady in Boston, for the Cambridge Museum, a Parisian collection of weevils of great extent and value. We are glad to know that he has brought over his own unrivalled gollaction of Neu- roptera. Its presence in this country is most fortunate for this depart- ment of entomology. The addition to the building for the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, at an expense of upwards of $60,000, is rapidly going up. Professor Agassiz has returned to Cambridge with restored health, and with new plans for the enlargement of his Museum. 104 ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. The Lyceum of Natural History of New York has lately started for- wards with renewed vigor, and now issues its ** Proce dings," as well as * Annals." Three signatures of the ** Proceedings” (from pages 1 to 44), have been received, and contain abstracts of several interesting papers read at the meetings in April and May last. Gradually the unpublished results of the labors of Dr. T. W. Harris are being given to the public. Mr. P. R. Uhler, of Baltimore, has ready for publication by the Boston Society of Natural History, descriptions of the Hemiptera of the Harris Entomological collection. Congress is about to print an entomological report by Townend Glover, the entomologist of the Agricultural Department. It will form an ex- ceedingly useful work, and will deserve the widest circulation. e well-known Paris dealer in insects, M. Deyrolle, took flight to London with his immense stock of insects, before Paris was actually invested. Mr. J. A. McNiel, who has made two expeditions to Central America, is now in Philadelphia preparing for a third Archeological Excursion to Nicaragua. Prof. O. C. Marsh of Yale College, has just returned, with his party, from the Rocky Mountains. The Expedition started in June last. All our French exchanges, months ago, were suspended. ANSWERS TO ee D. H., Tuscaloosa, Ala.—The larva taken from oak wood is the Oak-tree Borer (hiie one) one of the silk worm family | f peer ). It often spa — to the red oak, t h the moth, : large ash gray species, is npp ively ra C. E., Cin deum — Å light droles, such as is described o; and P IL 25 Vol. i n ae the gro will answer your purpo: a "MGE quete — E o wit five- reca window “a hollo or fishing lead to sink the dre In d red ta nt mL I out soep- minute w iah and small PORDO suc wakes tons and e éspecialiy the larger shelled forms, such as Lymnadia, Estherea, etc. E. S. M., Mitchel ll, Ind. Your photo; h is that of tabo Tityus male. Ap would be Mu pecca for eni he Museum or the Academy. j H. G., Detroit. — We reque r to your question from a „physiol "ed of the highest standing, and d have poberie] the fo llowing in reply: “ The subject is a very important o A re often called upon to decide whether a fron — is or is not de ^ Man ries vuibubiantie M microscopists ha p full confidence that no i] is easier than to de cide the Kegs atter by looking through their instruments, until they fin ne ha er. ui d is easily distinguished «m that of m pen ma pee birds, reptiles un fishes, by the size and m of the globules; and te ofh chemical and micro- osed m however successful it may have once been in the hands of some e as not, after many years, come into use, and. MAE of the size and appearance of the globules also fails, as the globules of some o f the domesticated animals offer the same character- istics as those of man.” TRE AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vol. IV. — FEBRUARY, 1871. — No. 12. COEQORY 2. a THE ANT LION. BY J. H. EMERTON. Fig. 159. REN SSS xn DUE N (LES Ant Lion, adult. On the twenty-ninth of August, while hunting spiders among the rocks on the hill north of Bartholomew’s pond in South Danvers, Mass., I unexpectedly found the pit of an ant-lion ( Myrmeleo immaculatus De Geer), in a clear space under the shade of a large boulder. The pit (Fig. 160) was about two inches in Se and one deep. The insect him- self was hid at the bottom, but when I dropped bits of earth into the hole he showed his position by throwing up sand. I then dug him out and took him home with me, where I put him into a bowl of dry, coarse sand, such as is used by masons for mortar. He remained buried for several days, but ui came to the surface, dug his pitfall, and gave me Entered accordin 1470. be the P at ABLEEREE d ME M de Oak Fie E Ging the District AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 89 $ (705) 106 THE ANT-LION. an opportunity of observing his habits. Fig. 161 represents the ant-lion at this time, showing the under aide with the feet in a natural position. At first he was so timid that as. soon as any one approached he stopped where he was and re- mained motionless until left alone. If his pitfall was de- stroyed he dug a new one; but during all the time I kept Fig. 161. MC v. him I never saw T" ~ the whole process === surface he would keep quite still — for a few mo- ments, then retreat backward, by jerks, under the sand. He never moved forward but always backward by the contrac- tions of his abdomen as much as by his feet, making a furrow through the sand. He seldom travelled an inch in one direction, and often made a complete circle in that distance. I think he commenced his pitfall by making a circle of this kind, and afterward throw- ing out the sand from the centre. In dipping he used his flat head and jaws, ihid: were iud under several grains of sand and then jerked upward, throw- ing their load sometimes as far as six inches; and always far enough to avoid leaving a ridge around the pitfall. When the pit was finished rg was entirely concealed beneath it, as in Fig. 160, except his jaws, which were spread apart hori- zontally at the bottom. The surface of the pit being as steep as the sand could be piled up was very easily disturbed; and when an insect ventured over the edge the ant-lion was ap- prised of it at once by the falling sand. He immediately be- gan to throw up sand from the bottom, deepening the pit and so causing the sand to slip down from the sides and the insect Fig. 162. THE ANT-LION. 707 ' with it. The ant-lion seized it with his long jaws and held it up above his head until he had sucked all he wanted from it, when he threw the remainder out of the hole and repaired the trap. Fig. 162 (from Westwood), shows the structure of the jaws, and how the ant-lion may drink the juices from an insect without bringing it to his mouth. On the under side of each jaw (a), is a groove (b), extending from one end to the othér, and partly filled by the slender maxilla which lies in it, forming a tube, one end of which passes into the insect which is bitten, while the other opens near the mouth of the ant-lion. After eating he became more timid, and some- times would not take a second insect. If, however, several were put into the pit at once, he would bite one after the other until all were killed, before deciding on which to begin. I fed him two or three times a week, usually with house-flies, cutting their wings off and letting him take them in his own way. In October, having occasion to travel some distance, I put him in an ounce bottle half filled with sand, corked him up, and carried him with me in my bag. In about a week I gave him a large house-fly, which he did not catch, not having room enough in the bottle to make a pitfall. I gave him no more food till the next March. Meanwhile he remained for several months on a shelf in my room. * Occasionally I tipped him out and always found him lively enough to right himself if turned on his back, and to retreat under the nearest sand. In January he was packed up in my trunk for more than a week, and when I opened it, after it had remained several days in a warm room, I found him as lively as when first caught. He afterwards became quite torpid again in a cold *elospt, where he remained through the rest of the winter. About the first of March, when flies began to be plenty, I-commenced to feed him again. He found it rather awkward to catch insects in the bottle as there was not room enough to make a pitfall, and his inability to move forward made it hard for him to seize an insect unless he met it directly between his jaws. 708 | THE RESOURCES AND CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA. He soon, however, made pitfalls half an inch in diameter, ` which answered the purpose. Sometimes he lay on the sur- face of the sand with a few grains seattered over his back to conceal him from notice, and his jaws extended on the sur- face: If a fly was put into the bottle it would circle around close to the glass and usually run over the ant-lion’s back. He would jerk up his head and attempt to seize it, which he seldom succeeded in doing the first time. If he caught a leg or wing he was unable to move nearer and shorten his hold, and the fly escaped. He would often throw up the sand and try to undermine the fly. He would sometimes work an hour in these ways before the fly would get into a favorable position. I fed him every day or two until May 15th, when he spun a spherical cocoon (Fig. 161a) around him, and remained enclosed until June 25th, a very hot day, when he came partly out, and leaving his pupa skin half in the cocoon appeared as a perfect fly (Fig: 159), but: did not spread his wings oesie THE RESOURCES AND CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA. BY REV. A. P. PEABODY, D.D. z Tue thought uppermost in my mind, during a recent visit to California, was of gratitude to the bravely patriotic men, who, in the late rebellion, at the risk of their own lives saved this great state for the Union. One who has not been in California can hardly appreciate the magnitude of the threatened loss. The state might easily have maintained her independence, not only of her sister republics, but of all the world beside. It is poten- tially a self-sustaining empire. Exceeding in the aggregate of its territory the British Islands, it extends through all the degrees of latitude which are identified with a genial climate, THE RESOURCES AND CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA. 109 without stretching far enough northward to know the severity of winter, or diri enough southward to feel the enervatiug influence of a tropical sun. It could supply all its own wants. Its pastoral pun could easily furnish wool, hides and food for twenty times its present population. Its rivers and bays swarm with the choicest of fish, salmon being so abundant that it can hardly be accounted a luxury. The vine-bearing capacity of the one county of Sonoma exceeds that of all the wine-growing regions of Europe. Wheat has been harvested at the rate of ninety bushels to the acre, and fifty or sixty bushels are but an ordinary crop, twenty being regarded as a good yiel in the Genesee district of New York. The fruits are un- surpassed in quality and in profusion, and are subject to . none of the blights, parasitic insects and fungi, that infest our orchards, so that one need not fear to eat an apple in the dark. Strawberries may be bought in the San Fran- cisco market every month in the year. It is not easy to name any fruit which will not ripen within the limits of the State. At Sonoma, on the grounds of General Vallejo, the old Spanish commandant of California, I saw ripe or ripen- ing, along with all the common fruits of the temperate zone, oranges, lemons, bananas, olives, figs and almonds. I have eaten olives in Italy, but never any so good as those from the General's own trees on which I lunched at his table. In the southern part of the State, cotton is rapidly becoming a sta- ple, and coffee, equal to the best St. Domingo, is already raised. The cultivation of tea has been commenced with the promise of complete success, and there is no reason why the spices of the East Indies should not become naturalized there. There is also in the iioi a supply of lumber of all kinds which it would take many centuries to exhaust, though as yet, for lack of available avenues for transportation, lum- ber for the cities on the coast is imported from Oregon. If every sehooner, sloop and sail-boat in the world were a 710 THE RESOURCES AND CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA. ship of three thousand tons, I saw, on a single day's ride, enough pine trees from one to two hundred feet high, straight as an arrow, to furnish masts for all the vessels in the world, without perceptibly thinning the primeval forest. The climate is unequalled in salubrity. In San Francisco a sea-breeze sets in from the ocean at three or four o’clock on a summer afternoon, rendering the air rather cooler than suits one not acclimated ; but this is not experienced in the winter, and the average temperature of the winter is rather higher than that of the summer. Only a few miles from the coast the force of the ocean-breeze is spent. There the sum- mer days are very hot, but the air is so pure that the ther- mometer of one’s own consciousness is much below Fahren- heit’s, and I found it as easy to take a long and brisk wall at the temperature of a hundred degrees, as it would be in New England at seventy-five. The night air is inexpressibly sweet and mild, so that one would not care whether he lodged within doors or under the star-gemmed roof. It is no un- common thing to have the windows of lodging apartments taken out, and laid aside as useless, from the early spring till the autumn. The atmosphere, even in midsummer, is so en- tirely free from malaria, that lamb or veal hung up in the open air will dry before it becomes tainted ; and outside of farmhouses and hotels we often see, suspended on trees, locked safes covered with wire-gauze, in which fresh meat may be preserved sound and sweet for several weeks. For seven or eight months in the year rain never falls. The grass, indeed, looks brown; but the trees, which strike their roots down into soil still moist, retain their verdure, and for the various crops of grain and vegetables artificial irrigation is extensively employed, — windmills for raising water being used, not only on farms, but in orchards, and often in private gardens. ‘The whole country is diversified by gentle elevations — foot-hills, as they are called — which generally furnish perennial fountains that are led among the valleys, unfailing sources of fertility and wealth. The cli- . BIRDS IN THE MUSEUM OF VASSAR COLLEGE. 1711 mate facilitates the labor of harvest. The wheat and grain are threshed on their native field, bagged, and piled up against the fences till a convenient time for carrying them to market; and I often saw such huge piles of bagged wheat „and oats, that it required some stretch of fancy to imagine that it could all have grown in a single year within the area of the field. NOTES ON SOME BIRDS IN THE MUSEUM OF VASSAR COLLEGE. BY PROFESSOR JAMES ORTON. TuE Ornithological Cabinet in the Vassar Museum, con- tains nearly twelve hundred distinct species, of which seven hundred are North American, and the remainder South American. Among them are several type specimens and others of historical interest as the originals of Audubon's celebrated drawings. Falco islandicus Gm. This fine specimen formerly be- longed to Audubon, to whom it was presented by Sir John Cheperstal, and is the original of the figure in “Birds of merica." Accipiter nigroplumbeus Lawr. Tyre. This new hawk was obtained by the writer in the Valley of Quito, where it ° is very rare. Strix punctatissima Gray. Indigenous to the Galapagos, but now rather abundant in the Valley of Quito near the cotton-mills of Chillo, where it is called “Factory Owl.” It lays nearly spherical eggs, in a rude nest made of a small quantity of rubbish scraped together and lined with a few feathers, and generally built in the gable ends of houses or under the eaves. Trogon Mexicanus Sw. The late Mr. Giraud informed us that this specimen was shot in Texas. The Trogon fam- 113 BIRDS IN THE MUSEUM OF VASSAR COLLEGE. ily is well represented in the East Indies; but it is more fully developed in the New World where there are about twenty-five species. In splendor of plumage they are sur- passed only by the Hummers ; in stupidity, by the Jacamars. Their only utterance sounds like Te vio/ (I see thee). They are zygodactylous, but unlike the woodpeckers and parrots, the third or longest toe being the inward of the two forward toes instead of the outward. Andigena laminirostris Gould. This rare bird represents : a remarkable group of Toucans characterized by the dense villose clothing of the under surface. This species is found at Nanegal on the west slope of the Andes ; not in the neigh- borhood of Quito, as stated by Mr. Gould. The Toucans, of which thirty-five species occur at the equator, are confined to tropical America. They live in dense forests in small companies. Their flight is laborious but not jerky. On the ground they hop like a robin. They have a shrill though variable cry, which sometimes has a vague resemblance to tocano, and again to pia-po-o-co. The imaginative natives call them Preachers, because they seem to make the sign of the cross by wagging the head up, then to the left, next to the right, and finally down, saying at each movement Dios tode (God gave it you). The sexes are exactly alike. The most common species on the Upper Amazon are Cuvier?, Humboldtii and pleuricinctus. Tetragonops ramphastinus Jard. This singular Barbet is called by the natives venenero or deer-hunter, because it whistles with ventriloqual powers. None of the Capitonide sing. The phlegmatic Buecos or * pig-birds," as the Indians call them, seem to have their head-quarters in Eastern Peru. The Tetragonops is a connecting link between the Barbets and Toucans. Lesbia Ortoni Lawr. Type. This remarkably fine spe- cies is the latest addition to the Trochilidæ. It was discov- ered in the Valley of Quito at the foot of the isolated mountain Ilalo, and is the only specimen ever found. The BIRDS IN THE MUSEUM OF VASSAR COLLEGE. 113 superstitious Indians who inhabit Ilalo are very exclusive, forbidding the approach of any white man to their mountain ; and for this reason, probably, this Hummer has never before been seen. The collection contains one hundred and er six species of Trochilide. Chetura rutila Vieill. This elegant little Swift or "Noc- turnal Swallow” was obtained in the Quito Valley, where it is very rare. Vieillot’s type was found in Trinidad ; Lafres- naye's specimens were from New Grenada; and Salvin pro- cured them in Guatemala, where Sclater says it properly belongs. Its nest is not made of mud and sticks like that of its northern representative, our chimney swallow, but chiefly of moss, very compact and shallow, and located in dark culverts about two feet above the water; never on houses or trees. Brachygalba lugubris Sw. ReE-DISCOVERED TYPE. Since this Jacamar was first described in 1838, not a single speci- men has come under the notice of any naturalist; and in 1853, Mr. Sclater declared that Swainson’s bird remained to be re-discovered. This specimen was shot by Mr. Gilbert at Valencia in 1867, and has been recognized by the distin- guished ornithologist, George N. Lawrence, Esq., as the lost lugubris. The only discrepancy from Swainson’s description is the possession of four toes instead of three; but the hind toe is quite small. It is distinct from B. inornata. Jacamars stand next to the Trogons and Hummers in the beauty of their golden-bronze, and steel-colored plumage. They are peculiar to tropical America, and Guiana is their true home. None have been seen on the west slope of the Andes. Todirostrum gracilipes Scl. The type in the British Mu- seum came from Bogota; but this specimen was obtained by Hauxwell on the Upper Amazon. From the same locality we have the Empidomus varius. Myiarchus Lawrencii Gir., Basileuterus Belli Gir., B Brasieri Gir., Dendroica olivacea Gir., and Cardellina ru- brifrons Gir. . The types of — species formerly belonged AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 714 BIRDS IN THE MUSEUM OF VASSAR COLLEGE. to this cabinet, but are now in the Smithsonian Institution, and are replaced by other specimens collected by Sumichrast, Salvin and Verreaux. To the day of his death, Mr. Giraud contended that the types were collected within the State of Texas. Myiozetetes inornatus Lawr. Tyre. From Valencia, Ven- ezuela. Turdus Hauxwelli Lawr. Tyre. From Pebas, Peru. Dendroica tigrina Gm. This handsome specimen was shot by Wilson in the vicinity of Cape May, 1812, and was described by him as a new species. Gmelin, however, in 1788. had named it Motacilla tigrina. Euphonia elegantissima Bp. Our specimens do not con- form to Sclater’s description: the throat of the male is not "black," but bluish black like the back; the forehead is not “chestnut, margined behind with black," but is bright yellow. E. nigricollis Vieill. This Tanager is one of the best songsters in the Valley of Quito; the other birds only twitter and chirp; like the people, too lazy to sing. The Mimus lividus is its rival in Brazil. The Tanagers generally have no melody of voice. They are restless, wary birds, having a rapid, abrupt flight, and seldom hopping on the ground. They are most numerous in New Granada, and the most important genus is a To the puzzling question, “What is a Tanager,?” Sclater answers, “a dentirostral Finch.” At Quito the Finches build their nests in October. Atticora fasciata Gm. This type of the genus is described by Baird as having ten tail feathers: both male and female in the Vassar collection show twelve. They are from the Maranon. Pipra deliciosa Scl. One of the most brilliantly colored of the Manakins, the male being also remarkable for the sin- gular structure of its wings, the secondaries being curved. By the natives it is called " Watchman,” because it flies be- fore certain blue birds, and makes a noise with its wings in case of danger. BIRDS IN THE MUSEUM OF VASSAR COLLEGE. 115 Diglossa aterrima Lafr. The natives say that it changes its colors if taken to Pichincha, becoming like D. Lafresnayi. Rupicola sanguinolenta Gould. This splendid “Cock of the Rock " is found only, we believe, on the western Andean slope. The R. Peruviana is confined to the eastern slope, and the R. crocea to the mountains of Guiana. It fre- quents shady ravines and is very shy. It “plays "possum," falling apparently dead when shot at, but soon flies off. It makes a guttural noise not unlike the grunt of a hog. Like the Bird of Paradise, Peacock, Turkey, etc., the Cock of the Rock makes an extraordinary display of its finery just prior to the breeding season. Chrysomitris Mexicana Bp. Tyre of Fringilla Texensis ir. Ocyalus latirostris Sw., Clypicterus oseryi and Amblycer- sus solitarius. These splendid specimens of Icteride were obtained on the Upper Amazon, where they appear to be rare. Icterus G'race-annae Cass. This seems to be the only spec- imen found since its description. The type is in the Phila- delphia Academy. This fixes the locality (Machala near Guayaquil), which was not positively known. Cephalopterus ornatus Vieill. This Umbrella Bird came from the Upper Amazon. It was formerly thought to be confined to the islands in the Rio Negro. It is found only on the eastern side of the Andes; the C. penduliger being re- stricted to the western slope, and C. glabricollis to Contin America. The throat lappet of penduliger is nearly ten inches long; that of ornatus about four, and of glabricollis insignifieant. According to Fraser, the appendage seems generally held in a bunch like a rose under the throat, and to fall after death. ` Chlorenas vinacea and Ortolida guttata; from the Upper Amazon. Near Savonita on the west slope of the Andes is an Ortolida whose note sounds like £rabajá, trabajá (work! work !), and the response of the answering bird is manana, manana (to-morrow), a parody on Spanish character. 116 BIRDS IN THE MUSEUM OF VASSAR COLLEGE. Meleagris ocellata Temm. A pair, male and female, in fine plumage. Lophortyx Gambelii Nutt. Of this bird, “whose rarity is only equalled by its beauty" says Gould, there is a pair in perfect condition. Demiegretta Pealii Bp., Garzetta candidissina Gm., Florida ceruba Linn., and Ibis alba Linn. These speci- mens once belonged to Audubon, from which he made the drawings for his large work. Platalea ajaja Linn. This specimen was obtained of Dr. Trudeau. It was shot on the plantation of his father near Charleston, S. C. Aphriza virgata Gm. Typr of Audubon's A. Townsendi, from the mouth of Columbia River; the only specimen ob- tained within the bounds of the United States. Properly belongs to the Pacific Islands. Professor Baird doubts its occurrence on the shores of the northern Pacific, but Dr. Sclater does not. Several have been found on Vancouver's Island. Phalaropus Wilsonii Sab. A superb specimen in Bell’s best style of mounting. Anser Gambelii Hart. Original of Audubon’s drawing. Bernicla leucopsis Linn. Original of Audubon’s drawing. Somateria spectabilis Linn. Specimen shot on Long Island Sound ! Sterna Trudeauii Aud. Tyre. The original of Audu- bon’s figure and description; shot at Great Egg Harbor. According to Mr. Giraud, the only specimen found in North America. It is in full plumage. : Colymbus arcticus and C. septentrionalis Linn. Origi- nals of Audubon's drawings. Podiceps occipitalis Less. This grebe was found by the writer on Lake Mica, which is on the side of Antisana, Ecuador, 13,300 feet above the Pacific. It appears to be identieal with the species abounding on the coast of Chili and Straits of Magellan. It is difficult to conceive how this TURTHER NOTES ON NEW JERSEY FISHES. 717 purely aquatic bird could or would ascend and cross the western Cordillera, and then ascend to an icy, solitary lake on the shoulder of one of the loftiest volcanoes in the east- ern range, 2,500 miles from its native place. Forbes found Cyclas Chilensis (formerly considered peculiar to the most southern and coldest part of Chili at the level of the sea) abundant in fresh-water ponds in the Bolivian plateau near La Paz, 14,000 feet high. Do not these facts point to changes in the Andes on a grand scale, and at a rate which, measured by the time required for a change of species, must be termed rapid ? Alca impennis Linn. Original of Audubon’s figure. A notice of this specimen was published in the American Naturalist, 1869. Mormon cirrhata Pall. Original of Audubon’s figure. Phaleris cristatella Pall. Original of Audubon’s figure. FURTHER NOTES ON NEW JERSEY FISHES. BY CHARLES C. ABBOTT, M.D. Fig. 163. Hybognathus. Durine the month of February of the present year (1870), Professor George H. Cook, State Geologist, sent to the author of this paper a number of “frost-fish,” or “smelt " (Osmerus mordax), and among them was the single speci- men figured above. On submitting this cyprinoid to Pro- 718 FURTHER NOTES ON NEW JERSEY FISHES. fessor Cope of Philadelphia, he pronounced it undescribed, and has since described it* as Hybognathus osmerinus. During the past summer the author had no opportunity of fishing in the Raritan River, at or about New Brunswick, at which point the specimen was taken; but among a number of small collections from that river, no specimen of this cyprinoid occurred. From other streams, generally not in the basin of the Raritan, isolated specimens have occurred, and the distribution seems to be without reference to salt water, although the type, and two other specimens, were taken from streams having direct access to the sea. Of its habits, as yet, we have determined nothing; only learning from the specimens we have seen, that it seems to be very scarce, and associated by twos and threes with other cyprinoids, more especially with Hybopsis Hudsonivs, which is very abundant in many of our smaller streams, as well as the Delaware River. During the month of August of this year, the writer found a locality for two species which are not abundant elsewhere, so far as his own observations go to show, These fish are an etheostomoid ( ololepis erochrous Cope), and a “cat-fish” ( Noturus gyrinus). They were both found abundantly in Stony Brook, Mercer Co., N. J., near the village of Princeton. The stream here is shallow, with a muddy bot- tom, and here and there a flat stone or two, under which both species took refuge when disturbed. On approaching the brook, the fish were found to be lying on the mud, near the edge of the stream, in water scarcely two inches deep. The movements of the etheostomoids were very deliberate, as they usually moved very slowly, making straight lines on the mud, apparently by not lifting themselves from the bottom of the stream. By placing a small baited hook immediately in front of the “darters,” they would seize it with all the ra- pidity and voraciousness of a pike, and upon swallowing it, ap Mere * A Partial Synopsis of the Fishes of the Fresh Waters of North Carolina. By Ed- ward D. Cope, A.M. Amer. Phil. Soc., Phila., 1870, p. 466; foot note. FURTHER NOTES ON NEW JERSEY FISHES. 119 would invariably be taken. The writer took nearly fifty specimens with a hook, in about two hours. The “ stone- cat-fish” were much more active, and shy; and would not take the hook, until after an immense deal of nibbling tr ying to the patience. While collecting specimens in ad Brook, as mentioned above, the writer met with a nearly exhausted eel, into the left gills of which, a lamprey ( Petromyzon nigricans), had aid its sucking apparatus. The eel had drawn the lamprey by the suction power of the gill, into its throat, and having thus killed the lamprey, was itself nearly dead from endeavors to get rid of so great an incumbrance. In the stomachs of both the eel and the lamprey, were found masses of partially broken shells of minute Lymnew, show- ing (cireumstantial evidence) that they had been occupied in feeding upon the same food on the same ground, when the lamprey made his unfortunate attack upon the eel. Has it been noticed before, that the lamprey feeds upon small shells? Two specimens of Aphrodederus- Sayanus, were taken in Stony Brook, during the summer, and have been since kept alive in an aquarium. Soon after their capture, and since, one of them has exhibited the followiug "freak of coloration.” The specimens, while lying on the pebbles at the bottom of the tank, were each of a glossy black, relieved by a pale brown throat, well dotted with black ; and with a snowy white margin to the caudal fin. They were removed by a small net, to another tank having somewhat colder water in it, and immediately one of the pair became of a uniform pale straw color, except the black dots on the throat, and a narrow line running from -the lower edge of the orbit to the iaw. The white margin of the caudal fin was scarcely distinguishable from the general color of the fin and body. The iris became silvery, with a mere trace of yellow. In the course of half an hour, the tints commenced to grow deeper, and full two hours elapsed before the usual black hue was re- sumed and the two specimens became similar in appearance. 120 THE SPORES OF LICHENS. Had this specimen thus "bleached" on being removed from one tank to another, done so on being taken wholly from the water, and, thus faded, had been preserved in al- cohol, might it not have been looked upon as an Aphrode- derus albidus nov. spec., and thus additional synonomy been offered to the confusion now existing? Is it, in fact, safe to consider color as of any value as a specific character, unless by comparing many specimens, and finding the variation uniform and without gradations? We have found the " sun-fish” as a group, to vary very much in accordance with the character of the stream in which they were found; and in an aquarium the “banded sunfish” (Mesogonistius chatodon Gill), is verily kaleidoscopic. The black bands actually sometimes wholly disappear ! THE SPORES OF LICHENS. BY H. WILLEY. THE importance of the spores in the study of lichens, will perhaps render interesting a more extended reference to this branch of lichen history. The spores were known to Micheli, who figures those of several species in his “ Nova Genera Plantarum,” 1729, as did also Acharius in his “ Lich- enographia Universalis,” 1810. But he made no use of them in his system. The great work of Fries, “ Lichenographia Europæa Reformata,” 1831, has no reference to the spores, excepting a few remarks in regard to their germination ; but Eschweiler in the same year, made a somewhat care- ful examination of them, and noticed their various forms, although he endeavored in vain, he says, to make use of the .spore-ease in distinguishing genera. Fée, in the supplement to his "Essai," 1837, was the first to do this, and to figure and describe accurately the spore-cases and spores. But THE SPORES OF LICHENS. 121 De Notaris in 1846, from which period Krempelhuber dates the modern period of Lichenology, fully inaugurated the new method, and established it on a solid foundation. He pointed out the unity of the spore-type in many natural genera, and declared that species in which the spores pre- sented important differences could not be grouped together. But the results of his labors do not appear to have been com- bined into a general system. Norman, in Norway, 1852, Massalongo, in Italy, 1852, and Koerber in Germany, 1854— 1859, continued his work, and based their systems to a greater or less degree, on spore characters, while the younger Fries, Trevisan, Stitzenberger and others have labored successfully in the same field, and made important contributions to this department. No description of a lichen is now considered adequate which does not give an account of the spores, when they are to be found. The Italian school, however, has attributed too great im- portance to minor distinctions in the size of spores, their septation, and number in the spore-case, attaching great im- portance to micrometric measurements, and lonbr.: increas- ing the species and genera to a most unwarrantable degree, e not unfrequently violating natural affinities, answering no useful end and tending rather to create confusion than to advance true science. A few instances may serve to illus- trate this. Pyrenula nitida Scher. is a very common bark lichen, and subject to but slight variation. The average length of the spores is from .018 to .022 millimetre; but specimens occur, which cannot be separated from it, in which they measure constantly from .030 to .038. Arthonia velata Nyl. is another instance in which the spores in some specimens are constantly nearly twice as large as in others. The spores of Sagedia chlorotica Ach. are described in the European forms as constantly 4-blastish, measuring from .018 to .023. Here they are usually from 4 to 6-blastish, and measure from .025 to .047, and it is only recently that I have found specimens with constantly 4-blastish spores, a AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 91 T33 THE SPORES OF LICHENS. little smaller than the European, and measuring from .014 to .020. Sagedia cestrencis Tuck. is another example, though I am doubtful whether my specimens are different from S. carpinea Pers. As it occurs on the beech, the spores are fusiform, and measure from .034 to .038, while those on the hemlock, referred to the same species, are acicular and from .072 to .118. But perhaps the difference in form would justify making this a distinct species. Rinodina sophodes Mass. and Biatora rubella Fr. are two very variable species, but specimens referred to each vary in the former from .010 to .025, and in the latter from .018 to .075. So in regard to the number of spores in the spore-case. The form of Rinodina sophodes in which the spore-cases contain twelve or more spores, can hardly be distinguished from that in which there are only eight, though Th. Fries makes it a separate species, under the name R. polyspora. I have found specimens of Buellia microcarpa D. C. which do not differ from the common form more than the two forms of R. sophodes, but in which there are from eight to sixteen spores in a spore-case ; and a parasitic lichen on the thallus of a Saxicoline Pertusaria which appears to differ from Buellia parasitica Flk., only in the spore-cases containing a large number of spores. These examples might be numer- ously increased, but they are perhaps sufficient to show that too much importance should not be attached to what Profes- sor Tuckerman calls “ mere gradal differences.” Nylander, the great French lichenist and the antagonist of the German-Italian school, does not seem to attach sufficient importance to the differences in spore characters. In his re- marks in his “Synopsis” on specific characters in lichens, he contents himself with a few indefinite observations in regard to them, and in his classification makes no generic distinc- tions based on form or color. Thus Rinodina is included under Lecanora, and Buellia under Lecidea. Indeed he seems to consider the spermatia as more important classi- ficatory organs than the spores. In his descriptions, however, THE SPORES OF LICHENS. 723 he gives the forms of the spores, though not always accu- rately, and their measurements. While the Italian and Ger- man writers on the one hand tend to too great a subdivision of genera and species, Nylander, on the-other, is frequently too comprehensive, though this is perhaps the safer error of the two. Professor Tuckerman of Amherst, has expressed briefly his views on the value of spore characters, in his “ Lich- ens of California," 1866, and has laid the foundation of a more sound and instructive doctrine on this subject than previous writers. In his opinion, which has been followed -in what precedes, "less weight than has often been assumed should be given to spore differences of a merely gradal character, or such others as depend only on mensuration, and more to those that seem typical.” He considers that there are "two well defined kinds of lichen-spores, comple- mented in the highest tribe only by a well-defined inter- mediate one. In one of these (typically colorless) the originally simple spore, passing through a series of moditi- cations, always in one direction, and tending constantly to elongation, affords at length the acicular type. To this is opposed (most frequently but not exclusively in the lower tribes, and even possibly anticipated by the polar-bilocular sub-type in Parmeliacei), a second (typically colored) in which the simple spore, completing another series of changes, tending rather to distension and to division in one direction, exhibits finally the muriform type.” Tn accordance with this view Rinodina is distinguished from Lecanora, and Buellia . from Lecidea. Theloschistes parietinus is separated from Physcia, a genus with colored spores, and placed in a distinct genus, the type of whose spore is the polar-bilocular. On the other hand Biatora rubella would not be separated from that genus, which includes species with simple spores, merely on account of its septate spores, nor Buellia petrea placed in a distinct genus, Rhizocarpon, on account of its muriform spores, nor Lecanora cervina on account of its polysporous 124 THE SPORES OF LICHENS. spore-cases. It is to be observed, however, that the typi- eally colored spore is often, as Professor Tuckerman ex- presses it, decolorate. Thus the spores of Buellia petrea, are often, and always, so far as I have observed, in a form which occurs on rails, colorless, and frequently only 2-blast- ish. Similar conditions also occur of Rinodina sophodes and R. ascociseana. Pertusaria is another genus in which the spores should probably be considered as typically colored. They are usually of a yellowish tinge, and in one specimen of P. leioplaca they were of a rich golden brown. There are many genera in which species with spores belonging to the typically colored series, have spores always, so far as observed, colorless, or “decolorate.” In the genera of all the great families of lichens will be found spores corres- ponding to these various types; and a table might be con- structed, showing the analogies throughout. But into the subject of lichen classification it is not my purpose here to enter. Our illustrations in the preceding number of the Natu- RALIST show the different types of spores as thus distin- guished; those of T. parietina being polar-bilocular, those of Biatora rubella, acicular, and those of Buellia petrea, muriform. The adoption of this idea will certainly intro- duce an order and clearness into lichenology which it has hitherto lacked, and will do away with a host of genera of the German and Italian writers, which serve only to en- cumber the books and to embarrass and confuse the student. There are perhaps some exceptions, as Professor Tuckerman admits, in regard to Gyalecta, and as is perhaps the case also with Arthonia. But these may disappear with further knowledge, and we have to thank the Professor for an idea which greatly simplifies a difficult study, and whose advan- tages, as he justly remarks, far outweigh its difficulties. He has promised a further discussion of the subject in his forth- coming work on the Genera of North American Lichens. THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. BY THEODORE GILL, M.D., PH.D. — Qa Vastness of size is so generally, and it may almost be conceded, so naturally associated in the popular idea with the whales, that some may scarcely be able to realize at first the fact that there are species no larger than ordinary porpoises; and yet which agree so closely in all the more essential elements of structure with some of the whales, that it is impossible, in a natural system, to separate them far from their gigantic relatives. We say some of the whales, for it is to be observed that the animals which are designated popularly as whales do not form a natural group, as contradistinguished from other animals. As popularly ap- plied, the word whale is a designation used in common for all the gigantie cetaceans, whether they be toothless and fur- nished with whalebone, as are the right-whales, or whether they be toothed, as are the sperm-whales, or cachalots.* The pygmies, to which we have alluded above, would not answer, then, to the popular conception. But, indeed, there are no characters which are coórdinated with size, and which would enable one to give a definition other than relative to size. We have to enter upon a more profound examination before being able to ascertain the relations of the various members of the cetacean order. It is only by taking into account the sum total of characters, internal as well as ex- ternal, that we are at length enabled to arrive at a correct appreciation of the true affinities of animals, and this induc- tive mode of study, applied to the cetaceans, teaches us that * It should be added, however, that **whale? seems to be used by some whalemen as a quasi-generic term for the cetaceans (see Cheever, ** The Whale and his Captors,” pp. 96, 97), and is al pplied by other p t f the 1 Delphinide, such as Beluga (the white whale), Orca (the killer whale), Globiocephalus (the caing whale), etc. (725) 126 THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. in the order are two great groups, which, we may at once add, are suborders; and that these groups are distinguished from each other by numerous characteristics: the most ap- parent of these are, in one group, (the MvsrrcETE,) the de- velopment of whalebone on the roof of the mouth, and the entire want of teeth,* — they being reabsorbed into the gums before birth, —the development of an olfactory organ, and of nasal bones free at their distal ends ; and in the other group, (the DENrICETI,) the absence of the whalebone, and the development of teeth after birth generally persistent in one or both jaws during life, but in some forms more or less early deciduous; the olfactory organ is atrophied, and the nasal bones are appressed to the frontals and overlapped by the vomer. It is not in one alone of these groups that we find associ- ated together, in a natural morphological combination, giants and dwarfs, although only in one do we find the contrast in the present age of our globe. It is the family of Physeter- ide (the sperm-whales) which furnishes us with the con- trast in living forms; only giants are now living to repre- sent the Balenide (the right-whales), and Balenopteride (the fin-back whales), but in the miocene age, a species of a fin-back whale lived that when adult was not even as large as the new born young of the fin-backs now living. + It is, however, only with the pygmy sperm-whales, equally small or even smaller, compared with their gigantic relatives, ł that . we will now concern ourselves. And we will commence our study with the enquiry as to what are the essential charac- ters of the family to which they belong. Our task is ren- * Teeth are present, however, in the foetus, but are not functionally developed. ‘ope in Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. rÀ . D. Benne size authentically recorded of the sperm-whale is seventy-six feet in length, by thirty- n dd a | H MTS f e MAGS vinu Þ largest examples they commonly obtain.” Professor Flower, after a critical study, concluded tt length might be about sixty feet, and * ventures to question whether the cachalot frequently, if ever, exceeds that length, when ed in a. straight line." The Kogiina attain a length of from seven to eleven feet. THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. 121 dered easy by the recent publication of a very elaborate mon- ograph “On the Osteology of the Cachalot or Sperm-whale (Physeter macrocephalus),” by Professor Flower of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, and a full descrip- tion and illustrations of a pygmy whale, by Professor Owen, who has been the first to clearly elucidate the details of structure of a member of the group of small species. 1. Families of Toothed Cetaceans. There are four families of toothed cetaceans: the Physeterids, or sperm-whales ; the Ziphiids, nearly allied to the former, but in some respects approaching nearer to the Delphinids; the Platanistids, containing mostly fresh-water forms; and, finally, the Del- phinids, containing by far the largest number of genera and species, and embracing the dolphins (not the fishes of that name), the porpoises, etc. It is on a comparison be- tween the members of all those families that the following characters are shown to be peculiar, either absolutely or in combination, to the Physeteride. 2. Common Character of Sperm-whales. The form is variable, the head being either disproportionately large and blunt in front, with a subterminal blower, as in the giant whales, or conical, as in the dwarfs; the snout, however, always projects forwards, and the mouth is inferior. The cervical vertebre in whole, or the atlas excepted, are an- chylosed together. The hinder ribs lose their heads, and are only connected by their tubercles with the transverse processes of the vertebrze. The costal cartilages which con- nect the ribs with the sternum retain more or less of their original cartilaginous condition. The skull has the bones raised so as to form a more or less elevated retrorsely convex crest behind the anterior nares. The supraoccipital (so) and parietals combined extend forwards on the sides, and pre- sent a convex border projecting forwards high above the temporal fossa, and forwards beyond the vertex. The frontal (f) bones have an extended lateral surface de- flected downwards and produced upwards, exposing to view 728 THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. a triangular or retrorsely falciform wedge between the max- illaries and supraoccipital. The left nasal bone (n) is atro- phied; the right hypertrophied and twisted to the left side. The: jugal (7) is well developed and projects downwards or backwards. The orbit is small or of moderate size. The pterygoid (pt) bones are thick, produced forwards and entering largely into the bony roof of the mouth over and behind the palatine (pal) bones, not contiguous at the mid- dle, with low ridges on the oral surface diverging more or less backwards and outwards, and with sides not involuted so as to form the outer wall of the postpalatine air-sinus. The lower jaw has a more or less elongated symphysis. Teeth are functionally developed only or chiefly in the lower jaw. The pectoral limb is small. 3. Deductions. Such are the characters possessed by all the members of the family. It will be observed that all but (Fig. 161.) Lower Jaw of Physeter macrocephalus, from Flower. one of them which are truly distinctive are derived from the internal organization, and as some persons may complain of this and ask why external characters have not been em- ployed, it may be added that there are no distinctive ex- ternal features, except the inferiority of the mouth, and that only owes its importance to its coórdination with others. It cannot be too often repeated that our judgment respecting the relations of animals is only reliable when based on the most complete and comprehensive examination of the entire Structure, external as well as internal, and that one of the first elements of a natural classification is that the characters used shall be at least expressive of the sum of all the com- mon characters. THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. 129 In order now to exhibit the relative importance of the characters and their subordination, it may simply be stated that the chief, or at least most salient peculiarities in the form and relation of the bones are those exhibited by the supraoc- cipital in combination with the parietals, and also those pre- sented by the frontals. In these respects, the sperm-whales stand alone among the cetaceans, while the Ziphiids, to Which they are most nearly allied, and with which they agree in the costal cartilages, the form of the pterygoids, etc., resemble the Delphinids in the development of those bones. 4. Differences among Physeterids. Having now pretty carefully passed in review the common characters of the Physeterids, we may now enter on an examination of the subdivisions which are indieated by a similar course of study. After a detailed investigation of all known forms it is found that they may readily be grouped into two divisions which are separated from each other by many striking peculiarities. One of these is represented by the large species; the other by small ones ; for the former, has been retained by the best naturalists the Linnean name Physeter; for the latter, was first proposed the Grayan name Kogia, a barbarous designa- tion which has by some been superseded by Huphysetes. In order to exhibit at once the contrast between the two forms, and to facilitate comparison, we append the characters in parallel columns. PHYSETER. orm massive, with the head very large, oblong in profile and truncated at the front; eyes very small, very low, and near the angle of the mouth; blow-hole anterior, and at or near the edge of the trun- cated snout. Form delphinoid, with the head conical, the snout being attenuated than the angle of the mouth; blow- hole at the forehead. Dorsal fin represented by a hump. Cervical vertebre differentiated into an atlas and a combination of the second to seventh anchylosed and fused together. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. Dorsal fin falcate. Cervical vertebræ all united by anchylosis. 130 Ribs about ten or eleven pairs in umber. Skull abruptly contracted into the attenuated rostrum, which e equals with the ros- tral part oblong and acute conic. Cerebral cavity declining down- wards. Occipito-sphenoid axis angular; the basioccipital portion very de- clivous d portion inclining upwards Basisphenoid (bs) and palatines (pal) not or scarcely visible from the side, being concealed from view by the exoccipitals and Squamosals. Frontal (f) with the exposed sur- face broadly triangular above be- t illaries; cury tapping oe the process is very disti Squamosal (s) with an external pet triangular surface, and with a zygomatic process for articula- tion with the ; contributing little egt: I" the floor of the temporal fos and articulated with z cesses of the squamos. Jugals (j) inclined Wabi wastes: zygomatic p: Nasal (n) bone flat, smooth. THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY.. Ribs about thirteen or fourteen pairs in number Skull gradually sloping into the rostrum, which is shorter than the condylo-orbital line; above, reni- form get with the rostrum ob- tusely co Cerebral cavity inclining up- wards. Occipito-sphenoid axis continu- ous upwards from the thickened horizontal floor in front of the fo- ramen magnum Basisphenoid and pa curved downwards and outwards, and largely exposed to view from the sides. Frontal with the exposed surface retrorsely curved above; with an angulated margin above the tem- poral cavity. Squamosal with a small, tesis surface, but a large incurved sur- face, forming the largest nosti of the periphery of the temporal fos Jugals inclined downwards and remote from the squamosals. Nasal bone with a thickened sig- moidally sinuous ridge continued from the nasal septum to the ver- tex, and with a less defined branch exten from its Apre part nding forwards on the right rmax- illary. THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. 731 Maxillaries (m) continuous, the Maxillaries differentiated into contour bei mply interrupted wW ortion the dee e- by the anteorbital tch; the ante- orbital notch; the eren Short, rior portion very long, high, wide, low, nd ecarinate; the narrow, and carinate at its proximal half; posterior portion imi a thickened the posterior panna simply decliv- external contour. ous on the frontals. Intermaxillaries (i) very elon- Intermaxillaries very short, di- gate, nearly contiguous "S verging forwards on account of the and projecting forwards sider- development of the vomer; not or ably beyond the nostis. ittle extending beyond the maxil- laries. Lower jaw with the symphysis Lower jaw with the symphysis the Vie co-equal with the alveolar iis more than half as long as region, and more Nr. half the alveolar region, and less than a Teen of the rami. third the length of the rami. 5. Deductions Respecting the Relative Value of Differ- ences. Thus have we in considerable detail contrasted the respective peculiarities of the two groups of Physeterids. e have gone into such detail, as it is only in that way that we can appreciate the great difference between the two. The question now arises, pees is the value of those groups? Are they simply genera? or are they entitled to higher rank? On account of the limited number of species, and the close relationship of the several members of the respective groups, we are compelled to judge somewhat by analogy, and com- parison with allied families. As the result of such compar- isons, especially among the representatives of the families Ziphiids and Delphinids, it is believed that the value of Several characters above given is of more than generic value, the difference appearing to be very much greater than exists between genera in either of those families, and it is there- * Our readers E in Boston and its suburbs ean verify t the ch yseter by a visit to the Museu at Cambridge which establishment are the skull and wake of the skeleton of an individual obteiaed, | we believe, on the coast of New Jerse 4M t may be. remarked here that [Mae oes remains from the Mintene « a m3 sre United * crocodilinus Cope, and Ontocetus Emmonsii Leidy; and some from the gobaemequ as Phy- seter antiquus Leidy. 732 THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. fore proposed to designate the genera Physeter and Kogia as representatives of two sub-families of PrysETERIDE, to be respectively designated as Puysererinz and Kocuna. If we are called upon to make a distinction between sub- family and generic characters, it is believed that the most important are the form of the head (a difference of greater moment than analagous ones among the Delphinide) and position of the blow-holes, the form and direction of the cerebral cavity and coórdinate modification of its enclosing bones; the direction of the occipito-sphenoid axis, and the form and relations of the jugal and zygomatic processes of the squamosal bones. And lest some may entertain a suspicion that some of the differences above enumerated may be the result of vegeta- tive growth (or bulk) in Physeter, it is proper to add that the young of that form essentially resembles the adult, and that the characters enumerated are as applicable to the one as to the other. Nor are the characteristics of Kogia the expressions of arrested development; they are special mod- ifications, and the form itself is quite as specialized a type as is Physeter itself. Both forms, so far as known, have equally lost the evidences of the nature of their common progenitor, and it is impossible to decide, from present facts, which is the most divergent from the common stock. If we were to be guided by consideration of size, Kogia would seem to be the most divergent, the typical PAyseterids and related Ziphiids being all large animals, but such hint would probably be illusive per se, although really perhaps near the truth. 6. Subdivisions of the Family. While the first subdi- vision of the family into two subfamilies based on tangible and reliable data, is that presented in this article, a binary division had been previously proposed by Dr. J. E. Gray, in the "Additions and Corrections" of his "Catalogue of Seals and Whales in the British Museum," published in 1866 ; therein (p. 386), he subdivides the family as follows: THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. 733 I. age compressed, truncated in front. Blowers in front of the upper part the head. Skull elongate. Dorsal hump rounded. Pectoral fin xe truncated. Catodontina 1: TODON. The atlas adii transverse, nearly twice as broad as high; te pane canal subtrigonal, narrow below. 2 EURON. The atlas subcircular, rather broader than — the central d circular, in the middle of the body, widened abov II. € dede rounded in front. Blowers at the back of the forehead. nall, inferior. Dorsal fin compressed, falcate. Pectoral elon- ri rene Physeterina. 3. PuysETER. Head large, elongate, rather depressed in fron 4. Kocia. Head moderate, blunt and high in front. Skull iier and broad. The septum that divides the crown of the skull very sinuous, pies so as to form a funnel-shaped concavity. 5. EvPHYsETES. Head moderate, blunt and high in front. Skull short and broad. The septum that divides the crown of the skull simple, lon- gitudinal, only slightly curved.” No animal has ever been seen in recent times in which the alleged characters of frontal blow-hole and falciform dorsal have been found associated with the structural characters and size of Physeter, and as Dr. Gray himself remarks, “there is not a bone, nor even a fragment of a bone, nor any part that can be proved to have belonged to a specimen of this gigantic animal, to be seen in any museum in Europe. Commenting on this, Flower adds that “if the Linnean genus Physeter is to be kept in abeyance until the discovery of Sibbald’s Balena macrocephala tripinna [the only basis for the so-called Physeter tursio], it is to be feared that it may ultimately disappear altogether from zoological literature.’ Heartily concurring in this view, and coinciding with the most judicious cetologists that the Sibbaldian animal was simply distinguished on account of a misapprehension as to its relations, je that it was, as Eschricht has observed,* an old cachalot with worn teeth, the name Physeter is retained for it as that proposed by the founder of zoological tax- onomy. In this case the name Physeterine of course must be connected with the same form. The factitious genus as, from some misunderstanding, remarked that “ Eschricht nt rg to believe Mid cM described a Killer or Orca gladiator, under the above 134 THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. Physeter being eliminated, none but the small sperm-whales are left in the Grayan tribe Physeterina, and they form a natural group for which the name /fogiine has been above proposed; while the apparently most essential characters have been first attributed to it. The genera Catodon and Meganeuron, distinguished, so far as known, solely by differences in the osseous development of the cervical vertebree, may better be conjoined provision- ally under the single generic name Physeter. The diagnoses of Kogia and Luphysetes do not appear to be the expressions of actual differences. 7. The Species of Physeterins. The sperm whales, or Cachalots, according to Flower, " unlike the right-whales, are Fig. 1€5.* h A Physeter. essentially inhabitants of the tropical and warmer parts of Fig. 195 the temperate seas, and pass freely from one hem- isphere into another." They have been observed in every sea, wandering northward in the Pacific to the Straits of Bering ; in the Atlantic, straggling northward, at least as far as the coasts of Britain and the North Sea; aud in the southern hemi- sphere, they have been found rounding the capes, and passing from one ocean to the other. "Between the North Atlantie and the Australian seas there is no barrier interposed to animals of such great powers of locomotion." *Fig. 165. Outline - the Cachalot, — from Beale’s “Natural History of the See die 1839, p. 23; b, the situation of the case; c, the junk; d, the bunch of the e hu ac i, the ridge; * the — Ri thé tail or eto s. Between the pei eni line r blanket pieces; the T Fig. 166. Head se seen from the front; the ed forming the s wea are intended to represent the flat anterior part of the head. THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. 735 As may be supposed, animals from places so widely dis- tant have furnished the bases for different specific names, and after various fluctuations of opinion, in the last general com pleted work on the cetaceans—that by Dr. Gray already referred to—three authenticated and four doubtful species of true Physeterine are admitted, exclusive of the nominal Physeter tursio. The three considered established by him are Catodon macrocephalus, Catodon australis, and Mega- neuron Krefftii; the four "species wanting further confirma- tion” are the Pacific sperm-whale (Catodon Colneti Gray), the South African sperm-whale (Catodon macrocephalus A. Smith), the Indian sperm-whale (Catodon macrocephalus Blyth), and the South Sea sperm-whale (Physeter polycy- phus Quoy and Gaimard). | Professor Flower, after an elaborate comparison of skele- tons of Physeter from the British waters and from the Tasmanian seas (the home of P. australis), arrived at the conclusion that the apparent differences of P. australis, com- pared with P. macrocephalus, were the characters of imma- turity or the result of error in the identification of parts, and "putting aside these distinctive characters as valueless, there is not one other presenting any approach to a specifie dis- tinction pointed out throughout the whole memoir by Wall," and he himself has been unable to find any specific differ- ences between the Northern Atlantic and Southern Pacific forms; he, however, is careful to remark that he does not "deny the possibility of their being specifically distinct," and very appropriately adds that “similarity of osteological char- acters does not prove unity of species." But until such can be defined, specific names would only mislead. As to the "species wanting farther confirmation," it is suf- ficient that Dr. Gray ranks them in that category. One other name only needs notice, the Meganeuron Kreftii Gray, founded on cervical vertebre ; the atlas cer- tainly differs considerably from those of the Physeter macro- cephalus hitherto made known. Mr. Krefft, however, who 136 THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. transmitted them to Dr. Gray, finally regarded the "mass of vertebre as belonging to Catodon australis.” Until the ac- quirement of further data, the relations of the form will be doubtful. 8. The Species of Kogiins. Representatives of the sub- family have been obtained at the Cape of Good Hope, near Sidney (Australia), and from the coast of the Madras Presidency, and respectively attributed to four species. To the localities already distinguished, we may now add Lower California, from which the lower jaw of a specimen, as well as a figure and notice of the animal, have recently been for- warded by Colonel Grayson. It would therefore appear probable that the group is quite generally distributed in the Fig. 107. Kogia F'oweri, adapted from a colored figure by Col. Grayson. Pacifie Ocean, and probably in the South Atlantic. The four forms previously distinguished as species have been re- ferred by Dr. Gray, as already indicated, to two genera, Kogia and Euphysetes; the latter name having been re- stricted to the form on which it was primitively based, while the three others have been referred to Kogia. As above remarked, the pertinence of the new diagnosis of Huphy- setes to its type is not apparent, and is at variance with the original description as well as figure of the species. Of the species mentioned, the Indian form is by far the best known, thanks to Sir Walter Elliot, the collector, and Pro- fessor Owen, the describer; two Australian forms have been specifically distinguished by Mr. Krefft, after an examination of the skeletons of both; the species of the Cape of Good Hope is only known from a skull, and the Californian species THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. 737 only from the lower jaw and the accompanying figure ; but those combined will be sufficient to readily distinguish the last species from its congeners, although we must await with impatience the collection of better material, and we may be allowed to hope that this article may incite our Californian friends to seek for and procure specimens. Our present knowledge of the species of this sub-family seems to indicate that there are two well-marked divisions, one of which is represented by the species (Physeter brevi- ceps Bl.), on which the genus Kogia was originally based by Dr. Gray, and to which the Huphysetes Grayi Wall, the Euphysetes Macleayt Krefft, and the Mazatlan individual also belong; and the other division is represented by the Zuphy- setes simus Owen. These are very decidedly distinguished by the difference in the form of the lower jaw, and the form as well as development of the teeth. In all the typical Kogie, the lower jaw, for each ramus, has a more or less truncated oar-shaped posterior margin, and from its upper and lower angles, the respective margins converge, describing nearly straight or little convex outlines, to the alveolar area, the lower margin ascending upwards to the symphysis, where the rami are parallel or nearly so, and which there project downwards into a longitudinally convex carina. There are from thirteen to fifteen teeth in each ramus; they are very long, much curved, and acutely pointed. In Euphysetes simus “each ramus has a convex, almost semicircular posterior margin, curving upward and back- ward from below where the angle poroi exists in other mammals, and then forward to the seat of the coronoid pro- cess [etc.]. In the alveolar groove are partially excavated sockets for nine teeth [etc.]; the teeth are small, straight, conical, obtuse, not exceeding eight lines in length, of which the cylindrical base has a diameter of two lines, that of the crown a diameter of one and one-half lines, with a length of two and one-half lines, diminishing to a sub-recurved apex” AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 93 738 THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. (Owen, l. c., p. 41). A pair of teeth are also developed near the front of the upper jaw. With these mandibular and dental characters seem also to be coórdinated a less de- veloped dorsal fin, comparatively longer temporal fosse, the deep fissure limiting the front part of the supraorbital ridge ; the more deflected jugals, and the more rounded lat- eral ridges of the hinder portions of the maxillaries. As it is certain that a generic name will sooner or later be de- sired for the form so distinguished, it may be called on account of the symmetrically rounded lower jaw Callig- nathus. The known species are as follows: 1. KOGIA BnEVICEPS Gray ex Blainv. Habitat, Cape of Good Hope. 2. Koara GnaYr Gray ex Wall. Habitat, Australia, near Sydney. 3. KoarA MacLkavi Gray ex Krefft. Habitat, Australia, near Sydney. . Koca FLowrnI Gill The form is robust; the dorsal very low, ** posterior to which is a sharp ridge as if belonging to the fin, extending towards the tail;" the color black or blackish above, whitish or yellow- ish-white below, and upwards and forwards, including the end of the nout. The lower jaw at its symphysis below is very compressed, has concave zontal. The teeth are very long and slender, very much curved outwards and backwards, and acutely pointed; there are about fourteen or fifteen in number on each side. The animal on whose jaw and portrait the species has been based, was obtained a short distance from Mazatlan, in 1868, and measured nine feet in length; its blubber yielded seventy-five pounds of oil. No details as to its mode of capture were sent by Colonel Grayson, but it was re marked that “ it is said to be a strange fish in those waters." B. CALLIGNATHUS sIMUS. Habitat, India, coast of Vigigapataw, Madras Presidency. ; 9. On the Nomenclature of Kogia. A few words con- cerning the nomenclature of the genus seem to be demanded. Dr. J. E. Gray, perceiving certain discrepancies between the figure and descriptive notice by Blainville of a skull from the Cape of Good Hope, referred by the latter author to the genus Physeter, and named JP. breviceps, conferred THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. 139 upon it in 1846 the barbarous generic name Kogia, with the following diagnosis : “Head moderate, broad, triangular. Lower jaw wide be- neath, slender, united by a short symphysis in front. Jaw- bone * of the skull broad, triangular, as broad as long." In 1854, Mr. W: S. Wall, t ina "History and Description of the Skeleton of a New Sperm-whale [ ete. ] ", described in addition a new pygmy species, to which he gave the name FEuphysetes. Grayi, evidently inclining to the opinion that it would prove to be congeneric with Kogia breviceps, but on account of the inapplicability of Gray's generic diagnosis, refusing to identify it with that form; he "regretted that a barbarous and unmeaning name like Kogia should have been admitted into the nomenclature of so classical a group as the cetacea.” The name Kogia has also been repudiated, and Huphysetes adopted by Professor Owen, who has acknowledged the generic identity of the species on which they were respec- tively based ; in reference to it, that profound naturalist has remarked that he has "that confidence in the common sense and good judgment of [his] fellow countrymen and labourers in philosophieal zoology which leads [him] to anticipate a tacit burial and oblivion of the barbarous and undefined generic names with which the fair edifice begun by Linneus has been defaced." t Dr. Gray, defending his name, has observed that "Mr. MacLeay objects to the barbarous name of Kogia;” and the learned doctor of philosophy, with charming naivete, adds : "I have been asked, what does EHuphysetes mean? should it * Lest this character might be inexplicable, it is proper to state the author meant the ortion of the skull. . t The work quoted has been lately attributed to Mr. W. S. MacLeay, but as Mr. Wall has assumed the responsibility of authorship with the evident t of Mr. MacLeay thera t 3 P g accepting ez parte evidence in the case, or even for inquiring into the relations of the parties with regard to the contribution of scien- tific knowledge and literary skill; in this opinion, I simply concur with Professor dera to er. 1 Owen, Mon. Brit. Foss. Cetacea Red Crag, No. 1, 1870, p. 27; (Ray Society). 4 740 THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. not have been written Huphycetes, with a c?" The sug- gestion of Dr. Gray's questioner can scarcely fail to elicit a smile at the ignorance displayed in the question, or perhaps a laugh at the execrably complicated pun that may have been intended, and which appealed to evidently unappre- ciative ears. The name is a literal rendition of the Greek (Ev, augmentative, and 45577, blower), and, as explained by the framer, simply means “a good or easy blower." Notwithstanding, however, the objections to the name Kogia, we adopt it, as Professor Flower has also done, be- cause of its priority, while we recognize the justness of the criticisms upon it. But if we were to pursue the course recommended in repudiation of it, hosts of generally ad- mitted generic names would have to be superseded, among which would be most of those of the author of the name in question. Linné himself furnished a precedent for the adop- tion of names other than those derived from the classical languages, although Ae admitted such with cautiousness and a due regard for sense and euphony. Analogous names, proposed though they may be without like reserve, must in the judgment of the great majority of systematists be re- tained, lasting monuments to the discredit of their authors, and an opprobrium to zoology. EXPLANATION TO CUTS. = Skull of pies wae simus, seen from wot = 100. se i & 171. TE isoctad. 172. Lower Jaw « Kogia Flowers; th the dotted lines indicate the approximate form of the hinder portion of the ram 173. Skull of adult Physet er macresphatus seen from pod — ME he [r1 SAI, Me i vai _Joneitmainaly “bisected, to show the relative size and Te gage - th ial * P occipital; so, supraóceipital ; etal?; s, squamosal; J; PARAL: ph, palatino; J; Jugal: uh, etyichyold ; Uh DAMIJAN, th, ibyieliysia. Nore. —An the figures of the ten illustrations of Cachalot (Physeter macrocephalus) : vti (Physeter sent a ceria in Trans, Zoo London, Vol. n, de 309-372, 1868, an ritiene us simus, from Professor oni i memoir “On some Indian qom cle by Walter Elliot, Esq.,” in Trans, Zool. Soc., London, Vol. vi, pp. 87-116, 1866. The lower jaw of Kogia Floweri is from nature. THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. 741 Fig. 171. THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. 742 Fig. 173. Fig. 174. SIE ESSE SSIES T2722 ae a Eas ZEEE THE SPERM WHALES, GIANT AND PYGMY. 743 REVIEWS. —— 9Ó.—— EA EXPLORATIONS.—In the Report before us * are given the preliminary proceedings and equipment, the narrative of the three cruises performed during 1869, the general results so far as they relate to Physics and Chemistry, and, in an appendix, a summary of the observations upon, and analysis of, samples of sea water and deep sea bottom collected, dur- ing the cruise. Passing over the first portion for the sake of brevity, (though there is much, especially in the description of the equipment, to interest all naturalists), we learn "m the Porcupine, with Mr. Jeffreys and Mr. W. B. Carpenter on board, left Woolwich, May 18th, and after coaling at Galway, on the west coast of Ireland, cruised, dredging at in- throughout. Among the signe ‘were Nucula pumila, Verticordia abyssicola, ** Fusus” n.sp. like ** F." Sabinii, Phakellia ventilabrum, Gon- oplax rhomboides, Ebalia n.sp., Pd Hog Geryon tridens and many small crustaceans. The next dredgings were taken in a line eleven degrees of longitude due west from Galway, and reached a depth of 1230 fathoms. All the mollusca except Aporrhais Serresianus were northern (the temper- ature of the bottom being 37° 8/ Fahr.) ; several new species and two new Mighels (which has two conspicuous eyes), a species of Ampelisca, an eyed crustacean, and numerous gigantic foraminifera. A third trip, from Killebegs to the Rockall Bank was then made, and dredgings as deep às 1476 fathoms succeeded in obtaining an abundance of life. Among the species were an imperforate brachiopod with a septum in the lower valve, which Mr. Jeffreys calls | Atretia gnomon, Kelliella EE ola Sars, Cumacea n.sp., several sm new crustaceans; Pourtalesia, probably P. miranda, A. Ag. and many fine foraminifera, in cluding an pes ites of eached fi able ground for belief that, if life existed at that depth, it could have no bathymetrical limits. In Lat. 47° 38/ north, and Lon. 12° 08’ W. Gr. a depth of 2435 fathoms was obtained, and a dredge weighing 225 lbs. was ‘sent down with a heavy weight attached to the line five hundred fathoms from the dredge, in order to make it bite the bottom. This ap- paratus, attached to 3000 fathoms of line, was ten minutes in running out. * De. iki lee tion of the Deep Sea in H. M. Surveying Ves- sel Poreupine, dies ee a of 1869. Conducted by Dr. W. B, Carpenter, pis P.R.S., J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S., and Prof. Wyville Thompson, LL. D., F.R.S. (Proc. R. Soc. No. 121.) (744) REVIEWS. 145 When hauled in, the dredge contained 150 lbs. of pale gray ooze, contain- alumina, carbonate of magnesium, and oxide of iron. The animals brought up were, among others, Dentalium n.sp. (large), Pecten fenestra- tus, Dacridium vitreum, Scrobicularia nitida, Neæra meer Anonyx Hólbol- lii Kroyer, Ampelisca equicornis Bruzel., Munna n.sp., several annelids; Ophiocten Kroyeri Lütken, Echinocucumis alte, Sars; a stalked cri inold allied to Rhizocrinus; Salicornaria, n.sp., two fragments of a hydroid Z "V "a numerous foraminifera, ép a a ved rhizopod e eyes in species of all classes were well developed, showing that in these aii light of some kind must exist. The temperature at the bottom in this case was 36° 5! Fahr. npud 65° 6! Fahr. at the surface. he third cruise in charge of Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Prof. Wyville Thompson and Mr. P. Herbert Carpenter, was devoted to the exploration o exist a ich h rey between the north of Scotland, the Hebrides, and the Fare Islands. Space will not admit of even a condensed exhibit of the valuable results — on ost cruise he rst and valuable of the results of these dredgings, due to the se Wiese) of the British Government, may be succinctly stated ‘as follows. 1. It has been practically proved that there is no limit to the existence of animal life as far as depth is concerned, and that the difference in the Specific gravity of the water at = cea and at 2500 fathoms is less Ps that between salt and fresh w. 2. That there is a constant slbi between the carbonic acid gas from the bottom and the oxygen at the surface, by which the animals at ion. 3. An abundant supply of dilute protoplasm in the water serves food for the protozoic inhabitants of the deep sea, upon which latter Pd higher animals subsist. lacial sees climate € exist over any area, without refer- ence to the terr, climate of that area. 5. Cold deris warm areas may sue in close juxtaposition, at great racters. in composition from the chalk rock ee a of England, and no evi- dence whatever has accumulated to sustain the hypothesis of Dr. Carpen- ter that the Cretaceous period is at pist aie in the Atlantic a bed; indeed, that “ae in a late letter in ** Nature” has prac Gane abandoned this AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 94 146 REVIEWS. 7. Temperature is the great agent which determines the distribution of submarine animals; a view previously maintained by many eminent nat- uralists and now permanently established by these, and other dredgings in the assa and by the researches of American naturalists in the North Pac tis to “a DEREI that the views of Mr. Jeffreys in regard to the spe- cific and generic limits of animals, differ so widely from those of the majority of modern naturalists. In the present report he unites animals belonging to different genera under the same specific name; e. g., hei- mia septigera and cae septata, and those who have had occasion to critically examine his British Conchology, find in it many similar cases. Such determinations, nga course, will tend to invalidate any conclusions which niay be drawn from his report, and will undoubtedly throw à certain amount of efi upon the whole subject. — W. H. D. THE CLASSIFICATION OF WATER BrRDs.* — Although from the title of this paper one vie reasonably expect to find the classification of the c only so-called water birds in general treated of, the writer re- m proper, as distinguished from aquatic, or even natatorial Gralle.” The series of special papers on pag of the principal groups of the swim- birds which Dr. Coues has published during the last few years Tf scientific student will find himself warranted in the natural anticipation of finding the sod in question full of important and, in general, well considered d r. Coues me out with the assumption that it is demonstrable that the Natatores ** are one of three primary divisions of birds, at least of car- inate birds," which he regards, practically, at least, as subclasses. To t uding to the fact that a singular unanimity has prevailed in regard to the definition of the group of Natatores, and that in the main similar subdivisions have been recognized, though by different authors ward iri and their rank differently estimated, he proc ceeds efly nsideration of four of the leading modern systems of or- pde mss te These are, to quote his own words, ** (1) a *On the Classification of Water Birds. By Elliott rape A. M., M. D., Ph. D., ete. Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1869, Vol. 1, pp. 193-218. Decemb t (1.) Synopsis of the North American forms of Dui Uni aa Podicipide. Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1862, pp. 226-233, April, 1862. (2.) Revision of the Gulls of North jones Er ; p 1 of Colymbus torquatus; with notes on its Myology, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., I, pp. 131-172, Apes, me. "a A Wenn of t the Aleida. Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sel., pem pp sense REVIEWS. 741 dichotomous — in two ‘ parallel series,’ based upon one physi- ological character, — Bonaparte; (2) a trichotomous, founded — very general considerations, eii and after him Lilljeborg; (3) quinary, a modification se the second, by dividing two of the three rt into tion of birds as modified reptiles — and carried out with ai novos to one anatomical character, afforded by certain cranial bones, — Huzle Each of these systems is reviewed at some length, their pini fotiziéé succinctly presented, and many of their deflciencies pointed out. In his remarks upon the Bonapartean system, Dr. Coues dE to di comparison of the two groups of birds termed Altrices and Precoces to are important, constant structural differences, whereas in the other no such differences exist. ** If helplessness at birth compared with precoc- s Dr in the scale, then either the reverse is the case w with mammals, or else we must compare altricial Zncessores with Marsupials, and proecocial Natatores with the higher orders: a dilemma either horn of which is — wur divisions of the latter. Hence, doubtless, as Dr. Coues par- tially suggests, birds, in regard to the eee of the young at birth, should be ` i compare i the Placentali he preecocial birds would then be comparable with the sae a ‘Waele s, (as rbi- vores,) and the altricial iem with the altricial or higher Placentals. T vast difference in the modes of generation between birds m ls, subclasses of mammals. It is nevertheless Mes that in the two great groups of birds first recognized by Oken — he Altrices and Precoces — but afterwards so thoroughly elaborated by edictis that the syste as all will Mb appropriately bears his name, there is something a forcibly recalls the t wo subclasses of mammals. This division, in the present iras dn peg separates birds into two highly nat- ural, primary series, with, to a great extent, parallel or representative groups in each, ai o distinct that no removal of any of the groups of the one series to e other can be made without bringing illy-asso- 148 REVIEWS. ciated groups into juxtaposition, although no constant structural differ- ence has yet been discovered by which to separate them The partially natural basis on Md the system of Nitzsch is ie is clearly recognized by Dr. Coues, although the dat ejiis which it was founded have thus far been but very imperfectly pres n regard to the quinary system of Vigors, mons d wrong in its assumptions, especially as developed by some of Vigors's followers, Dr. Coues justly finds (as the present writer has been long of the opinion there existed) many facts that to a certain extent favor this arrangement in regard to many of its details. The remarkable vitality of the system, and its strong hold upon public opinion, as Dr. dut ues diete is evidence that it has some foundation in nature f which it was able for a long period to hold its ventana aan the numerous technical ob- onward when the idea of a ** lineal" classification was abandoned; and it was doubtless the advantages of the ‘‘circulatory " system of grouping, and the recognition of similar modifications of the members of diverse groups that gave to the Vigorean system some of its recognized advan- tages. Dr. Coues, however, goes further: **A system," he says, ‘‘ that disposes objects in — planes is a great advantage over a lin- eal arrangement, but it stops half-way to the goal. The third dimension is needed; to me - breadth must be added thickness; the circle must vijei & sphere: . ... . We cannot predicate affinity or anal- ogy o o the ia or left, ie She top or bottom,— but must take it that id lai near or remote, may approach, touch, or fuse with each other, along the axis of either of the three possible diameters” (p. 197). The idea h u tion (though not necessarily implying generic relationship) —is one that has doubtless impressed the majority of naturalists, and which has given rise, in the various efforts made for its expression, to I numerous and s The met physical form in which Dr. Coues expresses this idea aia to it, doubt- less, to many minds, a somewhat objectionable charac In reviewing Professor Huxley’s classification, Dr. Coues terms it ‘‘ an attempt ” — as a slight examination of it is sufficient to show — ** to clas- certain character, the value of which was not only unknown, but also unsuspected before; and has shown how perfectly it marks groups of à REVIEWS. 749 certain grade. Second, he has demonstrated once more — and it is to be hoped for the last time — the futility of attempting to found such fun- damental divisions [‘ orders,” etc.] upon any one single character. . . . As the sole basis for a system of ornithological classification, the scheme will probably remain in critical abeyance only until the time when its whip waren shall have been forgotten, and its unsoundness alone remem- er Profe essor Lilljeborg’s system is justly referred to as “ the most ‘ catho- m en ract based systems of classifications. Phipps igs not only meets, in general, the approval of Dr. Coues, as of numerous other ornithologists, but it is essentially followed by tis in his asain n of the Natatores, although he adopts an opposite order of UES. of the several groups. His scheme is hence almost the same as that of the ‘‘ Arrange- ment of Families of Birds " published in 1866 by the Smithsonian Insti- tution, * which was only a slight modification of Professor Lilljeborg's system. Dr. Coues regards the division of the Natatores by Lilljeborg into two groups — Simplicirostres and Lamellirostres — intermediate in rank between the subclass and the orders, as not only a superfluous in- tercalation, but as an unnatural division, from the inequivalency of the two groups; this eyt 48 constituting the chief difference between the systems of Coues and Lill In discussing the relations e the Nolslores to the Grallatores, the char- acter and affinities of two ** ambiguous forms" are incidentally adverted to. These are the Phenicopteride and the Haliornithide, the latter of which is Beitr as fulicarious in its affinities, and the former as belong, ing to the grallatorial Cursores. Notwithstanding the heron-like form of the Flamingoes, almost their whole structure is so well known to be an- serine — with which their preecocial habits accord — that it is a matter of surprise that Dr. Coues should follow Lilljeborg and others in referring them to the Cursores; almost their sole point of divergence from the Anatide consisting in their elongated grallatorial form, they being in fact merely long-legged ducks. Dr. Coues's classification of the Natatores may be tabulated as follows : ie aca ho tan Afterall m ibutii Vol. viii, p. 8, June, 1866, Contributions, yO 150 REVIEWS. E. a B a FAMILIES. SUBFAMILIES. a 6 E ( SPHENISCID (Penguins.) > a Alcine (Auk 3 © | Arcma. i Phaleridine (Crested Auks.) ? A o Uriinc (Guillemots.) I © | COLYMBID (Loons.) n" k P (Greb s dilymbine (Grebes.) 2 * ODICIPIDZE es odilymbine (Grebes. ^ : | icipine (Grebes.) | a o 2 z = Z 7 | PROCELLARIIDÆ. Diomedeine (Albatrosses. ) : A $ Proc Rreoniirinn athe etrels.) > 2 Halo : [e] s Z Lestridine (Jaégers.) a O | LARIDX. Larine (Gulls.) ^ H Sternine (Terns.) M 3 Rhynchopine (Skimmers.) : x an Si PE a SULIDJE (Gannets.) b> E ee Exiacaxma (beloeana 8.) 5 eio ALACROC iu (Cormorants.) "ü Biz E DJE (Dart a < | TACHYPETID/E (Fr igate Birds.) = S | Puarrnonrips (Tropic Birds.) 4 RE n = E E "d n E] OQ ANATIDJE. nserine (Geese.) a = dnating Q iver Ducks.) a d Fuligulin 2 H S uri iai (Sea Ducks.) à 3 à Mergine eniin: ) z ES [E - While the above system, as already stated, differs in no very essential many facts not previously brought together. Great value is also given to the paper by the comprehensive and well elaborated diagnoses of the groups which it contains. As indicated in the foregoing remarks, we are not prepared to accept Dr. Coues's classification in full, notwithstanding the evident thorough- REVIEWS. 151 ness with which he has gone over the ground. To state the reasons which devoted to the subject here. We may add, however, that the separation of birds into Altrices and Precoces, though based chiefly upon di HK distin — is a classification that appears to separate the bi da in two natural, primary groups, —2a division wholly ignored however ia Li Mesi and rejected by Dr. Coues. In regard to the boss which lies at the foundation of ek division, the latter author himself admits that **as Mediae testimony in the formation of orders and location of fu probably be decided by reference to it." As he says further, ** It draws sharp, if here and there a broken [?], line between Galline sns apice It separates, with opem herons and their allies from oth ralle. It goes some way in distinguishing lamellirostral from other paeng, and other inc of its application mig e cited." The exception doubtless referred to in the italicized portion of the above extract occurs in the Pygopodes, which is an (artificial 2 mete of altricial and præ- cocial types. On this basis the **ord gopodes would be divided, the altricial Alcide and Peste Ae associated with the Altrices as he est members of that series, and the Colymbide and Podicipide s the Steganopodes and the altricial Pygopodes. 'The Lamellirostres would head the proecocial or lower series, followed = the Colymbide and Podi- cipide Finally, a word in regard to one or two other systems. Birds, more other class of po uui being fitted to live more or less ex- cus cal in either the air, the water, or on the land, the duties of repro- duction alone ae ni ‘eae indispensable to some of them, different odes and degrees of locomotion, with corresponding differentiations of the locomotive organs, are required to adapt them to their several modes of life. But facts go to prove that such modifications have not neces- verse of all this, till gradually the wings become functionally abortive, and the sternum a smooth buckler. An exclusively walking or swimming bird (a non-flying bird), with a largely developed sternal crest would be ' an anomaly in nature; and a flying bird, especially one preéminently strong of wing, without a highly produced sternal crest, would be appar- ently an impossibility. Hence the propriety of founding subclasses prin- cipally upon the presence or absence of such a sternal character — as it is well known has been done — seems at least highly questionable. Again, 152 REVIEWS. webbed feet, which usually accompany a swimming or aquatic mode of ave been erroneously accorded a similar importance in classification. Yet the altricial ase the Laride especially, and preéminently the ridine, have the most positive affinities with the Raptores, of which features may be i of groups next above families, modifications of the locomotive organs can hardly be considered as a proper basis for subclass or even ordinal divisions.— THORELL’S elidel SPrpERs.* — The character and extent of this work, which is invaluable to students of spiders even in this country, can not be better stated than in the words of the author (pages 18 and 19): “I have first made up a systematical € or review of the vested rni subfamilies -— genera es fies ico spiders 5 recognized y me. Each generic name is accompanied by the t: he etym ological, ‘derivation, its synonyms and the name of the pun that typifies the genus; and J y Ihav thought appropriate. m description of the form and armature of the ‘tarsal and alpal ci aws, which organs have not e head of each family I have in- troduced a — neu Bh of the characteristics of the subfamilies and genera x —— rises. al "m PADS tion of ea eyes and the form of the organs of the mouth, partly because such distinctive fea- Wt easily verified, Party: becanae they are most spree di (often too exclusively) used. But ye also endeavored to nis use of the different forms and numbers of the spinners, of diferen ces » the — — a mber +1 claws on the tarsi, ete. agire only to one ser id leaving the other undetermined, I have not adopt ted, but consider that they ought to unreservedly rejected. I ought to call especial attention to the circumstance, that exotic forms have not been taken into consideration in the formation of these schematic reviews, which accordingly asa ass) z una. The characteristics of et sub-orders, as they cannot be expressed in a few words, and indeed may be considered as generally known, I have not thought it darc to repeat, but — » or tem to e. g- Latrellle's, "Sundevall’s, Westring’s and Ohlert’s wor with which I have — ps treatise, I hav included all the works known to me on now existing European spiders, of a descriptive, $ ae atical and zoo-ge al character, with the exception of such idit as belong to the prz-Linnean period, of which only a small number of works, referred to in the following itted.” The catalogue contains the nep of Das "i hundred works, ar- ranged Aga sai tically, according to hor A a discussion of the vic et 2 hse nomenclature and à adii of those which he has followed, the author proceeds to review in land," sat. Ba ugene Simon's * Histoire Naturelle des Araignees," and to compare the spider fauna of Scandinavia with that of Great Britain and Ireland. In regard to the classification of the spiders, he says: pee Nee Nae ce MEUM EE * On European Spiders. By T. Thorell, Partl. Upsala, 1869-70. 4to. pp. 242. REVIEWS. * Whether we endea 1 T from ud group bends is looked upon a as the — perfect down YY het} 753 avor to arra 2 genera of spiders in a continuous series, to the lowest, or vice-versa, or principle, we are soon met by the same dif- ficulties, ican 1 present shemecty, es, w "henever we endeavor to arrange in sucl el LAST A fi h 3 ith f H EH E Xe reasons for the or em " of arrangement we we hope, easily be seen if one casts one's eye $ ri à en h wil e accompanying diagram, whic view of oe SOSE founded « on ra agit, w Pied the families of the spiders piae by ng Fig. 177. gi hrynoidz. Opiliones. I. Orbitelarix IV. Territelariz. 1. Epeiroide. 12. Theraphosoida, ir, Retitelariz. 13. Liphistioidx. 2. Theridioidx, 14, Catadys soidz. 3, Scytodoidze v. Laterigrad:e 4, Enyoida 15. Thomisoidz. LI. Tubitelariz. vi. Citigradz. 5. Urocteoi 16. Lycosoidze 6. Omanoide. _ lr. Oxyopoid2 7. Hersilionide. VII. Saltigradz. 8. Agalenoidz 18. Myrmecionidz, Drassoidz. 19. ane ome 10. Dysderoidæ, 2 Dinopoi ll, Filostatoidze. Ere solde 2 Atto In a note, the author expresses his belief with Darwin, that ** propin- quity of descent is the hidden connection which our classifications at- work closes with a list of the genera of fossil spiders found in Europe, compared with living genera è AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 154 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. GEOGRAPHY AND ÁRCH/EOLOGY OF Peru.* — While in England recently, Mr. Squier was induced by his friends to reprint in pamphlet form the paper which he read before the American Geographical Society in Feb- ruary last. We gave an abstract of that portion of the lecture which re- lated to the Archeology of Peru in the NATURALIST for September; but did not allude in our former notice, and will well repay reading by all in- terested in this great centre of a prehistoric nation. NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. ZOOLOGY. edem i AND ANCESTRY OF THE KING Crass. — In a communica- tion to the Boston Society of Natural History, Oct. 17, 1870, Dr. A. 8. Pa Pub p stated that a study of the embryology of Limulus, as well as its anatomy, led him to consider, as eed authors had done, from Savigny and Van der Hoeven down to the present time, the anterior di- vision of the body as a cephalothorax, the posterior division being the abdomen. Latreille, Milne-Edwards, and more recently Mr. Henry Wood- ward, ¢ the distinguished paleontologist, have regarded the anterior divi- pet previous to moulting a ko in the egg, the abdomen was : i á of six segments) are wen and sie only the eyes, simple and compound, but all the ambulatory appendages, which surround the mouth and are true maxillipeds, no antenne or thoracic appendages being developed. This region contains the stomach and a considerable portion of the intes- tine, and the liver, which opens into the intestine near the middle of the cephalothorax, sending but a single pair of biliary tubes into the abdo- terior half of the dorsal vessel, with two pairs of arteries and two pairs of valvular openings, is situated in the cephalothorax. the Geography and Archmology of Peru. By E. G. Squier, M.A., F.S.A. ete. verlosen xum Trubner & Co., 1870. (Price 25 cents. Address Naturalists, Agency.) f On some Points in the Structure of the Xiphosura. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London for Feb. 1867, NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 155 Lastly, the genital openings in both sexes are situated on the flrst pair of abdominal lamellate Fle the testes and ovaries lying wholly in the cephalothorax; the ovaries, when distended with eggs, filling up the front of the sins dena racic shield The abdomen consists of nine sessio, the long spine-like telson forming the ninth, as seen plainly in the embryo. e abdominal cavity is small, the abdomen being very thin, and mainly filled with the muscles attached to the lamellate feet. There are, then, in Limulus, no thoracic feet, comparable with those of the Decapods and the Tetradecapods, and the thoracic region (as much of it as exists), is merged with the head, in fact never becoming pee m from the head proper. Thus we have in Limulus a crusta- TAX rum potential, viewed externally, with no M or segments to indicate its existence) and a nine-jointed abd This disposition of the body-segments is vrac iil by the zoéa, or young, of the Decapods. In the freshly hatched zoéa the body is divided into two regions; the cephalothorax, with no trace at first of thoracic nts, Oo deciduous maxillipeds), the thorax not being yet omg and a five-to-seven-jointed Aia The size of the cephalothorax, com- pared with the abdomen, —— greatly in the different forms at Zoés hinder portion of the cephalothorax, thus proving our statement that the cephalothorax of Limulus, and consequently the so-called **head" of Eurypterus and Piéryites, nidore, a head with a potential thorax, the latter never becoming differentiated in subsequent moults. In the Trilobites, however, according to the late discovery of Mr. Bill- ings, the thoracic segments bearing jointed feet are developed; though, as shown by Barrande, the larval trilobite is hatched either without any, or but a single, thoracic segment. Limulus, Eurypterus, Pterygotus, e ite D on the ancestry of the members of the subclass * of Bran- chiopoda, he would trace them all to a common Nauplius form, as Haec- kel, p Müller, and Dohrn had done. This Nauplius form may have exi n the Laurentian Period, as we already find highly organized eiia. Phyllopods, and Ostracodes in the lowest Silurian strata. He d vs his communication to the American Association he has spoken of the pig opoda itis he regarded tl the Peeciloptera z as a suborder, he thought the te da, etc., they were aus more general, groups than me orders of Vertebrates first limited by Linnæus, whose idea of H f uniformity, gum as the term family should be applied In the sense in which Latreille used it. 156 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. suggested that the modern Phyllopods, such as Apus and E cent certain Silurian Copepoda and Os da e accounted ori of these forms rather by a process of acceleration and retardation of development as suggested by Messr Cope* an att,ł involv- intermediate generic forms as we do not find i or fossil. He also thought that the study of the facts of Dimor phism and Parthenogenesis, and the mode of production of the more remarkable sexual differences among animals, would throw light on a comprehensive theory of evo- lution. NCESTRY OF INSECTS. — Referring to his discovery of Pauropus in this country, and mentioning the six-legged form of the young, and its resemblance to Podura, and comparing it with the Hexapodous young of Julus and the young of certain mites, Dr. Packard, at the same meet- ing, referred the ancestry of the Myriapods, Arachnids, and Hexapodous Nauplius fo ong Crustacea, inasmuch as the body is not differentiated into a head, thorax or abdomen, and there are three pairs of temporary appen e Nauplius, which was first supposed dage Lik to be an adult Etioniltricsii: the larval form of Trombidium, had been described as a genus of mites under the name of Leptus (also Ocypete and Astoma) and was supposed to be adult. For this primitive, ancestral form he proposed the term Leptus. He suggested that the ancient Leptus may have descended through Demodex from some Tardigrades, and that this latter group had perhaps descended y parallel line of descent through some Leptiform Silurian insect resem- bling the young of Stylops, Meloe, and low neuropterous or orthopterous larve, and the Thysanura, such as Podura and Lipura. He did not regard the insects as having been evolved either from a zoéa o r Nauplius form, but would refer the ancestry of both classes e Insects and Crustacea), testem of each other, to the worms (Annulata MONTEREY IN THE DRY SEASON. — On ders to the coast from the Colorado AES in May, 1861, my health impaired by the tropical heat of he last two months at Fort Mojave, and by the too sudden change to the emi climate of the coast, I was glad of the opportunity of recruiting it by some weeks devoted to collecting marine animals, etc., at Monterey. * Origin of Genera. ee 1868, ` f Parallelism betw e order and individual ie the i Fotarto Cephalopods. Me- of the Boston Fel of Natural History. and AMERICAN NATURALIST, Vol. 4, NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 757 Leaving, therefore, my military companions at San Diego, I travelled o San Francisco by land, picking up about forty species of Mollusca at points along the southern coas My preparations for dredging, determining my collections, and describ- w bra h 26th, ponens and SOR E eae shore chiefly Mollusca, but not lecting other animals. The additional species collected were thirty- jak of de. one gare 2d. seventy-five Mollusca (thirty new spe- glaucus Cope), it was impossible to obtain measurements and of them as they were always cut up while floating, pes the mutilated carcasses when washed ashore were deprived of ‘flukes " and other essen- tial parts, besides smelling so strong that the odor for gm was almost unbearable. The land mammalia were chiefly very distinct from those of Fort Mojave, as is naturally to be expected in comparing a well-wooded, fertile region with an almost barren desert. The rizzly Bear was quite com- quadrupeds, well known as Californian, are doubtless to be obtained by peas and more thorough search than I could make. I got two small s, the representatives of species to be found at Fort Mojave, viz: the poca Wood-rat (Neotoma fuscipes), and Wood-mouse (Hespero mys gp also one of a genus not found there, ‘cap ead Field-m ola edax The sad ASSA land birds were the Vulture (Cathartes Califor- nianus), the Pigmy Nuthatch (Sitta pigmea), western variety of the Yel- e i tris na Humming-bird (Althis Anna), Heermann's Song Sparr w (M. Heermanni), Californian and Brown Finches (Pipilo megalonyx a fuscus), while a few seen there only in winter or spring were here breeding, viz: the Black Pewee (Sayornis nigricans) Dwarf ida (Turdus nanus), West- 158 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. ern Bluebird (Sialia Mexicana), Barn and Cliff Swallows (Hirundo horreo- rum and lunifrons), Bewick’s Wren (Thriothorus Bewickii), Parkmann’s Wren (Troglodytes Parkmanni), Oregon Snow-bird (Junco Oregonus), Chippy (Spizella socialis), while a longer residence would no doubt largely increase all these lists. I must however remark that all these, ex- cept the second, fifth, and twenty-first, are also summer residents as far south as San Diego, and the three exceptions are probably so in the high mountains east of there. This shows the remarkable uniformity of the fauna, corresponding to that of climate, in zones running parallel to this coast for distances of over five hundred miles. Of water-birds I observed a few of interest. The whale fishery attracted several species usually seen only far off shore, of which the enormous Petrel or **Gong" bres dt i gigantea), could often be seen swimming lazily near the try-works to pick up scraps of blubber, some- times accompanied by the dusky yo Mn of the Short-tailed Matra (Diomedea brachyura) The Pacific Fulmars (F. pacificus), called by the Tager rocks along shore. On the 12th, saw small Grebes le Praes icus), probably lately come from their breeding station; and by t 8th, families of about five each, became common. Ont sth, I first iria the large Grebe (P. donema but as I left next day i saw no more of the arrival of winter visitors. I need not here particularize the common Sandpipers, have — to say about them when describing my winter collections made at San D ats are not common at Monterey, on account of the coolness of the summer climate, fogs obscuring the sun for at least half the summer. I found but two species, the large Ridge-back Lizard oie multi- carinatus), and a Plestiodon, both common in woods from here northward. Batrachia however are well suited by the damp climate, as besides Frogs (Rana sp. and Hyla regilla), and Toads (Bufo halophila?), I found a Sal- amander (Batrachoseps attenuatus) even at this extreme of the dry season, not uncommon I will not ípébtty the thirty species of fishes obtained, as most of them have no peculiar English names and the list would be of little interest to general readers. — J. G. COOPER. THE Rovan D PELICAN ON Lake Huron. — On the evening of the 15th of June, ioi a most remarkable specimen of the rough-billed peli- ecanus orhynchus Gmelin) was shot by Captain Oliver Mai- in the marsh at Sarnia, Lambton County, Ontario (Canada). NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. _ 159 This bird is very rare on the great lakes, e the individual in question, which was of the male sex, was of unusually large size. It weighed thirty-three pounds, and the expanded in measured in full one hun- dred and eight inches! The bill from the eye was sixteen inches in length, being of a dirty yellow or yellowish brown. The plumage was almost pure white, with the exception of the alula; primary coverts, and l at I have seen no mention of in the description of this species, that over each eye was a group of small feathers of a brownish black color, this species is Kait d as having at the season of reproduction. In Baird, —— and Lawrence's ** Birds of North America," this peli- can is mentioned as breeding ‘‘in the fur countries, generally selecting TAREA places in the neighborhood of water falls;" and as be m [o gh and Middle States ;" and as also inhabiting **throughout the Rocky Moun- tains and California." The same work gives the stretch of wings as seventy inches, and length of bil 13.50, while much smaller specimens are recorded. Mr. James Hobson, who mounted our specimen, and who is of much experience in this direction, having received several of this species from Florida and elsewhere, says he never before saw so large a pelican; n. dence of over twenty years in the region of the great lakes, I had not previously met with the pelican, nor had I heard of more than three in- stances of its having been captured within their limits. The marsh at Sarnia is an inlet or overflow of the river St. Clair, near its head, and about one mile from the south shore of Lake Huron. The from the northward, from the direction of the lake. Onthe morning of the 14th it flew back to Lake Huron, but returned in the evening of the same day, remaining till shot on the following evening, as before stated. It was very active, wandering over the marsh all day, swimming about, or only rising for a short flight, and alighting again in the water. to say there were no fish found in its pouch; only a few small worms and insects. — HENRY GILLMAN, Detroit, Michigan. p or Hawks. — Do hawks migrate in pairs only, or do they te in flocks and separate into pairs as they arrive at their breeding ion In 1856 my attention wae called = genta a number of hawks that were diving, higt in the air (as they commonly do in the spring when pairing) and passing to the north-east. Not making any note of the occurrence I cannot give the exact number or date. It was early in the spring, and there must have 760 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. been twenty or more. Early in April, 1860, I — a similar migra- tion when the number in sight at one time was about fifty. A friend of mine in an adjoining MN who is a very careful ap accurate observer, asked me a short time since if I ever saw a flock of hawks? He said that early this spring seam about the last of a or the first of April when passing over his farm with his two sons, his attention was attracted by the screaming of hawks, and on looking up the air seemed to be filled with them. ey attempted to count them. but found it somewhat diffi- cult to be perfectly accurate, as the birds were constantly in motion, diving and screaming and passing northward, yet they counted seventy- three in sight at one time. In both of the flights which I witnessed, and also in that seen by Mr. S. and his sons, the hawks were not in flocks ac- cording to the common acceptation of the word flock, but were in pairs, or groups of about four usually, all passing in the same direction, north- ward. Having never read in our works on natural history, of suc Nes ami passing at one time, I give these facts, hoping to call the atten- tion of our ornithologists to them, and draw out from them any observa- tions which they have made on the subject. — WM. Woop, M.D., East Windsor Hill, Connecticut. ScuppEr’s Work ON New ENGLAND BUTTERFLIES. — Illness in my family has thus far prevented my completing the work on New England Butterflies announced some time since in these columns. "This delay has, print enabled me to extend the original plan of the book much more fully n was anticipated. I gnat take this opportunity of thanking my many friends and corres- ‘pondents for the"c ordiality with which they have seconded my under- se ea When it is known that such memoranda have already been arum from ninety different persons, covering a period of observation of from one to ten years, and, in the case of some butterflies, including as many as one hundred and fifty or two hundred notes for a single spe- cies, it is not too much to say that we shall arrive at a degree of exacti- tude upon the history, seasons, and riche darioa z our but- terflies, which we have not hitherto enjo the hope of gaining still tigan nale on these points, I should be pleased to receive notes made by any observers during the season of 1870; descriptions of habits, d of flight and of posture would be os of incorporating in a work on the butterflies of New England and vicinity many forms not mentioned in previous lists of New England species, I beg all persons interested to send me the fullest possible notes, as well as examples of the early stages of the following species (most of these - have — or never been known to occur in oie England; where the re italicized, specimens of the imago are desired for examina- tion): irns Marcellus, Pieris Virginiensis, P. anii Callidryas Eubule, NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. : 161 Colias Labradorensis, C. Keewaydin, C. Eurytheme, Terias Lisa, Xanthid- ium Nicippe, Anthocaris Genutia, Nymphidium dorsale, Lycæna violacea, L. Pembina, L. ee Thecla Ontario, T. Clothilde, Euptoieta Claudia, Melitea Batesti, Apatura Clyton, Grapta Dryas, G. Fa bricii, G. interroga- tionis, Libythe a Bachmanii, Saty yres areolatus, yor teary Jutta, Nisonia- des Lucilius, N. Horatius, N. Virgilius, N. Mart , N. Icelus, Hudamus Bathyllus A epar E. ga Be Hesperia oles H. Wingi H. via- lis, H. Monoco, H. Hianna, H. Mesapano, H. Delaware, H. Phylæus, H. Wyandot, aen uA Hur Persons possessing secu their collections and memoranda any precise data, however meagre, for determining the respective times of appear- ance of the different buch: of Grapta and Nisoniades, as recently dis- p n will be given in every instance. ters, memoranda and specimens, sent to my address at the Society of zen History, Ber apo pedes Boston, ie March 4th, 1871, will = forwarded thence to me in season for incorporation in my book. manuscript n soon be kao It will form an imperial oe ie m four to five hundred pages, and be illustrated by chromolitho- graphic ies in a style which, judging from specimens prepared, has never yet been equalled, even in Europe.-— SAMUEL H DE: CALLIDRYaS Evusute Linn.— This large Pierian butterfly was taken by me at New Bedford, Mass., Aug., 31st. Mr. Sanborn, who has seen the specimen, speaks of it as the first one of the kind observed in New Eng- land, or at least in Massachusetts. H. W. PARKER. . S. I. Smith informs us that he has taken this insect abundantly at Fire Island, Long Island, N. Y., during the past summer.] — Ep MEPHITIS BICOLOR. — Since my note in the August N: ATURALIST Was written, on the occurrence o of this species in Iowa, I have obtained an- other skin in Grinnell, Iowa, and still another in Des Moines, from a dealer in pelts, who informs me that he bought at least fifty skins of the that the species may be found even in central New York. Dr. S. J. Parker, of Ithaca, N. Y., has twice seen by the roadside, in that region, a small, many-striped skunk, very different from the common one.—H. W. ARKER. o Motes. — The Shrew Mole (Scalops Canadensis) h been A Weeds abundant for a few years past in Essex county, Ms. fi c Thes brava in Miculy cultivated gardens. The shrew usus is seldom seen above ground, but burrows with celerity below its surfac The Star-nosed Mole frequents the same moist neg Wie like the AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IV. 96 162 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. shrew mole, it finds its favorite food, such as earth-worms, grubs, etc. In procuring its food it makes extensive and numerous burrows, above unsightly and difficult to cultivate. Now there is a beautiful bird designed by nature to prevent the increase of these noxious animals from becoming excessive in places frequented by the mole. It is the woodcock (Scolopax minor), whose death is delayed until the 15th of August by a law of the State, after which time there will probably be a general attack made upon them with the gun. It is observable what a difference there is in the appearance, in some localities, occupied by the above mentioned animals. A friend told me à few days since that it was difficult to mow a piece of his land last year on account of the many piles of earth thrown up by the moles. This year the surface of his land is smooth, and I have passed several times this summer by the place and have frequently heard, or flushed the woodcock feeding there in the dusk of evening.— AUGUSTUS FOWLER, Danvers, August 14, 1870. TURKEY BUZZARD. — On page 875, current volume, J. L. B., in a para- graph on this bird, inquires **Can a Turkey Buzzard be deceived by his experiments by Mr. Audubon and Dr. Bachman, made nearly forty years since, as related by the former in his ** Ornithological Biography,” Vol. ii, age 33, should settle these questions. I think, then, that it may be safely assumed that both the Turkey Buzzard (Cathartes aura) and the Black Vulture (Cathartes Jova) are practically incapable of distinguishing odors, and select their food by the sense of sight alone; and also that they feed upon fresh, as readily as upon putrid, flesh. As the old error on this subject seems to be perpetuated no doubt toa considerable extent, and as that great work is rare, at least in private libraries, might not the whole, or at least a part of the paper to which I have referred, prove in- teresting to your readers? — J. D. Caton, Ottawa, Illinois, Aug. 22, 1870. Bucks. — Mr. H. H. Bromley, proprietor of the Chasm House near Keeseville, has given me an account of the spike horns that . is confirmatory of ** Adirondack's " statements, and also shows that the variety extends farther south in the Adirondack region than heretofore stated Mr. Bromley was for six years the landlord of the Hotel at Franklin Falls, located on the Saranac River, about thirty miles southeast of e and the region mentioned by “ Adirondack." When he first went into this region, eight years ago, he was told about the spike horned bucks which were them common and well known to all the hunters and trappers in the Saranac region. During his residence at Franklin Falls, NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 163 he shot several spike horns, and one at least was a large buck of four years if not of five, and was so considered by several old hunters. In this specimen one of the horns was slightly forked at the end, but the other was a simple slightly curved spike. Mr. Bromley says that any old hunter of the Saranac region would laugh at the idea of all the spike horns being young bucks of two or three years, and he states that they can be recognized by their shorter legs, as well as by their spike horns. Mr. Bromley thinks that the spike horns have increased in numbers over the branched horns, and that in spite of the extensive hunting are about as abundant as when he first went into the woods. — F. W DeEr’s Horns. — It is a well known fact that the horns of deer are but very seldom found in the woods, even in districts where the deer are very plenty. Several ways of accounting for their disappearance have been suggested, but the cause that seems to be the best substantiated is that under the snow in early spring. In confirmation of this theory Mr. H. Bromley of Keeseville, N. Y., has informed me that he once found a deer's horn in the woods that had been partly gnawed, and had been nearly eaten through in two places by mice. — F. W. P. SINGULAR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE HORNBILLS DURING THE BREEDING SEASON. — No sooner has the hen commenced the labor of in- cubation, say several trustworthy observers on this subject, than the male walls up the hole in the hollow tree in which the hen is sitting on her eggs, until there is only room for the point of her bill to protrude, so that until her young birds are hatched she remains confined to her nest, and is in the meantime assiduously fed by her mate, who devotes himself species, but is also spoken of by Dr. ngstone in the case of hornbills met with during his African uidi and there appears to be no doubt of its authenticity. In Sumatra, in 1862, Mr. Wallace heard the same story from his-humters, and was taken to see a nest of the concave- casqued hornbill, in which, fter the male bird had been shot while in the act of feeding its mate, the female was discovered walled up. **With a young one, lbpareatly not — days old, add a most remarkable pie It was about the size of a half-grown duckling, but so flabby and semi-transparent as to resemble a bladder of jelly, furnished with head, legs, and rudimentary wings, but with not a sign of a feather, ex- cept a few lines of points indicating where they would come.” — Nature. ———' dl GEOLOGY. THE MEGATHERIUM AND ITS ALLIES. — The law of adherence to type, or pattern, in the skeletons of the Megatherium, cri perde and Mylo- don, extinct animals of the sloth tribe, ~~ o be illustrated in a remarkable manner in the following particulars: 164 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. First. — In the great size, weight and solid condition of the bones of the s; gk and in their want of FIRGRIAEX. aaa: ond. — In the number, arrangement, 272, mode and unlimited growth of iir teeth; in their deep insertion into the jaws; their deeply exca- vated base; in the structure of their teeth, when viewed as organs, — made up of a cylinder of vascular dentine, dentine and cementum, and more particularly in the striking "e of their organization when examined under the microscope; t f the Megatherium and Mylodon being aput ly the same, with ^s «citta of the looped canals or tubules in the cementum, as figured by Prof. Owen in the article Odon- tography, i in the ** Encyclopædia Britannica." ird. — The bones of the skull resemble each other strongly in the Fin development of the cells of the diploé, which in their general ap- pearance resemble wood eaten through and through by the largest sized worms; and in the shortness of the face. The alveoli of the two jaws correspond in number, position and relative depth, with the exception of Megalonyx, which has its first molar in the upper and lower jaw sepa- rated from the other teeth and taking the usual place of the canine or is: teet Fourth. ii he bones of the chest and trunk have, in general, a strong resemblance in size and form, especially the ribs in size, the scapula in form, the expanded ilia, and the clavicles. 'The bones of the hand and arm have a marked family likeness — the radius and ulna of Megathere and Megalonyx, the humerus of Megalonyx and Mylodon in particular, and in all the genera in the broad expansion of the external and internal condyles of the humerus for the origin of the supinator and pronator mus- cles. The differences between these in outline and form from that o Moiktherüsi will be hereafter alluded to. Fifth. — The number and size of the bones in the tail of Megatherium and Mylodon, and the use to which this appendage is put, appear to be precisely the same, making with the posterior extremities a most stable tripod for the support of these animals while reaching for their food. DERE we hé wood and massive vica of the Megatherium = as figured in Leidy's ** Memoir’ and | in the ** Penny Cyclopedia " and Snes antes a Britannica,” this bone in the prices: appears not to be so o flattened n front, but this. e ania resemblance in form to that of Mylodon, but it is not united in either of these animals (making as it were one bone) as in Megatherium The bone syed pei extinct animals differ somewhat: i e general outline of the lower jaw of. Megniberium, espe- cially that of ide Cuvieri from South America; less so, however, in that part where the teeth are implanted in the N. American Megathere, and n its anterior prolongation. Second.— The skulls of Megalonyx and Mylodon, looking at them either from above or below, differ somewhat, especially in their width; NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. 165 this difference, however, may be the result simply of the displacement forwards of the first molar, as appears to be the case with some varieties muscle arises. The bone in Megathere at this point, viz., on ei of the insertion of the deltoid, being broad and flat, while, in Megalonyx and Mylodon especially it forms, with a marked prominence on the out- side of the bone, a large hollow surface looking outward and backward, for the origin of the external part of the muscle, and which large and deep groove seems to have been filled up by it. The distal extremity of is int all probability the nerve and artery passed in their course to the forearm. Fourth.— The astragalus of the Megalonyx, Dr. Leidy says ** bears much whole weight of the leg upon the inner side of the foot." Fifth.— The cubitus of Mylodon, as figured by Dr. Harlan, very slightly resembles either that of Megathere or Megalonyx. From the few facts above stated, it would be unwise to draw hasty con- clusions, and if the three genera have a common parentage it would be difficult to say to which genus the first pair belonged. Are there not, Hipparion, Anchitherium and Equus, which have been brought forward by Professor Huxley in confirmation of Mr. Darwin's hypothesis ? marked Boston. No less marked will appear the mechanism of the elbow joint in all the genera of these digging animals, and the upper or mashing surface of their teeth, so characteristic of all the Megatheroid tribe — the sur- face presenting at one time ‘‘a transverse sulcate plane, at another, ex- cavated in the midst, with prominent margins." — H. €. PrRkINS, M.D. THE TERTIARY BEDS OF THE AMAZON. — Up to December, 1867, no fos- sils had been observed in the peculiar variegated clay formation which overspreads the great valley of the Amazon. At that time I was sojourn- ing with my friend Hauxwell at Pebas, where I discovered a multitude of 166 NATURAL HISTORY MISCELLANY. fossil shells exposed in the fine section made by the Ambiyacu just before t reaches the Marafion. These shells were examined by Gabb, who explore for other localities, being sure they would be found. He soon re- rted a similar deposit thirty miles below Pebas on the south side of the Marañon, about one hundred and twenty miles west of Tabatinga, where spe larger kinds. Out of half a bushel of specimens which he sent me, this is the result arrived at by our eminent paleontologist, Mr. Conrad. Not one species was found in the whole collection which is now living; indi- extinct, belonging to genera only three of which are now represented. st numerous species seems to be the iene (Pachydon) obli- quus. In the whole collection there is but one land shell (Bulimus), and ip one decidedly fresh-water species (Hemisinus). The great majority belong to a genus which was especially abundant in the early Tertiary, and lived in brackish water. This agrees perfectly with my theory of the e ereated the Orinoco and Paraguay, it was gradually freshened by the in- flux of the fresh-water streams from the surrounding highlands, and gradually emptied into the Atlantic by the co ontinued rise of the Andes. The fossils were found in the heart of the valley interstratified with the colored laminated clays which I had traced from Curary on the Rio Napo down to the Lower Amazon, and which Agassiz affirms is a glacial de- moving over the whole plain. 'This is mere assertion, for he found not one positive evidence. Besides, there are strong biological and physical sil the least abrasion; a glacier would have ground them to powder. Con- rad says they must have lived and died in the vicinity of the spot where they now occur so abundantly.—JAMES Orton, Nov. 15, 1870. Leap Mines or Missouri. — Mr. G. C. Broadhead read a paper before the St. Louis Academy of Science € October, entitled ** Notes on the Geology of Cole County, Missouri. He mentions that the Magnesian limestone series, which include the rich mineral deposits of Missouri, occur in Cole County, and that the rich Galena lead mines are in the lower beds of the second Magnesian limestone. At Fowler's mines he noticed , zinc, - heavy spar; the latter in very clear amber-colored crystals and in blue lamellar forms Marks OF ANCIENT GLACIERS ON THE PacrFic Coast.— Dr. Robert Brown dissents from the theory of an entire absence of glacial remains proper on the Pacific slope of the Rocky Mountains, stating that the NOTES. 161 northern drift is present in Vancouver Island and British Columbia, ** in as marked a manner as ever I saw it in countries celebrated for the pres- ence of such remains.’ He finds rounded hills, trap bosses, rounded rocks, and grooves, while the whole country is strewn with erratic boulders. Great masses, sixty to one hundred tons in weight, are found scattered everywhere over the island (Vancouver) from north to south, and through the region lying on the western slope of the Cascade Mountains. *' Grooving and other un- F — pipes near the boundary line of Alaska. — American Journal of BOULDERS IN ANCIENT TrMES. — In a communication made to the Acad- emy of Sciences of Vienna, M. Boué remarked on the accumulations of boulders in secondary deposits and in the sandstones and conglomerates of the tertiary period. These accumulations have been explained either placements, or by aqueous eruptio The most ancient of these blocks are found in the older parie sandstone. They have been traced between Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, and in the latter; but nowhere though he could not admit, as some geologists have, that the glaciers have hollowed out the basins of the lakes, or had existed in the course of al- most all geological periods. — Cosmos. Dr SCOVERY RESPECTING hen OLITHS. . Gümbel, of Munich, erto been didcaveród. He finds that the organic remains of these minute animals are left as a residuum after the matrix in which they occur has been heated with highly-diluted acetic or hydrochloric acid. NOTES. students or recent grids of the College. The main object of pans ex- 168 NOTES. pedition was to investigate the extinct vertebrate fauna of the Tertiary and Cretaceous deposits of the Rocky Mountain country, and the general plan adopted was to make several separate trips, of one or two hundred miles north or south of the Pacific r aliroa d, to regions that were unex- plored, or had never been carefully exam ned. The first of these was made early in ped from Fort McPherson in Nebraska to explore the Pliocene deposits along the Loup Fork river. Here rich collections of fossil vertebrates were obtained, and several new — of extinct mammals and birds discovered. The next expedition made in August, from Fort D. A. Russell in Wyoming, to €— ien geology of the country between the north and south Magie: of t Platte river. Onthistrip the Mauvaises Terres or ** Bad land " Paire with the true Titanotherium and Oredon beds was discovered in Colorado, remains obtained were also PM and included several species of extinct mammals and birds, new to science. he third expedition was made DEN Fort Bridger, Wyoming, in Sep- tember and October, to examine the geology of the Eastern Uintah Mountains, and the country between the Green and White rivers. In this region interesting geological discoveries were made, and many new Tertiary vertebrate remains secured, which will soon i described by Professor Marsh. On their return, the party went to California, and spent a month in visiting various points of scientific interest; after which they came east to Denver, and thence to Fort Wallace, Kansas. Abou t two weeks were spent in exploring the Cretaceous beds of this vicinity, where some interesting reptilian and fish remains were obtained, and the party then returne The expedition as a whole was very successful, and the large collec- tions made will be placed in the Peabody Museum of Yale College. The more important scientific results will soon be published. apt. Wheeler, who explored in Nevada last year, has an expedition nén started or about to start. Mr. H. A. Green, late of the Illinois Geological Survey, is Geologist and Mineralogist. d Bischoff, who was an indefatigable member of the Scientific Corps the Western Union Telegraph Expedition, is to make the zoological police Capt. Wheeler is to ascend the Colorado Cafion from below with a steamer. His party will have abundant facilities for transportation, and the Com- mander is much interested in the scientific part of the work. Mr. P owell got an appropriation of $12,000 to make a second descent of the Cañon of the Colorado, and will do so some time this winter. He has alread been on to that part of the country, and arranged his details. Alto- gether the Cañon is in a fair way of being thoroughly explored. The French Académie des Sciences has held its sittings regularly since the beginning of the siege, and the Comptes rendus has been published regularly every week. — Nature. INDEX TO VOLUME FOUR. DE sense i rad , 690. Acalypha Virginica, 355 Acceleration, theory of, ‘932. Accipiter, 711. Acer, 2h Achorion e eg 343. Acidalia, 229 Acidaspis Whitfleldi, i 568. Acontia metallica, Vtde Luna, pr toe 52. Agaricus muscarius, 344. Alaria — EN 295. Alaska, ‘Albino edu: 58. Albino snow bird, 376. Albino barn swallow, 121. Tbino woodchuck, 252. a, 58. CI Amphiroa, 288. Anas boschas, 49. Anas obscura, 49. Andes, 358. Andi igena, 712. Androgynous inflorescence, 46, 355. Anemones, sea, two-mouthed, 256. An a, 391 Anomis xylina, 52. Anser, Tos Ant lion Apelte dae Oe s, 115. Aphrodederus, Sayanus, 105, 107, 719. A em rx ec a. Arcella. 379. cath gp Masc", 319. Arch aote rl Arctomys monax, 252. Areas of prese ogg. 4. Arion fuscus, 170 pm! Korn "d the South, 52. pvo xc em ‘Asteroceras, 233. AEN: ‘479. k, great, 57. Bas Bathybius, 50 reap a, skull of, 505. x Beaver, extin ct, 504. Bees, A tilization of ag by, 689. Belone lon ngi rostris, Bernicia; i idens ue santhemo des. 352. Bidens fr rmt p Bik ia, 313, m^ ill Binocular microscope, 573, 633, 695. Birds, classification of, 746. Birds of Alaska, irds of 37 365. lackbird, 52 Blood, hum man, 704. Bluefish, 519. Boleosoma Olmstedii, 113. Bone caves o Lo altar, 255. Cito ai, ot Borers, “hanes , geology of, 238. Brachiopoda, 510. hiopoda, position of, 314. aape a a 713. Brazil, carboniferous fossils of, 694. azil, i en of, 128. rustacea, 435. Bryo pais, Bryttus epia APE 102, 106. Garbontiecaas fossils, 190. Custodes Oben S of Brazil, 694. Catarrac Ca: me ag (769) 770 Cat-fish, 694. ertum A 8, 390 Chondriopeis Baileyana, 291. Chondrus crispus, Chorda filum. rior a anthemum, 392. Circus gA aa 377. Clathrus, 349. Goccohitia, ; 767. Cock of as Rock, 715. y Coane, sense organs of, en. Codiich, OIAR A, biguttatus, 229. Co ue rd a Coniferz, leave: Connecticut, penta reptiles of, 444. Corallina officinalis, 287. rals, ^ : Corals, development of, 39. Corn weevil, 6 Gabe. imo hism in, 616. Crab, H rseshoe, 257, 498. King, 25 7, 754. INDEX. Cyclostigma, 478. Cyprinus atr ‘omaculatus, 1H. Dadoxylon Dafila acuta, on Daisy, 392. Dakota, ee mammals of, 307. Darter, 113, 114 Dasya elegans, 291. Deer, 442, 7 Does. pad homed, 188, 762. n, 230. rphi ides npe in ng ee 55. Dimorphism in worms, 55. grandis, 254. ssa, 561 Docophorus buteonis, 93. Docopho x hamatus, 94. Dog, prai 316. ragon tly, m Dredging, ane sea, 464, 744. Drit Epi wr jo sea, in ihe Gulf stream, 38. 548 : eed, 311. Eagle, Msi rige D24. Easte Fro ay 'images in, 381. Echinocyst Kel pout, 951. Elacate, 694. rer, 588. | El pyet trix, Embryology of pens apre of artionlates; 122. jron amre Entomology ceonomical, 610. em En uator. glacial epoc "x 2 ; 566. Eremnetes pusill x , 303. : formation, 475. Eskimo Janguage, 581. ; . ‘Esquimo, 433. A. 74. Fascia in plants, 511. une, alterations in, 100. INDEX. TIL Fauna of the Alleghanies, 392. Goniocotes Burnetti, 94. Fauna of Lake Michigan, 403. Goniocotes hologaster, 94. Ferns, 121. Goniodes stylifer, 97. Fertilization of vin 08 Ur Graculus, 371. Fertilization of salvi : Graculus "Idahensis, 311. icus, 417. Grape insect, 614. Fis „ 127. Grape Fish culture et Gra pes 6 o foss “i, 6 Grass, bur, 682. Fishes of '" New Jersey, 99, 717. Premi “fertilization of, 239. Fishes of Florida, Gregar “ag Fishes, a of, 505. Grinnellia’ 3 Flesh fly, Grus "Hayden, 311. Flight of birds Ae insects, 439. Grystes, 6 Flora, arctic, 1 Gymnogo et, 290. Siom pii Gymnostichum Hystrix, 351. Flora of fambo Rd rts 91. Gyropus ovalis, 9 Flo = a of prairies, 5 Haddock, 518. Flora of shore d Lak ze Michigan. 355. Hemiatonines vituli, 93. Piece doao sea dredging off, 38. Hemuton, 694. Florida, fishes of, o = Halidrys siliqua, 293. Florida, pisces of, 5 Halimeda, c Flowers, alpi Hanburya, 413 la fertilized by insects, 242. Hawk, ny i, 439, 537, 559, 759. ansformations of parts of, 45. num organs 8 of, in insects, 127, 690. Ns cree . 339. Fly, black, 435. Hanas, 581. Fossil birds, 310. Heo 685. Flycatcher, 539. Helmitherus, 543. Fossil mammals of Dakota and Nebraska, ieee. 2D. in ron, 377, 550. Foss sil plan nts, 310. Herring, 520. Fowls, hybrid, 53. Hibernation of ig a 311. Fragaria, 4: Hirundo horreo Fragaria 'Gillmani, 312. : Hololepis, 8. Fraxinus Americana, 355. Hom ne! ae edusa, 229. Ix nerve contend of, 250. op, fish, 108. Hor e fly , 686. vite a 293. pee ,T Fulix marila, 49. Horse, fossil, 60 Fundulus multifasciatus, 105. gels I ngs of Humboldt Valley, 32. Fun "oe db ed Humboldt Valley, 27 Fungi in insects, 241. Humming bird, grt 576. Galeichthys, 694 yalina cellaris Gallinago, 547. Hyalonema, 17. Gallinula martinica, 253 Hybognathus osmerinus, 117, 718. Gambetta, 547. Hybrid Fowls, 53. 374, 375. anoid fishes, 127. Hybrid Rabbit, 375. l4. Hydrodictyon — 281. Gas in protopiasm; 379 Hylomys u^ M Geese, 374. Hyper Ppt i 37 : Hypsil n im j Geography of plants, 372 ypsuepsts. Gonos change, 444. Hypsilophodon, 103. ological survey of Iowa, 317 p yodectes, Geology, advances in, 449. hyosaurus, 127. Geology, orane cal, Idaho, 1 — te 641. - Geology o: Jolorado. 119, 767, 768. a, Geology of ndiana, erred eology of, eology of Mississippi Pu 193 Indian 80. logy of New 567, 619. Indians of C. liforn: Geology of New 1 Indian stone implements. 483. Geology of North Carolina, 570. Inflores , an 8, 355. logy of South Carolina, 571. Insecticide, 313. deg "Mis ari, oi, Tét, 768. Insecte dimorp oe init ca so gi Insects, fertilization of plants by, 242, 512. Germs, destroyed by boiling, 318. Glacial Epoch p arne 566, 765. ill ; OL. ac at: E Glacial Period 508. : Insects, organs of hearing. 1 = Glaciers, ancient 550, 560, 623, 765, 766, 767. D, oe d prd Glyptemys sculpta, 53. organs o: 112 INDEX. Insect parasite, 443. Melanura limi, 107, 385, 388. eig: bind, ies survey of, 317. Meleagris altus, 317. ur is iras e 371 r, pomarine, 253. Menura Taa Ja ‘weeds, $13. Me ephitia bicolór, 876, 761. Kallim cnr Mesoprion, 693. ia latifolia, 373. Mesoteras noh 128 King Crab, 498, 754. run lover, ing-fish, 6 0, New, salt "itt in, 695. Kinglet, 376, 542. Michigan, geology o € oe Kogia, pcd. t E jeune ur iron ore, Lakes, a ‘ge of Western America, 641.) Michigan, Lake, Pity water fauna of, 403, Miehizan’ Lake, ds 288; e flora of, 356. imals in , 465. Microleus Mg n Ire civ peered outlet of, 505. Micropogon, Lamprey, 719. Microp a 5 ped 2 Edwardsianus, 310. Meo 22, 445 Latex circulation of, 317. . Lathyrus, 418. Laurentian plants, 483. Lava ducts, 567. EN 105,107 Mississippi, delt Lecanium, 686. of, 6 L 2,911. Mississippi Valley, hec of, 193. — m Virginicum, 237. Missouri, fossil ne d n Lepidodendron, 479. Misso ouri , geolo; f, 65 Lepidoptera, DaDa of, 441. Missouri, reat moun ) pu Lepidosteus osseus, 114. Missouri, lead mines j Leptus, 756. Missouri, beacon d deposits in, 61. Lesbia, 712 Missouri river, geology of, 41. Lessoni $ Molacanthus estris Pomarinus, 57, 253 oles, Lichenine, 670. Mollusks, 16 Lichens, 665, 720. onohammus, 5 Lichia, 693. Monstrosity in Trillium, 125. Limbs, reproduction of, 376. erey, animals of, 7: Limax Sa a ts 170. Montrose sandstone, 563, 639. Limax ma 169, 170. Moo , 035. Limpets, 361. Morrhua zeglefinus, 517. Limulus, 257, 498, 754. rrhua Americana, 116, 516. v borer, 592. sauroid reptile, 62 T 520. Mougeotia, 281. tee Mound builders, 40, 461 Lipeurus aas. 95. Moxostoma, 389. ipeurus is, 95. Moxostoma oblongum, 113. Littorina litorea, 250. M y 115. sa, 407. Mulle : Muscles, striated, in mollusks, 691. T permum, 409. Mussel climbing, 331. Lota compressa, 251. Myiodioct E «Myriapod, 621. Lychen agrius, 343. Myrmeleo, 705. Lycoperdon, 347. Mysis, 404. baa 478. Mytilus Lycosa., sanea extinct mammals of, 307. : > ystis, Lyngbya, 283. anae salt marsh in, 567, - Tey i. Dm Eo omg bu acon gg M ird, . ew ven, geolo Nesecrsis, du J sey, bird UC A acrocy ew Jersey, fossil s ror dti ree ig 488. ew Jer: sey, ed water —— ob 99, 717. Mallophaga, New Mexico, geo of, 11 ls, 'Nirmus [ere vert z ; Menon. M 148, gm -— llum, 292. Man, antiquity —— geology of, 570. Man, anti wd x in in North America, 40. Man, paes poia dA. bate, Maple, 214. Nyetiardea, 550. Marsh harrier, 377. Oaks, 183, 242. » birds of, 365. Oidium fructi Mastodon, 457. Oidium Tuckeri, Maurandia, 409. On sandstone, = M , 163. Onoclea sensibilis, fossil, 237. Melania, 250. Oregon, fossils of, 647. Orthagoriscus, 629. Osmerus mordax, 108. Osprey. XP : Otolithu Pacific pedea m polyps, 488. P:edogenesis, 43 Palo otringa litoral, 310. Paleotringa vetus, Palm Parasites aa, 40. sser domesticus, 54. Passiflora, 417. Pauropus, h Pediculus. 6, 756 Pelasgic me tower, 8. Pelican, brown, 58. Pelican, rough-billed, 758. Pencillium 350. gy, 445. Ph ylophóra membranifolia, 290 ora Menziesii, 294. ts in, 511. Plante, fe ertilization. of, by insects, 512. red S dovere E of, 46, 126. Plants Piante vital force in, 312. nen ded zous 695. Pl Marien, OT. I — 572. n gi, 340. 8, 685. hus. Proioplasm, gis gas i in, 379. P INDEX. i18 Psilophyton, 476. Ptilota, 289. Punctaria, 296. ball, 347 Puffinus Cofiradi, 31 Pyranga sestiva, 56 Quaternary deposits in Missouri, 61. Rabbit, hybrid, 375. Raspberry beetle, 6 Rat, albino, 376. Reason in animals, 51. Red bird, summer, 56. Redhead, 693. Regina leberis, 375. Regulus, 542 Reproduction of limbs, 376. Reptiles, 444 Reptiles, fo. 562. Reptiles, mosasauroid, 62. Reptiles, skull of, 505. Rhinoceros Rh not Rhodome Rhus, ation p^ jg TRAN of, 689 Peona scabra, 555. Rissa, 369. Satao, 36 Sal Salt lakes Salt mud of Pikes nie: 567. Salt plains, 695. Salvia, fertilized by pees 689. Sand Saperda, Sargassum im baceiferum, 294. lui tend d Sar a, 43, 400. Seurocep bien. 695. Saurodontida, 695 Schinus, nr ag t in leaves of, 689. Sciences, relation of mice itam to. "biological, Sciurus Carolinensis, 58. Sciurus striatus, 249. Scoleco er me , 046. Scolithus Scomberesox r T 52. 114 Simulium, 435. Sitta, 546. Skunk, 316. Smell, 375. Smell, in insects, 690. € iom Sm Snakes, s double-headed. 375. per. Solanum "melon. ngena, 45. RM deep a, 463. Sparrow, 378. Sparro xo house, 54. peti variation of, 352. Spel Sp abe involucrata, 558. ales, 725. Squir "rel; 24: tà end, irritability of, 438. Staminody, 3 i Sosa implements, s. awberry, 312 x, 11i. Birlopida, 439. Sunfish, 102, rto y E "Tabanus, 686. Tamias striatus, 58 Tamus, ‘Tania, 288. Tasmanians, 380. Taxidermy, Telmatornis s, 311. Telmatornis priscus, 311 on -— = 519. Tem earth, 470. Teretulus, 39 Tertiary age, 450. hr Xm iof of Dakota an Nebraska, qot po "de Thalassiophyllnm, 294. 'Thelosc 540. INDEX. Tinder, A iles 562. Tricho got caprz æ, 96. : Trichodectes subrostratus, 96. Trout. brotes , impregnation of, 601. oo Valley, 27. t2 & qur Turri ites, 'Turtle, aroa, 53. Udotea, 285. EL Ustila 0, 343, 350. Vanel us cristatus, 310. Verteurnia. 5 504. Vine dresser, 614. agle, 524. Washington iid! AR lava ducts of, 567. Whale, 128; Spe White Mo utin, ‘ancient glaciers in, 550. White mountains, geology of, 567. Woodcoc Woodpecker, Lodbellied, 538. pecker, Lain headed, "s orms, dimorphism m in, 55. ** The leading men of science in America are among its contributors, and it is oae way worthy of the great nation which it is intended to interest and instruct.” — Quarterly Journal of tenes London n). 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