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AMERICAN NATURALIST.
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VoL. XXI. JULY isäz. No; 7.47

THE MILKWEEDS.
BY JOSEPH F. JAMES, M.S."

Were is there that has not noticed the sticky, whitish juice
which exudes on the breaking of the stem of the large
and common Milkweed growing so plentifully_in waste places —
and along roadsides? Who has not also noticed that neither
horses nor cattle ever touch the plant? While the herbage
all around will be closely cropped, often not a blade of grass
left more than half an inch high, the Milkweed rears its head
aloft in conscious pride of vantage. It well knows, apparently,
that it is not acceptable to the animals grazing about it, and
finds itself left to perfect its seed in peace and at leisure. It
has, perhaps, seemed strange to observe that the plant is so

‘little molested by cattle. It is, to be sure, rank and robust;

but that is not a sufficient reason for being rejected. The

_ great Horseweed grows higher and ranker, but is greedily
_ eaten by horses; and many weeds, apparently as little palatable,
are devoured. What is there about the Milkweed which gives

it an advantage over the other plants of the field? In this, as

in other cases, the common name tells the story; but it does

not tell why the milky juice, from which it has received its
name, is so abun:

In spite of the E about the. peacefulness of nature,
as contrasted with the warfare of mankind; no one can wander

through woods and fields without coming, in a short time, to

* Professor of Botany ang Geology} in i Miami University.
VOL. XXI.—NO. 7. 41

606 not The Milkweeds. ` > uya

the conclusion that the warfare there is even more severe than
it is with the human race, He will find that carnivorous animals

devour others weaker than themselves; birds feed on grass- |

hoppers and other insects; these again prey on others; and so |

the warfare continues down to the minute animalcule which can 4
be seen only under the microscope, and which swallows other —

creatures only a little smaller than itself. Not only so, but he

will find the Carnivora disputing with their own kind; wolves —

fighting with other wolves; birds contending with other birds

for the insects they need; and these in their turn fighting their i

own kind for nearly every mouthful of food. Everywhere he ~

will find war being waged continually; so that he must finally

come to the conclusion that nature is far sterner than man in :

the struggle for the means of living.
Perhaps he may think that in the animal world alone this war-
fare is going on; but if he turns to the vegetable kingdom with

the idea that here there can be no such struggle, a short time
will convince him of his mistake. He will not, indeed, as a

rule, see one plant devouring another in a literal sense; but he
will find one sort of tree crowding and pushing another, or
overshadowing smaller plants so that they cannot live; he will

see them in the fields so close together that he soon concludes —

they must take more or less moisture and nutriment from each
other; he will find the roots so crowded and matted together

that the soil is a mass of them; that here one plant has fastened ;
itself on another and is sucking its life away; and he will be
forced at last to give a reluctant assent to the assertion that

there is warfare among plants as there is among animals, and
that the difference is one not of kind, but of degree. This con-

stant, continual, fierce fight is the struggle for existence, in the —
course of which the fittest will survive. In other words, that —
plant or animal will be the most likely.to live and continue to _
propagate its species which can best succeed in crowding out —
some of its competitors, and in taking the Sorria they

need to itself.

It is for the purpose of carrying on this continual kata 4
that many structures have become developed. For instance,

the lion has had his strength increased and his retractile claws

a sharpened by the constant effort he is obliged to make to con- _
quer and carry off his prey. There can be no doubt but that —

a ee ae ae ee

ae

1887] The Milkweeds. 607

these claws have been acquired in the course of‘ ages, being
developed more and more fully as time went on. Neither can
there be any doubt but that they are now necessary for his
existence. So it is with all other weapons of defence or offence
that have been developed by use. Their principal purpose has
been to enable their possessor to live, and, as the strongest and
the one best provided with good weapons is the one most likely
to continue his kind, improvement goes on until-a certain degree
of perfection is attained, and the animal is fitted to a place which
it holds against all competitors.

_ While adaptations of one kind arise among animals to nasii
ther to compete with each other in this struggle, adaptations
of another kind are developed in the plant world. These take
the form of hairs on the stems and leaves; stronger modes of
growth; climbing propensities ; parasitic habits ; the development
of prickles or thorns; the formation of deleterious juices, un-
pleasant odors, or aromatic qualities. Others, again, place their
chief reliance for continuing their species on the hard shell en-
casing their nuts or fruits, and, by producing these in enormous
numbers, have an excellent chance of perpetuating themselves.
All these have, it should be understood, been acquired by plants
so they can hold their ground in the battle for life; and, conse-
quently, those species best provided with means to -resist the
attacks of animals, either by being more unpalatable through.
disagreeable odors or tastes, or by having tougher or harder
‘shells to the seeds, or by being aromatic, or in some other way,
will stand the best chance of living long enough to perfect seed,
and thus be the means of continuing their kind.

Each one of the many ways of resisting the attacks of ani-
= mals has been only gradually acquired. From a small begin-
_ ning, the importance of which is not at first to be perceived, the
features have increased in usefulness and attained perfection only
after many severely fought battles with hardy antagonists.

Perhaps one of the most effectual of all the modes of protec-

tion acquired by plants is to be found in the presence of a milky — :
or colored juice. This is a character which is shared in com-

mon by a great number of species of widely different orders;

but there is no species in which the milky juice is more con- _

spicuous than in the Milkweed. While in various species of : the -
: pemposte, such as the Dandelion, the Wild a out oe

} Be
[July
Sow-Thistle, this juice is plainly seen; while in the Buttercup it |
is acrid, and in the Blood-root it is red, yet in none of these
does it seem to serve the purpose so well as in the Milkweeds. |
It is not, either, confined to any one species, but is characteristic
of most members of the order. The species number over thir- —
teen hundred, are widely scattered over the world, and are most
diversified in form and habit. Some of them are climbers, some
creepers, some herbs of upright growth, some shrubs, and some
_trees. Two features which are found in many of them are the
milky juice and the peculiar flowers. In the common Milkweed
of this country (Asclepias cornuti) these peculiarities are seen”
better than in almost any other species. It is also well known
that the plant will thrive in nearly every sort of situation; con-
sequently it must possess some quality that gives it a better
chance to grow than many other plants. The reason for its
dominance is no other than the possession of its sticky, milky
juice.

The sap of plants, though varying in different species, serves.
the same purpose in all. While primarily it is useful in one
way, secondarily it may be beneficial in another; yet, not every

608 The Milkweeds.

possess a milky sap, only not so well developed as in the Milk
weeds, it is only necessary to carry the imagination back to
progenitor which possessed the slightest traces of this, and there
is sufficient reason to look for its future perfection. In the fierce
struggle which goes on constantly among plants, anything which
is advantageous in the slightest degree is sure to be preserved;
and as it is transmitted to the progeny, and by them sent 01 :
downwards, it will improve at every step. If, for example, the
_ plant becomes disagreeable to the animal grazing in its vicini

1887] The Milkweeds. 609

it will be left alone just as long as there is anything else to'be
found. Should there come a favorable season, with an abundant
vegetation and good grazing, such plants will then have an ex-
cellent chance of perfecting seed. Even during a season when
. plant-life must struggle for water, and when herbivorous animals
greedily devour everything they can find, the milky-juiced plant
will succeed better than any other, because it will be the last one
to be touched. Thus from generation to generation the devel-
opment will go on, until it reaches a state which requires no
further change, and it then remains quiescent. Having, how-
ever, Once acquired a feature, it will be a long time, indeed,
before it will lose it. In the present instance the flowers seem
to have been developing in their way, while the juice pursued its
own.

The flowers of the common species are produced in large
clusters, are pink in color, and have quite a perceptible odor.
They are visited by insects in great numbers, as many as thirty-
one different species having been counted; and this fact shows
they possess considerable attractive qualities. If we examine
an individual flower of a cluster, a peculiarly complicated mech-
anism will be revealed. e two floral en-
velopes, calyx and corolla, are folded back or
reflexed on the stem. Inside of these is a
column made up of five sac-like bodies, each

FIG. 2.—-Sac in

9, which ;
_ Fic. 1.—Flower of pollinium is Fic. 3.—Hood,
Asclepias enlarged. Steed: with horn.

_ crowned by a horn-like process. These seem to be nectaries,
where honey is secreted. Between the nectaries there is found, —

on examination, a peculiar slit, wider below than above. Atthe

_ upper end is a hard, thin lamina, or blade, with the sides bent _
_ inwards so that the edges are close together. In swollen sacs

610 . The Milkweeds. Dey

on wih side of the slit the pollen-grains are found. The pe-
culiar feature of these grains is that they are united into masses

nye a masses
Asclepias hanging
twisted appendages
and fastened to the
gland above.

or clusters, the individual grains
held together by sticky threads,
—a feature found in only one
other family. The stigma sur-
mounts the two ovaries like a

7 ; Fic. 5. iora with hoods cut away
large cap, and is placed imme- showing ovaries (0), the pollinia ( P
and the m — (g) uniting two
of the pollin

arranged around the outside. To enable the pollen to reach the

stigma the pollinium must be taken out of the sac where it hangs |

and be inserted into the slit between the nectaries. This can only
be effected through the agency of insects, and these perform the
service in the following manner :

The visitor, attracted by the odor, alights to suck the nectar a

secreted in the hoods. In its progress over the blossom some
one of the hairs of its legs is sure to slide into the slit between
the hoods. Pursuing his way by drawing up his leg, the hair:
will be guided by two flanges at the sides into the upper and

narrower part of the slit, and there become fast. Feeling a de-

tention, the captive will pull to release himself, and, if possessed
of sufficient force, will bring out of the sacs at the sides two
pear-shaped pollinia, each fastened to the lamina, or gland, by a
short appendage (see figure). When they are first withdrawn

the pollinia are divergent. In a comparatively short space of

time the appendages begin to twist, and then the pollen-masses

are brought close together; not, however, before the insect to —

1887] The Milkweeds. 611

which they are attached: has had time to fly to another flower.
On reaching this new flower the hair bearing the pollen will be
guided into the slit, and, too large to be drawn through, will be
detached, and so left in the exact position to send the pollen-
tubes into the stigma. |
Insects visiting the flowers often have cause to rue the visit.
Honey-bees have often been found. dead, with many pairs of
glands or pollen-masses attached to them; for, visiting the
flowers and extracting numbers of the masses, they become
entangled, and finally perish of starvation. One entomologist,
having found a beetle with many pairs of
stalks and pollinia upon the hairs of its
tarsi, sent a drawing of it to a scientific
journal, and referred to it as possessing
peculiar appendages, the like of which he
had not before seen, and which he sup-
posed to belong really to the hairs to
which they adhered. But it was soon
pointed out that, instead of natural append-
ages, they were those acquired in pere-
grinations over clusters of Milkweed blos-
” soms. Fic 6.—Leg of beetle
Notwithstanding the numbers of insects vets $30 parag attached
frequenting the flowers, it is noticeable
that only a few of them produce seed; for the pollen-masses
must be removed from the sacs and must be inserted into the
slits before the stigma can be fertilized. Sometimes, it is true,
the grains, while yet in the sacs, send tubes into the stigmas;
but these tubes are inoperative, and do not enable the flower to
‘seta pod. It is quite rare to find more than two pods produced
out of a bunch of, perhaps, fifty flowers; and often there will be
only one or two pods on the whole plant. But what the plant
lacks in the number of pods it makes up in the number of seeds
found in each one. These seeds are packed so closely and
tightly together that a single pod contains an immense number.
They are provided, po, with such an admirable appendage for
being wafted through the air, and this serves its purpose so
effectually, that even a few pods are sufficient to stock a large a
_ tract of country. ar
-The peepiiar arrangement of the pallescarsise i in masses A

r

61 2 The Milkweeds. [July ;

Orchid family. In this order the peculiarity has been more

fully developed than in the first one, and the
differentiation is greater. Ordinarily in the Or- —
chids the caudicle, or stem, contracts and bends
the pollinium forward; in the Asclepiads the i
appendage twists in drying, and the two pollinia p
are then brought close together. In both cases |
the pollen-grains are only then in a position to ©
reach the stigma. Darwin has demonstrated that —
the contraction of the caudicle of the Orchid pola
linium is necessary to prevent its being put back 1

Fic. 7.—-Pollin. into a cell similar to the one from which it was

ium of Orchis. taken. In the Asclepiads the twisting of the ap-

ndage brings the two pendent pollen-masses

together, and enables them to slip into the slit between the hoods, —

and be thus in a position to reach the stigma.

The appendage to the seed of the Milkweed is of the same —

‘something which is found in but one other family. This is the |

ae

character as that found in the Dandelion, the Thistle, and many a

other plants. In all it serves the same end. Butin some species

of the family the coma has the peculiarity of expanding very —
rapidly on exposure to the air. In one of these (Gonolobus —
obliquus) it is recorded by Mr. Meehan that the expansion of :
the coma is so rapid as to be compared to a stroke of lightning. —
He says it is followed by the eye with difficulty. While one ©
instant it is enclosed in the capsule closely packed away, as soon —

as it is exposed the hairs of the coma fly round and form a per-

to the parent plant, and the purpose of the development of the
feathery appendage would be defeated; but, drying so rapidly,
they are in a condition to be carried by the pica wind to
great distances.

_ fect hemisphere. This is a necessity, because if it did not so —
occur, the seeds, being heavy, would fall to the ground close

While in the common Milkweed the milky juice of the stem

is so abundantly developed, it is a little remarkable’ that in an-

other species (the Pleurisy Root) it is entirely wanting. The-

flowers are similar, and the sap is so acrid as to cause the plant
to be rejected by all animals. It grows in very poor soil, and

has but few plants to contend with; so that the acridity serves —

t

-to protect it in much the same way as if it had a milky juice.

į

1887] The Mülkweeds: - 613

The sixty or more species of Asclepias are, with two exceptions,
confined to the American continent, and the amount of milk
juice varies in the different species. The acridity of those species
which have no milky juice is a sufficient protection, however,
from the attacks of herbivorous animals.

Other genera of the order present, in their turn, various fea-
tures of interest. S/apelia is a genus of about one hundred
species, all of them found in the Cape of Good Hope region.

hey are peculiar in having thick, fleshy stems, generally with
small scales in place of leaves borne on the angles of the stems.
The flowers are mainly star-shaped, starting out at various points
on the stem, and are remarkable for their disagreeable, carrion-
like odor. This is so marked in certain species that it attracts
large numbers of flies. These sometimes lay their eggs in the
flowers, but the progeny, when hatched, die for want of food.
The main object of the odor of the flower is to attract insects

' for the purpose of fertilizing it by the transfer of pollen from

one plant to another. About the centre of the flower are cer-
tain black spots, which are peculiarly attractive to insects. In
one species (S. asterias) flies have been observed to feed greedily
about these spots, and it is found that the fly’s tongue often gets
caught in a trap situated hereabouts. When thus caught it
struggles violently to escape, and, if successful, goes away with
a pair of pollinia attached to its tongue, drawn from their en-
closing sacs. The apparatus which catches the tongue is a
veritable spring-trap, closing with a snap on the intrusion of

any disturbing object. The insect, laden with the pair of pollen-
masses, flies to another flower, and there places them in a po-

sition where the pollen-tubes can penetrate the stigma. Here,
then, there are three interesting features to be noted,—first, the
thick, succulent, leafless stems, which enable the plants to exist

in dry, sandy soil, and, at the same time, furnish no inducement

to any stray animal to feed upon; second, the carrion-scented

- flowers, which attract flies, necessary for the fertilization of the

stigma; and, third, a veritable spring-trap, which catches the
tongue of the little carrier, so that it flies away with a aes

to another flower, and effects cross-fertilization.

The succulent stem may be regarded as developed because
of the necessity to retain a supply of moisture in the dry, arid

a mons, whither the E have probably. been driven from an

614 The Milkweeds. [July
“inability to cope with more vigorous forms of vegetation. Th

the presence of the plant at a distance, while the spring-trap was
a necessary contrivance to certainly secure the transferrence of
the pollen from one’plant to another.

sense. The species of the genus Hoya have climbing stems, ~
thick, succulent leaves, and clusters of waxy flowers. Hence
the common name of wax-plant. Various species are cultivated, —
and are great favorites because of their fragrance and beauty.
It is stated that the young leaves are used by the natives O
Ceylon in their curries; and one curious feature of the plant is
that the flowers come from the same bud year after year.

Fic. 8.—Flower of Hoya. S, naa D, disks a ER ge z
of Pollinia, pendage; D, disk. ‘a

‘The fertilization of hy globulosa possesses points of need a
the mechanism being much the same as in Asclepias. It has
been described in the Gardeners’ Chronicle for April 29, 1882, by
Mr. W. G. Smith, as follows: The flowers are regular, grow in
clusters, and are very fragrant. The pollen-grains are united in
clusters and enclosed in pouches, five in number. The glutinous,
dark-colored disks of the pollinia are the only parts of the sta-
mens visible in an open flower. If an insect, attracted by the —
“fragrance, alights on a flower, it almost invariably happens that
- one foot slips and is caught by one of the sticky disks. Some

1887] The Milkweeds. 615

times four feet are entangled, and then ensues a struggle to
escape. If strong enough, the fly tears itself away, but in the
effort takes the pollinia attached to its feet along with it. “The
basal appendages of each pair of pollen-masses,” says Mr. Smith,
“are elastic, and when in the pouch they are like an extended
spring, but the instant the masses are drawn out by the insect’s
foot the spring closes, the two pollen-masses quickly cross each
other and hold tightly on to the insect’s little claws.” The
stigmas of the flower are exposed in the centre of the parts
forming the apex of stamens and pistils, and these are not ripe
at the same time as the pollen. It is therefore necessary for the
pollinia to be withdrawn from the pouches and conveyed by the
insect to another flower in which the stigmas are ripe before
fertilization can take place.

Other species of the family are noted for their medicinal
properties. For example, one known as Tylophora asthmatica,
or Indian Ipecacuanha, is largely used in cases of dysentery.
Others are valued for their fibre. One of these is Calotropidis
(Asclepias) gigantea, This is spun into the finest thread for
sewing or weaving. Handkerchiefs made from it were shown
in one of the Paris exhibitions. A species in our own country,
very common in wet or damp places (Asclepias incarnata), pro-
duces a long, tough fibre which could be used for many pur-
poses. Another species (Marsdenia tenacissima) produces fibre
so strong that the natives of some parts of India use it for bow-
strings. The stems are dried in the sun, and the milky juice
which exudes hardens into a substance like india-rubber; and
_ there are other species in which this juice could be used for
many of the purposes to which caoutchouc is now applied.

It is thus seen that the family of Milkweeds is useful prac-
tically, as well as interesting botanieally. We use the sap in
our way as the plant uses it in its own. The same tough fibre
which makes the plant disagreeable to animals the human race

finds useful to itself. The same sweet-scented flowers which `

attract swarms of insects delight us in our greenhouses; and
the same curious forms of stems adapted to a plant’s existence
in dry and arid regions form curious features in the homes of

civilized man.

616 _ Methods of Instruction in General Geology. [July

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN GENERAL
GEOLOGY.:

BY H., S. WILLIAMS:

Wes I can offer on this subject must be confined to a few ~

suggestions upon points in which I see need of improve-
ment, and some account of the various ways in which I am
attempting to apply scientific method to the teaching of geology
at Cornell University.

_ The science of geology, like the earth, from which it derives —
its name, bears a kind of maternal relation to the kindred sciences. ©
As the materials discussed by physics, chemistry, and even —
biology come out of the earth, so the sciences treating of them —
have their springs of origin, and have been separated off from —
that more general science now represented by geology alone. —
As the more exact sciences have become organized they have
set up their own standards and their own more precise methods,
while geology has not become quite freed from some of the ©
‘ancient crudities and myths. 2

This peculiar relation borne by geology to kindred sciences —
has much to do with the peculiarities of the methods in teaching _
it. Geology is less exact; there are more unsolved problems, or.

problems the solution of which is recognized as tentative; there i
are more points of contact with the dark regions of the unknown ~

an are found in the other more specialized sciences. a
This doubtless arises from the fact that as human knowledge
has grown and the problems have become more scientifically —

‘interpreted, and the ultimate laws have been discovered, the —
principles involved have been relegated to their more special |
branches,—to physics, to chemistry, to astronomy, or to biology.

On the other hand, when these more precise sciences come —
-across vexatious questions too complex for either alone to handle,
they toss them into the broad lap of geology, so that we are left —
with the more mysterious and inexplicable phenomena of nature
to wrestle with as best we ma
This broad and fudamental nature of the subject-matter of

* Delivered at the meeting of the American Society of TIRE at a
. December 29, 1886.

ES.

1887] Methods of Instruction in General Geology. 617

geology tempts a superficial treatment, and the teacher of geology
needs to be specially on his guard lest he fall into the discussion
of mere generalities. When we discuss the principles of geology
we must generalize more or less. The facts are so many and so
various that it is necessary to state in condensed form the laws
which may best express the characteristics common to a great
number of facts or phenomena. But when the geologist general-
izes he is in greater’ danger than teachers of other sciences of
being tempted to sacrifice science to the popular interest in
wonders and curiosities.

The intimate relation borne by geology to the other sciences
demands a broader knowledge than is required in them.

The geologist must apply to the solution of his riddles the
laws of physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology, and mineralogy,
and this brings with it the temptation to confine his instruction
to the announcement of the theories, while referring the student
to the special science concerned for the real solution of his
problems.

Again, we may observe that geology, lying between the more
thoroughly specialized sciences of modern times and the phi-
losophies and purer literary branches of learning, has not alto-
gether lost the effects of the scholastic methods of the literary
school, nor has it fully attained the perfections of the scientific
school.

Literary scholarship has for its ideals the skilful use of lan-
guage as a means of expressing thought, of thinking and of in-
terpreting thought. The subject-matter of this scholarship, as

we scientists look at it, is language; and therefore the learning or —

mere memorizing of words and forms of verbal expression, in- -

cluding terse formulas and abstract statements, is valuable in itself,
and is directly in the line of attainment of that kind of skill sought

after i in literary study.. But verbal expression and definition is of

_ secondary importance to the scientific scholar. To know simply

names and definitions, laws, and, I may add, statistics, without the

discriminative power of the eye, or ear, or touch, does not make

a scientist. This acquirement bears no closer relation to scientific

knowledge than the reading of an English translation of Czsar’s
Commentaries bears to a knowledge of Latin. We would never
~ think of calling him a classical scholar who was unable to read
the original text. No more should we regard him a geologist,

618 — Methods of Instruction in General Geology. (July —

however well he might remember the text-book definition, who
is unable to recognize and interpret geological phenomena in
nature,—in the field and laboratory. Hence, in teaching geology
the mere ability to talk about geology, to say that Paradoxides is
characteristic of the Cambrian, that Ichthyosaurus is a Mesozoic ©
reptile, and a thousand other similar items of geological informa-
tion, is of little or no practical use unless the student is taught to
recognize an unlabelled Paradoxides when he sees it, and would
know how to distinguish Cambrian rocks in the field. The sub-
ject-matter for the scientific scholar to acquire is found in the
things and phenomena named and described, and not in the
names or definitions.

In other words, the methods of literary instruction are of but
limited value in teaching geology, and although we may begin
with these methods, the teacher should not deceive himself with |
supposing that he is teaching science, or that the student is learn-
ing science, unless the lectures and text-book work are supple- |
mented by drill in the laboratory and field. It may seem more
dignified to stand up in a lecture-room before a lot of students —
and read off a lecture on geology, but the best results will come
from the tramps and the hammerings in the ravines and railroad
cuts and the study of hand specimens in the laboratory.

Our lectures may inspire the students to study, but most of
what they learn will come by other methods.

We are obliged to use the lecture method, although not the
ideal way of teaching science, on account of the large size of
classes in our universities. Quizzes, and these written after
every five or six lectures, I find of value in calling out study _
and thought upon the topics discussed in the lectures, and —
these I believe should always supplement the lecture for the best :
results. 1

i

EE EEA i T F E E E EER EE a E ih SE SA Se ie o ee EAE EES eee a a aa ai ene ee ee

In the lecture method there is one danger not met with shan
a good text-book is made the basis of recitations. Unless the

clear understanding of the topics under discussion. These
details, when crowded by the multitude of topics he is tempted . l
to consider, will be omitted by the EFE because they seem
to him so familiar.

To ward against this evil I give references to the pages in

ah

1887] a Methods of Instruction in General Geology. 619

the more common text-books on geology, where the student may

-study more explicitly the subject lectured upon. I expect, too,

that the student, who will acquire any exact knowledge of the
science, must give some time both to this. kind of book study
and to the examination of specimens arranged and labelled
specially to illustrate the facts discussed.

Again, it is important to so accentuate the lectures that the
grand and important lessons shall not be smothered and quite
lost to sight by the innumerable names and definitions and topics
with which the lecture is necessarily filléd. For I hold that, in
teaching a class of ordinary college students general geology, it
is far more important to teach them how to treat geological
problems, what the grand questions are which the geologist
meets, and the right methods of attacking, of thinking about,
of interpreting them, than to teach definitions, technical formulas,
or lists of associated facts.

The latter are all essential for the real geologist to master, but

-not in the lecture-room. They must be acquired by patient

-study of the more exhaustive manuals and original reports, and

by actual laboratory and field practice.

The work for the lecturer upon general geology is to clearly
present the principles of geology, to illustrate and explain the
grand features of the science. He must teach what the science
treats about, what and where the problems are exhibited, how
they are explained, and what laws underlie the phenomena.
While the student gathers enough to excite his interest and

~ enthusiasm, if possible, the method of stating the facts and
_ theories should be such as to enable him to appreciate what

there is to learn, rather than to convey any notion that he is

a anne from the lectures a knowledge of all the essential facts

ogy.

i ors be able in our lectures to teach the student the al- —
phabet, so to speak, of the science, or even to teach him how to
spe]l or frame sentences in terms of the geological language.
‘We may succeed in showing him how to investigate and inter- -

‘pret geological problems. But I take it to be of essential im-

portance to impress upon the student that the lectures are but an —

‘introduction, that the true place to learn geology is in the field ae
- and laboratory, and the true method, that of maying over in
S Jera individual —, and parts.

y Fae i

620 — Methods of Instruction in General Geology. oo

maa

= This is not generalizing or popularizing the subject;
making the lectures a means of scientific training, instead

allowing them to degenerate into a glowing account of tl
wonders of geology. i
© Geology may truly be a popular subject, because of t
many remarkable events and phenomena it reveals, but it is n
the remarkable, the unique, and the impressive facts of geolog
that are the most instructive.

The awful eruption that throws out lava and ashes from
volcanic vent, or tears” off the top of a volcanic cone, is not
direct an illustration of the peculiarity of vulcanism as
little bubbles which puff up the cooling lava and testify to
presence of expansive vapors or gases in association with |
molten condition of the rock.

The grand cajions of the plateau district are not so vale
as illustrations of the laws of river erosion as a simple rock

— of the length of actual time with which the —
has to

topics.
` In our standard text-books we frequently find what I maj
call the scholastic method followed,—a method which proceeds

tions to the descriptions or illustrations of facts from which th
have been drawn. oe
As an illustration the following may be taken from chapt
second of Dana’s Manual. The subject is lithological geolog
First we are given a brief classification of the subject, then the
definition of rock; then follow three sections in the followi
order: Ist, the elègients constituting rocks; 2d, the mine!
materials constituting rocks; 3d, the kinds of rocks,

1887] Methods of Instruction in General Geology. 621

For a geologist familiar with the general subject, and as a
book of information arranged for ready reference, this is as good
an arrangement as could be desired. But when the science is
presented for the first time to the student, is this the order in
which he must grasp the details of the subject for clear compre-
hension? I think not.

And why is it unnatural? Because the student is asked to take
the results of an analysis before he is presented with the concep-
tion of the thing analyzed. He is led to form a synthetic concep-
tion of the objects studied, built up of definitions, rather than by
analysis to increase his knowledge of the object by narng it in
new relations.

Rocks are at first parts of the earth, and among themselves
they first differ in their physical relations of position, structure,
form, and composition. The chemical and mineral properties are
secondary in order of analysis; and the microscopic appearances
presented by separate mineral species constitute a tertiary set of
characters.

The teacher should have regard to this order of acquisition,
although, after having named and briefly described the terms,
they may become for his purposes mere definitive terms with
-which to describe the more comprehensive laws of the earth’s
formation.

For this. reason ‘there is propriety in uniting physiographic,
structural, and dynamical geology as a first division of the
general treatment of geology, following with the stratigraphical
and palzontological part as a second division,

This plan, substantially, is followed in several of the more
widely used text-books, as Phillip’s, Credner’s, Geikie’s, Le-
conte’s, and others.
ae determining the order of presentation of the facts for par-

ticular cases, I examine the order in which the facts naturally
develop in the process of investigation. As a general statement
of what this order is, I find it to be from the more conspicuous,
the more easily grasped, and the simpler, to the less evident, the
intricate, and the fundamental. This same regard to the order
of acquisition of ideas is applicable to the methods of illustration,

Every teacher of natural history has more or less use for
. diagrams, but I have thought that blackboard sketches, although
Ee = made while the sapanotion is. going on, are inc, mpe :

3 —NO. 7 42

622 Methods of Instruction in General Geology. (July
effective in imparting the information desired than the more
finished ready-made diagrams. The value of the blackboard
sketch is in the fact that it emphasizes your words, makes them
more vivid and expressive; with crayon in hand as you talk, thi f
lines of the sketch become a kind of lineal gesture. l

This result is particularly seen when the relations of two or
more objects are expressed, or when serial or gradual changes or
developments are -considered, as in explaining Darwin’s theory
of the formation of coral reefs and islands, or the structure and
growth of a common volcanic cone, or the effects of erosion in
_ cutting through a series of hard and soft stratified rocks, and the
relation of dykes to eruptive sheets, to volcanic lava-beds or
fissure lava-fields.

All such phenomena are more vividly expressed to the
ginner by blackboard sketches than by the more perfect dia-
gram, and the reasons seem to lie in the fact that the student

out variations and the relations of one form to another, I fi
the blackboard a great assistance. :
_ A method specially successful of late in the teaching 0

geology, The method I refer to may be called the exhausti
study of types, and such a book as Huxley’s “Crayfish” m
illustrate its application.

familiar and typical example of all the principles involved in its
structure, function, or other relations, Afterwards, the wideni
of one’s knowledge becomes a simple and also a systematt
mental noting of likenesses and differences. The knowled
thus acquired, instead of being vague and general, becom
positive and precise. “
In applying this method to a geology, l select a fe

1887] Methods of Instruction in General Geology. 62 3

characteristic phenomena, describe them particularly, noticing
the individual details, and endeavor to make the one case
thoroughly understood in all its important relations, so that it
becomes the illustration of the several principles involved.

Thus, in explaining volcanoes, instead of spending the time |
with an enumeration of statistics and formule, crowding the
lecture with all the information possible about volcanoes, the
whole lecture may be spent upon Vesuvius, its environs and
history, making vivid impression of one or two typical eruptions,
and, by the aid of maps of the region, pointing out the precise
phenomena in the locality, sequence and results in building
a cone and making volcanic deposits. With a-clear notion of
one such typical volcano, it is a simple matter to classify and
point out the kinds of volcanoes,—the pure tufa eruption, as
at Monte Nuova, the continuous lava flow, as in the Sandwich
Islands,—and by means of the grand eruptions recorded of Skap-
tar Jokul, to gain a conception of fissure eruptions and the nature
of the vast lava-fields covering now such large tracts of the sur-
face, but without the conical mountain peaks which we naturally
associate with igneous eruptions.

In the same way in treating of river dynamics, instead of brief
descriptions of the great rivers of the globe, the amount of their
erosion and sedimentation, the volume and rate of their water-
flow, etc., presenting a great number of condensed statistics
. about many rivers, a better way is to spend the time in explain-
ing the facts and their interrelations for a single typical river.

No better example can be found for us than our great river
Mississippi, so thoroughly studied and reported upon in Hum-
d phrey and Abbott's monograph. For illustration of the principles
: of erosion a familiar ravine, near by, is better than a large river-
gorge at a distance. Niagara may well serve to illustrate the rate
of erosion and as a short measure of geologic time. The cafions
of the plateau district are illustrative of the laws of continuous
depositions, of slow but great elevation, and furnish a longer but
conceivable measure of time for geologic events.

in all cases, where it is possible, selection should be made
of a familiar and typical example, and around it should be
gathered the details of facts and phenomena which will illus- _
- trate the principles discussed. By communicating a clear, de-
tailed conception of the one example, the- indistinctness and

a species; using the local facts, because I find better results fromt

624 .— Methods of Instruction in General Geology. [July ;

often aioi arising from the array of a multitude of
statistics in regard to many examples is avoided. 5
At first sight this method may appear like a mere populariz- 4
ing of a science, and—the aspect which might be so called, — |
the attempt to make comprehensible and therefore interest 3
what is generally not so, is worth seeking after. : 4
Is it not this very element of exciting interest, of BE ie the
hearers or readers, that made the writings of Lyell and the lec- _ |
tures of Louis Agassiz so attractive and also so instructive?
The boys in college learn the principles of geology in the same —
way that we learn new laws and principles in our deeper investi- ; |
gations. Itis facts and phenomena first, afterwards their inter-
pretation ; and unless they gain a vivid impression of the former, -
they will come short of grasping the latter. The other method
of memorizing the statements of the laws and principles of the —
science, without any clear conception of the facts to which they —
apply, is only a knowledge of words; it is not science; and sucha
knowledge has no scientific value.
_ In feld and laboratory work the main point is to teach the
student to observe, to record, and properly to interpret facts as
they occur in nature. This is not accomplished by simply walk-
ing over the ground and pointing out the phenomena to the
class. In one way and another they must be led to see for them-
selves ; they must gather the facts, study and arrange them.
The ache may show them how to make sections, and how to 4
gather facts and specimens. Section after section may be made |
through similar series; geographical localities, altitude, thick
ness, dip, lithological esau and fossils should be observed, —
and notes and materials brought in for study. After numerous
sections are thus in hand, my plan is to call fora report upon ~
the region or formations examined, asking for detailed answers
to t the questions, What are the faunas? What are the differences 4

to perfect himself in paleontology, I set him at work on the
local palzontology and stratigraphy, causing him to make com:
parison of sections, of association of species and individual vari
ations, as well as drilling him in the identifying of genera and

+a

1887] Methods of Instruction in General Geology. . 625

deep and exhaustive study of what is at hand and is capable
of such exhaustive treatment than is possible by the method of
discursive rambling over a greater number of facts.

The materials ready at hand for us at Cornell University are
Devonian ; but the student who has learned accurately to identify
species of a Devonian fauna has learned the relative importance
of characters for classification; has learned the nature of varia-
bility, the relation of species to geological horizon, the modifi-
cation of specific types with retention of generic features on

passing from zone to zone; has studied the range and distribu- _

tion of the species; has gained a conception of what faunal as-
sociation is and how it is related to the lithological character of
‘the deposits; I say the man who has grasped these details of
the science by the use of Devonian material alone is ready to
undertake investigations in any geological period, from the
Cambrian to the Tertiary. The facts may differ, but the methods
of research will be the same; and this method and skill cannot
be attained by any amount of the mere memorizing of the names
of a labelled collection of fossils.
It is a mistaken view to imagine that that kind of acquirement
which only removes the Megatherium, the Ichthyosaurus, the Tri-
: lobite, and the Palzoniscus from the region of wonderland to a

place among the things we have seen, is geology. So long as- :

- we use our museums as curiosity-shops and cover our ignorance

with Latin nomenclature, we cannot expect to lift our science out —

of the region of crudities.
_ There is, however, some value to be derived from studying
over labelled collections, but this must not be without the study
. of: the fossils as they occur in the rocks, and the determining of
the characters, the names, and the horizon, each man for himself.
And if the rocks are crystalline and not fossiliferous, this de-
termines beforehand that there are not present the best facilities
for the study of paleontology, although great museums may have
been accumulated,

ie natural’ rock foundations of the region in which a uni- =

versity is built thus decide the particular part of geological
_ science which may be there taught most successfully. —

To this fact may be traced the explanation why Harvard, Yale,
and Amherst have been so prolific in physical geologists and

erop; why New York State has given us so — r >

Aj

CR

D
ontologists; why the geologists of Pennsylvania have taught u
so much about stratigraphy and the structure and products below
the surface.

In each institution the natural advantages found in the acces-
sible rock exposures of the region should be not only carefully

‘studied, but should be made a prominent feature in all the
advanced work of the college. 3

In conclusion, I would remark that (a) the fundamental natu
of the subject-matter of geology, with its many still unsolved

~ 626 Methods of Instruction in General Geology.

the evident, the general, to the special, the hidden, the individua

tion from the concrete, the typical, the illustrative, to the princ

and accuracy in his modes of nd cf by applying the simp!
; rule of teaching much about a few things, instead of arenes
ie to say a little about a great many things,

1887 | Variation of the Human Shoulder-Blade. 627

THE RANGE OF VARIATION OF THE HUMAN
SHOULDER-BLADE.

BY THOMAS DWIGHT, M.D."

HE late Professor Broca read a paper before La Société
d’Anthropologie in 1878? in which he described the scapular
and the infra-spinous indices, and proposed them ase methods of
ethnological research. Briefly stated, the scapular index is the
proportion of the breadth of the scapula, measured along the
base of the spine, to the length, the latter being considered one
hundred. The infra-spinous index is the proportion of the
breadth to the length of the infra-spinous fossa, the latter being
considered one hundred.

The human scapula being the starting-point, Broca under-
stands by “length” the line connecting the highest and lowest
points, although in almost all mammals this is not the longest
dimension. The line showing the breadth being called AB and
that of the length CD, the index is obtained by calculating
100 X AB

CD
border of the scapula, but runs some distance before it. The
line AD. representing the infra-spinous length runs from the
posterior end of AB to the lower end of CD. The infra-

‘ x - ` 100X AB
spinous index is represented by the fraction x . Professor

The length very rarely coincides with the posterior

Broca used these indices both in comparative anatomy and in
the study of characteristics of race, sex, and age in man.

- In all orders of mammals, with one exception, the scapular
index is greater than in man. In quadrupeds it is evident that
the long diameter of the bone should at least approximately
coincide with the line of pressure, and consequently we find the -
‘breadth—z.c, the line along the base of the spine—the longer. In
erect man, with his great range of movement of the anterior ex-
tremities, there is need of greater leverage for the movements of 7
the scapula, and less need of resistance to pressure, so we find a
long and narrow scapula. This condition is approached in the
- anthropoid apes, and even surpassed in the bats, who have a —
‘z Parkman Professor of Anatomy at Harvard University.

7 2 Bulletins de la Société ď’Anthropologie de Paris, série 3, tome i. a
_ 3 By a most unfortunate oversight the AB and AD are transposed in Broca’s paper.

6o Variation of the Human Shoulder-Blade.

lower scapular index than man. Broca’s observations on t
characteristics of sex and race of human scapulz are by |
means satisfactory, owing to the small number of observatio
The indices of adult Frenchmen were obtained from twen
three individuals, of which nine were female; and those
African negroes from twenty-five individuals, of which five we
female. Apparently one scapula was measured in each case.

The next year Professor Flower and Dr. Garson measur
two hundred scapule of Europeans. They admit that it is quite

was unknown. They counted every scapula measured as
whether or not its fellow came under observation. They m
ured also a few scapulz of other races, but the series were fi
the most part very small. The largest were twenty-one Andam
scapulz and twelve Australian.

M. Marius Livon also studied this subject at about the sa
time, and gave his results in his “Thèse pour le Doctoral
which appeared in 1879. I have never seen his essay,
know it only by references to it by Sir William Turner? and
M. Manouvrier2 He measured the bones of seventy-

_ Frenchmen and fifty-one Frenchwomen,

Negroes, Andamanese, and Australians have higher ind
which means broader scapulz, and consequently of a lower
Broca points out, however, in his remarks about negroes, t
this is true only of the mean, and that individuals of both cla
are found to vary very much from it, Indeed, the anthro

makes their infra-spinous angle more characteristic.
Broca claimed that, in spite of the great individual variati
this method is of value when applied to groups.
I began a series of measurements of human and of anthropo

166 Challenger” Reports, vol, xvi. : eee
° Revue d’Anthropologie, zme série, tome iii., 1889. -

+

1887] Variation of the Human Shoulder-Blade. 629

the indices do not necessarily indicate the shape of the bone, and
that they are worthless to determine the race of any single bone.

The one hundred and thirteen bones which I have called Cau-
casian are, like those used by Flower and Garson, rather a heter-
ogeneous collection. They for the most part belong to the
Harvard Medical School and to the Boston Society of Natural
History. More than a few of them came from France. While
they, no doubt, are in the main Caucasian, it is probable that
there are some negro bones among them. Indeed, I know that
two of the scapulæ came from the body of a negro. These are
remarkable as presenting very low (instead of high) indices.

Through the kindness of Professor Putnam, who most gener-
ously put all the stores of the Peabody Museum of Archeology
at my disposition, I had hoped to be able to present a large col-
lection of figures from the bones of the mound-builders, and per-
haps to make observations on many individuals of a race which _
was less mixed'than most of those whose bones are easily ob-
tained to-day. I was, however, disappointed, and from a cause
that is easy to foresee, namely, the great fragility of the scapula.
I could have had long bones in abundance, but the shoulder-
blades were for the most part either in fragments, or so injured
that the necessary measurements could not be made. I have the
records of six scapulz from California which are probably Indian,
and of eighteen from the Kentucky mounds, The mean of the
Californians is 67.25 for the scapular index and 91.05 for the .
_ infra-spinous. The mound-builders have a mean scapular index
of 69.29 and an infra-spinous one of 93.75.

The following table shows the indices of Caucasian bones ob-
tained by my predecessors and myself. Livon is the only one
who has a tolerably large series showing the difference between the
sexes. Broca, with a much smaller series, had different results:

TABLE I.
Broca. a — Dwight.
s Male. Female.
Scapular index...... 65.91 65.2 63.0 67.4 | 63.5,
. nee de: 87.79 89.4 85.4 88.8 85.8

To understand the significance of figures something more io
needed than an average, which gives no hint of the range of ©
Paeon, and — I have arranged the ae of ibe in-

60 : : Varikon of the Human Shoulder-Blade,

| dices of the Caucasians and mound-builders in groups. The fi
row of figures shows the index, and opposite each is placed-

for an index. The six Californians showed no extreme figures.

ae a

-A

number of scapulæ having that figure (or that figure and a fractio

TABLE II.
Scapular Index. ` Infra-spinous Index.

Index. Caucasians, eet ae Index, Caucasians. a
55 ee i 72 2 ms
56 3 x 73 oot ee
57 5 te 74 aii J4
r ; es 7 5 I ses

9 os 7 2 a
60 9 ive 77 4 č
61 8 bee 78 | 4 stn
62 12 eee 79 8 oe
63 13 I 80 7 eos
64 6 ove 81 4 Per
65 II 2 82 6 šis

Io i 8 ove
67 8 : H $ 4
68 I 3 85 10 ded
69 4 I 86 7 “a
7° 3 I 87 10 pe
7I 3 I 88 5 3
72 I I 89 3
73 sey i = go $ 3
74 eee whe gI I daoth
75 ons ae 92 6 2i
76 I I 93 2 1
77 pan I 94 5 iw
78 aS eek 95 2 I

“797 oes wee 96 3 I
ans eee eee 97 I I

I coe tee 98 I aoe
82 ... I 99 H ee

100 oe
IOI s. oe
103 aoe iat
104 i ie
105. i I
106 eu I
i 2 f 107 wes Ton
: Total nseni 113 ; 18 Total ....s00 113 13
mean 2 OB 60 foor ag -| Means 85.83 3.

oa question that in measurements the e “ personal equation on” has
"eled oubt the discrepancies would have been 1 if all th measu
hates made by one man. The v: ig ?

Hi
qin
Hel

ults of coe ee

1887] Variation of the Human Shoulder-Blade. 631

The scapule from Kentucky have a decidedly higher index
than the Caucasians, and this is evidently not due to individual
peculiarities, for though three specimens with remarkably high
indices have their effect on the average, yet the scapular index
is only once, and the infra- -spinous never, as low as the Cau-
casian mean.

Broca gives some of his extreme figures, which are very inter-
esting. The bone with the lowest indices belonged to a Turk
from Smyrna; the next lowest scapular index was furnished by a
Frenchwoman, and the next lowest infra-spinous by an Arab.
The highest indices belonged to an African negro, by name
Tom Blaise, and the next to a black from Hindoostan.

Flower and Garson, unfortunately, make no mention of their
extreme cases. For more convenient comparison I put my ex-
tremes below Broca’s in the following tables :

TABLE III:
MINIMA.
Scap. Infra-spin.
: Index Index,
Broca. Turk from Smyrna 57.47 75-19
Broca. Frencł 6O27 -ira
POG. ARAN E RE EET A E E RA SA 78.57
Dwight. Caucasian (Fig. 4) 55.1 72.8
Dwight. Negro (Fig. 10).....s..se.. 58.8 42.3
MAXIMA,
Scap Infra-spin
Index Index, |
Broca. Tom Blaise 76.64 111.95
Broca. Black from Hindoostan 76.61 104.39 `
Dwight. Kentucky Mound-builder (Fig. 5 82.2 107.3
_ Dwight. - Kentucky Mound-builder........ 77.1 106.9
Dwight. Highest scapular index among Caucasians...........0 76.3 98.2
Dwight. ee infra-spinous index among Ciiciian: 71.8 102.0

“Broca thought it likely (assez probable) that his limits would
be but rarely passed. Table II. shows, however, that I have
measured no less than twenty-two bones with a scapular index
below sixty, and that five of them were below fifty-seven. The
two given in Table III. are, however, the only ones in which
the infra-spinous index falls below seventy-five. Turning to the

maxima, I have no equal to Tom Blaise in both indices, which is .

_ due to the great obliquity of the spine of his scapula, an ape-
o T feature which the mound-builders cannot ages One a

Ey

#

632 . Variation of the Human Shoulder-Blade.

them has a scapular index which is decidedly higher, and they

‘both exceed the black from Hindoostan in both respects. a
Sir William Turner states in his “ Challenger” report that, ex-

cluding the scapulæ of one Hottentot, the mean scapular ind

the Andaman Islanders. This includes the results of so
other observers. It would appear, however, that for some reason
he has omitted also his four Ohauan (Pacific Islands) scapula

index and 117 for the infra-spinous. He found the variati
in the scapular index of African blacks, male and female,
range from 57 to 81, and the infra-spinous index from 30 to I

Apart from the range of individual variation in the indices, t
method is open to at least two criticisms: first, that there
various forms of scapule, which may not be without their ethm
logical significance, to which these indices give no clue; ane
secondly, that the length of the scapula—which is of primary im
portance in determining the more important index, the scapular-
depends in part on the development of the superior angle of.
bone. In support of the first criticism I would call attention ti
two scapula (Figs. 6 and 7) whose indices are almost identical,
which in shape differ enough to be bones of different species. —
shall return to these points in the course of the discussion
the variation of different parts of the bone.

Length—In the one hundred and thirteen Caucasian$,
adits, the mean length is 16.22 cm., the extremes being 13. 2i
20.1. There are six under 14 cm. and ten of 18 or more. |
mean of the six Californian Indians is 13.62, and of the eight
from the Kentucky mounds 14.07. The range of variation
these two series is very small. The shortest bone is 12.4, and t
longest 15.8, both from Kentucky. These old bones, both i
size and shape, constitute a well-marked series.

Professor Mivart, in his well-known paper on the “ Apper
dicular Skeleton of the Primates,”* takes several parts of ti
A scapula for comparison. We shall consider the variation th

some of these present in man alone. 4
-< The inferior angle (Fig. 1); which Professor Mivart p

* Philosophical Transactions, London, vol. clvii, s = 2, 1867. |

2 In Figures 1, 2, and 3 the partial outlines are drawn as though taken

bone of the right side in every case. This is ice convenience,

1887] Variation of the Human Shoulder-Blade. 633

35° or 40° in man, presents great differences, as is shown by the
appended wood-cuts. I give no measurements, as the difficulty
of making accurate ones is quite out of proportion to their value.
The difference is in part, but not wholly, due to the development
of the surface at the lower part
of the axillary margin for the

teres major.*. This muscle arises
from the dorsal surface of the
bone, but there is almost always
a slight projection at this point

from the anterior border, and

occasionally it is developed into F:
a projection of considerable size. ;
_ Broca states that this is more
common in negroes. I have no i
opinion to offer on this. point,
but I believe that this process
does not stand in direct ratio to
the size of the muscle. It is

well marked on a very delicate .

scapula (Fig. 5), and on the other Hei

hand there is a large surface to

this muscle with hardly any projection on a remarkably sharp
bone (Fig. 4). An analogous: case is the third trochanter, the
_occufrence of which, in my opinion, is quite uninfluenced by
muscular development. The surface for the ¢eres major projects
out very strongly in the lower Simiidz, Cebas, and Chrisothrix,
according to Mivart. Its occurrence in man is probably (as in
the case of the third trochanter) the appearance of a peculiarity
of lower forms. The lower angle, however, varies considerably
apart from the influence of this process.

~ The vertebral border (Fig. 2).—The most common form of
scapula presents a line slightly curved at the lower part, and .
then straight as far as the root of the spine, from which point it
inclines slightly forward till it ends at the upper angle. The for-
__ward inclination of the upper part, though varying in degree, is,
so far as I know, constant, but the rest of the line varies much.
Sometimes it is almost straight, sometimes the whole border of _
_ the bone is convex, sometimes the border below the spine is con- __

: ae
an, 5 te > ve 3}. We thet. s Ad P, iy Oo) Cores s
+ By another g y t “ Te petit ja
2 i i ee IEN

E MELAS MUGIS eg err

w

634 3 Variation of the Human Shoulder-Blade. [Jv ie

cave. The different types are seen in the annexed diagram, but,
better still, in some of the figures of the entire bone. 4

The superior border (Fig. 3) is also of uncertain shape. '
superior angle cannot be considered apart from the posterior
border. The diagrams show its variations so well as to makea
description unnecessary. One of these is remarkable as showing
the point truncated. None of these, however, show it rounded off _
in a way that equals the Boschiman scapula figured by Mi
The variations of this angle are important, because they sh
that the length of the scapula, as used according to Broca’s pl
is liable to vary according to the development of this angle.

v 4

a
me
a

Fic, 2,

that I know of is in Humphry’s “ Human Skeleton.”
Variations in the concavity of the body of the bone s
also be mentioned. If a scapula be laid on a table with the.

: ticular shape of the bone.

1887] Variation of the Human Shoulder-Blade. ` 635

tral surface downward, it will usually rest on three points,—the
coracoid, and the superior and inferior angles. The vertebral
border, as a rule, forms an arch, the highest point of which is
sometimes about 2 cm. from the table. In other cases this border
barely leaves the table, and sometimes one or both of the angles
mentioned are bent dorsally, so as no longer to be points of
support.

On the dorsum the course of the spine and acromion deserve
attention. By comparing the scapular and infra-spinous indices
we get some idea of its obliquity. A high infra-spinous index
with a moderate scapular index shows, of course, a greater
obliquity, which is an ape-like peculiarity. When both are very
high it shows simply a short, broad scapula. I called attention to
the fact that one of the Kentucky mound-builders had a higher
scapular index but a lower infra-spinous one than Broca’s negro,
Tom Blaise, which means that the former had the relatively broader
scapula, but the latter the more oblique spine. A study of the one
hundred and thirteen Caucasian shoulder-blades shows that the
two indices present no great discrepancies. The average scapular
index being 63.50 and the infra-spinous 85.83, I find but three
with a scapular index of between 64 and 65 which have an infra- _
spinous index below 85, and of these the lowest was 82.5. I find
none at all with a scapular index above 65 and an infra-spinous
below 85. Conversely, only seven having an infra-spinous index
above 86 have a scapular index below 63. The lowest of these

“S61

Professor Mivart states that when the bone is so held that the
long axis of the glenoid cavity is vertical, and that cavity is op-
posite the eye of the observer, the acromion is almost always
higher than the coracoid in man, troglodytes, and hylobates. I
do not remember any exception to this rule in man, but I find a
good deal of variation in the direction of the line formed by the

projecting edge of the acromion when the bone is thus held. It

is not easy to determine what angle it forms with the horizon,
and I shall give the mean very vaguely, as probably in the neigh-

- borhood of 45°, but I have seen it reach at least 65° on one

hand and fall to 30° or less on the other. These two extremes
are shown in Figs. 12 and 13. I have been unable to find that
either of these degrees of inclination is assed with i! ee -

ee

_ leads one to the conclusion that very remarkable scapulæ could —

‘make more remarkable ones than actually occur. I shall now P,

markable specimen, and is among those having the lowest in-
dices. The scapular index is 56.5, and the infra-spinous 76.3.

_ collection shows no such range. Even the scapula of the bear

6 36 Variation of the Human Shoulder-Blade. [July
The study of the range of variation in these separate parts :

be constructed by a judicious selection and union of the most
striking individual parts; but it would, I think, be difficult to —

call attention to some of the most curious specimens. Figs. 4 —
and 5 show respectively the lowest and the ‘highest indices. —
The breadth is the same in each, but the.length of the latter is —
little more than two-thirds of that of the former. The process ~
for the teres major, though small, is clearly shown on the scap- —
ula of the mound-builder, but the other bone has a larger surface —
for the origin of the muscle, though there is but a slight pro- —
jection at the anterior edge, which is confirmatory of the views —
expressed above. Figs. 6 and 7 have already been alluded to as _
widely different forms, having almost identical indices. Each is
a peculiar bone, but the sharp one is the more uncommon. F igs. ©
8 and g are also in strong contrast to each other. The posterior —
borders have been figured, but the striking effect is shown in the —
figures of the whole bones. Each is very peculiar and in a dif-
ferent way, though „neither has a remarkable index. Fig. 10 |
represents a wonderfully long bone, being 20 cm. It is a re- |

The original of Fig. 11 (scapula index 58.8 and infra-spinous —
72.3) is figured. because it belonged to a negro and yet had in-
dices far below the mean of Caucasian bones. A comparison —

differs no more from that of the tiger than some of these from
one another. A few notes on the anthropoid apes will be found
in the appendix.
What influence the height, the muscular development, the
health, and the occupation of the individual may have on the
ape of the scapula, and indeed on the skeleton in general,

= The mate to this bone is the longest I have measured, exceeding it by more tl
I mm,, but it has, unfortunately, been injuréd.

1887] — Variation of the Human Shoulder-Blade. a: 37

cannot as yet be much more than guessed at. The question
suggests a field for inquiry, which has as yet hardly been opened,
but which in the course of years may bear a rich crop. Some-
thing has been done in this direction by Mr. W. Arbuthnot
Lane, of London."

Livon found that in women both indices were higher than in
men, while, as above stated, Broca found the reverse, but in very
small series, I do not feel convinced that Livon’s are large
enough to put the fact beyond question, and cértainly it would
be rash to draw any conclusion as regards a single individual.
Probably the actual size of the bone, and more particularly that
of the glenoid cavity, are the best indications of the sex that
the bone offers, and these are of but little value.

It must be remembered that the great range of individual
variation does not necessarily destroy the value of Broca’s in-
dices, but it shows that the method must be applied to large
series of bones from well-marked races. It is gratifying to find
this view supported by no less an authority than Sir William
Turner, who writes, “ For I gather from my own measurements
and those of other observers, that the range of variation in the
relative length and breadth of the scapula is very considerable in
the same race, so that it needs a large number of bones to enable
one to obtain an accurate idea of the mean of any race.” *

APPENDIX.
THE INDICES OF ANTHROPOID APES,

Both Broca and Flower and Garson published the indices of

-anthropoid apes in their papers, which have been referred to

so often. As the number of observations is necessarily small, I
am glad to be able to offer a few additional ones. Broca gives
the indices of ten gorilla skeletons, of five chimpanzees, of one

orang, and of seven gibbons. Flower and Garson give the in- _ :

_ dices of sixteen bones of the gorilla, of twenty-one of the chim- |

; _ panzee, of seventeen of the orang, and of eight of the gibbon. —

o * The Pathology of Changes produced by Pressure in the Bony Skeleton of the
_ Trunk, Guy’s Hospital Reports, vol. xliii., 1886 ;

2 It is proper to mention that this paper had been written and sent to the NAT-

i URALIST before I had seen Professor Turner’s remarks on the scapula in the“ Chal-

lenger” Reports. Through the courtesy of the editors I have had an opportunity to is
mor if ' my paper here and there by quoting from his work. ee a

‘638 Variation of the Human Shoulder-Blade. [July

4
To these I can add the indices of thirteen shoulder-blades of the |
gorilla, eight of the chimpanzee, and two of the orang."

Ba ¥

Broca. Flower and Garson. Dwight.
Scap.Ind. _TnEspin. | Soap, tnd. —MSBIA-| Soap, ind, ag
Gorilla. sisest: | 70.38 126.05 | 72.2 132.5 | 70.1 130.7 &
Chimpanzee... | 68.52 130.23 69.9 133.8 68.4 129.1 _
Orang. sesso 69.27 97-461 77.6 103.8 73.6 89.7
Gibbon ......... 96.97 198.56 96.5 201.2

_ Below are the highest and lowest indices that I found in gorilla —
and chimpanzee: |

AD ES epee PR rt hye eT ae ilar ee SSS aiin SRN

Scapular Index. Infra-spinous Index.
í Highest........ 76.
Gorilla asss
a f Lowest. s.s... 66.1 116.0
5 $ Highest........ 72.8 136.0
. Chiimpaszes.. f Lowest......... 66.1 117.5

These figures show that the highest scapular index of the —
gorilla and chimpanzee is sometimes, though very rarely, sur- _
passed in human bones. I say nothing of the orang, having
measured the bones of only one adult skeleton. The case is
different, however, with the infra-spinous index, as the lowest ¢
the gorilla and chimpanzee exceeds the highest human one.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

The views of the dorsum of the scapula are all on the same scale. Figures 12
and 13 are not on precisely the same scale as the others. a 6 and 13 are from

the same hone, All but 5 and 11 are presumably Caucas
Scapular Index. Infra-spinous Index.
Fig. 4. $5.1 ‘ 72.8
sy 4 From Kentucky mounds......... 82.2 107.3 ra
a 7-8 91.4
c is 67. 8 x 90.6 :
“ 8.4: is 69. 4 2 3
F opposit fi iS ceteisnenek 97
E a} a penae { 61.5 91.4
=. 40. A ha long bone 56.5 i 76.3 me
“ on 58.3 res o o o
à Sm extreme degrees of inclination of the acromion. a :
1 In spite of a foot-note on p. 75 of Broca’s paper, I confess to some doubt as to” .

whether his figures of ape measurements refer to the number of skeletons or to be
the number of scapulæ. I have followed Flower and Garson, who r ce his
table, in stating it as I have in the text. My own figures, like theirs, refer to ind

> vidual bones. i 2

PLATE XX..

—

eS Pera i

1887] Lncised Boulders in the Upper Minnesota Valley. 639
INCISED BOULDERS IN THE UPPER MINNE-
SOTA VALLEY.

BY T. H. LEWIS.

HERE are other inscribed. rocks in the same region besides
those of the Thunder Bird’s Track described in the AMER-
- ICAN NATURALIST for May, 1886, which, like them, should be

DIAGRAM N?!

oe
a 3

<< SP
Of
D A

8
Oy»
i 3 : : fr kas
| . ean PS ks eS
Zz, 30 4a So Centimetres

_ preserved jen oian The accompanying diagrams and k
verbal descriptions will account for three.

E SE ESE SE AENA D ee ee,
: « 2 ?

_very slight. In 1883, when they were traced, the pictogré

_ boulder has a flat surface with a western exposure; is irregu

_and the plateau is also called “Sacred;”’ but the name has
significance as regards the markings, for two lovers named
eee without Paving that there were any pictogr: aphs

: of the existence of the inscriptions until after their discovery
the whites, although the plateau was for many years a ge

a stated that twelye hundred feet to the eastward of this ro
+ boulder was situated an ancient enclosure or fort of the

: - builders, of about four acres, with a ‘customary outlying
— One is oi justified, te in speculating, P

640 Incised Boulders in the Upper Minnesota Valley,

This boulder is in the edge of the public park, on the no
end of the plateau at Brown’s Valley, Minnesota. The plat
is about forty feet above the Minnesota River there.

in outline, and is about five feet eight inches in diameter, andi i
firmly imbedded in the terrace.

Fig. 1 is the central figure, and undoubtedly represents a man,
although the form is somewhat conventional.

Fig. 2 represents a bird.

Fig. 3 represents a tortoise.

Fig. 4 is a cross and circle combined, but the circle has a groove
extending out from it. :

Figs. 5, 6, and 7, although somewhat in the shape of crosses,
probably represent bird-tracks. ye

Figs. 8 and 9 are nondescript in character
must be some meaning attached to them.

2

were very plain; but during my last visit to this region, in
summer of 1886, the moss was gradually encroaching upon t
and it will be only a matter of a few years before they are en
tirely covered up.

The people of the place call this boulder “the Sacred Ro

Snie as it may seem, the Indians of this region have |
beatin connected with this boulder, and, in fact, did not km

rendezvous for them as a sporting-ground.
_ Asa matter of incidental antiquarian interest here, it may

1887]. Zncised Boulders in the Upper Minnesota Valley. 641

on possible relationship between these two interesting classes of
relics of the very old times.

D/ACRAM N°2

o 6 2 % Inches

to 20 3e 4o Centimetres

This boulder is on a high terrace on the west side of the
- Minnesota River, one and a half miles south of Brown’s Valley,
and is in Roberts County, Dak. It is oblong in form, being
three and a half feet in length, two feet in width, and is firmly
imbedded in the ground. :

Figs. 1 and 2 are undoubtedly tortoises.

Fig. 3 is probably intended to represent a bird-track.

Fig. 4 represents a man, and is similar to the one at Brown’s
Valley.

Fig. 5 is a nondescript of unusual form.

Fig, 6 is apparently intended to represent a headless bird:
that respect greatly resembling certain earthen effigies in ie
_ regions to the southeast.

The figures are about one-fourth of an inch in depth, and very
smooth, excepting along their edges, which roughness is caused
by aslight unevenness of the surface of the boulder.

This boulder is only a short’ distance from one previously de-
scribed as “ Thunder Bird’s Track’s Brother,” some four miles

_ northwest of Brown’s Valley, and, like No. 2, is in Roberts :

County, Dak.
The figures here represented are roughly pecked into the
y one and were never finished; for the grooves that form the
a ts on other boulders in this region have been rubbed

642 Incised Boulders in the Upper Minnesota Valley, [July

until they are perfectly smooth. The face of the boulder upon :
which these occur is about two feet long and one and a half feet 7
in width. l
DIAGRAM NES

P R 2 % Inches
o see zo 30 Ao Cantimectryes

There is a Dakota tradition relating to these incised boulders r
about as follows: ` :
In olden times there used to be an object that marked the ©
boulders at night. It could be seen, but its exact shape was in-

_ distinct. It would work, making sounds like hammering, and
occasionally emit a light similar to that of a fire-fly. After
nishing its work it would give one hearty laugh, like a woman
laughing, and then disappear. The next morning the Indians
would find another pictured boulder in the vicinity where the
object had been seen the night previous. 2
a The above is only given to show how the Indians account for.
_ these incised boulders, s
St. PAUL, MINN., April 6, 1887.

Fe:

1887] Editors’ Table. i 643

EDITORS’ TABLE.
EDITORS: E. D, COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

THE principal object of the International Congress of Geol-
ogists is the unification of geological methods. This means the
adoption of a general system of nomenclature for formations
and a system of coloration for maps. The utility of such a
project cannot be questioned. Diversity in the practices of dif-
ferent countries on these points is as inconvenient as it is unsci-
entific. It is not a matter of prime importance what names or
what colors are used, but it is important that these should be
uniform for the world. Two objections have been made to this
project. One of these is that there is not identity, properly so
called, between the geological formations of the different con-
tinents. The other is, that no system adopted under our present
knowledge is adapted to express discoveries yet to be made in
unexplored regions.

o the first of these so-called objections it may be replied
that, since time is one, so geological ages are one for all parts
of the earth. Vast tracts of sediments and intrusions have been
produced contemporaneously in the past, as they are being now
produced in the present. When these formations are identified
as contemporaneous they should receive identical names, and be ©
identically colored on geological maps. Of course, the begin-
nings and ends of the processes of deposition have not been
always contemporaneous ; so that we have, in variations of this
kind, ground for subdivisions of minor extent and importance.
But the great “time boundaries’—as they are well termed by
Professor Dana—are identical in their central features for the

whole earth. The parallelism may be even traced to a lesser
- grade of divisions, as is well known. It is only in what might
be termed the third grade of time divisions based on stratig-
raphy, that we begin to find identifications impossible. So, Os
course; the work of the Congress can proceed no further in this —
direction.

It can, however, digest and codify the results of geological
research in all countries to its lowest subdivisions. It can cata-
~ logue and compile. Thus an invaluable index to all the forma-
a tions of all countries may be produced. Such a list, like all

ie ee een ee

_ system (that in use by the United States Geological Survey) is 1
the antithesis of that in common use (and represented by the

_ nized elements forms a complete and symmetric whole. In view |

644 ; : Editors’ Table. ft y

others of the kind, would have to be continually enlarged by
new accessions, as in all other departments of science. Thus is
answered the second of the objections above referred to. À

The above remarks apply ‘both to a system of nomenclature
and to a system of coloration. Major J. W. Powell, of the
United States Geological Survey, has entered a protest against f
the adoption of the system of colors generally in use, and has E
endeavored to secure the adoption of one of his own devising. |
The following is an extract from a letter which was presented to :
the last Congress—that of Berlin'—by Major Powell : x

g
z;
ie

“Tt will be observed that in’ its fundamental principles this |

European map). With the evolution of geologic science there |

of the manner in which scientific classification is effected, it
involves conference among geologists concerning obscure and

discovery. Though natural and simple in its inception, the fully

_festingson a partly artificial basis, it is simple and natural in its

application.
“The old system is ideographic, connotative, and analyt!

_ the new is alphabetic, denotative, and synthetic; the old system |

trammels the observer by prescribing rules to which his obse
_ +The Work of the International Congress of Get gists, and of its Committees»

Ss by Dr. P. Frazer, Secretary of the American Committee, 1886, p.. 107-

Re

1887] : Recent Literature. . 645

vation must conform, while the new encourages originality by
allowing the utmost latitude in expressing the results of obser-
vation; the old system tends to retard the development of geo-
logic science, and to restrict its practical application by explicitly
postulating its completeness, while the new promotes geology
and extends its useful applications by providing the means of
expressing discoveries in new as well as in old lines of investi-
gations.”

This letter, so far as we understand it, postulates both the ob-
jections we have mentioned above, and which we have shown to
be groundless.

The Congress of Berlin did not think it advisable to change
the system of coloration which had been, in its main features, in
use for half a century, and the American Committee has accepted
its decision. In this the committee has adopted the views of
utility generally entertained in Europe. The committee, at its

lbany meeting, however, expressly insisted on the necessity of
incorporating into the general system all new and additional
details to be derived from the explorations conducted in non-
European countries, thus providing for the contingency referred
to by Major Powell in the letter above quoted.

A great deal of labor devolves on the Congress and its com-

_mittees. Their only reward is the belief that their work is a

w

useful one, and the confidence that, if well done, it will endure,
so far as it goes, as a permanent standard of estimation for the
entire world, and for all time.

RECENT LITERATURE.

ings of the American Society of Microscopists.'— `

Proceedings of the American Society of Microscopists, Ninth Annual Meeting,
N. Y., August 10, 11, 12, and 13, 1886. Buffalo, N. Y., 1886, -

?

646 Recent Literature, [July

tation of the part played by bacteria in disease, and gives many
facts which fully support his conclusions, Dr. Smith’s elaborately |
illustrated paper is better than most of the American diatom lit-
erature, as it deals with structure rather than with “ resolution.” ©
e papers upon the detection of adulterated butter seem con- |
clusive that the microscope alone is not sufficient to decide in all
cases, or, at least, until new tests are discovered. a
There can be no doubt that this society is doing a good work,
_and while it is the means of publishing much that is crude, and
which might better be left in manuscript, it still serves as a centre E
for many who otherwise would not belong to any scientific asso-
ciation. To the charge that sufficient censorship is not exer- f
cised in the acceptation of papers for publication, the much larget E
American Association for the Advancement of Science is equally |
open. Indeed, such criticism applies with much more force to the |
latter than to the former association, for with a total of about |
three hundred and seventy-five members the Microscopical So-
ciety have a very substantial financial balance on hand, while
the larger American Association, with a membership of eighteen

_ hundred and eighty-six, are several thousand dollars in debt.

The Fourth Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.: —The
present volume keeps up the high standard of the series and
r

ie
p
pina

is able to form his own conclusions unwarped by any theory ¢

; riter. The impression the article creates in the present
reviewer is that the simplest explanation of any pictograph
most likely to be the right one, and any forced or symboli

i ome

i
interpretation is apt to violate the nature of at least the Indians
of North America. The other articles of the volume relate
pottery. Three by Mr. William H. Holmes deal respectively W
— Annual pon seg of ig fgg of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smi
sontan institution, 1882-83, by J. W. Powell, Dir os ë 3
Wana 16 Coley nim Be irector. gto, pp Sr

1887] Recent Literature. 647

the “ Pottery of the Ancient Pueblos,” the “ Ancient Pottery of
the Mississippi Valley,” and as a corollary thereto the “Origin and
Development of Ornament in Ceramic Art.” Mr. F. H. Cushing
gives a study of Pueblo pottery as illustrative of Zuñi culture-

rowth. These papers afford ample illustrations of the laws
already laid down of the development of the ceramic art, an
are to be regarded as proving and confirming the gradual evolu-
tion of the potter’s trade, rather than as advancing new ideas.
This, however, must not be taken as adverse criticism,,but, on
the contrary, as a recognition of an important point in the
articles. In connection with them the reader should refer to
Professor F. W. Putnam’s recent paper on “ Conventionalism in
Ancient American Art” (Bulletin Essex Inst, xviii, 1887), to
which we shall have occasion to refer again. ;

_ Beal’s Grasses of North America.'—This volume is, in fact,
Part I. of a large work the second part of which, we are informed
in the preface, is in preparation. When completed it will be the
most important work on grasses ever brought out in this country.
The part before us includes seventeen chapters devoted to the
following subjects,—viz., structure, form, and development of
grasses; the power of motion in plants; plant-growth ; classify-
ing, naming, describing, collecting, studying; native grazing-
lands; grasses for cultivation; early attempts to cultivate
grasses; testing seeds; some common weeds; grasses for pas-

It will thus be seen that the range of topics is much wider
than that which we usually find in books designed for popular
use. In fact, it is doubtful whether many farmers will care much

for the first three or four chapters ; but, for all that, it is a hopeful

sign when an author who is as well acquainted with the farming
classes as Dr. Beal is, will deliberately open his book with a sci-
entific discussion of structure, form, and development. Many a
farm boy, in consulting this book, will be inspired with a desire
to learn more about the methods of scientific study.

-In the first chapter there are many matters touched upon which
are interesting to the scientific botanist. The closed sheaths of

-~ some grasses and the partially-closed ones of many others are
+3 re i 4 a

Pe A

1 to, and some interesting figures are given. The mech-

Grasses of North America, fòr Farmers and Students, comprising chapters on
their physiology, composition, selection, improving, cultivation, ment of-
also chapters injuri i

_ M.A., M.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of Botany and Forestry in Michigan Agricultural

.

pyrighted by the author. Agricultural College, Mich., -
$

Woodward, A. S-—Notes on some Post-Liassic Species of Acrodus. Geol.

648. ee Recent Literature.

some length, and amply illustrated. Many a botanist will He
find a fuller account of the curious “ bulliform cells” of the grass-

The ant of the ater | is well adapted to the purpose of t
book, and no farmer need hesitate to purchase it for fear of i
being too technical. The mechanical execution of the book is —
good, the illustrations are accurate, and the printing is fede: done a
upon good paper. Some typographical errors mar the pages
here and there; but these can easily be corrected in a seco
edition, which will certainly be demanded. The author is to
congratulated upon the successful completion of this valuab
book. The second part will be looked for with keen interest.
Charles E. Bessey.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Smithsonian Institution. —Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1604
Part II. Report on the U, S. National Museum, by G. B. sone with papers
on the oo $y DTT Mason, J. Murdoch, E We True

White, F. E —Hygiene as a Basis of Ra oan a tad Popu
alte inthe, 1887. Pok the author, '

Stone, G. H. Iien kenek in Maine. From the author. 1887.

Giard, M. A.—Sur on parasitaire chez Z’ Eupagurus bernhardus

: et chez Ja oo ferrin Montagu. —Sur un Copepode paras asite
l’ Amphiura squamata. 1887. Both Pisa the author

Boulenger, G. A.—On New Batrachians fro om Malac ou T ks on Dr.

Strauch’s Catalogue of the Geckos in the Zoological Museum of St. Pete
—Description of a New Tailed Batrachian aoe Corea.—On New Fishes
the Lower Congo.—On a New Calamaria fro rom Borneo.—A Synopsis of
Snakesvof South Alsicay--Desarigtionob. x of a ie Megalophrys. All from
Mag. Nat. History, 1887.
Halsted, B. D. aen of the a Agricultural College, 1886. From the author
saan, 7: F— cological connoissance_of Bland, Giles, Wythe,
ns of Kidi me ontgo mone Counties, Va. 1887. From the author.
Lisle, w. D.—Sketch of a New Utilitarianism. Montreal, 1887. From

PR Cok C H—Anwaa Rap ofthe Sate Gest (N. J.) for 1886, From

Mark, E. L.—Si le Eyes in Bull. . Zool. Hi
Mi a Ta age Arthropods, ull, Mus. Comp

~ 1887. From ?
: McCaltey, H—On the Warrior Coalfield. Geol. Surv. of Ala. From the aut

Minot, C. S—Researches « Biological P
< Both fom on aera Diak.. 1884.—Biologi :

1887] _ Recent Literature. ~ 649
— G. M —The Canadian Rocky Mountains. Reprinted from Canadian Rec-
of eds 1886, From the author

eee j e Texture of Massive Rocks Am. Jour. Sci., January, 1887.—
egies $ Saini of Cinnabar, Gold, and Associated ‘Sulphides. Both from
uthor

aaia F. rS Leg in a Male Frog. From the author.
Eigenmann, C. H. Review of he Emira of North America. Ext. Ann.
Horning, F. E., oie N. Y. A Sci., January, 1887. From the authors.
Warring, C. B.—Certain Laws of id, Bodies, 1887. From the author.
Torre, v. Dalla, Te as dukes aus der Vogelwelt

Rice, W. N.—On rites and Sandstone in the Gorge of Fecal yp a River, Tariff-

ville, Conn. Am. Jour. Sci., December, 1886. From the a
Vetter, B So ray atalak vor dem Roagite der Sa petro From
the au

Lydekker, 5 —Desr iption of a Jaw of Hyotherium from the Pliocene of India
The Cetacea of the “tel bi’ Both from Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Febru-
ary, 188704 nd from the a
i sad A. W. R Waiee Hei of North Cornwall, nied descriptions of six
spec

ies. Mita Micros. Soc., 1887. From the a
a EC n some Rare Minerals of the aah Bull. Washburn
y College, Tiy 1886. From the author

< Baur, G.—Ueber das Quadratum der Spusethiere, From the author.
spay ihe th —tList of Anthropological and Mammalian Literature. Munich.
om t

author.
Se i E ia ashes tion st po, the poi Origin of the Segmental
Duct.—On the Arrangement of the Mesenteries in the Parasitic Larva of Hal-

notre chrysanthellum. Both from Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., 1887. From the

Soran —Le petit Ursus Speleeus de Gargas. Comptes Rendus, 1887.—La
Grotte de Montgawdier. Comptes Rendus, 1886. Both from the author.
Marsh, O. C-—Dinocerata, a Monograph of an Extinct Order of Gigantic Mimanals.
1886. Washington. U. S. Geol. Surv. From the poren
Huni, T. P —Mineral Perei? and Physiography. Boston. S. E. Cassino.
1886.— A New Basis of Chemistry, a Chemical baitesophy: 1887. Boston.
S. E. Cassino. Both from the author.
Bastin, E. S.—Elements of Botany. 1887. yE P. Engelhard & Co., Chicago.
; From the publishers
Weber, M.—Ueber La enorhynchus iba Brak —Ueber Hermaphroditismus
bei Fry ischen. Both from Tijdschrift d. Med. Dier. Ver., 1887. From the
aut
Newton, E. T—A Classification of a with especial reference to fossil for
London, 1887.—Note on some Recent Additions to the Vertebrate Fauna vat :
ep the Norfolk Forest-Bed, Ext. Geek Mad ., 1887. Both from the author
Schmathausen, F—Ueber tertiare Pflanzen am Fusse des Altaigebirges. “ : Pala-
ont ete tid rt, 1

sy
iu
Da
sere]
>
3
a
ae
io
a
J
r,
se
ri
H
P,

ee Pathan, E W. and Æ. ar UN Observations on the Special Senses of Wasps.
ree Bat Proc, Nat. Hist. Soc. Wisconsin, 1887. From the authors. .

vo Gadow, H.—Bronn’s Thier-reichs, - Vögel. 1887.

, Cook, A. soe and the Sugar-Bush. Means, Ous 1887. From the

ds R 0 R. 0.—Minor —_ Loraine 18387. Swan, Sonnenschein & Co. Pe s

t

650 _ General Notes.

Leconte, Fos.—The Relation of Evolution to Religious Thought. From the au
See i P.—Annual Report of the Director of the Mint. 1886. From

rahe sonst of Washington .—Proceedings, vol. iii.’ July 1, 1884, to F ebruary
6, 1886. From the Societ
Rothpletz, ee haa ae Monographie der Vilser Alpen.
gear th agp Ammonites de la zone 4 Aspidoceras Acanthi Mém. |
é Géologique St. Petersbourg, 1886.—Sur Phistoire de a ‘faune K
meridiei de la Russe.—Les Ammonites du groupe Olcostephanus versicolor,
Moscow, 1886. All from the author
Leche, W. wheres die Sinige thinceyaliniis Galeopithecus. Stockholm, 1886. Fre

the au
fleiiprin, A sede ah tl of the West Coast of Florida, 1886, From the author
Dugès, A.—El Trombidium dubrueilli, nov. sp. From the author.

Wright, R. R.—On the es eps hoe Organ of Hypophthalmus.
Roy. Soc. iea ape ot. : ee

Yoram } DS Vite collected at Beaufort, S. C.—Fishes collected at Havana,
; Cuba. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. From the author

GENERAL NOTES.
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.

General.—It is pointed out by Ed. Heawood, in a re
number of the Proc. Roy. Geog. Sey that the relations of len
of the eight principal rivers given ' by General Tillo would
greatly altered were the general course taken, and the mini
tortuosities left out. The Nile would Chi astionabiy then
the longest river (3100 miles), the Yang-tse-Kiang (2750)

i

cises for memory than ascertained ob. yet we er pres
that oe is —) bringing the mountains at least

i has
great reduction by or ita Once “roughly” estimat
17

t. Elias has by similar Processes been elevated from D'A

'

1887] Geography and Travels. 651

estimate of 12,672 feet to 19,500, according to the triangulation of
Mr. Baker. This may yet undergo some change, but from the
account of Mr. Seton Karr it appears that the breadth of its
form and the high mountains behind it caused Mount St. Elias
to be underestimated, while the isolated position of Mount Hood
caused the reverse. It is now stated that Mount Wrangel, some
_ distance to the north of Mount St. Elias, rises 18,400 feet above
the forks of Copper River, which are 2000 feet above the sea. If
this estimate, made by Lieutenant Allen, is correct, Mount Wran-
gel is 1000 feet higher than Mount St. Elias, so that after all the
United States possesses the highest peak on the North American
continent.

LASKA GLACIERS.—The country that intervenes between the
St. Elias Alps and the sea, from Cross Sound to the Copper River
(Alaska), with the exception of small areas of flat land east of
Yakatat Bay, and east of Icy Bay, consists entirely of glaciers,
the terminal moraines of which are so extensive that the ice lies
buried under millions of tons and hundreds of square miles o
loose rocks which it has carried down from the mountains. The
Agassiz Glacier is probably about six hundred square miles in
extents while the Great Guyot Glacier, west of it, is of quite
unknown area. e early navigators mistook the nature of the
country. Vancouver describes it as “a barren country, com-
posed of loose stones,” and La Perouse mistook the protruding
ice for snow lying on the ground.

_ the Welle at Ali Kobos in Bassange Land (in a straight line
_ With the Ngala) was so wide that Dr. Junker could not deter-

J J

652 ae General Notes.

Asia. THE Saraswati—The importance ascribed in the
Vedas to the river Saraswati, there called the “chief and purest
of rivers,’ points, as stated by Mr. R. D. S. Oldham (Pro
Asiatic Soc. of Bengal), to some change in the hydrography
the region, since the stream now called the Saraswati is qui
insignificant. Mr. Oldham is of opinion that the Jumna, with
the recent period of geology, flowed towards the Punjab, and

gives reasons for identifying it with the Sutlej.
PREJEVALSKY’s EXPLORATIONS.—Prejevalsky’s journeys in C
tral Asia have probably done more towards the elucidation of t
orography, hydrography, and ethnography of the regign that
those of any other traveller. His first journey (1871-73) W
across the Gobi Desert, between Kiachta and Kalgan, and then
westward to Kansu in Western China. He visited Lake Koko Ni

a
'hasa,

from

Lake Uliunghar, and along its feeder, the Urungu, across tl

»

Desert of Dzungaria, to that of Gobi. The Dzungarian Dese

| ae packings but yields excellent fuel. ‘The wild horse is
~ met with in a corner of the desert of Dzungaria, the wild ©

1887] Geography and Travels. 653

ally-important Chinese town of Hami, our traveller crossed
- the desert at its narrowest place to An-si-chau, and then rested
awhile at the fine oasis of Shachau, at the foot of the Nan-shan
range. Crossing the ‘Nan-shan, he made his way, in spite of
much quiet opposition from the Chinese, to the Mur-ussu, the
head-waters of the Yang-tse-Kiang. An uninterrupted gigantic
mountain wall stretches from the Hoang-Ho to.the Pamir, di-
viding the great plateau of Central Asia into two parts,—the
Mongolian Desert on the north and Tibet on the south. Tsaidam,
or Zaidam, may be considered a part of the Tibetan plateau, but
is enclosed all around by mountains; southward by the Kuen-
luin, which under various names extends from the sources of the
arkand River far into China proper, and to the north by the
Altyn-tagh and Nan-shan. The wild yak, which appears to be
found in herds as numerous as once those of the bison in North
America, never utters a sound, while the domestic one grunts
like a pig.
- The pass over the Tang-la range is sixteen thousand seven
hundred feet high, but only two thousand one hundred feet
above the Mur-ussu, and two thousand above that of the Sang-
chu, which is believed to join the Salwin. The chain of lakes,

from Urga crossed the Gobito Ala-shan. Leaving a depot at the

the Odontala, or thousand springs. Crossing to the Bhu River,
.the Di-chu of the Tangutans, the upper course of the Yang-

times the caravan route between Khoten and China. The Kuen-
Lun was found to culminate in the snowy group of Jing-ri oe
Nor

~ Test of the party is made up of pony-drivers and servants.
oe Without any armed escort, but provided with a passport from
VOL, Xx1.—no. 7. nae

654 _ General Notes. [Ju

Peking, he has made his way quietly among people with wh

the plains of Turkestan, near Kiria. From Kuchar the Tarim :
was followed to Lake Lob. From thence the intention was to go.
over the Altyn-tagh, but nothing has since been heard from him,
_ Mancuuria.—Since their journey to the Peishan Mountain —
and the sources of the Sangari, Messrs. James, Younghusband,
and Fulford have visited some other parts of Manchuria. C l
nists were perpetually arriving in Northern Manchuria, but brig-
andage is rife, and for the most part goes on unpunished, as the
Manchu semi-military administration is most effete. The count
is very fertile, and only needs good government and. security
- life and property. l

GEOLOGY AND PALÆONTOLOGY.

by the professor of geology in Denison University. In a mot
complete form this paper appears in the laboratory bulletin of

on McFarlane’s description of these contacts, Wadsworth says
(“ Azoic System,” p. 346), “His observations show clearly thi
both formations here are eruptive and of the same geological age

ontact between the great dyke of “dense basaltic green-

stone, having the peculiar dolerytic glitter” ( a typical coars

diabase), and the series of (here hornblendic) schists which are

at places greatly contorted by the influence of the granite ane

the diabases. The schists can everywhere be easily distinguls

m the penetrating dykes, which lie in strike or dip. They

prevailingly chloritic, containing large quantities of calcite. /

_ mor ar i s are beds of schist-conglomera
which are regarded by the writers as true basement conglo

ates. he pebbles are sometimes very large, and consist ©

188 7] Geology and Paleontology. 655

interesting instance of the formation of a porphyry from the
fusion of the schist-conglomerate by contact action of a diabase-
aphanite or porphyrite is noted. In what may be assumed to
be the centre of the fold are great beds of calcareous gneiss,
often with sillimanite (?) needles. These are the only stratified
granitic rocks seen, and form an integral part of the schist series.
Dykes of diorite are very frequent in the schist, and in every
case assimilate the adjacent schist to them very closely in
general appearance, though the microscopic character may be
quite markedly different. The method of occurrence suggests
that the diorites are really but fused portions of the schists
pressed up through the pasty yielding schist, which thus is
greatly affected by the contact. The diabases, on the other
hand, are of a much later origin, and perforate the granite as
well as the schist. The felsite-porphyries are thought possibly
to have been formed from the injection of matter from the
granite below at the same time at which the diorites were formed
and before some subsequent metamorphism, which involves the
schist and all its intrusives except the diabases. A curious mod-
, ification of some of the diorites is described, by which the long
twins of actinolite have lost their pleochroism completely,
although still preserving the normal angle of the optical to the
crystallographic axis. The hornblende becomes exceedingly like
augite in appearance and polarization. Much that has been
called diorite-slate and diabase-schist, when carefully studied,
can be analyzed into various intrusive diorites, closely assimilated

to intervening beds of mica, and hornblendic-schist or a cherty

Keweenaw series, which laps upon the eastern shore of Michi-
picoten Bay, is thought to occupy an original synclinal, though
great erosion must have preceded the formation of the con-
glomerates which are the lowest members visible. On the island
of Michipicoten these conglomerates are well exposed, and a
careful study of their pebbles shows that they can all be referred
to some one or other of the formations now visible along the
north shore of the lake. The same granites, felsites, schists,
and diorites can be identified. Chemical analysis does not detect
copper in any part of the conglomerate studied, but everything
seems to point to its origin from the amygdaloids, which every-
_ where cap the conglomerate and have in some places greatly
metamorphosed the latter. Indeed, the writers of the paper in-
cline to believe that some or all of the peculiar ferrugineous
quartz-porphyry, forming the only acid eruptive seen upon the
island, may be the result of ‘such metamorphism of the conglo-
-Merate, Space does not permit a more extended reference to
the interesting intrusives of the Keweenaw series, which deserve
a careful and critical study. Microscopic sections of the rocks
_. described are offered for exchange. © . :

656 General Notes. [July

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
PLATE XXII.
Fics. 1-3. Modified chloritic schist at contact with a diorite to which it e asini
pa f

e an ia
a large corroded crystal of calcite iş shown as appearing between
crossed nicols.

FIG. 4. A section of the large dyke of coarse diabase northeast from Michipicoten
Island, at the western limit of the bay. The section shows only augite and labradorite i
in iaig ary light.

G. 5. Pseudomorphs of chlorite after mic

re 6. A estes twin of orthoclase — a Torana |

Fic. 7. Diabase-aphanite toping the c onglomerate on EET Island. A
fine pag of lag lase is sae red in a cryptocrystalline

Gc. 8. T augite passing to uralite, from dyke of Ma at Dog Riv

Fi E 9. View of the schist a l apni at Dog River. Greatly reduced pa
a raph. }
he 10. ee north and south section of the Lake Saperiot basin, partly

ter Irving.

_ PLATE XXIII,
Fic. 1. Section of quartz-porphyry from apo! ns alae Island.
Fic, 2. Altered mica-schist from a boulder in the conglomerate.
Fics. 3 and 4. Pseud
F :

system
ue F will give a synopsis of the description of this group, : such
as has been given by Cope.
` “3. I will analyze the opinions expressed by Messrs. Wortman
and Schlosser as to this grou
“4. Iwill study the principles developed by the investigation t
"of this group, in order to show that its different memod a an

P obably 5 or ?) of certain orders of mamn

“i 5. I will finally inquire aia the European fauna does

* Etudes sur P Histoire Paléontologique des Ongulés en Améri ue et a P
I. Groupe Primitive de l’Eocéne i celica. Par Marie Pavlow, jtor

PLATE XXII.

PLATE XXIII.

ane la srodek i cient AARC TET

1887] Geology and Paleontology. 657

not present us with certain forms which should be placed with
those which form the group Condylarthra.”

These objects are realized with much fidelity, and the text is
illustrated by a number of engravings, mostly from the casts
made by Kowalevsky. The only exception to be noted in, carry-
ing out of Proposition 1 is the omission of reference to the
opinion that the Condylarthra are ancestral to the lemuroids as
well as to the other Ungulata? The authoress gives a compre-
hensive review of the important paper of Dr. Schlosser (reviewed
in these pages 1886, p. 719), discussing especially the genus
Hyracotherium. :

M. Pavlow concludes her review with the following proposi-

tions :
1. The Condylarthra is a mixed group, of which the forms
present characters of Ungulata and Unguiculata, and that it
should be regarded as occupying the base of the genetic tree of
both ungulates and carnivores.

2. That Phenacodus primevus and P. puercensis are probably
the ancestors of the Equidz.

3. That Phenacodus wortmani should be excluded from this
genus, and with Protogonia, which includes Hyopsodus paulus
Leidy, should be placed among the Phenacodontide.

4. That Anisonchus, Haploconus, and Hemithlaus are rather
the ancestors of the Cs nivora; that their teeth separate them
from other Condylarth.

s. That Meniscotheriu ould belong to the group Propalz-
otheriidz, and is perhaps synonymous with Propalzotherium.

6. That Hyracotherium Ù sorinum should perhaps be regarded

and second are in accord with current views on the respective
subjects. As regards No. 2, the difference between Phenacodus
wortmani and the P. primevus is not so great as might be sup-
posed from my figure of the superior molar teeth. The anterior
intermediate tubercles of the superior molars are present, but, as
they are somewhat worn in the specimen, the artist did not rep-'
~ resent them nearly distinctly enough. Nothing but the teeth of

Hyopsodus are yet known, so that its position is uncertain. It.
may be a lemuroid-or an artiodactyle. (4) The genera mentioned

z Cope, Amer. Nat., 1884, 347; Origin of the Fittest, 1886, p. 343- I take
occasion to remark that the omission of the Marsupialia from the direct line of

ylogeny of the Condylarthra, which is justly commented on by M. Pavlow, is a
pure inadvert be inferred from the text (p. 351) The error is correc

t yuan nce, a
at the second reference.

658 General Notes.

the horse line. I wish to repeat here what I have already stated)
that this character does not exist in the American species, and is
probably wanting in the Æ. /eporinum. It exists in some of the
American species of Pliolophus, but I do not regard it as a cot

the reason why I der
(7) The existence of

* Naturalist, 1886, August, $
- - 2 Kowalevsky, Pal A toy
3 Pliolophus vin

1887] Geology and Paleontology. 659

Barrier-reefs, says our authority, always stand upon a conti-
nental border composed of rock fragments, and the want of such

Camsprian—Dr. G. Bornemann has recently described the
fossils of the Cambrian of Sardinia. Many of the forms are
closely similar to those recorded by Billings from the calciferous
rocks of the Mingan Islands and other localities bordering on
the St. Lawrence. Archgocyathus Bill. is very abundant. This
fossil has also lately been discovered in the Durness limestones
_ of Scotland.

studied was that described by Credner as Branchiosaurus ambly- |
stomus, and by Gaudry as Protriton petrolet. As no less than
seventy-six examples were studied, a good idea of the life-course
of the creature was obtained, and it was found that in its early
stages it was aquatic, breathing by gills supported by four pairs
of branchial arches. By the time Protriton reached a length of

to 70 mm. it cast its branchiz and -became an air-breather,
its development being somewhat analogous to that of the Sala-

Professor Fritsch, of Prague, has discovered a species of thero-
morphous reptile of the genus Naosaurus in the Permian beds
of Bohemia. This genus has been found hitherto only in Texas,
and was described in this journal, 1886. í E
_ Trias.—Professor Cope has presented to the American Philo- —

- sophical Society a description and figure of the cast of the brain-

*

_ face, and in many points showing apian affinities.

~ from the surrounding rock-mass their angles can be measu!
with a contact goniometer. Most of them are twinned accord

2 ; 1886, p. 33. _

660 General Notes. [j

case of Belodon buceros* Although there is no parietal fora
of the skull, the epiphysis is so enormous as to lead to the b
that the pineal eye was present. It had communication with-
orbit by a canal on each side, which Professor Cope calls t
orbitopineal canal.

Tertiary.—Lydekker recently described Scelidotherium ¢
lense, from Tarapaca, Chili. It is characterized by extreme
short nasals. He also described as new S. dravardi, from
Argentine Republic, a form which had previously been inclu
by Owen with the typical S. /eptocephalum. :

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY:'

Be aphical News.—In the August number of the Ge

ical Magazine Mr. J. J. H. Teall? describes an interesting suite
hornblende rocks which occur as intrusive sheets and bosses "i
the limestones and quartzites of the Assynt district in Scotland. l
From the description which the author gives of them, these roc% :
appear to be somewhat similar to the camptonite of Dr. Hawes i
Three types are distinguished,—viz., hornblende porphyrites,

diorites, and porphyrite diorites. In the last two classes hor!
blende is abundant in well-formed porphyritic crystals, bount
by the planes œP, «Pa, —P and oP. Some of the larger
these crystals are so perfectly developed that when separal

ing to the ordinary law, and many present fine instances of 2
1 Edited by Dr. W. S. BAYLEY, Madison, Wisconsin.

? Geol. Magazine, August, 1886, p. 346. Gesteiner
n ar New Hampshire, p. 160, ef seg.; Rcsenbusch’s Massige

1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. | 661

growths. In the hornblende porphyrites the hornblende crys-
tals are less abundant. Thisclass is characterized by the presence
of feldspar in two generations. The porphyritic crystals are
sharply outlined, and are developed in thick tables parallel to the
clinopinacoid. They often show zonal banding, due to the vari-
ations in the optical characteristics of successive layers. The
feldspar of the second consolidation occurs in grains, often form-
ing the greater part of the ground-mass in which the crystals of
hornblende and feldspar are found. In addition to these min-
erals,a very light-colored pyroxene is present in those sheets
which are intrusive between limestone-——The same author * men-
tions another instance of the development in eruptive rocks of a
schistose structure, accompanied, at the same time, by a change
in mineralogical composition.2, The normal gabbro of the Lizard
peninsula in Cornwall is intrusive in serpentine and other rocks,
and is itself penetrated by dykes of epidiorite. It is composed of
diallage, hornblende, and saussuritized plagioclase, with here and
there a little fresh olivine. The hornblende is secondary and of
three varieties,—a compact brown, a uralitic, and an actinolitic
variety. The saussuritization of the plagioclase and the altera-
tion of the original augite into hornblende appear to increase as
the pressure to which the rock-mass was subjected is seen to
have been greater. Generally, though not always, the alteration
in the composition of the rock is accompanied by.a change in its
Structure. The massive character of the normal rock is lost, and
a secondary schistose structure takes its place. These schistose
rocks the author calls flaser-gabbros, augen-gabbros, and gabbro-
schists. In the first the parallel arrangement of the constituents
is distinct, but not so marked as to give rise to that perfect fis-
sility characteristic of the third class. The augen-gabbros are
Similar in structure to the well-known augen-gneisses. These
different types of structure, as well as the alteration in the orig-
inal composition of the rock, the author regards as results of
the action of pressure, which in some cases was so great as to
give rise to faults—The hyperesthene crystals from the hy-
peresthene andesite of Pokhausz, Hungary, have been isolated
and examined by A. Schmidt.3 The rock in which they occur
consists of a dark gray isotropic ground-mass, in which the hy-
peresthene and plagioclase are scattered in porphyritic crystals.
the grass-green augite of the amphibole-andesite from near
Kremnitz has likewise been isolated and examined. e
igneous rocks of the Warwickshire coal-field, according to Pro-
ce essor Rutley,* are syenites, andesites (English), quartzites, dio- |
rites (both augitic and olivenitic), and tufas. .

* Geol. Magazine, November, 1886, p. 481.
2 Cf. American Naturalist, December, 1886, p. 1049.
3 Zeits. f. Krystall., xii. p. 97.

4 Geol, Magazine, December, 1886, p. 557-

ad on seem to show that the diopsides among the pyro

tion

crystals have heretofore been described. In the

662 General Notes.

Mineralogical News.—In 1871, Tschermak discovered that
optical characteristics of the various pyroxenes depended in great
measure upon the proportion of their iron constituent. He found
that with increase-of iron there was a corresponding increase in i
the size of the optical angle, and also in the inclination of the ©
acute bisectrix to the vertical axis of the monoclinic varietit
In later years Wiik, Herwig, and Doelter examined monoclinic |
pyroxenes with the view of deciding as to whether Tschermak’s”
observations would be found to apply generally. Their results,
however, were not conclusive. Very recently G. Flink* of Stock-
holm, declares, as the result of investigations made on diopsidi,
schefferite, and rhodonite, that the crystallographic angle varies
with variation in the percentage of iron, increasing with the in-
crease of this constituent and decreasing with its decrease, but
within very small limits (22’). The morphotropic action of man- f
ganese is to diminish the size of the angle and to carry the erys- 1
tallization of the pyroxene over to the triclinic system. „E
value of this angle for different proportions of manganese is given
as follows: if

Diopside (Mn = free). Schefferite (MnO = 8.32 %). Rhodonite (MnO = 41.88 fi
74° 11/ 73° 53’ 71° 15%”

A
B ‘
E

Z

The optical angle and the angle of extinction in the plane of
symmetry both increase with the rise in the percentage either of
iron or manganese. The geometrical, optical, and chemič

orm a continuous series analagous to the plagioclase series am
the feldspars——In the course of the above investigation Fli

i following new forms: P3, P7, P=, —2Pa, — $P and
_ Schefferite is the name given by Mikaelson to a ma

rich diopside from Långban. According to Flink its co
is:

SiO, CaO MgO MnO
52.28 19.62 15.17 8.32

_ of the pyroxenes. The axial ratio is: a:b : c = 1.1006: 1:0.

Zeitschrift f. Kryst., xi. p. 449.

1 887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 663

discussion Flink mentions the fact that he has become possessed
of a large collection of good crystals from Pajsberg and Langban.
These he examines, and finds on them nineteen forms new to the
species. The axial ratio as calculated from his measurement is:
a:b:c=1.0727:1:0.52!104. The inclinations of the axes to
each other are a = 76° 41’ 52/7, 8==71° 15’ 15”",7 =81° 30’ 16”.
The plane of the optical axes is inclined to oP and œP at 63°
and 384° respectively. It corresponds to $,P1%,3,P1®. The acute
bisectrix is perpendicular to the plane PTT and is probably
negative. 2Va= 76° 12’ for sodium light and p < v absorption
b>a>c—. The intergrowth of minerals of analogous com-
position has within the past few years been proven to be very
much more common than was formerly supposed. The micro- .
scope has revealed the fact that very many rock-forming minerals,
as, for instance, the pyroxenes and the feldspars, very frequently
occur intergrown with lamellz of analogous but slightly different
composition. The method of etched figures has shown the same
statements to hold good in regard to minerals which occur only
in massive form. By the latter means Baumhauer* has succeeded
in detecting irregular intergrowth of various substances in
cloanthite and smaltite. The occurrence of thin lamelle of

ittle Journonite3 crystals cover the cubic faces of galena
from Pribram. Their long axes are either parallel to the com-
bination edge between «Ox and O, or they are inclined to this
at an angle of 45°.

Crystallographic News.—The twinning law. of /epidolite + from
Schiittenhofen, in Bohemia, is the same as that for the more
common micas,—z.¢., the twinning plane is œP. The dispersion
of the axes is very similar to that in the hemihedral crystals of
the orthorhombic system. Intergrowths of muscovite and lepi-
dolite take place parallel to the twinning position of micas of the
Several brief communications on the crys-

*Zeits. f. Kryst., xii. p. 18. 2 Ib., p. 40.
C. Hintze, Ib., xi. kk. 4 R. Scharizer, ìb., xii. p. 1.
[b., pp. 424 and 451. ; :
f also Des Cloizeaux, Bull. d. 1. Soc. franç. de Min., 1886, p. 135.
eits. f. Kryst., xii. p. 434- : i i

4

3
mel

6
oe 4

i

, 664 : General Notes.

© crystals of different minerals from various localities. Gehmacher
ives a series of measurements on the faces of colorless zire
crystals from the Pfitschgrund, in the Tyrol. e axial ratio

of datholite from the Seisser Alps, as calculated by Riechelmann,

is a:b:c=0.63584:1:0.6329. The angle 2 = 89° 54’. The
„new forms 4P, z,P, 4P?, 4;P;, $P3, and $P2(?) have been added —

to the list of planes occurring on anatase 3 by Seligmann.——The 1
same investigator has measured pyrrhotite from the druses of ©
basalt from the Cyclopean Islands. The results indicate that €
the mineral crystallizes in the hexagonal system with the axial |
ratio: 1: 1: 1: 1.65022,——In the same article Seligmann de f
scribes a wolframite crystal from the Sierra Almagrera in Spain, —
on which are the two new forms —2P? and —3P3. The mi

gium.

crystals from Vernasca, Italy, for the prismatic and end faces

converge towards the free end of the axis to which they are par-

allel, and along which the crystals have their greatest develop-
; ment. É

”

| of the lava (with heat and pressure) on the carbonaceous S
~ In contact with and enveloped by them. A study of the oc
== tence of diamonds in other regions seems to indicate the

_ rectness of this conclusion, as Mr. Diller? points out the fact

Anson a oy xii. p. 50. -= Tb., p. 436.

ee Dy ET 4Ib., p. 352. s Ib., .

SH. C. Lewis, Geol. Magazine, January, 1887, p. 22, Ear ee
n7 Science, Oct., OE i also Geol. Survey of Kentucky; Report ©

1887] Botany. 665

diamonds of the Brazilian fields. In the lower greensands at
Flitwick and Sandy, in Bedfordshire, England, Mr. A. G. Camero*
has found ironstone nodules filled with water, which they lose by
evaporation when left exposed to the action of dry air.

BOTANY.?

The Growth of Tulostoma mammosum.—This odd puff-ball,
which is found upon a stalk varying from one to five inches in
length, occurs in abundance in the vicinity of Lincoln. I have
been much interested in watching its development,—a thing by
no means as easy as for many other puff-balls. One usually
finds it in the Spring, in ground which had been cultivated the
previous year. It often grows in clusters or groups of from half
a dozen to a dozen or more, and, upon the bare ground, in the -
early part of the season, just after the disappearance of the snow,
they are easily found. In the summer and autumn they are much
more difficult to find. Last summer I was fortunate enough to
discover a few clusters just as they were developing, and noted
some facts which appear to be new. The ball forms under

Spore-bearing part occupying most of the interior, and (2) a
sterile base composed of tissue which does not produce spores.
Now, in Lycoperdon, if one makes a vertical section of a young
ball which has nearly ripened its spores, the two parts may be
very easily distinguished. In some species the sterile base is
quite small, occurring merely as a greater or less thickening of
the boundary tissues at the base of the ball, while in others it is
well developed, notably so in Lycoperdon calatum.

In Tulostoma a portion of the tissue of this sterile base re-
mains living until after the ripening of the spores in the ball.
At this time the tissue begins a rapid growth, and, as a conse-
quence, a cylindrical stalk is quickly produced. This forces the
ball through the overlying earth, and sometimes carries it up
Several inches. This sudden formation of the stalk reminds one
of the similar growth of the stalk in the Phalloidez, to which,
indeed, as is well known to mycologists, Tulostoma is distantly
relate

The stalk of Tulostoma (of this species, at least) never de-
velops while the ball is immature. One never finds young bal
upon a stalk. In fact, I have, as yet, not succeeded in finding
any balls in which the spores were not well developed. This, of
course, is due to their subterranean habit. I doubt not, however,
that the details of their early development are essentially like

1 Geol. Magazine, August, 1886, p. 381.
2 Edited by Prof. Cones E. Raka Lincoln, Nebraska,

ra

~ ness of the work of our great authority, Tuckerman.”

; 666 | General Notes.

by a large class of efficient student collectors. It is difficult to
of what threatened in 1885 to be a very serious pest to the Green —
_ Ash

about the Ist of July, while on a visit of a few days to the city.

June 3, 1887

_ of genera and species; (4) the vast synonymy, which renders i

those of other puff-balls. Their greatest difference is that just
pointed out, whereby the sterile base develops a stalk after the —
ball has matured its spores.— Charles E. Bessey. ee

Ash-Rust again.—It will be remembered that I called atten- ©
tion, two years ago, to the great abundance of the Ash-Rust —
(dcidium fraxini Schwein) upon the Green Ash (Fraxinus viridis) —
in Lincoln. Last year I noted the fact that this rust was very —
rare in the same locality. This year the rust is, if anything, —
still more rare than last year. I have seen scarcely any leaves —
affected by it, and have had but few specimens brought to me —

suggest an adequate explanation of the sudden disappearance - ;
ish. The trees were badly affected in 1884 also, as I noticed

I have no data earlier than that year. The record thus far isas —
follows: 1884 and 1885, ash-rust abundant; 1886 and 1887, ash-
rust rare.— Charles E. Bessey.
Vitality of Buried Seeds.—On May 25, 1886, I buried the —
following seeds five feet deep in light, sandy soil, at Grand
Rapids, Mich.: white oats, common white beans, Stowell’s”
evergreen sweet-corn, Hathaway dent-corn, and buckwheat.
All were grown in 1885, and had percentages of germinati
in good, sandy garden-soil varying from 87 to 94. One hu
dred seeds of each were mixed with sand and placed in separa
open, tin cans, with the openings downward. On May 22
this year (1887) I had them examined. All were dead. A little
of the sweet-corn had sprouted; most of the dent-corn had
grown about three inches in length, having roots that fi
the can. The other seeds had decayed without germinating.
A. A, sine Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.

—
—

often difficult to decide as to the proper name of a plant; (5) thé
extent and variety of our own lichen-flora, and the inco

4

1887] ; Botany. 667

The foregoing quotation is from an interesting little work,
entitled “ An Introduction to the Study of Lichens,” by Henry
Willey, of New Bedford, Mass., which is intended to help the
beginner over some of the above-mentioned difficulties, as well
as to lay a broad foundation for good work. Five pages of the
book are devoted to the collecting and preservation of lichens,
Ten pages are given to the structure and organs of lichens; two
and a half to the distribution of North American lichens; four
to the history of lichens; two to bibliography ; and twenty-eight
to their systematic arrangement. The ten plates which are
added will be very helpful to the student. ;

A slip of the pen, which can easily be corrected, occurs on
page 11, where a lichen is said to be “a cryptogamic plant of
the order [sic] Thallophytes.” Class, or Branch, was evidently
intended. In the fifth chapter it would have been well, perhaps,
to have referred to a distribution of sets of New England lichens
begun eight or ten years ago by Dr. Halsted, but soon aban-

oned,. Reference should also have been made to the excellent
introduction to the study of the structure and development of
lichens in Sach’s “ Text-Book of Botany,” Goebel’s “ Classifica-
tion of Plants,” and the article “ Lichens,” by the Rev. James M.
Crombie, in the fourteenth volume of the ninth edition of the
“Encyclopedia Britannica.”

Cannot the botanists of the country prevail upon Mr. Willey
to undertake the task of preparing sets of North American
lichens? There can be little doubt as to the success of such
an undertaking —Charles E. Bessey.

_ Botanical News.—The “ List of Works on North American
Fungi,” published in the Harvard University Bullctin, No. 37, by.
Professors Farlow and Trelease, is a most valuable aid to the
student of the fungi. The list extends from A to H, and already
includes three hundred and thirty-eight entries. The remainder
i A book which will prove useful in the

rog: ; a
about six hundred and fifty pages. The subscription-price is
_ twenty francs.

A new journal, the Annals of Botany, is an-

r tG

by Dr. C. ©
Professor E. L.

->

and retains this homaxon form in the majority of spea —

or Acia with four orders

668 ` General Notes. [July

Greene, entitled “ Spot in the Botany of California and Parts

djacent.” Halsted’s Bulletin of the Iowa Agricultural
College, from the Botanical Department, contains many things of -
interest, from methods of work and study in the class-room and |
laboratory to scientific descriptions of species. Dr. Vasey has |
recently issued a pamphlet of sixty-three pages on the “ Grasses
of the South.” It forms Bulletin No. 3 of the Botanical Division
of the Department of Agriculture at Washington. Aside from
its high value to the agriculturists of the South, it possesses &
good ‘deal of botanical interest. The weeds of Southwestern
Wisconsin have been listed and discussed by L. H. Pammel ina ©
twenty-page pamphlet, which has just appeared.

ZOOLOGY.
Radiolaria.—By far the most important contribution to ouf i
knowledge of the Protozoa within recent years is the report on
the Radiolaria of the “ Challenger” expedition, just published by
Professor Ernst Haeckel, of Jena. A summary of these nearly two Ș
thousand pages and one hundred and forty quarto plates is impos
sible. We can but indicate something of their scope. Professor 1
Haeckel now restricts the limits of the Radiolaria more than for ©
merly. As he now defines them they are “ Rhizopoda with cen-
tral capsule and calymma,” for, as he says, their most impo
character is the fact that the unicellular body is always in two
main portions, an inner central nucleated capsular and an extra-
capsular non-nucleated portion, the calymma, the two being sep?
rated by a capsule-membrane. The majority have a skeleton,
usually of silica, but frequently of organic substance (acant
and this may take the most beautiful shapes imagina :
present report embraces not only the Radiolaria alee by the
= Challenger” collections, but is a complete monograph, of all

ee a iaiia i iida ainiai iaaa

ten years. The classification now adopted varies consider a ;
Paes |

Sub-Class I—Porulosa. Central capsule pricittivdly: a sphere,

1, Peripylea, or reas Teas with six orders, and, 2; Asipa ql

Sub-Class Il —Osculosa. Central capsule originally monaxot
a or spheroidal), retaining this condition in mos species

rane of central capsule with a single large osculum a
the bees ofi its vertical main axis. Pseudopodia radiani frot
the sarcode streaming from the osculum. - This also

1887] Zoology. 669

two legions,—1, Monopylea, or Nassellaria, with six orders, and,
2, Cannopylea, or Phzodaria, with four orders.

The immense amount contained in this work can be readily
seen from the fact that these twenty orders are in turn subdivided
into eighty-five families, seven hundred and thirty-nine genera,
and four thousand three hundred and eighteen species; but
large as these numbers are, Professor Haeckel doubts if they
include half of the recent species. The ancestral group from
which all the others are probably derived is the spherical Actissa,
the most ancient stem form of the Spumellaria. The literature
of the Radiolaria is not very extensive, only sixty titles being
catalogued from 1834 until the present date. In the bibliography
isa “ Phaulographic Appendix,” a division which embraces “ abso-
lutely worthless literature,” a feature which might well be adopted
in other bibliographies. The beautiful plates which illustrate the
volume show what a field there is in these minute forms for the

artist,

Ctenodrilus parvulus.—Under this name Dr. Robert Scharf
describes* a new species of Oligochete worm, probably from
some part of the British coast, though the exact locality is un-
known. The species differs from the two species (Ct. pardalis
and Cz. monostylos) in its smaller size, having but from seven to
ten segments, and a total length of about 4 mm. It has but one
kind of seta, which are not pectinated, and it differs from mono-
stylos further in lacking the peculiar tentacle found in that form.

harf concludes that the number of sete in a bunch is not a
good diagnostic character. There is but a single pair of ne-
Phridia, which lie in the head. As in the other species the
nervous system lies entirely in the ectoderm, and in some regions
it is difficult to say where epidermal cells end and nerve-cells

egin. No traces of reproductive organs were found, the only
mode of reproduction being that by fission, which took place much
as described by Kennel in Ct. pardalis. A bud is formed between
two segments, and, in contradistinction to the Naidæ, these buds
-are formed in the same order that the new segments are formed,
—+¢., from in front backward. The first three segments never
Show any signs of budding, nor do the last two or three. The
buds appear on the anterior dorsal margin of each segment, the
Segmentation of the body becomes deeper, and soon the body
divides, the resulting portions developing the parts necessary to
‘make them perfect worms. The process occupies about forty-

eight hours.

_ Balanoglossus Larvee.—Mr. W. F. R. Weldon gives a pre-
liminary account of two Balanoglossus larvae (Proc. Roy. SaCy-s
No. 253) which he obtained in the Bahamas, and which differ

es cody 1 Quarterly Jour. Micros. Sci., xxvii., March, 1887.

_ VOL, XXL—No. 7. 45

670 _ General Notes. [July :

considerably in their later development from those described by
Bateson (vide Am. Nat.). The earliest stage had but a single
transverse groove, but the later stages seem readily homologous —
with Bateson’s form up to the time of the appearance of a pair —
of rudimentary gills. From this point the majority of the speci-
mens undergo a gradual process of degeneration, accompanied
by considerable increase in size. The proboscis itself becomes —
grooved on either side, each groove being provided with short,
broad tentacles, while the circular post-proboscidean groove —
nearly disappears. Internal changes also occur, involving the
disappearance of both notched and gill cavities, and an extensive —
degeneration occurs in the nervous system. The conclusions
drawn are, “that there is fair ground for the belief that the or- _
ganisms described are Balanoglossus larvæ, which for some cause
` or other have been unable to develop adult characters, and have —
therefore varied,” a probable cause being the drifting of the |
` larvæ into deep water by the action of currents and winds. If
this be true, it follows: 1, that in some cases at least heredity
can work only on the application of stimuli’ afforded by particu- —
lar surroundings ; 2, that some larvz without stimuli are highly
variable; 3, that variations produced by a given change may be
uniform and definite in character; and, 4, these changes may —
produce not the modification of ancestral characters, but &
hypertrophy of those which are purely larval.

__ The Glands in the Foot of Nudibranch Molluscs.—Dr. Jus
H. List gives the result of his studies of the foot of Tethys fim- —
briata (Zeit, wiss. Zool.,xlv.). After a few remarks upon the his- —
tological structure of connective tissue, muscles, and epidermis, —
he gives a detailed account of the glands. He recognizes in the ©
upper surface, I, unicellular mucous glands; 2, unicellular glands 3
with fat-like contents (phosphorescent in function ?); 3, Uni
cellular glands with peculiar, frequently laminated contents; —
and, 4, unicellular glands with coarsely granular contents. On

the under surface occur, besides beaker-cells and Nos. 1, 2,and 4

of the upper surface, polynuclear glands, resembling those de-,

scribed by Leydig as pigment and calcareous glands in the feet
of terrestrial gasteropods, As in those cases, these latter glands —

‘Fresh-Water Crustacea.—Mention should have been made
before of Professor L. M. Underwood’s “List of the Descri
Species of Fresh-Water Crustacea from America, north of Mex-
ico,” which appears in the second volume of the Bulletin of te
Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History. It is more than 18
“name implies, for it includes the Oniscidz, which are terrestrial,
‘as well. The total number of species enumerated is nominally

1887] Zoilo, 671

three hundred and thirteen, but doubtless many of these will be
found to be synonymes, while there are some omissions to be ex-
pected in the pages. A tolerably complete bibliography com-
pletes the article. At a casual glance, however, the following
titles are noted as not occurring in the list, and are mentioned
here so as to make it more complete. All have references to
terrestrial or fresh-water forms in the region embraced in the

er:

Abbott, C. C., “ Notes on the Habits of Certain Crawfish,” Am.
Nar., vii., 1873

Cooper, J. (ce “ Tepe on the Crustacea,” “ Pacific R. R. Sur-
vey,’ Oi xii. , pt. ii., 1860.
_ Faxon, W, “On the so-called Dimorphism in the Genus
D” Am. Four. Sci., January, 1 1878.

Haldeman, S. S., “ Crustacea in Baird’s Translation of Hoeck’s
Iconographic Encyclopædia.”

Harford, W. 'G. W., “ Description of a New Genus and Three
re Speciés of Sessile-Eyed Crustacea,” Proc. Cal. Acad., vii.,

1876.

Hay, O. P., “ Description of a New Species of Crangonyx."
Printed for the author, June 2, 1878.

‘Harlan, Richard, ‘ ‘ Description Pr gs Species of the Genus
Astacus, ” Am. Phil. Trans., 0. S.

Herrick, C. L., “ Habits of F bdr Crustacea,” Am. NAT;
October, 1882.

Herrick, C. L., “ Types of Animal Life, Pt. I., Arthropoda.”
Minneapolis, 1883. i

Ingersoll, Ernst, in “ per Report U. S. Geol. Geog. Survey
of navon for 1874,” p 87, 388.

Vy Oa Sips of North os Species of

Alpheus,” 4 "Rudlletin U. S. Geol. Survey, vo

„Kingsley, J. S., “ Carcinological Notes, V, a ” Bulletin Essex Inst.,

Lockin ngton, W.N,“ Thalassinidæa and knä of the Pacific .
Coast,” Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., October, a

Lamarck, Pi Fist Nat. Animaux sans Vertébre

pper ‘A. cm “ Structure of the Brain of Seile Eyed Crus-

tea, Memoirs Nat. Acad. Sci.,” iii.

Ba h R., “Shrimp and Prawn Fisheries of the U. S.,
Bulletin Fish Commission, 1882.
__ Rathbun, R., “ Collection of Economic Crustaceans, ¢tc., at
Fisheries Exhibition, Washington, 1883.” l

Ryder, J. A., “ Successive Kepiaranee of Chirocephalus and
ocephalus, ” Am. NAT, p. 703, aces 3
Stuxberg, ay. Line ge Onis » Ofversigt. Vet. Akad.

‘Forh. , Stockholm, 1872, No. 9.
Dr. Q. E. Imhof, after a careful collection of the piicyostontt
fauna of the e Alpine lakes of Europe, states. that the e u

s ; a.
672 General Notes. [July

jority of the fresh-water basins up to two thousand metres har-

bor a pelagic fauna very rich in individuals. Some of the lakes
at higher elevations are also well supplied. From seven to six-
teen species appear usually in each lake up to seventeen hundred
and ninety-six metres, The most widely and generally distrib-
uted genera are Daphnia, Cyclops, and Diaptomus.

_ Tropidonotus clarkii B. G., in Southern Louisiana.—Early
in June, 1886, the writer had occasion to collect on the salt
marshes at Grand Isle, Louisiana. This island is on the Gulf
coast at the entrance of Barataria Bay, about forty miles west of
the mouth of the Mississippi. Here Clark’s water-snake (Tropi
donotus clarkii) was not uncommon, as several were seen daily,
and one or two were secured for identification.—A. K. Fisher,
M.D., Washington, D. C., June 7, 1887.

Spelerpes bilineatus, Spelerpes ruber, Plethadon erythronotus, and
hus fusca—A. K. Fisher, M.D., Washington, D. bn

pecially interesting when taken in connection with the presence
of such birds as the Large-billed Water-thrush (Seiurus motacilla)

F t

ern species in this locality is €%

shells ,
s the least, though the flesh had evidently

1887] Zoology. 673

m
AK. Fisher, M.D., Washington, D. C., June 7, 1887.

Zoological News.—CŒLENTERATES.—Fewkes has described a
new medusa from New Haven, under the name Nectopilema
verrillit. This jelly-fish belongs to the Pilemidæ, and its nearest
relatives are Pilema and Rhopilema, with affinities pointing ,
towards Polyrhiza. It is about eighteen inches in diameter,
rich, deep brown in the oval cylinder and frills, the umbrella
translucent bluish-white.

© Crustacea.—H. L. Osborn begins in the May number of the
Amer, Mo, Micros. Four. a series of articles on the histology of
the crayfish, the first dealing with the green gland.
t a recent meeting of the Linnzan Society of London, Mr.
A. O. Walker gave an account of a large collection of Crusta-
cea obtained at Singapore during the years 1879-1883. Sev-
eral new species of Decapods are described.

Professor H. L. Osborn’s article on the Osphradium of Crepi-
dula, to which reference was recently made, has been reprinted
inthe Amer, Mo. Micros. Four., viii., pp. 60-64, with illustrations

which render the description more readily followed.

Worms.— Messrs. Gibson and Chalmers, of Liverpool, have
come to the conclusion that the so-called hepatic cells of Lum-
bricus are digestive glands rather than “ vasifactive tissue,” as
has been suggested.

Fisnes—From the Andes of the United States of Colombia
G. A. Boulenger describes three new Siluroid fishes.
- C. H. Eigenmann and Jennie E. Honing, in their review of
the Chætodontidæ of North America, published in the Annals
and Magazine of the New York Academy of Sciences, admit three
genera—Prognathodes, Chzetodon, Pomacanthus—and fourteen

.

species of the family.

Pa

È. rius, to the Neilgherries, ll d other range?
OF Southern tates gherries, Anamallays, and o -

_ The
considerabl

A Wea Be versity of Peat
pylvenit, Philadelphia, Tc nOWeel Department, University E E

:
674 Gencral Notes, ‘Duly t

Nat. Hist, a new Rana, three Bufos, and Phrynclla pulchra, all
from Malacca.

`. Mammats.—According to Dr. J. B. Sutton, animals are not |
free from certain diseases thought to be referable in man to his
erect position, One-fourth of the female monkeys dying in the

dorsal fin, more slender head, and more rounded snout. The
color is dark gray-blue, except that the belly is more or less
white as far as the genitalia. Both sexes seem to attain about

_ the same size; if there is any difference it is in favor of the

female. The flippers are slender and pointed, and relatively
shorter than in any other species. A new species of Echino-

paigieg (E. ruber) usually infests the intestines in great num-

rs, the copepod (Balenopterus unisetus) occasionally infests —
the baleen-plates, and a true ecto-parasite (undescribed) is also
occasional. The stomachs of the specimens examined were
filled with the remains of the copepod Colarius finmarchicus.
_ The species of Capra, according to Mr. P. L. Sclater, are com
fined to the following localities: C. pyrenaica, to the Pyrenees,
Central Spain, and the higher ranges of Andalusia and Portugal;

EMBRYOLOGY.: AA

Development of Spiders.—The Arachnids are receiving

¢ attention recently at the hands of embryologist®
Edited by Prof. Joun

1887] | Embryology. 673

The latest paper to be recorded is that of Schimkewitsch,' on
the development of several species of spiders, the main features
of which were outlined ina preliminary paper in the Zoologischer
Anzeiger for 1884. After describing the envelopes of the egg
and the composition of the yelk (of which he recognizes three
kinds), he proceeds to the segmentation. In this he is inclined
to follow Ludwig rather than other observers in the recognition
of a central segmentation and a migration of some of the cells
to the surface to form the blastoderm, while others remain be-
hind in the yelk, where, in the shape of polynuclear yelk-masses,
they represent and finally result in the endoderm. After the
formation of the blastoderm, three processes occur nearly simul-
taneously,—the breaking down of the yelk-pyramids, the con-
centration of the primary ectoderm, and the formation of the
mesoderm, these being individual variations in the species
studied. The concentration of the primary ectoderm consists
in a flattening and consequent expansion: of the cells on one —
side of the yelk, while on the other they become thicker and
more cylindrical, thus giving rise to the germinal area. Although
Schimkewitsch appears to be unaware of this fact, this process is
paralleled in many Arthropods, and was commented upon at
some length by Mayer (¥enaische Zeitschrift, xi., 1877). Ac-
cording to Schimkewitsch, the mesoderm arises, in some species,
from the blastoderm, in others by budding from the entoderm.
His figures, however, all seem reconcilable. with the view that
they all arise from the blastoderm. The primitive cumulus is,
according to Schimkewitsch, the anal lobe, while the “ white
spot” of the “ comet-stage” forms the cephalic lobes,—conclu-
sions somewhat at variance with those of Morin? and Locy, the
latter reversing the ends of the embryo.

The account of the external development adds but little to
our previous knowledge, the principal points being that the
mandibular segment is budded from the cephalic one, that Crone-
berg’s antennz are the rudiments of the upper lip, and that no
appendages are developed at any stage upon the first abdominal
segment, ‘
~ In the internal development there are more points to be
noticed. The splitting of the mesoderm begins in the fifth seg-
ment of the body. At first the resulting coelomatic cavities are
distinct, but soon they run together in the thoracic segments.
At about this stage begins the formation of a secondary ento-
derm, composed of cells budded from the polynuclear yelk-
Masses, and taking a peripheral position in the yelk. These,
thinks Schimkewitsch, may possibly be the yelk-mesoderm of
Balfour; but our author does not make it clear how they then
_ Pass through the splanchnopleure and take a position in the body

* Archives de Biologie, vi. pp. 515-584, pls. xviii.—xxiii., 1887.
° Of Am. Nat:, xxi. p. 294, 1887. i Ba + eee

‘ 676 à General Notes. [July

cavity ; nor do his statements seem conclusive that they give rise
to the blood-corpuscles and the fat-bodies. The fact that the
cells which he finds in the pericardium may originate from the
entoderm and may form blood-corpuscles is.not so doubtful
From the somatopleure he derives (1) all the muscles of the body _
except those of the mid-gut si elle existe ; (2) the aponeurotic
layer of the cephalothorax; (3) the membranes of the fore and
hind guts, of the tracheæ and glands, and of a portion of the
genital ducts,—that is, of all organs derived from an ectoderm
invagination ; and (4):the sarcolemma and neurilemma. | From
the splanchnopleure are developed (1) the envelopes of the mid-
gut, (2) the genital organs, (3) the pericardium and the pulmo
nary veins, while the dorsal mesentery gives rise to (1) the heart,
(2) the lateral arteries, and (3) the suspensors of the heart.
s will be seen, Schimkewitsch accepts the idea of Bütschli,
that the cavity of the heart corresponds to the segmentation
cavity, and that its walls are derived from the two moities of
the mesentery,—facts which explain the communication of this
organ with the yelk. The splanchnic mesoderm encroaches |
upon the yelk, dividing it into lobes, which persist in the lobes
_ of the liver. The epithelium of the mid-gut begins to form first
behind, that of the liver being at first formed of two kinds of
cells, —one representing the true hepatic, the other ferment, cells.
At the time of hatching no genital openings are developed, but
the genital glands bend downwards at their anterior extremities,
and this decurved portion represents the mesodermic portion of
the genital duct. s
Of the ectodermal structures we need only to say that the

with the branchiz of Limulus, our author seems as much at sea

He

at first distinct from each other, and from those of the ventral
m ros o
mandibular, and maxillary, one pair each, while the pedal ganglia

18387] — _ Microscopy. 677

in the adult. The cephalic ganglia give rise to the optic nerves ;
the rostral ganglia, which occupy a place on the supero-lateral
face of the supra-cesophageal ganglia, are compared with the
labial ganglia described by Tichomiroff in Bombyx, while the
mandibular ganglia, which also enter into the composition of
the brain, give rise to the sympathetic nerve.

The speculations which conclude the article, as to the homol-
ogies of the nervous system in various Metazoa, are not equal to
the rest of the paper.—/. S. K.

MICROSCOPY.:

Method of Staining and Fixing the Elements of Blood.?—
Recent discoveries af morphological elements in the blood hitherto
unknown, as well as the newly published facts concerning its Co-
agulation, have aroused an interest in the subject which calls for
an acquaintance with the methods with which it is possible to
follow those results. Accordingly, I would like to describe the
method employed in this laboratory; for, although it has been
mentioned by Professor Gaule in his lectures for several years,
it has not as yet been published. oe

The methods formerly used were that of examining fresh
blood and that, perfected by Ehrlich, which consisted in stain-
ing dried blood. fe
= Our method consists in a series of manipulations requiring

only thirty-five minutes for their completion.

The following is a list of the reagents, together with the
length of time and the order in which each is to be used:

Min.
I. Corrosive sublimate (concentrated solution) . 6
2. Distilled water . j ; : : . r
3. Absolute alcohol . ; i . . 5
4. Distilled water . j 2 . rites ; :
5. Hematoxylin (14 per cent. alum solution to
which, for every 100 c.cm. employed, 20 drops
5 per cent. alcoholic solution have been added) 6
6. Distilled water . ‘ . . . Hoge
7. Nigrosin (14 per cent. water solution) . I
I Dadada o ad a ao a Oe
9. Eosin (1 gr. eosin dissolved in 60 c.cm. alcohol ;
140 c.cm. distilled water) . . . . . 2
10. Alcohol; pe ues 5
It. Oil of cloves $ : : : . : me
12. Xylol.

13. Canada balsam (diluted with xylol until it readily
flows). To
As receptacles for these fluids, each person has upon his table

Edited by C. O. WHITMAN, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
? From the Physiological Laboratory at Zurich.

678 General Notes. [July

three shallow glass dishes with flat bottoms, so large that a slide
may be easily put in and taken out of them. Into the first of
these we pour corrosive sublimate, into the second distilled water,
and into the third absolute alcohol. It is necessary either to
label the dishes or to place the two not at the moment in use at

one side. For the coloring fluids we use bottles whose stoppers
serve at the same time as droppers or pipettes. The most con-

a lip whose opening is closed by a rubber membrane. A slight
pressure upon the membrane causes, upon the removal of the
finger, a rise of fluid in the funnel, which, upon the removal of
the stopper from the bottle, can be at pleasure dropped upon the
slide. For oil of cloves, xylol, and Canada balsam wide-mouthed |
bottles are used. In the first two bottles are brushes; in the

dtring the moment that it remains in the water, we next p
| dry the slide by resting it upon filter-paper before dropp”
into the alcohol bath. The slide, which has remained in al

1887] ~ Microscopy. 679

six minutes, is brought again into distilled water for half a minute,
since our coloring fluids are water solutions. The hematoxylin
is then dropped upon the slide, and removed again at the end of
six minutes by resting’ the edge of the slide upon filter-paper,
and afterwards washing with distilled water for one minute. The
same process follows with the nigrosin and eosin, the first re-
maining upon the slide for one minute, the second two minutes.
From the eosin we bring the preparation directly into alcohol,
since the eosin is partially an alcohol solution. At the end of
five minutes the slide is taken out of the alcohol, and, in order
to be quite sure that there is no water still clinging to the
preparation, we incline the slide at a slight angle to the rag
with which we are holding it, and pour a few drops of alcohol

from the small bottle over it. If upon dropping oil of clovés—

on the preparation it should be dark upon a dark sleeve or
other dark background, we may remove the oil of cloves with
, a few drops of xylol. Having quickly cleaned the slide close
up to the preparation, we place a drop of Canada balsam upon
it, which must be allowed to spread out before the cover-slip is
lowered upon it.

are also generally homogeneous, though occasionally granulated
like the nuclei of other cells.

-Second kind
Sparely surrounded with protoplasma, colored blue with nigrosin.
: The form of the cell, according to the position in which we see
M iS spindle-shaped, with an oval nucleus in which the granules

PI

=

_ between “amcebocytes” and “ hematoblasts,” but what the

680 : General Notes.

are distinct, and seem to be arranged in lines parallel to
long axis of the nucleus, or it is quite round with a ro
nucleus. The name “ hamatoblasts” was given them by Ha
3. Another variety has, like the “eosinophilous cells,”

nuclei. Its protoplasma is, however, blue like that of

»

account of their form “endotheloid cells.” With further sl
of the preparation other forms are found, which may be looktt_
upon as intermediate between “ haematoblasts” and “ amcebocytes, £
for in some cases the corpuscles have nuclei like “ haematoblasts i
whereas the protoplasm has increased in amount and sent ol
projections like the pseudopodia of an amceba; in others
nucleus is round instead of oval; in others still the nucleus s€
to be in the act of falling into two parts.

These latter forms suggest the idea that a relation may ei

tion may be, whether the change is from “amcebocyte” to “h

I The moist ch.

Big « k h > +. : str ucted b co . at bottom of a flat-
dish with wet fil : 4 s ; y covering tne as
edges should sey nab —* ground-edged cover upon the

1887] Microscopy. 681

contain a small nucleus, a clump of yellow pigment, or a bod
closely resembling a small red blood-corpuscle. To control this
experiment we may make use of another one,—that is, we may
cover a fresh drop of blood with a cover-slip and seal it from
the air Thus the blood coagulates slowly, and we may study
directly the changes the forms undergo during coagulation.
The granules of the “ eosinophilous cells” may be seen to become
larger, less distinct, and disappear. The “eosinophilous cell” has

eveloped into the “‘amcebocyte.” The “hzmatoblasts’” assume
the forms mentioned above, the nucleus and cell as a whole be-
come round, and at length send out pseudopodia in every di-
rection, so that it is impossible to distinguish them from “ amce-
bocytes.” The “amcebocytes,” in their turn, at first stretch out
their pseudopodia in a lively manner, then gradually attach
themselves to the cover-slip, where they spread themselves over
a large surface, and resemble the “endotheloid cells” with their
broad borders of hyaline substance and the granulated proto-
plasma about the nucleus. If we now bring together the facts
we have observed,—1, in instantly fixed blood; 2, in blood fixed
after intervals; 3, in fresh blood,—we find that the: first three
kinds of white blood-corpuscles may at length become “ endo-
theloid cells,”

velopment of the red blood-corpuscles. In the course of his
vations of a series of frogs he noticed that the “ ammenzel-

"The edges of the cover-slip must be thoro hly free from moisture, a bit of

‘ a wax dropped upon Eri Sorat: and the wax then diwi along the edges of
ver-slip with a heated iro wire.

X»
ALTIN

OB? e : General Notes.

len” which lie in groups similar to the follicles of the ani
spleen, between the arteries entering and the veins leavin

spleen on the periphery, undergo significant changes, norma
in the course of the winter, under the influence of pilocarpin
a few hours, The result in both cases was the same. The“
menzellen,” at first rich in pigment, lose their pigment as the

ber of undeveloped corpuscles increases. At the same time
number of corpuscles in the circulating blood was counted,
result showing that as the pigment of the “ammenzel

remains to be considered. The blood-vessels of the em
have their origin, as the embryologists have taught us, in
mesoderm in chains of endothelial cells which contain C

1887] Psychology. ? 683

as such, are wanting in human blood, but since we have had our
attention directed by Hayem to the fact that the “ hamatoblasts”
play an important part in the coagulation of the frog’s blood, it
is possible to think that some element is present in mammalian
blood which also acts as a factor in coagulation, The coagula-
tion of the frog's blood begins with the grouping of the “ hama-
toblasts” into-a rosette form. ` The red corpuscles then arrange
themselves radially about this point as a centre. o we find an
analogous process at the commencement of the coagulation of
mammalian blood? The blood of mammals coagulates very rap-
idly, whereas that of the frog changes very slowly; hence, if we
would study the blood of mammals before coagulation, we must
prevent this process by means of some reagent. Such an ex-
periment cannot be tried with a human being, but is easily made
with a dog. The reagent usually employed is peptone, which
is injected in solution into the jugular vein of the dog, the
amount injected being 0.3 grain peptone for every kilogramme
weight of the dog. The microscopical examination of blood
in which coagulation has thus been prevented shows that there
exist in the blood, aside from the other elements, tiny tablet-
like granules which tend to cling together in clumps. These

_ Not only the possibility to distinguish the different elements of
the blood, but through it, it has been possible to discover ele-
ments which, like the “hamatoblasts,” accompany the phe- -
nomenon of coagulation, and also to’ determine in part the rela-
tion that exists between the elements. It would flot agree with
‘the general plan of nature if every form did not play a different
‘Tole in the organism, and after all that has been discovered it is
not improbable that we shall one day be able, through watching
: the changes which the different elements undergo in the blood,
to discover the disturbances caused by different ferments and
Organisms in the blood. Thus we think that the hope of clever
_ Physicians may one day be verified, that the analysis of a drop
Of blood may give a clue to the pathological changes in the
‘Dody.— Alice Leonard Gaule.

shi. ‘PSYCHOLOGY. |
os Intelligence of Echinoderms.—The experiments of Professor
Be -Preyer upon starfish and ophiurids tend to prove that they are

Mel

684 coe Scientific News.

not entirely devoid of intelligence. In one series of experiments
a piece of tubing was placed over one of the rays of ee i
star, so as to enclose it from its base nearly to its apex. OF
ferent individuals adopted different modes of ridding then i F
of the tube, and one failing, would try another. pe A
they rubbed the tube off by friction on the ground; if e
useless, they. would hold down the tube with the onma
while drawing the imprisoned ray through it, or they i
push the tube off with the serrated edges of the two —
rays, or, as a last resource, would cast off the imprisone $

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

—The meeting of the German Naturalists’ Association "a q
held this year at Wiesbaden, from the 18th ta the 24th wre
tember. Herr Dreyfuss, 44 Frankfurter-strasse, Wiesba :
the secretary of the local committee. ee

—The San Diego Natural H istory Society have had mi ik 4
of a valuable lot of land, and propose soon to erect a buil =

—Dr. R. W. Shufeldt criticises—and deservedly <7 “a 4
erinary service of the United States army. He would e J
by placing it on much the same basis as the regular me ;
corps.

a

—John Sang, a British entomologist of note, died March 4
1887, of valvular disease of the heart, at the age of fifty-nim®

e€ was especially interested in the moths, and was a 200
artist of no mean wers.

— Dr. J. S. Poljakow, the Siberian explorer and conservato!
the Zoological Museum of the University of St. Petersburg,
in that city April 1 7, 1887.

—The latesMiss Lucretia Crocker, of the school: board 0
ton, was influential i
from the year of its fo ye
-the teaching of the biological sciences in the public sch

ca season by two teachers of the Boston
schools. Twenty-five hundred dollars are necessary
rpose, E Bh
—Princeton College is to have a new biological laboratory
the early future. Pt:
—The new building for the Zoological Museum at i
completed, excepting the internal finishing. This, it is €
will take until April 1, 1888, and then the collections

1887] Scientific News: 685

transposed from their present location in the university building
to their future home. On the rst of May of this year Karl
Mobius, formerly ordinary professor of zoology in Kiel, entered
upon the duties of director of the Berlin Museum, being thus
associated with Professor Dr. Edouard von Martens.

—Johns Hopkins University is to publish, as a memorial
volume, the researches of the late Dr. Adam T. Bruce on the
Embryology of Insects.

teria and septicaemia should have been known for hundreds of
ears

— Science has canonized one of the living African explorers,
On a map of the African continent given in the issue of May 27
appears “ St. Stanley's Falls.”

—Professor Prestwich, who for thirteen years has held the
chair of geology at Oxford, England, has resigned.

_ —Dr. Eugene Korschelt, formerly privatdocent and assistant
in the Zoological Museum at Freiburg, Bavaria, has taken a
similar place at Berlin, while his former position is now occupied
by Dr. E. Ziegler.

— The professorship of zoology in the Zoological Institute at
Kiel will not be filled until Easter, 1888. Dr. Karl Brandt,
et aera in Königsberg, has been appointed the interim

rector,

__—Bronn’s valuable “ Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs”
drags its slow length along. The last parts published are Nos.

56 of the Reptiles, by C. K. Hoffmann; 16 and 17 of the Birds,

by Hans Gadow; and 29 of the Mammals, by W. Leche.

_—Dr. J. S. Kingsley, the junior editor of this magazine,. has
accepted the professorship of biology in Indiana University.
_ After September 1 his address will be Bloomington, Indiana,
VOL, XXI,—No, 7, 46

#

Ss

686 _ Scientific News. [July a

—Professor J. C. Branner, of Indiana University, has been ap- _
pointed director of the geological survey of Arkansas, with head- —
quarters at Little Rock. The university has granted him a two
years’ leave of absence.

—The trustees of the Elizabeth Thompson fund have awarded
the following sums for the advancement of science: The Natural
History Society of Montreal, two hundred dollars, for the investi-
gation of underground temperatures under the direction of a`
committee of the society; Drs. T. Elsler and H. Geitel, of the
Gymnasium of Wolfenbüttel, Germany, two hundred and ten
dollars, for researches on the electrization of gases by glowing
bodies; Professor E. D. Cope, of Philadelphia, five hundred dol-

_ lars, for the employment of a preparateur in connection with his
researches on fossil vertebrates; E. E. Prince, of St. Andrews,
Scotland, one hundred and twenty-five dollars, for studies on the 4
morphology and development of the limbs of teleosts.

St. Andrew’s, Scotland, December, 1886; Dr. John M. Wheaton,
professor of anatomy and ornithologist, in Columbus, Ohio, Janu-
ary 28, 1887; Robert Gray, ornithologist and vice-president of the _
Royal Society of Edinburgh, in that city, February 18, 1887; Dr
® Nathaniel Lieberkuhn, professor of anatomy and student of it
vertebrates, at Marburg, April 14, 1887, in his sixty-fifth year.

—DeatH oF Proressor WILLIAM AsHBURNER.—Professof
Ashburner, mining engineer and geologist, died in San Frat
‘cisco, April 20, at the age of fifty-six. He studied for his pro:
fession at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University, _
and afterwards at the Ecole des Mines, Paris, Returning to this 3
country in 1854, he visited the mineral region of Lake Superior
with the late Professor Rivot, for the purpose of investigating —
the geology and mineral veins of said country, and subsequent!
explored a part of the island of Newfoundland, and in 1860 went
to California as one of the staff of the geological survey of which
Professor J. D. Whitney was director. In pursuance of his pro
fession he travelled extensively through the mining districts ©
the United States, British Columbia, Mexico, and portions °
Asia. He was one of the State commissioners of the Yoset
Valley and the Mariposa Big-Tree Grove from 1864 till 18°
and professor of mining in the University of California, having
been appointed in 1874. In 1880 he was made a regent of the
university, and was named by the late James Lick as one of the
trustees of the California School of Mechanical Arts (one of.
Lick’s bequests), and was also selected by Mr. Stanford as í

1887] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 687

bearing and qualities greatly endeared him to many. The death
of such a man is a public misfortune.—A. E. C. S., Washington,
D. C., May 10, 1887.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. `

Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.—February I,
1887.—Dr. Leidy stated that the prevalent opinion that bed-bugs
might be introduced by bats and swallows seemed improbable.
The insect found on the swallow is related to, yet different from,

None on the limbs and sides, Dr. H. Allen said that he had
noted that moles on the human face occupied the same positions
as the sensitive hairs of the lower animals. Dr. Allen also

Sertion. He suggested a formula, consisting of the use of arrows
in different positions, indicating origin, insertion, direction, etc.,

= Soas to save labor in recording details. Professor Heilprin put

On record the stranding of a specimen of the Mediterranean

\ _ Suggested that the eyes of Onchidium were phosphorescent
Organs, similar to those he had before described as existing ™

688 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [July, 1887

Pecten, especially since the snail has no locomotive powers _
which would enable it to escape from a foe seen by such eyes, _
March 15.—A couple of copper coins, taken from the stomach

of an ostrich which recently died in the Zoological Garden, were -

which partly filled the gizzard. It was evident from the con-
dition of the bolus that the muscular fibres of the stomach had
not kept up such a spiral movement as is found in the crop of
the pigeon or the stomach of the cow. .

New York Academy of Sciences.—April 4, 1887—Drn
Henry H. Rusby read some notes of recent travel on a journey
from La Paz to Para through the Bolivian Andes and the Beni
and Madeira Rivers.

March 27, 1886, near Cabin Creek, Johnson County, Ark. E
Biological Society of Washington.—April 16, 1887—Dr
William H. Dall presented some notes on a recent exploring
trip to Florida. Dr. H. G. Beyer spoke of the action of caffeine
upon the kidneys. Dr. C. H. Merriam referred to the depreda-_
tions of the bobolink, or rice-bird, in the rice-fields of the South,
. Mr. F. A. Lucas presented some notes on the os prominens in birds.
Middlesex Institute.—May 11, 1887.—Mr. Sylvester Baxter
read a paper descriptive of his second visit to Zuñi, describing -
one of the dances. Mr. Clarence Pullen made some remarsi |
upon the various Pueblo Indians. a
Essex Institute.—May 16, 1887—Annual meeting. The fol
lowing officers were elected: President, Henry Wheatland ; Vic
Presidents, A. C. Goodell, Jr., F. W. Putnam, D. B. Hagar, and
Robert S. Rantoul; Secretary, George M. Whipple; Treasureh
George D. Phippen ; Librarian, William P. Upham. The annual
reports which were read show a very substantial prosperi

ty ok
the part of this institution. The ordinary income was thou

sand two hundred and five dollars and eighteen cents, while tW
bequests amounted to fourteen thousand dollars. The a

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

VOL, XXI. AUGUST, 1887; No. 8.

NOTES ON THE ETHNOLOGY OF THE CONGO.
BY WALTER HOUGH.

pe Congo ranks among the mightiest rivers of the earth.

Above the limit of the tide it floods over cataracts and
miles of rapids bristling with rocks in its descent from the high
African uplands. Indeed, it was a revelation to indomitable
Stanley to find, after these obstacles were passed, navigable
water flowing from the far interior.

Along its stretches of turbulent or placid water dwell many
tribes of negroes. Cannibals and fierce savages are numerous,
and, altogether, it is a dark and dangerous country drained by
this river, from where its waters begin, on the common water-
shed between it and the Nile, to its mouth on the west coast.
The great wealth of ivory, dye-wood, rubber, palm-oil, and other

‘products makes it profitable to establish many stations for traffic.

The “ Congo Free State,” governed by Leopold, of Belgium,
embraces a large territory gradually being explored and opened
up to commerce.

Up to one year or so ago the National Museum possessed

Very few ethnological specimens from Africa, at which time
Mr. W. P, Tisdel, agent of the United States to the Free States,
= brought home the first collection from that unknown region.
Recently Lieutenant*E. H. Taunt, U.S.N., visited the Upper
Congo, and sent to the museum a large collection of barbaric

Weapons, ornaments, and various other objects made by the

Congo tribes. These collections, with the one lately acquired

from the Bureau of Arts in Paris, enable us to speak with some
: VOL, XXI,—no. 8, 47 a

690 Notes on the Ethnology of the Congo. ` [Aug

degree of confidence about the customs and arts of these Afri i
cans. The collections are, as one would reason, rich in weapons i
and poor in clothing, coming from the region of perpetual feud €
and almost utter nakedness. It is interesting to remark that
nearly all the African tribes know the art of smelting iron, ani
make a fine quality of metal by the rudest sort of apparatus; it
fact, they are in the Iron Age. It is unknown how these savages
of low grade became acquainted with the iron-smelting process,
—an art which indicates a great step in civilization. Thougha |
matter of conjecture, it is highly probable that from that ancient
and mysterious mother of arts and sciences, Egypt, came this |
knowledge of the use and manufacture of iron throughout the
entire “ Dark Continent.” |
Africa is very rich in iron. Travellers have noted great beds ol
highly-oxidized ore of a kind particularly fitted for these simple
operations. The usual method of smelting iron is to pile layer
of ore and charred wood in a small mud furnace. A continuolé
current of air is blown in by two bellows working alternately,
or, among the Bongo, there are simply four or five draught-holes
at the bottom of the furnace. When the ore has been smelt
the furnace is allowed to cool, and the cake of ashes is wash |
the lumps of iron collected, reheated, and pounded into a
herent mass with a stone hammer ona stone anvil. The irot
thus made is very tenacious and remarkably rust-proof. te
preferred by the natives to steel or foreign iron, because if ie
assagai-head is bent into an interrogation-point the warrior :
calmly beats it into shape with a stone. The iron also holds
good edge; in fact, a sharp assagai-head is the razor of the o
civilized barber. The weapons, which are hammered out Wit
a stone, are, despite the fact, finely finished, and are as creditable
specimens of smith-work as can be found. The common 1%.
that conventionality and repetition in art argues a low degre? €
civilization is met by the fact that the aboriginal workman cannot
make two things alike. He does not work by pattern ; he follows,
for instance, the shape of his iron or the suggestion of a chatti
blow. This is the reason of the so-called “ originality” of pi
peoples not practising division of labor or using machine
Among the forty-five specimens of assagais every one is differ
ent, although they can be separated into several groups Y
-general likenesses. sA

g si

PS

1887] Notes on the Ethnology of the Congo. 691

Travellers say that there is rivalry among smiths to produce
different and bizarre forms, and, as a result of this, many weapons
are made which are of no use, being merely chef d'œuvres of the
blacksmith. The typical assagai and javelin has a leaf-shaped
blade, which is double curved; that is, a horizontal section of
the blade would show a curve like a thin §, or like Hogarth’s
line of beauty. This feature has no special use, as the assagai
does not whirl in its flight. At the base of the blade is a socket
into which sets the long, slender shaft, usually wound with brass,
copper, or iron tape. At the bottom is an iron spud, though not
found on those for hurling. It is said that in the act of throw-
ing the weapon the negro gives it a vibratory motion, so that it
passes through the air with a whistling sound. Arrows are
made with uncomfortable-looking barbed, points. Knives are
merely assagai-heads fitted into handles. The shields are among
the finest specimens of basket-work in the world. They are
models of lightness and strength besides. Professor Mason de-

- scribes the mode of construction, and compares it with the sim-

ilar work done by the Clallam Indians and the Japanese. He
calls it the “fish-trap” style of basketry, and states that “the
oblong oval shields of bamboo made by the Bateke negroes of
the Lower Congo imitate this structure exactly. The frame of
the shield is an oblong hoop on which are stretched splints of
rattan running longitudinally on one side and transversely om
the other, crossing at right angles except at the plano-convex
space at the ends.” 1

Just mentioning the short swords and bill-knives, some of
them highly decorated with nut-shell fringe and leopard-skin,
we note the executioner’s sword. Its blade is short, broad, and
heavy, and it is sharp on both sides. It is really in bad taste to
describe an execution, but life there is so cheap and the Congo-
African way of relieving a man of his head so unique that it will-
bear description. In order to give an éclat suitable to African
taste, and to render the feat of decapitating with the weapon
Possible, the*victim is secured to a seat and a strong sapling
bent down and fastened by means of cords and a collar around
his neck; then, while his neck is taut the high executioner de-
pema blow, and the severed head is thrown into the air like
= ;

* Aboriginal Basket-Work, Smithsonian Rept., 1884, ii. p- 298..

692 Notes on the Ethnology of the Congo. [Aug)

The Nyam-Nyam and several Congo tribes have a very pect-
liar knife-boomerang. It is a weapon sharp on all edges of its
blades, —it might be called a collection of knife-blades. Ite
kept concealed in the shield, and is thrown with a whirling
motion, and its wide path and the accuracy and force with which
it is thrown make it a dangerous weapon. |

At the Stanley Falls Station, now held by the Arabs, a B
kind of money is current, called, from its shape, “ spade money, |
being pieces of iron used as a medium of exchange. The relative

to silver. Cloth is a very common barter medium, and its mets
mostly not for dress, but the custom is to wrap the dead it
‘many folds of cotton goods. Cotton grows abundantly, andé :
coarse, narrow cloth is made. A
A stuff exactly similar to Mocha coffee-sacking is woven, and
highly valued. It is grass-cloth, as it is commonly called; but
sometimes it is made of the tough outer bark of some kind of
shrub, and it is woven by men. The staple food of the Cong?
region is manioc, or cassava roots, which are pounded in mortars
with large pestles of ivory. Peanuts are also cultivated. Severi
spoons in the Taunt collection are said to have been used in the
cannibal feasts of the Arrhuimi River tribes. Pipes’ are madec
horns, and the bowl is placed on one side. The horn is a
with water, and the smoke is inhaled by suction at the open ¢™
Travellers speak of the extremely intoxicating effect of the p
bacco and hemp mixture, which is brought out more powert
by being drawn through water. we
The customs and beliefs of these Africans with regard to the
spirit-world are very crude. A belief in evil spirits, witches, 8°"
and bad luck comprises nearly all of the religious elements f°”
negro-life. The “doctor” is the interpreter of religion, and tit
fetish is a safeguard against all harm. There are many Mohal
medans, who practise a debased form of that worship. It “a
that no form of religion can withstand the brutalizing effect
the African nature and the childishness of his temperament. —
What will be the future of this section of Africa, its relat
to the world of commerce, and the extent to which it will ii
fected by modern civilization are difficult problems. While #
capable of supporting a large population, the climate is malarie™
and utterly unfit for Europeans. The African seems tO b

1887] Notes on Classification and Nomenclature. 693

gained an immunity or idiosyncrasy to miasmatic influences by
generations of adaptation. He has made little progress in civ-
ilization. This is due to the lack of inherent capability of the
negro type more than any other cause. The lack of harbors on
the coasts of Africa has always and will in the future militate
against the settlement and growth by advanced races. It looks
now as if this continent, vast in wealth and area, is becoming
overrun by the fierce disciples of Islam, the most undesirable
settlers possible, and in whose hands it will be lost in an irre-
claimable darkness. Another great bane to the Congo and all
Africa is the accursed slave-trade. For over three thousand
years she has bartered her children to be slaves over the whole
earth. Livingstone, Schweinfurth, Stanley, and many other dis-
tinguished explorers have seen, with anguish, this comprehensive
atrocity in all its phases, and have tried to perfect plans for put-
ting it down. The Congo Free State, through Henry Stanley,
has done much to suppress this evil. That recent brilliant
master-stroke of enlisting Tippo Tib, the prince of slave-traders,
against the slave-trade cannot receive too much praise, and it is
to be hoped that, as another laurel in Stanley’s crown, he may
Successfully rescue Emin Bey, the soldier-scientist, from his
perilous position in the heart of Africa, and restore him, with
his large collections, to the civilized world.

j

NOTES ON CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLA-
TURE FOR THE AMERICAN COMMITTEE OF
THE INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL CON-
GRESS, MARCH, 1887.

BY N. H. WINCHELL.

HE PaLæozorc.—In the light of recent work done in the
classic region of American geology, Eastern New York,

by Messrs. Ford and Walcott, reviving some of the old ques-
tions that separated the geologists of forty years ago into widely
_ Variant schools, it becomes appropriate for this committee to
: _— and justly weigh the facts so far as they bear on the

of names for recommendation to the next congress.
It will have to be admitted that the scheme of stratigraphy

we
694 Notes on Classification and Nomenclature. [Ang

which was erected by Mr. Emmons, including formations that
extended eastward into Massachusetts and Vermont, and west |
ward to the Hudson River, covering a series of strata from the |
gabbros of the Adirondacks to the top of the Lorraine shales,
has been overthrown by the researches of Dana and his col-
leagues,—in other words, that the “Taconic System,” as con-
structed by Dr. Emmons, cannot be maintained.

On the other hand, the Taconic rocks, in which Emmons f
found primordial fossils, and to which he extended the name f
which he applied to his system, have been found to have a wide f
extension and a great thickness, as well as a characteristic fauna

` The initial point of divergence between him and his colleagues
on the New York survey was as to the existence of such pre
Potsdam strata. From this initial point he built up a system
without warrant. He laid a true foundation, but his super
structure was not well built. In consequence of a poor supèr
structure, the tendency has been strong to sweep away also his
foundation, denying to both of them the right to existence it
geological nomenclature.

The question that comes before this committee is to determint
by what designation the strata shall be known that contain thè
foundation-rocks of the “ Taconic System” of Emmons,—thos
that really are stratigraphically pre-Potsdam. |

Recent palzontological researches and work in the field show
that the pre-Potsdam fauna pervades a belt of rocks that extends
from Northern Vermont southward, by way of Georgia, ve"
mont, Bald Mountain, New York, Schodack Landing, to Stock l
port, Columbia County, east of the Hudson River, comprising
a thickness of strata amounting to about four thousand feet. 7
is also reasonable to suppose that it constitutes the basal portion
of the range of the Taconic Mountains, and perhaps a large par
of the range in some places. It is therefore not inappropriate bad
consider the claim of Dr. Emmons to give name to this belt

(a) Taconic versus PRIMORDIAL.

The term primordial, adopted by Barrande for the first faun®
is more comprehensive than the fauna that was discoveree by
Emmons in these Taconic strata. But Barrande distinctly &
knowledges that Dr. Emmons antedated him in the discov
and advocacy of a fossil horizon belonging in the primom’™

-

i
3
4

1887] Notes on Classification and Nomenclature. 695

zone, There can be no question, when the author of the term
primordial makes such an admission, that, other things being
equal, the term first used should be perpetuated. But it may be
stated that other things were not equal. They were not equal
in the thoroughness with which the fauna was investigated, nor
the correctness with which the stratigraphic relationships were
stated, nor in the limitations which were placed on its extent.
They were not equal in the comprehensive, uninterrupted prog-
ress with which the respective investigations were carried on
on different sides of the Atlantic, nor the completeness and
costliness of publication. But it may be doubted whether any
of these differences, or all of them, would warrant the unquali-
fied adoption of the European term, to the exclusion of the
American, against the right of priority for the American geol-
ogist. Emmons did, it seems to me, all that was required, or
that is now required, to establish his claim to the discovery of a
new formation. He defined it geographically, stratigraphically,
and palzontologically. No one else in America has applied any
new name to it. It came in conflict, it is true, with another
American designation, but no one now will urge the correctness
of that opposing term. As between Taconic and primordial,
both authors may be recognized and honored by confining the
term Taconic to the identical horizon, or sub-fauna, in which it
was described by Dr. Emmons, allowing the term primordial to
embrace, as intended by Barrande, all the sub-faunas of the first

una.

The first (oldest) sub-fauna is characterized by the genus
Paradoxides. :

The second sub-fauna is characterized by Olenellus.

The third sub-fauna is characterized by Dicelocephalus.

(4). Taconic versus CAMBRIAN.

But we cannot overlook the fact that ‘in Europe, and also in
America, the term Cambrian is very generally applied to this
fauna and the formation in which it is embraced, to the exclu-
D of both Taconic and primordial. This is a very singular
circumstance. The reaction which set in to do justice to Sedg-
wick had such momentum that it swept over its own bounds and
became itself an agent of injustice. .

If the question of the relative dates at which the terms Taconic

696 Notes on Classification and Nomenclature, [Ang

and Cambrian were first used be brought to bear on this investi-
gation, the facts will be-found to be about as follows : E
_ Murchison says the term Cambrian was first used in print in
1836, but Sedgwick says he had been at work on the formation 1
since 1831, his first description being made and published in
brief in the Proceedings of the British Association for the Advant- |
ment of Science in 1832. In 1855 he also says he had made no
material changes in the Cambrian since 1832, except some minor
transpositions of stratigraphy. All this time the lower portion £
of these rocks was considered non-fossiliferous, Sedgwick not
being willing even to admit the verity of fossils belonging t9
the primordial fauna in any of the rocks of his series. It is@ f
singular fact that, although Mr. E. Davis discovered fossils it
the rocks of the Cambrian in 1845, and had re-examined the
locality with Mr. Sedgwick in 1846, and announcement of the |
discovery was made the same year, yet the English geologists 4
did not know, or would not admit, that the primordial fauna de
Barrande was contained in the rocks of the Cambrian till 185%
when Barrande visited the Woodwardian Museum, and exami
also the collections of the survey; and even then they would not
admit it till they had sent some of their own officers over the :
ground which they had considered finally examined, and these
had returned with a convincing collection of primordial fossils. .
Barrande’s notice preliminaire of the primordial fauna of Bey
hemia was issued in 1846, two or three years after the discovery
of primordial fossils in the Taconic, and five years before the
discovery of primordial fossils in the Cambrian. — -
It appears, therefore, that as a formation of rocks, without
reference to geological age or relation to other formations, the
Cambrian was studied by Sedgwick four years before Emmons
began official work on the New York survey; that the term 3
Cambrian was used as a designation for the formation WEY
Sedgwick was engaged on in 1836; and that Emmons used the ;
"term Taconic officially first in his volume dated 1842. Emmons
was, however, at work incidentally on the Taconic rocks much
earlier, Professor Dewey mentions a mineral found by him 3
analyzed in 1820 (Am. Four., (i.) ii. 249). Professor Dewey *
the Taconic range asa geological entity, and the rocks of the
range as a starting-point, in his “ Geological Section from V”
liamstown to the City of Troy,” published in 1820. Thet?

H

1887] Notes on Classification and Nomenclature. 1 0oy

was first used by him in a geological article dated January 27,
1819. Lee, Hitchcock, Emmons, Dewey, Barnes, Briggs, and
Eaton, between 1819 and 1842, frequently use the term in their
geological papers. They considered the rocks extending from
the western towns of Vermont and Massachusetts westward to
the Hudson River as constituting a group different from those

farther east, and set off by geological distinctions so markedly
that they could not be confounded. Sometimes these rocks
were referred to as the rocks of the Taconic range, sometimes as
transition rocks, and sometimes as the metamorphic group, But
that they were a single group, e» masse, was not questioned,
either by the friends or the opponents of the Taconic system, as
late as 1844, Eaton having gone so far as to place them below
the strata of the New York system.

Used, then, as a datum of geological reckoning, “ the rocks of
the Taconic range” date from 1819, but it was not till 1842 that
Dr. Emmons erected these into a geological group and formally
announced the “ Taconic System.”

The foregoing facts may be tabulated as below :

Used asa Faunal Used in Geological Used as Name ofa
ature. Zo

Designation. Liter: ne or System.
aA O Sie oss kas 1846 1846 1846
x Cambrian 1853 .1836 1836
Taconic 1844 1819 1842

In thus calling attention to the use of the term Taconic in
geological literature as early as 1819, the objection will naturally
arise in the minds: of some of the committee that the term was
used wholly as a geographic and not as a geological one, and
hence that it has no claim in geological nomenclature. While

ere is some force in this objection, yet, if the nature of the
Papers written by the earlier geologists be examined into, it will
be Seen at once that the term was used both in a geographic and

‘Ma geological sense. Professor Dewey, in 1820, giving his
Seological section from the Taconic range to Troy, N. Y., says dis-
tinctly that the same rock-formation which constitutes the range
at Williamstown extends to the Hoosac Valley, and gives place
to a chlorite slate, which, since it is also found in the Taconic
_ Tange, “ ought to be considered as belonging to the range, and ©
as the rock into which the talcose slate passes.” From here he
Continues the section through graywacke rising into the hills at

698 Notes on Ciassification and Nomenclature. [Aug

Petersburg, constituting the mountains of Grafton, and extend
ing as a general rock to Troy, where it is succeeded by a stratum
of argillaceous slate, which extends to the banks of the Hudson
In a general way this group of rocks is referred to as the
“metamorphic series,” or “transition series,” as well as tke rocks
of the Taconic range, by other geologists up to 1842. As ager
logical designation it had no more force than the terms used by
Sedgwick when he referred to the rocks of the Malvern Hills
or of the Longmynd Hills, or the term that was at first used to
express the formation of the Helderberg Mountains in New
York. In those early days of the century geologists made
their designations refer to mineralogical and lithological char
acters rather than to systematic stratigraphy. Geographic des-
ignations had not yet been introduced with the authoritative
endorsement of Murchison. There was but imperfect knowledge
of systematic stratigraphy ; but geographic terms were converted,
by an easy scale of varying terminology, into geological terms
The “ rocks of the Longmynd” became thus the Longmynd rocks.
The rocks of the Helderberg Mountains became thus the upper
and lower Helderberg rocks; and Mr. Emmons sagaciously
chose to erect the rocks of the Taconic range into the Taconic
system. |
It is customary to date the “Taconic System” from the ya
1842, when it was officially announced by Dr. Emmons, and it
is just to give the term Taconic its full right as a distinct term
in geological nomenclature only after that date, parallel witha
similar use of the term Cambrian; but it cannot be questi pe
that the term Taconic was a semi-geologic term for at least
twenty years before. 7
It may next be asked, What was the intent of the authors of
these names? In the absence of perfectly conclusive evidenc
as to the historic priority of one, in all respects, over the others,
when the facts seem to have a divided and variant significance
this may be the only way in which a just conclusion can ©
reached. It is not necessary to enter upon the citation of facts
or quotation of authorities. The following conclusion, SO ae ;
Mr. Barrande is concerned, will hardly be questioned. wee ;
to elaborate a fauna, and when that was established he denomina
the strata the primordial zone. In doing this he went no farther
back than 1846. t

N

1887] Notes on Classification and Nomenclature. 699

In respect to Mr. Sedgwick, he worked on a series of rocks
which he thought pertained to a single system, and illustrated
it by fossils. These proved to be, for the most part, species of
the Bala group, consisting of the second fauna. What few pri-
mordial fossils he found he placed within the same fauna. He
claimed this fauna and this system of rocks as his Cambrian.
This was named in 1836. It was no error of his that subse-
quently his term was crowded downward and removed from the
rocks of the second fauna, and made to cover only a fauna of
which he knew nothing. In other words, the author of the
Cambrian intended to include in his system only the rocks contain-
ing the second fauna. Still, his stratigraphic scheme embraced
lower beds.

In respect to the intention of Mr. Emmons, he worked on

a series of rocks which he claimed was lower than the New
York system. He announced a fauna which he intended to
illustrate his system. The strata which he included in his sys-
tem have been proved to contain his alleged fossils, and they
pertain to a horizon below the New York system. All rocks
known by him to contain fossils of the second fauna occurring
within the general Taconic area were exempted by him from the
Taconic system. His main intention, both stratigraphic and pala-
ontologic, therefore, was to include the rocks of the primordial fauna
in his system.

On the question of priority, therefore, the inquiry is reduced
to the conflict between Cambrian and Taconic, with the Taconic
having two counts to the Cambrian one.

On the question of the relative validity of those counts, the

Taconic has that of correctness of palzontological identification

and that of use in geological literature, which are very strong,

While the Cambrian has that of formal announcement as a

System.
On the question of the intention and claim of the author, the

Taconic was correct in stratigraphy and paleontology when ap- |
Plied to the frst fauna, and incorrect when applied by its adver-

saries to the second fauna. The Cambrian was correct in palæ-

Ontology, and was not corrected by its author in stratigraphy ~

when applied to the second fauna, and is incorrect in both re-
Spects when applied by its friends to the first fauna. |

If the errors be eliminated, on each side, the first fauna should

.

700 Notes on Classification and Nomenclature, [Aug

be assigned to the Taconic and the second to the Cambrian.
This will, of course, require the restriction of the term Silurian
to the rocks of the ¿ird fauna, or to as much of it as was a |
first covered by that term, as argued by Hunt, Marcou, Rogers,
Dawson, Jukes, and others,

The weight of authority and of usage has been in favor of
covering the rocks in dispute between Murchison and Sedgwick,
so far as they both claim strata holding the second fauna, by the
Murchisonian term. Of the merits of this controversy I have
nothing to say. It may fairly be left to the English geologists
to decide. It would be an easy adjustment of all the conflicting
claims, however, to assign, pro honoris causa, the first fauna to |
Emmons, the second to Sedgwick, and the third to Murchison. —

Tue ArcH@an.—lt is my individual opinion that no sub-
divisions of the Archean can be made, with an approach to
probable acceptance and long-continued usefulness, at the pres
enttime. It would be judicious to introduce some indeterminate
non-descriptive terms, such as Archean No. r and Archean No. 46
or Archean No. 3, which could be interpreted by each locality, |
and applied by the geologists of each country, according t0
individual preference. In the Northwest, including Wisconstt,
Minnesota, and Manitoba, much is. now being done on the:
tematic study in the field of these rocks, and, without say!
that the recognized, usual subdivision into Huronian and Lae
rentian is not valid in very large areas, it is true that, as a ge
eral scheme, this simple nomenclature is not applicable. 1 sp
of these rocks as “ Archean” because of the general use of
designation. The terms azoic and cozoic may have prior rights,
and, perhaps, ought to be used instead.

i

1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 701

HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES.
BY E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, A.M., M.D."
(Continued from page 532.)

CATERPILLARS. Scorpiurus sp.

STRANGE taste causes various species of Scorpiurus to be
included among our garden vegetables, the caterpillar-like
forms of the seed-pods being used as salad-garnishing by those
fond of practical jokes. As a vegetable their flavor is very in-
different. The species enumerated by Vilmorin are Scorpiurus
vermiculatus L., the common caterpillar; S. muricatus L the
prickly caterpillar; S. sulcatus L., the furrowed caterpillar; and
S. subvillosus L., the hairy caterpillar. This latter species is
figured by Dodonzeus in 1616, and is said even then to be
sometimes grown in gardens. They are all native to Southern

Europe.

Catnir. Nepeta cataria L.

It is hardly worth while to notice this plant of insignificant
use, yet still holding a place in the herb-garden, and, in France,
grown for use of the leaves as a condiment.? In 1726, Town-
send? says it is used by some in England to give a high relish in
sauces. It is a native of Europe, and is now common through-
out Eastern America. It is mentioned among the plants of Vir-
ginia by Gronovius,‘ as collected by Clayton preceding 1739.

Catnip (called also Nepp) has for name, in France, menthe dé
chat, herbe aux chats ; in Germany, gemeines Katzenmunze 5 Nepte ;
-in Holland, £attekruid, nept ; in Denmark, katteurt, sisembrandt ;
in Sweden, kattmynta; in Italy, gattaria ; in Spain, gatera ; in
Portugal, neveda dos gatos ; in Russia, koschitza mehta®

CAULIFLOWER. Brassica oleracea botrytis cauliflora DeC.

I am unable to recognize the cauliflower in any of the cabbage
tribe described by the ancient authors, although the perfected
condition of our present vegetable would lead us to assign to it
a great antiquity. Its not being mentioned by Ruellius (1536),
4 Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva.
2 Vilmorin, Les. Pl. Pot., 1883, 354. 3 Townsend, Seedsman, 1726, 36-
4 Gronovins, Fl. Virg., 1762, 89... 8 Vilmorin, Le. 1:4 Mill. Dicty 1807-

702 History of Garden Vegetables. [Ang

and others would lead us to infer that it had not yet entered into

general European culture. According to Bauhin it is mentioned |
"in the French edition of Dodonzus, 1553 or 1559. The raceof |
cauliflowers owe their peculiarity to a suppression of the floral ©
organs and an abnormal development of the pedicels of the in-
florescence. This peculiarity finds recognition in the majority
of the names applied in the various languages, as will be ob-
served in the following synonymy :

Fuchsius (1542), Roszlin (1550), Tragus (1552), Matthiolus (1558), |

Brassica florida, Adv., 1570, Or: Ger., 1597, 246, fig.
B. florida botrytis. Lob., Obs., 1576, 123, cum ic.; Lob, ity
1591, i. 245. . :
“B. cauliflora. Cam., Epit., 1586, 252, cum ic.; Matth., 1598,
367, cum ic.; Dod., 1616, 624, cum ic.; Bauh., Pin., 1623, il;
Bodzus a Stapel, 1644, 776, cum ic.
B. pompeiana, B. cypria. Lyte’s Dod., 1586, 636.
B. pompeiana aut cypria, B. Jorida dodo. Lugd., 1587, 524
cum ic. a
B. cypria sive pompeiana, vulgo caulifiori. Cam., Hort., 1588,29.
B. cauliflora, pompeiana plinio, Bauh., Phytopin., 1596, 177+
Bradica florida. Cast., Dur., 1617, ap. cum tc. |
B. multiflora. J. Bauh., 1651, ii. 829, cum ic.; Chabr., 1677,
269, cum tc. a
_ The vernacular names earliest recorded are mostly founded
upon the bloom, and may be translated flowering-cabbage. " :
the English name used by Lyte in 1586 we have a source d
origin indicated, as Cypress coleworts. Dalechampius likewity:
in 1587, gives one French name as Chou de Cypre. Pierres
Pompes, a French author of 1694, is quoted by Phillips as say"
ing about the cauliflower, “It comes to us in Paris, by way
Marseilles, from the isle of Cyprus, which is the only place
know of where it seeds.” Strange, indeed, it is to find, at 4 date
as remote as 1565, the cauliflower to be reported as abounding
at Hayti, in the New World, at a date preceding nearly all 0
recorded mentionings. It was, however, a well-known and cafe —
-fully-cultivated plant in France in 1612, if we may trust “ Le J
dinier Solitaire.” Rauwolf? who travelled through the Orient
1573-75, found the Caulifiore at Aleppo. In England it is Agu"
by de in 1597, and must have been known to Lyte in 15
* Benzoni, Hist. of the New World, Hak. Soc. Ed., 91.
* Gronovius, Fl, Orient., 1755, 81.

See he ae es

:
=

1887] History of Garden Vegetables. + yO

as he gives an English name,—flowrie cole, or Cypress coleworts ;
but, according to Parkinson, it was rare in 1629. In 1683, Wor-
lidge praises them greatly. According to Heuze, three varieties
of cauliflowers were described by Ibn-al-awan for the Nabathean
agriculture in Spain in the twelfth century.

In 1778, Mawe? mentions for varieties only the early and the
late, scarcely differing. In 1806, in America, McMahon; knew
the same only, and but two varieties are named by Bridgeman‘
in 1832. In France, in 1824, three varieties—/e dur, le demi-dur,
and de tendre—are named, and the same in 1829.6 In 1883, Vil-
morin? describes sixteen sorts; and Burr® describes ten sorts for
America in 1863.

The varieties of the cauliflower are essentially of one type,
although some are more highly improved than others; and there
are differences in size, height, and season, one kind even being
purplish in the head. The distinctions are, however, not highly
constant, and variations found in the growing serve to bridge
whatever chasms may appear; and hence we may conclude that
the varieties are but due to seminal variation carefully selected.

he names given to the cauliflower in various countries are:
in France, Choux-fleurs; in Germany, Blumenkohl, Carfofil; in

Flanders and Holland, dloemkool; in Denmark, d/omkaal; in

Italy, cavol-fiore; in Spain, Coliflor; in Portugal, Couve flor ;°
at Constantinople, Zarnaditi ; in India, phool kobee.™

CeLerrac.? Apium graveolens L., var. rapaceum DeC.
This vegetable is described by Gray” as a state of the common
celery in which the root is enlarged and eatable. It presents but

à
* Heuze, Les Pl. Alimen., i. p. iv. 2 Mawe, Gard., 1778.
3 McMahon, Am. Gard. Kal., 1806.
* Bridgeman, Young. Gard. Assist., 1832.
5 L'Hort: Fran., 1824. 6 Noisette, Man., 1829.
7 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883. 8 Burr, Field and Gard. Veg., 1863.

9 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 144. 10 Forskal, FI. ZEgypt.-Arab., xxix.

1592, and on speaks of the Apium capitatum as found in the garde:
of St. Agatha, Theano, and elsewhere in Apulia, taken from nature, and as unno-
zE | by the ancients, He describes the bulb as being of the size of

8 Gray, Field, Forest, and Gard. Bot., 165. -

704 History of Garden Vegetables, [Aug

few varieties,—one with a rough root, one with a globular, smooth £
root, one with variegated leaves, and a fourth which is very much
dwarfed. Other varieties are named, but the differences are vey)
unessential. In French works on gardening of 1826 and 1829/7
the white and the red, the latter described as with the bulb
veined with red or violet, are mentioned, together with a sub
variety with a round root.
In 1536, Ruellius? in treating of the ache or uncultivatel
smallage, as would appear from the context, says the root ii
eaten, both raw and cooked. Rauwolf3 who travelled in the
East (1573-75), speaks of Eppich, whose roots are eaten as deli
cacies, with salt and pepper, at Tripoli and Aleppo; and J
Bauhin, who died in 1613, mentions a Selinum tuberosum, sit
Buselini speciem, as named by Honor. Bellus, which seems tobe
the first mention of the true celeriac that I find, as the earlier.
references quoted may possibly refer to the root of the ordinar
sort; although I think not, for at this date the true celery ;
scarcely been sufficiently developed. In 1 729, Switzers describ
the plant in a book devoted to this and other novelties, but adds
that he had never seen it ; and this indicates it was little knor
in England at this date, for he adds that the gentleman, who hat
long been an importer of curious seeds, furnished him with ¢
supply from Alexandria. Itis again named in England in 175 2
1765, and by succeeding writers, but is little known even at the
Present time. It is described by McMahon? for American gaf
dens in 1806. In France and Germany it is commonly empl )
as a vegetable and as a salad. It is even cultivated in the Ma
ritius 4

Celeriac, or turnip-rooted celery, is called, in France, celere
rave; in Germany, Knoll-Sellerie ; in Flanders and Holial®
Knoll-Selderii ; in Denmark, Kuold-Selleri ; in Italy, sedano-rapt.
in Spain, apio-nabo, apio-rabano, '

36, 708.

p rs ng baii, dim 3 Celeriac, etc; 1729, 9.
6 Mill. Dict., 1752; ex, Mill. Dict., 1807. Ge 1806: ;
7 Stevenson, Gard, Kal., 1765,30. 8 McMahon, Am. Gard. Kal, t7

9 Bojer, Hort. Maur., 1837, 158, 1 Vilmorin, Les PI. Pot., 75 -

1887] PN Stor of Garden Vegetables, 705

CELERY. Apium graveolens L.
I have previously given the history of celery in the AMERICAN
NaturaLIsT for July, 1886. I can add only a few references to
‘those therein given. “ Le Jardinier Solitaire” (1612) gives direc-
tions for the cultivation of “Celery” in France, and Mentzel*
“gives the word “Sellerrey” in Belgium, and “Sellerey oder
Aeppich” in Germany, with “ Tabernemontanus” as a reference.
Now, one edition of “ Tabernemontanus” was published in 1588,
and if this reference be correct we are able to carry the use of
the word celery into the sixteenth century. Albertus Magnus,’
who lived in the thirteenth century, evidently speaks of the wild
plant when he calls it aquatic, but describes characters which
apply to the smallage by adding that it has a concave foot-stalk,
recumbent and white.
‘In China, at the present time, the name of celery is Ch'in ts'ai3

ees CHARD. Seta vulgaris L.

The chard was the Beta of the ancients and of the middle ages.
The red chard was noticed by Aristotle* about 350 B.C.. Theo-
phrastus’ knew two kinds,—the white, called Sicula, and the
black (or dark green), the most esteemed.: Dioscorides® also

records two kinds. ‘Eudemus, quoted by Athenzus7 (the second
century), names four,—the sessile, the white, the common, and
the dark, or swarthy. Among the Romans the chard finds fre-
quent mention, as by Columella, Pliny,? Palladius,” Apicius,™ etc.
In China it was noticed i in writings of the seventh or eighth cen-
tury, the fourteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries ; A

- Europe, by all the ancient herbalists.
he chard has no Sanscrit name. The ancient Greeks called

æ

* Mentzel, Index Nominum, 1682, 30.

2 Albertus Magnus, De Veg., Jessen ed., 1867, 480.
3 Gard. Chron., July 10, 1886, 41. i

; 4 Aristoteles, Scaliger’s ed., 1566, 69.

; 5 Theophrastus, Bodzeus a Stapel ed., 1644, 778. :

ey - § Matthiolus, serene 1558, 248. Se

Bes 7 Quoted from Turre, Dryadum, etc., 1685, 442. ge es

An 8 Columella, i x. 452; ib. Zi. Cc. a etc. U i as
9 Pliny, lib. xix. c. 40. = 23 n

t0 Palladius, lib. iii. c. 24; iv. 9; v. 33 Vi. 4; viii. 2. Oe

™ Apicius, lib. iii. c. 2, ii. |

12 Bretschneider, Bot. Sin., 53, 59, 79, 83.
—No. 8. © 48

706 History of Garden Vegetables. f

the species zeutlion; the Romans, beta; the Arabs, selg; th
Nabathean, s7/g."_ Albertus Magnus; in the thirteenth centur,
uses the word acelga,—the present name in Portugal and Spain.
The modern names are : French, poirée ; German, Beisskohl, Bedi,
Mangold ; Flanders and Holland, snij beet; Denmark, blad bedt;
Italy, die¢a befitola ; Spain, bleda and acelga ;3 in China, tien isa!
The wild form—Befa maritima L.—is found in the Canay
Isles, the whole of the Mediterranean region as far as the Cae
pian, Persia, and Babylon; perhaps even in Western Indiaj#)
also about the sea-coasts of Britain. It has been sparingly! ‘ |
troduced into kitchen-gardens for use as a chard.?
The red, white, and yellow forms are named from quite eatly
times; the red by Aristotle, the white and dark green by Ther
phrästus and Dioscorides. In 1596, Bauhin® names the dark,
the red, the white, the yellow, the beet with a broad stalk, até
the sea-beet. These forms, while the types can be yet recog
nized, yet have changed their appearance in our cultivated
plants, a greater compactness and development being noted #
arising from the selection and cultivation which has been 97
generally accorded in recent times.
Vilmorin describes for varieties the white, the Swiss, the silve,
the curled Swiss, and the Chilian chards. To this we may ail
Gx improved forms, such as the sea-beet. -

SEA-BEET. `
Beta sylvestris spontanea marina. Lob., Obs., per e

B. sylyestris-maritima. parag ny topin., I 596, I
Sea-Beet. Ray, Hist., 1686, i. 204.

The leaves form an excellent chard, and in Ireland are ©
lected from the wild plant and used for food and in Er gla
the plant is sometimes cultivated in gardens. This form h
been ennobled by careful culture, continued until a ma!
was obtained."

* De Candolle, aie Des PL Cult., 47.

* Albertus Magnus, De Veg., Jaik ed., 1867, 8.
3 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 420, 4 Gard. Chron., July 10, i 2
5 De Candolle, 1. c., 46. 6 Lindley, Morton’s Cyc. of Ag Ags! :
7 Targioni Tozetti, Hort. biez 1854, 147.
8 Bauhin, Phytopin., 1596, 1
? Johnson, Useful Pl. of Gt. Brit., 214. ' 1 Lindley, Morton’s Cyc. of Agi

= Agr. Gazette, September 8, 1879, 218.

1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 707

WHITE, OR Common BEET. r

Beta alba lactuce & rumicis folio, etc. Adv., 1570, 93.
B. alba vel pallescens, quam Cicla officin. Bauh., Pin., 1623,
118

White Beet. Ray, 1686, 204.

Beta cicla.. L., Sp., 1774, 322.

Common White-Leaved. Mawe, 1778.
White-Leaved. McMahon, 1806, 187.
Spinach-Beet. Loudon, 1860.

Poirée blonde ou commune. Vilm., 1883, 421.

#

This beet, a native of Sicily, near the sea-coast, as well as the
shores of Spain and Portugal, was introduced into England in
1570" It seems closely allied to the Swiss chard.

Swiss CHARD.

Beta alba? 3. Gerarde, 1597, 251. i
Tj he Sicilian Broad-Leaved Beet: Ray, 1686, 205.
White Beet. Townsend, 1 726.

Chard, or Great White Swiss Beet. Mawe, 1778.
Swiss, or Chard Beet. Mill. Dict., 1807.

Swiss Chard, or Silver Beet. Buist, 1851.
Silver-Leaf Beet. Burr, 1863, 292.

Poirée à carde blanche, Wilm., 1883, 421.

This is deemed by Ray to have been known to Gerarde (1597),
for Gerarde, in his “ Herbal,” indicates the sportive character of
the seed as to color, and mentions a height which is only at-
tained by this plant. He calls it“ 3 .. . another sort hereof

_ that was brought unto me from beyonde the seas,” and particu-
4 larly Notices the great breadth of the stalk; but the color par-
ticularly noticed is the red sort. Ray gives as a synonyme Beta
Walica Parkinson, 1629 or 1640. It is quite variable in the stalks,
= according to the culture received.
Sitver-LeaF BEET.
Poirée blonde @ carde blanche. Nil., 1883.
-__ A lighter green form of the Swiss chard, as described by Vil-
_ Morin, but with shorter and much broader stalk. Itseemstobe =
_ = Variety within the changes which can be effected by selection =
‘nd culture, and perhaps can be referred to the Chilian type. ae
" Booth, Treas. of Bot.; Loudon, Hort.; McIntosh, Book of the Gard, fi. 139. pee

seit

| 708 History of Garden Vegetables.

~ blistered and curled.

_ they are very efficient. The stalks are often very b

` with red. The forms now found are described by their nat
-Crimson-Veined Brazilian, Golden-Veined Brazilian, 9@

-is the parent of the broad-stalked forms, and, judging from

CURLED Swiss CHARD.
Curled-Leaf Beet. Burr, 1863, 291.
Beck's Seakale Beet. Gard. Chron., 1865.
Potrée à carde blanche frisée. Vilm., 1883.

Evidently a form of the Swiss, the stalks broader, the le e aes

Cuitan BEET. E
This form is usually grown for ornamental purposes, or ic l
twisted, and the colors very clear and distinct, the leaf pucke i l
and blistered as in the Curled Swiss.. In the Gardeners’ Chron
(1844) it is said that thesé ornamental plants were introduced t l
Belgium some ten or twelve years previously. “It is yellow ,
red, and varies in all the shades of these two colors.” In 19%
J. Bauhin? speaks of two kinds of chard as novelties, —the
white, with broad ribs; the other, red. He also speaks |
_yellow form, differing from the kind with a boxwood-yellow t
In 1655, Lobel? describes a chard with yellowish stems, VA

` Ribbed =r Scarlet-Veined Brazilian, Yellow-Ribbed Ch
-Red-Stalked,

The sce Di are the broad- leaved ones, and all

instances, but some seed. Bash an experience y ”
which Gerarde records. It seems plausible that B. mari
is the parent form of the narrow-ribbed varieties, aid B.

ogy, as well as by the descriptions of the wild plant,
types of all the colors, and the smooth and bliste!
leaves, probably can be found in nature.

* Gard. Chron., 1844, 59:

Lobel, 2 J. Bauhin, Hist. 1651, ile
Pamela anor 1655, 8, aS

?

1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 709

CHERVIL. Scandix cerefolium L.

The leaves of chervil are aromatic, and are much used in
England for seasoning and in salads.” It was mentioned as cul-
tivated by Columella, Pliny, and Palladius, Roman authors of
the first and third centuries. It also finds description as a culti-
vated plant in the botanies of the sixteenth century. It was in
American gardens in 1806.2. But two varieties are now in use,
—the plain-leaved and the curled,—and these are mentioned by
Petit? in France in 1826; and yet chervil is noted as one of the
most widely diffused and best known of all pottage plants.‘

Chervil is called, in France, Cerfeuil; in Germany, Kerbel; in
Flanders and Holland, Kervel; in Denmark, Aavekjowel; in
Italy, cerfoglio ; in Spain, perifollo ; in Portugal, cerefolio.

Cuick-Pea. Cicer arietinum L.

This vegetable is a favorite with southern nations, and finds
occasional culture among the recent emigrants to the United
_ States, or by their descendants. While not grown on a large
scale in the United States, it forms an article of extended culture
in the Iberian peninsula, and in India,® Egypt, Greece, etc.? The
Shape of the seed, singularly resembling a ram’s head while in
an unripe state, may account for its being regarded as unclean
by the Egyptians of the time of Herodotus.2 It was in common
use in ancient Rome, and varieties are mentioned by Columella?
_ and Pliny,” the latter naming the white and the black, the Dove,
or Venus pea, and many kinds differing from each other in size.
Albertus Magnus," in the thirteenth century, mentions the red,
the white, and the black sorts, and this mention of colors is con-
tinued by the herbalists of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eigh-
| teenth centuries. The white chick-pea is the sort now generally
grown in France, where the dried seed find large use in soups.
The red variety is now exterisively grown in the Eastern countries,
_ and the black sort is described as more curious than useful.
-* Vilmorin, The Veg. Gard., 1885, 192. ? McMahon, Am. Gard. Kal., 1806,

m piri Dict. du Jard., 1826. 4 Vilmorin, Les PI. Pot., 78. a
tie , Cours d’Agr., iii. 796. 6 Elliot, Bot. Soc. of Edinb., vii. 294.

a

Paaa Grog Dist af Ak and Pi 46
* Abers i lib. ix. c. 1. 10 ee lib. xviii. fog
Albertus Magnus, De Veg., Jessen ed., 1867, 490.

$

Under the hot climate of India the plant secretes an acid, which |

_the following names: in Arabic, the green-seeded sort, the ph

7 Decaisne and Naudin, Man., iv. 316. 8 Heuze, Les Pl. Alim., Îi. gih

e aee, lib. iv, c. 6, . % Dodonæus, Frument., 15

710 | History of Garden Vegetables.

the natives collect by spreading a cloth overnight on the plant .
and wringing out the dew in the morning; this they use br
vinegar or for forming a cooling drink. 7

The multitude of the vernacular names of the chickpea
their distribution, indicate the presence of numerous varieties |
and an extended use. The European names are, in English,
chick-pea, Egyptian pea, horse-gram, [in India] Bengal grami
in France, pois chiche, garvance, café français, ceseron, ciceroll, ,
ciseran, garvane, pisette, pois becu, pois blanc, pois ciche, pois cort p
pois de brebis, pois gris, pois pointu, pois de Malaga, téte de bélier;
in Germany, Kitchererbse ; in Italy, cece; in Spain, garbani
in Portugal, chicaro, grao de bico; in Greece, hrobithi.

In the extra European countries it has received, among othe

malaneh; the dry seed, komos; hims? al-koular ;3 in e
chala, boot, chuna-batoola? boot-kaley ;+ in Egypt, homos ;*
Hebrew, etsech;3 in Hindustani, but, hurbury, chenna ;* =
Malay, kadala;* in Persia, nakhuda;5 in Sanscrit, cham
sanakha, harimanthaka ;5 in Tamil, cadalie? kadalai;’ in Tele
senegaloo,' senegalu, senaga ;5 in Burmah, kaduda’

CHICKLING Verc. Lathyrus sativus L.
This in many regions is rather a forage-plant than a vege
but in the south and southwest parts of Europe, as in Italy
Spain, and also in Turkey® and India, as well as elsewhere,
grown for the use of the seed in soups, etc., ° as well as m
manner of green peas.* It has been cultivated in Sout
Europe from a remote period, and finds mention by Columella
and Palladius.? According to Heuze, it came from S
France in 1640; but this must refer to some variety,
appears to have been well known to the herbalists of the
teenth century, as by Dodonzus* in 1556, and others. It
included among American vegetables by Burr in 1863,

* Delile, Fl. Ægypt, illust. 2 Birdwood, Veg. Pr
Revs AT A E 4 Drury, Useful Pl. of Tnd., 134
Elliot, Bot. of Ed., vii. 6 Pickering, Ch. Hist., 183

aoon » Veg. Prod. of Bomb., 120. 1° Bon Jardinier, 1832, 603.
= Noisette, Man., 1860, ii. 377. 12 Columella, lib. ii. c. 1i.

1887] - History of Garden Vegetables. 711

- mentions two varieties,—the one with dun, the other with white,

seeds. This latter form was mentioned by Bauhin in 1623.

The European names are, in France, gesse cultivée, gesse
blanche, lentille d’Espagne, dent-de-brebis, pois breton, pois carre ;
in Germany, essbare Platterbse, weisse Platterbse, deutsche Kicher ;
in Flanders, p/atte erwt; in Holland, peul erwt, wiken; in Spain,
arveji; in Spanish America, muelas ;* in Italy, cicerchia cichero.?

In extra European languages: in Bengali, £hesaree, teora ;

_ in Egypt, gilban; in Guzerat, Jang; in Hindustani, £ussoor ;

in Persian, masang ; in Sindh, matar3

Cuicory. Cichorium intybus L.

The wild chicory has been used for time immemorial as a
salad-plant, and, forced in darkness, affords the highly-esteemed
vegetable in France known as barbe-de-capuchin. It has also
large-rooted varieties, and these, when treated in like manner,
form the vegetable known in Belgium as w¢loof.

Whether the chicory was cultivated by the ancients I think
there is reason to doubt, although they knew the wild plant and
its uses as a vegetable. It is not mentioned in the descriptive
list of garden vegetables in use in the thirteenth century, as

given by Albertus Magnus,¢ Ruellius,’ in 1536, mentions two

kinds, but does not imply cultivation; nor does Fuchsius,° in
1542, who likewise names two kinds, one of which is our dande-

lion. It is treated of by Tragus, in 1552; Matthiolus,’ 1558;

the “Adversaria,”9 1570; Lobel, 1576; Camerarius,* 1586;
Dalechampius, 1587; Gerarde,” 1597; but no mention of cultiva-
tion. Althou gh not mentioned in Lyte’s translation of Dodonzus

> (1586) as cultivated, yet in Dodonzus’s “ Pemptades” (1616) it is

;

nd not only to occur wild throughout all Germany, þut to be
_ cultivated in gardens; and this is the first mention of culture

that I note. In 1686, Ray™ says it is sown in gardens and

eurs wild in England, and the seed occurs among seedsmen’s
Supplies in 1726.5

a

- * Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 241. » 2 Birdwood, I. c. 3 Heuze, L c.

NS = - Magnus, lib. vii. tract ii. c. 2. 5 Ruellius, De Nat. Stirp., 1536, 495-
-» 1542, 679. 7 Tragus, 1552, 272.
-» 1558, 258. : 9 Pena and Lobel, Adv., 1570, 82.

icone Obs., 1576, 114. 11 Camerarius, Epitome, 1586, 285.
e Tag Ty Lugd., 1587, 557. 13 Gerarde, Herbal, 1597, 235-
3 Ray, Hist., 1686, i. 255. 15 Townsend, Seedsman, 1726, 33-

a

At the. irekit time chicory i is grown for the use of its leaves
in salads, and for its root to be used as an adulterant for coffe. 1
The smooth, tapering root, which seems such an improved fom)
_ in our modern varieties, is beautifully figured by Camerarius in f
1586. The common chicory grown for salads js but the will :
plant little changed, and with the divided leaves as figured by)
the herbalists. The entire leaved form, with also a tendency to
a red midrib, also occurs in nature, and may be considered & :
the near prototype of the Madgeburg large-rooted, and of the
red Italian sorts. The variegated chicory, the curled-leavel, 7
and the broad-leaved may have their prototypes found in nature .
if sought for, but at present must remain unexplained. wE
may remark, however, that variation in nature is of very ar i
mon occurrence, and quote from Vilmorin: that M. Jacquin ha
fixed from the wild sort varieties, which he has named the deni-
fine; demi-fine à feuilles jaunes ; demi-blonde, forme de laiit
(Cae brune, forme de laitue pommee. These varieties are not
now, however, in gardens. The common, the spotted-leare ed
and the large-rooted were in French culture in 1826.”

The chicory, or succory, is called, in France, chichoree sane
chicorée amère, chicorée barbe de capucin ; in Germany, T
bittere Cichorie ; zm Denmark, Sichorie ; in Italy, cicoria saa
radicchio radicia ; in Spain, Achicoria amarga o agreste; in
tugal, chicoria ; in Arabic, hinduba, Shikorieh3 Chikourich ;'
Persia, Kasnee ;3 at Constantinople, korla’ by the Greeks;

- Japan, 4io, tsisa§
1 Vilmorin, , Les Pl. Po .
ge Dict, du — x et os es ie cues seta: Prod. of Bont

Š 35; 12. $ Forskal, Fl. Egypt.-Arab.

.
(To be continued.)

.

1887] Conventionalism in Ancient American Art. ' 713

CONVENTIONALISM IN ANCIENT AMERICAN
A

BY J. S. KINGSLEY.

3 es paper recently published by Prof. F. W. Putnam, under
the above title," is a nice piece of archeological and artistic
research. The complete paper is a short one, the points being
brought out by the illustrations rather than by the description in
the text, of which the following is a rather full abstract.. Jt is,
however, but just to say that the full series of illustrations eluci-
date the points far more completely than the few which are
reproduced here.

The evolution of the ceramic art itself is an oft-told tale——
first, the clay-lined basket, and, last, the potter’s wheel. The
ordinary savage ornament is also well known; but occasionally
one runs across, even in the pottery of the American aborigines,
examples where the potter has the true artistic spirit. He has
first taken a realistic representation of some familiar form, and
adapted it to the vessel in hand. In course of time, as Professor

Putnam says, as art increased power of expression, it progressed
beyond mere realism and led to the representation of an object

: by certain conventional characters, without that close adherence
to nature which was at first necessary to a clear understanding
of the idea which was intended to be conveyed. Our author

was led toa study of this conventionalism by the long series of

_ pottery contained in the Museum of American Archzology and

Ethnology at Cambridge, from the stone graves of the Cumber-
land Valley, in Tennessee, and the burial mounds of Missouri _
and Arkansas. The extent of these collections can be realized
when it is said that they were derived from over six thousand of

the stone graves and almost innumerable mounds, all examined
in the most thorough and scientific manner. This study led to
an examination of the other pottery in the museum, and it was
found that a similar conventionalism was wide-spread, though not

= universal, and that similar artistic results by no means implied
_ Community of descent or even contact of the tribes.

To illustrate the points involved, we would first call attention

* Bulletin of the Essex Institute, vol. xviii., 1887.

714 Conventionalism in Ancient American Art. [Aug,

to the three-legged kettles or tripods from the ancient graves
in Chiriqui, Panama, of which the museum possesses an ex-
tensive series, two of which are represented in Plate XXIV. Itis
well known that the primitive clay pot had a round bottom, and,
to prevent this from overturning, it was propped up on stones.
It marked a step in advance when the support was transferred to

Fic. r. Fic. 2.

the kettle itself by the addition of legs, as represented in the
right-hand figure of the plate referred to. Here was 4 chanet
for the artist, and, realizing the adaptability of these legs tat
reproduction of the form of a fish, he availed himself of i& s
shown in the figure at the left. On each of the feet of the 1#
we see the wide and projecting mouth, the eyes, the per

ral

ee ee

PLATE XXIV.

1887] Conventionalism in Ancient American Art. 715

fins, and a forked tail. The place where the dorsal fin would
naturally come was cut away before baking, so as to prevent
cracking. It is noticeable that in all the specimens there is no
attempt to represent the anal fin, which normally should be on
the opposite or inner side of the leg.

In Figs. 1 to 4 four legs from similar pots are represented in
order to show the development of the conventional idea of a fish,
and especially of the dorsal fin, from a realistic representation.
It should be said that a fuller series of illustrations would make

the transitions less marked. In Fig. 1 we have a highly realistic
representation of a fish, in which mouth, eyes, pectoral fins, and
tail are well showin, while the dorsal fin is crowded to a position
in front of the eyes,—a conventional position adopted from the
_ necessities of those legs where the slit was in the position where

716 Conventionalism in Ancient American Art. ‘(Aug

the fin really would be. Here, too, the tail has become conver
tionalized, while the ventrals are wanting. In Fig. 2 the ventral f
are shown, and the mouth, with its armature of teeth. Her,

Fic. 5. Fic. 6.

in its proper place, the conventionalism has gone further, s
only a rude mouth remains to show the fish. The series te go
its extreme in Fig. 4, where all but the dorsal fin have al
sieket and yet the fact is evident, from a comparison, of al
Series, that a fish was meant, though reduced to its simpl”? |

conventional form.

1887] Conventionalism in Ancient American Art. 717

In the series represented in Figs. 5 to 8 the conventional evo-
lution of the mouth is shown. In Fig. 1 we have the realistic
mouth, but in Fig. 5 a second, beak-like mouth has been inserted
in advance of the regular mouth, with its armature of teeth,
Behind the true mouth are deep lines cut in the clay, as if to

Y
hiiu l ri

Fic. 8.

give emphasis to the jaws. The pectoral and ventral fins are
Still of a realistic type, but the caudal is represented by a rounded
knob. In Fig. 6 the mouth is represented by a projecting mass
of clay above the opening in the foot, in which are deep lines
Corresponding to those of the last figure, while the grooved.
Patch on either side of the opening represents the pectoral fins.

718 Conventionalism in Ancient American Art.

All other features have disappeared. In the next figure th
pointed jaw alone is retained in the mass of clay above the
opening, and in the last figure (Fig. 8) the climax of this cor)
ventionalism is reached, where all that remains of the fish con |
sists in two pairs of oblique lines representing the jaws. f

These prehistoric people of Chiriqui carved in stone as wel
as in clay, and were remarkable for their work in copper and |
gold. In all these materials similar realism and a similar devel.
opment of the conventional can be traced. Other animals, evel
the human form, are thus treated ; but in the museum collections
the series of fish forms is the largest and most perfect, and hence |
was selected for illustration. tf

In the stone graves of Tennessee a similar evolution is ob
servable. First, we have a rudely realistic representation of at |
animal-head upon the sides of the pot; but this has resulted it |
an unsymmetrical form. This was improved by the addition of
knobs, which mjght be called nose and tail, and afterwards by
handles. In the mean time conventionalism steps in, and te p
features, which once were highly realistic, become represented |
by six round knobs of equal size, and realistic work has entirely £
given way to symmetry, and a common cooking-pot has becom
chaste in style as a result of a development of artistic feeling.
A somewhat similar development is traced in the ancient potter!
of Nicaragua, and the result is much the same. In specimen

pot itself, and either the head and tail or the dorsal and anal fi
alone remain as handles, Again, the frog was similarly treat
as were the bird, human figure, and squash. From an examine
tion of the collections in the museum it would be easy to met |
clude that the jars in the shape of a woman were evolved fi
the squash-like form, were it not, as Professor Putnam says, t
€ realistic precedes the conventional in every instance.
As was said above, this conventionalism does not occur among
all the peoples of ancient America. In ancient Mexico, ag
: Sunce, the higher ceramic art was symbolical rather than ®
* Yentioual. So, too, the ancient Peruvians west of the
_ influenced by the Aymaras, or their predecessors in the
of Lake Titicaca, were lacking in conventionalism,
highest art was a realistic one, in which was often added
— Septeasion of action. In the region of Lake Titicaca 4

eg

1887] Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants, 719

type of art-expression existed, which seems to show a remark-
able resemblance to those Old-World forms which reached its
culmination in the classical type of the Mediterranean peoples.
A study of these features of ceramic art enables us to draw
many interesting and important conclusions. At times, as in
the case of the reappearance of the same forms similarly treated
in the stone graves of Tennessee and the mounds of Missouri
and Arkansas, we are led to the view that they had, at least, a
point of contact. In other instances we have evidence of mi-
grations, while, again, in other cases, where both contact and
migration are out of the question, we are able to trace the de-
velopment of that innate principle of the human mind which,
among all peoples, finds its expression in ornament and art. We
see that the artistic powers of man, like the languages, were
developed in distinct centres, and from primitive forms of ex-
pression, which, of necessity, had principles in common; and
this will amply account for the reappearance of the same forms
in widely-separated regions. The early methods of ornamenta-
tion of pottery were by finger-marks, scratches, cross-lines, and
the impression of cords and fabrics, and these are found almost
the whole world over. It is only when steps in advance are
taken that the art of each nation receives its distinctive impress.

COMPARATIVE CHEMISTRY OF HIGHER AND
LOWER PLANTS:

BY HELEN C. DE S. ABBOTT.

pa coming before a popular audience to present a special sub-
ject like Plant Chemistry, I do so in hopes perhaps of
showing some of the less familiar sides of plant-life. The chief
idea of the remarks I am about to make is one that has not
Occupied to any great extent the minds of botanists and chemists,
_ and if it be not true, at least, no other hypothesis has been sug-
_ ested than the one I will indicate to account for the chemical
compounds of the vegetable kingdom.
_* Lecture delivered in the course given under the auspices of the Philosophical,
Anthropological, and Biological Societies in the United States National Museum,
__ Washington, April 23, 1887. : |

z BY se 25
Ons

720 Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants,

_ On past occasions? I have spoken of certain chemical com
ponds in relation to plant morphology and evolution. The fats
then advanced tended to show a chemical progression in plants, |
and a mutual dependence between chemical constituents and |
change of vegetable form, and in the following pages I vil
this idea prominently before you. i
_ Certain condensations of force on our planet are known a l

chemical bodies. By usual methods they cannot be split up into |
‘component parts, hence are denominated elements. However, |
we have reason to believe that these so-called elements are it
reality compounds themselves, formed in the cosmic laborator
from still simpler aggregations of matter.

In mineralogy the series of chemical formations are doubtless |
the result of evolution, from the more simple elements to the :

complex structure of the crystalline rocks.” |

The plant kingdom may be considered as a third and higher
stage; it contains in its structure combinations of the element
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, @ a i
compounds derived from the mineral world. K]

The essence which underlies all force and life may be tracei !
through these three planes as a law of progression, little

in its general course, though ever giving wee involved pro”
for solution, accor ding t to thei itv , from element
and minerals to plants, and even to attimals.
The line separating each of these conditions of matter is i
distinct, “the individual of the one encroaches upon the oe
of the other ;”3 as a spiral coil is of a single thread, so “
in all her manifestations constitutes a unity,” 4 and the ro
the spiral present each stage parallel, but in reality a contin
~ Analogies should not be given too much weight, but from
merous facts the above statenients seem theoretically reas
-and may be provisionally accepted. The possibility of €
evolution of the elements, in itself, is not only one of ihe

T. Ceitein of Plants considered in Relation to their Morph
Evolution.” Riattl bė Chem. Sec. of the A. A. r S. at Buffalo, T
__ Stract published in the Botanical Gazette, vol. xi., October, 1886. “The
Basis of Plant Forms,” Lecture delivered before the Frais Institute, $7

pia, 1887. Franklin Institute al.
2 Mineral Physi Physiography. By T. S Hunt. Boston,
3 The Chemical Basis of Plant Forms. By Helen C. De S. Abbott.
*T. Sterry Hunt, page 13,

1887] Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants, 721

absorbing questions of the moment for investigation, but the
evolution of compounds from these elements and their possible
influence upon the external forms of plants is of equal interest.

That directive force which controls the different groupings of

atoms in a molecule under the solid, liquid, or gaseous forms of
matter, manifests itself in still more complicated conditions in
each grade of the chemical compounds of living cells, and thus
from the single cell to the highest of plants is ever active.
- It is not my wish to claim for plant chemistry more than the
facts at my disposal will allow; though in the past, and this
should not be overlooked, without the aid of the imagination to
penetrate the avenues of the unknown, many of our well-estab-
lished scientific facts would still be buried from sight.

The chemical analysis of the dead plant and the study of the
chemical changes occurring in the living plant are among our
means for some of these investigations; and much of all the
knowledge derived from each field of chemical research may be
utilized in aiding to unravel the mystery of these changes in the
vegetable cell.

in the mineral kingdom certain elements are invariably asso-
ciated with others, as nickel with cobalt; and in plants we find
not only two or more compounds invariably present together,—
îe., tannin and starch in the tannin groups, lime and saponin in
the pink family, Caryophyllacez,’ resins and saponin in all of
the saponin-containing groups, and sugar and silica in the
grasses, Gramineze,—but also in certain plant groups we notice
the predominance of special compounds, and their absence in
other groups. The grouping of these compounds in definite
association must bear some relation to their respective sequence
and formation, and cannot be the result of accident. That the
; finchona plant does not manufacture the alkaloids of the poppy, |

t each its own particular series of compounds, illustrates this. `

I have said, elsewhere, “ the chemical compounds of plants
do not occur at random. Each stage of growth and develop-
_ Ment has its own particular chemistry. . . . The result of ex-
_ Periment shows that the presence of certain compounds is es-
-sential to the vigor and development of all plants, and particular `
r ži Die Pfanzenstoffe, by Hilger and Husemann, p. 532; E. v. Wolff, J. pr- Chem.,
A. 24; lii. 86; Wolf, Panien a 1881, 144, 145-

? *The Chemical Basis of Plant Fi
_ TOL XX1—No, 8. ee

4

_ for its intellectual attainments, although its members woul”

722 Comparative Chemustry of Higher and Lower Plants.. f

compounds to the development of certain plants.” It maybe
inferred that “plant chemistry and morphology are ‘elated
Future investigation will demonstrate this relation.” te

The theory of evolution, which underlies all mineral ani
organic forms, comprises the evolution of the component parts
of the whole, and, since the structural bases of minerals ani
plants are chemical compounds, their evolution must necessarily
be included in a study of plant-life. Whether this life reveal
itself in the perfume of sweet flowers, or in the manifold forms
of vegetation, from the simple mass of plant-jelly to the majestic
forest-tree, its dependence upon matter invokes the most eagt
desire to acquaint ourselves with its various manifestations. 7

When matter, through chemical change, exhibits propertie
of absorption, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, contractility,
automatism, and irritability, it is said to be living. In this cot
dition it is called protoplasm. This substance is very complet
and of undetermined composition, though its proximate const
tution is known? It is always present where life, as defined,
found, apparently the same in the lower as in the higher plants.

The lowest forms of plants, plasmodia, are irregular-shap%
masses of jelly, undifferentiated in form, function, and chemi
composition. This living jelly is described “as a coto
albuminoid united with more or less water.”? ,

tion, and lying in contact with a firm elastic membrane CaF
the cell-wall ; also, like it, closed on all sides, and consisting
cellulose, water, and inorganic matter. Some of the Alg®
all higher plants are congregations of these cells grou
tissues and organs, and their albuminoid contents are
going continual change; in life it is a building-up process
food being supplied from the gases, water, and inorgamle
stances of the surroundings, and elaborated in the plant's °
laboratory to meet its needs, Mee
The vegetable kingdom does not usually claim our 4

z Reinke and Rodewald, Berlin, 1881; Physiological Botany, by Gut
-1885, p. 197.

+

Lo

1887] Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants. 723

tainly seem to possess greater chemical skill than a higher race
of beings exhibit in their laboratories. Some few of this higher
race are “ going to take lessons” how to construct proteids and
carbo-hydrates as we are told our now automatic cousins were
once taught to do; though man fails to consider that it may be
a lost art, and the secret has died with the plants in a “ catage-
netic” decline.

All plants and their products are composed. of two general
classes of compounds,—volatile and fixed. The former, on in-
cineration of the plant, is transformed into gases, leaving the

_last as so-called ash-constituents.

I will very briefly refer to the sources of the substances which
go to the building of the plant structure. Green plants derive
their carbon from the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere, and
even from complex organic compounds, since Darwin’ has
shown that insectivorous plants, by means of their modified
leaves, are able to absorb flies and other small insects.

Plants which do not contain chlorophyll, as fungi, take their
carbon from complex compounds of decaying organic matter.

. Not only do all the so-called organic compounds of plants con-
tain carbon, but it is found also in the form of carbonates.”

Hydrogen is absorbed by all plants in the form of water, or
ammonia and its compounds, or in complex substances, as

Mentioned above, Oxygen is taken up by plants free or in
combination in water or in salts, and there are six possible
Sources of nitrogen supply; but I will not delay by going into
this subject.3

- Sulphur and phosphorus are constituents of proteids, and are
derived from inorganic compounds. In addition to these the
elements essential to the nutrition and maintenance of the life
of all plants are potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron in the case

; of green plants, its absence producing the condition of etiola- -

tion; and, in certain cases, chlorine. Silicon, fluorine, manga-
_ ‘Rese, sodium, lithium, rubidium, cæsium, barium, strontium,
_ aluminium, zinc, copper, arsenic, titanium, iodine, and bromine

- have also been found among the ash-ingredients of certain
* Insectivorous Plants. * Adm Phys, et Chim., Berthelot.

The Economical Aspect of Agr. Chem., by H. W. Wiley, Proc. A. A. A. S.,
= XXXyv,, 1886, ; ;

at,

owe

_ insoluble salts exist in the tissues of plants.

-general agreement in the composition of their ashes, while p!

_ and the penny cress, in zinc soils.4 In the leaves of the

: essential inorganic constituents will depend upon their
to the changes in the vegetable cell. a

Ward to the leaves, the largest percentage being found 1
_ younger portions of the growing plant, and I have observed
Same principle on a more general scale running throug”
` | entire plant kingdom, for the largest ash-percentages

724 Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants,

These ash-ingredients are usually present in each plantei
in the cell-wall, imbedded in the cellulose and partly in the cot
tents of the cell. The salts of the alkaline metals, sulphatsy
chlorides of magnesium and calcium, also soluble silicic adi
as in Equisetum hiemale, occur in solution in the cell-sap, "i

The differences in the composition of the ash of plants shor ,
that each plant is endowed with a specific absorbent capacity ;
thus a gramineous plant? is able to withdraw relatively lag
quantities of silica from the soil than a leguminous plant. be |
latter can only do so to a very slight extent. $

he absorbent capacities of allied species are very differ |
Again, individuals of the same species yield different asi”
stituents, depending upon their vigor, and at different periods 0
growth the ash-composition varies, In a summary of ep
mental results it has been stated that? “similar kinds of peg
and especially the same parts of similar plants, exhibit =

which are unlike in their botanical characters are also unlike”
the proportions of their fixed ingredients.” au

-ertain marked varieties of plants appear to be peculiar *
and developed by certain soils, as the violet, var. cam

of their use or harmfulness to the plant, but the absorpti

< othe ash-constituents of a plant increase from the roo?

co

among those plants lower in the evolutionary scale, w

; Estee, Ber. d. deut, chem., Ges. xi. 2 Wolff, Aschenana’j

Uo Crops Grow, by S. W. Johnson, London, p. 145- 3
: raum and Risse, Sachs, Exp. Physiologie, 153.

Amer, Phil. Soc, Trans., H. C. De S. Abbott.

1 887] Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants. 725

correspond to the larger ash-percentage of younger, or for-
mative, parts of the growing plants. Some of these lower groups,
as the diatoms of the Algz and the vascular cryptogams,’ con-
tain enormously large ash-percentages; in the Horse-Tail,
Equisetum,? 60 per cent. alone of silicic acid. The Lycopodium
in addition to 14 per cent. of silicic acid, contains 27 per cent. of
alumina and 2.5 per cent. of manganese. Among comparatively
lower plants the willow and‘poplar* are rich in ash-constituents ;
the formers contains 1.53 per cent. of manganese. Members of
the sedge order.and grasses contain large quantities of silica;
the rice-hull, 98 per cent. Various species of apetalous plants
on the same evolutionary plane with these groups also contain a
large percentage of ash-constituents, as the Salicornia, Salsola,
Chenopodium, and Atriplex, also the Sugar-Beet.

I have stated what chemical elements are essential for the life
of the lower, as well as the higher, plants; also those which may
occur in certain plants; and I have spoken of the two general
classes of compounds of which plants are built as the volatile
and ash constituents. The four elements carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen enter into the composition of the first
class of compounds, and the grouping of these elements with
each other and to the ash-elements constitute what is called
plant chemistry. :

-As certain chemical elements are always present in plants, so

Certain changes occur and compounds are found generally, more

especially among the albuminous constituents. However, even
this statement should be restricted to saying that the first chem-
ical reactions between these elements are probably identical at
the start, the subsequent compounds formed depending upon the
evolutionary stage.

The infinite variety of these compounds is only equalled by
the numerous genera and species of the vegetable kingdom ;

though certain compounds frequently occur, as starch, sugar, .
MERK and other bodies, correlated in special groups of plants
wW .

and distinct properties. For example, the true

* Die Pflanzensenstoffe, p. 323, W. Lange; Bil. Ver., xi. 822.

* Ann. Chim. Phys., xi. 62, 208; Ann. Chim. Pharm., 77, 295.

3 Flückiger, Pharmacognosie, Kamp; Ann. Chim. Pharm., 100, 300.
* Durocher and Lalaguti, Liebig’s agric. Chemie, 8 Aufl. 371.

5 E, Riechardt, Chem. pharm. Centralbl., 268, 567-

-

- _ crystalline form,

Has present in

726 Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants, [Aug

starch of the cryptogams will be found gelatinous in Alge,
replaced in Fungi as glycogen, and only in the lowest of the
flowering plants does it occur in the simplest stratified form;
from this stage to the highest of plants, the Composite, in which —
it occurs as a crystalline substance called inulin, it may be
from plane to plane of plant-group development in a succession |
of stratification until it reaches its highest point in our most
evolved plants. So strongly marked-are these varieties of starch-
forms that some investigators, notably Nägeli, have proposed
this means for the identification of many plant families.

The many kinds of vegetable sugars known to chemists also
have their locations, not only during different stages of the indi-
vidual plant-growth and in different parts of the plant, as synat- |
throse,* the especial sugar of the unripe grain of rye and wheat
but also in certain families, some one kind of sugar will prè
dominate in many of the individuals. The tannins of the oak,
beech, and poplar are not those of the higher plants.

t a certain stage of plant evolution, glucosides, substances

capable of splitting up and yielding, among other products,
sugar, appear. I have observed in those plants where large pê% |
centages of such substances are found a diminished re
of starch and sugar,? or their absence, notably in soap-bark am
species of the Yucca.

` The waxes, oils, camphors, resins, acids, and other a :
Seontable compounds might be similarly cited as offering chat
acteristic properties in various plants in which they appea! but
the examples given are ample to illustrate my point, that |
chemical compounds of plants should be considered from ne
sides, viz.:

I. In their own development through many plant group al
from a gelatinous or undifferentiated compound to a po lymet, q
a substance of the same chemical formula having a $0

2. In their succession of changes which may be observei

* Ri Of Senda, bp A, Muni Ana. A 4003 Jove :
Soe F Feb. pag 4 173. F untz, Ann, Agronom., xii. 399 !
Eigse

- Soc., Yucca angustifolia,

+

1887] Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants. 727

3. The location as predominant of some one or associated
compounds only in certain plants on similar evolutionary planes.

These three conditions correspond to what was stated at the
beginning, that a law of universal progression may be traced
wherever matter or force exists.
` Tiftreis no absolutely certain knowledge of the precise character
of the chemical changes which these plant compounds undergo,
though we have some information about them. Investigations
are being vigorously pushed in this department of plant-life, and
it may be reasonably inferred that definite facts will be obtained
on many of these subjects.

It would seem from the latest researches that the albuminous
or proteid compounds to which: life is essentially linked are

ed from a compound containing nitrogen, called an amide, |

and some carbo-hydrate; its sulphur and phosphorus supply
being derived from inorganic sources. This amide is probably
asparagine or a related body. Various suggestions have been
offered to explain its formation in the plant, from the breaking
down of protoplasm to its construction from simple nitrogenous
and carbon compounds, and among the latest investigations,
the results show that the formation of asparagine is independent
of carbo-hydrates, and that the amide formed is not a by-product
of the interchange of matter within the plant. The author of
these experiments considers that asparagine is formed by the
_ WMoñ of inorganic nitrogen compounds and malic acid within
_ the plant, the acid being derived from the carbo-hydrates.
7 Other nitrogenous compounds, as the alkaloids, for example,
; are probably formed from the complex albuminoids, and in fungus
: plants which are especially rich in nitrogenous compounds alka-
' sare common. ; ;
S It has been generally held that alkaloids with resins and some
: her compounds occurring in plants are waste products, but
p Sannot be accepted as final. The researches? of Selmi,

Gautier, Etard, Brieger, and others have broken down an imagin-
ey distinction between plants and animals which is of in-
terest in this connection. They show that the production of

Uk tül

Jassy Landw. Versuch. Stat., 1886, 326-335; Jour. Chem. Soc., p. 70,
1 FS J a |

et gee @origine Animale, Par Dr. L. Huhowneng, Paris; Chem. News,

E

by M. Edouard Heckel,3 and which is represented in the table. ;

i x

‘ See . Stat., 1886, 370, 380; Jour. Chem. Soc., Jan. 1887; P- fe i
T. On the variations of Sucrose in Sorghum Saccharatum, by H. Wee
Botanical Gazette, vol. xii., March, 1887. :

~ 7 Revue Scientifique, 13 Mars, 1886,

- My time will not allow a discussion of the changes of starch

; few years from former views held in plant chemistry, I will mer -
_ tion that sugar is not, in all plants, a reserve or plastic body, 31% _

_ centage after the maturity of growth marks the decay an l

prepare for a consideration of the compounds which are sor

dom. In treating of this subject I shall have so frequent 0%

728 Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants, [Aug

alkaloids is a general function common to all living cells,
whether they be Bacteria or the cells of living animals. ,
In the animals with their excretory functions these poisonous —
substances would be readily eliminated from the system, but it
seems to me that in the absence ‘of homologous organs in plast ;
these compounds might be used again for the building up d
tissue and prevent the accumulation of products detrimental to
plants, and the recent investigations of Kellner? on the composi-
tion of tea-leaves show that this view is not unlikely, for he |
states that the non-albuminoid nitrogen is almost wholly absent
during the latter stages of growth, being found as theine; in thè
seeds the albumen has increased, but no theine is found, thus the :
author believes that positive ptoof is afforded that the alkaloids
are a decomposition product of albumen, and capable of agait |
forming albumen like asparagine and glutamine. oa
It will not be possible in this place to ènter more fully into
the details of the chemical changes going on within the plant

into “sugar, and conversely, nor a review of the many steps "
the transformation of protoplasm into the simpler products %
cellulose, chlorophyll, and other substances; and it may be We" |
to say that the ideas of physiologists in regard to these chang? |
are unstable, since the acquisition of new facts seems to unset’ ]
former-opinions. But, to illustrate the revolution within the lat |

in some few (for example, the sorghum-cane?) it must be ea
garded rather as a waste product, and its advent in larger P

plant and attends its euthanasia. oe

I have desired, by entering into all of the above particulars. * |
by these chemical successions and occur through the plant king
sion to speak of the different plant families that, for convenient
I shall use the order of evolution for flowering plants prop% oe

nN
a
oR: SCH
EME
5 a E OF PLANT EVOLUTION
x Apetalous. By M. Epova 4
8 y £g [ Casmarine RD HECKEL ~
x 35 pS dex, Sali Myriceæ, Juglan- $ Monocotyledons.
nE < jo alicinex, Carylacese, = 2 Lemnacezx, . Di ;
S Eg Eei Gopra, Beeulaceee, y 2 $] Naiadew, d Cupulifior icotyledons.
pind r 1 eS. 7
Š as 5 > 7 Pi ux, Plantaneæ, Potameæ, Thalamiflores,
oe 2 8 iperaceæ C
SBE GE] Cioran iori a} Fea
g AJEL Naa Ai Jugeginem, Aroidem, Pan
N r , Nepentheæ, n= ne Cyclantheæ, Pal
, ~
$ S g { Monimiaceæ, Urticeæ, Cyn PERTEN
8 os 5a crambeæ, Ce A O- eG. ©, i è
S g TE] mien “etic, Norem a [ Operen, Graminem, Reti- ç R
sg ÈB] Polygonee, Ama Moeis A1 sides Pace. oai Fieoide P
l ES Sca BS | Dasellei Ai marantacer, f | Je ex, Junceæ, Counce icoids, { tril
: D E nE -ia tocarpez. enopodex, Ar- at 3 ydropeltideæ,
Po rog y
> RUY
“tS Sia A Phytolacceze I *
S = 64 3 latices „` Laurineæ, My-
- 3 ceæ Lil
PEP 7) mice ‘Gmc i ! ae Te ee
A ano ; pas a ’ ydroch A
Š Â Buus Geek TH | £ Arkote emaa See: : a ng MA. Pari
È a mèle, Nycta ee Thy -a sae? m Tillandsiæ, Ma ales, Tilio- Malvales Dani -
S 4 d HS gineæ, ae ingiberacem, Can- f Legumi petelous-Isogynes, s o-
A & of g sarineæ. : { minous slani
a, $28 338 ‘ .8 Rhamnal ; ere tal
A Š 3 § 3 as { Aristolochiaceze. Ae { Apostasiacese | als, Bicarpels, allies ous-Anisogynes, Labi-
S 238 7 3 A Orchideæ, A i
$ Isr pocynezx, 5
m ozs i Asclepiadsss.
: ER -
A i 3 : 2; Corysanthérie. E Ca te EPEE |
: aces,
: 8 : areara, De
s * o $, Synanthérie. : Se Be

TA

f y
E

K hae

730 ` : Hornless Ruminants, {Ag

The author classes all these plants under three main parali |
divisions, from the lowest of the apetalous,' mono- and dicoty-
ledonous groups to their respective highest plants. These three
main columns are divided at the same point into three gener
planes. On plane 1 are all plants of simplicity of floral elemens
or parts; for example, the black walnut with the simple flow:
contained in a catkin, On plane 2 are plants of multiplécity 0
floral elements, as the many petals and stamens of the ros;
and, finally, the higher plants, as the orchids among the mon
cotyledons, and the Composite among the dicotyledonous plants
come upon the third plane, or the division of condensation
floral parts.

These three characteristics, simplicity, multiplicity, and ~
densation of floral elements, are correspondingly repeated 1
_ each of the three horizontal planes, and even in individual ords
in their lowest and highest plants.? To facilitate the compreh
sion of this classification I have assembled a sufficient nu
of the plants themselves, so arranged as to place before yout
living representation of this complicated diagram.

(To be concluded.) tf
HORNLESS RUMINANTS.
hes group of mammals known as Ruminants exhibits

BY R. C. AULD.

tain characters more or less dependent and highly ast
Among these is the possession of horns. The Rumit

* Heckel’s division of apetalous plants from mono- and dicotyledonous r

has been criticised by some botanists as an artificial method of classificatio™ sgt
sed praeter classifications have been declared, on botanical authority, be <

A ota „the bh a Pt 12.4 ry pologize for introducing r BSS

She has found his scheme to answer hee Jirjis provisionally, Mor per so
oher classifications, atid she is indebted to him for a means of pon pot e
ject, f which would be otherwise impracticable. Further than this she 1 wid
Ty re ble for advocating the classification, M. Heckel’s table is PU sient
his paper, “Les plantes et la théorie de evolution,” in the evs? ee
* Plate XXV. illustrates this principle for the three horizontal planes, which LA
_ applicable to the orders, es

7

Monorotyledons

Apetalous

PLATE XXV.

Condensation o Floral Ef\ements

Muiiplicity
Floral Ehan

"E

Floral irma

PLATE 1.

Condensed form
Multiple farm

Simple form

1887] i Hornless Ruminants. 731.

frontal bones, to which may be attached, or round which may be
sheathed, horny appendages or coverings. But all of the group
do not possess these; camels, etc., and two tribes of deer are nor-
mally hornless. And among the others, as it is our object to
show, the horns are by no means -constant, or even necessary.
In reference to their horns, Ruminants may be thus arranged:
a, Camels (including Llamas, etc.) . i . Without horns.
6, Giraffes, horns persistent.

¢. Deer (including the hornless deer), hors Solid horns.

deciduous.
d. Antelope, Goats, Sheep, Oxen, horns per- __
sistent? ; : : ; ; Sheathed horns.

In reference to the particular character that is to engage
attention, the group may be divided in two divisions :

I. Normal hornless Ruminants.

II. Special hornless Ruminants.

t n a a ee ee eee

I. Normat Horniess RUMINANTS.
Camels, llamas, alpacas, guanacos, chevrotains, water, and
musk-deer are the normal hornless Ruminants, in both sexes.
-All these have, however, efficient canine teeth.

II. Specrat HORNLESS RUMINANTS.

Under this division come all those instances, among others
than those just named, which it has been the object to investigate.

Giraffes Though the giraffe seems normally to be horned in
both Sexes, a description of the horris is necessary. The head
_ ‘adorned with three prolongations of the bone, two of which,
_ inthe usual place of horns, are generally described as such,
_ “fey are covered with a velvety skin similar to those of the
a deciduous-horned deer at their first growth, but which does not
fll off; and at the tip they are surmounted by strong bristly
z: irs. In the adult the internal structure is hard and solid, but
R the young there has been observed an appearance of a cellular
Sentre, nourished by vessels. The third protuberance is in the
centre of the skull, and appears as a rounded knob, and is of a
__ {SY spongy texture (Fardine). Both sexes are born with the
Om of a certain distinct development; they are persistent

7 * I know of exceptions to this. :

y

3 Wyvis, Inverness-shire, Scotland, shot a hornless stag in
_ autumn of 1880. Mr. Ross then wrote: “ When I tell yo
_I never before saw a similar stag dead, you see that it must

_ this great forest seen hummelied stags,—that is, full-grow?

Be : k. The stag killed the other day is a splendid animal, W
Ing 16 stones, perfectly clean.” ` 2
d

732 ; Flornless Ruminants.

throughout life. I have not discovered any instances of teff
absence of these peculiar horns. But their structure im ther)
earlier stages seems somewhat similar to some developments it .
hornless deer, etc. , $
- Deer—In deer the hornseare solid. They have a peculiar
manner of growth familiar to most. After the third year, whe)
their horns are named “antlers,” they are annually shed and
annually reproduced in a more and more complex manner til |
they attain their limit of “royalty” and maturity. This proces)
as will soon appear, it is of the utmost interest to notice. t
may be termed the individual-life development, and this it wil |
be of importance to compare with the species-life developmet |
With a single exception of the Arctic reindeer, all female)
are normally hornless. The exception in this case must prove
of advantage to the female of this species. It may enable bi
by the shovel-like processes that overhang the brow, to procu
access to food in her snow-bound home. Abortive or ru¢ wg:
tary horns occasionally appear in female deer. The male also
Srequently without them. jt

Lord Walsingham and Sir Ralph Payne-Gallway, Bart, in t
book on “Shooting” (Badminton Library) give some inter pH
notes on Deer by Lord Lovat, who says, “ Sometimes stags ™ K
no horns. These are called humle stags. If naturally th T
otherwise perfect, they will thrash any other stags of their o"

Ae
“4
ie
ier
.

Tare specimen. It is a ‘ hummelled’® stag. I have frequen

without horns. I once shot a stag of that description pi

_ Ina note in the “ Naturalist” department of Zhe Field (I £
I made reference to one of the hornless stags of Ben wy
to that note Mr. Edward Ross, son of the gentleman ee
tioned, writes thus, March 1, from The Rounds, Wimble

M a a
a T

: 1887 ] Hornless Ruminants. 733

“ Allow me to say that hornless or ‘hummel’ stags, as they
are termed in the Highlands, although seldom shot, are not quite

so rare as is often supposed. When a herd of stags is found the
telescopes of the sportsmen are usually directed towards those
with the finest horns, and thus the ‘hummels’ are apt to escape
notice in the crowd; but whenever a herd of several hundred
stags is collected together, it will be found, oftener than not, if
carefully examined with the, glass, to contain one or more ‘ hum-
mels? The stag whose head your correspondent refers to was
shot by me six years ago in Ben Wyvis Forest, Ross-shire,
where it had been known for several years. At the time I shot
it it was in company with about three hundred and fifty other
stags,among which I observed two other ‘hummels’ younger
than the one which I killed.

“In point of size and condition, these stags are in no respect
inferior to their horned brethren. The stag referred to weighed
over sixteen stones, and I recollect seeing another, shot by the
Duke of Westminster in the Reay Forest, Sutherlandshire, which
also exceeded sixteen stones weight, both of these being weighed
‘clean,’—that is, without heart, liver, or entrails. :

“Strange as it may seem, a full-grown ‘hummel’ is sometimes
very formidable in fight. I have seen one during the rutting
season in possession of a large herd of hinds, who succeeded in
driving off all his horned rivals.

“Although devoid of horns, the heads of those which I have
seen have had slight excrescences, concealed by hair and covered

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: B von Nathusius, Altaldensleben, province of Saxony, sup-
Plies the following interesting notes : !

. Hornless stags are of no rare occurrence in some parts of
: ny. I know of their occurrence in a wild state in the

= M untains and in the royal deer-forests of the Gorde oe

734 , Flornless Ruminants.

the province of Hanover, and Letzlingen in this neighborhood
(province of Saxony). They are called by the people “büfe
*flattkopfe’ (flatheads), ‘hermits,’ and perhaps by other populari
names. The last name is derived from the former opinion ti

know them from my own experience, these hornless deer at

battue in the forest of Letzlingen on November 13, 1874 g
was rising three years, judging by the teeth, but badly develope! |
and very poor in venison; he had evidently been rutting, a |

‘I preserved the skull. The“ Hornzapfen’—7.z., the bony
cence on which the horns had to grow—in this case

=

Fic, 1.—Head of Hornless Stag.

_ Pierced the skin, but were covered by hair. This varies,
_ ever, in hornless Stags. I have another skull where the

Most about hornless stags is the Koniglicher Forster
p. Sh aaa aks. | gucner Oe
Forsthaus Rothen, Gorde, province of Hanover. :

1 1887] Hornless Ruminants. 735

“In the Mustrirte Zeitung, published in Leipzig, October 2,

:
= English illustrated papers. This picture confirms the opinion
;
;
;
1

One of these skulls is now in the Museum of the University
_ of Cambridge.

`

Fic, 2—Skull of adult Hornless Roebuck (life-size) shot, July 7, at the halduishle,
province of Saxony, Prussia.
X “Since the above was written,” Herr von Nathusius writes me,
have got notice of a hornless roebuck (Cervus capreolus) that
had been shot some years ago in this neighborhood. I enclose a
sketch” (Fig. 2). The following notes are from Ludwig Beckman:
pi

laving long been familiar with hornless stags as annual vis-
tS to the Göhrde Forest, perhaps the following notes on the
Subject may be of interest: Ag

5 In the German sporting literature both hornless and single-
-omed stags are mentioned since the seventeenth century. Thè —
mer were regarded as unfertile, and called ‘monks’ ; the latter
known as ‘murderers,’ because they were suspected to be

=

_ Stags, nor single-horned stags, are rare, I found, in 1883, am

736 — Hornless Ruminants.

generally soon „destroyed. In Behlen’s Forst und Jagdstih

Subsequently the destruction of the hornless stags at Goll®

Culiar variety, but then so are stags with only one horn,—in #7

devel

Shedding of the horns. Some hornless stags have only

dangerous to the normally horned stags in fighting. In none |
the deer-forests were they found in any number, but appes
here and there singly, seldom leaving any progeny, as they w

for the year 1831 there is the following notice: ‘ Remark
stags in Gohrde.—There have been observed of late years s
with only one horn. The keepers and foresters assert that thsi
single horns are shed annually, and that the animals show®)
signs of infirmity.’ In the same year (1831) a hornless stag Wy
killed in another forest (Evensen) near Hanover, which had ey
dently been rutting hard. In July, 1832, a hornless stag, weg® ©
ing nearly two hundred kilogrammes, was killed in the shoot}
of Graf Bernstorf, Gartow. This stag was first observed in tg
rutting season 1829, with a herd of fifteen to eighteen hinds
chasing the horned stags by striking at them with the fore
In 1850 I found skulls of single-horned stags in several cole
tions at Hanover, and heard from the royal foresters that tegi
were more in Gohrde, and that this variety would be present

was often contemplated, but, to my knowledge, was never“
estly carried out, for it was evident that the experiment WE
not be of much use. Hornless stags are often regarded as 4

there are so many individual variations of this kind, that
impossible to draw a line between stags with and without
in places where hornless stags have long existed.

“In the Göhrde Forest, where neither ‘flat-heads,’ or hor

A

the forty-five stags killed at the royal battue, perhaps five “a
warrantable stags, with fully-developed horns; twenty -five Oe
sized and small, but with rather regularly-shaped horns; ee
stag with only one fully-developed antler on one side ane í
boss* on the other side; some heads with an antler of
eveloped, and one boss projecting, more or less, throug:
skin of the forehead. Then followed two perfect hornless #
with bosses, but, of course, covered entirely with skin. ;
other deer killed that day were several young stags W!

flat r udiments of bosses, which are not visible until the §
stripped of its skin. ove

: In German, Hornzapfen or Rosenstads

Horniess Ruminants. 737

Fic. 4.—Skull of a Horned Stag, after
shedding the horns.

from Mecklenburg, across the Elbe. In the royal forest

ja deer have been breeding in and in for forty years,
Jesa OS pave nevertheless well-developed horns, and Oberforster `
se, of Springe, told me that nota single hornless stag had
tved during all that time.”
penn musk deer, smaller than the roebuck, differ from the
on character of deer in having no horns in either sex. “To
Pensate the want of horns” the males have two long and
~~ canine teeth, which project from the jaw like elephants’
istera oP that they curve inwards, In this tribe the canines,
a being arrested in their embryo stage, as in the other
nits Ruminants, gain full development. The musk-deer
$ moschiferus) are natives of Thibet and Nepaul.
XXIL—No, 8, 50

738 | Hornless Ruminants.

The water-deer (Hydropotes inermis) is a singular deer with-
out horns, and with large projecting canine teeth. It is found in
China in the low meadows and scrubs bordering the rivers, and
is remarkable for its excessive fertility, the female being said to
produce six or seven young at a birth.

“In the large riverine islands of the Yangtsze, above Chin-
kiang,” Mr. Swinhoe tells us, “these animals occur in large t
numbers, living among the tall rushes that are there grown for f
thatching and other purposes. The rushes are cut down in tit
spring; and the deer then swim away to the main shore and te
tire to the cover of the hills. G

“In autumn, after the floods, when the rushes are again grown,
they return with their young, and stay the winter through.

‘They are said to feed on the rush-sprouts and coarse grasses,
and they doubtless often finish off with a dessert from the sweet-

potatoes, cabbages, etc., which the villagers cultivate on the
islands during winter. BEO

“ Fortunately for the deer, the Chinese have an extraordinary
dislike for their flesh. They are therefore only killed for the
European markets, and sold at a low price. The venison ®
coarse and without much taste, but is considered tolerable or
want of better; it is the only venison procurable in Shanghai:

Specimens of the latter are to be seen in the Zoological So ;
ety’s Garden, London. i ;

Passing from living to extinct forms of deer, there has 7 s
noted the discovery of polled or hornless skulls of ‘the. extinct
Irish elk. But some much more remarkable discoveries have

been made in the history of the species-life or development. "i
is found that the horn-development, in complexity, is

parallel to that seen in the development of horns in the individual

Of to-day. Professor Boyd-Dawkins? states that in the lower :

meiocene “no member of the family is possessed of astien
They are hornless, —polled. In the mid-meiocene strata Pe
fessor Gaudry notes small branching erect antlers persist
throughout life, and characterized by the absence of à p
This is considered by Professor Leidy as a form interm® It
between the antlers of deer and the horns of the antelope: w
may fairly claim to be the most rudimentary form of antler p
longing to a type no longer represented. The true starting P
of the antlered deer of the post-meiocene age is presented ion
the simple forked crown of the C. dicroceros of the mid-m™
: 7 "Early Man in Britain.

VO Savings a eee
as

ps
6 `

1887] _ Hornless Ruminants. 739°

cene. The cervine antler of the upper meiocene becomes more
complex, but is still small and erect, like that of the roe. In the
pleiocene it becomes longer and longer, and altogether more -
complex and differentiated, some forms, such as the C. dicranios,
being the most complicated known either in the living or fossil
state. These successive changes are analogous to those which
are to be observed in the development of the living deer,—which
begins with a single point, and increases the number of tines till
the limit is reached. It is obvious from the progressive diminu-
tion in size, and complexity of the antlers in tracing them back
from the pleiocene into the mid-meiocene of Europe, that in the
latter period we are approaching the zero of antler development.
; In the lower meiocene Professor Boyd-Dawkins has failed to
l

;

meet with evidence that the deer possėssed any antlers.

Thus in deer the polled head was the condition of the family
during its embryo age of development; as it is in the living in-
dividual to-day. This was during the upper eocene period,
“when generalized or ancestral forms of deer and antelope” were
universally of the hornless type, whose associates were, also,
tuskless Suidæ and hornless. Rhinoceri.

_ Antelopes—The indications, as just pointed out, of the earliest
forms of antelopes are that in such stage they were unpossessed
of horns, Darwin notes that, “with the antelopes a graduated
Series can. be formed, beginning with the species the females
= which are completely destitute of horns, passing to those
having small rudimentary to those which have fairly well-
biek horns, to those in which they are of equal size in both

Ras. :

T A form between the deciduous solid-horned and the non-
q deciduous hollow-horned has been pointed out by Professor
Gaudy,

oh Position from which the horns spring is a chief point to
_, 1 antelopes, as also that the bony nuclei of the horns are
“sand solid, while in the other Ruminants to be noticed they
are cellular and communicate with the frontal sinuses.
3 would be interesting to make an anatomical comparisom
the og horns of the giraffes, the rosenstock of hornless deer,
diment “stock of antelopes, and the subcutaneous osseous ru-
Permit Sometimes felt in hornless cattle, but space does not

740 ~ Hornless Ruminants. i [Ag q

_ Goats.—Goats, which have been domesticated from the earliest f
times, occur hornless in both sexes. | Jardine’s description is,
“ Horns common to both sexes; rarely wanting in the i.
in domesticated races occasionally absent in both.” Describing £
several species of “common goat,” he says, “ As among the
sheep, we have also a breed, white, and without horns, and here
the distinction of the two forms is’ very close indeed, ant
scarcely to be distinguished, except by the hairy fleece and it-
dication of a beard.” He also describes and figures “two mom
grotesque-looking goats, which have been generally placed 3
varieties of the domestic breeds, and are represented on the next
plate, taken also from the figures of Fred. Cuvier. They are the
Nepaul goat and the goat of Upper Egypt. These two animals |
would almost seem not to be varieties, but distinct species
though, perhaps, there is not so much difference as w€ see 1
some of the races of dogs; and this is one of those points if
natural history which is extremely difficult to prove, eve 3i
the most extensive menageries and most favorable situations
The most marked character in the black figure, the N
goat, is its high and slender figure. The arched form of e ;
nose, occasioned by the convexity of the nasal bones; and tů tf
long and pendulous ears, generally of a white color, OF m p
than the tint of the body. The other figure on the plate,

goat of Upper Egypt, is generally of a brown color, E
high, and somewhat of the form of the Nepaul goat. ker ,
longer and more shaggy, the bones of the nose very much ae
and the appearance of the chin and face, with the exh
the teeth, putting one in mind of the pugs among dor
ears are also ample and pendent; from the neck there is frequ"
hanging two fleshy tubercles, an accessory which is alsa a
times seen in some breeds of sheep. In the female, the age
always very pendent, sometimes almost touching the ae

wi

Professor Low: says of the domestic goats, “ Sometime
horns disappear in one or both sexes; and in certain ane

1 Domesticated Animals of Britain.

1887] Hornless Ruminants. 741

confined to Syria, but extended, by the countries of the Euphrates,
into Arabia, and, with some slight change of characters, into
Upper Egypt and Nubia. This kind of goat was known to the
ancients, who mention it by the name of the Syrian, and some-
times by the Damascus goat, It is generally without horns. In
Nepaul a beautiful goat is domesticated, which so much resem-
bles the Syrian that both appear to be derived from a common
stock.

Figuier states that of the common goat (C. hircus) “ there is
a subvariety without horns,” and that the Syrian goat, pendulous-
eared, is more frequently without horns than the common goat.

The writer of the article on Goats in the“ Encyclopædia Brit-
annica” (ninth edition), noticing the Maltese hornless variety, re-
marks, “but the absence of these appendages is likely a freak
of nature and not the peculiar character of a particular species.”

Mr. Henry Stephen Holmes Pegler, Secretary of the British
Goat Society, in his well-known work, “ The Book of the Goat”
(1885), says, —

orns which may be relied on to reproduce that peculiarity with-
out deviation. Iam inclined to share the opinion of Professor
Simonds, late Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, that
there is no hornless race, but that the absence of the corneous
ages is purely a freak of nature apparent in all breeds,
ou i :

S election, and breeding always from polled goats, a strain
could be established which would produce, with tolerable cer-

T -$ goat without horns appears to have a rather ancient origin,

: wen modifications which characterize it are deeply rooted.
st now in other respects but little concerning this ag?
ka whose most esteemed quality consists in the value of

a , which possesses but little odor, and is very good eating,

y

742 Hornless Ruminants.

_ being often mistaken for mutton.’ He then concludes by saying f
‘The hornless goat is of Spanish origin.’ Now the county
where hornless goats are most common is Malta, and the clos f
proximity of that island to Spain would lead to the inferen
that the Maltese is the’ kind here alluded to, especially as it
not mentioned elsewhere in the work. If this be so, however
the grouping is certainly at fault, seeing that the Maltese got
has decidedly pendulous ears, and cannot, therefore, be placed it
the same category as the prick-eared varieties.” (Pp. 18-21)

He, on pp. 27, 28, describes “ The Maltese goat” thus:

But all are unanimous in placing this variety foremost among
milkers,—an important point to note. k
On PP. 101-3, under the heading “ Importance of Pedig
he pen an analysis of a pedigree which he says he selected"
showing how, whilst most of the ancestors are hornless, 2 hor a
goat is produced.” ;
In a paper by the same author in Zhe Live-Stock Fourni
Almanac (1887), in referring again to the importance of n
ecord he says, — i

i Sp perusal. of this volume clearly demonstrates also what |
“iN often stated, that the hornless, short-haired goats arè 1
_ the most popular, and pay the best to breed. . . . Of cours,

popular, and very few
in appearance,

The British Dairymen’s Association, at their annual exhib! pes

in London, has four classes
of goats,

Varo and Columella inform us that in their times the Roma? :

for the reception of hornless vat" ”

1887] ` Hornless Ruminants. 743

dishorned (as is now such a common practice in the Western
States of America, among cattle) their goats and sheep of certain
kinds. This would indicate that they were acquainted with the
useful properties of hornless races of these Ruminants, which we,
indeed, know to be the fact with the latter.

Sheep—Generally considered sheep are described as having
“horns common to both sexes, sometimes wanting in the females.”
The domestic breeds are, however, mostly polled.

Aristotle (4, xxvii.) states that in Libya the horned rams are
born at once with horns, and not the males only, as Homer says,
but all the rest also. In part of Scythia, near the Pontus, the
contrary is the case, for they are born without horns.

Jardine figures a peculiar breed of Persian sheep. It is polled,
with black head, ears, and neck, the rest of the body white: has
pendulous ears and arched profile, stands somewhat high, and
has short, crisp wool, It seems to resemble the breed of African
and Ethiopian sheep. It also appears to spread itself into many
varieties—the Morocco breed, the Congo breed (covered with
very loose wool instead of hair, with two wattles beneath the.
throat), the Guinea breed, and the Angora races (which have
finer wool), :

He also mentions the hornless Mysore as the most beautiful
Indian breed. In Russian Tartary are polled, lop-eared, Roman-
nosed sheep, . :

Prof. Youatt says (“ Sheep”),—

“The primitive breed was certainly horned? and those horns
Were of considerable size. . . . The polled sheep were probably

Of tha ccasionally dropped with the rudiments of horns; some

© north and south of Asia, prevailing more than any other in

* Page 363 he says “ probably” instead of “ ce tainly.”

[Ag
Palestine, interior and north of Russia, and of which the Tu-
coman Kalmuck flocks, etc., principally are composed, It isht
rumped and horned. The second cut (2), representing a ramo ff
the Primitive Sheep, is that of the “ fat-rumped polled sheep.
prevailing in Persia.” It is the same as mentioned by Jardin
Youatt discusses whether this breed,—the fat-rumped,—whit!
mostly prevails in Palestine, is the same with that of which tit
sacred historians speak? He shows that the patriarchal bres $
was the sheep whose fat was principally deposited, not in the tal
but on thé rump, or in those parts immediately connected thee
with. The Persian polled sheep was the more beautiful spe
men of the primitive fat-rumped breed. |
“ The level back and belly,” says Youatt, “ the rounded uah
and the light small leg would induce the easy belief that fron |
such animal our own down and mountain sheep might "E
originally sprung.” This is a view similar to the opinion ë |
to the Zebu being the ancestor of our domestic races
cattle. |
In -describing the Egyptian, Ethiopian, and Abyssinian r
tailed sheep, he says in Nether Ethiopia the fat-rumped we
begins again to be found of rather smaller size than the as
The smaller sheep, resembling, and, except in size, identical io
the Persian or primitive breed, is more prevalent. The cut give
on p. 23 (the polled fat-rumped “Persian) represents the 4
Abyssinian, but of a somewhat larger size. RE
Many of the sheep of East India, and particularly the Mys® :
closely resemble the Persian. They are without horns. — de
Professor Low says the polled Persian is found in Arabia r]
countries of Euphrates, into Persia, whence it has been “ee
times erroneously termed the Persian breed, though in no mn
Proper to Persia. They are found in Madagascar and along d |
Southeastern coast of Africa, Abyssinia, and the counta
the Red Sea. plack
Youatt, in a note, mentions “a Broad-tailed polled :
ram at present in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Patty b
has floored most of his keepers, and is master over every *
and beast in the place.” This is of interest. em
Columella has recorded his preference for the “ hornless o ;
of sheep. : “ted

744 Hornless Ruminants.

Early English writers record their preference for the e

1887] FHlornless Ruminants. — 745°

varieties of sheep, —Markham, Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, Barnaby
Googe, and W. Ellis.

Pennant divides sheep into two classes: (1) Ovis anglica—the
Hornless, and (2) Ovis polyceras—the Many-Horned.

Gilbert White, writing from Ringmer, near Lewes, December
9, 1773, to Thomas Pennant, has the following on hornless sheep:

John Lawrence, in 1805, gives a concise “ Description of ©
British Sheep,” of which he enumerates eighteen polled races
and some foreign races, as Dutch and Danish, which seemed to be
varieties of the Spanish (Merino). Mr. Arthur Young, the cele-
“ wa author of “The Annals of Agriculture,” wrote that
while in Spain I examined the sheep attentively. They are in
_Seneral polled, but some had horns,” etc.
Professor Boyd-Dawkins states, “The hornless breeds of

Piit an back in our country from the days of the Romans,
tem lids eb ornless skulls have been found associated with Roman
| Saag in London.” And “from the analogy of cattle it is
Welsh Mrak they were derived from a horned race, such as the
is ‘is or old Trish or Exmoor breeds. Nevertheless the horned
and p erie in the Roman refuse-heaps than the hornless,
- : in those days Was the dominant breed.”

t

-into three lots, one of which was sent to the Jardin d’Acclime

of good quality. The wool is of mother-of-pearl brilliancy, p

= with short, close, and shining hair. The animal has 9° horts |

746 © Hornless Ruminants. (Ang,

` the chest expansive, and loin good; the tail is short and =

> \ r

H. von Nathusius writes me from Saxony :

large, short-tailed, marsh breeds, that now mostly have been
crossed with the long-woolled English. There are few of the
aboriginal ovine tribes left untouched by Merino blood. Among |
the Merinos there is no regularity at all concerning horns. There
are breeds in which almost all the ewes have small horns, ani
others, particularly in France, where even the rams are devoid
of them. They have given them premiums, indeed, limited ©

Lincoln sheep from Lady Pigot’s flock, and, strangely enough, $ |
pes percentage of the rams and an occasional ewe came with

orns. :
_ “In the collection of the University of Halle there is aven
interesting suite of ovine skulls, beginning with such of the most

In 1863 the French government introduced some of the famots
Ong ti, or Chinese prolific sheep. The consignment was divi¢ |

tion, where they have increased enormously. They “i
well, as high as one hundred and fifty-four pounds; the fesh *

Z

of common quality. The head, which is very small, is co

but what gives the greatest peculiarity to the sheep is, that $ r
have no ears. The legs are long and hairless; the body shoti
on itself in a crease of the skin that encloses a fat of very E
quality. The distinguishing trait of the race is its fecuri
producing from two to five twicea year. Two only are £ en
raised, though the mothers are excellent milkers.

* The male (hornless) of this breed is figured by L. Figuiet.

(To be continued.)

1887] Editors’ Table. 747

EDITORS’ TABLE.
EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

In most university work study and instruction naturally cease
with the beginning of the long summer vacation. The broiling
suns of July and August are not conducive to the study of Greek
roots, or problems connected with the fourth dimension of space.
With biological studies the summer is most important, for then
is the time when the student, relieved from all other duties, can
carry on uninterruptedly a course of study and investigation

_ Which supplements in an admirable manner the lectures, dissec-
tions, and demonstrations of the college year. As our colleges
and universities are situated, it is extremely difficult to give the
students, in term-time, any adequate idea of marine forms and
their wonderful development,—points which are of great impor-
tance in a broad and well-balanced biological education. It is
the recognition of this fact which has led to the establishment of
marine laboratories along the eastern coast of the United States.
In them are learned facts which could be obtained in no other
Way.

The importance of these laboratories or stations is recognized
by every biologist, for in them a large part of the biological in-
truction is given, and in them a large portion of the original

"vestigation is carried on. It is only a few years since there
were none of these regularly established stations. Then the

3 Student went to some favorable spot, hired a building or a room
be the shore, and conducted his researches with the most prim-
se oo and under the most discouraging circumstances,
wi ; z ENY there have been various stations established, more
: ‘Sss permanently, and to these students have flocked from all
: B the Union. To show their importance no better ex- :
= i Pes be taken than the summer laboratory of Johns Hop-
4... versity, This dates almost to the first year of the insti-
which supports it. It has constantly been conducted by
+K. Brooks at various points along the coast from the

PEN oe she Chesapeake to the West Indies. The results w.
P

*

omplished can be seen by the various publications that
~~ Proceeded from it, and the positions now occupied by those

748 2 Recent Literature. [Ang
who have availed themselves of the facilities it affords. h
amount and character of its biological work the Johns Hopkins
University has but few rivals in America, and it is safe to sy
that at least half of its prominence and prestige in this respet
is due to the work done in its marine laboratory. T

There is ample evidence that there is an increasing realizatiot
of the importance of these summer schools in connection wit
university instruction. Anything which should tend to less
the present number would be deplorable. There should be mot
of them, and more money for their support. Not all institutions
have the wealth or have trustees with the breadth of view nec®
sary for the establishment of such stations; and yet similar &
cilities should be enjoyed by all. In such cases the deficienti
should be met either by co-operation or by hiring tables at sof
established laboratory. As it now is, except the Johns Hopkins
Laboratory and that of the United States Fish Commission,
of these stations are supported by individual efforts. The un
however, cannot be far distant when there will be more of thë
laboratories which will bear an intimate relationship to ouf i
leges and universities. When that time comes biological inst
tion will be of a higher character, and the biological scienc
will take a higher rank in the public estimation than they 90"
do. | |

°

‘RECENT LITERATURE.

Review of Dr. H. Rink’s Paper on the East Gree he inter |
— The following article is based on a consideration of the sae
esting conclusions deduced by Dr. Rink in his admirable P#”
n the

on the East Greenlanders.

esis that Alaska is the scene of their origin, and sup
_ Statement in the fact that the Eskimo are not strictly COM a.
the littoral portions of Alaska, but on the mainland ashe is
selves along the more important rivers to a greater Of d e
tance, which is in each instance determined by the ng Kur
approaching the coast, along the river-banks. Along e

* Die Ostgrönländer in ihrem Verhältnisse zu den übrigen Eskimostimm®™ 3 pa : :
ep k. Deutsche geographische Blatter, vol. ix., No. 3, 1886, PP» 77 =

Pie ae”
eo i

| Aes Recent Literature. ay

kokvim and the Yukon Rivers a slight allowance should be made
for the constant maintenance of trading-stations situated favor-
ably to induce both the Indians, who dwell in the northern
regions, strictly within tree-limits, and the Eskimo, who dwell
without it, to trade at those stations. |
In three localities the Alaskan Eskimo are known to disperse
far into the interior. The first area to be considered is that lying
between the Yukon from near the Shgeluk across to the Kus-
kokvim at Kolmakofsky Redubt and to the sea. This great
expanse of barren ground is quite populous with Eskimo, The
second and third areas are adjacent, and comprise the region
lying east of Kotzebue Sound. Here are the mountain Eskimo
and, to the north of them, the Eskimo along the banks of the
Kuwuk and several other streams of greater or less importance.
The Occurrence of these people in each of those localities can
certainly form no hypothesis that will tend even to support the
assertion that their presence away from the coast should show
n.

theìr origi

_ Dr. Rink submits the strange deduction that the Eskimo kaiak

is a derivative of the Indian birch-bark canoe. From the earliest

meatal every particle of reliable information proves that the

uy deadly hatred and animosity existed between the Indians
tory
tised

the
by

Eskimo wherever they came in contact. Their earlier his-
is filled with traditions of scarcely credible atrocities prac-
fa ach people upon the other; and any one who believes
Possibility of the birch-bark canoe being adopted as a model
€ Eskimo for his skin canoe has but little knowledge of the
contempt of the Eskimo for anything of Indian construction.
ust why the word umiak was not substituted and that model
considered instead of the birch-bark canoe is incomprehensible.
ta the umiak is the original of the kaiak is proved by the tra-
/ Hae now existing among the people of Attu, the westernmost
nd of the Aleutian Chain, and where the writer lived for
ven months,

The narrative is, in substance, as follows: We always had the
- Umiak as a

psa as made smaller, and only a man and his own
Th Y entered it and made it their home for days at a time.
y Were thus exposed to the inclemency of the weather, and a

: lef — of the man was now drawn nearer the centre, and that
ae We pace
- Tequired pro

oe dred protection, By the act of covering at each end a small
ois found that the accompanying members of the family were
5 A shz to comfort and speed. i

E n, who had attained a degree of reverence from his

X
P "i

750 Recent Literature. [Aug

on the shores of Kotzebue Sound and in the perfection of the i
Greenlander’s skin. canoe |
The various patterns of construction, as shown by a cross-se

dertaking a journey, except it be far inland, where if a three-holed
kaiak were use :

The two-holed and the three-holed kaiaks are of Russian a
vention, and are used i

men propelled the affair. mere
+t was afterwards found that so many men had been killed

1887] eo Recent Literature. 75I

_ youths must be employed to take the place in the rear hole in
_ order that the hunter could cast his dart at the sea-otter, now made
doubly wary by the energetic pursuit of it from the increasing.
number of rival fur companies. As that creature was restricted
= to certain portions of Alaska, the use of the two-holed kaiak
has never gone beyond those limits. The convenience of the
three-holed kaiak has made it an accompaniment of the white
trader wherever he has gone and been able to procure the skins

The wi h
: double-bladed paddle being thought of; hence, as the Indian:

~ Ment and adoption certainly required but little mental strain.
hat some of the Eskimo do not employ the double paddle is
well known, and due probably as much through choice as by any-
thing else, i
and the occupant righting himself is a diversion practised only

Where the double-bladed paddle is in common use, and not by,
all the p

_ “forth as the upper portion of Norton Sound, where an occa- *
= Sonal double idle i

rines the single and the double blade are in use through indi-
-vidual or circumstantial preference. East of the latter place the
double-blad

a paddle appears to be the one used exclusively by
Sa nnuit wherever found. }
a eg regard to the development of the various spears, darts, jave-
~ Te om other projectiles cast by the use of the arm and

i a an, Dr. Rink considers them to be developments of the

Ne hand or arm was certainly the power to guide and cast a
Means t, dart long before the flexibility of wood was applied as a
- Strip ‘© Produce direct motion by the release of a shaft from a
: Ps ga to create the tension of the bow, even in its crudest
: aa If this be true, it is far more probable to conclude
- Rink, ite of the deduction inferred by the remarks of Dr.

from the ious projectiles used as means to obtain creatures
-tindera 2°» lake, or stream are modifications of the’ arrow, as
Pear age to be the missile sent from a bow, then it would ap-
, Where ot weapons now recognized as arrows and every-

ed for land-shooting, except a few instances where the

752 _ Recent Literature.

»

could be employed to pierce its skin and result in its captu i
by the hunter, who in these emergencies needed but a singe
weapon ere

1887] Recent Literature. 733

water-fowl, while the feathers that vane the arrows used to slay
land creatures are procured only from land birds. In some
localities the feathers of the raven form an exception. Those
projectiles which are to be cast by the hand alone never have
feather-vanes attached to them, and in many localities the
feathering is discarded on the shafts thrown by the hand-board.
_ In regard to the supposition that the custom of wearing labrets
in the lip of the Eskimo is due to and derived from the Indians
(Thlinkets) dwelling south of them, this is a conclusion based
upon an erroneous conception of the facts in the case.

That the custom of wearing labrets, or lip-studs, is fast disap-
pearing among the Eskimo is not a remarkable thing in itself.

=- An almost entire revolution in customs and manners of far

_ sast, and
_ &m Eskimo the |
: ore of tobacco, for the stud must be removed, and this per-
— sl Saliva to flow from the orifice. This flow freezes in

| Sammamentation h

ou hes ¢ SS in
: to prove that

. greater significance is not uncommon among nations or peoples

and in some localities has almost disappeared; yet one of the
te profusely tattooed individuals the writer ever saw was an
i ;

were unmarked by tattooing. ‘This remarkable instance was due
y to the fancy of the individual performing that operation
"pon a subject who had no will in the matter, and for that reason
‘d not be taken into sufficient consideration to forma theory
Or a generalization on. Yet how unfortunate for science if an
exploring expedition had touched at a locality where this woman
spa husband had happened to be the only ones of the Innuit
cuss Slon seen and she be the subject of an elaborate dis-
~ssion, which a fertile mind would generalize into a universal
Custom |
T

° return to the custom of wearing the labret, or lip-stud. It

Seg s just as probable that the practice of perforating the lip and

mserting a Piece of stone, bone, or ivory had its origin in the
that they should be the first to discard it and the west-
ast to relinquish it. It is a well-recognized fact

those people that the labret. seriously interferes with the

d results disastrously to the person. Hence the love °
manr: as been subordinated to the gratification of an
aired habit of a character originating but recently. The very
the Mackenzie region of wearing the lip-stud tends
the lack of intercommunication between the widely- —

People termed Eskimo has served to perpetuate the

the Thlinket should originate a custom now adopted by
XXL—no, 8,

.

754 - Recent Literature. [Aug ;

of the Innuit. The latter perforate „the lip directly under the
corner of the mouth, while the former pierce the median line of
the lower lip. 3
All of the traditions, legends, and speech of the western Innuit |
point to an eastern origin, and that the route lay by the sea and |
northern land. eir extension southward was partly a matter |
of choice and as much so of necessity. When they came in col
tact with the Thlinket and ceased their wandering, why should
not the Thlinket asa propitiatory measure have adopted a custom
of the Innuit, but modify the position and form as well as g0 |

In regard to the material of construction, form of the dwell-

evident ; hence the transition from the former character ©
dwelling to that of the present needs no discussion. The po |
„tion of the fireplace in their present habitations is that tending P
an economy of space and for the convenience of the occu 1
Sa light-hole, which forms also the place of exit for the smoke

hole would be placed directly over it, and this would tend 10 |
heer crowding around that particular portion in order to ae i
a eee of the most light in the short days of the

tro sia eg: ae pressure would be equal on all parts; “i
in p ne material is of sufficient firmness to withstand 4 ¢
| Th m the best adapted form is that of the dome. 2
nuit t€ common snow hut of the eastern and northernmost
1s constructed on that principle, for the simple eet i
prevent additions or intercommunicable chambers, €x¢°Pt (|
less specialized character; and not until the use of WO

1887] Recent Literature. 755
= adopted do we find that several chambers or dwellings are so
placed as to cluster on at least three sides about the original
structure, which insures by this arrangement additional protec-
tion and proximity. There are many facts to adduce in support
of the clustering character of the dwellings, but as they involve
so many considerations, a. discussion of them will be deferred for
another occasion.

Where wood is scarce and large pieces are met with but few
times in the course of an Eskimo’s life, those few large pieces are
= teserved to furnish him with props or supports for his tent in
_ Summer, or for the frame of his umiak, or the shafts of his spears

and other necessities, which are greater to him than fuel to cook
| his food or to make warmth. There the turf or stone-walled
_ hutis the kind of dwelling, while the snow hut is from its nature
= awinter edifice only,
= The Eskimo of Southern and Western Alaska know of the

snow hut only by tradition. Only in the extreme northern part

of Alaska do we begin to find the snow-blocks employed as ma-
terial from which to construct a dwelling; thence eastward the
use of that substance is common as far as the Eskimo extend.

Ake i ae al Sa ae aa"

dwellings for themselves, with the exception of those directly

f th
n pe either material by itself. Instead of the huge kashguh,
or‘ club- |
3 walled wit

;
i

a

tice of distributin
also takes place ; k

= pa year in any locality, the honoring of the dead and change

756 oe Recent Literature. [Ag

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

lidinæ found it
Jordan, D. S. Review of the Genera and Species of Ju
Hughes, AON G. American Waters. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. From te
author:

Gilbert, C. H, Aer
List, J. H—Zur hee der aa Tbe von ios s Ga
wiss. Zool., 1887.—Zur Herkunft fo Periblastes ve noshenie e
den). Ext. Biol. Centralbl., 1887. Both from the a
Packard, " S.—Over the fenico Plateau in a Diligence. Et Bull, T
Spurga on the Organs of Smell i in Insects. Ext. Am. Nat,

Ptesg D. S a anA of Fishes esa at Arkansas, prg Te and Texas |
Ae ey A N t Mus From

ocy., 1057.
Both . the au By
ee R. Ra i
Zool. Socy. London, 1886.—Additional Notes on the Panom a
cee Caprimu ulgi, and Cypeelides, Ext. Proc. Zool. Socy. Lon rs don, Mel
The Veterinary Service of the Un ea States yer Ext. Jour. Comp.
and Binet 1887. All from sin
dar ea E. H— togia. eak in Yucatan, Ext. Proc, Am.
, 1886. From
vai „Society of Micra = Proceedings of the Ninth Annual (Chautaugs)
Meeting. 1886. ‘om t

State PSR (Ohio). ats Annual Sept of the Ohio Agricultural A
ment Station. Columb , 1887. m the State Commissioners. i d
Bennett, W. seg the Afni and o of Algæ. Ext. Linnean s
Journ TAN Se the author, r
3, RG. F— sa al to the poulies of Physical
Madison Wis. sn From the aut ual al of the
Society of Science, Letters, and Art o Jab ilee nambet á the J
SS of f Sience, L Letters, and rE ef —July, 1887, Fro m th letin Eset
Putnam —Conventionalism i in Ancient psia Art. Ext, Bul
Sas, pa From the author.

gent W—Twentieth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum. een i

a em a Institution —Annual Report of the Board of Regents to Joi 9
Bourne, G. C—Th natomy = hie ed kaa A SP Fungia. Reprint Q
a Jour. Mic. Scene, Jan 7. From the sae OE
bodward, A 0m Lenthe Fossil, and their

i a fates "Rep y ary Reset ad icy me ot: From the l
to Eocene :
of Init

Epi ROn Certain ONR Ve Craters
rtebrz from the nb
and the “teased of Wight.—On a Molar of a Pliocene ives of f Bawas a froi DE i
Du we Jour. Geol, Sa May; 1887-—Notes on CA sy |
pets wie London Clay.’ Ext, Geol. Mag, jie |
domine G. N.—Descriptions of New Sylviidæ, fe eens, © md Ann. NY
Acad, Se yo. à New Thrush from Grenada, W I Both fiaa aale Jati
1887. slime Rediscoy bye of chuan s Warbler, From : 4
Mi uthor. : tj é
r a Microcosm, 1887., From the a «dete pris |

The bs British reer Mammalia, Part VI., “i
Brion ona. Society, London, 1887. From the author

1887] Recent Literature. : 757

Hughes, N. C.—Genesis and Geology.. Chocowinity, N. C. From the author
sion sb E Catalogue of the Birds of Grenada, W. I., with Observations

a pa ha rasses of aer South. Dept. of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 3, 1887.
From the Departme

are 0.—On Inv wA from the Eo pen " Mississippi and Alabama. Ext.

oc. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1887. From the auth

ee A, F.—Flint Ridge (Lower Coal- Prato Bryozoa, Ext. Bull. Denison
Univ., 1887. From the au

Mills, T. W. e in the eet Repr. Can. Rec. of Science, April, 1887.
From the uthor.

Dana, Ñ. D. Note « on the Views of Prof. Emmons on the Taconic System. Amer.
Jour, Sets, May, 1887. From the author.

Gilbert, G. K.—Special Processes of Research. Presidential Address before Amer.
Soc. of Nat., 1886. From the autho,

Osborn, H. F. —The Upper Triassic Mieke Dromatherium and Microconodon.
Ext. Proc. Sige Acad. Nat. Sci 1887.—The Origin of the Corpus Cal-
a t II cedacpbelopisckes "Jabrbuch. Band. xii. Both from the

au
Trowessart, E. L.—Diagnoses g Dipus nouvelles de Sarcoptides plumicoles (Anal-
gesine), From the author
Schlosser, M. M.—Erwiederung gegen E. D. Cope. From the author
mo #—The-Human Teeth viewed in the Light of Evolutie on. Buffalo
The Niagara Gorge. Proc. A. A. A. S., 1886. Both from the author,
Water, c D.—Second Contribution to the Studies of the Cambrian Faunas of
aby Hiitsteic Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 30, 1886. From the Depart-
e

Scudder, S. H.—Systematic Review of our Present Knowledge of Fossil par
Myriapods, an and Arachnids.. 1886. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 31. Fro

toy? A. C. tia ts Peas reg ae of the Mineral Springs of reg United States.
: ull. U.: S. Geol. Surv., No. 32, 1886. From the Departm

ETS —Notes on the pet of pp California. Pall. U.S. Geol. -
Soa No. 33, 1886.. From the Departm

. s, C.—The True me z False Theory e ose. Phila., W. H. Alden,
— 1887. From the

Ta ; rl, Mari Etudes se sur pera paléontologique des Ongulés en Amérique et
oe a a; 1. Groupe primitif de ?Eocéne inférieur. Moscou, 1887. From

/ ert F. Z —Notes on the parece Geology of Southwest Virginia. Am,
Aa , 1887. From the author.

: n Reptile nouveau des Sables g’ Aix-la-Chapelle.—Une ie der-

ae que fossile des Sables d’Aix-la-Chapelle. 1887. Both from the

W.—Organic Variation not Definite in phen An Sienn: a En-

R. - Amer, Philos. Soc., 1887. From author.

cD $ = —A Critical Com of a Sean a Skulls of the Wild ant

ae ated Turkeys, a Comi Mod- snd, Saig FO I

London, , the Visceral Anatomy of Certain Auks. Ext

> Biat 1887.—Observations saline the Habits of Mier ropus me kirara , with
Ton the ts on its Plumage an d External Characters. Ext. es 1887. All

eae . me General Notes.

GENERAL NOTES.

GEOLOGY AND PALZONTOLOGY.

On the Glacial Flow in Iowa.—There is evidence of at least
three ice-flows, or advances, of the glacial sheet in lowa:

recognized by Dr. C. A. White;? and, third, from the north’
The evidences of these flows aré found in the striated rocks, the

as Dr. White observes, they were probably derived from this e
gion. e.
“ On account of the friable nature of a considerable part of tt :

faces which probably yet preserve such traces, we very

ie have an Opportunity to observe them in Iowa.” * me
Nevertheless, the surface of the upper carboniferous ees

_ on the west side of the Missouri River, opposite Councl ©
= pe glacial scratches having a direction south, 41 o
mS flow Jor Seem to imply the existence of a glacial cur pe
te set te part of the glacial period, having 250°"

Pe Nisa ogy of Iowa, p. gt, oe
A hia, fee as we have knowledge of, at the present time, this seems to parek
EES order of the ice-flows within the borders of this State. Ra

__ > Nate's Geology of Iowa, p. 96. 4 Ibid., p. 93: Ibid.» f

X

r. j
ote

1887] Geology and Paleontology. 759

The second glacial current was from the northwest to the
southeast. We appear to have sufficient evidence of its direction
in the glacial scored rocks, and the boulders found in the drift
in different portions of the State.

The direction of the striz observed upon the Burlington lime-
stone, near Burlington, in the extreme southeastern portion of
the State, was south, 22° east.

Up to last year, this was the only locality known in Iowa

planed and scored by glacial action. The size of this surface was
ten feet by sixteen feet, and the parallel striæ have the direction
south, 73° east. Near the centre of this surface? one large

ttom slopes gradually upward to the north; and what is of
Peculiar interest is the fact that the bottom, and particularly the
north side, is beautifully smoothed and striated, while the south
side, which is very abrupt, shows scarcely a trace of the smooth-
Ing and striating action of the ice. The trend of this groove 1s
poy east. The north side of the groove presents several

.

of which were taken, with the following results :

’ ?

T e o No. 5, north, 7114° east.

is LS great Variation in ie Sars of the striz at this poig
_~leved to have been caused by a deflection of the relative y

mt ice from its normal course by some local obstruction.

rik bank Geological Survey of Iowa, p. 94- In these cases no allowance is made

o appenctic variation, : 4

ioe is from thirty to forty feet above the water in the Jowa River.

-x

_ but instead of curvin

tion of the magnetic nee i]

evidence that the ice-flow, at this period of the glacial epoch,

` pose

be described as two great loops, one within the other, and wih

ee ‘ y
Beginning a little west of the north line of Osceola County,

vounty, is reached; thence to the northeast, cutting across

uing parallel with the former, it pursues a southeasterly bea

760 oe General Notes. [Aug |

Fifty feet to the south of the above the rock presents a
equally beautiful scored surface, having, however, but’ one seta
striz, with a direction south, 70° east. 2

In the drift which immediately overlies the rock at this plac
a boulder of red Sioux quartzite, weighing about one hundrei
pounds, was found; and on the opposite side of the river another
of the same material somewhat larger. Large boulders of thè
same material have also been found in considerable abundant
in the drift for a distance of fifteen miles north from this locality.
These boulders are in all respects identical, lithologically, with tht
red Sioux quartzite exposed in the extreme northwestern corte
of the State, and were, without doubt, derived from that region.
This evidence, together with the fact that the red Sioux quart
ite boulders are found in greater or less abundance in both the
western and southern portions of the State, seems conclusive

ad a more easterly direction than has been heretofore sup
The evidence of the third, or last, advance of the ice-sheet it
Iowa is found ‘in the moraines, which extend nearly across “e

western portion of the State from north to south. “These maf

nearly parallel sides,” 3 a
€ outer moraine may be approximately located as follows:

along the Middle and South Raccoon into the north part ee
« Adison County ;”3 thence curving to the east and norte)

entering Jasper County ;” thence to the north, which cours © |
until Clear Lake, in the west part of Cerro Gordo

slightly

The inner morai à
Lak lel =

ne ent rthwest,
West : ers Iowa from the no ‘

gee g to the west from that point and co

oaral the above bearings an allowance of seven degrees is made for thë j

2White’s Geolegient ara 2
3P ; i urvey of Iowa, vol. i. p. ot.

3 Prof. J. E. Todd, Iowa Hort, Rept, pars ui,

1887] . Mineralogy and Petrography. 761
through Pocahontas and Webster Counties to the northwest
corner of Boone County; thence eastward to the north-central
portion of Story County; thence north into southwest Franklin
County, and from that point to the northwest through Wright
and Hancock Counties to Forest City, in the southeast part of
Winnebago County; thence to the northwest to the northeast
corner of Kossuth County; thence curving to the southeast,
“forming an interlobular portion to the east side of Winnebago
County ;"* thence uniting with the ‘outer moraine, as it cuts
_ across the northwest portion of Worth County, and enters Free-
_ born County, Minnesota.
k “These moraines are linear bends of knobby drift, and struc-
= turally are developments of the till, having similar features with
_ it, except that their altitudes are exaggerated.”* They were
_ formed by an extension or “ finger” of the main mass of ice at
the north; the one which formed the outer moraine reached a
point some distance south of Des Moines, but there stopped in
its course by the action of the warm south winds and the sun,
which soon caused it to retreat to the north, beyond the limits:
of the State; but only to again advance at a colder period, but
3 time with diminished volume, and to be soon driven back
_ gain by the winds and the sun. ;
4 dia second advance of the ice-sheet the inner moraine was
An extended study of the drift and loess formations of the
entire State would doubtless throw much additional light upon
“ie evidence of the ice-flows and the condition of things within
! borders of the State during and at the close of the glacial
— *poch.— Clement L, Webster, State University, Towa.

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY-

Hip J. E. Todd, Iowa Hort. Rept., vol. xviii.

5 Edited by Dr. W. S. BAYLEY, Madison, Wisconsin. |
Seether Naturalist, Dec. 1885, p. 1216.

logical Magazi 886,

2

agazine, vii., Dec. 1886, p. 81.

ia

| [Ang

produce the peculiar schimmer on faces of the crystal parallel |
to the planes along which the inclusions are arranged, —t.e. the
solution planes. After showing that secondary solution planes
` may be produced in directions parallel to directions of pressure

762 General Notes.

show some indication of regularity of form, as in Labradorite
hypersthene, etc. n the road between Verrex and St. Vit-
cent, in the Val d’Aoste, Professor Bonney* has found a schis-
tose glaucophane-eclogite interbedded with quartz-mica schists
limestone, and green schists. The rock consists of pale wine:
red garnets, with inclusions of hornblende, glaucophane, att
- dust, a green hornblende, glaucophane both in irregular grait
and in well-developed crystals, epidote, mica, and sphene (e
coxene). In this connection the author describes in some detai
the glaucophane-gabbro of Pegli, near Genoa. This rock we
described by Williams? as an amphibolite, but Bonney prefers

calling it gabbro. The glaucophane appears to have ane

he Miigge,*® is composed of quartz grains intricate
rth ing, and a very little interstitial clayey material.
Me cement has been removed by the action of pe

space. It is to the abundance of these cells that the $
——Gorman mentions the occurrence ©

lipsite, chabasite, and apophyllite in the vacuoles of the ™

* Geological Magazine, vii., July, 1886, p I.

i Jahrb. f. Min., 1882) ii p —

zol, Mi . 1887,
* Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., 1875

s . ”» $ p- 175-
Ee a
Neues Jakob. £ Mins 1387 T 155.

<a. ae mn., 1887, i P- 195.

1887] me Mineralogy and Petrography. 763

of Prudelles, Puy-de-Dôme." A mica-gneiss similar to the
~ granulite of Térnebohm is described by Sjögren? as occurring
-inthe iron regions of the Banat. Sjogren finds that the ores
“are not connected genetically with the intrusion of banatite, as

has heretofore been supposed. In his geological sketch of

tt of the Galician-Hungarian East Carpathians Dr. H. Zapa-

= lowicz3 gives a few notes on the schists and intrusive rocks
occurring in the more mountainous regions of the Carpathians.

Mineralogical News.—Svitvenite is the name proposed by
Darapsky ¢ for a mineral from the Alcaparroso Mine, near Co-
piapo, in Chile. Its analysis yielded:

: So ALO M Na,O K,O H,O

; 36.1 H6 I ea ay wace 47. 6

___ This corresponds to a composition represented by the formula
n (%Na,%4Mg)So, + Al,(So,), + 24H,O. The mineral occurs in
š acicular crystals grouped in radial masses. Before the blow-
pipe it presents the features of the alums, to which group of
In the same

oar As Fe SiO.
a i: 98.20 0.96 5 30 (Mean of two analyses):
Specific gravity equals 5.50. It is soft, and of a brilliant metallic

; lustre, It is probably identical with the arsenglanz of Breith-

1c and triclinic systems. C. Schmidt® recently having the
ia to reinvestigate the crystallography of scolecite,

s that this mineral crystallizes only in the monoclinic
and that the triclinic variety described by Luedecke was

* Comptes Rendus, civ. p. 719.

= Jahrb. a. k. ke. geol. Reichsaust, 1886, p. 607.

+» P- i.
_ 4 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., 1887, i. p- 125.
_-§Zeits. f Kryst., xi. p. 607. © 6 Ib., p. 587- ~

764 General Notes. : [Aug j

probably merely a monoclinic twin, whose twinning plane is thè

clinopinacoid. Since Rammelsberg has shown that the orthe |
rhombic mesolite (galactite) is probably natrolite, and since this
mineral is found only in orthorhombic crystals, there has as ye
been no proof given to show that either of the three minerals
mentioned crystallizes in more than one system.——A. Becker’
has analyzed a/stonite and darytocalcite from Alston Moor, it
order to decide as to whether Groth’s view in regard to tht
- composition of these substances is well founded. Both mit

galle, in Canton Uri, Switzerland, are found oolitic masses Cot
posed of a brown or green substance in little elliptical and lete
ticular grains cemented together by carbonate of lime. These
little grains are themselves made up of scaly magnetite and 3 1

to analysis, with the following result :

SiO, - Al,O, FeO MgO H,O
ae 19.97 37-5! 4.39 12.90

in the obtuse angle 8 eee ont, he verti
l rhs optical angle Wv. and is inclined 5° 54’ to the i

action # = 1.9465 and y = 1.9285.——The ferri
* Mineralchemie, ii., Aufl, 2, p. 6 tae t Krist, SE
: : See aes bid -2 3- . PS eea +" '

3 C. Schmidt, ib., xi. p. 597. 7 3° 4 Zeits, f, Kryst, xii P- 25

Mincralogy and Petrography. "965

- 1887)
_ botryogen, from Fahlun, in Sweden, has been examined by
= Hockauft The mean of two analyses yielded :

So, FeO, FeO MnO ‘CaO MgO. H,O
36.94 16.38 2.23 1.93 0.90 7.63 33-99»
corresponding to the formula FeSo, + [Fe,(So,); + (FeO),So,].
botryogen of commerce was also analyzed, and found hot
_ to have the composition of the genuine mineral.

Crystallographic News.—In an article on hemimorphic py-
rargyrite twins from Andreasberg, Schuster? discusses the classi-
_ fication of twinned crystals, and defines them as symmetrical or
_ unsymmetrical. The symmetrical ones he subdivides into those
hemitropically developed and those which show no hemitropism.
The hemitropic symmetrical twins include those of holohedral
_ and of certain hemihedral and hemimorphic minerals. Theun-
Symmetrical and the non-hemitropic symmetrical classes embrace
the twins of those minerals which crystallize in the inclined and
‘rapezohedral-hemihedral divisions of the different systems, and
also certain hemimorphic minerals. Examples are cited to show
_ tile application of the terms of this classification to the descrip-
ee of complicated twins. As the result of new investigations
; sai the Bertrand? microscope and lenses, Des Cloizeaux* finds
ws the mineral which bears his name crystallizes in the ortho- —
system. Cathrein’ describes crystals of orthoclase
anite at Predazzo, which have their largest

Ekoa i

Met ee 2 Ib., p. 117.

L£ keso "iin. de France, 1885, pp. 29, 377, and 426. 7.

ASE, xii. p. 178. s Ib., xii. p. 34. ê Ib., xi. p.608. 7 Ib., xi. p- ay

766 | General Notes. [Aug

that a difference between the angles of singly- and doubly- i
refracting regular crystals does not exist. |

BOTANY.?

one of the agents in developing this interest and directing
into useful and effective channels. This work of the club, 3
accomplished nothing more, would fully justify its existence
Now, let the botanists continue their efforts for the a
ment of the botanical work in Washington. Let there be 4 a
mand for adequate provision for the increase of the Herbar |

| many excellent collectors who might be ae :
ac’ season to thoroughly explore certain locgjities at CO radi
tively little expense, while the results would Be of vas 4
to the botany of the country. ; alli
Some such plan as this must be adopted if anything 3t have
to be done for botany. The government surveys appear z
* Neues Jahrb. f. Mi i
* Bet by Prof: Cuktas È. Wty, Lincoln, Nebraska:

` Botany. 767

_. other sciences, but which may also make special demands be-
cause of its close relation to the agricultural interests of the
country at large >—Charles E. Bessey.

_. A Duty of Botanists.—Every botanical teacher has in his
classes some young men and women who have the desire to
become botanists. The number is doubtless relatively small,

_ the great majority in every class taking but a transient interest

__ in botanical science ; but as it is from this small number that the

_ wWorking-force of the botanists of the future is to be recruited,

“te embryo botanists should receive especial attention from

sed in their catalogues) particular attention is given to botany,
re are “ post-graduate courses of study,” leading

“at can a young man do in any department of botany who
snot read German, French, and Latin? The literature of
“getable Anatomy and Physiology can only be known to him

© no translations of the great books. What will such a
Plantar upped man do with Bentham and Hooker's “ Genera
fee | a DeCandolle’s “ Prodromus,” Walper's “ Reperto-
muller’s “ Annales,” DeCandolle’s “ Monographie Phan-

768 : General Notes. [Aug

erogamarum,” etc., etc.? Or, suppose he is a student in onedi
the agricultural colleges, what more fitting subject for him than
the thorough study of the grasses, or the injurious fungi? But
what can he do in the first case without the ability to use Ster-
del’s “ Synopsis Plantarum Graminarum,” the works of Kun
Trinius, Nees, Hackel, or, in the second case, the works of Fries, |

The Element of Time in Botanical Study.—In the arrang™ |
ment of courses of study it should be borne in mind that the
beginner in botany requires more time than is usually allotted

plants by the stud
conning of books.

must have time in which
tıme, extended time, i

; 1887] Botany. 769
_ Where it is not possible to devote more school time to this: sci-
ence, let the teacher arrange for a year’s course with but one or
_ two exercises each week. A pupil who devotes two exercises
each week throughout one school year to botany will at the end
7 of that time have a much better and far more enduring knowl-
_ edge of the subject than if he had devoted five exercises each
= week to it for a single term. Properly managed, even one exer-
qse each week for a year will bring better results than five exer-
= cisesa week for one term. Two exercises each week in the fall
_ term, one each week in the winter term, and two a week in the
_ Spring term is an arrangement which I have found to work
-excellently in practice —Charles E. Bessey.

|
A + . . f
3 Botanical News.—Sereno Watson’s contributions to American
i d Botany, XIV.,

Arts

S ree new genera are described,—viz.,
Asclepiadaceæ)}, Prochuyanthes (Agavee), and
(Umbellifere). The determinations of the Gamopet-

Key hort papers before the Academy of Natural Sci-
line Philadelphia upon the following subjects,—viz., “On

sig of the Naturauisr reaches its readers the long-
is W, F resh-Water Algæ of the United States,” by Rev.
Wolle, will be ready for distribution. It will appear in
aot ` first consisting of three hundred and sixty-four
10. 8, ss

ERTEN
;

JIO ; General Notes. [Ang
pages of text, giving descriptions of species, a glossary, and
indices; the second volume contains one hundred and fifty-
seven plates, representing over two thousand colored figures.
The whole work embraces nearly thirteen hundred species
The price (ten dollars) is remarkably low, when we consider thè
expensiveness of the colored plates. The work may be obtained
of the author at Bethlehem, Pa.

ENTOMOLOGY."

Singular Adaptation in Nest-Making by an Ant, Cremast-
gaster lineolata? Say.—A month ago I received an ant’s nest, sent
by Assistant Engineer Henry A. Brown to General W. G. Lewis,
of Goldsboro’, N.C. The nest was built several feet from the
ground on a bush, in the marshes bordering Broad Creek, yet
County, N: C: ie.
This ant usually nests “ under stones or underneath and within
the decayed matter of old logs and stumps. This material 1$
sometimes prepared by the ant as a paper-like pulp, and yet
into cells and chambers, which are attached to the surface of the
ogs.”3 , )

. This nest is about eighteen inches Jong by twelve inches"
circumference at greatest diameter. I made a longitudinal sf
tion of it, and had a photograph taken, so as to represent 9%
the external form and internal structure. The ants were
the nest when I received it. They were chloroformed before
- adults, pupe,and larve. They were collected in a mass DN =
the chambers within a space four inches in length of the me
This space is about two-thirds the distance from the lower it
The material composing the ‘cells in this space is lighter B*
than the other internal parts. It appeared also in the photog! it
as can be seen by looking at the right-hand figure. Probably"
will be visible $ the photoengravure. i
ie material used in making the nest seems to be Et.
used by the ant in making its hest under stones, etc. , Bes B
woody pulp, a microscopic examination seems to oe
Some portions of dried grass. The nest is supported pare
branches of the bush; a vine and some stalks of marsh-g" gil
fastened in it. Upon the outside the material is of a light 1
color, much like that of the nest of the white-faced hom ply
the interior it is darker, in some places almost black.
the high tides causing the creek to overflow forced the a
build their nest above the high-water mark instead of W%

i
$

TT SSpertorit is edited by Prof. J. H. Comstock, Cornell University,
2 Nive communications, books for notice, etc., should be ig Riley.

3 Tati determined for me through the kindness of Prof. C. V

s Report on Cotton Insects, 1879, p. 188 ;

PLATE XXVI.

syn
i i!

mn pie

ia aandaa pieni

eT a

Bet
* Br es

1887] A Entomology. 77I

stones and within logs. One cannot help thinking that possibly
some species of Hymenoptera, which now altogether build ele-
vated nests, once built them near the ground, and being forced
for a long time by conditions surrounding them, similar to these,
finally acquired that habit permanently.

This would seem more plausible if General Lewis is correct in
a fact which he states, that the yellow-jackets along Holly Creek,
in Pender County, build nests on the bushes to avoid the tide.
I mean to investigate this and see if they are the same species
which under ordinary circumstances build nests in the ground.

—Geo. F. Atkinson, Univ. of N. C., Chapel Hill, July 7, 1887.

_ A New Form of Vial for Alcoholic Specimens.—Frequently
in Natural History museums it is desirable to display alcoholic
specimens in vials placed in a horizontal position. This is true

>

mological cabinets, where the insect-boxes are in the form of

the vial in place in an entomological cabinet, a white

- Card is : i i
2 d is fastened to its lower side with liquid glue (the acetic acid

y means of these projections the bottle can be

Tes in place with small pins

: pins. ‘
Mould for these vials is the property of Cornell Univer-

772 ; General Notes. ` [Aug i

’

the vials may be obtained.— F. H. Comstock.

sity, but it is with Whitall, Tatum & Co., New York, of whoa

Synopsis of the Hymenoptera of America North of Mexico
—It is with much pleasure that we call attention toa work by
Mr. E. T. Cresson, which bears the above title, and the first pat
of which has just been published by the American Entomolog:
cal Society. a

he study of the Hymenoptera has been much neglected in
this country, notwithstanding the great extent of the order, the
wide range of variation in structure presented by it, and the fact

Coleoptera of our Fauna. For, as stated by Cresson, ©
larger fami-

lies has been very imperfectly studied, and our knowledge of tiè |

be
approximately complete.” But this work will do much by w
attraction of attention to the order to hasten the day W a
shall have a complete classification. And it adds an order to the ]
_ Small list of groups which are available for study by other Hi
Specialists, sie |
The part published consists chiefly of analytical keys gel

g M n of these

Westwood, Thomson, Taschenberg, Norton, Marsháll,
Mayr, Saunders, Howard, Cameron, Ashmead, and others.

index. It is expected that the volume will consist of abo
pages.

the described species and bibliography, as well as 4 ~a 5

, a
preparati for Preserving Larvæ.—The followin formula for
M a ore fluid for the preservation of late is gn
r. Henri Trois (Atti R. Istit. Veneto, (6) tomo iii) i
Common salt o ka cea
wa 3 . aia A
Corrosive sublimate . . . .. centigh 18.
Boiling water . litres $ a

1887] Zoology. 773

When the liquid is cold add 50 grains of carbolic acid. Let
the liquid stand five or six days, and then filter. It is claimed
that by means of this fluid the colors of larve can be preserved
perfectly, even when exposed to a strong light.

ZOOLOGY.

Hydra inside out; ‘a Correction.—Will you allow
me to correct a slight mistake that has crept into the pages of
the AMERICAN NATURALIST? On page 387 of the April number
it is stated that I have succeeded in turning Hydra inside out.
The credit of having accomplished the feat should be given to
Mr. C. Ishikawa and Mr. M. Kikuchi, both my assistants at the
time. They devised simple but ingenious instruments for the

_ purpose, and made the task of turning Hydra inside out a com-
_ ‘paratively easy one, as I can testify from personal trial. Mr.
Ishikawa made at the time many observations on the behavior
of Hydra thus turned inside out. So far as I remember, Hydra,

_ under these circumstances, generally quickly gained the right
side out again, and if forcibly prevented from doing so by having
‘ a bristle put through its body, it still made frantic and almost
laughable efforts to right itself, No definite results were reached,

so far as I can recollect, in regard to the change of functions in
| the layers of the body,—at any rate something interrupted Mr.
_ Ashikawa’s observations before any definite conclusions were ob-
tamed, and that is the reason that nothing has been published
= now. I hope that Mr. Ishikawa will take up the investiga-
‘on again some time, and throw more light upon this interesting

vas Mitsikuri, Imperial University, Tokio, Fapan, June

of June 20, 1887, when returning from placing
oe engodes females where they might attract the males, I
vs the path before me a small phosphorescent light. As I

ae Remarkable Case of Phosphorescence in an Harth-Worm. '
: Eri the night

-

2 Boston Society of Natural History: “It appeals:

. attracting my attention. When the earth is disturbed, the

774 General Notes.. ae [Aug

and the light advanced as rapidly as I ‘moved my hand, 1
thought certainly I was in pursuit of the prize, and in my anxiety
to capture it I would catch up a whole handful of earth. But
I always noticed that I left the phosphorescent light on the
ground. The insect eluded me, I thought. After pursuing the
phantom in vain for some time, I stopped to ponder. After the
habit of a puzzled man in an inquiring mood, I brushed my foot |

pellet of earth bristled with a phosphorescent light. Fora
moment I seemed to lose confidence in the fact that all such

r ;
from the sky: “Nate dea, quo fata trahunt retrahuntque, ge
mur; Quidquid erit, superanda omnis fortuna ferendo est” Bat
in a moment more I had brushed away these delightful supers: |
tions, and went to work to find the cause. pe

aking a quantity of the earth, I went to my study. First ]
took several pebbles into a dark room and rubbed them 1m my

liarity. T
Probably the My riapod which I saw had pounced upon ca

and the worm’s body touching the ground illuminated it,

e earth-worm is probably a species o
Geo. F. Atkinson, Unjz mg : Sat sti pel Hill,
Jalka sie on, University of North Carolina, Chape |

x a a

| 1887] . Zoology. 775

that, in some cases at least, do not answer any definite purpose iR
seems to me that there can be no reasonable doubt on the matter.
_ Itmay be urged that we lack the knowledge to decide whether
any given organism considered as a whole is or is not as good
= asits nature admits. It may be urged that an essential element
= of perfection is the due proportion of parts and faculties, and

_ dividual. I have no desire to dispute the great truth underlying
: these propositions, but in view of rudimentary organs alone, it
would appear that, at least in some subordinate details, useless
structures occur, and we have no means of deciding what limits
to assign to the action of the causes producing them. It is
certain that these appearances are not due to chance; there must
5 some determining cause modifying the structure in this

syay It is customary now to quote rudimentary organs
and anatomical anomalies as evidences of descent, but it seems
to me very improperly, occurring as many of them do quite out

o ae L en aoe mee oe a he a
5 za =. Katee ee ene aa ee ae

Blan > h great modifications occur, the
plan persists. No liberties, so to speak, are taken with it beyond

mouth or four [sic] pairs of limbs. _ Is there reason to

or analogous modifications, might not
Yet I think every student
ry would look on the suggestion that they will

n.

tens condense further these deductions, it appears that the in-

co Sina Structure of any particular bone may show evidence 0

: tat second, that of homology;
at of correlation to the structure of other bones of the

’

776 | General Notes. Uy

also sometimes apparently useless structures, sometimes appar
ently evidences of degeneration, but throughout are more or less
distinct marks of harmony with ‘other parts, and of homology
with other forms. How has this been accomplished? Cleatl
the crude notion that accidental, purposeless, external fors
should be sufficient to change by slow degrees one such organist
into another of a different species is untenable. The doctrine

action, however, of this internal force is, no doubt, modified 4
_ accidental secondary causes, which may produce degenerative ®
well as progressive changes,”

+} pike P. 298, March 25, 1887.

sage, for U
ihe pene, courtesy of Prof, Walter Faxon, of Cambridg®

oer

1887]. - Zoology. 777
mud was found in every stomach examined, the greatest quan-
tity in those stomachs containing the Physe. Attached to the
fauces of several individuals were found sometimes as many as

_ ahalf-dozen specimens of a nematode worm belonging to Siron-
gylus, The stomach of one individual was completely devoid of
food-remains of any sort, but was completely filled with clusters
of this nematode hanging from its walls. ;

t would seem, therefore, that in a free state Amblystoma is
carnivorously omnivorous—R. Elsworth Call.

The Turkey-Skull.— Dr. R. W. Shufeldt has recently pub-
lished the results of his comparisons of the skulls of wild and
domesticated turkeys, undertaken with a view of noticing the
changes brought about by domestication. His results in brief are :

1. In the wild bird the nasals fuse with the frontals, but in the
domestic bird they are separated by a persistent suture. —

2. Inthe wild turkey the cranio-frontal region is wider and
More concave than in the tame variety. +

3. The parietal prominences are more evident, and the median
‘ longitudinal from these to the occipital ridge is shorter m the
wild than in tame birds.
= 4 The occipital area in the wild turkey is cordate, the apex
: Upwards; in the tame turkey it is roughly semicircular.
= „ 5. The intraorbital septum is entire in the wild bird, perforate
T in the tame, . :
2 6. The pterygoids are longer and more slender in wild than in
1 tame varieties. ;

7. The skull is denser and thicker, as well as smoother, in the
ird

The a are all comparative, and exceptions are numerous.
studi

Se and form an interesting addition to our knowledge of the

ient murrelet the lower part of the larynx is aie in
rge mass of fat, lacking in the marbled murrelet.

~ are given off much higher in the ma

manurtelet. The differences in the hearts are quite marked,
< MAY result from the action -of the preserving-fluid, as this

es present, and these agree quite een except that the
e

778 General Notes. a [Aug

organ is described as smaller and more pointed in one thanit
the other. The livers differ considerably, being longer ae
in the ancient than in the marbled species. Considerable dift
ences are also noted in the full bladders, Dr. Shufeldt ails
attention to the fact that well-preserved spirit specimens of many |
Arctic birds are still desiderata in our museums, and request
others who may have the opportunity to make comparaiilt
studies on other auks. j

and furious fighting was noticed among the malet
with :

ti ir time in catchi t come
a" building with the old hen. josi.
of my house, around a fountain, we made an EP sg

n

ut the mandarin laid twelve eggs; nine wert

Of the Sea's and after setting a week she aban One
a perfect albin gx ns two were killed under the wre
vigorous, ms » lived only four days; the remain

1887] Zoology. 779

In a ravine which has a spring pool in it I placed two pairs of
blue-wing teal. One of these birds was the mother of the rest,
and was raised by a man in Iowa, but no eggs have been laid by

em.

My pintail duck made her nest on the ground ina clump of
ferns, and set on seven eggs. The day that she was due to
hatch she disappeared, and no trace of her, the young, or even
the egg-shells, remain. We think she escaped somewhere, per-
haps over the netting, for I have seen a wood-duck, although
pinioned, go over a wire netting, by means of feet and wings,
when first placed in-strange quarters. They would go up with
a sort of running fly and fall on the other side.

It is possible that, had the wood-ducks been turned out in
pairs, and no odd drakes been placed with them, the result
would have been better. There is a great deal of natural food

that they can eat; they prefer corn to anything else and eat that

y first; next they take wheat, and only eat the oats when nothing
else is left. j s
- Next year I hope to try again under slightly different circum-
j oes, such as proper mating and different food, and in the
mean time I will be glad to have the experience of others in this

line—Fred. Mather, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

_ ably Spherechinus granulatus) which had become detached. It
with Echino-

will be inter-
of. these forms
of the Naples

ihe ee something to do with attracting them, f
af y and stirred the water with a stick, but without pro-
‘hl ing any result. He then washed his hands in the water,

[eevee not $ disturb the ooze on the pS, yeaa ve
eches reappeared and swam about as if they realized the pres-
E ere man being: ly

780 General Notes.

lastly, entirely absent. The other genera of the family—of whi¢ t
a Synopsis is given—are Seison of Grube, with two species, a
Saccobdella of Van Beneden and Hess, with a single species

Mo ttuscs.—Prominent among the papers in the twenty-sixth
volume of the Yournal de Conchyliologie, just completed, may be
mentioned an account of the Molluscan fauna of the valleys d
the Tage and the Sado, Portugal, by Nobre; descriptions of nev
species of Molluscs from Annam, by Wattebled; from ambodi f
and Tonkin, by Morelet ; and from China, by Hende.

EMBRYOLOGY.

A Theory of the Origin of Placental Types, and on cer |

Vestigiary Structures in the Placentz of the Mouse, Rat, by

Field~Mouse.—The discoidal placenta has been suppose d |

Balfour to have been derived from an earlier and less spe seen
He, however, gave no connected, and, as its% E

to the present writer, no plausible view as to the met me i

gested by me. iat
> The view which the writer holds is essentially as at
(1) 2 by Primitive form of the placenta approxi mated that 0
d on diffuse type. 2) The primitive type of pone

oe nate bipartite, and its cornua were therefore tubu n
Faces Ari in one of the cornua of such an uterus, ch tie

os ere enlarged, must have caused the latter to tou ase
uterine mucosa aroun or, just ;
eek pU into a flexible tube would be in annular Cte

ah

mucous membrar a
F Elite by Yous a i versity t E
sylvania, Pha leioy RYDER, Ph.D., Biological Department, Universi? a

1887] Embryology. 781

_ the development of the zonary, diffuse, or cotyledonary placenta
would be established.

Just here it may be well to call attention to the fact that the
bare poles of the chorion in the diffuse type of placenta, as seen
inthe Mare and Dugong, show conclusively that we cannot draw
asharp line of demarcation between the diffuse and zonary types
of the placenta. It follows, without any doubt whatever, from
what has been said in the preceding paragraph, that the so-called
| ffuse type of placenta is merely a special case of the zonary,
_ in which smaller polar areas have been left bare of villi because
of more extensive contact of the chorion with the uterine mucosa.

Py a ee ee eg ee ees

=
—
oo
wn
7
Ò
ey
o
a.
a
D
wn
O
O
a
w
Q
a
5
zi
8
w
=
a
~
O
5
2
l
sy
pe
D
<
g
a
pe)

The concentration or diminution of the placental area also
pends, to a great extent, upon the degree to which the allan-
tois is extended over the subzonal membrane; but the gradual
restriction of the area covered by the allantois must have had
some determining: cause, The influence which would be ade-
quate to produce such a restriction could only be a physiological
one, determined by the mechanical relations of the parts involved,
and it is therefore almost certain that the extension or restriction
4 of the allantoic area would be determined by the proportions of
the surface of the chorion brought into contact with the vascular
‘alls of the uterus, or by the restriction of the vascular and de-

~ Ciduous area in the walls of the uterus itself, The last-mentioned

SS I ee eR ee ee ee ee ee a eee ee S

soe ee

sei. + type Of uterus with its right and
4 ' ght an en

order that a number of foetuses could be nourished in each

baa t one time, as in Rodentia.

> e latter, when the foetuses are somewhat less than half

782 General Notes. ei) |

grown, it is very evident that there is an annular thickeningd $
the uterine wall (shown at v in A and B of Fig. 1). Dissecim $
reveals the fact that this annular thickening is nothing else tia {i
a part of the decidua, as it is closely adherent to the foetal mm $i
branes, and extends from either edge of the decidua of the & fi
coidal placenta (f) around over the back of the embryo, as shom $
at B and C in Fig. 1. This thickened portion, or decidua, fF
isolated, together with the placenta, aig
unrolled upon a flat surface, would appx $
as shown at D in Fig. I. e qusur E
immediately arises, What is the nature d |
this structure? It seems to the writer tht i
there can be no question that its positiona |

relations indicate that it is a vestige of the zonary type of placet.
which must have been developed in the ancestors of the Ro
All of the placental girdle, in the light of this evidence, *
been aborted in the Rodentia, except a small discoidal so")
nearest to the blood vascular supply on the mesometric ee
the uterus, as shown at A in Fig. 1, where @ repres ay
_ Uterine artery (the vein has not been indicated in this %3 a
. The functionless part of the decidual girdle in existing M
_ types shows that the ancestral Rodentia possessed a zonat i
CNR, We may confidently affirm this, in spite of the anom |
Aa of development of the Cavys and Murine type: opn
aS is good reason to suppose that the types of devel t b
Laie by both the latter have been derived by eer
wioch ans n from a type approximating the more prin pat |
ot | was similar to the less specialized mode of de
_ We may suppose, further, that the zonary girdle first 27
narrow and abort on the side of the ie tube oppe
: : con

a agrammatically in Fig. 2, at A, where % n
o he wall of the left and w that of the right uterine tube,

Embryology. , 783

by the decidua, and v the vagina. We may suppose Fig. 2, A,
-to represent a type intermediate between that shown in Fig. I
and that represented in Fig. 2, at B, which is that characteristic
: of certain Carnivora, —the Cat, for example. In C, Fig. 2, the

uniparous types, to be next described, we find that portions of
right and left halves of the uterus present more or less
mucous surface to the single chorion which they enclose. In

Dugong, while, if the villi are aggregated into little tufts mainly

i like D. With the still greater specialization of the uterus, as a
5 E. of which its cavity is no longer tubular, but pyriform, in
gravid state, as shown at E, Fig. 2, other modifications of

Wat of thè Old World monkeys are further modifications of a
aee which must have been primitively zonary oF diffuse, as 1s
€

fact th D, Fig. 2. Such a view is further countenanced by the

TG - in its earliest condition the placenta of the Primates 1s
~ sally diffuse in its character.
These bare ar ; f the surface

the q o S areas seem to have arisen in consequence of the failure of t

Cae Tennis to come into intimate contact with a vascular maternal eames

#

` phlet on arrow-release, a copy of which he had kindly sent mê, —

_ held somewhat obliquely, the upper moiety inclining towards í K

784 General Notes. [Aug

The facts as interpreted above seem, to me, to leave no doubt $
regarding the great influence which variation in the mechanical
relations of the chorion to the uterine walls has exercised in the —
evolution of placental types. This, coupled with the influence
exerted by the varying fertility of species, the variation in the J
vascularity of different parts of the uterine walls, and the form J
of the uterine cavity, has, doubtless, been the all-important factor $
in the evolution of the various existing types of gestation- f
John A, Ryder, June 24, 1887.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Arrow-Release among the Navajos.— Yesterday (28th March,
1887) I was out with my camera upon one of the hills which —
closely surround the frontier military post of Fort Wingate, New —
Mexico. On the site referred to are built three Navajo lodges,
“hogans,” as they are called,—two of the old original structures —
of the tribe and one of the more, recent dwellings, or plan of
building. Having made my intentions known, that I desired 4
picture of a warrior in the act of shooting his war-bow, there
soon gathered about me some eight or ten venerable-looking old
Navajo bucks, two or three of whom had their war-bows ;
arrows with them.

Having just read with great interest Professor Morse’s pat-

| it was with no little curiosity that I handed a bow and two of
three arrows to an old gray-headed warrior present, and asked
him, “ Draw,—as if you were about to kill the worst enemy you
had in the whole world.” A particularly savage expression came
over the old fellow’s countenance at the suddenness of my request,

ut he seized the bow and arrows, and immediately drew one of
them to its very head. This is the position he stood in at the
time: his left foot was slightly in advance of the right, the bow i
was firmly seized at its middle with the left hand, while it

right from the vertical line, and, of course, the lower limb having
a corresponding inclination towards the left side. The two fg
rrows were held with the bow in the left hand, being COn it
by the fingers against its right outer aspect. With the right 1

A th eugak , and consequently including the
ents Ranger, bore against the string below this

Anthropology. 785

and was not of itself used to draw back the string. Returning to
our Navajo warrior, I noticed, too, that the arrow at its head
= wason the /eft side of the bow and simply rested on top of his-
_ clinched hand. This:man wore, in common with alli the others

= who used the bow, a stiff leather “ brace” fastened by buckskin
_ Strings about his left wrist, the collar being about two inches
deep, and this in several others who stood near and who wore

‘ai day I went among ‘them again, and they had evidently
os the matter over, and several new men being present,
Site ied

1 E ART

786 General Notes. [A

i

to, the tertiary release, and a variety of the Mediterranean release”
co

(pp. 10, II). ` Bo

At any rate, as I say, all the Navajos which I examined, when
not using the primary release employ in connection with the in-
dex finger and thumb of the right hand the annularis digitto
assist in drawing back the string when charged with an arrow. —

These arrows have an elaborately made “ notch,” are armed
with three feathers, and tipped with thin and flat heads of iron,
made sharp with a file. The feathers are attached about an inci
above the notch, and are placed at an equal distance apart on the
cylindrical shaft. Sometimes the plane of one of these feathers
will be at right angles to the notch, but again the arrangement
may be otherwise, and I am satisfied they have no special rule :
in putting them on. Deer-sinew is used to wrap them, as it 1s t0
confine the iron head at the distal extremity of the shaft —R.W.
Shufeldt, U. S. Army, Fort Wingate, New Mexico, 29th March, 1887.

of the most important bits of news is the purchase of the “ Grea
Serpent Mound,” in Adams County, Ohio, by the Peabody Mi
seum of American Archæology and Ethnology. At the time of
the explorations of Squier and Davis (1849) it was covered by4
heavy growth of trees, but most of them were prostrated by the
great tornado of 1859, since which time the elements have seriously
damaged it. Knowing this fact, Professor F. W. Putnam, of the
Peabody Museum, wrote a letter ad ting the preservation ofthis

Paige d

n oval about ninety feet long, and still farther in front of we
tending to the point of the bluff, is an ill-defined portion i :
Ten have likened to a jumping frog, while others thinh OA

ge.

ao 1 foll g the centre of the c ‘no outline
te ae 2 Sem e constantly-curving 0 Pr
oes Paraly. fortunate that this, one of the most wonderful of 5

Anthropology. 787

dian mounds, is thus assured of preservation, for many others are
fast disappearing by the action of the rain and of the plough.

- The Ruined Cities of Yucatdn.—Mr. E. H. Thompson, United
States consul at Merida, Yucatan, has been making researches

ical vegetation combined with faulty construction. The dirt and

_ them as communal dwellings. Mr. Thompson rather inclines to

ly to the statements of eminent archzologists that

_ traces of such towns exist, he quotes the case of Labna, which is
rarely visited, even by the nativesthemselves. The whole region
for leagues around this ruin is dotted with low mounds and small,
rectangular terraces, some hardly raised above the surrounding
“Yel, While others are of greater altitude, though none are so
T as the mounds which support the ruins. Now, asks Mr.
4 ompson, “if these do not mark the sites of what were once

d and in such situations as to forbid the idea that they were

‘Sites of additional temples. Mr. Thompson is continuing his
locali ons of Labna, which promise to give good results, as the
alty has been almost entirely undisturbed.

but, being built of perishable materials, have entirely disappeared.
rep no

2 788 | Setentific News.

SCIENTIFIC. NEWS.

one hundred and twenty-five thousand of other Ms
_ whitefish and Lake Superior trout. The total nun
trout distributed for the year was six hundred thousa ne

past year were seen in many towns where none have n
for many years,
—Professor Hubert Ludwig, of Giessen, has he
the Zoological Institute in Bonn, as successor t°
łichard Hertwig. His place as professor at Gie has be
filled by the appointment of Dr. J. G. Spengel, pár
director of the Scientific Museum in Bremen. Dr m
land, of Munich, goes to Bremen. ` oo
—The Johns Hopkins University fellowships 1 —
to be filled for the coming year by A. C. Wightman
filson, | : k

rs, and du
been

1887] | Scientific: News o aS Fe 789

; —Dr. Walter Voigt, of Würzburg, has been appointed assistant
in the Zoological Institute at Bonn. The position of assistant
in the Zoological Zootomical Institute of Würzburg thus left
_ vacant has been filled by the appointment of Dr. Franz Stuhlman.
—It is reported that the Grand Duke Nicholas, of Russia, is
an enthusiastic student of natural history, and that he has
recently completed a work on the entomology of the region of
the Caucasus.

—The Ohio State Archeological and Historical Society
announce the beginning of the Okto Archeological and Historical
Quarterly, the first volume of which will contain, among other
archeological material, a bibliography of the mounds of Ohio,

The yearly volume will consist of about four hundred pages,
and will be sent free to members of the society, while to others
the price is one dollar per copy.

now. For many years it has shared the building of the Salem

dred thousand pamphlets. It is rich in historical and scientific

__ the expenditure of a few hundred dollars its scientific side would

have but few rivals in the United States. The Institute, twenty
| — ago, placed its natural history collections as a permanent
“posit with the Peabody Academy of Science, but it still retains
à museum of historical specimens.

for th

ied ited S i iti der Com-
eit Wie e opp Exploring Expedition un |

_ gaus,” at Mons, aged eighty-four.

_ portance to the State of Kansas,.”—W. R. Li
Leavenworth,

790 3 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [Au

_—Mrs. A. T. Bruce, of New York City, the mother of
Dr. Adam T, Bruce, whose untimely end has been chroni

—Professor A. DeBary, of Strassburg, has received a call
the chair of botany and directorship of the Botanical I
of the University of Leipzig, left vacant by the retirement d
Professor A. Schenk. a

—Dr. W. Branco, who has been a privatdocent at Berlin, g
to the University of Königsberg as professor of geology.

—Dr. Karl Dahl, the zoologist, and Dr. H. Traube, the mine
ogist, have entered upon the duties of their professorships at
University of Kiel. i

—Mr. Carl Eigenmann has gone to the Pacific coast.
hopes while there to make a study of the Embiotocoid fi

— Professor P. Falkenberg, formerly of Göttingen, goes ©
University of Rostock to take the chair of botany there.

—Dr. A. Gravis, who has been at Brussels, has been
professor of botany at Lüttich. :

— RECENT DEATHS.—May 20, Professor Alexander Ecker !

well-known anatomist and anthropologist of Freiburg, at the

professor of botany, at Copenhagen, March 19, aged
ree.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIE!

Sciences, “ with special reference to such as are of ec,

THE

l ÅMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vu SEPTEMBER, 1887. No. 9.

_ SCIENTIFIC FACT AND SCIENTIFIC INFERENCE,
3 BY H, W. CONN, PH.D.

E is the custom of scientists to regard their contributions to
knowledge as the only ones concerning which there is any

5 » requiring no retracing, while non-scien-
i thought can be certain of nothing, one generation pulling.

x y different view of nature. Theology is still divided into
beliefs, each bitterly opposed to the others. What |
ce has been made our scientists think has been
through their discoveries, and they sometimes
which: Production of any positive advance in knowledge
: S "cat has not been made through the instrumentality of science.
ona S then, claims to be the only sure realm of knowledge,
oad claims that its truths, once established, are established for
Whi an "s scientific method has indeed been defined as one
Uiisciene: ts nothing without proof, in contradistinction to the
a method, which is willing to accept entire many the-
Wha ellei for which there is no proof and the meaning of
A lea | i
pan XXIL—no, 9.

54

792 é Scientific Fact and Scientific Inference. i

Now, nothing is more plain than that science does mot con
itself to demonstrated truth. It is easy to find ins
‘publications hundreds of theories which have been ad
defended, disputed, and rejected. Scientific literature is
filled with speculations and theories which are no more
onstrated than the most unreliable of non-scientific th
Scarcely a publication appears that does not contain some!
speculation, so that science is burdened with hundreds of
proved, unprovable hypotheses, making it as difficult some
to discover accepted truth of scientific teaching as to di
the accepted truth of those lines of thought which we call 1
scientific. Yet in spite of this coming and going of hypothe
or rather, as we shall see later, on account of it, the í
still that science is the only sure thing, and its conclusi
the only ones that cannot be gainsaid. We find it alme
versally recognized, not only among scientists, but am
thinking men, that if a universally-accepted scientific con
comes in conflict with any other, it is the scientific cone
which stands and eventually modifies the other. If this a
for scientific facts is both consciously and unconsciously ;
nized, it must rest upon some foundation.

Absolute knowledge is, of course, impossib
what we observe or prove, it is always open to the agno
deny all knowledge. We can never be certain that ouf
not utterly deceiving us, and that our mental processes an i
contradistinction to reality. We can never prove that w p
verse is intelligible, nor can we prove that the fact of o y
compelling us to assume nature to act in certain W4
_ that nature does act in these ways. It is, of course
attempt to demonstrate the truthfulness of nature es
for this reason scientific observations and conclusions
to doubt as well as all others, Fundamentally, no Of
more certain than another, because a question as to ae
of thought affects everything alike. No advance g
without the fundamental assumption of the truth of |
nature. We must, then, always start with this ass” ning
the question we are to consider becomes this: i ich
truthfulness of mind and nature, are the conclusions
call scientific any more likely to be correct than
we call non-scientific? That they are ‘almost u!

le. No m

pao
pil

p 1887] Scientific Fact and Scientific Inference. 793
-regarded is certainly true. Let us, then, endeavor to find out
upon what this claim for superiority rests.
Faltis frequently said that science’s claim for authority is due to
its dealing only with facts; but plainly this statement is far from’
expressing the truth. For, in the first place, all realms of knowl-
_ edge deal with facts of some sort,—though facts relating to mind
oer be less cogent than those relating to physical nature,—and,
in the second place, science is more than a collection of facts.
A process of collecting and narrating facts is not science, for
facts have no meaning except as they are compared together,
and as conclusions are drawn from them. The significance of —
Science, then, rests upon the deductions from the facts, and not
_ Upon the facts themselves. We must therefore carefully distin-

Suish between scientific facts and scientific inference, and con-
_ Sider each in turn.

A
i i

:
i
P

3 By scientific facts we mean simple matters of observation,
Bh i
Such as that a given stone drops to the ground. In regard to

Fest upon two things,—Firstly, scientific facts themselves are
: Such a character that they cannot be modified by man nor
changed by his imagination. They are beyond the reach of
influence, and we are forced to accept them as true.
is cannot be said of the data of other realms of knowl-
We clearly recognize that minds are unlike, and that
l € think very differently upon the same subject. Some men
— deny that there is a right and wrong, or would change the
Nord right for expediency. When a subject such as metaphysics
i ‘Upon the introspection of mind alone, it is evident that the
— factor is a large one. Nothing is, perhaps, more certain
ue Primary laws of thought, and we must assume that, if
But DR personal idiosyncrasies, all minds would think alike.
‘thd E have not yet been able thus to free themselves;
Ge en it comes to the application of the laws of thought,

oag difficulty of the application or the personal factor of
Tor becomes so great that contradictory results are

tha and the certainty, of course, destroyed. We see from —
$ -d is open to error, which must be recognized as
all but the simplest laws of thought. Mental processes,

' » Mental activities in general, are open to vari-

=f
794 Scientific Fact and Scientific Inference. ;

ation in different persons; but we are confident that the
nature are alike for every one, and are therefore more tolt
trusted than anything open to individual variation. But,

upon evidence, for there is always the possibility of
and verification. Upon this consideration rests prima
confidence in the facts of science; and this, again, is a
of certainty not possible except in natural science. Hi
proaches more closely to science in its certainty than 4
else. A scientific fact is in itself, of course, no more

a fact of history, in so far as each rests upon the same €
and the evidence may become sufficient to establish 1
facts with absolutely convincing force. But we can never
facts of history; it must depend entirely upon evidence,
becomes less certain as it becomes less in amount, and
quently as we get farther away from the facts. Nor can
be sure of repeating mental conceptions. We

m
”

mental processes, and therefore repeating his thoug
far, then, as scientific facts depend upon evide
same force as facts of history. In sọ far as t
_ processes in observation, they are open to the same
personal error as all other mental actions. But
by repetition be made a perpetual source of evidence
individual, and when we realize that they are mater
vation and not of interpretation, and therefore P wi
syncrasies are almost entirely eliminated, we must
scientific facts as more certain than all others, and,
approaching the condition of absolute certainty.
But this is only the beginning of the matter.
tented herself with facts her position would bev

_ worthless. We sometimes hear it said that science should stop
_ with facts, and that it has no right to draw conclusions; but this
x is plainly both impossible and undesirable. A science made up
_ of facts, no matter how true they might be, would be meaning-
: less. Simple observations, however numerous, no more consti-
tute science than a lot of numbers shaken up in a basket would
Constitute mathematics. It is only as the facts are classified, as
_ generalizations are made, as inferences are drawn from them,
and conclusions reached, that observations begin to have any
_ ‘Significance. It is a meaningless fact that the Silurian rocks
_ are under the Devonian, but it becomes pregnant with meaning
7 when we draw the inference that this indicates a relative age of
the rocks and fossils in them. It is utterly valueless to us to
‘ know that a thousand stones which we have observed fell to the
i ground, but it is of the utmost importance when we draw from
_ the observations the conclusion that all heavy bodies tend to fall

ee eae ge ee ee ee ne ae eee) In ea ees Ci ime

; towards the earth, and of even more significance when we con-
T clude that all bodies tend to fall towards each other. In these
i Simple cases the conclusions seem almost included in the obser-
ns, but, nevertheless, they are entirely distinct from them;
a this serves to illustrate the statement just made, that it is
ey inferences and conclusions which are of any significance. ->
then, science uses its observed facts only as data for inferences,
7 is itself a collection of deductions, is it any more deserving
y credence than other branches of learning? Plainly enough,
' oi no longer either of the special reasons for acceptance
The: we have seen giving superior value to scientific facts.
“a inferences here are just as truly open to the error of the
thd eH equation as they are in any other line of knowledge,
nec € is primarily no reason for thinking them better drawn
Science than elsewhere. Is there, then, any reason for think-
mg that scientific conclusions are especially deserving of cre-
Rigg and have a right to the claim which scientists hold for
“agg being the most certain conclusions of knowledge ?
seems usual answer to this question will be in the affirmative
pats quite certain. Scientific conclusions are everywhere re-

Ee eae ee Ot ae, ee ee eee a ee Sr OT ee eS ee ro

S from many of their positions, and have not in turn been

€ Most serious argument which can be urged against

Say authoritative. They have driven other branches of ©
iri

k

Scientific Fact and Scientific Inference. 998 ~

,

Niet is that it contradicts the conclusions of science, and it,

-796 ; Scientific Fact and Scientific Inference,

is everywhere recognized that our theological and me
beliefs must agree with the accepted conclusions from science.
But no sweeping statements can be made. Scientific ink
have a very varying degree of probability, ranging from
certainty to the wildest hypothesis. Proof of an inductive
clusion is an impossibility, for it must not only be shown!
the conclusion in question fits all the facts of the past, p
_ and future, but also that it is the only conclusion that can
sibly be framed to fit the facts. This is a manifest imposs! "E
but the approximation to it may be very close. Most pers
Would regard the circulation of the blood as a demon
fact, and yet it has never been observed nor absolutely €
strated. It is an inference from observed facts, but an in
So strong that it is utterly impossible to doubt its being thet ga
From practical certainty like this we may pass by easy stages E
_ the wildest hypothesis. The law of gravitation; the theoy*
: the long duration of the geological ages; the theory of
tion; the theory of the spontaneous generation of life,
_ the present time or in the past; the idea of a central sul?
which all the stars in the universe are revolving,—all
represent inferences from scientific facts, but inferences of

l , would our scientists pretend that such a state x
be made, for, however firmly they may believe in the &
their conclusions, they are fully aware of the possibili
inferences and mistaken theories.
How is it, then, that scientific conclusions can hae
Superior authority? The answer is, because they are, ™
5 = open to a more or less direct verification, and the
with which they appeal to us is directly proportion
» exactness of this verification. It is frequently pos
pealing to facts of observation (which we have seen

» OF to show it in most exact accord with all nature. :
x piana our scientists are constantly dealing with p sak
ee “> n their training by observation, and for a long tıme

1887] Scientific Fact and Scientific Inference. 797

tion occupies almost their sole attention. Many, indeed, get no
_ farther than this, and are little more than observing machines.
_ When they do go outside this line it is always with more or less `
= caution, because they well know that if their inferences be not —
_ truths they will soon be disproved. Trained to deal with facts,
they are constantly using observation as checks and guides to
their speculation, and after any conclusion is reached or any
theory made it must meet thousands of unthought-of observa-
tions from nature, and be found to fall in with them all in perfect
rmony before it can stand as an accepted scientific conclusion.
In this they differ from metaphysical or philosophical inferences.
If one theologian differs from another, each can think the other
mistaken without the possibility of proof, for the necessary facts
are beyond their reach, and the different stand-points of the two
give, each, a different view. But if one scientist differs from an-
other, it is frequently only a matter of a few years when further
collections from nature’s store of facts will refute the position of
one, or perhaps both. Here, then, there is a possibility of veri-
fying the realm of thought by the realm of fact. Observations
_ re made, and the mind works them over and draws conclusions
_ ftom them, creating usually a thought to explain them. Then
_ nce more it turns to observations to see if the thought created

for a few facts will explain all, and thus have the force of a
Seneral truth. When Darwin first conceived the theory which
afterwards made his name famous, it was from a few observations
i TROR the geographical distribution of animals; but, having con-
æived a thought which explained these facts, he spent twenty ,
years in patient application of this thought to all other classes
of observation, and it was not till he had satisfied himself that
_ the conclusion did harmonize with all the facts which he could
a Collect that he was ready to let it be known. When the theory
Was finally given to the world its great force was in this very
fact, that it was shown to be in such accord with numerous facts
4 s e; and what prevents it from being universally accepted
: Duy 1s that there are still some facts which do not seem in
Senordnice with the theory. :
ne us it is with all scientific theories which have any authority.
_ —'Sté is always a world of observation to be considered, which

Pips = found in harmony with the conclusions. So cogent do
5 ; conclusions sometimes become that they not only enable

*

798 Scientific Fact and Scientific Inference. i

us to interpret the present and explain the past, but to predio
the future. In every way they may thus be made to show their
exact harmony with nature. False inferences cannot be
harmony with this truth, and errors cannot stand. Scie
theories are very abundant, and many of them are wrong, bit ~
the world of facts gives an opportunity for examination, dispute, ;
and final rejection of the false ones. This fact, that many the
ories have been disproved and rejected by those who originally
advanced them, is the greatest safeguard of science, for it gives

universal acceptance of thinkers after long discussion. >
in this way it is that scientific conclusions may, under the

right conditions, appeal to us with such force. Such a veria

and hopes, desir es, loves, and enmities may come in to modi i

of dynamics, the classification of the animal kingdom, would be

i .

Assuming, then, the general truthfulness of nature me
validity of mind, there is a general concession that there

accepted theory claims so great credence it by no means ”
that all science deserves a similar acceptance. Here a
Scientists make their greatest mistake, in failing to S¢P

= positive from the probable and the possible. The ©

that the fossils of our rocks were once living animals occupies
avery different position from the theory of evolution. One js
_ almost included in the observed facts, while the other .implies
much more of inference. But too often our writers and teachers
hil to separate them, giving equal credence to such theories as
the undulatory theory of light and the law of gravitation. This

3 is all very well when scientist is addressing scientist; any amount
Of imagination and speculation is then admissible. Hypothesis

; itive, the probable, and the ‘possible. He should offer as positive
_ only such conclusions as have placed themselves beyond dispute,

| and regard all others as more or less probable, according as they

_ teachers, and an even greater number of our writers, fail to do
“us, They are ready to accept before the public more than is

he necessary belief in the truthfulness of nature, and
lity of indefinite repetition of experiments and obser-

z isa But when we go beyond the facts and draw inferences,
there is Primarily no more reason for believing in the truth of
Fence from science than in any non-scientific inference.
ap conclusions can, by a long and successful verification from
~ ol nature, be rendered very certain—more certain, in-
(Cd, than any other factor of knowledge. We, then, frequently
em facts, though they are really nothing more than strong

the infe

tif +r, © other conclusions. The fact that a theory is a scien-
theory

Pad the test of fact, and has shown itself so in harmony
claimed e as to be universally accepted, that there can be
f: gene T it any of that superior weight of authority which is
~ ~ ™ Consent given to scientific truths.

1887] x a Scientific Fact and Scientific Inference. 799

fave been verified by observation. Unfortunately, many of our.

A scientific fact, then, claims superiority to all else for two

But this does not in the least give any greater prob-

It is only after a conclusion has ~

k

800 Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants.

COMPARATIVE CHEMISTRY OF HIGHER AND |
| LOWER PLANTS.. ae

BY HELEN C, DE S ABBOTT.

(Concluded from page 730.)

jee laws controlling the chemical evolution of plant-consii
uents are too little comprehended to formulate, but befor
reaching a position ever to do this, it will be necessary to study
carefully the facts from extended researches, to ascertain how
these chemical constituents occur, under what conditions, and if
these conditions are constant or variable, and to what may%
3

e hypothesis of evolution, is still too new to possess a litera
of its own.
I have already referred to the protoplasm and starch, als?
the large ash-percentages of some of the lower groups,
among the compounds commonly found in many plants

thi

and correlated with special physiological functions:
: The general distribution of chlorophyll, with few € a
in all plant groups is only second to the proteid comp?

however, the color of this compound is not the same
plants, and the evergreens and many other plants when co",
will be found in this respect distinct. The gradual chang?
the bright greens of the early spring foliage to the duller |

1887] Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants. 801
_ of late summer illustrates the transmutation of color which may
__ be observed in plants, and I would suggest that this same
_ gradation may be seen on the large evolutionary planes of all
plant groups, chlorophyll, like the plants, being at different
= evolutionary stages; for example, in many Algz and lower
plants it appears as light bright greens, and finally in the darker
greens of the higher plants.
Considering in general the chemical compounds of flowering
plants among the apetals and monocotyledons on the first evolu-
tionary plane, where the plant elements are simple, tannin, wax, _
starch, aromatic or acrid principles, and the oils and sugar of
€ palm are the most conspicuous substances. These com-
pounds are found in the same or in neighboring plants, and their
= @sociation is doubtless of evolutionary significance. Gluco-
_ Sides or alkaloids, though occurring in some few of these plants,
_ “e not characteristic of this stage of evolution.
Í Tannin is a general name for a class of substances which
_ Presents many aspects in different plants. It first appears, as was
Stated, in the liverworts, combined with large quantities of starch
= and Wax; then in ferns. Among the amental apetalous groups
= tis one of the conspicuous compounds, also associated with
: ‘Starch; the Casuarina, willow, poplar, hazel, oak, beech, chestnut, k
x alder, and birch containing large quantities. Tannin is widely
Pe distributed, though especially in the leaves, barks,’ seeds, and
: ene of fruits, and in other plants in considerable quantities, as
2 ie maple, sumach, tea, in many berries, the holly, and the
_ Seeds and stalks of the grape-vine.
oe ormentilla erecta? Rosacee, yields six to twenty per cent
? tannin, and, although this compound is present in mono- and
bor tyledonous plants, it seems to be more prominent in the
pee on the first evolutionary plane, and to occur less, if at
eon the highest plants. When it is remembered that tannin is
. hse in greater abundance in lower plants, which I have com-
be formative to the formed or higher evolutionary groups;
ER still further illustration of what was stated about the higher
Physic, of ash-constituents in lower plants.
eS lologists differ as to the tannin functions in plants. It

\ eee

Repartiti : ; -
la Science du Tannin dans les diverses Regions du Bois de Chene,” Ane as

i TSS, Ergebnisse, Landw. Versuche, München, 1861.

a eee

. „ Under the apetalous and monocotyledonous groups volt,

among the monocotyledons, the palms occur on the same plat,

eight hundred pounds of sago having been obtained from onè

ge . he s
contain this substance most abundantly, —namely, the

It is certainly true that some tannins play a distinct rôle as the
source of many vegetable colors, —the reds and blues of flowers,

the brown of tree-barks, and the colors of changing leaves on
their origin to this source. ; ži
The large quantity of starch in most tannin plants is remarke
able, and Sachs believes it, or fixed oils, to be the mother-sub- ;
stance of tannin. es
Datiscin,? a kind of starch, is found in the Datisca order, and,

ms

vee Le

À
and in most of their genera contain large quantities of starch,
k
the latter plants, 12.5 per cent. from Typha latifolia (Lecoq). 2
--Large quantities of wax are found in species of the myrte,
and also of the palm. a
On the second plane, or multiplicity of floral parts, the chit
ical constituents become much more numerous at this stag®

danus (screw-pine) and bulrush orders yield much starch; o%

plant of Metroxylon, or the sago-palm species. The Arum pat- 4

:

tain the tannins of the lower apetalous plants and ifs parallel

beet, sugar-cane, sorghum, the fruit groups of the Rosace®,
the sugar-maple. ae,
_ The sugar of the palms, among the highest of plants
simplicity of floral elements, is very like that of the cam® |
the grasses are the lower of monocotyledons with mu ee
of parts, it is notable that at the meeting-ground betwee? =
groups, or at the transition-stage into multiplicity, sugar *
_* According to Stenhouse, datiscin is a crystalline glucosidal bitter substance

A 1887] Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants. Sag

occur. The sugar of the palm is very little above the sugar line;
it may be considered, in an evolutionary sense, as passing to the
cane-sugar of these other groups, and as forming the apex of a
_ lowtriangle, the base being the sugar line already described. The
_ large percentage of grape-sugar in the fig, Ficus carica, occurs in
a class very nearly on a line with these cane-sugar plants.
= Glucosides are more especially the compounds of the middle
plane of plant development, and are found in the higher mono-
cotyledons of this stage, in the lower and some of the higher
dicotyledons, and less frequently in the highest of all plants, or
under cephalization. The first appearance of a glucoside occurs

(Antiaris toxicaria); acorin, of the Arum; and coniferin, of the
: Coniferæ, Among the Lirioideæ groups many glucosides occur,
“specially saponin, and I have found this compound in species
of the yucca, agave, and among dicotyledons in leguminous
: plants; besides, it is found in Rosæ and other parallel groups.
-Saponin is also found in Smilax, a genus partaking somewhat
> the nature of endogens and exogens, and serves to unite all
‘the saponin groups ;* and although this compound is widely
distributed in plants, it is a significant fact that all the groups
“ontaining it belong to this middle evolutionary division. l
Aosoll? has found saponin in the cell-sap of living roots of
“tPonaria and Gysophila, and I have elsewhere called attention
” 42 solvent action of saponin on resins, also on calcium
Salate. This property is of value to the plant not only by
acting as a solvent of insoluble or slightly soluble compounds, -
thos assisting it in obtaining food otherwise difficult of
eae but also resins are found in nearly all the Lirioidee, and
„ Presence of this chemical class associated with saponin shows —

~~", and this element is frequently found in large quantities, —
tc $ :
aric Basis of Plant Forms.”
TE s - Chem., v, 94; Jahresb. d. Chem., 1884. ! —
our, Fe, Sustifolia, Trans. Amer. Phila, Soc.; Chemical Basis of Plant Forms,
titute, |

`i nklin Insti

: 804 Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants,

the preceding stages of chemical evolution are represented

_ loids are found in the monimia, hemp, laurel, and ama

3 j. grass, is one illustration ; its occurrence is limited to those
: Containing oils, and, since in many genera in which this su
___ has been found certain fixed or ethereal oils also occut, it
__ be inferred that this constancy relates to their chemical evo!
> : en palms are the lowest plants which contain coumarin
NON in the grass and rose families on the same evolu
ae Sat po among the leguminous, madder, rue, pe pe
8 and in orchids and ita, ar
acterized Composit, These plants ar
_ orchids. It may be noted that oils are formed abundantly
-bichet ol

. o A knowledge of the chemical compounds, as they arè

-and the strychnos orders, and to the organic acids of the valerian
_ order, and the aromatic and volatile compounds of the

are found in many orders.

‘a

as well as resins, in other saponin orders. Saponin may
called a constructive element in developing the plant from
multiplicity of floral element to cephalization of these organs,
` Among the members of the higher groups of plants many

a certain point, when the plants acquire other chemical ch
teristics,—7.2., indigo, hzmatoxylin, and other coloring-m:
of the leguminous groups, and the dyes of the madder
give way to the alkaloids of the cinchona, the coffee, the atropa,

,

posite.

Alkaloids, though so widely distributed, are not found inth
very lowest nor the highest plants. Their occurrence in
has been already noted. In flowering plants among the |
apetals, piperin, the alkaloid of Piperaceæ, occurs; also,

orders, and in colchicum; but they are exceptional in
lower groups, and belong properly to dicotyledons, where

Besides the occurrence of compounds peculiar to distil
plants or whole plant groups, another class is found, and t
substances of this class may be scattered quite generally thr
the plant kingdom, but always associated with some other í
pound. pea
-~ Coumarin, the odorous principle of tonka-bean and ven

. or their aromatic and volatile oily products;
fragrant principle of vanilla, also occurs

highest

Grouped in plants, is a first step towards the study of

PLATE XXVII.

Plate II.

ee 4

PROTOPLASM.

DYES
\OaweROA \ RESINS

SAPONIN

4

N

OI

lution, and acquaintance with the conditions which control their
synthesis and gradual formation in the plant can only be had by
patient research. The simpler compounds of which any com-
_ plex substance is built, if located as ¢ompounds of lower plants,
would indicate the lines of progression from the lower to the
higher groups, :
- Ithas been already said that every plant contains compounds
peculiar to it, but certain compounds seem to play a special part
in plant evolution, since the wax and tannin of the vascular
‘typtogams lead to the tannin and wax groups of the apetalous
Plants, and the starch of these lower plants to the great starch
groups of the monocotyledonous. It will not be out of place
to note here that the greatest accumulations of starch occur
‘m plant orders just before they pass on to a higher plane of
Solution, This is seen, for example, in the palm and neigh-
boring orders of the first plane, and among the Lirioideæ of the
nd plane, since these plants are the richest in starch con-
‘nts, and it seems as if they were preparing by large reserves
/ food-supply for their higher position, represented by more
ved groups, where the demands for nutrition are greater.
the line of cane-sugar indicates that sugar occurs promi-
in plants passing from simplicity to multiplicity of floral
s, and the glucosides in their turn are found in the middle
so plant development, assisting the plants to the highest
> of cephalization. F
22 XXVIL isa chemical representation, drawn after Heckel’s
ucal table, and from what has preceded it will be easily
‘hended. It is not to be inferred that all classes of chemi-
compounds found in plants are represented, since only a few
been used for illustration, nor that all of these given com-
S only occur in the designated plant groups, since they
Por in traces or varying quantities elsewhere. However,
Compounds are conspicuous as being especially typical of
Ma Sroups which correspond to their location, and where
“Sence is doubtless associated with the plants’ evolution.
chemical compounds which may be said to be typical of
‘ht of «: Species, or an individual member of a series would be
— in this general presentation. :
dead Plant groups, as the Proteacez, orchids, and Composite,
= © 1n esthetic beauty at the expense of their chemical con-

=

stituents, all resources go to develop the perfection of the flowe
and the absence of numerous compounds in these plants is
strong point in favor of chemical evolution favoring plant devel
opment. These beautiful ‘plants being among the highest o
_ their series, may well be called the aristgcrats of the vegetabl
kingdom. ey
It is still impossible to demonstrate the full significance of this
chemical theory in plant development, but it will be evident
any one who examines botanical and chemical facts that the |
presence of certain chemical compounds is associated with or
tain botanical conditions, and where these conditions are variable,
is found a like variability of chemical composition. If it canbe
proved that chemical and botanical morphology are not one an
the same, at least the two are very intimately correlated. =}
It has been said that many of the constituents found in plants
are the result of destructive metabolism, and are of no iur ;
usein the plant’s economy, but our knowledge of what i
tute plastic and waste products is by no means settled, and
should we be forced to accept the conclusion that some piat" |
are of no use to the plant, yet it is a significant fact that cerat
cell-tissues or organs secrete or excrete chemical comp
peculiar to them, and which are only to be found in one%
or in species closely allied to it. confined
Broadly speaking, the study of plant-life cannot be :
within the limits of the vegetable-cell, since its radiations

gous series in plants; by the study of embryology *~
3 that alantoin occurs in animal- and plant-life, also gl at i
inosite are found in both kingdoms, and the secretion ER
plant-leaves is a fluid chemically like the animal gastric ju

_M. Leo Errera, in a recent paper on a fundamental €
_ of equilibrium of living cells, calls attention to the thin and
commeien of plant- as well as animal-cells at the moment
formation, and their tendency to assume a form which,
_ Same conditions, an imponderable lamina of liquid we
~ And he attributes to this fact their adaptability and ye

o : * Comp. Rend., t. xiii., 1886, p. 822. ;

>;

pe 7
Ta A
te

4 1887] Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants. 807

_ with which they change. He believes that we can trace to this
_ cause the great number of organic forms, and for the first time
unite the architecture of the cell to molecular physics. Only
_ with age the cell-membrane becomes thick and offers a consider-
_ able resistance.
} It may be suggested that this fact is further exhibited when
f applied to the conditions obtained when plants pass from their
i -younger to older stages; again, it is seen on comparing the lower
| Plastic protoplasmic plants with the rigidity and firmness of the
} tissues of the higher plants, and in the change from the semi-
] fluid to the formed and fixed states of chemical compounds.
| The law of progression is one that regards the general good
| l to the disregard of the individual; since in the death or fixation
| and crystallization of individuals the vegetable kingdom, on the
| Whole, has ascended to its highest present living form, and many
| of its constituent chemical parts had long ago reached their
_ Pinnacle in the cycle of evolution. This concerns equally the
d changes in the vegetable-cell, and its complex molecule of pro-
d teid is built from simple substances, which in turn break down
a less complex bodies, and are again reconstructed into pro-
_ teids, or as cellulose and other compounds remain as the compo-
Pent parts of tissue in higher plants, thus serving the mechanical
_ 4nd physiological needs of the organism. .

i diet À € irom the practical application of plant products to.

1 ea Pharmacy, and the industries, it is eminently for pur-

_ Poses of scientific investigation that the field of plant chemistry
ing.

will be ~~ Suggested to me from botanical sources that time
“nwisely expended over a detailed study of the chemical
of oo in this, as in mineralogy, its use as a means
tion will depend upon the convictions of the investi-
Sor, although it seems to me that many of the vexed ques-
ah Plant development can only be solved by a full compre-
of vegetable chemistry.
so... to be inferred that “botanists,” the knights of mor-
logy and Systematic classification, will thereby be deprived,
tag ists, from tilting over the floral tournament courts.

i such pleasant pastimes of contest for disputed plant
ups this vete

cary, and willi
VoL, XXL— yo,

ran army of knights-errant may at least become
ngly exchange the lance for the balance.
e

808 Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants, |

the very great importance of minute chemical research at leat
in certain typical members of botanical groups; without such
investigation a great deal of our present knowledge is worthless $
The changes of the chemical compounds within the cell, the
simultaneous appearance of two or more compounds always ia :
association, and the predominance of some one compound it §
certain plant groups, should be seriously considered before the
evolution of plant chemistry be definitel y approved or condemned. |
These facts suggest questions which must be answered before’
further advance can be made in plant biology. :

The practical application of a theory, which advocates that the $
morphology of a plant is the outcome of its chemistry, will be 3
used by the chemist to direct him to certain plant groups for " |
compound which experience proves to be present with simit
morphological characters in other roups. cal

It has been recently ad Sat many of the chemi
compounds may serve the plant as means of defence agains

animals, and when we camphorize our furniture and ee
w

in quinine manufacture, independent of contempt ia "i Ü
nas

of time.
t M. Léo. E : ienn, 29ih Jams #7
* 50. Errera, Royal Bot. Soc, of Belgium, Revue Scien.,

* M. Louis Crié, Comp. Rend., t. ciii. P. 1:43 :

| 1887] Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants. 809°

- In minerals, plants, and animals the same principles recur,
though at each higher plane under more complicated conditions ;
3 and any one who, on visiting the Hot Springs of the Yellowstone
_ National Park, has seen the non-carboniferous gelatinous masses
È
ünder some conditions, may not replace carbon and become
-living matter. Since Confervæ do live in these springs at high
temperature, perhaps some such locality as the Yellowstone
i may have been the birthplace of “a protoplasmic primordial
_ atomic globule.”

_ The impulse which directs minerals to masquerade as living
_ Plants and animals often manifests itself, for example, in the
a ferns called stag-horns; and orchids, disguised like insects, pre-
i tend to be what they are not. When will all of these intricacies
a of nature’s secrets belong to commonplace facts? The day is
distant, And in the mean time my hour is drawing to a close;

ra return to my first statement of the evolution of the chem-

a
assuming the forms of organized life will ask himself if silica,
4

S these so-called elements are compound, and if I have dwelt
all upon this subject, in connection with plant-life, it is on
a of the indisputably serious nature of the investigations
” fa field. On listening to the following concluding remarks
a lessor Crookes’s address the chemical evolution of plant
wn eee receives an able ally. He says, “ We cannot venture
amn positively that our so-called elements have been evolved
of evi o eg matter, but we may contend that the balance
th doctri - .. fairly weighs in favor of this speculation. . - -
light ù ot evolution, as you well know, has thrown a new
dio) P and given a new impulse to every department of
ta leading us, may we not hope, to anticipate a corre-
= wakening light in the domain of chemistry. I would
“hvestigators not necessarily either to accept or reject the
of chemical evolution, but to treat it as a provisional
; keep it in view in their researches, to inquire how
ce Aaa Rend., t. civ., 1887, p. 165, M. Henri Besquerel.
yiee News, Jan. 21, 1887.

‘vered before the British A. A. S., 1886.

810 Instruction in Geological Investigation. [Sept

far it lends itself to the interpretation of the phenomena obe
served, and to test experimentally every line of thought which
points in this direction.” ee

From the above sketch I have attempted to show that the
hypothesis of evolution may also apply to the chemistry of
plant compounds, and that plant chemistry will be found, like
any special study, to include many others. It is, however, ex-
ceptional in its broad range, and the variety of its topics, like
the variations of flower-species, may be cultivated to suit the
taste of the investigator. © ;

INSTRUCTION IN GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.
. BY WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS.

Revised from a paper read before the Association of American Naturalists in Phili-
delphia, December, 1886. ;

eho a in geological investigation is so new 4 depart
ment of teaching that it is little assisted or hampered bye
ditional methods, Its best materials are found in the wide ou
door laboratory, and as all out-door laboratories are of their a
local kind, every teacher is required to develop his own R
of using them; and he must count this to his advantage, for
prevents him from doing his own work in some other a g
way. The personality of the teacher must appear here ame
. where ; and it must be strongly flavored with the local
that spring up around him in new crops every year, and w ny
own methods of attacking them. Instruction in geologic de |
_ vestigation at any one place cannot therefore hope to wea
completeness that may be attained in physics or chemistry,
experiments are made to order in-doors, limited oe :
funds than by the place of the laboratory. Conseque™
of the first aims of the instructor, and of the student t00
take a proper share in laying out his own course of wor”
be to see that his geological studies are pursued under wos
one teacher and in many more than one place. di int
this need, and so strong do I feel the limitations that o
it, that I shall not presume to talk up to the gener “shall
gested by the committee in charge of our meeting, ber

1887] Instruction in Geological Investigation. SII
_ once make my statements specific and tell you little more than
_ my own plan and practice of instruction in this broad subject.
Neither plan nor practice has much age to recommend it; both
vary, to their improvement I trust, from year to year; and it
should be explained at the beginning that my experience does
not reach to either one of two branches of geological study that
occupy much attention,—palzontology and petrography: there
is enough to begin with in structural and physical geology. `
Investigation begins with learning to see for oneself. The first
teaching in geological investigation should therefore be made
_ ‘arly in the course of study, and not postponed so that only ad-
= Vanced students and specialists can reach it. College sopho-
mores, having had a general lecture course on geology in their
freshman year, are well prepared for the first steps ; but they are
truly first steps that are then taken, for the face of the country
= „© no expression to young men who have indeed learned what _
. 's considered the saving quantity of classics, mathematics or
d history, but who are unpractised in observation ; their eyes are
, not yet opened’ to the sight of the land about them. Sometimes,
F to be sure, a student comes bringing with him the popular im-
Pression that he is something of a geologist because he can give
2 “a Specific names of a number of minerals and fossils, learned
Ma cabinet; and he may be excused for thinking so, for does
4 m bugs geologist meet, during his summer travels, the em-
i barrassing necessity of simulating an interest in the kind atten-
4 "e of his host who wishes to exhibit some “curious mineral”
: T Sasi footprint,” as if the geological attractions of the neigh-
: “oi centred therein ? The mental philosophy of geology
lan unopened book even to intelligent people. Naturally
ough, therefore, the student; who has imbibed the popular con-
ton of the study, or who has learned only from books and
a full st a series of verbal definitions and explanations, comes to
FA stop on being told that he is to discover for himself and
logic ci own observation the correlation and sequence of geo-
difia phenomena in the district around him. The fundamental
a. he feels is the inability to see what he looks at.
— isof k. difficulty is fairly overcome, the gain that he has made l
education value in his general as well as in his geological
oof that I find in this very fact the warrant for the election
© Study of field geology by many more young men than the

812 Instruction tn Geological Investigation.

few who may intend to follow the subject professionally in lat
years. Let us consider an actual case. The first excursion t
I commonly take with a class leads us to an old quarry in Somer
ville, near the Agassiz Museum in Cambridge, where a large dikt
some forty feet wide, cuts across the beds of the Some vi J
slates, There may be ten or twenty students in the party, atl
it should be remembered that they have had a preliminary cours
in elementary geology, in which nearly all the terms that we hat
occasion to use have been defined: they are also provided wil
hammers, compasses, clinometers, note-books, and outline may
of the district. On entering the quarry, I select two fragment
of rock: one exhibits a fine, granular texture, with bands of i
ternating color, and is shown as the type of a bedded, st ae
or aqueous rock; the other is of crystalline texture, witht
arrangement in layers, and represents the group of massive, cn
talline, or igneous rocks; and without further explanation pe
this, the students are asked to search out the area 0 E
-each rock, the line of contact and the phenomena exhibited 2%)
it, and to determine the relations of the two and the sequent
events in their history. Emphasis is given to the important”
Personal work, and I take pains to say how much more vale”
is the ability to determine the facts than the facts thems

ion from
fore

to suggest observations and give encouragement Ber:
questions. The questions are to be answered by little
Even the best students are almost helpless at first,—S° 7
their general education taught them of independent, of y
servation even of a simple kind. One of the com hich
ments is, “I don’t know how to go to work,” u i oat
necessary to repeat that the first step is simply tO search of ¢
area of the two rocks and the phenomena of their linei

1887] Instruction in Geological Investigation. RGE

tact. Not knowing how to go to work on such a problem does

not mean ignorance of geology alone, but inexperience in the
first requisite of scientific study. But the most characteristic
feature of the first day’s work is the frequency with which the
instructor's authority is appealed to in decision of questions that
lie open before the class. It is as if the weight of previous
education were thrown on the side of dulling individual obser-
vation and judgment. It requires much care to avoid answer-
ing easy questions and thus defeating the objects of the ex-
cursion; and it requires more care to escape answering the
questions without either discouraging or exasperating the ques-
tioners. A preliminary explanation is advisable, so that all may

“understand that there is nothing like a rebuff intended in the

_ tather brusque counter-questions that serve best to direct the

work where it should go. A student will sometimes come up to
me, after a very insufficient search for facts on the ground, and,

_ Presenting a piece of the dike, say, with the idea that he is doing

his full duty, “Isn’t this melaphyr >?’ Now, as a matter of fact,

_ he is, in this particular case, quite right; at least, so Í am assured

: by competent lithologists, and later on he should be told so, but

Rot at first. He has perhaps heard the name, melaphyr, asso-

; cated with dark-colored, fine-grained rocks, and makes a lucky
Venture in using it; but as the object of the work is to train his

ation, not mine, I throw the burden of proof upon him by .

asking in return, “ Why do you think so?” “It looks like it.”
“What is melaphyr?” This may sound, as I now read it, very

x

Reg isa snubbing a praiseworthy inquiry; but see the result.
ine times out of ten the student says, “ Oh, melaphyr ? Mel-

aphyr is—— I don’t remember ;” and this clears away the PHA

yy Knowledge that places names uppermost, and brings us down to

_ * solid foundation for good work. No words must be used that
_ Cannot be de:

Tea fined : no suggestions must be made that cannot be
tited by actual observation. The question may now be re-
» “If you cannot say that this is melaphyr, what can you

| ae about it?” “ Well, it is a dike.” “Why do you think so?”
7 t looks like one.” “What isa dike?” “A dike is a mass of

Igneous rock filling a fracture in the country-rock.” “ Does this
“ous rock fill such a fracture?” Again it appears how much

_ “SET it is to make assertions than to defend them; it is very

that a student will on his first endeavor suggest and ap-

ia ` Instruction in Geological Investigation. [Sept

ply the tests that furnish him with answers to such questions as l
these. He must make a second and a third attack before he |
really gets possession of all the facts about the dike,—its width,
dip, and direction; the detail of its contact phenomena; its tex-
ture and its joints; but by persevering attention all these facts
can be discovered from his own seeing, and then a good lesson
is learned. A few such lessons correct the habit of using words
recklessly, of making guesses and of offering unjustifiable sug-
gestions in explanation of discovered facts. All this is very ele
mentary ; but it is the only basis for good work ofa higher order. |
The better students take to the work with fine spirit; in some |
cases the opening of their eyes, the awakening of the conscious |
ness that the work is in their hands and that they are really able
to undertake it, is an inspiring experience to the instructor,—om
that serves to carry him over the disappointment occasioned by
the obdurate youths who insist that they, who have most ®
learn, cannot learn anything from the quarry before them. Itis
indeed a real ‘pleasure to go with an appreciative new-comer to
an old, familiar field and watch his rapid learning of new facts
and methods: it is this that saves teaching from becoming M% |
notonous, and makes it instead a very live work. t
It is not always easy to secure a good conception of the truth
and actuality of phenomena that are named and talked about
familiarly enough; for i
example, the intrusion f
of the dike that has J |
been discovered. 5006 |

little commonplace E

amined — minutely

ried away out of sight in the further widening of the git i

duaia an

` dimensions of length

Pends; and this leads to

* y 3
Did the
; ?

: befo

Tk Noth
Ceiye that he

1887] Instruction in Geological Investigation. 815

parts of the crevices thus opened shows how mobile it was under
the heat and pressure that caused its motion. This specific detail
carries the observer back to the time of the intrusion, and gives
reality to it,

A cross-section of the quarry is then asked for, and this brings
up a very common difficulty arising from lack of practical geomet-
rical knowledge. The era
same difficulty appears 4 LIAR NY

in determining the di `
a dike; Gee R
V

the rocks were to be EG \

studied only in the two N
gow

and breadth, without NWL

the third dimension of N

thickness or depth. LUG g,

Even so simple a geo-

metrical matter as strike has generally to be labored over. The

*0ss-section of the dike and slate is drawn to estimated scale

with some care (Fig. 3)

ect under-ground inter-
Pretation, on which so
much advanced work de-

ew questions:
dike tilt the
id the dike :
Variation in the dip of the slate? Did the dike appear

re or after the slate was tilted ?
Such

figs

Cause the

! abl questions as these appear utterly obscure and unanswer-
€ to

Many students: not because they have had no practice

x ological investigation, but because they are unpractised n
vestigation itself. The relation of observation, hypothesis, an

_ ol has not been unfolded to their minds, and it is for this
i abst | lay so much stress both here and in the field on the
means of reasoning, as well as of observation, in geological
ing is more important than for the student to per-
May discover and follow the legitimate sequence

816 Instruction in Geological Investigation,

of argument on which geological assertion is based. Praef
in solving the questions proposed above leads to this desirat
end. If the dike tilted the slate, the beds should dip away ron l
the dike on both sides, as in Fig. 4. They do not, and iti

therefore concluded that the slate was tilted by some force í

pendent of the dikes. This is soon confirmed by finding that wga
dip of the slate is maintained at a tolerably even angle for a migi

Eig t Ryd
or more, although intersected in various directions by pee
dikes. If the dike caused the local irregularity in the dip of a
Slate, the dip should be increased on the south and d a

e north, as in Fig. 5; but the observed section in Fig. 3% E

a local increase of dip on both sides of the dike, as if the ge
had been slightly sheared independently of the intrusion. T
dikes soon confirm the conclusion that their intrusion i
perceptibly affect the dip of the adjoining beds. In deciding
relation between the dates of intrusion and tilting, We ne |
tule out any argument based on the present tilted attitude ge
dike ; it may have been vertical originally and then tilted : y
with the slate to its present dip, or it may have been mi
its present inclination; therefore no conclusion can be =
from its dip. The only means here available for reaching
answer depend on a postulate concerning the joints 1n ee
The joints may have been made in the slate before “a
but they were almost surely made while the tilting ieee
Now, the dike is seen to have smooth joint-faces for the £
part of its walls; it must therefore have taken advantag® :
existent joints in opening a way for its upward escaP® e

‘its edge would be ragged. The dike therefore — y

after the joints were made, and probably after * ae

begun. The want of complete decision in this ¢as° wor

sidered reason for omitting its consideration. So -n

logical reasoning leads only to probabilities that the Sti ips

as well make early acquaintance with this kin

- 1887] | Instruction in Geological Investigation. 817

_ demonstration, but great care must be taken'to see that he fully
= Tecognizes the postulates of the argument and does not over-
_ draw on their certainty. The desire for final settlement of all
_ Questions is strong in the student mind; questions that must
q be held open for further investigation are not always favorites,
but I believe they are aids to the habit of mental deliberation.
In this particular case the doubt is soon lessened, for a little
kter, on the same excursion, a ragged dike is found breaking its
_ Way unevenly through the slate. The slate is jointed now, and
_ traversed by smooth-walled dikes, showing that the irregularity
_ of the ragged dike is due not to the impossibility of smooth
p” being made in the country-rock, but to their absence at
_ the time of its intrusion. Finally, a smooth dike is found inter-
p secting a.ragged dike, giving new and safe evidence of the rela-
p medy early and late dates of their respective intrusions; and
i this is.emphasized as a good illustration of a double approach to
4single conclusion. ;

One of the m

ost important exercises in connection with the
work is the careful formulation, oral and written, of the
_ Conclusions reached and the means of reaching them. It helps
4 to do away with the idea that a geologist is a collector of speci-
_ ‘Mns rather than 4 collector of facts and arguments; it is good
4 mental practice, and aids the student in any kind of work he
d T afterwards undertake ; It is to most of the class the greatest
Profit that they carry from their excursions.

; | of the most instructive quarries in Somerville is roughly
a wn in Fig. 6. The attempt is here made to show the visible
é and Covered ro

.

aoe ck areas, but it should be remembered that the
q Visible Tock is

much less distinct in the dusty quarry than in the
dike m. The tilted slates, S, S, are intersected by a forty-foot
“thigh wD: and both are cut by a double dike, CD, of moderate
Poe The large dike is soon seen to be horizontally faulted,
io. is put, When and where was it dislocated? the

Wer generally refers the time and place to the newer dike,

of slate Opposite the slate wall, and of old-dike rock
Without the old dike. The newer dike therefore opened its way
_ any lateral shift of its walls. This is confirmed by

818 Instruction in Geological Investigation. [Sept

noticing a bend in the dike in the southern part of the quan
the result of a crook in the fracture through which it rose: il
there had been shearing motion on the fracture, the width of the

CEA eee

SS0 FEET”
on

yf ee, 5

r: y ý
A
NEA om

X
WS
s N S

Y
Fige

ot f

esat
p

face, EF, Fig. 6, on which breccia and fault-scratch
mon: perhaps the faulting occurred here; if 50, otf
demonstrated ? Before looking again at the quarry puss

bes

1887] — Lustruction in Geological Investigation, 819

is asked to consider two simple alternatives; the large dike
_ either was or was not moved on this fault-plane : what would be
_ the consequence in either case? what test may be invented to
_ settle the question? If the dike were not moved on this fault-
_ plane (that is, if the dike were younger than the fault), its margins
_ would be in line with each other on both sides of the fault; if
_ the dike were moved on the fault-plane, its north and south
_ Margins would be offset, and both by the same amount. The
3 shaded areas marked X, Y, Fig. 8, are thus seen to be of critical
_ importance. If X consist of dike-rock and Y of slate, then the
_ first alternative is true; if X be of slate and Y of dike-rock, then
the second alternative is true. Especial attention is called to
_ this deductive method of planning out lines of work. It is not
a sufficient simply to go out-doors and look about; the geologist
_ Must look first, then think, infer, plan, and at last lead his obser-
_ vations to the precise spot where they will do the most good;
= Rot the most good to the theory that may from some accident
3 have secured his preference, but the most good in deciding
= critically among all the possibilities of the case. I think the
q history of geology need not be read far before one finds un-
fortunate examples of the neglect of this method. A fact is
__ “oted and a suggestion offered : the suggestion fits, and therefore
3 t5 accepted. But the student must be made to see that such a
method will not lead to safe conclusions. It is quite possible
: that several processes may bring about the (apparently) same
7 "sult. In such case it is manifestly unsafe to conclude that
= SY one process did bring about:the result merely because it
3 oud, Independent evidence must be found to check and con-
? mp Suggested process after its suggestion before any confi-
4 dence should be placed in it; further, all other apparently possible
5 ey must be ruled out before any one can be accepted as the

| ios actual one. It is not easy to teach this to a class, and
aes will slip through the work without much appreciation of it.
‘ ins uence of events, as constituting a portion of geological

| Sea is a matter of importance. The case just described

Sa with an illustration of it. The large dike was faulted
the intrusion of the smaller one, for on tracing the fault-
‘the w, to the northern side of the quarry, it is found to intersect
Sia member of the double dike, and brecciate it as well

820 Instruction in Geological Investigation,

The numerous intersecting and faulted dikes on our sea-ct
north of Boston present unexcelled examples for work of t
kind: the amygdaloid in Brighton and its banded amygduls
offer an instructive problem: but the phenomena of the drift ar,
as a rule, too complicated for local elementary treatment by the
methods described above. Their observation needs to be sup

The winter season, when out-door work is stopped, a
well employed in securing some familiarity with our geologi
literature. Government and State reports with Primes !
thereto, the American Fournal of Science, and the R |
ciety’s catalogue of scientific papers, with the more!
journals that it leads to, are our chief materials, but p
will not speak further. :
At the end of the second course with its field-work, the *
must consider carefully if he wish to go farther into geology’ 7
he decide to go on, there are courses in lithology, &®*
geology, and palzontology before him, but these io

1887] Instruction in Geological Investigation. 821
_ “cutting” something else. The summer vacation may be utilized,
but the student is not often well enough prepared to walk alone
_ amidst the complication of problems that he meets, The sum-
mer school is a valued factor here, but this is a rather heavy tax
_ onthe instructor. We make the best of it in one way or another,
_ and have succeeded in accomplishing some fairly good work ; but
-in contemplating our moderate successes, and comparing them
4 with the more finished products of the biological, chemical, and
_ Physical laboratories, we have occasion to lament the unwieldy
character of geological problems. The biologist may cultivate his
specimens in a jar, slice them nicely in his microtome, and exam-
ine them with his microscope, all comfortably arranged at a con-
venient table in a good light. Winter and summer, good weather
and bad, his work of actual and original observation may go on.
The geologist has no such good fortune. He must go out of
town to his work, spending valuable time on the way there and
k. In our present almost mapless condition he has to play
topographer to the distraction of his attention, and his problems
seldom, if ever, can have the conciseness or the singleness that
_ May characterize work on animals and plants, and which is so de-
: ‘Sirable for the sake of the student. It is difficult to assign sub-
_ #ects or fields that allow of tolerably complete consideration by a
_ Student in the fall and spring half-years. The course in field-
_ Work cannot therefore be described with the definiteness given
to the more elementary teaching. I can do little more than
_ Fecount its objects,
: e€ prime object of this advanced work is to teach the
Ora not only to see for himself, but to see for himself when
H alone, In the first field course, where the instructor
yi Saccompanies the class, he may direct or suggest a profit-
Itis - of work, and hedge the party in from useless searching.
Pia. Re different when the student goes out most of the time
: SNe “e instructor accompanying him only on preliminary and
= the onal later trips. It may be counted a good year’s work if
© Student learn in that time to make an accurate, tolerably
hess $ and original report, written and graphic, on two areas:
Serious = him. The want of good topographic base-maps Is a
bstacle here; for the present we have to get along as
may be with small-scale road-maps, on which the relief
STound has practically no representation. The topo-

BE aS a eee eo ct AIR T ET MERTEN INI lS ra Dh ae a ee Ee ER e EE E DI a E ee Sy EO ee ee eee TT S ae ea
eS et eee ay = Se od POSEES x 7
pop EA $ ;

Si eee a nT eee te Sg

Well as
of the

822 -Instruction in Geological T; nvestigation.

graphic survey of Massachusetts will, however, soon in

concern the division of the country into its kinds; that is, s
areal geology. As all of our region is largely drift-covered,t f
is necessary for good’ work to map the rocks only where ti $
are seen in outcrops, and to classify the drift as well as tk ff
_ rocks: beneath it. The number of formations and sub-form
tions has to be discussed; the characteristics of all to be det |
mined; and the boundaries to be marked out. This is so large
a problem, and is often so complicated, that for the first twoo f
three excursions the student may feel discouraged. ve |
scholars learn much by working out their own difficulties, wit!
no more aid than is given by answers to admissible question
those with less ability and perseverance need more immediat?
assistance. Repeated visits to the more significant localities at
advised; for the beginner can hardly hope to reach at once ga
ambition of the most experienced geologist, and see in a first a
single view not only the raw facts as they then appear, but ab
the critical points that are visible only after reflection. po i
are indeed few fields that do not repay second and third gleaning:
if they seem barren after the first harvest, the gleaner
ascribe the barrenness to his own want of skill.

-fully this is done, there will be enough work for review ei
by later discoveries, and quite out of sight at first. ne
matter is the need of distinguishing explicitly betwee it
seen and what is inferred. Printed maps generally ere
distinction on account of the large scale that it rege oe
Omission on field-maps is inexcusable. Strong one

lines may be used to indicate well-ascertained facts; “i
dotted colors, and broken or dotted lines, aided by > :
tion-points, will signify doubt. Uncolored portion’ of cou
map should mean only unvisited country. A piece?

carefully surveyed and mapped in this way gives § 5

3 1837] Instruction in Geological Investigation. $23

cise, I believe, to the conscience as well as to the observing
faculty.

Innumerable problems arise during this work: they are only

— too plentiful. The quality of the student may be finely gauged
_ by the kind of questions they excite in him; it is needless to add

that the quality of the instructor may be gauged by his answers!
As a general rule, the answers should be like guide-boards point-

_ ing out the way to the settlement; not like coaches, carrying the
_ Passive questioner there : the working geologist must learn to go

afoot, and to find his road rather than be led along it. I may be
allowed in closing a single illustration from an actual case.

The problem in hand was concerning the former higher level
of the sea about Boston. The opinion is commonly entertained

, that there was a post-glacial depression of the land amounting to
about ninety feet; this being quoted from an old record of sea- '
_ Shells found at that altitude near Winthrop, and confirmed by
i comparable records to the north and south. If such a depression
_ Occurred, the shore of the sea must have run around the margin

of the present Boston basin. With this beginning, the student is

_ Sent into the field, to search the slopes up to one hundred feet
, for water-marks, and to search his mind for argument on the
whole question. He must be on the alert to perceive any faint
Mdication of a rock-cliff, sand-bar, or delta; he must keep his
_ Mind wide open to all available hypotheses for their explanation,
_ “¥en the most “ cranky” being dismissed only for cause, not be-

a
e

a it is unfashionably dressed; he must be strictly logical and
“Mpartial in applying tests to verify his hypotheses, and he must
‘Sive up all that are found wanting. To the first view, the tramp-

— NY over the country may seem the greater part of the field-work,

i “Xercise is al
i Students find

to one who is able to take the full profit from it, the mental
ways much greater than the physical. Some
And the physical work the harder of the two.

discussion will run about as follows: Admitting that the

: i inthrop shells are a true sea-deposit, there ought to be signs

the Shor

ore somewhere above the present level, unless
€ did not stand at any level long enough to make a

: pied b table mark, or unless the Boston basin was mostly occu-

Y glacial ice during the depression. Supposing that a
mark was made, what would be its appearance? The

_“Pegraphy of the present shore-line has to be consulted, and
XXL—no, 9. :

56

824 Instruction in Geological Investigation, —

there one finds cliffs and benches, bars, marshes, and deltas
The first notable characteristic of these varied forms is that they
stand almost at a single level, the bars being higher than th
benches; the second is that they are arranged in close accor
ance with the general form of the, surrounding country: as
cliff appears on an exposed headland, not at the end ofi
crooked, narrow inlet; a bar is strung along from a clift-bena
and adjacent bars are sympathetic in their attitude; deltasat
found only opposite valleys, and of a size proportionate to tt
stream that made them and to its supply with detritus. The d+
_ tinctness of these forms is proportionate to the time during
which the sea abided at their level; and from this we pae
at once that there has been no other post-glacial shore-line t
anything like as long a life as the present one, along which ci
and bars are so well made. Moreover, all these forms p

assigned to him, but searches intelligently for significant
water action. On finding a flat, sandy field extending S%

factory” ; that is, continuous and consistent shore-marks
not surely found up to a hundred feet elevation, 4
strongly suspected at sixty feet in some places;
means that the question is of a larger instead of a pre
not that it is unprofitable to the student. If the gen%
cepted post-glacial depression and higher stand
Boston is thus discredited by local observation, it must
accepted on the ground of reported depression at has |
localities, for they may be similarly discredited, 35.
happened on Long Island. The occurrence of high- matt!

at Winthrop does not alone suffice to prove 50 large ne

A 1887] Instruction in Geological Investigation. 825

_ achange of continental level; it only opens a question that
_ must be closed by independent evidence, and at present the
_ evidence of post-glacial depression in Southern New England is
very incomplete. The investigation is therefore highly satis-
factory in leaving us with the watchfulness of uncertainty instead
of blindfolding our eyes with a definite conclusion.
| I have said but a word about summer schools. They deserve
_ More mention, for they are invaluable; they cannot be replaced
_ byany term-time instruction. The student is led by them to
new fields and new problems, so widely. different from those of
7 his college course, that only the all-embracing subject of geol-
= sy could bring them under one name. Continuity of work is
7 also à great merit of these schools. They do not suffer from the
a distraction of other occupations that ordinary teaching has to
_ Sontend with, and six steady weeks in summer may be made a
full equivalent of an all-winter’s interrupted course.
> It need hardly be said that this course of instruction is not
J Planned with a view of teaching the student.much of what has
been learned in geology. That is attended to in other courses by
: map of lectures, reading, and thesis-writing. The work here
ES described is designed chiefly to place the student where he may
_ ‘Sain something of the spirit of investigation. Rocks and struc-
_ tures are shown in but moderate variety, and quotation of simple
n SPRA learned is not expected to be of great service afterwards ;
; € facts that have been learned come as directly as possible
ns Nature, whom the student thus finds that even he may
eid question. Individual judgment is spurred on to take
Place of the appeal to authority, and the judgment thus
ate by €xercise even to its own surprise. Thus, with obser-
JORU ee, argument combined, the student finds himself pos-
DA of Seneral methods of work that prepare him to attack
ems unlike any that he has met in his schooling. Further
: rs saN new teachers in new fields may then be followed to
age, but perhaps the best teacher at this stage is
experience,

Wig s

AE a OR a ec e a E a oe a ing aa e a aaa a aie
; Ee eee ae ee

826 History of Garden Vegetables,

HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES.
BY E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, A.M., M.D."

(Continued from page 712.)

CHINESE CABBAGE. Brassica chinensis.

UT little appears to be recorded concerning the varieties d
this cabbage, of which the Pak choi and the Pe-tsai on |
have reached European culture. It has, however, been loig
under cultivation in China, as it can be identified in Chine
works on agriculture of the fifth, sixteenth, seventeenth, ah
eighteenth centuries? Loureiro? (1790) says also cultivated t
Cochin China; and varieties are named with white and yello
flowers. The Pak choi has more resemblance to a chard that
; ` toa cabbage, having oblong or oval, dark, shining-green lear
upon long, very white, and swollen stalks. The Peta, e
ever, rather resembles a Cos lettuce, forming an elongated heat,
rather full and compact, and the leaves a little wrinkled al
undulate on the borders+ Both varieties have, however, & 00%
mon aspect, and are annuals. 7
Considering that the round-headed cabbage is the only sot
figured by the herbalists, and that the pointed-headed early p
bages appeared only at a comparatively recent date, and ¢ |
resemblances between the Ze-żsai and the long-headed aa

it is not an impossible suggestion that these cabbage- aie

peared as the effect of cross-fertilization with the ee

certain that occasional rare sports or variables from ' |
our early long-headed cabbages show the heavy veining | p
limb of the leaf extending down thè stalk, and sugeet "i
the Chinese type. At present, however, our views P g
origin of our various types of cabbage must be consi —
largely speculative.’ 2

* Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment ser ;
* Bretschneider, Bot. Sin., 59, 78, 83, 85. ;

3 Loureiro, Fl, Cochinch., 397.

* Vilmorin, The Veg. Gard., 1885, 147.

ee History of Garden Vegetables. 827

Cuives. Allium schenoprasum L.

These are small and unimportant members of the Onion family,
found native throughout Europe, in Siberia even to Kamschatka,*
and in North America, upon the shores of Lakes Huron, Su-
perior, and northward ;? but the form found in the Alps comes
the nearest to that under cultivation. Although probably known
= to the ancients, yet we seem unable to fully identify them with
the varieties of the onion named by Theophrastus, Columella,
4 and others. They were planted in gardens in Europe in the
_ Sixteenth century, and were in American gardens preceding 1806.
_ In England, described by Gerarde3 (1597), called “a pleasant
A Sawce and good Pot-herb” by Worlidge+ in 1683, are among
i seedsmen’s supplies5 in 1726, and are recorded as formerly in
_ Seat request, but now of little regard, by Bryant® in 1783.
3 ae Chives, Sives,* civet or sweth,3 are called, in France, ciboulette,
_ «Mette, appetit, cive, fausse echalote; in Germany, schnitilauch,
a srasslauch ; Flanders and Holland, bieslook ; in Italy, cipollina ;
: in Spain, cebollino ;7 in Portugal, cebolinha ; in Denmark, graslog ;
i Poland, luczer-lupny® . |
a The only -indication of variety I, find is in Noisette, who enu-
_Merates the civette, the cive d'A ngleterre, and the cive de Portugal,
ks. these are the same, only modified by soil. The use
i € leaves as a condiment is well known. The plant is an
Be humble one, and is propagated by the bulbs, for, although it
— flowers, these are invariably sterile, according to Vil-

Cuura. Cyperus esculentus L. :

nae and. has received a spasmodic culture in gardens. It is
: ofi cultivated in Southern Europe, Asia, and Africa, becoming
Mega at Valence, in Galicia, and in the environs of Ro-
sede ee mietta, in Egypt.” In Hungary it is grown for the
oe as a coffee substitute," but in general for its tubers,
“te sweet, nutty, and palatable. These bulbs, says Bryant,”

De Candolle. Or;
"Ceard €, Orig. des P], Cult., 57. 2 Gray, Man. of Bot

Enc. of Ag., 98. 1:2 Bryant, Fl. Diet., 1783, 29-

The chufa was distributed from the United States Patent Office

» Herbal, 1597, 139. 4 Worlidge, Syst. Hort., 1683, 194- .

a; an, 1726, 25. 6 Bryant, Fl. Diet., 1783, 92-
Les Pl, Pot., 1883, 156. 8 McIntosh, Book of the Gard., ii. 47.
Man., 1829, 353: to Heuze, Les Pl. Alim., ii. 551.

¥

828 History of Garden Vegetables.
are greatly esteemed in Italy and some parts of Germany, al
are frequently brought to table by way of dessert. At Consta
tinople the tubers appear in the markets, and are eaten raw,
made into a conserve! Gerarde, in 1633, speaks of their exte
sive use in Italy, being hawked about the streets, and, at Vero
eaten as dainties? They now appear in the English markt
under the name of Zulu nuts.’ It must also have been esteem!
in ancient times, for tubers have been found in Egyptian tom
of the twelfth dynasty, or from two thousand two hundred
two thousand four hundred years before Christ4 A
Laurembergius, in his “Apparatus Plantarum,” 1632, a
them Gramen amygdalosum, commonly called Thrasi vert
sium ; conveniently called Dulcichinum, Dulcinium, Cyperus aa
lentus, Cyperus angustifolius, uncus avellana, Margarita agyi.
etc. They are figured or described by nearly all the early botani
The chufa, earth-almond, or rush-nut is called, in
souchet comestible, amande de terre, souchet sultan, souchet tuberi
trasi; in Germany, erdmandel; in Flanders, aardmandil; jf
Italy, mandorla di terra, dolcicchini ; in Spain, chufa, cofi; 3
in the Soudan, zebbon s in Egypt, ad-e/-azis ;° in Arabic, ae q
—i.e., granum dilectum. j -aad
Notwithstanding the long-continued culture of this ‘ea
find no varieties described. fe

$

CLARY. Salvia sclarea L.
The common Clary was formerly much more cultivati
gardens than at present. Townsend, in 1726, says par
of it are used in Omlets, made with Eggs, and so must
garden.” In 1 778, Mawe? gives three varieties; Tt
leaved, the long-leaved, and the most wrinkled-leaved j
mentioned as cultivated in England by Ray,” 1696
1597; and it is the orminum of Turner,” 1538. It was F
ican gardens preceding 1806,3 and now occurs wild in ° i
vania, naturalized as an escape," its home being the East
* Walsh., Hort. Trans., vi. 50. 2 Gerarde, Herbal, 1633,3% og. a
ure, Jan. 3%
5 Vilmorin, Les Pl, Pot., 1883, 551.. 6 Heuze, Les Pl. Alim., ii. 55E
Egypt, illust.

a

4

e

9 Mawe, Gard 1778 10 Ray, Hist., 1686, 543 rint)

? ee O Y, ISl., ‘ee a

Gerarde, Herb., 1 597, 626. 12 Turner, Libellus (fac-sim! ; % a
ahon, Am. Gard. Kal., 1806. 14 Gray, Syn. Fl, ii, pt. 1, 317

History of Garden Vegetables. 829

iterranean countries. The leaves are used for seasoning, but
4 their use with us has been largely superseded by sage, ‘and,
5 although the seed is yet sold by some of the seedsmen, I
d imagine that it is but little grown.

The Clary is called, in France, sauge sclarée, sclarée, toute-
bonne, orvale ; in Germany, muscateller salbei.

Craytonia. Claytonia perfoliata Don.

The leaves of this plant are eaten as salad, or cooked like
ordinary spinage. It is a native of Cuba, as also of North
_ America, where the variety exigua Torrey is in popular use in
i L Giifornia as a potherb.t It was first described in 1794, but
a in 1829 was not named by Noisette? for French gardens, and
3 in 1855 is said by De Candolle3 to be occasionally cultivated
_ 48 avegetable in England. It is now included by Vilmorin
_ among French vegetables.

In England it is called winter purslane ; in France, claytone
_ —Pefoliée, claytone de Cuba, pourpier d'hiver ; in Flanders, door-
_ 4s; in Holland, ple deities in Spain, verdolaga de Cuba.
Its synonymy is

heed perfoliata Don. Pursh, Fl. of N. Am, i. 170.

2 t ss oliata Don., var. exigua Torr. Brewer & Watson, Bot.

C. Cubensis, Humb. et Bonpl. Kunth, Syn., iii. 379.

CorcHorus. Corchorus olitorius L.

e. plant is valued as a spinage plant in warm countries. It
S mentioned by Pliny+ among Egyptian potherbs, and Alpinus,
in 1592, says that no herb is more commonly used among the ,
tian foods. Forskal® also mentions its cultivation in Egypt,

itiuss In eg the pl l t with in
gard plant is frequently me
» but has, in a great measure, ceased to be cultivated,

Nese Bot. of Cal. 2 Noisette, Man., 1829.
dolle, Geog. Bot 4 Pliny, lib. xxi. c. 52, c. 106.
De Plant, Bere, Arona 6 Forskal, Fl. Ægypt.-Arab., xcii. om
> Ind. Handb. 8 Oliver, Fl. of Trop: Afr., i.
> FL Manrit., 42. ;

830 History of Garden Vegetables,

although the leaves are used as a spinage.? It is now cultivati
in French gardens for its young leaves, which are eaten in sak
It is recorded by Burr? as in American gardens in 1863, ye
have never seen the plant growing. This plant furnishes a po:
tion of the Jute fibre of commerce. je
The Few’s mallow, or Corchorus, is called, in Fedde) cont
potagere, guimauve potagere, mauve des juifs, brede maanani
in Germany, gemuse- Corchorus, nusskraut ;? in Arabia, malahi
in Arabic, meloukhyeh;5 in Bengali, pat, koshta, bhungeg bh
Jee pat;? in Hindustani, singin janaseha ;7 in Sanscrit, m
in Telegu, parinta.
I find no varieties recorded.

CORIANDER. Coriandrum sativum L.

The ripe fruits of the coriander have served as a spice 4
seasoning from very remote times, its seeds having been I
in Egyptian tombs of the twenty-first dynasty,? and a thous
or so years later Pliny*® says the best came to Italy from fat
Cato,” in the third century before Christ, recommends ¢
as a seasoning; and Columella,” in the first century of our ei i
and Palladius,* in the third, direct its planting. The pa
well known in Britain prior to the Norman conquest, and
carried to Massachusetts before 1670.5 In China it can beider
tified in an agricultural treatise of the fifth century,and i 1S
as cultivated by later writers of the sixteenth and eigne
centuries. In Cochin China it is recorded as less grown that
China? In India it is largely used by the natives 54°
Ment," is grown at the Mauritius, and has even rea
` guay, and is in especial esteem for condimental purposes g5
parts of Peru.

Coriander, called coryander and colander by Turner” g

* Macfadyen, Jam., i. 108. 2 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Fol re
3 Burr, Field and Gard. Veg., 338. 4 Forskal, Fl. Ægypt-
5 Delile, Fl, Ægypt, illust é Birdwood, Veg: Prod. ot
7 Pem Useful Pl. of tad, 159. 8 C. Benson, pas m Gu ,
ure, May 31, 1883, 113. % Pliny, lib. xx. ¢- a
amag g lib. vi. c. 33; lib. x. c. 244; lib. xi. c. 3-
X Palladius, lib. iii, c. 245 lib. iv. c. 9, etc.
Cographia, 1879, 320. 15 Josselyn, Rar.
16 Bretschneider, Bot, net 59,85. 7 fe Cochinchy 180
* Dutt, Hindu Mat. Med., 175. %» Bojer, Hort. Maur.

* Johnson, Useful Pl., 125. at Turner, Libellus, 153%

Te eel ae ia a | 5 hee Ee IE e N

1887]

ig ae SS Ve en | en ee ee

p

nal culty
Others:

ee eee! a eng RE canteen

History of Garden Vegetables. 831

is called, in France, coriandre ; in Germany, coriander ; in Flan-

ders and Holland, oriander ; in Denmark, koriander ; in Italy,

coriandorlo ; in Spain, culantro, cilantro* The name is probably
derived from the Greek Zoris, a bug, from the offensive smell
of the leaves. In Arabic, Aousbarah, kuzeerah ;* in Bengali,
dhunya ;* in Ceylon, cotumbaroo; in Malay, mety; in Persian,

_ Šushneez; in Tamil and Telegu, cottamillie ;3 in Sanscrit, dunya,

aca
Notwithstanding this extended period of cultivation, I find no
indication of varieties under cultivation.

Corn. Zea mays L., var. saccharata.

The history of sweet corn, so far as we have discovered it, is
Siven in the American NATURALIST for July, 1885. It is first
noticed in 1779. In the “ Report of the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station” for 1884 I have described thirty-three sorts,
and in the report for 1886 a new form collected from the Indians
of Mexico is mentioned and partly described. This vegetable is

&rown far more in the United States than in Europe, and has

become an object of field-culture for the supply of the canning
e industries,

The European names of sweet corn I do not find noted,
except the mais sucre of the French. By Vilmorin the generic

- ‘Rame of the Species is applied to this variety in his synonymy.

Th

“is presence of three distinct types, varying not alone in ap-

ke ob but as well in their climatic adaptations, and the large
; aoe of varieties quite distinct in minor features, indicate a
_Pvious culture far more extended than appears in my recorded
salty certainly does not seem reasonable to believe that

“weet corn was confined until 1 779 to North American aborigi-

re alone, and yet I have not even a clue that suggests
ise,

Corn Sarap. Valerianella olitoria Moench.

annual plant has been found spontaneous in all temperate
Europe :

as far as 60° north; in Southern Europe to the Canary

sles ; : n
» Madeira, and the Azores; in North Africa, Asia Minor,
z t >» nent

2 Bind, sine Pl. Pot., 168, 2 Delile, Fl. Egypt, illust.

Pl. of Ind., 162

eg. Prod. of B 27,
* Drury, Useful bap omb., 39: 162, 237

+

832 History of Garden Vegetables. ay

and in the region of the Caucasus.’ It seems quite a variable
plant in nature, but as long ago as 1623 Bauhin? records is
variability in size, and occurring with narrow, broad, and entit
leaves. It is described by Lobel? in 1576, and by Dalechamp'
in 1587, as also by Camerarius’ in 1588, but as occurring it
_ fields, and without mention of culture, although its value as |
salad is recognized. In 1597, Gerarde® says it has grown in Us
among the French and Dutch strangers in England, and “hat |
beene sowen in gardens as a sallad herbe.” He figures two
varieties. J. Bauhin? describes two sorts, and gives Taber
montanus as a witness that it was found in gardens as well asit-
fields and vineyards. Ray, in 1686, quotes J. Bauhin only, at
Chabræus, in 1677, describes it as grown in gardens asa i
herb. Worlidge® in 1683, Meager* in 1683, Quintyne” in 169)
and 1704, Townsend” in 1 726, Stevenson ** in 1765, Mawel 1t-
1778, Bryant* in 1783,—all refer to its culture in England. a
France, according to Heuze,’? it is spoken of as cultivated by
Olivier de Serres, and is referred to as if a well-known cultivate
salad in “Le Jardinier Solitaire,” 1612. It was in in
gardens previous to 1806." i
Vilmorin” describes four varieties, which are tolerably a
tinct. All these have blunt leaves. The variety quite freq" fi
distributed for American gardens is that which is figured by |
herbalists as having pointed leaves, as, for instance;—

Lhu minimum alterum. Lob., 1576, 412; Lugd, 1587, et
Polypremnum., Lugd., 1587, 554; :
Lactuca agnina. Ger., 1597, 242; etc.

The round-leaved form, such as the mache ronde of Vil
has its type figured by Dodonæus in his “ Pemptades,
_ under the name of album olus. a

. xis.
* De Candolle, Orig. Des Pl. Cult., 37. Bauhin, Pin., 1623, 165, mee
> Lobel, Obs., 1576, 413; fig., p. 412. 4 Hist. Gen. Lugd., 1587,55%
5 Camerarius, Hort., 1588, 175. 6 Gerarde, Herbal, 1597) 243:
7j: Bauhin, Hist., 1651, iii. 324. 8 Ray, Hist., 1686, 392: 6 á
9 Chabræus, 1677, 437. 10 Worlidge, Syst.-Hort., 1653, ee
= Meager, Eng. Gard., 1683 (2), 61.

mort, f
» 1616,

~ Quintyne, Comm. Gard., 1693, 144; 1704, 205.

= send, man, 1726, 16. 14 Stevenson, 1765, 34 a

35 Mawe, Gard., 1778, %6 Bryant, Fl. Diet., 1783 190
Sa Les Pl, Alim., i. v, 28 McMahon, Am. Gard. i

e Veg. Gard., 1885, 202.

Editors’ Table. “Bag

_ The names of the Corn salad, or Fetticus, or Lamb's lettuce, are,
in France, mache commune, accroupie, barbe de chanoine, blanchette,

i blanquette, boursette, chuquette, clairette, coquille, doucette, gallinette,
laitue de brebis, orillette, pommette, poule grasse, rampon (à Geneve),
~ Salade de ble, salade de chanoine, salade royale; in Germany,
4 ackersalat, feldsalat, lammersalat, mausohr, rabinschen, rapunzel,
= Sthafmaulchen ; in Flanders and Holland, hoornsalad, veldsalad ;
in Holland, velds/a ; in Denmark, 4ropsalat ; in Italy, valeriana,
j erba riccia, dolcetta, gallinelle sarzet;? in Spain, canonigos; in
Portugal, herva benta ; in the Mauritius, mache, doucette3
_ Among the more ancient names are: Belgian, velt cropper,
a Lob., 1576; witmoes, veltecrop, elcerooge, Dod., 1616; gallo-
si belgian, sallade de chanoine, Lob., 1756; in English, /amd’s
5 lettuce, corne sallade, Gerarde, 1597; in France, blanchette, poule
rasse, Lugd., 1587; mache, “ Le Jard. Solit.,” 1612.
i (To be continued.)

EDITORS’ TABLE.

EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

) Tae meeting of the American Association for the Advance-
SEF of Science, which has just closed its sessions in New York,
was in some respects a noteworthy one. Nature was kinder to
7 net worship pers than has been often the case at this season of
ete in regions of small elevation and corresponding latitude,
Siesta temperature experienced in New York was a delightful
“Mude in a season of exceptional heat and humidity. Although
-ente fh the citizens were living at their summer resorts, the
needs Spay furnished was fully equal to the anticipations and
shave = Association. Indeed, greater hospitality could not
TORR enjoyed without impairing the effectiveness of the
ngs, and it is fortunate from this stand-point that New
he a ity in this respect was not more seriously taxed,
-Papers € meeting, it may be truly said that the quality of the
Pers offered never was higher, and their interest and impor-
ae — never greater. The attendance, though not equal to
| meee — 1883, 322. 2 Allioni, Fl. Pied., 1785, n- 12.
: | » 1837, 174.

834 x Editors’ Table.

+

that at the Boston and Philadelphia meetings, was very gool
numbering about seven hundred and fifty members. The U
States Geological Survey was better represented than at ay
previous meeting. The excursions about the city covered 7
wider range of interest than at any previous meeting; phy ist,
social economists, biologists, and geologists being equally we
provided for. In all respects the local committee, aided byt
New York Academy of Sciences, succeeded in making the met
ing enjoyable to all participants.

Most of the members will agree with us, however, that somt
comments on the treatment of the Association by the press 0
New York are in order. It may be asserted that at no latt
meeting has the work of the Association met with less app p
tion from the newspapers of the locality where it has met thani
New York. Some of the reports published were of the flippatt,
jocular type, the wit in some instances apparently emanating
from very callow reportorial brains. In no instance were fil
reports given, but the fullest were always those of the least sci :
tific communications, such as that of a Chinese gentleman, whi
never should have been read at all. We had thought that
reports of the Tribune would have redeemed the reputation n
the press so far as possible, but even these depreciated P
very good beginning, and terminated in an extraordinary” |
in a farewell editorial on August the 18th. Had we 4 a
column, we would reprint the first half of this editorial cat
but we must be content with making some comments 0n
it represents very correctly the attitude of the New York
towards American science for many years past.

q

y

are seldom memorable for discoveries or even da
Phenomenal importance. A few notable addresses |

188] Editors’ Table. 835
made in England by such leaders of the scientific world as Pro-
_ fessor Huxley and Professor Tyndall, . ..” Now, we are not
prepared to speak for the British Association, but it has been
= quite the custom for American scientists to announce their most
_ important discoveries in papers read before the American Asso-
Cation. Such was the case at the Philadelphia meeting, which
_ followed immediately the notable meeting at Montreal. Among »
other important communications made, it was announced that
_ the ancestors of the monotremes had been discovered in the rep-
tiles of the Permian formation of Texas, a fact which was new,
_ andimportant from every point of view. The fact that the mon-
_Stremes are oviparous had been known for perhaps forty years.
_ Another fact discovered by the English biologist, that the seg-
3 mentation of the yelk of the monotremes is meroblastic, was
_ feally new, and formed a remarkable confirmation of the discov-
e ‘ty announced in Philadelphia. Such coincident discoveries are
Mre in the history of science, and the present instance was,
Under the circumstances, especially interesting. As usual, the

page

Ty

Jas American Committee of the International Congress of .
ii has survived the perils which threatened it at the.
Wer meeting of the American Association. After an €x-
- Several years, and the accomplishment of a great deal
l it began to attract the attention of the present director

Nited States Geological Survey. Although a member
~ committee, the director has not taken part in its work

836 Editors’ Table.

until just before the meeting of the Association, excepting r

very desirous of controlling the committee, and exhausted al
the arts of parliamentary usage to accomplish that result. Hi
efforts were, however, not successful, and the committee received.
a new lease of life by a resolution of approval adopted by Section
E (the Geological), and of continuation by the Association a
large. The committee thus represents officially in the Congres,
American geological opinion, and it will no doubt endeavor t
do so with the utmost impartiality. As a representative body È
is well constituted. It embraces the following representation:

United States Geological Survey......ccsscssssscssssee sesversenpacnnensnagnenets

United States Geological Survey of the Territories (Hayden’s).+ses+

United States Geological Survey W. of 1ooth mer. (Wheeler’s). e.er

State Survey, Alabam sse
State Survey, Minnesota oe iaaa
State Survey, New York EENE TO at
State Survey, New Hampshire PEES
State Survey, Pennsylvania..........ccosecssserseescccssees necsnesnssensenaes seers 2
te Survey, New Jersey ee

. Io

ig ee
In our opinion no scientific or other reasonable ground l
change in the representative character of the committee @%8°
and we are glad that no change has been made. a

WitH the death of Professor Spencer F. Baird a landmark J
American science has disappeared. We find it difficult wen .
adequately our sense of the important bearing which nee
Professor Baird has had on the present state of science 1n
More than any other man he built up and sustained the di
body of zoologists in this country by his generous recognition”
still more generous material support. To him, more T
one man, science owes the recognition it has had in the p
of the nation, and the substantial support which it has f°"
p the hands of our government. No one ever justly g

selfish, and that the advancement of science was te
of his life, His success is attested by the National M ga”
the Fish Commission, of the United States; tw?

Geology and Faleontology. i 37

which have few parallels in the history of science. In the pres-
_ ence of Professor Baird’s immense services to science in America,
_ We can nevertheless pause to pay a tribute to the worth of his
4 character. Perhaps his leading trait was a comprehensive be-
nevolence which knew no distinctions, but embraced all in its
__ benefactions to the limit of possibility.

Professor Baird’s disinterested love of science will not be lost
_ tousby his death. To his foresight is due the fact that he will
_ Probably be succeeded by men equally catholic with himself,
_ and equally able to maintain the dignity of science at the
-national capital. We refer to Professor S. P. Langley, the pres-
ent assistant secretary, and Mr. G. Brown Goode, assistant
director of the National Museum.

GENERAL NOTES.

GEOLOGY AND PALÆONTOLOGY.
„On the Morphology and Origin of the Ichthyopterygia.™—-

ere is no group of reptiles, the Testudinata perhaps excluded,
of which igi

ien: Of the otic bones two are sepa-
_ Teptiles € third,-the epiotic, if ever free, is coossified as in all
large a ha € supraoccipitals. The opisthotic is a pretty
ay nical bone, touching the exoccipital and supraoccipital.
A Paper read

+ 12,1 before the American Association for the Advancement of Science,

.

838 General Notes.

The prootic is a small flat elliptical bone, connected with
base of the skull, the supraoccipital, and the opisthotic. Th
structure of the bones shows that there must have been &
veloped large masses of cartilage, still more than in young se
turtles, connecting these bones. ‘ £

Between the basioccipital and the quadrate a strong handi
like bone is expanded, fitting in a grove of the quadrate.
is the stapes, as Professor Cope correctly suggested, exactly it
the same position as in Sphenodon, in which it is of similar shape
but not so stout.

Turning now to the upper part of the skull, we find the part
tal bones of exactly the same structure as in Sphenodon, and i
front of those the very small frontals. : gi

The parietal foramen, which is very large, as in Sphenodon 8
situated between the frontals and parietals or in the frontals, i4
similar way as in Sphenodon. In the upper part of the Spat
don skull the parietal foramen is formed entirely by the j
in the lower part by both the parietals and frontals. The m
in Ichthyosaurus are very large bones, touching the froni
parietals, postfrontals, prefrontals, lachrymals, and pren axillaris

We have now to consider that part of the skull situated D
tween the supratemporal fossa, the orbits, and the quadrate. l

The supratemporal fossa is formed by three bones Bpo
etal, the postfrontal, and a big bone forming its posterior fi
exterior border. This bone, which is connected also with
quadrate and another bone which joins the quadrate, quay
jugal, postorbital, and postfrontal, is the supratemporal
Lacertilia, which is united in Sphenodon to the squamosal- Si

This bone is called mastoid by Owen, squamosal by Seeley a =

ai
et
$

The place which is taken in Ichthyosaurus by the sup
by os

don. o hyosal

_ The lachrymal is free from the prefrontal in Icht

in many nes it is united with that bone $ ized ft

ithe vertebrae of Ichthyosaurus are only Speci | ter
Sphenodon-like form in which the notochordal charac

| 1887] : Geology and Paleontology. 839

with the centrum of the vertebra. There are only three small

lost. The ribs are two-headed, and are always connected
. P| . . .

_intercentra developed between the basioccipital and atlas, and
_ the two next vertebrz. i ;

p- abdominal ribs consist of a median piece just as in Sphen-
Odon, to this one or two lateral pieces are attached on both sides.
In Sphenodon there are two pairs of abdominal ribs connected
With one pair of true ribs, in Ichthyosaurus only one.

: The shoulder-girdle is only comparable with that of Spheno-
:

‘

‘

X
sm
a
es
ib
a
ir
y

don; the clavicles and interclavicles are very much alike; the
scapula and coracoid resemble very much the same elements in
_ young Sphenodons when they are still free.
; m The pelvis of Ichthyosaurus is in a rudimentary condition; it
‘Contains the three elements, but a comparison with other pelves is
_ of no value.
~ The limbs are specialized for the animal’s life in water from
_ Some land-living form, as I shall show.
a The limbs or paddles of the Ichthyopterygia were a principal
ea for giving a peculiar position to those animals in the sys-

. E have shown before, on logical reasons, that the paddles of
. he yosaurus were not original but adapted. To-day 1 can give
WE proofs for this.
vi e Museo Civico of Milano, in Italy, are some specimens
" Ichthyosaurus from the Trias of Besano. They have been
med lately by Professor F. Basani, and called /chthyosaurus
Th ote € specimens measure from 50 to go cm. only.
ag teeth are of smaller number than in the other Ichthyosau-
‘ment; and of two forms. But the most important character not
and ‘ned by Basani is the structure of the limbs. Radius

not
"Presents nt, but the ulna; the ulna of Professor ‘Marsh
_ The ie roly the pisiforme.

hthyopterygia had few phalanges and not more

© digits; radius and ulna were longer than broad, and

eas Phalanges were developed, more digits

a: division of

57

-in the private collection of Mr. Leeds in Peterborough,

840 | General Notes. i:
_ The fin of Baptanodon was developed by the trans-locationt
the pisiforme or another element of a new-formed ray oe

Just the same we observe in the Sauropterygia. J
In the oldest Triassic forms, the Lariosauridæ, we

Baptanodon. ; a
The Cetacean paddle has developed in the same way as hye
has suggested; a new proof is given by the Sirenide.

me a manus of Manatus americ., prepared in alcohol, rigs
tained a fourth small ossified phalange in the third digit, a
of Halicore dugong which contained an ossified fourth pha
at the fourth, and a cartilaginous fourth in the third digit
This shows how the supernumerary phalanges po
oped, and it is remarkable to say that the enh ges.
examined by Leboucq contained only three phi ual th
increase takes place during the life of the individua! *
mechanical influence. ia were *
I do not longer doubt that the Ichthyopterysi4 ro
veloped from land-living reptiles which very much ;
the Sphenodontidz. . d ulna :
Classification of the Ichthyopterygia.—a. Radius p two f
gated, separated by a space in the middle. Bigs” i
but not so numerous as in the Ichthyosauride. 9M4 ©

Family Mirosauride Baur.
Genus Mixosaurus Baur. ‘
b. Radius and ulna short bones, touchi
he ay ge and numerous.
amily /chthyosauride Bonaparte. wevet,
Genus Ichthyosaurus Koenig. There are, jas fread
genera contained in Ichthyosaurus, as Seeley .
ge 0 ; j ‘i ith the hw
c. Radius, ulna, and a third bone articulating W!
jra n nian: or absent." i
amuy Daptanodontide Marsh. Haven,
Genus Baptanodon Marsh.—Dr. G. Baur, New ae
z I have seen small teeth at the end of the jaws of bn England. :

ng each other.

Geology and Paleontology. 841

The Address of Vice-President G. K. Gilbert before Sec-
tion E; A. A. A. S., Columbia College, New York, August

Part of the material on which his address was based.
n speaking of the need for a word “to denote indefinitely, an
regate of strata,” since to the word Sormation, formerly used
in this manner, the Congress has attached a specific meaning, he

ne Suggest’ that we ma Y nt

adopti y advantageously enrich our language by the permane:

a mor terrane, a word whose English meaning has not been well established.

_ This is a singular, though doubtless inadvertent, plagiarism,

E » © two international committees (see “ Report of on
, P: 43, etc., a, c, d, and pp. 50, 9, etc.) have employed the

Word in just i , pp 5 "9, ) p

22) “ Professor Renevi

a op e8estion as to the use of the termination “ al” to convey
Bitter eee as in Archeal, Cretaceal, Laramal, Belly Riveral,
Mr Gi xal, if it will induce the local-taxonomy geologists
Fr bert’s school to admit, through its employment, any _

ee ig geological classification, will probably be easily in-
land of hi Still, after having conceded to him an unusual com-

pi e in reading hi$ well-rounded periods, one may im-
Some sprite the agreeable cadence of word-drops caught up by

tad t of the river of language, and with the added glory of
i Mg from the intellectual light which floods them, falling
‘ioe ans matter of the address there are some passages
~~ Sand some to disapprove. For example, in speaking

842 - General Notes.

of the Congress’s suggestions as to the terminations to tei
to indicate groups, systems, series, etc., Mr. Gilbert says,—
“Tt would be ee for a geologist to name or allude to a terrane w
declaring its rank,”
To this it may be said that schemes of classification are not $
for systematizing what we do not know, but what we do kn
Nevertheless, it would not be an insuperable obstacle to speak:
the “ blankary, blankic, or blankian terrane.” . Equally ill-fou
is the fear that by too systematic a classification—
a - Taxonomy would be conceived by many geologists as an end ‘
jeans; and energy would be wasted in taxonomic refinement and taxon
iAy. i p
Energy is wasted now, and a great deal more than if Heg
some fixed principle to guide the controversialists.
One line of objection, curious in one who mus
have accustomed himself to take broad views of ings b ist
« A commi pa apee for the purpose fiera rules for t ishn
the names of genera and species, and their report was adopted by “he Cong
have no Or eo eee as to the wisdom of the a, but it isa |
a o

med
om one point of sae palæo ntology is a part of Pa i4 from
o. Ins

: ar a era
biologic, and it would s m pr oper t that eons oF foseils unite
pe A animals and hiving | ata | in the S ion of rules of nomenc nclature.”

inquiries are the very members of the Con
attempted the Classification to which he alludes. Hea
f mineralogy, in regard to which no action has bay
The most intimate relations of systematic mineralogy are with chemist”
The last sentence would hardly secure Mr. coat
approval were he aware that, from the earliest dna i
ence of mineralogy up to the present time, SO ome
pre-eminent among mineralogists have denied this.
it were so, some of those best able as chemists to
petrological problems have entered the field of genie
purpose of devoting themselves to it. Towar å
address he ebei again upon this p as w

“ When r is g
proposed for regulation by t ngresh rdet
which should be bé asked fe whether it falls within ee * egitim
vention of geologists. l
which bea

But what does not fall within such purview w
ever indirectly, upon the riddles they are trying oc
Is the ‘science of geology to be classed with mane

taal

J Sy Geology and Paleontology. j 843

which relate solely and exclusively to one thing? (Perhaps Mr.
Gilbert would call them monotaxic. r is it not rather a cam-

; 5
it would seem, from certain parts of the address, that Mr.

= exhausted. He says, in regard to the acceptance by the
~engress of a classification of the eruptive rocks, —
“With the

Temodelled rapid growth of knowledge and ideas, classifications are continually
and Sapo the best is in danger of becoming obsolete before it has been printed

Sratigraphic stes d every group is local. . . . If I have properly characterized
Classification , if they are both natural and local, it goes without saying that
sible.» "Of the str ozen or so systems... iS

SSible, ata of all countries in a |
We ; t d a i "~
remark tht ay ing “if” not there one would be tempted to

844 | General Notes.

that none of the supporters of the proposition know enou;

assert it.
In parts of the address there is some appearance of unfai

_ in stating the position of the Congress. Take this, for inst
“There can be no doubt that those who originally organized the work

plated the enactment of a stratigraphic classification to be applied to the entire ¢

and the selection of a color scheme for use ei i

ologic map

a
which hung the completion of the map, and many hasty decisions were?
not disputed points were referred to the Map Committee.
indicate that much oy all of this work was provisional or of merely local appli
ut the resolutions adopted show little qualification. It should be added
official minutes of the meeting are still unpublished.”

Ea series of resolutions a partial scheme has been selected, one fer
+ and the completion of the plan has been left to the Committee csi
urope.

This certainly implies that the Map Committee has ©
the Congress as to certain portions of the former's tas ne
that the latter has “ enacted” colors for the world. Fu

pi s ly |
1S provisional; still, as the map if generally approved, w penr ig

clared by the Congress an authoritative pattern for the guidance of MSE
plan should be freely criticised at its present stage.”

“it is understood, in a general way, that the Congress reserves So BNE
that the published legend not on belongs specifically to the map bee be:

If the map is open to much criticism it cannot be

a pattern. The Congress has quite abundantly showt pa f
to dictating or enacting contrary to the judgment |

ich is
tee “ec cannot t ; al t S i which
is artificial.” se strongly nor too earnestly insist that 4 m TEN

: i biology and
(above the Archean) should be based a u ERRUN of a
- %condarily on physical structure.” Mr. :
_ System as t unconformities,
a “a great terrane separated from terranes above and below 4y great u:
_ great life-breaks. or both,” AR
l 5 mmon usag

differs from that of his chief, as well as from the co
But Mr. Gilbert prefers his VERR
“own definition of a system, making it natural, and consequently
_ and he opposes
“any attempt to co

he

and shaped by th

igi i ed over

erce the geology of jeas oT in a rigid pity form |

geology of another country. as ane
As to the latter, so do all geologists; but it is x yei a i

sition to make a matrix by combining the E E

Countries and fitting as much as there pappen o Oa oi

om general mould, leaving the others to comp ig ea

He objects to the provisional color scheme o

‘Mitte, that

' rovision
ems of Europe exclusively, n Sear Wana
Hh f the earth. The geologi A
t the systems of other parts o

ories.
. i f these two categorii
- +» if they believe that «it belongs to neither o .

; : i ining that cer-
lhe above, to be intelligible, needs a ae UE AO
minent geologists have lately come to t e dart of what
— tchean should be restricted to the mee to define, and
ub to the Present time the world has understood rt between its
another term should be applied to the a Primordial.
Portion, as thus defined, and the base of the 2

}

846 — General Notes.

This criticism, then, assumes the form of a serious sor
pun, or a puzzle based upon the ambiguity of a word. As
greater number of the world’s geologists have not yet accepted
this new use of “ Archean,” the criticism is not fatal. Of cours,
if the new group be accepted, the Keweenawan will be interpo
lated between it and the Paleozoic. w

It is not the purpose of this article to criticise the plan of tht
Spectrum proposed by Mr. Gilbert. As he says, it has been vey
fully discussed in the proceedings of the Bologna Congress; tł
it may be said that one of his canons—viz., that the groups 0
“hues and tones,” called by the vulgar simply colors, which 4
to serve as a scale—

“f. . . must be so chosen that the degree of separateness of adjacent colors shall
everywhere the same, as judged by the orma/ human eye.”

will be very difficult to carry into effect, in default of the dè
covery of, and agreement upon, that normal eye. To no
eyes of the ordinary kind would the “ separateness” be likely
appear the same. It ought also to be mentioned that, in att
the hues of purple to one end or the other of the 1
increase the range of the time-scale colors, he violates his ¢
rule, and renders it impracticable to assign by its wave-length
color to an intermediate rock-mass se ae
_ the portion of the address, however, most open to object?!
is the end of it. He says,—

“A classification i i i ts of observation of
the domain of the Viti: <p iam aera cent ae its salient ee
eventually recognized, whether its authority is individual or collective. it
not comprise them it will inevitably be superseded, by whatever authority
have been instituted.”

This argument savors somewhat of Oriental fatalism, !

of the
Ni I am opposed to the classification by the Congress ©
prt ny formations, and likewise to the classification of the voleami rocks eyi
T regard it as ill advised that the Congress undertook the preparation % .

pe, for that, if more than a work of compilation, is a work of Saki au

Poor Congress! About to be bereft of the power f°
the objects for which it was created, why was it called into
poseless being ? Suppose that when Lavoisier an

e

d his on

Geology and Paleontology. 847

but only questions of names. Within the field of names it should
only comprehend what Stahl and the phlogistonists understand
by them. it should therefore not attempt the classification of
_ the elements, nor the classification of compounds made by com-
_ bining elements. It should discuss no analysis unless the data
be compiled from existing authorities. It should not regulate
- the eee eure of somatology, for that belongs to physics and
a cs; it should not regulate the nomenclature of reactions,
5 for that belongs to magic,—in fact, it should not meddle with
Mames at all, for that is the domain of philology :’—would w
Sar ave had a science of chemistry at all, or would papim
d his colleagues have persisted in their. reckless course of
Electing and devising ?
“ae connection the words of the great Berzelius are very.
č;
sagat Te a systematic nomenclature i is m sary, but i e none more than
: Salva: ie rg ae which reigned prior to the happy id m of Guyto one de
the fruit i proof omenclature which che naa egg mploy ne 1780 is
Bed 3 sh heat ed abe directed by Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy.

3 it vant resents hat whoever learn gniz
a its true name withou Snowing it beforehand, so that it is unnecessary to
ete: th a large number of different terms. e, sci-

i PRF- W e Furthermor
the nomenclature is in itself the expression of a co mplete ‘theory, so that if, on
he theory furnish the name, on the other the name indicates the

ich wi
“yment of purely technical terms, that are always preserved without ‘tiers
as these changes are ordin narily the results of progress in the direction of
ons, the change of no menclature, far from injuring, is, on the contra
eans for facilitating the march of ideas. /n , neral, , nothing vich con-
bot ing rd part of a science statio is advantageous
ance equally in proportion to the multiplicatio n of ditore aod
(Berzelius, Treatise e on Chemistry,” vol. i., Introduction, 1829.)

oči tolerably sure that if Mr. Gilbert expects the International

debates, f Geologists to eschew all questions of science in its

grams and devote itself to the employment of playing at logo-
Ey with old data, he will be disappointed.—

n the Homo ologies of Edestus.'—The genus Edestus was
” Professor Leidy to comprise certain singular fossils
Coal-measures of the West, about which various theo-
been held. The one generally received is that they
yng used as weapons of defence or offence. About = ž
a half ago Dr. H. Woodward, of London, suggested
might be pe Ee

ne Paper read before the Aes Association for the Advancement z ;
; €, August 15; 1887. ee

i

_ which would indicate that they are shed like teeth, together

848 | General Notes.

the denticles, the segmented character of the fossils, and
fact that the segments are found singly, and of different

the presence of a slender curved basal bone (similar to that it
Onychodus of the Devonian of Ohio) in the Australian fom
described by Dr. Woodward, led the author to think that thet
fossils are neither dorsal spines nor pectoral fins, but intermate
dibular teeth, which had a membranous or cartilaginous suppot
in the American forms, and an osseous support in the Au a
These supports would bear the same relation to the mandibula
arch that the glosso-hyal does to the hyoid arch —Fanny R M
Hitchcock. : E

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY:

The rocks of the island Heard are very similar to those
In the neighborhood of Corinthian Bay the prevailing f
a feldspathic bas townite

grouped together like the chondra of meteoric stones.
YOR to the basalts there occur on the island trachites, lim
i phonolites, Of these the trachytes and phonolites

an the basalts—T wo late articles on the petrogt of this
Tyrol add several interesting facts to our knowledge %

* Edited by Dr. W. S. BAYLEY, Madison, Wisconsin.

i Ui

? American Naturalist, Notes, 1886, p. 640
3 Bull. d. 1. Soc. Roy. de Belg., 1886, iii. p. 245- ~

Mineralogy and Petrography. | 849 ©

gion. Baron von Foullon' separates the porphyrites of the Tyrol
_ into quartz-porphyrites, quartz-mica-porphyrites, and diabase-
i i In connection with the first group, Von Foullon

o
¥

4 Various localities in the Alps. A staurolite-mica-schist occurs
nth It contains numerous hemimorphic crystals of
A garnet amphibolite is remarkable for the occur-

rei € second, in which uralite and a little augite
+ Sg instead of hornblende, the plagioclase is sausuritized. A
4 Variety contains brown garnets in oscillatory combinations of
: dron and the icositetrahedron. They are the oldest
Of the pitchstone-porphyry the author says, this

d schist. It contains nearly five per cent. of rutile and

€ rocks of the Hereroland in Southwest Africa
y to the class of the older eruptives.* The quartz

me of the granites contain fluid inclusions with hexa- `

7) pleochroic = hofe.” ‘Orthoclase and microcline are

‘In the manner described by Becke.s The former has 2 oe
* Jahrb. d. k k : l % ; T mie PA ee
- K. k. geol. Reichsaust, 1886, p. 747.
Toig Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1887, i. p. 147 Bae
“HY u. Petrog. Mitth., viii., 1887, p. 331- aA
iz Wulf, Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., viii., 1887, p. 193.
&: Min. u, Petrog. Mitth., iv., Taf. ii Fig. & -

850 | General Notes.

undergone alteration into pseudophite, yielding a product having
very much the appearance of serpentinized olivine. The augit
gneisses are divided into scapolite-bearing varieties and thos

as given in the text-books. The latter is probably a parting ”

haa ; ars o
acteristics of /avenite and cappelinite. The former occurs

eleolite syenite? of the Province of Rio Janeiro, Brazil. It form

brown to yellow, slightly transparent crystals, with a Pfs with
habit and vitreous lustre. It is monoclinic in crystallization a
à :B:c’=1O811 : 1 :0.8133, ?=71° 2434’. The twinnks
the cleavage planes are parallel to the orthopinacoid, WAN ©
plane of the optical axes is the clinopinacoid. The ™
strongly pleochroic, ¢ > b > a — red-brown, yellowish-grr
_Wine-yellow. Its specific gravity is 3.51, and its compos! ¢
SiO, ZrO, Feo (j MnO Cio NaO REE ae
33-71 31.65 5.64 $06 fioo uz a te
: Cappelinite is found in a small vein in the aug'te yoke
- Little Aré in Langesundsfjord. It occurs in thick pe
a agonal prismatic crystals with a fatty lustre. Their axia ©
I : 0.4301. Their analysis yielded: Ko
D BO, YO., La(Di BaO CaO Na,0
4d 17.13 P nee (Di), ee T re 5 0.61 939 0.21
: urtids
the borotitanate of magnesium and i Ce
ille, N. Y., is generally found in prismat? | age
tay direction of the vertical axis, Wit
parallel to inani ; u etry om
taining measurements of these, which indicate a SY™ wi
responding to that of the n
* Zeitsch. f. Kryst., x., 1885, p. 503, and Geol. För. i. Stockh. Forh-,

Ba.
> in, ie PT
— Graeff, N. J. B., 1887, i. p. 201. 3 Bul. d. 1. Soc. Fr. du =

Mineralogy and Petrography. es 5I

-this view the plane of their optical axes is the orthopinacoid.
Their bisectrix i is positive and perpendicular to «Px. 2 E =125°.
Sot mineral is pleochroic in red and brown tints. Withamite

porphyrites of Glencoe, County Argyle, Scotland, the
-same author regards* simply as epidote. He also thinks? that .
- mismondine, Sasonite, ottrelite, venasquite, and phyllite are merely
_ Varieties of chloritoid, the, optical properties of which he de-

pecies. He states also that Dufrenoy’s dréelite i is an
impure barite.—New analyses of agalmatolite7 indicate that
Most of the substance to which this name has been given really
possesses no definite composition, but is probably a mixture of
silica and hydrated silicates of potassium a and aluminium, re-
-An a pparently

H k to the wey law. It is often intergrown with tridymite.
ogee . ecific gravity = 2.27. Its composition is
Rath a 91 per cent. Fe,O,.Al,O, = 6.2 per cent. Both Vom
ing Say Bauer regard it as most probably regularly crystalliz- .
Shica, It has been called christobalite to distinguish it from
asmanite, tridymite, vestan (Jensch, Pog. Ann., 1858, p. 320), and
ite——A new variety of dufrenite has been observed by
h - Kinch, Butler and Miers in Cornwall, England. When
it is found in small black or apple-green orthorhombic
sags in the thin section appear yellow or brown. Its
'S 4.5 and specific gravity 3.233. An analysis yielded:
S CuO P,O, Fe,0, CaO
pe a * 30.42 55:93 1.51
ee of the mineral corresponds with that of Streng’s
€ composition of a micaceous mineral from a
ein in the Kaiserstuhl is recorded by Knop™ as follows:

Fe,O, Mn,O M 2 eee
LIŞ 15.18 10.85 0.89" 2280 20 ror
EAL Soo Fr. du Min., ix. p. 75-
3 Ib., p. 78.

ip 217.
Seea n. d. Fra viii, 1385p . 428. *Ib.,p. pr
N he 1886, PP- 24 and 29; hee. 1886, p. 74.

Min, T an A ype etc., SEa i. p. 198.

pe Jahrb. f.

Min, 188m i. p. ror. = Zeits, f. Kryst., xii. p. 607.

852 General Notes.

This mineral differs from biotite in the possession of water
and a smaller percentage of potassium. As Hoppe-Seyler*

dioxide and water it loses potassium and gains water, Knop
thinks that this mineral, which he calls psewdobiotite, may have

are SiO, : R,O,: Ro=2: 1: 1.5, corresponding to the formula
Ry’R,'Si;0)3. Professor A. H. Chester? has recently we

SiO, ALO Cr,O, FeO, CaO MgO K,O NaO ‘
45-49 31.08 3.09 trace osr 3.36 9.76 0.90 § i

A pink celestite from Landsville, Oneida County, N. Y., yiel

ström reports the existence of a manganiferous vesuvianite WÈ
4.72 per cent. of MnO.

Crystallographic News.—Chas. O. Trechman$ describes ory*
tals of barite from Addiewell in Midlothian, England.

however, that the structure of the mineral corresponds pi
orthorhombic symmetry, with the axis of least elasticity 1
to one of the cubic faces Mr. H. A. Miers? mentions ©
clase twins fromthe augite andesite of Kilimanjaro, 1m bles
composition face (as well as the twinning plane) is the $ Pa
acoid. The crystals are bounded by the planes oP, eT
and oP. | a ah
* Zeits. d. dents. G oe
* Zeits. f. Krys oe Gh 3 Amer. Jour. Sci., April, ae :
i alee - 1. Soc. Fr. d. Min., ix. p. 22. s Min. Mag., Dec. 1986, Oe

+ £ Kryst., xii. p. 552. 7 Min: Mag., July» 1886, P- © :

1887] Entomology. 853

Bt llaneous.—Fremy* has succeeded in obtaining small
__well-colored crystals of ruby by subjecting to a red heat a mix-
ture of alumina and minium, and also by heating to a high
temperature equal weights of alumina and barium fluoride. In
both cases the color was produced by the addition of small
quantities of potassium bi-chromate. Measurable crystals of
quartz have been produced? by heating an enclosed dialysed so-
lution of silica to a temperature of 320°. The crystals, 1⁄4 mm.
in length, possessed the forms R, —R, «R, and in two cases
j ce Tridymite was obtained by fusing pieces of very acid rocks
with the powder of basalts and melaphyres. A concretion of
coarse tourmaline pegmatite in the tourmaline granite near
Pisek, Bohemia, contains pseudomorphs? of pyrite after tourma-
line. e rare mineral langite has been found by Von Foul-
lon‘ forming the cement of a breccia in Pockwerke, Garnstein.
ENTOMOLOGY.
bservations on the Female Form of Phengodes laticollis
-—Entomologists will remember the interest
, about one year ago, in the discovery that
female form of a Lampyrid® (Zarhipis riverst) °
Was larva-like, and that the three stages—larva,
pe and adult—differed but little. On the night
= tember 27, 1886, a larviform, luminous
tle was collected on one of the walks of the
ampus of the University of North Carolina.

nce—in the spri
My Possession, this must represent its pupa state.
Seen path when crawling, two and
Patten = s inches; width, three-eighths inch.
telve ed, larviform, luminous ; composed of
gently eetas (exclusive of the head), tapering
ánterio ind, and more decidedly on the three

< Segments, Chitinous plates on dorsum
th . lOWn, the second to eleventh inclusive

a pair of | ae
Plate light pile light-brown, oval spots

Wi Fic, 1.— hengo-
„Plackish-brown spots. Below each stig- 2 /a#collis, show-
i Pa the fourth to eleventh segments inclu- See
| two longitudinal folds, the anterior half of each fold
» Civ., 1887, p. 737.
+E. Dee Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1887, i. p. 205.
This den C k. k. geol. Reichs., 14, p. 350. 4 Ib,, 1886, p. 464-
-Y to ct is edited by Prof. J. H. Comstock, Cornell University, Ithaca, -
N Nat. x fommunications, books for notice, ete., should be

XX, 648. See also Ent. Am., iii, 203.

3 eee General Notes.

blackish-brown, shading into light brown in the middle, aii
becoming yellowish-white, with an olive tinge on the postera
half. Posterior edge of each dorsal plate dark olive-brown; ti
posterior angles of the pro-, meso-, and meta-thoracic plate aii
the anterior third of the pro-thoracic plate yellowish-white, tinged
with olive. On the fifth to ninth segments inclusive (ventral si-
face) are one pair each of small, elongated, black dots, correspo A
ing very nearly in position with the pairs of luminous organs%
the ventral surface. Anal proleg blackish-brown above, yellowish
white below. :
Besides the stigmata on the fourth to eleventh segments, there
is one on the ventral surface of each anterior corner of the mes
thoracic segment; also two pairs of small dorsal spiracles, 08
each between the fourth and fifth, and fifth and sixth segments
Thoracic legs brown, suffused with yellowish =

: omur with

posterior end of the upper longitudinal fold. The posterior *
of each segment, from the second to the twelfth inclusive © is

nts.

general appearance is that of a worm beautil
nated with E n lights, which are disposed 10 ge
tudinal row on each side, and in transverse bands. A baie
| The insect was placed in a small, elongated vial, 50 The
might easily observe and exhibit the display of light y
light was brilliant until 11 p.m. on the night of Septem) dá
4At 2 A.M. the 28th the phosphorescence had disappeared. bing
not appear again until the night of the 30th, when, by eP
i op insect, the lights began to glow, but continued only observe
_ Aours. For a few nights within the space of a week I that
that the insect glowed only when disturbed. After "i
Posphorescence reappeared, and I do not believe once

Entomology. 855

"tumed at night when I placed the jar in a cooler place in my
mom) coiled up until the 15th of April. At that time the lumi-
y was becoming more brilliant and the brown color was
disappearing, to be replaced by a uniform cream color.

| removed the earth from above the cell and took the insect
_'nmy hand. It immediately straightened and began crawling.
_ When placed in the jar it sought its cell and there remained.
A of returning the earth I placed a glass over it, so that I

ache I placed it, with another (collected by Professor
. This I

partly sunk in the earth in the open woods just
dusk, At nine A E J

o'clock the same evening I visited the place and

ance, as males were attracted by day. He was ata loss to.
A ‘count for its utility, Cee bi

er meeting with the males the females became less. -

nd the luminosity, though plainly visible, was less in

r thirty -five. The eggs are dull whitish in color,
a Tecor: 4 mm, in diameter. This, I believe, is the first instance
ited yr, o the ni

5 very m oe impossible. In general appearan

d by Professor Riley as Phengodes laticollis Horm.
58 ee teas

856 General Notes.

which I observed did not, however, resume the dark-browi
color, but remained of a uniform pale-cream color, lighter on
sides, under parts, and between the segments of the dorsum,

Occasionally during the adult state the one which I kept
through the winter showed signs of luminosity on the pr
thoracic segment, but mainly shone as represented in Fig. i
The other one exhibited no sign of luminosity on the pro-am
meso-thoracic segments. Otherwise it was like Fig. 1. Pre

tennæ plumose, and half, or more than half, as long as the body.

ZOOLOGY.

The Irish Marine Fauna.—The Proceedings of the Royal [rst l
Academy (vol. iv. of the second series) contains two prelim |
reports on the marine fauna of Ireland. One is by Pro 5
Haddon, and treats of the fauna of Dublin Bay. The g
the report of the Committee on the Marine Fauna, of So 4
western Ireland, and gives an account of their explorations, d
different groups being treated by specialists, in a manner an :
to that adopted by the Liverpool committee. There is zr fe
room for similar work on the American shores, but the P
centralization adopted by the United States Fish Commissio® a
a discouraging effect. 4

Von Lendenfeld on Sponges.—Dr. R. von Lendenfeld e

extensive paper on the “ Position and Classification . Reet |

oc and organs developed from the cel oa

Shiv fe cand mesoderm. No movable appends vid r

folo bi ut a single class, Spongiæ, which is g
—— Entomologist, vol. iii.; new series, vol. i.» 1880, P: we :

?

1887]. Zoology. 857

L Sub-Class Calcarea.

1, Order Calcispongiæ. :

i, Sub-Order Homoccela, with the families Asconide, Ho-
modermidz, and Leucopside. i

ii, Sub-Order Heteroccela, with the families Syconide,

= Sylleibidze, Leuconidz, and Teichonidz.

_ IL Sub-Class Silicea,

= L Order Hexactinellida. :

= L Sub-Order Lyssacina, with the families Euplectellide,
Asconematidz, Rossellidæ, and Hyalonematide.

ii, Sub-Order Dictyonina, with the families Farreidz, Eure-
tide, Melittionide, Coscinoporida, Tretodictyide, and

d

ie

eandrospongide.

2. Order Chondrospongiz. i
1, Sub-Order Tetraxonia, with the families Rhizomorinide,
X Anomocladinæ, Tetracladinidæ, Corticidæ, Pachystrel-

lidæ, Plakinidæ, Oscarellidæ, Geodidæ, Stellettidæ, The-
_ heide, Tetillidz, and Tethyopsyllide.
li, Sub-Order Monaxonida, with the families Tethyde,
Sollasellider, Spirastrellidze, Suberamatidæ, and Suberi-
idee,

iii. Sub-Order Oligosilicina, with the families Chondrillide
and Chondrosidz.

acuspongie, a

>ab-rder Halichondrina, containing the families Spon-
Sillide, Homorhaphidz, Heterorhaphide, Desmacidon-

.. dz, and Axinellidze,

ub-Order Keratosa, with the families Spongide,

Aplysinidar, Hircinide, Spongelide, Aplysillide, and
Halisarcidæ,

: The article concludes with a nearly ex-

n l0graphy of the literature of recent sponges, no less
test eet hundred and fifty-four titles being enumerated.
bibliography Previous to this (that of D’Arcy Thompson,
Contained five hundred and fifty-one titles. In this con-
lendeng, Student Should consult the errata given by Von

x ld in the Zool, Anzeiger, No. 254.

T O
seven Presen
È Fall pit Specimens of Unto aberti Conrad, just then collected $

E in that State. -One of these specimens proved to ~

you i i the ctenidia of which were surcharged with develop- n

ipe; It was particularly interesting, however, because of oe
but co of the branchial uteri, which has been hitherto

~ Once in any species of Unio. ; ae

the Ctenidium of Unio aberti Conrad.—In January
t year a gentleman resident in Kansas sent me

858 General Notes.

Dr. Lea, in a paper read before the American Philosophical
Society in early November, 1827, described both the shell and
soft parts of Unio irroratus, a species then first made known 1

his paper was published, with figures, in vol. iii., Transactions
American Philosophical Society, Plate W,
1827. The general physiological char
acter of the ctenidium, as thus peculiary —

interpreted and to have been regard
as an appendage of the branchiæ, and
hence as being morphologically distinct |
He thus writes, pages 270-27 1, loc, h.: ,
> “In those I observed an appendage, m i
mouth; 4, great anterior mus. form of a depressed cone, attached to :
cle; c, superior right branchie; the branchiz on either side, and a vey |

posterior muscle; ein- slight examination fully per ;

3 Serine right branchize ; right f
oviduct; g, foot.” Ang these were the oviducts. . . -

Spermaries—is well known. The terms oviduct, as used by pa 4

> Lea, and Ovaries, as commonly applied to the surcharged 1
vr therefore, not only incorrect but misleading.

Hitherto the peculiar feature noticed in Unto irroratus

y other species in the genus,

. pe

are recurved and thrown outwards. This recurving give
hither the appearance which Mr. Lea described 4

tremity. Their w
ruptured, are furt

Zoology. 859

branchial cloaca and pass thence, being fertilized 2 transitu-and
lomic fluids, into the outer cloaca, whence

eS. suc Fic. 2.—Explanation: Oe, cesophagus. The tri-
angular labial palps have been removed. ad, anterior
adductor muscle, in transverse section. > foot. <3,

portion of medial chambe

=

2:

a)

im

©

a .
SS,
oo

oO

5

re

p

2

.

l with the
' as is found

» and U. penicillatus—is gelatinous in nature
us, and lasts, at least in the Coosa and Cahawba

Sg the Verdigris River, Arkansas.
2d ceri. “Ppeared in the Four. Phil. Acad. Natu-
Te Series, vol. ii, PL XXIV, Fig. 1 (185 1). Two _

860 General Notes, — [Sept

nio aberti, Conrad q
(1850). Unio lamarckianus, Lea (1852). Unio popenot, Call (1885). 3
—R. Ellsworth Call. ee

Chinese liver-fluke. One snail examined by her was the hosto! |
at least ten thousand young Distome, while another individual d
had the liver almost wholly replaced by a Redia of the samè
parasite. | a
r. A, G. Bourne gives (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1886 [1887)) y

a preliminary account of some Indian earth-worms belonging ®
the families Perichætidæ and Moniligastridæ. Eight belong t
Se genus Perichæta, one to Perionyx, and seven to Moniligas®’
The species of Perionyx (P. saltans) has the power of leaping -
into the air when touched. Bourne says that the huge emi
worm mentioned by Darwin as occurring on the Nig
turns out to be a species of Moniligaster described by Pert" —
M. deshayesii, .
The first part of the fourth volume of Bronn’s “ Klassen e
Ordnungen der Thierreichs” has appeared. The volume re

Crustacea —Bernhard Rawitz has a paper (Ar ch. f article

is tł b e most important poin juted

— gland consists, in reality, of ‘ib (not one) conv opet

5 E WO PA a short distance behind the exte
duct.

i,
ie

Zoology. | 861

sHES—Miss Rosa Smith has described a new species of
m-fish (Tetraodon setosus) in the Bulletin of the California
Academy (vol. ii.). It is based on a dried skin brought from

.

Structure which appears to correspond to the mammalian epi-
‘glottis, and which, in some species, becomes well developed as _
a organ of voice.

: Reptitta—Prof. O. P. Hay gives (Hour. Cincinnati Nat. Hist.
Sw, X. pt. 2) a preliminary catalogue of the Batrachia and
Reptilia of Indiana. Seventy-seven species are enumerated.

Biros. —W. E. Bryant publishes, in the Bulletin of the Cali-
fornia Academy of Sciences, some additions to the ornithology
of Guadeloupe Island. There were previously known but eight
ds from this locality, but Mr. Bryant catalogues thirty-five
Species and sub-species. s
The ostrich in the Cincinnati Zoological Gardens is dead.
$ Charles Dury, in an account of the death, states that the
l a: roke its leg in an attempt to lay an abnormal egg. The
_ unary ostrich-egg measures about five by six and one-quarter
«es, but this one consisted, of a normal egg as a centre, and
“ound this there were about. twenty leathery layers, the whole
Measuring about thirteen by eighteen inches.

ap Ats —Dr . Ch. Lütken, of Copenhagen, states that prob- —

a. the habitat of the rare Chiropodomys penicillatus is Java,

‘Bintenzyr Nhagen Museum having received one in spirit from

that the "8. He also says, on the authority of Dr. H. Winge,

same |, ‘City museum of Genoa has several specimens from the
‘ocality

IPE a dard publishes an account of the visceral anatomy

ain of the Sondaic rhinoceros in vol. xii. of the Trans-

ome of eefPoid apes, It is illustrated with thirteen plates, —
oe ored, Oe
E Preliminary notice of a paper by Oldfield Thomas, on the aS
pears in hye Succession of the Teeth in the Dasyuride, so
author > 294 Of the Proceedings of the Royal Society. me

which all mammals except the Edentates readily Eo

#

Presents an outline of a scheme of homology of the

862 General Notes.

EMBRYOLOGY.: E

The Development of an Eight-limbed Vertebrate.—It is no j
some months since I communicated my suspicions to seve
friends that the so-called fan-tailed race of gold-fishes (Caras

the Japanese. Se

The author shows that the embryos developed a series of
double ventral limb-folds extending from beneath the yelk-sac s
far back as the end of the notochord and future urostyle. .

tem of folds are entirely hypaxial, including even those
lead to the development of a,double caudal, as in all Teleosts
racing these very remarkable changes, Mr |

: y of the same morphological value, and that ae
and ventrals are to be considered as limbs, the cauda! ae pe

ee 1! Edited OHN A. Ryp 3 $ i University
Sylvania, Phan E Ece Ph.D., Molegical Department,

Embryology. l 863

st likewise, in this instance, be so considered. This type is
only vertebrate yet examined which possesses eight distinct
endages which may be legitimately considered as represent-
four pairs of limbs.

tis a singular ciréumstance that the ventral fin-folds in the
: embryos described by Mr. Watase are not double in the region

tbe anus. In every other respect these remarkable forms
mish confirmation of Dohrn’s view as to the nature of the
Median ventral fin-fold of fishes.
Mr. Watase describes four principal types or modifications of
_ le development of the paired fins of these interesting fishes.
Upon the whole, his memoir is one of the most interesting in its
mags upon morphology of the limbs of fishes which has ap-
, Peared for many years.— Fohn A. Ryder.

en Inversion of the Germinal Layers in Hesperomys.—
mng the past summer the writer has succeeded in obtaining

Ome
OO

SERN

Or
DUD:
Sa

ZOONS

“on, ¢, enters directly into. the formation T 4. -a
embryo, a is seen the amniotic part | gee Rp a! FS :
Cavity enclosed by the epiblast, and at f f ay Eis iar
cavity, which at a later period is yes al Bye
the cavity of the amnion. The ERST ‘
the blastosphere at one end by essere Sauk

l a ‘sphere so as to obliterate the cavity of the yelk-sac, as
the other genera named, T y

864

General Notes.

¢, which leads down towards the embryo from the middle of thè

Man, the m ;
mucous lining, the n ing a Slowa ©
èl A e muscular wall undergoing ; di mls
1 h

ra , ag number of this journal is not yet we diite!
ated at this stapa Fj A. Ryder.

Anthropology. 865

ANTHROPOLOGY.

The Discovery of an Ancient Tomb near the. Holy Sep-
‘Wehre, J em.—Early in October, 1886, excavations made
on Christian Street, Jerusalem, resulted in the discovery of a
, evidently of great antiquity, far below the pavement.
tian Street is a narrow street running northerly and south-
to the eastward of Hezekiah’s Pool, and west of the Church
the Holy Sepulchre, connecting, at its northerly extremity,
ithe Vid Dolorosa, which last is the traditional route trav- _
tsed by Christ on his way to be crucified. The tomb is situ-
«d towards the east side of the street, and is exactly seventy-
3 feet due west from the Holy Sepulchre. It is two and
one-half feet in height, and is of rude construction, the sides
ng formed of large stone slabs uncemented, while it is covered

~%

similar slabs on top.

z nal surface of the hill-side, an unusual depth,
gen be taken as implying great antiquity. :

Much-decaye, tomb were found two interments, one being the
The a Yed bones of a man, buried with the head to the west.

ith ¢ vith flat bottom, and contracts into a long, taper

Sats

: are attacked by alcohol

866 Geheval Notes.

| te q
in collections in Jerusalem, which have been assigned to a
nician origin, and to others brought from Cyprus; also tot t
more ancient of the Cypriote pottery which I had seen ia t
British Museum and the Louvre, as well as in the celebr i
Di Cesnola collection in the American Museum, New Y $

The cinerary urn, only the fragments of which have been s i
by me, is of the same description of earthenware as the tet
bottles or vases, but is of a redder color. It is remarkably g
and fragile in proportion to its size, being about one-eighth d
an inch thick. ;

All who have seen the tomb here described, and who are €
experience in such antiquities, unhesitatingly assign it to d
Canaanitish or Jebusite period. There can be no doubt as 08
great age.. i

It is insisted on by many that this discovery largely iw
the belief that the true sites of Calvary and the tomb €
Christ are not those generally accepted, but are identical

a

place. ie
Though this may not be considered as conclusive, ti
here given may be regarded not only as interesting and

shall have more to say anon, having accumulated ee
much curious and determinative material, but with whic

i of unquestionable and significant character. —Henry

when the ; Vood or wax tablets are ari r ce
«a: parts of the preparation require to be a
pinning; but these tablets are objectionable, inasmuch ,
ol.

* Edited by C, O. WHITMAN, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Microscopy. 867
Dewitz* recommends felt tablets prepared in the following
Pour the white of eggs, after separation from the yelks,
w plates, covering the bottom of each with a shin
in a warm place for a few days, until the white
ts quite thick. If it is not to be used at once, let it dry
tely, and then dissolve in cold water whenever needed.
Take a piece of fine, white wool-felt, of any desired size, and
ttely saturate it, by pressing and kneading, with the thick-
{or dissolved) preparation of white.
$ Take two plates of thick window-glass, a little larger than
t; warm them over a spirit-lamp, and smear o ide o
‘with white wax, rubbing the surface well with the finger —
to make the coat of wax thin and even. When the wax
® {001 place the piece of albuminized felt between the glass
Hes, in contact with the waxed sides; and then bind them

quarter of an hour. After cutting the string the glass
are easily removed, leaving the felt tablet ready for cutting
i The and shape required.

tablets thus prepared should be kept in ninety-five per

white. It is necessary, however, to select for `

potan that do not lose their color in alcohol.
n fo os used for black, ochre for yellow, cinnabar and

ae white n

e eich tablets present a better appearance if they are

| | Of procedure may be varied so as to
— Str oe No. 256, p 392, 1887. :
wax, a thin layer of c ion may be used.

z vi

so General Notes.

give the white a leathery consistency. After the piece of
has been thoroughly saturated with colored white and sprin
freely with the coloring-powder, as before described, it is spread
out on a clean glass plate and pressed down so as to leave m
‘ air-bubbles between it and the glass. It is then left to dya
ordinary room temperature. When completely dry it is removed
from the glass and covered with a thin collodion solution. AS
soon as the collodion coat is dry the tablet is thrown into bor
ing water and kept below the surface by weighting for fifteen
minutes. Black tablets colored with lampblack should always
be made in this way, as they generally appear flecked whet
made by the first method. y

The Reduction of Chromic Solutions in Animal Tiss
corrected by Reoxidation with H,O,.—It is well known

ing manner: “If a solution of chromic acid
potassium be mixed with a solution of H,O,, a deep gre?

“Tf the sections, at the moment when the bront
color appears, are removed from the solution and,
washed, the color of the chromic chromate, which 15
portant for many histological details, remains fixed.

=

i * Archiv f. mik, Anat., xxx., H. 1, p. 47, 1887; Of Monatsheft f. prakt.
i. p. 31. ae

Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 869

SCIENTIFIC NEWS,

o
; neither science nor the community could afford the sac-

ee acs OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Thirty-Sixth Meeting of the American Association
Advancement of Science was held at Columbia Col- —
he York, commencing Wednesday, August 10, and
eon Tuesday, August 16, 1887.

The officers for the meeting were:

Langley, of Washington. VICE-PRESIDENTS. —A. Mathe-

Arbor, 5 z
cology and Geography—G. K. Gilbert, of Waaa. F. plaer- W.
pm mbridge, Mass. H. a p AE G. Brinton, of í Media,
Economie Scien

enry E. Alvord ER!
ETAR: RY.—F. W, Putn ener C aeae “{ollice Soa a s.). ” GENERAL
or aye H. Pettee, of Auk Arbor, Mich. ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRE-
s.

i and hic TREASURER.
Lilly, of Ea, —W. R. Mabon of Eotumbas, Ohio.

The following Papers were read Thursday, August II:

the constitu SECTION C—CHEMISTRY. , pe
) i ; n
1 oh the fatty tweets wild cherry sree Frederick B. Power and Henry

: f the drying oils; L. M. Norton. The chemical compo-
centage o of so sorghum —_ in relation to the production of sugar; HW
of ash in hum nes of different ages; Willi - Mason. On

in nature of a ipa anti Aaen ; T. H. Norton. A new ap
illation; T. H, Nort rton. Certain alloys w calcium and zinc;

in stan iam HAE
- Green, separation of alkaloidal poisons, for students’ ases i
Mount Holy yo? Progress; and cure of recent great outburst of i
' G = iy vata Jersey; Albert N. Leeds. Some igher

; itis E—GEoLocY sii GEOGRAPHY. gee
inaina apes of Devonian in North America; H. S, Williams. Bie
var | Orton, 3S a source of petroleum and inflammable gas in Ohio and Indi- .
Section of well at Morrisville, N. Y.; Charles S. =

k

870 -~ Proceedings of Scientific Societies.

The Upper Hamilton gro up of Chenango and Otsego Counties, N. Y.; Charles
Prosser. A geological section at Great Barrington, Mass.; Alexis A. Julien, e
ronwa

=
=
©
[$]
=]
A
Fa
z
o]
+5
N
=
m
©
oO
3
Ta
D
oO
co
w
ty
>
E
©
5
v
5
p
Q
Q
oO
TR
O
B
©
=)
EA
S
_—

'N. L. ets On the age of the limestones of Westchester County,
eric trill. Notes on the eruptive ri of the Archaia in the New Y. Yot

a
—

and New tus Highlands; J. F. K Geological section of Southwestern
Joseph F. James. Notes on the ras grit in Easter: io; H. P, Cushing
unknown geology of Illinois; T. B. Comstock. Notes on the Texas section

American Cretaceous ; Robert TOANE
SECTION F—BIOLOGY.
(No Zoological Papers were presented at the ae si
and no Botanical Papers at the afternoon sessi
< Notes on the Flora of the Munitor J Monnt tains; N. L. B The
Cinchonas of Bolivia; H. H. Rusby. AEEuG irp of the Umbelifer iit
M. Coulter. On he structure of the frond in aa mpia parvula Harv
Bigelow. Apical growth in Fucus; W. G. Farlow. pai of the hairs in Si
perfoliatum, and Li rane Baisi | in relation to insects; Beal and C.
John. Chatacte ers of the injuries produced by pees pen apon their heart p! Ask
A. B. Seymour. Notes on Catalpa leaf spot dis Effie uthworth.
lum on Funiperus virginiana; W. G. Farlow. ‘On the mene -s their le
nous larviform females; C. V. Riley. On th he morphology o of the legs o e
terous insects; A. J. Cook. The SAPER origin of the oe! oak
Carnivora; E. D. Cope.
SECTION H—ANTHROPOLOGY.
Aboriginal New York villages; W. M. Beauchamp. Recent arch
Aa aaa in the Champlain Va alley; ie H. Perkins. w of a small an
~ he See ley n the Baham a Islan oes Wesley ga n the
‘ ; Charles aisy

t
County, Ohio, s preservation by the Peabody Museu i wills De
System of paia snk for American Prehistoric Re glee

Evening —General Reception to the members of the #8
tion and their families by the Ladies’ pam eo at nine
in the Metropolitan Opera House.

_ Friday, August 12,

SECTION C—CHEMIS

Report of committee on uniform sad ee of stating ' the re
of oe: a Pisiy and Ega waters.

toluene-sulphonic acid;
one; T. ‘

the chemistry ¢ of germination Wa McMurtrie. Note on absorption
nutriment by the roots of plants; Wm. McMurtrie. The processes of

Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 871

m the Northwestern basalts ; E. W. Hilgard. Indirect determination of calcium ;
Fosse Herrick. On the delicacy of the sense of taste; E. H. S. Bailey and

SECTION E—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

E was devoted to a consideration and discussion
| ogists, n American Committee of the International

approving its work was =
oN F—BIOLOG

SECT
SEE N Reseda abe snake; T. ma Bomarka on eie
ilder. On se velop ology of the skull and the ta at com Ich-

a SECTION H—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Timas Wika en condition of Pre-historic Archzeology in Western Europe ;
_ Ble votive tse Relics of an Indian -hunting-ground; A. Wanner. On a gigantic

` rom Oaxaca, Mexico; George F. Kunz, Ona remarkable c

4 “ny to yi excursion around the harbor of New York. The

place “paige left South Ferry, and returned to same
r:

: lense e = The aion met at eight o'clock. Reception of the

it the Lib of the Association by the Torrey Botanical Club,

ry Hall of Columbia College. The herbarium was

of the bw Soa and a collation was served in the basement

t 13, an excursion up the Hudson River, to
ae A.M., by the steamer “ New York” of
# Io Vek, ay Line.” An excursion to Long Branch started

and AM., upon one of "= Iron Steamboat Company’s
M returned at 8.30 P.
onday, August 15.

ae i Section C—CHEMISTRY.
we Of “bonds” in structural formulas; Spencer B . Newbe Posi-
Sative yan ek valence; Albert B. Prescott. On chemical changes a-

in living organisms as illustrated by the oyster ; W. O. Atwater.
ormation from the Northwestern basalts; E. W. miaii A
aibi áluminium chloride; C. F. Mabery.
A amines upon certain i Sae a i; C. F.

59

872 | Proceedings of Scientific Societies.

Helen C. De S. Abbott. The scientific basis of the feeding sidan i
Leeds. Report of Committee on Indexing Chemical Literature,
ECTION E—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
Section of the gre Silurian (Ordovician) and Cambrian
York, as shown b by a deep well near Utica; W:
Q

C. Branner. Genesis of the Hawaiian Islands; C. H. Hitch
of two caverns near Manitou, Colorado, with maps; Tovey, Pi
of the interior of a coal mine; Fred. P, ‘Dew wey. On the monticuliporoid
the Cincinnati group, with a critical revision of the species; ; Jos. F. James
James. Discovery of fossils in the lower Taconic of Emmons; Chas. D, Wa T
ECTION F—BIoLOGY. oe

The Sea Cinchonas of te he H. H. Rusby. f
virginiana; W. G. Farlow. A comparison of the Elena Sya
thentic American species; R, P. Whitfield. The Buffalo-gnat .
Mississippi Valley; C. V. Riley. Origin of American Carnivora; W.
point in dermal phys siology ; with demonstration of a new

Jastrow. The relation of the commissures of the brain to LED.
encephalic vesicles; H. F, Osborn. l ct Vertebrata; © On
liminary paper on ee. of Alosa sapidissima ; Fanny R. Bae

homologies of Eaesuss F R. Hitchcock, On the early hi

Prosobranch Gastro Hey L Osborn.
N H—ANTHROPOLOGY.

pare
e true basis of slisir Toii Hale. nsory types of
ilary Jos. Jastrow. Music and poetry of the Eskimos;
Palzoli

; F.W
Aboriginal remains in America; Alice č Fletcher.
A —A botanical excursion to Sandy Hook ¢ >
botanists of the Association an opportunity to e

Aeindetity. a sly
The Electric Club of New York City gener?

Proceedings of Scientific Societies, 873

1887]
: privileges of their club-house for two weeks to the members of
i d D.

For Wednesday, an invitation was- extended by the Right
_ Rev. Bishop Potter, to those members who desired to visit the
_ Public Institutions on Blackwell’s Island.

__ A geological party, under the direction of Mr. George Kunz,

_ bergen Ridge. On their return, the party were entertained by
_ ‘Mir. and Mrs, Kunz at their house in Hoboken.
Lieutenant E. L, Zalinski, Fifth. U. S. Artillery, invited those
_ Members who are interested in Mechanics and Physics to witness
the firing of the “ pneumatic” (dynamite) gun, at Fort. Lafayette,
on Wednesday afternoon.
he Excursion Committee was authorized by Mr. Henry Mo-
nett, Gen. Pass. Agt., to extend in behalf of the New York Cen-
_ fal & Hudson River Railroad Co.,an invitation to those attend-
_ ing the Association to visit Saratoga at a nominal rate.
Tuesday, August 16.

Ds SECTION E—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

3 plants andy ea in the lower Taconic of Emmons; a en bebica i a

E- ẹ fis P t ey o

g Connecticut ; 1 ae of the triassic rocks ooh Jersey and the igen Ls.
~-Woerry, The

y ociate! *E ee
Serpentines of S. E. Pennsylvania; Fred’k D. Chester. Exhibition
So aphical microscope of American manufacture; George H. Wil-
Tocks of the a amples of the dynamic metamorphism of the ancient eruptive
System - re som shore of Lake Superior; George H. Williams.. The “ Huronian
md Geo, p Kutt Winchell. Is there a diamond field in Kentucky? J. S. oe

$ . N. C.; Geo. F. Kunz... On the agatized and jas-
“¢ wood from Chalcedony Park, Arizona, with exhibition of magnificent spéci-
unz. The relation of the pole of the land hemisphere to pene
magnetic system, and to seismic force; Richard ioio epee ox

wax; R.
reat Barrington, Mass.; Alexis A. Julien. The four great
" i < W. CI le. The Trenton limestone as a source
eolgan 4 inflammable gas in Ohio and Indiana; Edward Orton. The un-
0 ie of Ilinois; Theo. B. Comstock. Notes on the extinct thermal
Sas; Theo. B. Comstock. a

e SECM
of the vegetative organs of Brasenia

ja peltata Pursh; J. Schrenk. =
Amboy clays; J. S. Newberry. Honey plant oil; F. S. Pease.
S

meşğquito; G. Macloskie. On cataloguing microscopical in
the origin, development, and prevalency of the so-called gine

ey pE pe e
| 5. Pease. The flora of the Potomac ee ee So
Crozier, Some notes on American roses; Sereno Watson. m 5 | :

$74 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [Sept. I ;

SECTION H—ANTHROPOLOGY.
e Santhals of Northeastern Bengal; S. Kashag, Anth

$ : The N
neighbors; Franz Boas, Bae of a pre-Indian oaspeti of) New et
inal

S. Kellogg. The relation of arenmotogica? remains to river terrac
Preliminary studies of Platycnemic a F: a Baker. The art iale a
humor, and satire; Melville D. Land

PROCEEDINGS OF THE onka Sessron—Mr. J. A. Bras
of Allegheny, Pa., brought the following voluntary contributions

om friends in Pittsburg, Pa. :

William Thaw One hundred dollars.
C. G. Hussey One hundred dollars.
George Westinghouse, J Jr ese Fifty dollars,
Henry Phipps, Jr Fifty dollars,

The following resolutions were adopted by the Association:
PRALA Menorializing Congress to

ion, E g
nC) 4 Memorazing the Executive to appoint at an early day an efficient chief of
e Um ast Sur
(3 Appointing a committee to obtain from Congress a reduction on the tariff a
scientific books an a
wrt) Morea = for the establishment of a bureau of standard

ogy ument
(6) Approving = endorsing the project for erecting a mon sh
remains of J. J. Audubon in nae York Ci

(7) ipa regret that an invitation to meet in Toronto next year was
too late for acceptance,

The following committees were spona
ry aid for scientific rese:

On awards of pecunia
ts 2 ve = transmit to the Esdcative the failais per to the United -
` (3) A permanent committee on transportation for the Association.
PROS: following officers. were elected to serve at the

ng

President, J. W. Powell, of Washington. Vice-Presidents YY a
Mathematics but gd Astronomy, Professor Orm a y R of the University hee E

Physi rA. A. Michelson of Cleveland, Ohio; Chemistry, proleti
Monroe, of the United States Navy’ rt, R. I; Mechanical Science, i
a i | “of the Washin , St. Louisi, Geology ar G
af Cee - H. Cook, New Brunswick se ogy» N
€Y, Washington; Anthropology, Professor Charles C. Abbott Te
Science and Statistics, Profess iley, Washington fessor. Ja
Mees,

Se cretary, Professor F W. Patnaik Ca sor C. W. T
Arth Lafayett i , Cambridge. General Secretar},
reai e, Ind. Secretary of the Caisil, Pro fessor C. Leo 4 in Orit
Tr clin William am Lilly, Mauch Chunk. Secretaries of Sections os Hopi
ee L

; Pro h
i sity; Professor Arthur Beardsl Swarthmore Col “ation s
aby aake Columbia College; Professor Frank i Bower, Smithsonian -
ington,

The place for the next meeting was settled to be at x
ig the date will be the fourth Wedatsday in August, | a

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST. _

OL. XXI. OCTOBER, 1887. No. 10.

_ THE STUDY OF A SMALL AND ISOLATED COM-
4 MUNITY IN THE BAHAMA ISLANDS.

BY T. WESLEY MILLS, M.A., M.D." boas

INCE the Bahama group of islands lies between 21° and 27°
north latitude, it will appear that they are chiefly sub-trop-
, but for the purposes of this paper they may be considered
Practically tropical. The writer’s experience was gathered

Bahamas consist of several small islands without much vegeta-

i. » Some thousands of rocks, and a few larger islands, the

Most important of which is Abaco. The majority of the keys,

- the smaller islands are called, are uninhabited. Green Turtle
“Y, on which our party took up residence, is within about P>
Ñ of Abaco, which latter is known locally as “ The Man ie
een Turtle Key, about a mile in length by a quarter of a mile
oo breadth, is the residence of some six hundred people, a
iy gathered together on the widest end of the island, and 3.

ry formed a picturesque little village, with its streets on sha a

hite limestone, its alleys, its garden-plots, its shops, ma
”, and its churches. ee
“ Bahamas as a whole have a common origin, as coral — ee
“Ons, and all the phases of the growth and changes of oo : %
reefs and islands may be studied here. But this has ye.
an he of Fipiology in kona University, "e : pa eon oe

-

3

+%

_ in 1788, destroyed by the red bug. In 1834 slavery we

876 | An Isolated Community in the Bahama Islands. ;
already been done by others, and the writer purposes in thi
paper to attempt what he believes is a new task,—a description
of the life of a small and almost wholly isolated community o
Anglo-Saxons and Negroes in a tropical or sub-tropical region,
from the point of view of biology, psychology, and physiology
(or medicine); for it seems to him that the conditions are het
furnished for the solution, in great part, of certain highly inter
esting problems. The briefest possible glance at the history of the
Bahamas will make the general treatment of the subject clearet

Columbus, who visited St. Salvador (either Cat or Watling
Island), thus wrote to Ferdinand and Isabella of the natives:

“This country excels all others as far as the day surpass
the night in splendor; the natives love their neighbors as thea
selves ; their conversation is the sweetest imaginable; their faces

This simplicity made them a prey to the perfidious Spaniard
and forty thousand of them are said to have been transported !
1509 to the mines of Hispania. a

The English visited the Bahamas in 1629, and soon took poss* Ẹ
sion, on the plea of ridding them of the pirates with which ng
were infested. In 1718 the first crown governor was appoint
and soon after the pineapple was introduced into New Provides

During the American war of independence many colon
took up residence in the Bahamas, bringing their slaves

them; and cotton was largely cultivated, till the entire crop

a

ished by purchase. ;
In 1865 blockade-running was common. Wrecking had
prevalent, but gradually declined, though it has left 4"

negroes, for “ Swamp fever” (malaria) in a severe form $
mon; Green Turtle Key is, however, free from any P p
form of disease, as the island is, throughout, high en? asic
escape stagnant water. The population on this key, OO
Whites, mostly of English descent, many of them reta bt
characteristic accent of their forefathers, and of Black ,

t

An Isolated Community in the Bahama Islands. = 877 `

scendants of the slaves of former times, in about equal pro-
portions. The two races co-operate in perfect harmony for the
general good; the Black accepting an- inferior status in society
without a murmur. The best part of the town and the more
eligible dwellings are occupied by the Whites, it need hardly
said; but all mingle together in the ‘school and the church.
‘The principal sources of income are pineapple-culture and the —
sponge-fishery. The government introduced the pineapple and

d the land at a price so low that all could purchase “ plan-
tations ;” so that most of the natives, whether black or white,
either have, or had originally, plantations of larger or smaller
hie. I have been informed by a gentleman engaged in.the
fruit trade that about fifteen or twenty vessels are loaded, during
Summer months, with the pineapple; the average value

4 cargo being about two thousand five hundred dollars.
This would make a total of, say, forty thousand dollars, to be

are to be deducted; and the natives complain loudly of the low
e given for the fruit, Reckoning that an equal amount is
from “sponging,” the total income would still be very.

_» 18 the hog, of a very poor breed and in still poorer con
k Sg Meat is practically unknown, while canned ma w i
fee. obtain, except as a rare luxury. Fish may be g o
dance in the open ocean a mile or two away; but this os
7 the possession of a boat—which all have not got—and
“Xpenditure of a little energy, which requires more than an

w

+!
»

meal seems to be largely used also, though corn is not grown.

were to be chopped up and stewed with onions, etc. By ®

and black, have
Windows, owing,

878 An Isolated Community in the Bahama Islands,

ordinary stimulus, as one learns, in a tropical climate. Stoves
are almost unknown; and it was with the greatest difficulty that
we could secure one at an exorbitant figure. Cooking is per
formed in the most primitive fashion, mostly out of doors. But
few fowls are kept, and fresh milk is, of course, unknown; $%
that milk, eggs, and meat must be practically excluded from
the dietary. Nor is fruit partaken of so abundantly as might”

be supposed; it is reserved to sell to the sailors who visit the”
island during the summer months. The pilot who came aboard

to take our vessel over the reef had with him an unsightly lump
mass of crushed sweet-potatoes baked into a sort of cake. Indian

As in other ill-fed communities, meals are very irregular.
We learned on one occasion that our diver, who had been k
work up till 11 a.m., had not yet partaken of any breakfast, such
fasting being, he said, a frequent occurrence. On another oc
Sion, when bringing up some corals for us, he seized the opp?" 1
tunity of placing half a dozen big molluscs (Strombus ggo)
in the bow of the boat, —“ for my breakfast to-morrow.”

side of many a house might be seen piles of the shells of Oe
molluscs, left to be burned for lime, furnishing that of the ve
whitest and best, as might be expected. Enough will have
Said to show that, from a physiological stand-point, this com
munity is in a state of partial starvation. T
Though it may surprise many to learn of it, a similar OF

huddli the houses few and small; bedding insufficient

MPR ag consequence. Moreover, the natives, |
a peculiar custom of closing up the
I fancy, to dread of the violent sto

‘Most impure air. One might expect that, with such an equable
temperature and generally favorable climate, consumption would
unknown ; but I found this was by no means the case, though
is much more common among the Blacks. This is to be ex-
plained by the racial tendency of Negroes towards phthisis; and
by the fact that their condition of partial starvation is exagger-
ated by the unhygienic surroundings of their lives, particularly
impure air they breathe for half the time. s
‘ facts are especially instructive, and strongly impress a
medical observer, The natives themselves trace consumption to

epee. of the Negroes is really traceable to an inborn savagery

that neither church nor school nor public opinion—which latter

nd very weak, however, in its condemnation—has yet been

to control. It is scarcely necessary to remark that such a

ud things is not confined to this community; and I only

“as an explanation of the existence of phthisis as given

the people themselves. 2

eti gratifying to add that filthiness is not associated with

rest that hygiene must condemn. The houses of the Whites

Mostly whitewashed or painted white, and personal cleanli-

one all’ classes of the people is so open to observation

Pay Most decided impression left on the visitor is that © ~

ten fot in this instance associated with poverty. Her.
us inhabitants of this island be considered grossly ignorant |

a fairly good school on the island, at which both the a
: the white children assemble ; and a noticeable absence a i
or supercilious distinctions prevails. There are two —
l ifferent denominations, sustained partially by mS- ——
‘Mort. Their services, both on Sundays and week-days, — oe
attended by the people of both races, and drunkenness ” =

ity may be said-to be almost unknown among them.

$a

880 An Isolated Community in the Bahama Islands. (i

There appears to be little social life among the people, each
family living very much apart, and the church being the one |
common meeting-place. A lack of knowledge of and interest
in the affairs of the outer world was evidenced continually. A
few of the boys growing up would like to go off “to see Amer
ica,” that unknown land from which come the ships,—their chief
source of interest and profit; but the mass of the people seems
never to dream of emigration anymore than if they were rooted
-in the rocky soil,—a condition very puzzling to the visitor at
first, but plain enough on later study. The announcement that
a “ Yankee” (vessel) is visible on the horizon never fails to rouse
the entire community. The reason is complex. First of all,
the old wrecking spirit only slumbers, and is not dead. ~The
community is ever ready for “ something to turn up;” if a wrea
well; if a vessel to take a cargo of pineapples, still well; for
will not the sailors want some fruit, which the poorer residents
have to sell, if not to eat,—and some shells or corals? And,
what child has not some of these? Possibly some service tobe
paid for at an extravagant rate; not to mention that if the ships
come not the inhabitants find their occupation gone. Ever
thing depends on the ripening of the pineapple, which is practi-
cally certain; and the exportation of it at a fair figure, which 8
by no means certain; and as the prices given by the shippes
for this fruit annually tend to lessen, the people are becoming

a will be clearer after an examination of the climatic
itions under which they live. I had not myself been

7] „An Isolated Community in the Bahama Islands. ~ 881

in this region before certain experiences of my own and
of others of our party drew my attention to the influence of cli-
mate; and I endeavored, then and since, to study the subject
closely, and to get its bearings, not only on the physical but on
the psychical life of human beings.

The very fact that coral animals flourish only in waters com-
paratively shallow, and with a temperature not falling below
about 66°-68° F., suffices to demonstrate in itself how high

It was amusing to notice the astonishment of some of the
ildren on seeing ice, which we had brought. One of the
boys, on having a small piece placed in his hand, dropped it
lstantly, saying that “it burned;” while nothing could induce
him to put any into his mouth. The following tabular state-
_ Ment of the temperatures for the month of June, as taken. by
Myself, from the oth to the 18th, at the hours indicated, will
Prove instructive : es
At 7a. 79°, 80°, 80°, 81°; 75°; 80°, 80°, “SI wee 80°.
At I PM. 83°, 83%, 84° en Sg TE 84°, Eig Se" 85°.
At 7 PM. $0" 81° a Lok see eae 80.5°, 81°, g7° n y
At 10 p.m. IFS yo er ee SY°: 82°.

It will be noticed that the minimum was 79°, the maximum
i that the variations at a certain hour for each day were very

a8, one substantially without change of seasons, and
o © umformly constant high temperature. This condition in
7 environment has probably more to do with explaining the 7
as one finds them in this community than any other; and
self egg these, and the effect of the same conditions on hin
that, in others of the party, the writer is prepared to believe :

Anglo-Saxon in a tropical climate. This conclusion may- ee

© Spite of racial superiority, the highest results, as ee oe
“in the character and achievements, cannot be attained by

882 An Isolated Community in the Bahama Islands, |

not be in itself entirely novel; but the writer hopes to call
tion to it in a new way, and, possibly, to place it on a founda
somewhat more scientific than that on which it has hitherto rested
A broad fact that strikes a student of the condition of thi

‘on Green Turtle Key is that the Blacks deviate much less in
condition and character from what they are elsewhere than the
Whites. Excepting a few of the latter, who retain the English
look of vigor, most of them have the stamp of weakness and
anemia in the plainest way impressed on them; they sugge
feeble plants that have had insufficient light. The Blacks "i
not equal to the same race in the Northern States, perhaps, a
are scarcely inferior to Negroes as found in some communities
hs in the South. :
It now remains to inquire what are the causes which have led
to the degeneration of this English race. First of all must "i

~ named insufficient food, in the physiological ‘sense, combined
~ with impure air, from the custom of closing up the houses 9
__ thoroughly at night. The influence of such factors may also be
well seen in the Indians of the Canadian Northwest living 08
the reserves, In consequence of the same sort of partial starva
tion, imperfect housing, and special forms of disease traceable
the advent of the white man with his peculiar vices, these 4
: -dians are fairly melting away off the face of the earth ; OF

8

_ Manifest in this part of the body; but the amount really Pu

Tei could distinctly trace to other conditions, sP°°
Samedi the food and the lack of variety in the ace
coven whet No actual disease is present, the decided lacks } í
_ Feferred to above is to be accounted for. No explana oe

ne

1887] An Isolated Community in the Bahama Islands. 883

physical condition in which the nervous system does not play a
large part can be at all complete; and the higher in the scale
_ the race of men concerned, the more this must be taken into
account, The bracing influence of a climate with moderate vari-
_ ations of temperature has its explanation largely through the
_ nervous system. The fact that a cold bath raises the tempera-
ture cannot be wholly explained without bringing the nervous
heat-producing mechanism into the reckoning.
a Now, that the nervous system of the white man must be almost
. constantly depressed in this community may be made evident.
a When it is borne in mind that the stimuli from the arrival of
a ships act only during the season of fruit-ripening, and that there
_ are “hurricane months,” during which no ships dare venture
_ across the reef, it will be plain that for the greater part of the year
- this little community must be in a state of mental stagnation.
To the intelligent visitor, the objects here, totally unlike those
q he is accustomed to in his own land, have an intense interest.
a But all these are, to the man or the woman who has been look-
E ; ing on them for a lifetime, a very old story; water and sand and |
_ White rocks, and low, thick vegetation, make a wretchedly nar-
_ Tow environment after all, for a lifetime. What any brain be-
at comes depends upon its capacity to develop; which is equivalent
_ to saying that the cortical brain-cells concerned in the highest
‘ mental processes depend for their final best development very
4 largely on the variety and number of (afferent) nervous impulses
4 teaching them ; that is to say, again, upon the richness of the in-
a ee experiences; so that it seems to me absolutely impos-
i that the highest development could be attained in such a
narrow life-prison as this reall y is to the constant resident.
. pagal on the white than on the black man JRE
a e former is superior to that of the latter; and on-
ey, the very difference here to be seen shows plainly that
eas a pronounced inequality in favor of the white man’s
phi p

‘a. ee The latter requires, for his best development, 2
a, ‘An xperience than the Black. i : i :
ts ‘ue very pronounced feature in the character of the people nee
“cit disinclination to steady, honest work; they are ready a
wevtlete; they are prepared for wrecks; in fact, one pa e a

for the circumstances under which they live are, at least, B -
` Worse in themselves, but rather better, in the case of the-

~

O With intervals of varied excitement of mind and body, are amons

white population that does not travel, that does not receive

_ an agricultural product in the country, growing up in men a
et T aes as in corn and cattle, where the soil is good. oe
-ty and country, the evolution of the physical harmonies WWM

884 An Isolated Community in the Bahama Islands, [0

gambling spirit well developed. It has, indeed, its actual mani~
festation as such, for groups of men may be seen any evening —
gaming by the hour for pennies,—exactly what one might expect
as the outcome of such surroundings. But the climate alone
tells in the plainest way as a depressing, energy-robbing factor. q
Hence the people will do without fish rather than expend the
necessary energy to secure the much-needed nitrogenous food
A diet largely starchy will never produce the highest things,
physical or other, in any race of men. 4
women, and an equal lack of comeliness of feature and beauty
of expression, call for explanation. 4

It is to be borne in mind that, while there have been some
emigrants, there have been but few immigrants; for thirty oF A
forty years the community has been a stable one. Among 7

Be
in
ne

explanation, I am quite sure. Long ago, Dr. O. W. Holmes, 14
ais own inimitable manner, struck the key-note of the solution, —
in that remarkable book, “Elsie Venner.” “Human beauty

make music to our eyes require a combination of favorable oF
cumstances, of which alternations of unburdened tranquillity

s summarized: Ax inadeguate diet, in the physiological sense,
combined with impure air; the depressing effect, physical and
hical, of a uniformly high temperature ; the influence of un-
certainty in the reward of exertion, and of unfounded expectation,
_ begetting the gambling spirit ; the limited play of sexual selection ;
Wd the lack of variety in the afferent influences reaching the ner-
vous centres (experience),—all of which can be studied especially
wl in this community, on account of its diversity in race compo-
Mion and its comparatively isolated and stable condition,

HORNLESS RUMINANTS.
BY R. C. AULD, F.ZS.

(Continued from page 746.)

HE genus Bos is composed of a large number of animals which

The buffaloes and bisons have to be passed over, leaving the
bovines to be solely dealt with as the most typical representatives.
- Bovines are divided into (1) the hump-backed, Asian or Indian,

2) the level-backed, European or Caucasian. The former,
Bos indicus, inhabit the more tropical regions, and are subdivided
mto large and small varieties, best known under the name of zebus.

€ latter, Bos taurus, inhabit the more temperate regions, and

pay

rons, or small Celtic short-horn. These may be regarded as
corresponding, as to size, respectively with the two zebu types. .

: Sy seat of the origin of the ox has been generally assigned to
_ “Part of Asia n

_ * This word is here used in its restricted sense.

Hornless Ruminants. BSR: :

fall into well-defined dubaline, bisontine, and bovine’ divisions. ,

are subdivided (primarily) into B. primigenius, Or Urus, and B.

nig € Progenitor of the small B. longifrons. Darwin—and a

i the majority of naturalists—regards the zebu DRT ss

. L

886 : Hornless Ruminants.

cifically distinct type. Vasey, on comparing the skeleton
the zebu and common ox in the museum of the Royal
of Surgeons, London, found there was a “ material” anatomical
difference; the former had four sacral and eighteen caudal, th
latter five sacral and twenty-one caudal, vertebra.

“The question of polled cattle is an exceedingly difficult om
truly writes Professor Boyd-Dawkins.? Professor Dawkins
the first—indeed, only—distinguished scientist who has seenit
this question one of scientific importance. Others "have re
it in the most casual manner.

This “ difficult question” is a new one, and, however tres
the style of that treatment must be somewhat original. I
therefore, aimed simply to deal with the copious testimony in t
Most systematic manner, and with such sufficiency of comp
ness as will properly exhibit its scientific interest, importi
and value,

_ Zebus.—In its native habitat the zebu occurs in many differ
_ Varieties and conditions. Variations principally relate to
_ Rumber of humps, color of hair, and length or absence of he
fo? The horns are, as a rule, particularly small (“ short, ap
~ and very often wanting. A peculiar tame or domesticated
~ Occurs in Thibet. The color varies from red to black. }
> of these are without horns, the opinion of them held by
_ Ratives being that they are “ degenerated,”—strangely, the $
A mew which some old French writers took of the Scottish
Sete: To recompense the want of horns they have a aha
frontal protuberance, “so that it is with great difficulty they
be knocked down and killed.” In the foreheads of our ™
Polled cattle a distinct indication of a similar growth ¢ pe
: The large zebus are red and brown in color; the midd!
eee bis white, blue-gray, brown, and even black. The small fae
a Ie aay gray in the main; they are paler on inferior portions ©
= a they have the usual lop-ear character, with f
Siya The lop-ear is a decidedly “ hummel” charact

¥
p
F
pisi
ie
j%

4

Soy E “drooping ear” among our polls, too, is sometimes +
a: Suishable, as is also the occurrence of the loose, ages

OPERE to the skin, and pendulous. Such horns are o
_— , Delineations of the Ox Tribe

San . s »
ce — ter dated “ Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester, May 1% E

Hornless Ruminants. 887

with among all cattle. These smaller zebus are the most familiar
to observing visitors to India; they are very tractable, and are
d in carriages, like the ancient polled cattle of Scythia.

met, in 1883, a native Indian gentleman, Mr. Hassain, and I
the question, “Is there any distinct polled breed in India, re-
ded as such?” He said there was, in the Northwest Province;
ir name is “ dagoudha ;” they are of a dull white color, used
heavy traffic. He said, in reply to my query, that no partic-

Be Fic. 6.—Indian Ox, or Zebu.
a desc ribes the zeb

— nS,” figures, in the plate, in the “ Naturalist’s Li-
ii, an ash `

MGN,

a

us as occurring “either horned —s_—>

y

3 a

A Khi

_ riages, and is said to perform a journey of thirty miles

_ (2) The smaller-horned race.

888 | Hlornless Riminante

tration, “An Eastern Threshing-Floor” (Fig. 7), in Canon Far
rar’s “ Life of Christ,” the polls of the animals could hardly b
better represented, or more thoroughly mooly or humle ina
ance, though it cannot be claimed that they are so: _

Feray Ua I
A A į hi

A
Nt g

W Se i )

ART raa D

E, Ween
t T b

li

T
Py

i FIG. 7.

The late Professor Macgillivray, the distinguished natura
Aberdeen, in the Yournal of Natural History (published at $
burgh) for April, 1837, thus describes the zebus:

“Of the numberless varieties of the domestic ox, those
liar to India and the east coast of Africa, formerly a race
ally known by the name of zebu, or Indian ox, are ae

India it is also employed for riding, as well as

Its flesh, although good, is inferior to that of the Europe
but the hump is reckoned a great delicacy. It paige
like the other domesticated breeds, the most common brown, 3

-gray, cream color, or white, but it is often red or ee
occasionally black; some of the breeds are horned, "boy
pendulous or flexible horns destitute of the core m
1d some are entirely hornless.”

Professor Macgillivray figures four races: ~
(1) The largest-horned race.

1 i Hornless Ruminants. 889

(3) The smallest race.

(4) The hornless race.

W. Swainson, F.R.S., in his “ Natural History of Quadrupeds,”
describes five types of Bovines: í

“The fourth type appears likewise indigenous to the same
continent (Asia), from whence, in fact, nearly all our domestic
animals have originated. It is typically distinguished by its
very diminutive size, by the almost total disappearance of the

than a hog! The name Bos pusio may therefore be correctly
applied to this species.” r

To compare with the above, I quote his description of his
type: ee

Analogies. |
Bos scoticus -- Fierce, untamable. Feræ. Raptores. —
Bos taurus Pre-eminently ve Primates. Insessores.

© Wake ae Appendages on the a
Bos demacerosd head greatly de- > Ungulates. Rason

i ._ veloped.
, Bos pusio , _ Í Stature remarkably » Glires.

ore- part of the A
: shoulder ele- Cetacea.
vad. o

< it so. His figure is “from a Chinese painting.” Evidentlys

cattle are the largest in the world, attaining the height and siz

: Dongola, when all along the Nile as far as Sennaar BY
are Seen.” Figs. 8 and g exhibit various horne

East and È

se tae eee x Hornless Ruminants.

4 \
Bos pusio he describes, we have seen, as hornless, and f

but of which he gives no particulars.
Zebus in Other Regions——John Lawrence (1805) says,—

“Upon the island of Madagascar, in Malabar and other pa

of India, in part of Persia, in the Ukraine, Calmuck Tartary,
Upper Ethiopia, and Abyssinia the bisons are of the proper, of
large, species; in several of the last-mentioned countries their

of camels. Irregular as to horns; some entirely without, oth
with the horns large, either branching or pendulous.” Similar
to what has been already described, and showing the wide
semination of the zebu type. s
Polled Breeds in Egypt: —The kinds of cattle in Egypt are si d
ficiently correctly noted by W. C. L. Martin :— A

“In ancient times this zebu race, as well as a race destitute
the zebu peculiarities, existed in Egypt. The figures of
are plainly delineated on ancient monuments and temples.
gyptian painting in the British Museum represents two $

f oxen, of which

foremost in the

Lower Egypt *

hardt states, it 1

unknown; but st 9i
9 .

gypt, to compare with the polled. |

i In speaking with officers and others who have been go

1 Cattle, published 1852.

188 ] ` Hornless Ruminants. - 891

taurus, are figured in herds under the fourth dynasty,”—about
2700 B.C.

3 Figures of these polled cattle can be seen in most works treat-
‘ing of Egypt. The cut given by Professor Rawlinson in his
“History of Egypt” represents three animals being physicked

= operator not in the safest of positions), of which two are
ed. Another figure is given on page 172, “ Rescuing Cattle
Inundation.” Two of the six are polled. Wilkinson also
sthem. In vol. ii. m

FIG. 10.

892 Hornless Ruminants. Ke t

Fic. 11. (Figure in bronze.) f

Rawlinson states that in Egypt “three distinct races of cattle
were affected, —the long-horn, the short-horn, and the hornless: ;
Birch (“ Manners and Customs of Ancient Egyptians,” by Sir}
Gardner Wilkinson, Bart.) says,— |

“The cattle were of different kinds, of which three principal
distinctions are most deserving of notice, —the short-homne™ =
long-horned cattle, and the Indian or humped 0x; the last fe
though no longer natives of Egypt, are common to this day ®
Abyssinia and Upper Ethiopia.”

Fic. 12, (Egyptian monuments.)

In a foot-note to this he says, “ A hornless variety W35 © i
i known.”
Cattle were domesticated in Egypt, according tO he ne e
~~ as 2000 B.c. Thus we have indication enough 0 wet
antiquity of polled cattle. The Egyptians, it is SUPP i

_ of Asiatic origin, and may have brought the progenitors ©”

`

Hornless Ruminants. 893

tious breeds, including the carefully cultivated polled variety,
them.: ;

IN EUROPE. ši
Polled Cattle found in the Pliocene Deposits of Italy—There
is peculiar evidence of the existence of polled cattle in Europe’
during the Pliocene period. It was during the Upper Pliocene
period that the genus Bos first appeared on the earth’s surface.
This was also the second stage in the development of deer, efc.,
—the period of hornless or feeble-horn rhinoceri, and of small-
honed deer. Besides these, says Boyd-Dawkins, are some pe-
tliar to Italy possessed of very remarkable characters. An ox,
Bos etruscus, of Falconer, presents us with the first instance of
polled cattle. And, on noting the “important characters of the
fauna of the Pliocene period,” he says,—

“R must also be remarked that the oxen (B. etruscus) were

al ‘ L : ;

i T may give a glimpse into the state of live-stock matters in Egypt, as may be

tthered from the best sources. Dr. Samuel Birch, in his work already quoted,

“ogg and goose constituted the principal part of the ancient food throughout
beds 3 and by a prudent foresight, in a country possessing neither extensive pasture

bidden

nor great abundance of cattle, the cow was held sacred, and consequently for-
to be eaten; and thus the risk of exhaustion, or at least greatly lessening
ook, was effectually prevented, and a constant supply maintained for the con-
; ng of the people. That a considerable quantity of meat was served up at
asts to which Strangers were invited is evident from the sculptures. fHu-
hair isa red oxen were lawful for sacrifice, but not so if they had a single white

4 í Numbers : “ Brin ‘ * 2? For
à : g thee a red heifer without spot”).
the Egyptians killed cattle

e
The “herds,” indeed, were an inferior 7
Were, as individuals, looked down upon. The rich landed proprietors
den, large flocks and stocks of cattle, sheep, and goats, ete., on their estates.
tui mnation of pastor did not extend to the farmers who bred their own sheep
Superiors y to those who herded them. The herds were looked over by the
ahs € estate; and they fully understood the different stages of grazing
Ms. Such as ¢ These stewards selected their shepherds, who held a responsible
a were skilled in cattle-management were” chosen ‘to make them
e” Nothing was neglected. Branding was an annual opera-

a Pn the herds of cattle grazed on common pasturages, and were Tabie
is Hence this branding, which became imperative. It was, indeed, an
es ting up, —which has thus a most respectable antiquity. 5 a?
a are found on the monuments, which are a perfect pictorial
; Wondrous ancient times, handed down to us in an imperishable form.

LS

' = cattle were branded or tattooed on their rumps with their regular : : 2 : ;

894 Hornless Ruminants. [0t
sometimes devoid of horns, as may be seen in a specimen pointed
out to me by Dr. Forsyth Major, in the Museum of Florence”
And this is his comment: “It seems very likely that horns wert
originally a mere sexual character peculiar to the males, and
transferred, like other sexual characters, ultimately to the female
‘This was brought about before the beginning of the Plistocene
age, since all the oxen of that period possessed horns. If this
view of the origin of horns be accepted, it is easy to explain th
singular ease with which, in a comparatively short time, the horas
have been bred off some of our domestic cattle by selection cat-
tied on through a few generations; and our polled cattle may hy r
looked to as a reversion to an ancestral type. The small si z
also of the tusks of the domestic hog, compared with those € 4
the wild boar, may be explained in the same manner.”* :
Falconer describes B. etruscus (“ Pal. Mems., vol. ii. p. 481) "i
“so peculiar as to distinguish it very remarkably from Bos Mo
genius and Bos priscus (the bison). It is of much smaller s%
and, I suspect, constitutes a distinct undescribed species, ao
whose designation Bos etruscus would appear appropriate.” $
Darwin, who only touches incidentally on the subject of hei
less ruminants, makes reference to the skull of this hornless Bas j :
etruscus, seeming to regard it as that of a female. $
Figures of Polled Cattle on Greek and Roman Coins, B.C.400-.
The Greek and Roman (fac-simile) coins in the British Museet
are arranged in such a manner as to afford a synoptical Ww
Once historical and geographical, of the gold and silver cols
of the ancient world, from the invention of the art of a"
(about B.c. 700) down to the Christian era. os ae q
In the first compartment, relating to the First Period, p
B.C. 700-480, or the period of Archaic Art, ending with the Po
wars, in the third (geographical) section, —coins of Italy, 9%
the southern shores of the Mediterranean, and Western Europ
5 No. 30, described thus in the catalogue: .
p 30. Messana t ta ' s. Head of lion, ace
‘ev. MESSEN ION. ber tet Owe 267.1 grs. Ne
Se or Miletus, B.c. 494, a band of Samians sailed © ~ g
and, under the advice of Anaxilaus of Rhegium, seized e
of Zancle. Anaxilaus soon afterwards sent a mixed ¢? ye
Zancle, and changed its name to Messana. The sama? : é

* Early Man in Britain.

887] Flornless Ruminants. 6 868
‘ag

ofthis coin show that it dates from this period, circ. B.c. 490-.
480" The head of the so-called calf is distinctly polled (Fig. 13).
oh the second compartment, relating to the Second Period, -
Grea Bc. 480-400,—the period of -Transitional and Early Fine
Art to the end of the Athenian supremacy,—in the first (geo-
graphical) section, displaying the coins of Asia Minor, Pheenicia,
Syria, etc., and Egypt, is No. 28 (Fig. 14), described in the cata-
logue thus :

Fic. 14.

| rat, Mytilene R. Obvs. Two calves’ heads, face to face;
een a ae

re. It seems, therefore, to belong to the latter part
The heads are distinctly polled (Fig. 14).

In com i ;
compartment seven, relating to the Seventh Period, circa

» displaying coins of Northern and Central

* the Peloponnesus, and the islands of the Ægean, is
described in the catalogue:

26. Roman

Augustus,

ust he mines these fac-simile coins in the British —
oust be at once impressed, when cattle are represented,

896 Hornless Ruminants. Oe

„with the remarkable distinctiveness given to the depiction off :
horns where these had to be represented. (Figs. 16, 17, ©
i

Fic. 16. Fi, 17.

The horns are so distinct and perfectly done that any instant
where they are absent is all the more valuable. All the hee
have picked out are decidedly hornless, and were thus assu
meant by the original artist. The last coin, marked with #
asterisk (*), is repres

tavo edition of the a
logue, to be had at g

B.C. 400 —The |
profane history, 1*7 z] |
ing the cattle of the Arimaspi, a one-eyed race of men, W "

Issedones themselves affirmed dwelt beyond them, o y
north of Scythia, says (“ Melpomene,” v. 28, 29) that e
account of the intolerable winter of eight months of this
that the race of cattle appear to be imperfect, ane ©
y horns; and the following verse from Homer, in his ©
(B. iv. 1, 85), confirms my opinion as to the cause:
3 ‘And Libya, where the lambs soon put forth their hors)”

Tightly observing that in warm climates horns shoot ge
but in very severe cold the cattle either do not product

z >
Cowper’s translation :
. “the coasts

Of Libya, where the lambs their foreheads ire
At once their horns—defended soon as yeaned-

Fic. 18.

Ba

Hornless Ruminants. | 897

or, if they do produce them, they do so with difficulty.
Here, then, such are the effects of cold.” Beloe, too, has this
note: “Hippocrates, speaking of the Scythian chariots, says
they are drawn by oxen which have no horns; that the cold
events them having any.” Strabo also mentions these ancient
polled cattle.
_Herodotus’s opinion as to the cause of hornlessness has been
accepted by many writers down to modern times. At first sight
tseems true enough, that in the northern European regions we
we polled or defectively-horned animals, while in the south we
See immense-horned races; but exceptions are prominent: in
the palmated horns of the female reindeer of Arctic regions,—
sex in deer that is always hornless in all other climes; in the
led cattle of Southern Europe; and in the no-horn or small-
horned zebu of India.
If as is believed, the Scythians, like the Egyptians, were of
c descent, this fact has its significance.
: In Poland —It would appear that it is Oliver Goldsmith, in his
Animated Nature,” whom subsequent English writers, such as
"ence, 1805, follow in the statement that “the large polled
Mad of England was probably derived from Poland.” The
aea ‘large” used by Goldsmith is valuable evidence in connec-
with the idea held in some quarters, that all polled cattle
among the small cattle. It is in the Forest of Bialowiza, y
Poland, that, under the special protection of the Czar, the
i" European bison” (Bos priscus) is preserved. This is the
Sechs or Ure ox of the Germans, and the Urus of Cesar.
ar “al Low (“Domestic Animals of Great Britain”) refers to
the 3 ae of an ancient writer, who speaks of these Uri of
x of Poland as black, with a white ridge along the
a by Tacitus and others—Major Hamilton-Smith, in
elaborate edition of Baron Cuvier’s “ Animal Kingdom,”
Passage ;

Ei To; and the hornless cattle—originally, as it would
cording 4 man breed, ‘ne armentis quidem aut gloria frontis,

rare fed. Tacitus—have spread to Iceland and Norway, where
_ “Qon dried fish, They are now abundant in Scotland,

S with small and middle-sized horns exist in the Crimea, — ke
t of Germany, Sweden, France, England, Scotland, —

raat

ae that ey were “stumpy-horned,’ and Hippocrates that prt were
? Taci less, therefore resembling the small German cattle, o! ¥ hich

inces bordering the Genesa Sea.”

_ Headley, mentioned later, but hardly in Hehn. He also notes

_ Faces of cattle with them into the districts in which they $è led

+ an aap reserved by Prince Lichtenstein on his estates. Some

898 Hornless Ruminants. a

exist in France, and about Penaranda, in Spain, from which they
may have been transported to form the polled breed of Assump-
tion, in Paraguay. They also are common in Madagascar and
Abyssinia.” 4
Froude, the historian, in his essay on Martin Luther, 1883, ia d
relating the memorable appearance of the reformer at the Diet
of Worms, where “he gave his answers” first in Latin and then
in German, Eck requiring of him a plain answer, “yes or no
without horns.” The taunt roused him, and he replied, “I will
give you an answer which has neither horns nor teeth.” This
passage may be taken as evidence of the knowledge or presenc _
of polled animals in Germany in those times. 1

The polled cattle of Germany are extinct. H. von Nathusius,
in reply to my inquiry, says, — f :

“We havé no polled cattle in Germany, but I remember them l
in Norway, and I think they are found also in the Russian pro

Victor Hehn, in a lately published work of great erudition!
heads his chapter on “ cattle,” “ The Buffalo,”—certainly a rathet
antiquated view, which might be excused in sucha writer 8-

the disappearance of the German polled cattle:
“The Bos family was the first friend of man when emerging

acitus writes that they lacked ‘the glory of the brow.

a

x in Austria —In Austria there is a well-known wien a
polled cattle, It has been known from time immemori@, *

ies Wanderings of Plants and Animals from their First Hom .

Hornless Ruminants, o 899

ofthe Norfolk and Suffolk breed—also red and polled—have
_ been taken thence to infuse new blood. Some of the Austrian
agricultural journals have also advocated for this purpose the
_ introduction of the Aberdeen-Angus, which came so prominently
_ before their notice at the Paris International Exhibition in 1878.
These red polled cattle of Austria are very interesting, and we
_ &eable to produce, from the most direct source, some informa-
_ tion about them of the greatest interest.

Weare indebted to the exertions of the Chevalier Walcher
-Č Moltheim, ministerial counsellor, director of Prince Lichten-
_ Stin’s estates. In a letter dated Vienna, I Bank Street, 9, Feb-
4 mary 5, 1886, he says,—

’ X I send you herewith enclosed the letter I wrote you some
ut ago, but which I did not mail because the answers I re-

“a i
A The Feports I could obtain about hornless cattle in Austria
‘ were delayed, an

ness the Prince of Lichtenstein, hornless cattle were pro-

ry disease. The production of hornless cattle showed
ancy in this respect, that, even in those cases where,
of hornless bulls, horned bulls were em-

igh degree of improvement. :

“ape 1868 three cows and one bull of English breed

‘ ug. t for the stall at Radim; but I have not been in-
Which British breed these unhorned animals belonged.

Catt
~ Year 1868, before the purchase of the English animals,
ii hornless cattle at the domain of Radim was as fol-
lost of eys twenty-six cows, and two calves. : :
= Sse cattle were of red or brownish-red color; one _

goo Hornless Ruminants. os [Oa
single calf was black, sired by a Dutch bull upon an unhorned d
m.e i
“The

“The head is long and narrow, loins -strong, skin thin and
elastic; hair soft, shining, and close; the bone structure wees
Strong; neck and shoulders strong and full. Though smal 3
stature, the animals were of exceeding beauty.” :

In France—Major Hamilton Smith has mentioned the Com |
ence of polled cattle in France; and it is stated that at Me
bouillet in-and-in breeding was practised among the celebrate ;
cattle of that place—a white, hornless breed—with great ea
until they were carried off by the cattle-plague of 1815. 1 bar |
Seen it stated that there are still a remnant of this or somè Ligh
polled race preserved at one of the French gardens. ue |

In Holland and Bavaria.—It has been stated that the late df 1
Morison, of Bognie, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, brought 4 rae 3
very fine, large cows from Holland or Belgium. “ Thee =]
Were much larger in size than the home polls, and ape
splendid milkers. They were of all colors, and mostly
with the exception of a few, which had very short, thick l
I had four of those animals in my possession for several l
Two of them were black, with white stripe on back; m$ i
brindled, and the fourth was white, with short horns. of e
mentioned was the biggest in size, and the best milke w ie |
lot, but in consequence of the color of her first calf being ™
she was sold.” :

x

* Compare with Professor Low’s description of the Uri of Pola ol

Ho Hornless Ruminants. gol

A settler near where I am located has stated to me that polled
tattle existed in his native country (Bavaria). His grandfather
and another bred them there. They were the only parties who
hadthem in the neighborhood. It was, he said, the habit of re-
_ ‘Rewing, or alternating, their stock of cattle every few years, and
-for that purpose his grandfather and his neighbor had resorted
toa district “near Holland” for specimens of these polled cattle,
_ Which had some celebrity at that time. The name he gave them
was hornlose,—simply the same as our horniess. It is interesting
_ t note that it was the king of Bavaria who presented gold
_ Medals, through M. Dutrone, to exhibitors at the Highland So-
i ciety of Scotland, 1856. The reverse of the one gained by the
7 late Mr. McCombie of Tillyfour states it to have been for the
“Propagation des Races bovines désarmés, à M. W. MacCom-
bie de Tillyfour, .Ecosse, Amélioration de la Race d’Aberdeen
_ pour la laitiere,”” etc. The late Hugh Watson, Keillor, also was
j Presented with one for his remarkable cow “Grannie,” which
_ "ised twenty-five calves and died at the age of thirty-six years
and a half—the greatest age, I believe, recorded to which an
animal of the bovine species ever attained.
Oe tn Switzerland —Dr. Ferdinand Keller, in his “ Lake-Dwell-
ba of Switzerland,” translated by J. E. Lee, 1878, among the
as identified at Liischerz and MGringen, notes:

Mt) Bos brachyceros-longifrons, or marsh-cow. Certain remains
oe lead us to conclude that they belong to the Peat cow,
: Sa race also probably belonged the half of the occiput
ae mless individual. The specimen indicates a very small
4 cain a which the occipital proportions are exceptionally high.
+. p ms are said to be found in the Norwegian cattle.

O Bos primigenius.. Remains of this great race seem to have
= found very sparingly. .

is (3) Bos Jrontosus, Remains of this race are by far the most
tom, ONS, on the average; the race was smaller than our spotted

2 FEN Frontosus belongs more especially to civilization.

oa to Mr. Bert Pettersen, Norwegian consul at Dundee, .
While E are very common in the southern parts of Norway»

„> Yet possessed its characters most completely. The bones — ; E
~ &Xtremities are smaller than those of the spotted cow are

4%, etc—They exist in the Scandinavian peninsula.

= Tomso, within the Arctic Circle, they also exist in con- ‘i oo

902 : Hornless Ruminants. [Ot q

siderable numbers, as is affirmed by Mr. John Neish, Jr., of The
Laws (Scotland), who was there in 1879. ‘Ya

In Iceland—Uno Van Troil, M.D., in his “ Letters on Iceland.’ _
1772, says,— 4

to meet with oxen running wild about the mountains, which are —
however, driven home in autumn, as every one knows his owa ‘
by a particular mark upon them.” 3

Sir George Stewart Mackenzie, Bart., in his “ Travels in lee
land,” in 1810, says, — ;

could make, and information I could obtain, the Iceland farmers 1
Th

know nothing of the art of breeding stock. yas

than

ite

History of Garden Vegetables. - 903

HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES.
BY E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, A.M., M.D."
a (Continued from page 833.)

Costmary. Balsamita vulgaris Willd.’

8
iD $

ps plant, says Bryant,? was formerly cultivated in gardens
= ^ for the purpose of mixing with salads, and it is a pity it-is
_ Mot continued, aš from its sensible qualities it seems superior to
_ ‘Many aromatic plants now in credit. In England, then, it had
: Sone out of culture in 1 783. In France, however, its leaves are
quite frequently used as a condiment.3 It is a plant of very
Seve importance even in France. It occurs also in the gardens
of Constantinople. In the United States it is recorded by Burrs
in 1863, who mentions one variety. The name alecost came from
former use in flavoring ales and beers.

Alecost, or Costmary,
Jardins, grand baume, j

is called, in France, baume-cog, cog des
erbe au cog, herbe de Sainte-Marie, menthe-
the & bouquets, menthe grecque, menthe Notre-Dame ; in
ark, balsam ;3 in Germany, die frauenmunze; in Dutch,
tuinbalsam , in Italy, costo-ortense s in Spain, hetrva de Santa;
ite balsamita; in Sweden, svensk salvia ;6 in Arabic,

» Melsaneh ;7 by the Greeks at Constantinople, 4osta.4
| the Mentha hortensis corymbifera of Bauhin’s “ Pinax,” 226.

Cress. Lepidium sativum L.

Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva.
5. 3 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot.
Gard., ii. 237. 7 Delile, Fl. Ægypt, illust.
Pl. Cult., 69. 9 Cicero, Tusc., 5, 34. 7

34- :
5 Burr., Field and Gard. Veg., 416. —

904 ` History of Garden Vegetables. [Oc

_and Latin authors. It is named by Turner,’ which indicates its
presence in England in 1538, and in three of its varieties was in
American gardens in 18062
Four varieties are now under culture,—the ‘common, the 4
curled and extra-curled, the broad-leaved, and the golden. |
The synonymy of these various types is as below, it being
premised that the modern varieties vary somewhat in degree
only:
I. ‘
Nasturtium hortense. Fuch., 1542, 362; Trag., 1552, 82; Pit,
1561, 221; Ger., 1597, 194; Dod., 1616, 711. l
Gartenkress. Roszlin, 1550, 188. i
Nasturtium. Matth., 1558, 280; Lob. Obs., 1576, 107; Cam, ]
Epit., 1586, 335; Matth., Op., 1508, 425; Chabr., 1677, 289.
Nasturtio. Pictorius ed. Macer, 1581, '75. .
Nasturtium hortense commune. Bauh., Phytopin., 1596, 161.
Nasturtium hortense vulgatum. Bauh., Pin., 1623, 193-
Nasturtium vulgare. J. Bauh., 1651, ii. 912.
Common Garden Cress. Ray, 1686, 825; Vil., 1885, 207.
sont Cress. Townsend, 1726.
pidium sativum. Lin., Sp., 1763, 899. eo
Common Cress. ea aie 5 > Bryant 1783, 103; eit
Dict., 1807. j
Common Small-Leaved. Mawe, 1778.
Cresson alenois commun. Vil., 1883, 194.

IL 1
Nasturtium hortense crispum. Bauh., Phytopin., 1596, a
~- 1623, 104 1

Nasturtium crispum. Chabr., 1677, 28
~ E : 3 , 289.
: Curled Cress Ray, 1686, 825 venice, 1726; Stet
1765, 34; Bryant, 1783, 103; McMahon, 1800; Mill. Di

frise, . 1763, 899-

Cresson aleno L'Hort. Fran., 1824; Petit. Dict., 1826.
SSOn alenois frise, Vil., 1883, 195. a

Curled, or Normandy, and nite Dwarf. Vil, or l

z Turner, Libellus, 1538. 2 McMahon, Am. Gard. Kal., 1806. 1

pona Vilmorin, The Veg. Gård., 1885, 207.

History of Garden Vegetables. 905

III.

Nasturtium, Cam., Epit., 1586, 335.
esha hortense latifolium. Bauh., Phytopin., 1596, 1603
l, 1623, 103.
Vasturtium latifolium dioscorideum. J. Bauh., 1651, ii. 913.
Nasturtium latifolium. Chabr., 1677, 280.

-Leaved Garden Cress. Ray, 1686, 825 ; Vil., 1885, 207.
l -Leaved. Townsend, 1726; Stevenson, 1765, 34; Mawe,
1778; McMahon, 1806; Mill. Dict, 1807.
_ Lépidium latifolium. Lin., Sp., 1763, 899.
Cresson à large feuilles: VL’ Hort. F ran, 1824; Petit, 1826.
on alenois à large feuille. Vil., 1883, 195.

IV.
Cresson dore. Petit, 1826; Noisette, 1829. j
T 38 Hort. Trans., 1826, vi. 583; Burr, 1863, 343; Vil,

__ Tesson alenois dore, Nil., 1883, 195.

It appears as if the types of the modern varieties have not
changed through culture, as three are quite ancient, and the
but an ordinary variation, or of a pale yellowish-green
The curled cress seems to have been first observed by
Bauhin, who furnished his brother, C. Bauhin, with seed pre-
1596. :

~ cress, gardyn cress," or pepper-grass, is called, in France,
oo ois, passerage cultivée, nasitor ; in Germany, garten-
beste; in Flanders, hofkers ; in Holland, tainkers ; in Denmark, .
* in Italy, agretto, crescione inglese, cerconcello; in
haf i mastuerzo, malpica; in Portugal, mastruco;? in Arabia,
Hina See Arabic, reshad ;* in Bengali, aleverie, haleem;* in
ni, chunsee ;° in India, kalim, or chansur ;7 in Persian,
** in Sindh, ahreo; in Telegu, adala vitalas

_havekarse
,

a. Cuckoo-FLlower. Cardamine pratensis L.
; ot and nearly worthless salad plant, native to
nd: of Europe, Northern Asia, and Arctic America, ex-
to Vermont and Wisconsin. It has a piquant savor,
ER used as water-cress, It is recorded as cultivated in the
: MS, 1538. 2 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 194-
j -Arab., č. Xvi. 4 Delile, Fl. Æg., illust.
S Yir Prod, of Bomb., 7. 6 Ainslie, Mat. Med., i. 95-
o T Handb, of Gard., 170.

906 History of Garden Vegetables.

vegetable-garden in France by Noisette" in 1829, and by Vik
morin?’ in 1883, yet, as Decaisne and Naudin? remark, but rarely, a

find no record of its cultivation in England, but in America it
is described by Burr‘ in four varieties, differing in the flowers, —
and as having become naturalized to a limited extent,—a fact i
which implies a certain cultivation. Its seed does not appear in —
our seed-catalogues. d

The Cuckoo-Flower, or Lady’s Smock, is called, in je.

Cresson des pres, cresson elegant, cressonnette, passerage sauvage;
in Germany, wiesen kresse ; in Spain, berros de prado?

CUCUMBER. Cucumis sativus L. :

The cucumber, under the form Cucumis hardwickii Royle, —
found growing wild in the Himalaya region, and a variety (si
kimensis Hook) is cultivated in Nepal and Sikkim. Its origia
-is therefore ascribed to the East Indies. It has been a plant of ‘
cultivation from the most remote times, but De Candolle‘ finds
no support for the common belief of its presence in ancient
Egypt at the time of the Israelite migration into the wilderness —
although its culture in Western Asia is indicated from philo- :

agriculture of the fifth century, and is described by Chae :
authors of 1590 and 1640.2 Cucumbers were kno a
ancient Greeks? and to the Romans, and Pliny* even mam
their forced culture. They find mention in the middle ages, and
in the botanies from Ruellius (1536) onward. In Anema g
are almost coeval with the discovery, as the companions a
Columbus were growing them in their gardens at Hayti ]
1494." Their distribution was rapid. Cartier” found “Ve
great cucumbers” in cultivation by the Indians near the pres
Montreal in 1535, and De Soto” found, in Florida, “ cucumbee
- * Noisette, Man., 1829, 356. 2 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 19°
à Peca & Naudin, Man., iv., 228. 4 Burr, Field and Gard. Veg.»
` TR Cucurbitaceæ in De C. Monog., iii. 498.
e Candolle, Orig. Des Pl. Cult., 212; Eng. trans., 266.9 83.
7 Bretschneider, On the Study, etc., 15. ® Bretschneider, Bot. Sin., 18 Se
° Theophrastus, Bodzus a Stapel ed., 1644. ,
o * Pliny, lib. xix, c. 23. 11 Trying, Columbus, 1859 * 380.
E 7 Cartier, Pink. Voy., xii. 652. 12 De Soto, Florida, 44- l

re 5 History of Garden Vegetables, Coo eee

$ t than those of Spain.” In Virginia they were seen by
ins Amidos and Barlow in 1584, and are mentioned again
in 1609.2 In Massachusetts they were under cultivation before
16293 Itis not, however, certain that these references all refer
to the cucumber, but other references which might be given |
sem sufficient fo establish the fact of its early distribution on
the continent of America.
Vilmorin, in his “Les Plantes Potageres,” 1883, describes
thirty varieties., I have seen the most, if not all, of these grow-
ing, as well as others, in number, including synonymes, of fifty-
‘tine different names. While some of the varieties grown are
but little differing, yet there is a number of kinds which are
‘xtraordinarily distinct. In pursuing my plan of treating of the
origin of the types of varieties I recognize the difficulty of a
very complete treatment, through my little knowledge of the
wild forms, and of the species from a botanist’s point of view.
The following attempt, however, may be considered reliable as
atg i ;

far as goes:

ee

ee oh ges 2 E

Sw te EP ee ae a el A a Oe oe DA Cy

BRC SE out comot cucumbers are fairly well figured

inthe ancient botanies, but the fruit is far inferior in appearance

to those we grow to-day, being apparently more rugged and less

Symmetrical. The following synonymy is established from the.
res and descriptions : |

PETA ae

Cucumis sativus vulgaris. Fuch., 1542, 697.
Cucum is sativus. Roszlin, 1550, 116; Cam., Epit., 1586, 294.
Cucumis, Tragus, 1552, 831; Fischer, 1646.
F (mis sag Ger., 1597, 762; Chabr., 1677, 134.

Nfi 1 Fourn., 1710, t. 32.
r Short Green, Park. Par., 1629.

ho; ig Prickly. Mawe, 1778; Miller, 1807.
> reen Cluster, Miller, 1807.
“frag 828.

— of American seedsmen.

y: sa l
RN form, very near to the above, but longer, less round-
oe Sey Prick] , has a synonymy as below:
wnt, Matth., 1558, 262.

Sis Sahvus. Lugd., 1587, i. 620. ;
E a Pik. Yoy., xiii, 2 A True Decl. of Va., 1610, 13, =
g ', Mass, Hist. Soc. Coll., rst ser., i. 118; Wood, New Eng. Prosp.,

“2L—No, 10, 62

908 History of Garden Vegetables.

. Cucumeres sativi and esculenti. Tob., Ic., 1591, i. 638.
Cucumis vulgaris. Dod., 1616, 662.
Cedruolo, Cast, Dur., 1617, 103.
Cucumis vulgaris, viridis, and albis. J. Bauh., 1651, ii. 246.
Long Green Prickly. Mill. Dict., 1807. 4
Early Frame. Thorb., Cat., 1828 and 1886, A
Etc.

The third form is the smooth and medium-long cucumber,
which, while they have quite a diversity of size, yet have a com
mon shape and smoothness. Such are: 4

? Cucumer sativus. Pin., 1561, 192.

Concombre. Tourn., 1719, t. 32. l

? Large Smooth Green Roman. Mawe, 1778; Mill. Dict., 1807.

Long Smooth Green Turkey. Mawe, 1778; Mill. Dict, 180)”

. 1828.
Turkey Long Green, or Long Green. Landreth, 1885.
Greek, or Athenian. Vilmorin, 1885.
Etc.

The fourth form includes those known as English, and i
distinct, from their excessive length, smoothness, and freedot
from seeds, although in a botanical classification they would
united with the preceding (from which they have, doubtless
originated). They are usually quite free from spines, %
smooth, and, as grown, are very straight. My synony pe
these would scarcely be justified had I not observed the
dency of the fruit to curve under conditions of ordinary culture

Cucumis longus. Cam., pit., 1586, 295.

Cucumis longus eidem. J. Bauh., 1651, ii. 248.

Green Turkey Cucumber. Bryant, 1783, 267.

Long Green English varieties, Vilm., 1883, 163-
The Bonneuil Large White Cucumber, grown largely h
Paris for the use of perfumers, is quite distinct from e
varieties, the fruit being ovoid, perceptibly flattened from
end in three or four places, thus producing an angular #
ance. We may suspect that Gerarde figured this Y |
Cucumber, which came from Spain into Germany, <2 r jnt
n a striking resemblance in the form of the fruit and
eaf:

i

: Cucumis ex Hispanico semine natus. Ger., 1597; 70+ uch)
Cucumis sativus major, ` Bauh., Pin., 1623, 310 (°

History of Garden Vegetables. 909

Bonneuil Large White. Vilm., 1885, 222.

_ White Dutch.. A. Blanc, No. 6133.

_ The other types of known cucumbers are those which have

lately appeared under the name of Russian. I know nothing

of their history. They are very distinct, and resemble a melon

more than a cucumber,—at least in external appearance:

1. The Early Russian, small, oval, and smooth.

_ 2. The Russian Gherkin, obovate, and ribbed like a melon.

3. The Russian Netted, oval, and densely covered with a fine

‘het-work.

: The appearance of these new types indicates that we have by

20 means exhausted the capabilities of this species. The Zurkie

‘aicimber of Gerarde is not now to be recognized under culture,

orare the Cucumer minor pyriformis of Gerarde and of J. Bauhin,

the Cicumis pyriformis of C. Bauhin’s “ Phytopinax,” 1596.

‘Ifthe synonymy be closely examined it will be noted that

“me of the figures represent cucumbers as highly improved as
the present day. The Cucumis longus of J. Bauhin is figured

‘Sifequalling our longest and best English forms ; the concombre

Tournefort is also a highly improved form, as is also the cucu-

“ented of Matthiolus in 1 558.

© Cucumber is called, in France, concombre, cocombre (co-
Somber by Ruellius, 15 36); in Germany, gurke, kukummer ; in
ie landers and Holland, komkommer ; in Denmark, agurken; in

“Y, cetriolo, cedriuolo ; in Spain, cohombro, pepino; in Portugal,
i 7 t was called cowéumber by Ray in England in 1686.
in Greece, aggouria; in Slavonic, rastava ; in Estha-
' UTILS, ug gurits or urits;? in Polish, ogorek; in Bo-
Can, agurka;s in Tartar, Žiar; in Calmuc, chaja; in Ar-
ihe in Russian, ogursi;+ in Egypt, khyar,? fakus ;°
panic, kusud; in Bengali, susha sasha, khyira, Rankur ;? in
py, 1 1ala-kekeri, pipingya; in Hindustani, keera, khira or
on >In Persian

*

Aen 5i ) . .

7, RA akwa, karas uri, ki urié
oy tivated cucumber was the sikus hemeros of Dioscorides,
ae Theophrastus. :

ne ia te Jexuosus L. is occasionally sold by our seeds-
Biterin, G A Pot., 1883, 159. 2 De Candolle, Orig. Des Pl. Cult., 210.

Birdy, 5 Hist. of Pl., 640. 4 McIntosh, Book of the Gard., ii. 668.

88. Prod. of Bomb., 156, 301. © Thunberg, Japan, 324.

, kyar ;3 in Sanscrit, sookasa; in Tamil, mooloo-_

4

gto History of Garden Vegetables. a [

men to be grown as a curiosity, but it may be used for pickling
This plant was known to the herbalists, and its figures compar
with those of our modern seedsmen, as, for instance:

Cucumis longus. Lugd., 1587, i. 621.
Green Serpent. Dammon Cat., 1884-85.
Concombre Serpent. Vilmorin, 1883, 166.

The fruit is characterized by its striz, which render it at one
recognizable, In Japan it is called sjo kwa, awo uri} 4

Cumin. Cuminum cyminum L.

A small annual plant indigenous to the upper regions of thè
Nile, but carried at an early period by cultivation to Arabia,
India, and China, as well as to the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean.? Itis referred to by the prophet Isaiah, andis
mentioned in Matthew.4 Pliny’ calls it the best appetizer of all
the condiments, says the Ethiopian and the African are of sit
perior quality, but that some prefer the Egyptian. During the
middle ages Cumin was one of the species in most common Us
and is mentioned in Normandy in 716, in England between 1264
and 1400, and is enumerated in 1419 among the merchandise
taxed in the city of London. It is mentioned in many of
herbals of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and ie e
corded as under cultivation in England in r504°. In India *
seeds form an ingredient of some curry powders and picke:
and in France yet find use in cookery. The seed is gcaint
ally advertised in American seed-catalogues, but is pr i

very rarely grown. ka
= Cumin is named, in France, Cumin de Malte; in Btn
Lfeffer-kummel ; in Holland, omijn ; in Italy, comino di
in Spain, comino; in Greece, kumino; in Egypt, ™
-in Egyptian, kapen, or tapen, or tapn ;* in Arabic, J
_ Bengali, yeera, or zira; in Ceylon, dooroo; in Hint ae
zira; in Malay, jintan; in Sanscrit, jeruka ajaji; ™
siragum ; in Telegu, gilakara.*

` * Kaempfer, Amæn., 1712, 811. 2 Pharmacographia, 1879 33"
3 Isaiah, ch. xxviii, 25-27. 4 Matthew, ch. xxiii. 23-
5 Pliny, lib: xix. c. 47. 6 Mill. Dict., 1807,
7 Dutt., Hind. Mat. Med. i 173. 8 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883+
9 Vick’s Cat. 1884. to Pickering, Ch, Hist., 215. -

u Birdwood, Veg. Prod, of Bomb., 40, 237.

History of Gardéh Vegetables, oll

— Danvetion, Taraxacum officinale Weber; T. dens leonis Desf.

| The dandelion is a modern introduction to our gardens, and
= àll the. varieties now grown can be recognized in a state of
= mature; and yet, on account of its popularity, and hence the
a forced conditions of its growth, the variations, to the careless
_ observer, seem very great. The history of the improved dande-
lion may be found in full in the American Naturatist of Jang
lary, 1886,

__ The beginnings of the culture of a plant must, however, be
_ Wety gradual, single individuals often growing the species in
_ gardens long before the plant receives general appreciation.
_. Thus with the dandelion, although its culture cannot be fairly
ee Sid to antedate 18 36, yet Stevenson, in his “ Garden Kalendar”
l for 1765, in England, although not directly mentioning its cul-
_ tire, yet implies culture by giving directions for the blanching.
hh China, according to Bretschneider, the leaves are recorded
being eaten as vegetable in the fourteenth century, and the
w plant is classed among vegetables by Li-shi-chen, a writer of the
4 TN century; but from the data given we cannot assume
cultivation,

tr

uon

, Ditt. Anethum graveolens L.

Mi aromatic plant has but little use in the garden. In
a the seeds are used as a condiment, and for pickling with
ú: bes In American gardens it is rather to be considered
5 à medicina] herb. It is commonly regarded as the anethon

Mn Scorides and the anethum of Pliny, Palladius, and others.
Spol

ame dill is found in writings of the middle ages, and it is
"of as a garden plant in the early botanies. The variety
nw 5 De C, is largely grown in India. In England it was
‘that ll by Turner? in 1 538, which implies its presence at
oe It also occurs in the vocabulary of Alfric, Archbishop

Te 1606,4 and seems to occur spontaneous in the far
Todi — roots are used as a food by the Snake and Shoshone l
> Y whom it is called yampehs
insider » Bot. Sin., 53, 59. 2 Turner, Libellus, 1538. a
Fremont’, Ee 1879, 328. 4 McMahon, Am. Gard. Kal., 1806.

ee pedition, 154; Dept. Ag. Rept., 1870, 405.

912 History of Garden Vegetables.

Dill, or. dyll, is called, in France, aneth, fenouil batard
Sony, dill; in Flanders, dille ; in Denmark, dild; in}
aneto ; in Spain, eneldo;* in Arabic, the plant chedet, the í
chamar ;? in Egypt, sjoebet; in Yemen, schibt;3 in Bengal,
suloopha, soolpha; in Ceylon, sattacooppa; in Hindustani, soni,
soie, soya, shutapoospha ; + in India, shutapooshna ;5 in Sanscrit
sitasiva, missreya, shaleya; in Tamil, saddacooppie ; in Tae
suddapa, sompa-sopu.* 1

EARTH-NUT. Lathyrus tuberosus L.

A plant now included among vegetables for the garden by
Vilmorin,® although he says it is scarcely ever cultivated, bit |
the tubers are often collected from the wild plant in Frane
_ Burr? likewise includes this species among American garia
plants, but we know not upon what authority. In 1783,
says this French weed was cultivated in Holland for its roots, d
which were carried to market; and De Candolle and Sprengel
say that in Siberia the tubers are much relished by the Tartars, i
and also are used in Germany. It scarcely. caņ be considere
seriously as a plant of culture. 4

The earth-nut, tuberous-rooted pea, or eatable-rooted pa
called, in” France, gesse tubereuse, anette, anotte de i
chataigne de terre, chourles, favouette, gland de terre, pe
cusson, mitrouillet, souris de terre ; in Germany, erdnuss ; :
ders, aardnoot; in Holland, aardakker ; in Italy, shin
forks by the Calmucks, sohnok ; 1° by the Tartars, tschina?

* Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 8. 2 Delile, Fl. Ægypt, illust. Pe
3 Pickering, Ch. Hist., 323- 4 as Veg. Prod. of Bomb., 35

6 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot, Poi ak 7 =a Field and Gard. Veg» OF
8 Bryant, Fl. rage m 9 De Candolle & Sprengel, Phil.

(To be continued.)

Remarks on Classification of Vertebrata. 913

_ REMARKS ON CLASSIFICATION OF VERTE-
i BRATA.

BY BURT G. WILDER.

i k classifications of animals present three general —
^2 features :
= (2) An approximate conformity to the prevailing idea that the
kinds or grades of groups, the “ categories” of the elder Agassiz,
àre limited to branch, class, order, family, genus, and species,
_ with, in some cases, the recognition of intermediate grades,—
#8, sub-class, superorder, etc.
(0) The division of a given group into an indefinite number of
_ Subdivisions, commonly more than two,—e.g., of natural objects
_ into three kingdoms; of animals into four, five, or seven branches ;
_ vertebrates into five or more classes.
oe (c) The frequent discrimination of groups by characters which
are neither constant nor peculiar, and derived from parts like the
- Skeleton or limbs examined, and de-
Scribed
The accompanying arrangement is partial,.and in several re-
“pects provisional. It accords essentially with the more recent
‘oh of high authorities, but attention is called to the following
‘Ratures ;

(2) It is wholly dichotomous.
g Several of the divisions are based upon the conditions of
cautes of the central nervous system.
o ) The new names refer to characters which are constant and
"47, so that they are not merely designatory in a conventional
“se, but etymologically and descriptively correct?
W -e names are largely correlated so as to suggest their
antitheses,
he fully appreciates the undesirability of introducing
a S, and by no means urges the adoption of ay here
ph SXcepting as expressive and convenient substitutes for
*Read at the New y r : “oe He
da ork meeting of the American Association for the Advance-
On this 2, Ug. 12, 1887. sitar a
Ae. Proc. oa See the writer’s “ Educational Museums of Vertebrates,” Amer. ae
ob 276,

s

914 Remarks on Classification of Vertebrata, :

MAMMALIA.—Mesoceele tubular; men

SAUROPSIDA ( = reptiles and birds); ccelian roof quadrilobate, forming try

mesoccele laterally extended; roof pair of optic lobes. i
ilobate.

-

p

AMNIOTA = Abranchiata = reptils,
birds, and mammals; aulic floor ap

ANAMNIOTA = Branchiata — Amphibia proximately vertical.
+ Dipnoi; aulic floor horizontal. i
i MICRAULICA (aula small; cerebral hem
MEGAULICA (aula large; cerebral hem- ispheres extended vertically); =Am
ispheres extended horizontally or un- phibia, Dipnoi, reptiles, birds, and

i mammals.

phibia, Dipnoi, and Branchiostoma.

N
MonoceLia ( encephaloccele single; PoLYCŒLIA (encephalocele segmented;
1 ‘

neuron epaxal only; axon unseg- neuron partly preaxal; axon ~~
mented) ; —Cephalochorda — Acrania rated) == Craniata = achycardia=
s+ ocardia = Monolocularia — Multilocularia. a
' Branchiostoma, ;

PHENOCEELIA (neurocæle persistmi)=

metamera = Branchiostoma and oibë

CRYPTOCELIA (neuroccele transitory) = vertebrates, l :
_ Ametamera = Urochorda — tunicates. NJ |
CŒLONEURA (neuron hollow) = e

STEREONEURA (nervous centre solid if data (+ Enteropneusta 2).
present) = most “ Invertebrates,” N

' METAZOA. i a
_ Explanation of the T; able—The more compr ehensive groti
are below and their divisions above. a

From the point representing a given group two oe ne
forming what may conveniently be called a /urca, or two-tined 10%

-The vertical tines form part of a line of direct ascent A oad
The oblique tines or branches extend to the left, and indicilt
groups not in the line of succession. | :

For convenience the furcas may be numbered from belot
upward, and the groups mentioned as direct and oblique, like
tines which represent them. 7
_ +ae only unfamiliar terms which are not self-explanato
mesocele, the cavity of the mesencephal, or segment ge
lobes, and aula, the mesal division of the prosoccele, oF ae
the Prosencephal. Prearal and epaxal are synonymes ofp
and epichordal, Monolocularia and mudtilocularia refer to the ©
diac cavities, ae

For the ‘sake of brevity the arithmetical signs t
lus, minus, and equal) are employed. .

Remarks on Classification of Vertebrata, ; 915

General Features of the Scheme. Dichotomy.—The twofold .
_ division of groups is not new in practice, and is, as it seems to
_ the writer, becoming more common,—e.g., the primary division
of animals into Protozoa and Metazoa in place of four or more
= “branches”; the primary division of vertebrates into Acrania
_ and Craniota, and the combination of Reptiles and Birds as Sau-
_ fopsida, But, apparently, there has not been hitherto a distinct
- fecognition of dichotomy as a fundamental principle in natural
_ Glassification, or an expression of doubt as to whether any group
kally comprises three or more equal and co-ordinate subdi-
Visions, The writer’s view may be briefly stated as follows:
dnany assemblage of three or more objects, individuals, or groups,
‘ two or more of these units are more nearly related to one another
than to the third or the others, indicating a primary division of the
Mire assemblage, Very commonly the basis for the distinction
WS the presence or absence of an organ, feature, or condition,
Whence arise positive and negative names, like vertebrate and in-
Vertebrate, amniota and anamntota, etc.
: Itrespective of special facts, then, the writer has been led to
Coubt the naturalness of, for example, the popular subdivision of
Maral objects into three co-ordinate kingdoms, animal, vegetable,
À ind mineral; of the chordata into wrochorda, cephalochorda, and
enka > Of vertebrates into Ichthyopsida, Sauropsida, and
ammatia, and of mammals into Prototheria, Metatheria, and
- shew Polychotomy is probably never more than provisional,
and all classification will eventually be dichotomous.
7 e ra and Taxonomic Importance of the Central
Ystem—The superior taxonomic value of the brain and
pe Da insisted upon by the writer in a paper read before this
from Ba in 1875 ; during the last seven years, as may be seen
ous publications, he has become more and more im-
i with the profound morphological significance of the
wa and modifications of the cavity of the central, nervous
on A y the neurocæle,
EA cele persists in all vertebrates, including Branchi-
val. and is present in the early stages of all Tunicates whose
“eae is known. So far as the writer has been able ig.
“a, the central nervous system is neither tubular nor even
Ricates Mt any stage with any “ Invertebrate,’ excepting the Tu-

3 een, perhaps, Balanoglossus.

~ as bilobate may need qualification in view of

= aks the Eutheria and the others (ee

x 916 Remarks on Classification of Vertebrata.

In accordance with the prevailing tendency to utilize the
skeletal parts for taxonomic purposes, the vertebrates and T
cates have been called Chordata, and Balanoglossus has tea
spoken of as a Hemichordate. Balfour regards the notoc
“the most characteristic organ of the Chordata.”

In proposing to replace Chordata (a word, by the way, ¢
mistaken for the Latin caudata) by Cceloneura, the writer c
less for the adoption of the term than for the admission that
parts are not only physiologically but morphologically more
nificant than hard; that the neuron is more important than $
axon; and that the cavity of the one is a more substantial basis
the primary subdivision of the Metazoa than is the entire
the other.

Special Points and Queries—Should it seem desirable to
arate those Metazoa in which the nervous system is di
from those in which none has been detected, it would only
necessary to interpolate between furcas one and two anot
the two tines of which should stand respectively for sae
Aneurica, or equivalent terms; the Neurica would then co
the Cceloneura and the Stereoneura.

The name Vertebrata is used only as a synonyme; if re
there should be an understanding as to whether it —_ g
oe or include that form, or include the Tun

po the members of the oblique division of the ©
furca the Ganoids and Teleosts should be combined as fishes
_ Pisces, and distinguished from each other by the persistent
_ Considerable cavities of the olfactory lobes with all
Notwithstanding the writer's supposed observation pose
Proc., 1876, 258), these cavities are absent or insi
Teleosts examined. i
The association of the Amphibia with the Dipnoi is be :
ance with the considerations presented in the writer $ P%
tie brain of Neoceratodus ; see this journal, June, 1837
- The characterization of the mesoccelian roof of ei

tions on the interoptic lobes of some reptiles.
The primary division of the Mammals Should, p

ete said for either view, and it is to be

Sand-Boulders in the Drift in Central Missouri. t9

ypical implacentals, prepared by alinjection, may be carefully
spared with each other and with those of representative

Historical Note—It is proper to add that the idea of recog-
two antithetical groups according to the presence or ab-
tence of a neuroccele, was first formulated by the writer, under
the names c@lianata’and acelianata, on a slip dated November
add caloneura and stereoneura are dated April 3, 1885,

passage on page 416 in Bell's “ Comparative Anatomy and
iology” (Philadelphia, 1885), commenting on the presence
a cavity in the nervous axis of chordata, was first seen March
13, 1886; but in January of that year, in lectures to students,
aed ina letter to Prof. J. H. Comstock, the general scheme of
ous classification was presented in substantially the

m here given.

SAND-BOULDERS IN THE DRIFT, OR SUBAQUE-
es OF THE: DRIFT, IN CENTRAL
i URI.:

BY J. W. SPENCER, M.A., Pu.D., F.G.S.

OCATION.—During the winter of 1883-84 deep excavations

_Were made in the Drift for foundations of additional build-

at the University of Missouri (lat. 38° 57’ N.; long. 92° 20°

: The altitude is seven hundred and thirty-six feet above

anid Mexico. The University is near the southern margiń

~ Polling Prairie, bounded by the large valley of the Hurkson

4.” SXcavated out of Lower Carboniferous limestones to a

A of one hundred and sixty feet.

do iological Associations —The large valley dates back to the

Of the Lower Carboniferous epoch. It was subsequently

= or less occupied by deposits of the Coal-Measures, which

nce been removed, except in some embayments and trib-

favines. Whilst these deposits are not found capping the —
* walls of the valley, yet remnants occur farther away, .

the Drift-mantle, over the elevations of the rolling

as shown in a well at the Gardens, just east of the

'» where the Carboniferous shales have a thickness of :

a

918 Sand-Boulders in the Drift in Central Missouri.

thirty-two feet (Professor Tracey). The country to the north is
more or less underlaid by coal-basins. The undulations of this
region were produced before the deposition of the Drift, as the
denudation which removed the Coal-Measures excavated water
courses out of the limestones. To these undulations the Drift
conforms, and where cut through by the streams, these flow
upon liméstone-beds, the higher layers of which abound in
chert. E

3. General Character of the Drift—At the University Gardens —
the thickness of the Post-Pliocene deposits reaches twenty-nine —
feet; at the University, more than twenty-two feet; but in the |
bed of a stream immediately to the westward it thins out. e
upper two to three feet consists of highly-calcareous, clayey soil .
different from the poorly-calcareous Drift (A, Fig. 1). The Drik
consists of a drab, hard, sandy clay, very much cracked and
stained with iron, —bright yellow-red; or occasionally with mat- d
ganese,—bluish-black (Fig. 1). The staining is superficial, and

.>

T
V i
Tab
Ie

the mottled appearance has been produced since the sine
of the clay. The clay.is rudely stratified, as shown in à pt
out, where a torrent has cut through it (fifteen to twenty she
thick). The lower portion contains fragments of chert from
subjacent rock, and occasional boulders of granite, ee
and quartzite, which rarely occur higher in the clay-
boulders seldom reach two feet in diameter, although, eighty
ninety miles to the northward, there is an erratic oie
hundred and twenty-five tons’ weight; but the margin

Drift is not far distant to the southward. Enclosed i gi

.

1887] Sand-Boulders in the Drift in Central Missouri. 919

_ pebbles of crystalline rocks, from one to four inches in diameter,
_ ae occasionally found. In a few places there are concretionary.
; nodules of calcareous matter, similar to those of the loess.
_ There are some included layers of compact blue clay. In one
_ Section the remains of a tree were found.

= 4 The Mechanical Analysis of the Drift, compared with that of
- the Local Carboniferous Shale.—

(a) The Drift-clay was found to contain

Free rounded sand, 2-0.2 mm. in diameter 19.8

“ “ 0.2-0.1 “ e 9.4

Clayey sand, 0.1-0.05 “ “ 22.8

Clay, finer 48.0
100,00

Thus we see that the Drift contains not less than fifty per cent.
of free and generally rounded grains of sand, most of which is
‘omposed of quartz, with a little that is feldspathic.

: (4) In the Carboniferous shales there is no distinctly separable

aaa og T EE

Stee cease.

.
veidrch ea Let Sey teem

Water,

.
Vator ee nr ty TTE ‘es 5-73

ii 100.40
:D Sand-Pockets in the Drift-—Wherever cuttings are made in
of numerous irregular sand-pockets are apt to occur. In
Of them, however, the sand is mixed with much clay, but
* The,separation was in a Shéne apparatus.

920 Sand-Boulders in the Drift in Central Missouri. [c

they are quickly recognized owing to their brighter color, being
more highly stained red-yellow than the clay, as the coloring- —

matter appears to have been an after-deposit in the more porous —

wii! ©. ;

. Sand-Boulders—Besides the irregular sand-pockets thereare —
occasional well-formed, rounded boulders of sand, distinctly sepa —
rated from the clay. Some sections, exposed in the foundations —
and drains, were two hundred feet or more in length, and tento
eighteen feet deep, and cut through many sand-boulders. Some
of the boulders were three to four feet long by one to one and 4
one-half feet thick (Fig. 4); one was fifteen feet long and three _
thick (Fig. 2); another thirty feet by six (Fig. 3); and a right —
angled segment eighteen feet in diameter was taken out of at-
other (Figs. 1 and 4), whose thickness was eight feet; but ontop
of the boulder there was a deposit of fine stratified sand one and
one-half feet thick. A
8. Character of the Sand-Boulders—The sand is generally 4
Coarse (the grains being one to five millimetres in diameter),
with parallel layers of pebbles (one to two inches in diameter}
It contains a little clay, which, together with`the surfaces of et ;
grains, is brightly stained with iron. The boulders usually p 4
horizontally, but occasionally they are found thrown upon pe '

Owing to the general occurrence of sand-pockets and boulder 4
Scattered through the clay, most of the brick walls built ap
the clay foundations are liable to crack, as some portion
rests upon the yielding strata. i
9. Origin of the Sand-Boulders, and the Subaqueous Ongim ee
Drift—From the stratified character of the sand-boulders q"
resting in the clay, and their rounded form, their subat
origin is manifest. The rounded form is the result of the
wearing and dissolving away the angularity of masses 0
sand. The transportation was effected by coast and #9
ice, into which the sandy masses were frozen. The j
masses of sand commingled with the clay were depos! m

7] Sand-Boulders in the Drift in Central Missouri. 921
“the broken ice-carriers crushed in the jams of many an ice-pack.
The presence of the sand-boulders forced upon their edges, and

often broken, bears evidence of the violent action of the wind
and waves upon the ice. These floes were stranded or sunken
_in waters which derived at least a part of their mud from the
forth, The boulders were generally rounded before their strand-
ing, for often the clay between them does not show any sand
derived from the removal of their angularities; yet broken frag-
_Ments may be seen (as at B in sections). Owing to their porosity
_ the amount of ice necessary to lift the masses would not be many
_ times their volume (except at jams they are rarely less than sev-
_ tal feet, at least, apart), as their buoyancy would be greatly in-
_treased by the frozen water within them; and we know that the
Waters of the Arctic seas freeze to a depth of seven to eight feet
during the long winter, and fresh water somewhat deeper. The
: unbroken boulders could not have been pushed along, nor could
they have been formed so as to have been transported upon the
back or within a glacier. These deposits were probably made
ina shallow arm of the sea (cut off by the Ozark ridge rising a

ad hundred feet higher); yet the waters may have been either
sega or even fresher,—as in the Gulf of Obi to-day,—owing

i!

the amount of fresh water pouring into it; and not in a glacial
take held back by an ice-dam south of a vast, extensive lake.
x » We know that the Mississippi Valley has undergone
‘onsiderable oscillation and warping since the Tertiary period.
; a In conclusion, the presence of sand-boulders of northern
~ S10, as well as the erratics, deposited in a somewhat stratified,
i ted clay, is a demonstration that the Drift of Central
Souri Is of subaqueous origin.
ited E. Andrews has observed similar sand- and gravel-boulders in the
; à which the lake tunnel was driven at Chicago. Some of these con-
wo sea weet Other pockets are fain at Homewood CT
from panes elsewhere. However, the Drift in Northern Illinois aifiers
i Ssouri, and contains less free sand, and an absence of the abundance
TE Sand-boulders seen at the latter place.

$

ican industry, but this tax on the instruments and books F

_hibitory. Can it be wondered that every plan for

ent duties, would tend generally towards the ad

922 Editors Table.

EDITORS’ TABLE.

EDITORS; E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

Wantep: A definition of a “ Philosophical Instrument.” “Go
to the dictionary,” did you say? The definition there found:
of no use for present purposes. What is wanted is one which
the United States customs officials will respect and be com
to abide by. These self-sufficient and irresponsible agents of
the people have their own views on the subject, and their de-
cisions would be amusing were they not so aggravating. There
is an instrument known as a hydrometer. It consists of a glass
tube, containing mercury in its lower portion, and a scale. This
the ruling says, is a philosophical instrument, and, as such,
a duty of thirty-five per cent. The same materials combined
a thermometer constitute no longer a philosophical instrument,
but a “ manufacture of glass,” and, as such, pay a duty of forty
five per cent. So far as we have been able to ascertain, none
the instruments used by the biologist are to be ranked as
sophical instruments. Microscopes and microtomes are “m

ures of metal,” as ruled by the Washington wiseacres,
opposition to the opinions of the best’ scientific men of
country.

This question of duty on importations is a S$
Scientific men. It is all very well to talk of protection

erious one
to Amer
Student of science actually results in the discouragement ©
knowledge. If the student desire to import for his own ™
any book in a foreign language,—a book which has n
slightest chance of being reprinted here, —he is met by me
of twenty-five per cent, —a rate which, in many ¢as°, "

smuggling
desired books is tried? A more reasonable interpretation
existing laws, or, better, a revision and a reduction of the P

honesty:

American science and the promotion of American

Recent Literature. — pax 923

RECENT LITERATURE.

Wolles Fresh-Water Algze of the United States.t—In the
two substantial volumes of this long-looked-for work we have
brought together a great mass of useful knowledge, which will
long be a monument to the industry and patience of the author.
The labor involved in the preparation of the plates alone, with
their multitudes of figures, is something enormous, and, when
We remember that this work was all performed by the author

f one cannot help admiring the spirit which prompted the

àre observed in the present book may be much more easily
oided or corrected in future publications. The book thus marks
important advance in this field of botanical science.

Ae author, in an introductory chapter of about half a dozen

r. Anton Hansgirg, of the Royal University of Prague.
summing up, our author says, “It is evident that, sooner or

Present system is altogether too artificial, separating, as it does,
5 not only into different genera, but into different
‘s and orders, which are genetically connected. Our pres-
ge is too imperfect for a complete arrangement. It

aok upon the system he adopts, that “ many genera
“Og hla which have literally no worth, but they serve
e.

Ree treated in the book are arranged under three classes,
“iodophyceze, Chlorophycez, and Cyanophycee. The
trangement :

Craik Families.—1. Lemaneacese; 2. Porphyracez; 3. Ba-
TADE cee; 4. Hildebrandtiaceæ. ae

me Algæ of the United States” (exclusive of the Diatomacez) ;
2 Desmids of the United States; with two thousand three hundred

oe agp of Desmids. By the Rev. Francis Wolle, member of
of Microscopists. Bethlehem, Pa.: The Comenius Press, 1887.
364; vol. ii., plates Nos, LIV. to CCX. Price, $10.00.

y

»

, the whole system of classification must be changed. The —

y

One hundred and fifty-one plates, a few colored, pyre oA ee

| y :
ubdivisions are as shown in the following condensed. -

s

3

a

‘

a | General Notes.

_ well drawn, and are much better than in Cooke’s “ British F

ass II, —-CHLOROPHYCE,

Order I1.—Confervoidea. Families.—5. Coleochztacez ;
7. Spheropleacee; 8. Confervacez; 9. Pithophoracez. i
baal Ill.—Stphonee. Fa as Hues Vaucheriacez ; 11. Botrydiaceæ.
Order 1V.—Protococcoidee. Fami a Volvocaceze; 13. Protococe:
te Palmellacez ; 15. Chytridie
_ Order V. Fit sx eg, Families. eat Conjugate; 17. Desmidiex.
Class 11].—CyANOPHYCE.
Order VI. ae apipi —Families.—18. Nostocaceæ; 19, Chroococcace

It will be observed that the “ families” are groups so
in the German sense, and are really co-ordinate with the 1
hamian “orders” of ‘ordinary phanerogamic botany.

“ orders” of the book are, perhaps, equivalent to the “Coho
of the higher plants as arranged by Bentham and Hooker.

i A

mon manuals of the eens plants, in which “
“family” are synonym

pa e micromillimetre is used ae ase as the
measurement. The plates, while not artistic, are, appar
quite accurate. Some of them are a little too diagrammatic, ®
for example, some of the Spirogyre. The Œdo onia are ©

Water Algæ. ae

The author deserves the gratitude of American botanists
bringing out this book and placing it within the reach of all,
price being scarcely half of that of the corresponding
work referred to above.— Charles E Bessey.

GENERAL NOTES.
GEOLOGY AND eg

Sadick. of fossils from the classic bad lands of H jel
regions of Dakota and Nebraska collected by Mr.

* “ Preliminary Account of the Fossil Mammals from the ne we ie "5
a in the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cam bridges
Museum, vol. xiii. No. 5, August, 1887.

Geology and Paleontology. . .) 92

cture of Dinictis, which induces the authors to refer that _
is to the Cryptoproctide. 2. Determination of the foot-
ture of Hoplophoneus, which places the genus in another

; on.

fe discovery of Metamynodon is an important addition to

knowle it indi i i i
CTO

ars in the Eocene, in the genus Amynodon. The au-
5 do not place these genera in the Hyracodontide, but pro- `
for them a new family. I, however, think that they cannot

mynodon, according to Scott, the mastoid bone is exposed on
€ Outer side of the skull,

true line of ancestry of the rhinoceroses does not come
‘ough the Hyracodontida, as. I showed in 1881." I then re-
ded the genus Czenopus (Cope) as the ancestral form of the
observed the Lophiodontid character
+ occidentalis Leidy). Further observations to the same
are made by Professors Scott and Osborn in the present
- Ihave also noticed that the superior premolar teeth in
Pus do not differ essentially from those of the Lophio-
; dæ, and are totally different from those typical of Rhi-
ontide and Hyracodontidz. :

Laphie ri
“Phiodonti
the two a

aa wearing, in consequence of the development of

a ae crochets,” but the crests are essentially distinct. =
è true i (type, A. iucisivum) the superior premolars are o

on lmoceros type. In the Rhinoceros schleiermacheri they

CO) tid pattern,
tee Ceratorhinus, where I have placed it.

S Amer, Philoso hi ; a eh he S stematic Ar- : 7
eh phic. Soc., 1881, p. 380: “On t Y i
s the order P eriosodactyla,” P ; . 2

: S. Geolog. Survey Terrs., 1879, v. p. 235-

Si ithe other hand, constructed, as in Canopus, on the eke
This species must be, therefore, sepa- =
randt has —

o 926 General Notes.

hornless ; and Dihoplus, horned.

In Cænopus one of the premolars—the second—has the
nocerotic structure, in the two species known. In distingui
ing this genus I rely on the structure of the superior pren
- rather than on that of the anterior foot. Iam not able t
stantiate my statement that there are but three digits in
manus of C. mitis, and Scott finds four in that of C. occident
—E£. D. Cope.

arsh on New Fossil Mammalia.?—About three weeks alter

genus under the name of Brontops. This genus,
stand between Menodus and Symborodon. Symboroa”
noceras Cope next appears under the name “ Menops vat"
The generic character as given does not differ from yy
“Brontops,” and the species is undescribed. The Mat
platyceras S. & O. next appears as “ Titanops ami :
no description is given for either genus or species. the
species is referred to the same genus, and a few n
acters are barely referred to. Finally, another new =
species are named, but most insufficiently described,
figure is given. is praise
The publication of pictorial scientific papers 1S ae
but something more than pictures is necessary to mat
scientific. And if one does not examine the east rer
” Mem. Acad. Imp- :

* Brandt, “ Tentamen Synopsis Rhinocerotidum.
St. Petersburg, 1879, vol. ar 48. ican ,

2“ Notice of New Fossil Mammals;” by Ô. C. Marsh. Ame
ence and Arts, 1877, October, p. 323. ; oo

Re i : Geology and Paleontology. : oa i

types of the work of others, he is very apt to make publications

nited States government should permit its money to be used in
ie way indicated in this paper and in others by the same author.

© possess an vs centrale carpi. The brain 1s,

rade, and ti
ee convoluted, and of elongate form. Professor Scott be-
yes the fain- =

» While in others it is distinct, as in the American species.
applic z r he believes De Blainville’s name Taxotherium to
pit. Cable.

ssor Scott closes by defining the suborder Creodonta, and
oth the Insectivora and the Carnivora—&. D.

some New and Littl ; Extracted
€-Known Creodonts,” by W. B. Scott.
Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, August 10,

tinct osion of its affinities. He believes the group to be |
from b ‘ ;

928 fhe General Notes.

BOTANY."
= The Eastward Extension of Pinus ponderosa

southeast corner of the Territory, where it swings out into
kota so as to include the Black Hills; it immediately pa
back westward and northwestward into Wyoming to the Ko

ward to Texas, following pretty closely the rosth meri
This pine, therefore, according to this map, and all the desen
tions referred to, reaches its most eastern station in the
Hills of Dakota, at about 103° of, west longitude. f
In a recent botanical excursion into the northern portion È
Nebraska I found this pine at a number of stations fully thè
degrees farther to the eastward of the Black Hills. Itis
_ dant along the bluffs of the Niobrara River from near the 10
meridian to near the 102d, and probably much farther we
On the buttes which abound in Northwestern Nebraska,’
the head-waters of the

Blac

| _ mined, but think they are not. Aa
__ Upon the bluffs bordering the Great Cañon, in which flow’.
asahancha Creek, commonly called Long Pine

_€ast of the 1ooth meridian. Inquiries failed to
istence of the pines eastward of this cañon, and

* Edited by Prof. CHARLES E, BESSEY, Lincoln, Nebraska:

y 4 ¥ a
Botany. ` ee n 929
species, It is interesting to note that the Indian name of the
_ creek, Wasahancha, is said to mean “ where the pines extend far

_ out,” as if the Indians had also noted the remarkable eastward *
extension of the Rocky Mountain pine.— Charles E. Bessey.

‘Paty anywhere else upon the continent. Each has stretched

out along arm from its forest area, and the two trees have thus

come together, oe

\t the station mentioned I saw walnut-trees between two and

feet in diameter, and am informed that, several years ago,

- Considerable quantity of walnut lumber was manufactured from
in the cañon.— Charles E. Bessey.

ited Iron-Wood Tree in the Black Hills.—Although lim-
, westwardly to “ Eastern Iowa, Southeastern Missouri, an
Sas, to Eastern Kansas, the Indian Territory, and Eastern
by Sargent (“Woods of the United States,” p. 95), I
observed the iron-wood (Osérya virginica), in consider-
k undance, upon the head-waters of Rapid Creek, in the”
loaded Hills of Dakota. The trees were not large, but were |
1 with their hop-like fruits. It occurs also in Northern,
“xa, upon the Niobrara River and its tributaries, and in
= eastern counties along the Missouri River.—Charles E. Bessey.

shee Another Tumble-Weed.—The list of plants having the
1> founding up their stems and branches so as to form a-

end of the season —
mble-weed,” must —

hik:
«

j

‘

=

cA o ieee General Notes. se
phyllum). This plant grows sparingly about Lincoln, Neb.
along the Platte River it is very abundant upon the sandy
-near the river, and upon land which has, after ploughing, be
allowed to lie idle. About Long Pine and Valentine it alme
entirely replaces Amarantus albus, the common tumble-weed,
but at Chadron the latter occurs almost to the exclusion of the
winged pig-weed. Ata little distance the two. plants look ex
actly alike excepting in color. The winged pig-weed is ofa
light yéllowish-green color, while the other is dark green—
Charles E. Bessey. : ;

tany in the A. A. A. S.—An examination of the daily
programme issued by the Association shows that there wert

nevertheless, it remains true that many short papers arè "i
because of the fact that the author did not take time to fully

Botanical News.—There have lately appeared English
lations of two valuable German botanical works;—ViZ»

omparative Morphology and Biology of the Fung}, Myce ,
and Bacteria,” by De Bary, and the “ Lectures on the i
ology of Plants,” by Sachs, Both books are brought o
the Clarendon Press of Oxford. “The Task of #F
Botanists” is discussed by Dr. F
Popular Science Monthly, which he previously © oe

Botany. 931

imerican Society of Naturalists. The author rightly urges
American botanists to work along lines suggested by their sur-
roundings. “In the remoter districts the absorbing work for
_ some time to come must be the collecting of specimens and the
_ accumulation of field-notes.* In the older parts of the country

Ms——Late numbers of the Fournal of the Linnean Society
Contain B
aa r?” Bateson and Darwin’s “ Effect of Stimulation on Tur-
T ascent Vegetable Tissues ;’ King’s “ Observations on,the Genus

Be Masses" Disease of Colocasia: in Jamaica,” with an
a Uctory note by Morris; and Bennett’s paper on the “ Af-
and Classification of Alge.” In the August Fournal of
aker continues his“ Synopsis of the Tillandsiez,” and.
Son his “ Remarks on the Nomenclature of the Eighth
He F the ‘London Catalogue.’” A short paper on the

o Ko Of Botany in Japan,” accompanied by a portrait of

cin Ni 0. 4, from the Botanical Division of the Depar®
Agricy -

y

aker’s further contributions to the “ Flora of Mada-

a Gazette is announced in the August number. — fe
§ accepted the chair of Botany in the University of | i

PON with special reference to the Indo-Malayan and Chinese ©
jes”

-

ee ed :

932 : General Notes.

siderata of the Herbarium for North America north of Mexico,”
` including Ranunculacee to Rosacez. We trust that botanists
will very generally respond to the appeal for specimens. ;

ENTOMOLOGY. a

On the Homologies of the Wing-Veins of Insects.—Using
the conclusions of Adolph? as a starting-point, Redtenbacher?
has made a very elaborate investigation into the homologies of
the veins of the wings of insects; and, although his conclusions
may not be generally accepted, they will be of interest to all
systematic entomologists. The work treats of each of the orders
of winged insects, and is illustrated by twelve plates, upon which
are one hundred and sixty figures of the wings of insects. We
have space for only a few extracts from the introductory portio
of the memoir.

cause a prolongation of the body-wall.
_ That the wings of insects are equivalent to the trachea
of the Ephemerid larva can hardly admit of a doubt.

gills. It is not only possible, but even probable, that tu
of insécts were originally not active, but merely passivi
_ of motion, serving, like the pappus of the Composite, for ex
_ for the floating and spreading of the progeny to a dista i
— -the essential nature of a rudimentary wing 1s 4 boi
which is filled with blood-liquid, contains nerves at
ments, and whose two plates do not grow together un

Entomology, 933

_ last moult. According to Adolph, these tracheal filaments rep-
_ tesent the foundation of the vein-system,—to wit, of the concave
_ veins; since the course of these, in the rudimentary wing, co-
_ incides completely with the net-work of concave veins in the
_ developed wing. Only later is every trachea shut in and closed

_ time,according to Adolph, the trachez force the two wing-plates
apart and beget a thinning of the wing-skin, which shows itself,
among other ways, by the fact that the wings, in case of pressure

these primary or concave veins appear later thickenings of the

_ Wing-skin, in the form of chitine lines, with which, finally, trachee

and blood-vessels associate themselves, and which form second-
rt i

‘ ‘Caused by thinning and the latter by thickening of the wing-skin ;
and since in the former the trachea, in the latter the chitine-band,

g only a na
hy itse

ight is j
tein descending, like a parachute. This can be obse

z

__ by chitine-mass, and thereby transformed into a rib. At the same `

or draught, regularly tear along the concave veins. Between `

\

r

; which still show approximately the fan type of vo s a :

ule,
~ swollen; they never interrupt cross-veins, and only exceptionally a
end in a re-entering angle, but, on the contrary, often cause at
the end bayings-out of the wing-margin. ee
Redtenbacher defines five fields in the fully-developed wing of
an insect. These are (1) the costal field, with the costa; (2)
radial field, with the radius and its numerous sectors; (3) a:
field of the fifth vein, or the medial field; (4) the cubital field,
with the cubitus; and (5) the anal field. He also proposes 3 d
uniform nomenclature for the venation in all of the orders. | ©
systems of convex veins running in the several fields are at ,
nated by the successive odd Roman figures,—#é., those of ti

ih, Hip IH; If, as is frequently the case, conca®
veins appear between the branches of a convex trunk,
designated by the Roman numerals of the convex

stone” Il;
thus, a concave vein between III, and III, is indicated y inl
+ ul o

Eai

Zoology. 935

The Genera of North American Phalangiines.—In working
over the rich collections of harvest-men belonging to the Illinois
State Laboratory of Natural History, in connection with recent

uropean literature, I find that very few of the species described
_ by Wood, under the old genus Phalangium, belong to that genus
_ 4 now restricted by the best European authorities. I have be-
_ fore me specimens of eight of the species treated by Wood (my
_ determinations of all but two of them having been verified,
through the kindness of Mr. Charles W. Woodworth, by com-
parison with the types in the Museum of Comparative Zoology),
and I find that P. dorsatum, vittatum, nigropalpi, and verrucosum,
n all belong to the genus Liobunum of C. Koch, as defined by
- Simon? I have also provisionally referred P. formosum and
_ P. calcar to this genus, though, on account of the projecting
_ Mner angle of the palpal patella in the former and the spur-like
_ Process on the outer ventro-lateral surface of the femur of the
“arg in the latter, they do not appear to strictly belong to it.

Bs
$

Ag

cmereum falls into the restricted genus Phalangium, and

wŠ
`

x tum goes to Oligolophus. I suspect that P. bicolor and
a P. ventricosum also belong to Liobunum.

æ, and, if the specimen be dropped immediately into al-

other.—Clarence M. Weed, Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist,
paign, 18th August, 1887. :

ZOOLOGY.

ay

vo Soc. Lond. 87) on the “ Systema’
Position a a 2.1886, pp. 558-662, 1887) on the “ Syste
“sition and Classification of Sponges” : = fi.

0, n eleton cal eous.. saeeibe

e No calcareous skeleton ene

tf odem consists exclusively of collar-cells........++++ sovcesanees RIE
erm consists of collar- and pavement-cells... s.es -sreseeesrerserserraeree

rgans will be pushed out of the genital opening between-

nt: Essex Inst., vol. vi, pp. 10-40. ? Arach. de France, vol. vi. p. 172-

rf

Key. to the Recent Families of Sponges.—The following a
aah 's taken from Dr. R. von Lendenfeld’s recent paper (Proc. ns

wh Om

` | General Notes. ra

{Mesoderm thin, sii a irregular
2. Mesoderm thin, radial cylindrical chambers
des, Mesoderm thick, og hard ohn b
With cylindrica cal c cha
3:4 With s ne
Chambers opening directly into gastral cavity Sya
4. J Chambers opening into exhalent canals which lead into the gastral

cavity Sylleibide. 4
Exhalents lead into oscular tubes Leuconide,
‘5.4 Exhalents fete direct on one side of the lamellar sponge; inhalent
pore her side exclusive ely df: ore
6. Vith ARE spicules and thimble-shaped cha
{Without hexact spicules; with spherical or res: ed chambers.. s..

P
The spicules remain isolate T r partly coalesce, afterwards ‘megan
7 . he supporting spicules early coalesce in a regular dictyonid manner...
8. is exaster in the interior. i
4 ROS but amphidis
rmalia hetact, i, with centripetal radial ray “the

lon als est: pinnul æ
9. a in tie ual and dermal surfaces
. Dermalia Aang’ ag ray; no pinnulz

Jo. With numerous davai wo :
i With uncinates...
al “ ease

5 With radially iaat clavu ~ O
With Nr give situated scopulze ERE E
| 3 Branc and anastomosing tubes; the skeleton-net forming several
yers Py . Euret.
Bra nching tubular or calyculate, honeycombed ; -cavities “traversed by
13 Jeon monhe an eia aatas aE i Meli
% | Calyculate or expanded, een f augit ss by funnel-shaped canals _
mS À ning cates on one o r surface.. i ‘i i i aoe
nals irregu spia tr: s eleton o à
Deis aversing the ube dictyona jh ide

14. Meandrically winding tubes spuds
(Wi ith c artilaginous ground-substance and spherical chambers i
a jaien hist, tylostylote, or oat er cement :
spong Askeletous forms with spherical c amberseni i
15.4 With ol ground: aie a spherical or sac-shaped cham
ever tylostylote, cemented with spongin.
4 composed of horny fibre without proper here Aske

F With lithistid irregular tetraxon x fg JOS. sishevedizcseqenmaetneesnee?
With tetraxon spicules of irregular shape askeletous “forms
16. - heart ers, which have large outlets arena ©
on t Jipii: a E gata
Without ce ee spicules ; fesh-spicules when prestat, poy“
| _ _ small chambers which have narrow ou

-f Spicules quite irregular =
17. 4 Spicules rod-shaped, with Rik ra Salts ar tranche! e
es a tetractin, with termin Vese boeeee, Tetras
spicules chiefly tetracts, rhai e won eal can causes oan h beyond
18. ET tetract raia. with heg equal rays lying daen nor à

the sleet and one differentiated radial ray..se.sessesereetere tt
= 3-1 Win inconspicuous ciliated c eken with small out
With jarge conspicuous ciliated chambers with wide outlets.

t With can PEE E i
Eoas emmy tetr; EVITOS A e Pach, ;
‘ith scattered t seen tri diacts R

Without s ed EE ien

du
creppp ote eoteeeneerrs ”

erous sexes oid
| sac with differentiated large centripetal ray n Tare,

sansa

Zoology. 5 a CAIA

With spherasters Geodide.
d Without spherast ters i
Flesh-spicules euaster and oxyaster Stellettida.
{ Flesh-spicules spirastrella enei
h-spicules spirula and si gmata Tetilhde.
25. Withou Tethyopsyllida.
The widened distal ends of the radial spicule-bundles divide the regular
| subdermal cavities into ectochonze or vestibules at the entrance of
4 the inhalent aunts Tethyide,
| Between p bres ee of the radial spicule-bundles ecto- and ento-
] chonæ PS
E The inhale: ied ae kie ad n me the inhalent canals
Oe Roomba spirastrelid fesh-sp Spirited
éj» spi ul
Without flesh or pia ha
J With polyac K Sesh. sos Chondrillide. ,
pad Sd anes les Chondroside.
} proper Pecos 3 in ae supporting skelet 3I
Withont proper spicules in the supporting skele
{ With uniformly dis distribated skeleton pe bem 2a not very large sub-
Cavities......
The skeleton consists of a dense axial reticulation and isolated fibres ex-
tending from this to the surface. Beneath these very extensive sub-
Ainar ê ivin are situated 34
With etn living in fresh water Spongillide, ,
Without gemmulz,......... 3
mhout flesh- spicules; fibres of the supporting apna Bin
spine haphide
i Flesh-s spic cules signiata o or t spiral, noc He terorhaphiar i
i F lesh-spicu les chelæ æ; when lk p ia of supporting skeleto: i
a es Ca Desmacidentde.
3 Nochele Axinellide,
Wi wae With small Spheiical chanaber rs and opaque ground-substa isuedows . 36
ee Wi th large sac- “shaped chambers and } transparent ground-subsance. merere 39
{wae ithout filaments in the ground-s 37
7 th filaments in the ground-sul stanc : E Li
{ Skeletal fibres with thin axial canal i Spongide. ae
ii Stel fibres tubular, with hisk pith gah A
8 ee tight thin axi al —
with thin axial onal: reticulate pecbVaiecers ‘Senna ie.
B. Sea f es tubular, ith thick pi ith; dendritic Aplysillidæ.
eteeees Haliarcida, :

the reader is TE to this journal (September, 1887) for
ti Lendenfeld’ S grouping of the families embraced in the
oing i

w
*
si

D hee

Amphidis hi t style-shaped spicu

| iis, a h a with an enc disk at each end.
Cis ee or-s aped spicules a
the other, rods pointed at one end and bearing a knob or disk

nalia, dermal spicules,
vieda member of the tetraxonia group of f spicules, with

? Tan main hexact T con men to ae with, a

cee

938 General Notes.

“the bordet Dict onina.
Euaster, a stellate spicule. with stout pointed conic spi
- oe from one point. Occurs only in flesh-spicules.
Gemmule. The winter buds or statoblasts of fresh-wa
spo
mees a star-shaped aio with six generally equal rays
belonging to the triaxonian gro
[ypodermalia, Dermalia with aoa radial ray only. i

Lithistid, as in the group Lithistida, which has the spicules
tetraxon and often branched 5

Monaxonia, with one straight or curved axis, rod-shaped,
sometimes with lamellar outgrow

Oxyaster, a stellate spicule with long, slender pointed rays t
ating from one point. Occurs only among flesh-spicules.

Pinnula, a triaxonian star with five. or six rays, one of which is
highly developed and branched or covered with disks or sca
The opposite ray is smooth or absent; the other four ¢
(tangential).

Polyact, without definite axes and with numerous rays.

Scopule, fork- or broom-shaped spicules consisting of a 1
shaft traversed by an axial rod, to the distal end of whi
slender anaxial rods are attached.

Sigmata, S-shaped irregularly-curved flesh-spicules.

Spheraster, a ball of spicules radiating from a common cei

oe a spicule the numerous rays of which arise l
a stout spiral base.

ing a spiral spicule without spin

tylus, a rod-shaped spicule pointed “at one end and roun
at the other, but not knobbed.

Tetraxona, with four axes radiating from one point. The
of the spicules lie in the corners of a square pyramid and
derivatives,

Tetractina, a tetraxonian spicule with four rays. : ie

Triaxonia, spicules with three axes and six rays
nee ves.
viactina, a tetraxonian spicule with three rays.

Uncinata, a rod with recurved hooks throughout its F
sth. i

Occurrence of Stizostedium vitreum in the or the es
Connecticut.—In March, 1887, a small specimen of
named species was brought to the Museum of Wesleya#
versity, having been caught in Little River, a tributary
Connecticut, in the town of Cromwell, Conn. a
was about eleven and one-half inches in length. ated to
a So extraordinary that the fact was communi F

r Goode, of Washington. Subsequently the

J Zoology. 939

forwarded to him, and the identification of the species was con- i
firmed by him. The remarkable interest of the find appears

ing the intervening years, it is not likely that it was introduced
i - It appears likely that the eggs were carried
ters of the St. Lawrence basin to those of the

Peer Of the St Lawrence might have been thrown, still
Wee into a tributary of the Connecticut.— Wiliam North Rice,
esleyan University, Middletown, Conn.

.

re. wn.—For several weeks past the
les and lindens of the centrally-situated court-house

Portion of the town. By the time daylight fails
s (I speak advisedly) of individuals belonging to
Species have assembled, and the co mmotion among
g the process of settling for the ‘night is some-
If one hits a tree with a stone there is a noise
È amounting to a perfect roar. Nor is this coming in of
Se the Surrounding country for a night’s lodging any
Phenomenon in Media. Last year a heavy rain one night

& gathered them with much glee. But is this nota

“art of a town, and ni h ar and reject hundre!
, ghtly pass over and rejec nOr
of trees where there would appear to be much less prob-
their being disturbed? I have heard no satisfactory
n of the matter, although much has been said con-
XXL—xo, Io, 64 í : oa i

about one hundred and fifty of them, and the boys the e |

ing, that these birds should seek a roosting-place —

gag s

940 : General Notes.

cerning it by one and another. Can some of your bird
readers. tell us the why and the wherefore? For, I doubt

similar cases are not wanting, there being no new thing und
the sun, am, etc.,
* MEDIA, PENN., September 7, 1887. T.. C. PALMER.

Relation of the Dorsal Commissures of the Brain

n
prosencephalon, the thalamencephalon, the mesencephalon, an
ar. ormation of minor folds (neurom

the vagus and r cranial nerve three outgrowt
from the thalamencephalon forming the paired and m
. The diverticulum fro oor of the thalamencep

-= Abstract read before the New York meeting of the Amer, Assoc: Ad A

` 1887, by Dr. Henry F. Osborn. ER, ent,

2 I do not reckon the epencephalon (cerebellum) as a distinct ©

the roof df the metencephalon. ; : in a pape

X 3. This term has been applied by Dr. Henry Orr, of Princeton, 054 1
appear upon the development of the lizard’s brain. : a

s largely upon the question whether there is really a
i homology between the superior and posterior commissures

some valuable data as to the primitive condition of the enceph- $
f there is no such homology between these commis-

» ‘nere yet remains considerable ground for the supposition

t the inter-vesicular folds are simply lines of retarded growth

the walls and roof of the tube to be traversed at an early *
riod by the commissures.—Henry F. Osborn.

EXPLANATION OF CUTS.

a Diagrammatic longitudinal section of the frog’s brain at an early stage,
ming the division of the neural tube into the prosencephalon, p ; thalamenceph-
i mesencephalon, m; and metencephalon, m/. The letters are placed in the
“Ive ventricles, ‘

2. Camera drawing of a vertical section of the frog’s brain ata later stage, ©
the dorsal commissures occupying the inter-vesicular folds. Sem, superior
reo, 2, Posterior commissure ; cé/, cerebellum; %24, infundibulum; acm,
= Ommissure; x, pineal gland.

3

Bae drawing of a horizontal section of the frog’s brain at the same
"8 Me commissures traversing the folds.

and Stream for Jul i he results of his Poe
y 14, 1887, gives the resul” ivy it
He ‘shows that the accéuht given by MacGilwny =

$

eB

__ do not doubt that we will find in young specimens of Amia

_ Ontology has shown that in some fishes allied to Amia alt

_ posterior dorsals these processes become smaller,

_ the ribs unite below. The processes begin to disappeat
-ribs are now articulated directly with the free intercentre.
The so-called untere Bogen, lower arches, or hemap"

= OE Amia, are therefore really the ribs.

_ pleural Spines, are homonomous to the neural spine»

942 General Notes.

- Audubon’s “ Birds of America” is correct. The hollow cy indes

exist, but each horny tube is completely filled by the carti
nous rod of the glosso-hyal element, and hence cannot be used!
sucking. The tongue is, on the other hand, an instrumenti.
the prehension of small insects. Dr. Schufeldt further s
that in not a single cephalic structural particular do the hus
ming-birds agree with the swifts. ¥

On the Morphology of Ribs..—Embryology has shown!
the ribs are developed defween the mesoblastic somits; they af
therefore intervertebral.

The problem now is, how the different modifications of
position and structure of the ribs derived from that ori
condition.

If we carefully examine the skeleton of Amia, one of t
living Ganoids of this continent, we observe the following: 4

x

terior disk and a posterior one. The anterior represents
centrum proper, the posterior the so-called intercentrum.

vertebre show the characters of the caudals of that form fa

dorsal vertebrz divided by a suture separating a verte g
anterior centrum proper and the posterior intercentrum. of
In iat

the dorsal vertebre the rib is connected with a process ©
Posterior parts of the centrum,—that is, the nie
u gi

are always connected with them. From the thirty- si

i In the first caudal vertebræ we find free spines con ed to
the distal part of the united ribs; these are co-ossified 19
from the forty-seventh vertebra. the
_ As the ribs or pleural arches are homonomous tO be
Pophyses, or pleural arches, these spines which my. both

ment of
A * A paper read before the American Association for the Advan
ugust, 1887. . '

7 According to a verbal communication of Professor Zittel.

Zoology. : 943

om that fact Gegenbaur reached the general conclusion

that the ribs of all vertebrates are nothing else than the modifi-

ations of the lower arches, the hemapophyses; or, reversed,
the hemapophyses are ribs,

ere are no lumbar vertebrae in Sphenodon, all the presacral
ore have well-developed ribs, but the posterior ones are
Uniting later with the vertebra. The two sacral vertebrae and
œ anterior caudals show exactly the same condition; in the

“ng animals the elements are free, but unite later with the

the caudals we

;
Processes as those in Amia on which the ribs articulated.
Jore the lower arches, which enclose the subcaudal blood-
» are either formed by true ribs or by processes of the inter-
Gege 3 nbaur was wrong in relation to the Stapedifera. Claus
i that, but did not give any explanation of the con-
Ashes

pall tty to explain all the difficulties.
S no doubt that the original condition is to be seen in

ike Amia of the. Ganoids. |

| Pi ur has shown that in many Teleostei the lower arches

be med by the ribs, as in Amia, but by processes of the

% 2° Which the ribs cah be articulated, This condition

“i, in the given figures,

Ten Same must have taken place in the higher Verte-

. othe ribs were pushed out of place and dislocated,

th “a Batrachia and Amniota.—In Archegosaurus the —
ante, a 8ion are not connected with the well-devel-

ra, but with diapophyses of the neural arches. In _
Sion € articular surface for the rib is continued |

euy

`

944 General Notes.

gosaurus articulate in the anterior region of the vertebre

the ribs, as seen in Amia, are still preserved in the Pem

in which the capitulum was still ossified, but was already
ported from the rudimentary intercentrum to the centr
_ This translocation has gone still further, in a way that

downwards, forming a groove on the posterior part of the
of the intercentrum. Therefore the single-headed ribs of

both the intercentrum and neurapophysis, in the posterior re
with the neurapophysis only.
In the living Batrachia the double-headed ribs are-articul:

proper or the intercentrum, as Professor Cope is inclined W
believe, cannot yet be determined. Sphenosaurus certainly is ak
a connecting form, but a true reptile, as I have proved.

The Ribs of the Amniota.—Signs of the original condition &

E

Pelycosauria, the Sphenodontidæ, and the Mammalia.
In the Pelycosauria the ribs are connected with the

developed intercentra; there would be no difference from Ams

if the ribs were not two-headed. A second head is develope

Sphenodon is the same as in the Pelycosauria, but the tube

rudimentary or disappeared entirely. orf
he one-headed ribs of the Lacertilia, Pythono pi T
Ophidia, have originated from the condition seen in Spheao’"
The capitulum has gone entirely. ilia, Di
The two-headed ribs of the Ichthyosauria, Crocodillay
sauria, Ornithosauria, have developed from a form like Sph .

um p

mediate vertebrz.
The results of the present: paper are:

Zoology. 945
. The ribs are developed detween the myocomata; they are,
intervertebra

ribs are originally one-headed and Connected with
Bb aoni intercentra
3. All forms and connections of the other ribs can be derived
_ fom that condition
4. The lower arches of the caudal vertebre are either formed
by true ribs, the oldest fishes (Ganoidei, Dipnoi), or by processes
- of the intercentra (Teleostei, Stapedifera

_ §. The soo nid between the Dipmcine and the Stapedifera
isl miss
N Knie. etineks on the nomenclature of the elements of the
“bra olumn.
_ Owen’s names, “ neurapophysis” and “ pleurapophysis,” are not
omet: the neural and pleural arches are no processes of the
vertebræ, but are distinct parts.

two elements Pred ep the neural arch ought to be

called the “ RnTORES ; :” the two elements composing the pleural
ach, the “ plenroids
spines connected with the neuroids ought to be called,
ne neural spines; those connected with the pleuroids,

al spines,

te real centrum of the vertebra ought to be called centrum ;
ie oo composing it, hemicentra (Albrecht), not

The “oie intercentrum ought to be preserved.

the Part of the intercentrum, centrum, or neuroid to which
capitulum is articulated, may retain the name par apophysis ;

Part of the centrum or neuroid to which the tuberculum is

G ape retain the name diapophysis—Dr: G. Baur, New
onn., 1887.

N News.—LowER INVERTEBRATES. pr. A.C. Stokes —
Some more new species of North American Hypotri-
i in the Annals and Magazine of Natural TEST

T a recent meeting of the Linnean Society of
South Wales Mr. John Mitchell called attention to the fact
of the Australian species of trilobites of the genus —
aspis differ from the diagnosis of the genus in having the
(not smooth) and the facial suture discontinuous. 2
V. Lilljeborg, of Upsala, has worked up the Entomostraca a
by Dr. Leonard Stejneger in his late expedition to
Rander“ Islands The results appear in the ages eC

: c tw $ tet lie

` glacialis and Diaptomus ambiguus, a d.
"istatus Kréyer is reported as eased abundant,
Sad bodies s :

forming long windrows on the beaches.

` nuchalis with abnormal dentition.

946 ; a General Notes.

Myriapops.—Mr. Chas. H. Bollman. has recently pub
several papers on North American Myriapods. One, en
“Notes on the North American Lithobidz,” appears in the A

of the New York Academy of Sciences. In it he describes as ne
Lithobus minnesote, tuber, proridens, pullus, trilobus, cardinals,
howet, politus (McNiell MS.), and clavus (McNiell MS.). This
followed by a synonymical list of the known species of North
American Lithobidz and Scutigeridz. A second paper—
on North American Julidz”—appears in the Annals of the New
York Academy (vol. iv.). The author catalogues ninety-two species
of the family known from North America, including the follow
ing new species: Fulus oweni, Spirobolus pensacolus, S. hebes,
Parqqulus ellipticus, P. castaneus, P, obtectus, P. varius, and Nant
lene (nov: gen.) burkei. |

_Fisnes.—Jordan and Eigenmann, in an account of a collet-
tion of fishes from Charleston, S. C. (Proc. Nat. Mus. 1887
enumerate fourteen species, nine of which were not previously
known from that locality.

In a paper on the fishes of Kansas, Prof. O. P. Hay describes
as new Notropis encolus and N. germarus, and suggests that t
genus Tirodon Hay was founded on a specimen of Hybagnall

Birds.—The large collection of humming-birds made by “a
D. G. Elliot and which formed the basis of his recent monog®
has passed into possession of the American Museum in ™
York City. The museum has also acquired his ornitholog!
library of about one thousand volumes. ers i |
Dr. Leonard Stejneger is publishing in the Z voceedings apa
iVatonal Museum an exhaustive review of the birds of J
In the same journal Mr. Robert Ridgway has recently 0e%
_ a new sub-species of plumed partridge (Callipepla ee
Sout) from Sonora. His material consisted of five spect

EMBRYOLOGY." g
Spermatogenesis in Mammalia.?—The interest op ae
to the development of the spermatozoon, from he P
of the embryologist, is not less than that which attaches i
* Edited by JoHx A. RYDER, Ph D., Biological Department, Universi
sylvania, Philadelphia. í x ale
? Untersuchungen über den Bau des functionirenden Samenka el
Saugethiere und Folgerungen fiir die Spermatogenese dieser carl Benda
Arch. f. Mik. Anat., xxx., 1887, pp. 49-110. Taf. v.—vii. Von Dr. 7

Embryology. l 947

development of the ovum (ovogenesis), or of the embryo itself
_ (ontogenesis), since spermatogenesis and ovogenesis are processes
_ which involve the maturation of the elements which enter the
_ formation of the fertilized ovum or oosphere. All of these pro-
cesses are therefore properly comprehended under ontogeny or
= embryology in its widest sense. l

= Dr. Benda’s carefully-elaborated memoir deals with the de-

Cams, and Fels; the peculiarities in each case- are figured and
_ discussed by the author, but the present writer must content

s:
T i The seminal tubuli of the mammalian testis. contain two
4 kinds of histological elements, which are distinct in function, —
a the Stammzellen, or spermospores, with their derivatives (mother-
_ cells, spermatoblasts, etc.), and the “supporting cells” (H. H.

K

a Brown), or Fusszellen (Benda).

2 Their functional activities are exhibited in four acts,—t.
3 The multiplication of the Stammeellen (spermospores); 2. The
_ Production of spermatoblasts from a part of the spermospores ;
3 9pulation or union of the “ supporting cells,”’—Fusssellen

=A .

_ With a number of Spermatoblasts; and 4. The conversion of the
‘permatoblasts, which have united with the supporting cell, into
n Spermatozoa, ;

Pi
y

3- These four processes take place successively and continu-
sly (schübweise),
4 The multiplication of the spermospores is effected by in- `
direct cell-divisip j ; i

“€ seminal tubuli.

Py ter the formation of a generation of spermatoblasts, each
| functional « Supporting cells,” which lie next the outer-
Most wall of the tubuli, conjugate with or become joined to a
amet of Spermatoblasts. :
mee Simultaneously or immediately after this conjugation has
o Sstablished, the spermatoblasts are converted into sperma-

ae 948 General Notes.

10. The spermatoblasts, during the entire metamorp
remain in organic union with the supporting cell, and, throat
active and passive changes in the latter, are formed into a
of spermatozoa. |

11. The extrusion of the spermatozoa from the wall of the
tubule follows spontaneous or active severing of their connection
with the supporting cell, and by lateral pressure from the
ing adjacent elements.

12. The various acts of secretion, in every portion of te
tubuli, overlap in an orderly manner, and in such wise that #
definite points the successive phenomena coincide in time.

If we assume the period of metamorphosis of a's
as a measure of time, we have

a. The close of each period of metamorphosis of the sp
matoblasts marks the beginning of the multiplication of 8
spermospores. :

6. The beginning of the period of metamorphosis coime
with the preparatory changes in the spermospores for the pr%
duction of spermatoblasts. k
__ c, The preparation for the production of spermatoblasts alwapt

- Corresponds to two periods of metamorphosis ; and there are =
always two crops in process of formation. re.

d. With the close of each period of metamorphosis there 0
responds a generation of spermatoblasts, so that at the close
the metamorphosis, in the same tubule, the material for the
period lies-in readiness. we

13. In every portion of a testicular tubule a periodic eee
of spermatozoa and an uninterrupted succession of periods í
secretion is possible. :

14. The periods of secretion in different tubules do note
15. By means of a uniform alternation of the
Secretion in the different portions of the tubuli, the con®
_ are supplied for a continual secretion of semen by the ®

*

is of a mammal
PSYCHOLOGY. : a
Scientific Theism.—In this book by Dr. Abbot we bi À
attempted reconciliation between Science, Philosophy, ol
ligion, in accordance with the scientific doctrine of 6%
As one of the first, if not the first, rational endea book
di 1, from the stand-point of Philosophy, the jivi
' Roteworthy one. The subject is treated of under be he?

ae * “Scientific Theism ;” Francis Ellingwood Abbot, PhD. 77 :
_ Brown & Co, 2d oial ba T ~ i 7

is eminently sound basis Dr. Abbot harmonizes philosophical .
and scientific thought. His statement of the leading positions
the controversy is as follows (p. 2 3):
~ “1. Exrreme Reacts (Universalia ante rem) taught that uni-
‘Wersals were substances or things, existing independently of and
from particulars or individuals. This was the e

$

ena, who died A.D. 880, was the first to revive this doctrine in
Schools, borrowing from the Pseudo-Dionysius A
“2. MODERA

Saiversal inhered in each of the particulars ranged under it.
This was the theory of Aristotle, who held that the +68 vt, or

individual thin , Was the First Essence, while universals were
only Second Ess

ity to individuals. Until Scotus Erigena resusci-
onic theory, Aristotle’s was the received doctrine

“- and the warfare was simply between those two
€alism prior to the advent of Roscellinus. op
a> Extreme NOMINALISM (Universalia post rem) taught that _
henge had no substantive or objective existence at all, but

nomina, voces, flatus voas). —
nator of this sententia —

DERATE NOMINALISM, or CoNCEPTUALISM ( epee aies
') taught that universals have no sionat TES
more than mere names signi ing ting ;

liest, representative of it. The ‘Encyclopedia Britannica, xvi

‘ i Ni Aen
+ € P
as

Rey oe
950 General Notes. [i

this modification of the nominalistic view; William of Occam,
who died in 1347, seems to have been the chief, if not the ear —

284, 8th edition, says, ‘The theory termed Conceptualism, or
Conceptual Nominalism, was really the one maintained by i
succeeding Nominalists, and is the doctrine of ideas generally —
believed in at the present day.’ gy
“5. Albertus Magnus (died 1280), Thomas Aquinas (died
1274), Duns Scotus (died 1308), and others fused all these views -
into one, and taught that universals exist in a threefold manner, —
— Universalia ante rem, as thoughts in the mind of God;
versalia in re,as the essence (quiddity) of things, according to
Aristotle; and Universalia post rem, as concepts in the sense of ©
Moderate Nominalism. This is to-day the orthodox philosophy i
of the Catholic Church, as opposed to the prevailingly exclusive —
Conceptualism of the Protestant world. | eS
“Thus both Extreme Realism and Moderate Realism main- ;
tained the objective reality of genera and species, while both :
Extreme Nominalism and Moderate Nominalism main
that genera and species possess no objective reality at all. :
_. “In contrast with all the views above presented, another and l
sixth view will now be stated, which, taken as a whole, and wi
reference to the vitally-important consequences it involves,
believed to be both novel and true.

is

_ This is the view logically implied in all scientific classifications
_ of natural objects regarded as objects of real scientific knowledge 3
But, although empirically employed with dazzling success et :
investigation of Nature, it does not appear to have been ©
theoretically generalized or stated.” -

In his discussion of Idealism Dr. Abbot shows that no
Of this type is or has been consistent excepting that of ‘non
the acquis of which is the well-known “existence and 0%
existence are identical,” Abbot show

In his section on the “ Religion of Science” Dr. set
_ that he is ona hot trail; but we think that he does not pe

reach his goal. The key to his argument is foune !- ys
Soe passages of the summary of this part of his 4
_“2. Because (the Universe) is infinitely intelligible, gp
- likewise infinitely intelligent. ajy intelli

wo 3: Because it is at the same time both infinitely 1m

*

&

1887] Microscopy. 951
and infinitely intelligent, it must be an infinite subject, object, or
self-conscious intellect.”

We do not perceive that the inference expressed in 2 (above)
= isanecessary one; in fact, it is obtained by a confusion of object
_ with subject; therefore 3 cannot be sustained.

2
©
Š
a
—,
D
N
8
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a
(g)
EL
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aa
cr
OQ
w
te]
Qs
cr
m,
o
2.
©
n,
QO
as
pA
not
o
w
=
“<<

lution belong to the future, and will soon be here.” We add to
_ this our own belief that a part of this philosophy is contained
-in Dr, Abbot’s book; that some of the rest of it is also here we
will endeavor to show in the next number of the NATURALIST.—

D. Cope. k

STN

MICROSCOPY.

=
5
ER
5
P
=.
D.
=)
a
=
Nn
M
53
s
ge)
pS
z
my
O
=
%
-t
wn
>
Q
5
e
-a
(g)
°
5
o

at two and ahalf marks. Orders for the water-bath and its ac- >
~sories are filled by the Educational Supply Co., 6 Hamilton

a Place, Boston,

= This is the “most thoroughly equipped water-bath that has
: thus far been described, and it is admirably well adapted, in size
_ 2nd shape as well as outfit to those micro-technical uses for
~ Which it wa : :
One of t

unsen burner (7), which consists of a horizontal tube, to

PGE ee age age E Wier

mused only 4cm. The bath is thus placed at a height most
ment for work and most favorable to economy of heat. The
: t smoke, and does not strike back when reduced to
int. With a maximum flame the bath, which has a
2.5 litres, is brought to a temperature of 60° C. in

ity of
6 forty-five minutes

cept A fall explanation of this part is furnished with each

Me by C. O. WHITMAN, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. i Boo

| TEA Mayer, “Aus der Mikrotechnik,” Jnéermationale Monatsschrift f.
Phys., 1V., H. 2 1887. : ‘

*

Ae ea important attach ment of this water-bath is the thermo- `

952 | f General Notes.

ing-tube should be left empty.

plate. Brass di
by turpentine.
n

n ie " to cover,
_ * After the analogy of albuminize, paraffinize would mean
with parafiine, i

hang over the
: -table ; the hot water is thus drained off and
_ placed with cold, so that the paraffine cools quickly without the
east disturbance of the object

4 SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Be die “Circolo degle Aspiranti Naturalisti” of Naples will
hereafter be known as the “Societa dei Naturalisti.” With this

ange In name they begin the publication of a bulletin.

rs ~=Dr. Pierre, after many years of labor, has completed his
Work on the Flora of Cochin China. In recognition of this

fact the Sovernment of the province has granted him a life pen-
Sion of six thousand francs,

bee W. Zot Has been aà ointed ordina rofessor of
_ botany in the University of Halle, Be

—Dr. G Berthold accepts the position of ordinary professor
botany at Gottingen,
i oa Kad Brandt, of Königsberg, becomes interim director of
o OSical Institute of the University of Kiel.

iE Korschelt, of Freiburg, has been appointed assistant.
ological Institute of the University of Berlin.

Ea logus Goleopterorum.” Dr: Max Gemminger,
his associate in that Darius undertaking, has since died. For
years he had held the position of conservator of the
Pies 4seum at Munich. a
Edward T. Hardman, a member of the Geological Survey
nsw died in Dublin, April 30; In 1883-86 he travelled
wledge in West Australia, and added not a little to our
2 of the geological features of that region. —

* as a bulletin by the Bureau.

a. ; Scientific News. `

—Dr. John Frenzel, of Berlin, sailed July 20 to take the po
tion of professor of zoology and director of the museum
Cordova, Argentine Republic. .

—The late Richard Cranch Greenleaf, who died recently
Boston, bequeathed his microscopical library, microscopes, a

.

apparatus to the Boston Society of Natural History.

—Mr, James C. Pilling, of the Bureau of Ethnology, has
some time been collecting materials for a bibliography of North
American Linguistics. He has now nearly completed the por
tion relating to the Eskimo languages, and this will be pub

__ —William Boott, who died in Boston May 16, 1887, was bo
in that city June 15,1805. Like his brother, the late Francs
Boott, he was a botanist, and devoted himself to the dif
groups of grasses and sedges. His botanical collections g°

1 =W. L. Sclater, of Oxford, England, has been app ge
deputy superintendent of the Indian Museum in eae yod

—Mr. James E. Hum hrey, assistant in the botanital ai

Ogist, at Plymouth, England, April 28, aged sixty-Se¥
Hellins, student of British Lepidoptera, at Exeter, K
Ta 9, aged fifty-eight; Sir Walter Elliot, of London, 2°"
Ke)

ical traveller and writer upon evolution, May 31, 4! ologist

three years; Robert Gray, the well-known ornith nail
Edinburgh, February 18; Professor Bernard Studer, 862

F Bern, Switzerland, May 2, aged ninety-three. ee

*

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

4
a

I Vou. xxi. NOVEMBER, 1887. No. 11.

_ THE MATERIALS OF THE APPALACHIANS.
é BY Ei W. CLAYPOLE, AKRON, OHIO.

PENNSYLVANIA consists almost entirely of massive palæ-
ozoic deposits of sand and shale with a few limestones.
These beds united reach a thickness greater than do those of the
same age in any other known part of the world. Reasonably
accurate measurements have given them a total depth in some
Places of thirty thousand to forty thousand feet. Westwardly
i they thin off, and on the Ohio line scarcely reach one-fourth part
a of this enormous depth. ;
All geologists are agreed that this immense mass of sediment
Was deposited on the slowly subsiding bottom of the eastern part
3 of an ocean covering the whole interior of North America,—the
, North American palzozoic ocean, as‘it may be called for conve-
q mence, The extent and form of this ocean varied considerably
-different times during its long existence, but taken as a whole
: it was uninterrupted sea. r
& Itis further a geological truth, so evident as to be now axio-
: ta that all this vast mass of palzeozoic deposit was obtained

fe es

tion ig ion from some contemporaneous palzozoic land. Deposi-
; of implies erosion to a precisely equal amount. For every ton

has he. _ Mud deposited on the sea-bottom an equivalent ton
as been removed from some land-surface. Sediment is "e
“a It is only removed. Hence all these huge Appal achan

from which the mountains have been since carved imply the
a uction of exactly equal masses of some more ancient jase
VOL. XX1.—wo, 11, 65 eae

956 © The Materials of the Appalachians, Do,

It is further admitted, at least, I think, by all Pennsylvania
geologists, that this ancient land, whose destruction supplied
the materials for these immense deposits, existed to the east and

southeast of the Appalachian region. It is sufficient to mention
the increasing thickness of the strata towards the southeast and
the greater coarseness of their material in the same direction, to
convince almost every one that the palzeozoic land must be sought
there.

Having laid down these premises, I propose first to notice the
immense mass of the Appalachian deposit.
- Pennsylvania contains at present about forty thousand square _
miles of surface. Of this about nine-tenths are covered with the
palæozoic rocks; that is, about thirty-six thousand square miles.
Since their elevation above water erosion has destroyed vast
quantities, but, as said above, there is positive evidence that when
they lay in horizontal sheets beneath the ancient ocean they

measured from eight miles at the east to three miles at the west
in depth. It cannot, therefore, be excessive to assume peer
If this be

erm measurement as an average over the whole area.
done, we find the palzeozoic deposits of Pennsylvania represe!
bya mass three miles thick and thirty-six thousand square TA
in area. y
This estimate is far below the truth for the following rc
1. As mentioned above, nearly the minimum thickness ae :
loyed over th 4
ploy the whole area. cP ems

$

2. Vast quantities of material now lying outside 0
vania, in Ohio and Western New York, are omitted.

3. The corrugation and consequent contraction of the surface
during the formation of the Appalachian earth
garded, sf

The importance of this last fact must not be overlooked:
paper by the author, read before the British Association at
treal in 1884, and printed in the AMERICAN Na ei
March, 1885, the great diminution of surface which the :
in question underwent during the process of crum the
pointed out. Palzozoic Pennsylvania was far larger than ie
isting State. Could the strata be flattened out

folds are dist

laundry—her anticlines and synclines thousands of aoe
would be added to her size, The distance from $

1887] ` The Materials of the Appalachians. 957
-Harrisburg would be greater by many miles. The present Key-
_ stone State bears to the original palæozoic Pennsylvania some-
_ What the relation which the skin of a shrivelled apple or potato
_ bears to the same skin when plump and fresh. But of this no
4 account is taken in the estimate given above.

_ Turning now to the consideration of the land from which all
_ this sediment was derived, we find that only about one-tenth
4 part of the State can have been above water in palzozoic days,
_ and that this small portion lay in the southeastern corner.
Allthe rest is covered with palzozoic rocks. This means that
_ the only visible source of the material of which these rocks are
_ composed and which we have found is a mass of at least thirty-six
> thousand square miles in surface and three miles thick, is an area
p” Pennsylvania of four thousand square miles. Restore in
F magination these massive sheets of rock to their original source,
E and it will be necessary to pile the material twenty-seven miles
‘ high on the palzeozoic land of the State in order to obtain a
J sufficient supply, —in order to build a quarry from which the
_ fers and sea-waves of that age could cut out the blocks which,
-When torn up and scattered, have composed the palæozoic rocks
4 of Pennsylvania, Pr K
Q A correction may be made in the above figures on account of
De Probability that some of these sediments came from New
= sey on the northeast and Maryland on the south. Parts of
q = these States consist of archæan terranes now exposed and
4 hoa now covered with later mesozoic red sandstones. But
4 the areas in both States are added to the possible archean
4 hg of Pennsylvania, they will not more than double it, and
f . shall still be compelled to assign an enormous depth (thirteen
4 miles) to the eroded ancient land before sufficient material is at
a to form th

ace here available. Among these heavy deposits
oe Some thin and local beds, four great sandstones,
sa less pebbly. They are as follows in descending

The Pottsville Conglomerate, Carboniferous.

1
; k

958 The Materials of the Appalachians. [Nor

` The Catskill-Pocono Conglomerate, Upper Devonian and Lower
Carboniferous. 7
The Oriskany Sandstone, Lower Devonian. nn
The Medina Sandstone, Middle Silurian. 4
All these vary much in thickness in different places, butal
are thickest and heaviest and contain the largest pebbles in the
eastern or southeastern part of the district, and all thin out,
more or less, towards the northwest. To assign to them a
average thickness that would satisfy every one is, probably, im-
possible, but the following attempt will be exact enough for my
present purpose. No doubt can be entertained of their original
extension over the whole Appalachian area, though all four have
since been largely eroded. a
The Medina, with the Oneida, maintains its mass over most
of its exposures in the State, showing less diminution westward
than some of the other strata. It is two thousand feet deep i
the Kittatinny, and more than that in the Bald Eagle Range;
so that an average of one thousand feet may be safely assumed
The Oriskany is the thinnest of the four, but its extent is
less than that of the others. In some places it reaches thre?
hundred feet in thickness, but is usually much less. It may be
therefore thrown out of our estimate of thickness altogether.
The Catskill—most massive of all, reaching seven thous
feet in many places, consisting of sandstone and shale, and
taining at its last descent beneath the Alleghany Mountains
thickness of two thousand six hundred feet—may, "I
danger of exaggeration, be considered the equivalent of
bed of sandstone one thousand feet thick.
The Pocono, varying from more than one thousand Pi
east to two hundred feet in the west, may represent another W
hundred-foot mass.
A similar thickness may be given to the Po pi
boniferous Conglomerate, and we shall then have, a5 the: ©
alent of the great palzozoic sandstones of Pennsylvania,
three thousand feet of sandstone,—a low estimate.
The Catskill and Pocono, having no soft beds between
may, for our present purpose, be counted as one sandstoné q
In all these sandstones a part of the mass consists of g
of milky quartz. This feature in the Pottsville, P
Lower Medina is so strongly developed that they "°°" —

ttsville, or 3

4 1887] The Materials of the Appalachians. 959

_ the name of Conglomerates. The pebbles vary in size from that
= ofa man’s fist or larger in the east to that of a hazel-nut or a
E pea in the west; but they extend over the whole area, and form
= aconsiderable part of the mass of the rock. They are as con-
_ Spicuous in Ohio as in Pennsylvania, and everywhere closely
_ tesemble one another.
It would be impossible to form any just estimate of the quan-
_ tity of these pebbles in the mass of the sandstone. In the first
_ place, their occurrence is uncertain. Over large areas much of
the rock is free from them, except in certain, or rather in un-
= certain, layers; and, secondly, almost everywhere except in the
4 fast their proportion, even in the conglomeratic beds, is very
Variable. Not unfrequently they form seventy-five per cent. of
q the stone; at other times only an occasional pebble is present.
But, scattered as they are over so great an area and through so
7 great a thickness of strata, their whole quantity must be enor-
_ Mous. Were we to assume that they compose only one per
“Gat. of the rock they would equal a bed thirty feet deep, with
40 area of thirty-six thousand square miles.

= Moreover, their rounded form, without a remaining angle*in
_ aly case, proves two points,—first, that the surviving pebbles
have been greatly rubbed down from their original size, es-

= sve not survived at all, but have been ground into sand by the
_ Wear and tear of their long pilgrimage over the ocean-bottom or

Tn whatever way we regard them, and from whatever point of
, ‘ial no doubt can be entertained that these pebbles of our
Pennsylvania Conglomerates represent, in the whole, a huge
‘Mass of milky quartz, and that this, in like manner, represents a
__ 8*t Mass of the same material, from which, by crushing and
ig, they have been derived. Every one is a monument, so
— to the memory of an angular block, broken, at some
: “distant day, from its parent-ledge, and rolled for years among
Som and sand until it was reduced to a smooth, small pebble,
buried to rest in the Conglomerate Rock.
= S Was this mass of milky quartz, the parent of the un-
d pebbles of the Conglomerates of Pennsylvania? Milky
artz is not a common mineral in large quantities. I know no

to which they can be ascribed except certain ledges of

pecially in the west, and, second, that innumerable fragments

è

960 The Materials of the Appalachians,

this material in the South Mountains, where the pre-palzozie
rocks rise to-day from beneath the overlying strata. :
Here, and here only, in Southeastern Pennsylvania can be
found the white vitreous quartz of which they are uniformly
composed. No other rock can have supplied them. Theres
abundance of quartz in the gneisses near Philadelphia, and in
Chester and other counties, but this quartz is not of the kini
from which these pebbles are made, nor does it occur in masss
sufficiently large to supply them. Some of the other materials
of the palæozoic sandstones may be ascribed to the destruction
of the gneiss-rocks. For the white pebbles, however, this origit
is not possible.
But though I have thus tracked these pebbles of the Pennsyi-
vanian Conglomerates to their only possible source in the soute
east, a serious difficulty stands in the way of further progress. l
have, without giving figures, dwelt on their enormous quantity
and the vastness of the mass of quartz which they represent.
Now, the quartz-ledges of the old rocks in the South Mountains
are not thick, measuring only a few feet in most cases. Norat
they numerous, They could never furnish quartz enough r
supply even the existing pebbles; and the extinct pebbles—
those ground down to sand—must have been even more thi
those now surviving. If we break up all the quartz-ledges *
present existing in the South Mountains, and eke them out N”
the quartz-veins penetrating like threads the mass of the other
strata, these, when rounded into pebbles, will sink into utter
_ Significance beside the mountain which would rise were all ;
remaining quartz-pebbles of the Pennsylvanian Conglomerat
collected into one place and piled together. - pa,
-In conclusion, then, it follows from the facts here put fo i
whether the figures given be exact or not, that an al #
credible amount of material was eroded from the archeat call
of North America during palæozoic days. In no other ra
we account for the enormous palzozoic deposits of the e
and Midland States. Yet it is not probable that the lané ©
stood at any dizzy height above the sea. The slow
pression of which we have so abundant evidence from
of the globe, and which in this very region has
Pennsylvania down at least thirty thousand or forty: >
feet below its former level, is quite sufficient to account

Middle
for ti

1887] The Materials of the Appalachians. 961

_ phenomena., Let but the sea-margin, which was the loaded area,
_ sink somewhat faster than the dry land, which was the lightened
_ area,and we have all the conditions that were needed for the
erosion and denudation of the relatively rising surface to any
_ fequired amount. The only limit is some physical change which
_ could put a stop to the rising of the one or the sinking of the
_ other, and this came at the end of palzozoic time, when the
_ Appalachian trough became full.

_ Another conclusion may be drawn from the facts stated in the
_ Second part of this paper. I have pointed out the enormous
_ quantity of white vitreous quartz-pebbles that lie in the palzozoic
= sandstones of Pennsylvania, and have shown that their only
_ Possible known source is the quartz-ledges of the South Moun-
tains, I have also shown that this source is very small when we
_ Consider the total mass of the pebbles. It follows, therefore, that
at the time when these pebbles were made—that is, during the
_ Paleozoic era—there must have been a larger supply of white
_ Quartz to afford their material. In other words, the pre-paleozoic
_ Tocks, with their quartz-ledges, must have been much more ex-
tensive then than they are now. The narrow strip along the
South Mountains and their continuation in Pennsylvania, New
Jersey, and Maryland, so far as the present subject is concerned,
; Can scarcely exceed one thousand square miles in area. It is
hard to avoid the inference that vast masses of ancient strata
have totally disappeared from this region. Possibly such masses
isted, overlying more or less of the archæan area in the
“Southeast. If so we have at the same time a sufficient quarry
from which the rains and waves of that age could obtain their
_ Material and a body of rock hard and thick enough to keep
E Mem employed during those millions of years.

y attempt to discuss further the place and extent of this
_ i@Surface must be reserved for another time. It may have
: verlain more or less of the soft gneiss-rocks of Pennsylvania and
: ~~ been since removed. It may have been crumpled into ant
: inal folds with the gneiss, as are now the palæozoic rocks; or it
Pad to a greater or less extent have been contracted in ae by
7 ben endous lateral compressing force to which this region has
‘Subjected. Or, again
x or Parts of the State and in other places in the world. All

962 The Materials of the Appalachians.

this must be left for further investigation. My purpose in this
paper has been to show that the sandstone beds of Middle and
Western Pennsylvania imply the past existence of quartz-rocks —
more extensive by far than their present remains would indicate,
and that the white pebbles of these Conglomerates imply an im-
mense extension of the ledges of milky quartz that are now to be
seen in the rocks of the South Mountains. ;
-In the map and section accompanying this paper an attemptis
made to represent to the eye the leading facts in the argument. 7
It is of course quite impossible to draw the latter to scale, nor
would any useful purpose be served by the attempt. The ut-
colored portions show the soft beds lying between the sandstones,
which are really in most cases thicker than the sandstones them —
selves. The only points which the section is intended to bring _
out are the profound Appalachian trough in which the palæozoic
sediments were deposited, the westward thinning of all, both sand-
stones and shales, and the fining of the Conglomerates in he
same direction. i

Aei rrr S YL VAR OM

NT ak,” ae PS ae ta eae er Tn RN wie Be
° Ta EG

Lagrammatic Section of Pennsylvania
Fom East to West.

a Ardina a Oriskany c atskilt -pocons

(To be concluded.)

` The Progress of Arachnology in America, 963

4 THE PROGRESS OF ARACHNOLOGY IN AMERICA,
4 BY LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD, PH.D.

4 NOTWITHSTANDING all that is said and written to the
= +\ contrary, the student of entomology still continues to do
miscellaneous work in the “ description of new and little known
= Species;” and so long as this miscellaneous fever continues, so
_ long must some one periodically gather up the fragments, in
_ order to save future species-makers the trouble of re-describing
_ what has already been fully described. In these days of such
multiplicity of periodical literature it is difficult for the aspiring
_ Student—many times far away from the friendly counsel of some
= one wiser than himself, and away from the larger libraries that
would supply many deficiencies—to know what others have
i already written on any particular family, and where the scat-
_ tered literature may be found, in order that he may have a sub-
_ Mantia basis on which to work. However a worker may modify
i his views later in life in regard to the proper methods and sub-
_ Jets for investigation, he will invariably develop his enthusiasm,
i s he have any, in a systematic study of some life-group in
q Which his first ambition is to ame the species of his collection.
i He may afterwards leave his first love as his mature views cause
3 him to recognize the greater importance of morphological and
q embryological work, but he will rarely, if ever, commence his
3 “itomological career in any other way. Here our leaders in
_ “ttomology may well take a suggestion, for at the early stages
a of systematic study too many young persons become hopelessly
couraged who might with proper encouragement become en-
— MSslastic workers, Finding no accessible elementary aids to
Study, and finding such aids as do exist scattered through
Volume after volum
mip o ollege library, they abandon a field-in which they
might make valuable additions to science for one whose entering

™ Way seems less beset with difficulties,—z.¢., they leave the
, = entomology entirely.

‘in Stwithstanding the many valuable papers that have appeared
rea nt Years on our American Hymenoptera, we venture to
‘stu ‘ct that none of them will do so much to stimulate the
7x this most interesting group of insects as Mr. Cresson’s

e of “Transactions” never found in their

~

964 The Progress of Arachnology in America,

“Synopsis of Families and Genera,” which the author too mod-
estly styles a “compilation.” The reason is obvious; and those
who desire to stimulate the beginner must proceed with -i
open, and bear the necessities of the case in mind.
It has been customary in many groups to publish perioda 1
check-lists, which may possibly serve some useful. purpose, but
as a rule they are scarcely of a value equal to the labor bestowed
upon them, since a little additional labor and a small increase of
volume would make of a mere list of names a valuable index to
the literature of an order and an outline of its known geographical
distribution. |
The literature pertaining to the American species of Arach
nida, like that on most zoological groups, is exceedingly sa
tered, and up to the present time no résumé has been p
that will at once place the student in the possession of the always
welcome information regarding the present status of the subject
The first recorded observations on the spiders of the North
American fauna were by Lewis Bosc and Thomas Abbot, neither
of which reached publication. Bosc left manuscript notes, t q
gether with colored drawings of twenty-five Carolina spiders,
entitled “ Sur les Araignées de la Caroline.” The names of his
species were published by Baron Walckenaer in 1805, but ut the
descriptions did not appear until the publication of the
two volumes of “Apteres,” in 1837. Thomas Abbot, bettet
known by his work on the Lepidoptera, prepared an extensi® —
series of illustrations of Georgian spiders, accompanied by ae i J
script “ Notes and Observations on the Drawings of. the Spi
of Georgia.” Knowledge of the date of preparation of
series of drawings, as well as of its present place and_conditiet
of preservation, is wanting, but it was in Lon
1802, and was purchased by Baron Walckenaer in 1821:
five hundred and thirty-five figures only three hundred desc
classified with any certainty by Walckenaer, and the
tions were published by him in his “ Aptere: es. targelh
these species have been identified in recent times, owing .
no doubt, to the fact that these southern tramping-g°0
the pioneers of American entomology have never be
by recent investigators. As many of the species are a
color, which among spiders is exceedingly variable, rather
on more constant structural characters, there are

4 1887] The Progress of Arachnology in America. 965

many synonymes among them, if, indeed, they can ever be fully

identified. .

_ The writings of these pioneers were unknown to Say, who pub-
lished in 1821 a paper on the lower Arachnida, describing twenty-
four species of Acarina and eight species of Arthrogastra. As
we have already published elsewhere bibliographic lists of these
two groups,’ we shall confine the account here given of the
literature to the true spiders (Araneæ).

The work of Baron Walckenaer has been mentioned already
in connection with that of Bosc and Abbot. In the first two
volumes of “Apteres” he described two hundred and forty-four
orth American species, of which two hundred and twenty-six
_ Were from Georgia and Carolina. Of these, one hundred and
_ Seventy, over two-thirds, are distributed among the four genera,—
Lycosa, twenty; Attus, sixty-six; Thomisus, twenty-seven; and
Epeira, fifty-seven.

Nicholas Hentz began his study of the spiders of the Southern
States in 1821, and his publications in the Journal of the Boston
Society of Natural History from 1842 to 1850 form the basis of
the study of arachnology in this country. These papers, with
one by the same author, have since been reprinted in the
‘Occasional Papers” of the Boston Society (1875). Hentz de-
_ Sctibed two hundred and fifty species, of which one hundred
and ninety-nine, or four-fifths, were from the Southern States,

Chiefly North Carolina and Alabama, where he resided for a

me time. Of these, one hundred and fifty have not yet been
\dentified by recent investigators. Add to this number those
: described by Walckenaer, and we have from the Southern States
lone a total of three hundred and seventy-five species of spi-
ders which stand as mere names on our lists, with no specimens
here to represent them! As Hentz nowhere mentions
rkenaer's « Apteres,” it is more than probable that he was
Edney List of the Arthrogastra of North America north of Mexico, in
Species Entomologist, xvii. 162-169 (September, 1885), and Preliminary List of the
or Acarina of North America, in Canadian Entomologist, xviii. 4-12 (Jan-
- There are as yet no additions to make to the former, except to note

Wal

abn, O7) Under the name of Cynorta sayii Simon. When the latter list was
Since descri ’
a ibed. These will appear shortly in a sdþplementary list.

leptes ornatum Wood has been set aside as a species distinct from Cynorta —

$

966 The Progress of Arachnology in America.

not familiar with it, and that he redescribed some, z not
of Walckenaer’s species.
- Nothing more appeared until 1854, when Charles Girard pub-
lished descriptions of Mygale hentzii and Lycosa pilosa, collected i
on Marcy’s Red River expedition. The former is the “ tarat-
tula” of the Southwest, so commonly found in collections,
Ten years later (1864) Count Keyserling commenced a series —
of papers, largely on American spiders, which have resulted it —
some of the most extensive monographs that have appeared où
the spiders of this or any land. The first two papers (1864-65)
were on the Epeiridz, or round-web spiders ; later have appeared a
eight shorter papers, the last six (1879-84) forming a series et-
titled “Neue Spinnen aus Amerika.” Most important of al,
however, are his elegant quartos, “ Die Spinnen Amerikas,” i
which two volumes have already appeared. The first, on the a
Thomisidz; or laterigrade spiders, appeared in 1880, and de
scribes three hundred and fifteen species, of which one hundred
and eighteen are new. These are from all America,
well as North. The second volume, on the Therididæ, appeared
in two parts (1884 and 1886), and describes three hundred ani
twenty-five species, of which two hundred and thirty-eight a
new. One hundred and thirty-five, including seventy-five a%
species, are from North America; the remainder are from
merica.

In 1869, Giebel described six species of spiders from is
of which four were new. Two years later (1871) Anton Aut
serer published extensive notes on the Mygalida, or trap-
spiders, of which a considerable number were from Ane’
_ Gave a revision of the genera, which is now largely 8
_ 1875 he published a supplementary paper on the same a

In the same year also appeared a paper by John
on spiders from Canada, describing five new species
vicinity of Montreal.

Rev. O. P. Cambridge, the AT ation of «The S pi h
of Dorset,” published in 1874 and 1875 two short |
some New Species of Erigone from North America,” H
1881 a paper on “ Newfoundland Spiders.” In 1874, J- a

i

_ American to bring to light new forms of our spi
= menced publication of the results of his studies.

2 1887] The Progress of Arachnology in America, 967

first efforts was the editing, with valuable supplementary notes,
of Hentz's writings, above mentioned. He afterwards (1875)
4 published sundry notes in the AMERICAN NATURALIST on the cave
_ spiders of Virginia, and described two species from Colorado as
_ àn appendix to one of Thorell’s papers. In 1878 he published
à popular elementary work on the “Structure and Habits of
_ Spiders.” This was largely used in the preparation of articles
_ which were printed in the Report of the Entomological Society
_ of Ontario for 1879, and in the “Standard Natural History.” In
_ 1882 he commenced a series of papers on the spiders of New
_ England, and has already given us valuable monographs of the
_ families Theridide (1882), Epeiridz (1884), and Lycosida (1885).
_ He has in course of preparation papers on the other families of
_ the same region. In these three papers he has described one

and seventeen new species, divided among the three

families as follows: Therididz, eighty-five; Epeiride, twelve;

and Lycosidæ, twenty. This unusually large number results

_ from the fact that previous workers had described species largely

_ from the Southern States.

: In 1875, Dr. Thorell, well known by his various works on

_ European spiders as well as by various papers on the scorpions
_ 4nd opiliones, published a short “ Notice of Some Spiders from
3 r,” in which he described seven new species. Two years
hter (1877) he published a second paper, on the “Araneæ col-
_ Scted in Colorado in 1875 by A. S. Packard ;” twenty-six species.
_ “described as new; this is almost the only paper that has yet
3 pram on the spiders of the region west of the Mississippi

__,, Rev. H. C. McCook has published, in the Proceedings of the
: lphia Academy (1876-83), a series of interesting papers
pie E Rabits of some of the web-building spiders; these in-
use also the descriptions of some new species.
S. H. Scudder, in 1877, and Dr. George Marx, in 1881, de-
1S new species of Lycosidæ, with accounts of their nest-
habits,

ji

: De the Peckhams, of Milwaukee, commenced the pub- ee ,

. Species are described, of which twenty-one are ec Sa ee
ge. in 1886, Professor Atkinson, of Chapel Hill, N. C., in
o » has described some new Mygalidæ, or ns, eas

8 of new species of Attide, or jumping spiders; twenty- :

968 The Progress of Arachnology in America,

spiders, from that region; many interesting notes of habits z
nests are also given. A few other short papers will be referre
to in the classified list of literature given below.

The above descriptive and systematic works describe from the
region north of Mexico nine hundred and thirty-five species in-
cluded in one hundred and thirty-seven genera. (This, of course,
excludes those species which have been already reduced to syno- |
nymes.) They are distributed in families as follows:

Genera. Species. .
THERIDIDA 44 268 s
EPEIRIDÆ 16 172 A
THOMISIDÆ 14 07 s
ATTIDZ 12 156 y
YCOSIDÆ 9 119 a
JRASSID 9 55 ;
GALIDÆ I2 23 f
J RASSID 4 7
YYSDERIDA 3 5 :
JICTYNIDA 2 6
AGALENID 2 3
ULOBORIDZ wwe 2 3 4
PHOLCIDA 2 2 j
ScYTODIDA ji I $ |
SER Oy Sa leg SAS d
Of ‘ain ee Ha T ;
r S
EO ATA A T RAEI AEE ARA PE E N 137 935 i

i
Of course, the above numbers may be somewhat reduced, r
a study of Southern forms will cause an identification y
Walckenaer’s species with those of Hentz, with > :
. harvest of synonymes. k re
So far as is known to us, only five persons are actively ee

Professor Atkinson is at work on the Mygalide; the will |
are studying the Attidz; and Dr. Marx, of Wa 4
soon give us a revision of the scorpions. In Ears |
Keyserling is continuing his researches, and will doubtless 1

f a |
* If we add to these the two other principal groups of Arachnida as already k
logued, we have: y Species- —

Families. Genera. 935

ÅRANEÆ sen ee 137 wo
A w T oo
ACARINA hisses T ‘uae
otals 193 ny 4

ane
* Since the above was written, we learn that Dr. , ?
press an extensive work on the spinning habits of American spiders.

embryology, which offer a field almost wholly unexplored, full
- of questions waiting to be settled by careful extended study.'

In the study of geographical distribution other interesting ques-
tions offer themselves. Besides the problem of the spiders of
the South above alluded to, which ought to demand immedi-
ate attention from some one, the great interior is almost wholly
_ unexplored in reference to its spider fauna; Thorell’s few species
| $ from Colorado and a few others described by Keyserling repre-
_ Sent the condition of our knowledge of this region. From the
| Pacific coast comes a more pressing need for study, as scarcely
| score of species have been described from California”
As among many groups of life forms, both plant and animal,
there is greater need of revision of families than there is of the
miscellaneous and often hurried description, here and there, of a
fw “species supposed to be new” by some one only partly
--&miliar with the literature of the subject. We can better afford
fo wait five or ten years for a monograph of a family prepared
PY some one who has thoroughly studied and compared the
; Species, than at the end of the same period to be
| Sbliged to search hither and yon for descriptions written by

on We would not neglect to mention in this connection the valuable paper by Mr.
i by A. Locy : “ Observations on the Development of Agelena navia,” published
7 he Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge. ,

4 “4 SEN compare the distribution of a single family, the Epeiridæ, as now known
of the varlous parts of America, it will probably serve as a type of the distribution
sihen st group of the Arachnida. Of the one hundred and seventy-two de-
- Setibed American Epeiride we have:

Of general distributi i 2
bac ae) on (at least east of Sierras)....cessssereerses seere
aay distributed east of the Mississippi... .....».+.»..-- U EERE 25
fined to Northern States i ; s... 25
(This to Southern States (south of Virginia).......00s0++--sseeseees
'S includes seventy-one of Walckenaer’s species and fourteen
F entz’s not recently dentified.)
Few, New Engl nd ( mre ees re a anana kr aaor A 17
Poki koaa Valley (aoth). eser aeeti e T
i 4 i f peveeceesensecenes 3
From c ea ae (Colorado and Utah) ee
= ne al £ sesssssose I

Mina with these figures Simon described seventy-three species in Sere
6s de France” and Westring thirty-four species in “ Aranee Suecicx.

1

- 970 The Progress of Arachnoiogy in America,
various persons, whose over-anxiety for fame could not resis
giving premature birth to “ sundry new species.” q

eanwhile, well-constructed synopses that represent carehi
comparisons and will serve as a thorough index to what is kno ]
of a subject are not out of place, and will greatly assist beginnen
in their study. In this matter our American arachnologists may
well pattern after the elegant models set them by Simon ant

Keyserling, in placing a carefully prepared synoptic table

genera and species at the head of each article. A descriptive

work without such a synopsis is as faulty as a work of referent
without an index or a library without a card catalogue.

In order to render this paper practical for students who d
to enter this attractive group of animal life, we present, first?
synoptic table of families, translated from Simon’s admirab j
“Les Arachnides de France,” followed by a summary of pe
literature of the American species : ao

ARANEÆ.
SYNOPSIS OF FAMILIES."

A.—Copulatory organ of the g enveloped by the tarsal article of the maliped,? wad
is h ed in the form of a cupule, or, at least, much enlarged;
epigynes...... heeii

Copulatory organ of the g inserted under the tarsal article [of the malipet
without modifying its form; Q without an Epigyne... ee seere reren

B.—Eyes equal or sub-equal, often dissimilar,4 forming a transverse oa

deep on the anterior portion of the cephalothorax (sub-order, Ar. vef
Eyes unequal, always similar, occupying the entire length o the > j-
forming a group as deep or deeper than wide (sub-order, Ar. oculat#)

readily distinguished by their enlarged “palpi.” The female m

will be found at the base of the abdomen below. This spider is the Ape

belonging to the first family under “ R.” it is the “Pal
* The patte-méchoire of Simon is, perhaps, best called maliped ; ee

of most American writers, of the
` The epigyne represents the whole of the external generative organs sides

In its fundamental form it consists of two sacs, which a pies

with the oviduct near its mouth, and by two larger tubes with i |

spider. Cf. Emerton, « Structure and Habits of Spiders.” are found in
- This refers both to Structure and function; two of nal visiol)

roy spiders,—(1) convex, round, colored eyes, adapted to cm
at

» uncolored eyes of various shapes, adapted to nocturnal vision.

` The Progress of Arachnology in America. . "OR

C—Cephalothorax raised, prismatic; face triangular D
o. truncate anteriorly; face quadrate; eyes in three rows (4, 2,

4 ttidæ.!
Sr placed in four rows (2, 2, 2, 2) Oxyopidæ.?
=~ Eyesplaced in wee rows (4, 2, 2) Lycoside
x n with three c ar
Tarsi with two claws F
FW three paits of spinnerets cs
4 With only one pair of spinnerets P
Ga —All the eyes oer diurnal ; second pair of legs longer than the fourth, and
5 : often than the H
_ Anterior ay eyes pe all the others nocturnal; second pair of legs
longer than either the fi r fourth Drassidze
5 H—Maxillary lamellæ 3 SOR “fillets VETY NMATTOW..c.ccceveee seesevereee Sparassidz.
4 ode lamellz inclined much beneath the siete portion of a sternum ;
homisid2.
—? with a Gilamistrum $ and a cribellum
g with neither calamistrum nor cribellum M
Kayes cama Schepens os two PA HineS...coreccesseses plage
: Eyes similar df

ephalic portion very convex, strongly separated from the thoracic ee
2 median e cai forming a compact group, separated from the lateral

by two li ERESIDA.
Cephalic ENN ag N median eyes equal, little EYE from the
u= lateral of the firs leboridz.®
Tarsi provided =g a nee nF (onychium)?.....s.sersersssesnereeeeeeeso clad
ye formed of oi only two a: P
n Wa two pairs of Sen; EaR lower more developed....... veseeseee ENYOIDÆ.
ith three pairs of spinnere ts. 3 oO

<an ts equal, arranged in a rosette, all of a single article..... ..... Pholcidæ.8 ~
apper vows much longer, formed of two or three articles.. HERSILIDA.
“File niia than the ocular area Q
7 wer than the ocular area R
igs othorax oval, elongate, the SIE portion narrow, raised; N ET PAE
equal, all formed of a single artic rididz.

. Short, rounded or rom, the cephalic portion pr aerate

“Wer spinneret long, of two artic UROcTEIDA.

known to be represented in the United States are in bold-face type,
itals,

"i
is placed by American writers with the Lycoside.
i = The maxillary lamelle are apap - ae! ees — a the mai
Dae POF ix the space between t

n ‘alamistrum is a comb of stiff Hates on the penultimate joint of the foot

is an additional spinning organ covered with fine tubes and-

t of the spinnerets. ae
following Blackwall, places the species of this family in the Ciniflo-

"The . z a

ita in Most spiders are formed of seven articles; the onychium, which

ho families, forms an eighth. ie
Unites a famil

TO zxrn, y with the ore

972 The Progress of Arachnology in America,

` R.—Median anterior eyes diurnal, all the others nocturnal; œ genital article
shaped, covering the copulatory organ; epigyne of 2 in a. form

pla te gelenidz,

Eyes (or, at least, the. four anterior) all diurnal; Qy genital iy laciniate,
encompassing the copulatory organ; epigyne of 9 provided ace

S.—M. Jibles (cheli \i ted tically, their second at oie
internal side; eyes S 6, nocturnal (sub-order, Ar. gnaphos2)........ sé eert
Mandibles inserted horizontally, their second articles bending longi
ard; eyes 8, of which two are diurnal (sub-order, Ar. neato

Eyes fo “coat @ compact BTOUD. 5p issiecesesnnceotrcceens PAT trpela
Eyes disposed in three separate groupS.......ssecerecessessesersnoessenees
U.—With a single pair of epigastric stigmata; Q witha calamistrum. FILISTATIDE
ith two pairs of epigastric stigmata; no calamistrum. s.s...» s... Avic cularia’ }

The following is a classified arrangement of the principal it
erature on American spiders, which will summarize what
been somewhat briefly reviewed above. A few of the most im-
portant European works are added, as they contain much a
general value on the subject:

I. GENERAL.

ie |
BARON WALCKENAER.—Histoire Naturelle des Insectes,—Apteres. Tome i. A
837).

N. M. Henrz.—Descriptions and Figures of the Araneides of the United sa
in Four. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., iv. 54-57, 223-231; 386-396 (1842-44)
V. 189-202, 352-369, 444-478 (1845-47); vi. 18-35, 271-295 (8h
printed with other papers in one volume,—The Spiders of the
8vo. Boston (1875).
CHARLES GIRARD.—Arachnidians; in App. F to Marcy’s “ Report
Expedition,” 233-235 I a
C. G. GIEBEL.—Ueb AOAR Spinnen aus Illinois; in Zeitschrift fir ae
Naturwissens a 1869, 24 : and
_ JOHN BLackWALL.—Notice of Sides captured z pigs Hunter in M! if
anada, with descriptions of species supposed to be new to
Annals and Mag. of Nat, Hist, (fourth bie viii. 429-436 (1871).
T. THORELL.—Notice of some Spiders from Labrador; in Prot. Boston Sw
Hist., xvii. 490-504 (18 1
——Aranez collected in be in 1875 by A. S. Packard, Jr.» M.D.; P
U. S. Geol. Survey (Hayden), iii. 477-529 (1877). fae
J. H. Emerton.—Cave ike ae Virginia; in American Nann
——Spiders Common to New England and Europe; in Pycha, 1 29°
—— Structure and Habits of Spiders. 1zmo. Salem (1878). er
this popular work appear in the “ Annual Report of the peepee
of Ontario” for 1879, and in vol. ii. of the “ Standard Natural

of Red Rive

* Emerton unites this family with the Theridide. rigb i
* More commonly known in this country as the Mygalidz, oF

1887] _ The Progress of Arachnology in Awisrich. 973

in sagt KrysERLING.—Amerikanische Spinnenarten aus den Familien Phol-

dæ, Scytodoide und Dysderoide; in Verhandl. d. k. k. sool.-bot. Gesell-

A xxvii. 205-234 (1877).

—Neue Spinnen aus Amerika, vi. Theile; in Verhand), d. k. k. zool.-bot. Gesell-
schaft, xxix. 293-350 (1879); xxx. 547-582 (1880); xxxi. 269-314 (1881);
xxxii. 195-229 (1882); xxxiii. 649-684 (1883); xxxiv. 489-534 (1884).

0. P, CAMBRIDGE.—Newfoundland Spiders; in Proc. Royal Physical Soc. Edinb.,
1881.

II. EUROPEAN.

E. Siwon.—Les Arachnides de France, tome iv. Paris (1874-84).
0, P. Campripce.—The Spiders of Dorset; with appendix, aon E escriptions
of those spiders not yet found in Dorsetshire. 2 vols. -a sedge
T. THORELL.—On European as Part I.—Review of ae
of Spiders. Upeatte: (1869-70).
_——Remarks on Synonyms of Cekiak Spiders (1870-73).
A. Mencr.—Preussische Spinnen. Danzig (1866-79).
L por —Les Arachnides de paia: Bruxelles (1882).
WEsTRING.—Araneæ Suecicæ (1861).

II. SPECIAL LITERATURE ON LEADING FAMILIES.:

A. EPEIRIDÆ.
E. KEYSERLING. —Beschreibungen neuer und wenig bekannter Arten aus der

Familie Orbitelæ Latr, oder Epeiridze Sund. ; in Sifsungsber. des Tsis au Dresden,

1863, 63-154 (1864).
“Tp zur Kenntniss der Orbitelæ Latr.; in Verhandl. d. k. k, zool.-bot.

nA xv. 799-856 (1865).
Ja EMERTON.—New England Spiders of the Family Æpeiride ; in Trans. Conn,
: Acad., vi, = (1884).
B.G Wp —[Notes on Mephila plumipes] in Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Xe
; SAN ‘3 1865
oa €. McCoo aah Webs of New Sen of Spiders (verbal communication) ;
' in Proc, Phila. Acad., 1876, 200, 20
~The Basilica Spider and her Snare; in Proc. Phila. Acad., 1878, 124-135.

The Snare of the Ray Spider (Efeira radiosa),—A New Form of Orb-Web;
in Proc. Phila. Acad., 1881, 163-175.
j How Orb-Weaving Spiders make the Frame-work or Foundation oe Webs;
—* Phila. Acad., 1881, 430-435.
: Geo Snares of Orb-Weaving Spiders; in Proc. Phila. Acad., me 254-257.
‘Manx.—Description k Gasteracantha rufospinosa; in Entomo
x as ap — 26 (188

. imon, Les eee de France, tome i.

F

pt

B. THERIDIDÆ. er
pe KEYSERLING.—Die Spinnen Amerikas. II. Theridide. 1 mea %
berg (1884). 2 Halfte, Nürnberg (1886). a
nt the: oe special papers on each of these families, many” species are —
the general papers above named, which it is not necessary to

974 The Progress of Arachnology in America,

juin: in ya roc. Zool. Soc. don. 1874, age 1875, 393-405

J. H. EMERTON.—New Eng Spiders of the Family Theridide ; in Trans. bas
Acad., vi. 1-86 (1882 $

so Simon, A Arachnides de France, tome v.

C. THOMISIDÆ.
. KEYSERLING.—Die Spinnen Amerikas. Laterigradæ. 4to, pp
soci (1880
H. C. McCoo: AE on the probable Geographical Distribution of a Spider by
the Trade Winds; in Proc. Phila. Acad., 1878, 136-147.
ee also Simon, Les Aadal de France, tome ii.

D. ATTIDÆ.

G. W. and E. G. PEckHAM.—Descriptions of New or Little-Known Spiders of de :
Family Attidæ from various parts of the United States of North America

Pp. 36. a CAs J. i

H. C. McCooK.—Note on Two New California Spiders and their Nests o
Suikasbeasiony i ; in yn Phila. Acad., 1883, 276-278.

e also Simon, Les Arachnides de France, tome iii.

; E. DRASSIDÆ. a
C. L. KocH.—Die Arachniden Familie der Drassiden. Nürnberg'(1866-68).
O. P. CaMBRIDGE.—On some New Species of Drassides ; in Proc. Zool. Soc.

1874, 370-419.
See also Simon, Les Arachnides de France, tome iv.

: F. LYCOSIDA,
Ghar E. KEYSERLING.—Ueber Amerikanische Spinnen Arten de Unte
Citigradæ; in Verhandl, d. k. k. zool.-bot. Gesellschaft, xxvi xxvi. 609-708
J. H. EMERTON.—The Lycosa at Home; in American Natu ralist, iv. pees k
—New England Spiders of the Family Zycoside; in Trans.

481-505 (1885). Papel
H. Scupper.—The Tube-Constructing Ground-Spider of Nantucket; in 7°"
ii. Safi (1877). Jah
E MARX.—On some New Tube-Constructing Spiders; in American
Xv. 396-400 (1881). ider (5
H. C. McCoox.—Note on the Intelligence of the American Turret-Spider
communication); in Proc. Phila. Acad., 1883, 131, 132- ‘
See also Simon, Les Arachnides de France, tome iii.

G. MYGALIDA, : 1
S. B. BucKLEY.—The Tarantula and its Destroyer; in Proc. Amer: 4

138, 139 (1862) ;
ANTON AUSSERER. salle in ur Kenntniss der Arachniden F

telariæ Thorell; in Verhandi, d. k. k. sool.-bot. Gesellschaft, f mi

: (1871). i

——Zweiter Beitrag zur eg der Arachniden Familie der Territel
i Ibid., xxv. 125-206 (187 a

History of Garden Vegetables, 975

J. T. MoccripcE.—Harvesting Ants and Trap-Door Spiders; with Supplementary
: Descriptions of Species by Rev. O. P. Cambridge. London (1873-74).
H. C. McCoox.—Restoration of Limbs in Tarantula; in Proc. Phila. Acad. 1883,

196, 197.

athe N New Trap-Door Spider; in American Naturalist, xx.
583-593 (1886).

—A Family of Young Trap-Door Spiders; in Entomologica Americana, ii. 87-92
1886),

Es of some New Trap-Door Spiders, their Notes (sic) and Habits;
in Entomologica Americana, ii. 109-117, 128-137 (1886).

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, August, 1887.

HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES.
BY E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, A.M., M.D."
(Continued from page 912.)

Ecc-PLANT. Solanum melongena L.

| age egg-plant seems not to have been known in Europe in
the time of the ancients. The Arab physician, Ebn Baithar,
Who wrote in the thirteenth century, speaks of it, and cites
Rhases, who lived in the ninth century.2 Albertus Magnus,
: who lived in Europe in the thirteenth century, mentions it,—
“Et sic inveninutur tres sapores in melangena, amarus acutus
* stypticus.” Ibn-al-awan, a Moorish Spaniard of the twelfth
_Sntury, describes four species, and the Nabatheenne agriculture
=. According to Jessen,s Avicenna, who flourished about
AD. 595, knew it, and called it Badingan. This latter word,
; Saan spelled, is the present name in Hindustanee, Arabic,
n, and Sumatran‘ and the closely corresponding English?
> in India is Brinjal, and Begoon ;® in Spain, Berengena; or
i esau Domingo, Beringene9 Bretschneider® says the egg-plant
| “n be identified in the “ Ts’i min yao shu,” a Chinese work on
l ; eat the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva.
R e, Orig. des Pl. Cult., 229. oe
: us, De Veg., Jessen ed., 1867, 204. p
Le Livre d'Agriculture. Trans. of Clement-Mullet, 1886, ii. pt. 1,

Drury Magnus, 1. €., note, 6 Birdwood, Veg. Prod. of Bombay, 173-
be » Useful pi. of Ind., 410. 8 Firminger, Gard. in Ind., 155-
b e» ii. 695, 1 Bretschneider, Bot. Sin., 59-

976 : History of Garden Vegetables.

agriculture of the fifth century, and is described in later writ
of 1590, 1640, and 1742. Acosta! mentions, as among the
vegetables carried from Spain to America, the “ Becengenes, or
apples of Love ;” and Piso, in 1658, figures the egg-plant among
Brazilian plants, under the name of Belingela. =

2

The various European names are given as below: in Belgian
veramgenes, eierplant; in English, apples of love, madde apples,
egg-plant; in France, albergine, avbergine, beringene, brehhem,
bringele, magrinan, mayenne, melanzane, merangene, meringeant,

_verinjeane, viadase ; in Germany, Eierpflanze ; in Italy, petna-
ano, melanzacca, maringiani; in Portugal, dringela; in Spain
berengena.3 a
` These names are largely derived from the Arabic melongena!
as given by Rauwolf. 4

The egg-plants first known in Europe appear to belong tothe
ass we now grow for ornament, and the fruit resembling -i
egg. They were of various colors. Fuchsius (1542) mentions

the purple and the yellow ; Tragus (1552), who says they w
recently reached Germany from Naples, names the same colors;
Lyte’s “ Dodoens” (1586) reads two kinds,—one purple and m
other pale or whitish. In 1587, Dalechamp figures three kinds

—the one long, another obscurely pear-shaped, and the turt
rounded, —and mentions the colors purple, yellow,

colored; Gerarde (1597) says white, yellow, or brown;

nzus (1616) mentions the oblong and round, white and puri

Marcgrav, in 1648, describes a round and yellow fruit; J. Pi

(1651) names various sorts, —the long, the deep, and pani

yellow, purple, and whitish. Bontius, in 1658, describes

wild plant of Java as oblong and round, or spherical, ae

yellow; the cultivated sorts purple or white, etc. Rauw E

particularly described these plants at Aleppo in 1574 sf

colored, yellow, and purple. ;
At present the purple egg-plant is almost the oa

grown in our kitchen-gardens, but there are many sorts B

in other regions, The purple and the white © England

named for American gardens in 1806, as also in ~ ©

1807, in France in 1824, etc. In the Mauritius, ge n:
7A Hist. of t : ed. , 294. We,

a Piso, De Ind. “Cesabia pa ir eS 3 Vilmorin, Lae ner
4 Rauwolf, Ex Bauh., Phytopin., 1596, 300. s Bojer, Hort.

aa
wa

History of Garden Vegetables. O77

3 three varieties, and the purple and white colors. In India,
Carey? says, there are several varieties in constant cultivation
_ by the natives, such as green, white, purple, yellow, etc. Fir-
z minger? describes purple-, black-, and white-fruited forms; and
q Speede3 names the purple and white in six varieties. In Cochin
China, Loureiro describes five sorts, purple, white, and variegated.
_ There are two sorts of plants to be recognized,—(a) the one
4 with the stems, leaves, and calyxes unarmed, or nearly so;
(6) the other with the stems, leaves, and calyxes more or less
aculeate.
_ 4 The first sort is figured by Fuchsius (1542), and by suc-
_ Steding authors up to the present date.
___ 4 The second sort is first noticed, so far as I can ascertain, day
© Camerarius in 1 588, and has continued to the present time.
4 The varieties now grown in American gardens can be divided
_ Very readily into four types,—the oval, the round, the long, and
Ì the oe or pear-shape,—and the following synonymy can be
_ established
I The Oval This, at present, includes but ornamental sorts,
_ and our present forms show a marked improvement in evenness
and regularity over the older forms.

æ. CALYX NOT SPINY.
Mala insana. Fuch., 1542, 513; Roszlin, 1550, 117; Tragus,
1552, 894; Pinæus, 1561, 514; Ger., 1597, 274; Swertius, 1612;
20, p. 1; Dod., 1616, 458.
Melangena sive mala insana vel melanzana. Lob. Obs, 1576,
8.

Sanum pomi
a Melongena arabum. Chabr., 1673, 524.
A ne blanche. Vilm., 1883, 27.

&. CALYX SPINY.

| pad. sm pallido. Hort. Eyst. 1713; Aut. Ord., i.
; also

Bae Pane N. Y. Sta., 1886.

* Carey, Hort. Beng., 16. 2 Firminger, Gard. in India, 155.
*Speede, Indian Handb, of Gard., 177. |

978 History of Garden Vegetables,

a. CALYX NOT SPINY.

Belingela. Marcg., 1648, 24; Piso, 1658, 210. Pes
Aubergine ronde de Chine. Decaisne & Naudin, Man., iv, 288,
Black Pekin. Ferry, 1883; Hovey, 1866.
6. CALYX SPINY. |
_ Black Pekin. Greg., 1886; Thorb., 1886,

III. The Zong. This varies much in size and proportion;
the Chinese variety described by Kizo Tamari* as recently intro-
duced into Japan belongs to this class. He says it is about onè
inch in diameter by one foot and a half long. This form may
be either straight or curved.

; a. CALYX NOT SPINY, :
~ Melantzana arabum melongena. Lugd., 1587, ii, apps 23

Solanum pomiferum fructu incurvo. J. Bauhin, 1651, iii. 619}
Chabr., 1673, 524; Pluk., Phyt., 1691, t. 226, p. 2. ean

Aubergine violette longue. Decaisne & Naudin, Man, iv. 287.

6. CALYX SPINY.
Aubergine violette longue. Vilm., 1883, 24.

IV. The Oblong, or Pear-Shaped. This form is a swollen frit
with an elongation towards the summit, in some of its varieties
shaped like the powder-horn gourd.

a, CALYX NOT SPINY.

Melantzana nigra. Lugd., 1587, ii., app. 23-

Aubergine violette nain tres hative. Vilm., 1883, 26.

Early Round Violet, Damman, 1884.

; 6. CALYX SPINY. i

Solanum pomiferum magnus fructu, etc. Pluk., Phyt, I A

t. 226, p. 3.
Melongena. Tourn., 1710, t. 65.
American Large Purple. Burr, 1863, 609.

We may note that the Arabic words melongena a
giam were applied by Rauwolf to the long-frui

* American Horticulturist, Sept. 1886, p. 10»

A 1887] History of Garden Vegetables. ` 979

_ calyx not spiny, while the word Batleschaim, or Melanzana Bat-
_ leschaim, was applied to the spiny-calyx form of the pear-shaped,
—if Gronovius’s* synonymy is to be trusted.

Every type in the varieties that I have seen under cultivation
canbe, with certainty, referred to one of the four forms above
named. The oval-form type is figured in 1542, as we have
shown; the round type in 1648, in Brazil; the long type, by
Dalechamp, in 1587; and the pear-shaped type also in 1587.
_ All the colors now noted, and more, receive notice in the ancient
writers, As we have confined our synonymy to those authors
who have given figures, and have omitted those who but de-
_ Scribed, however certainly the descriptions would apply, we can
_ Claim-accuracy as to our facts. :
_ We, hence, have no evidence that types have originated
_ through cultivation in recent years, and we have strong evidence

at types have continued unchanged through long-continued
cultivation under diverse climates. It is but as we examine
_ Variation within types that we see the influences of cultivation.
tis not altogether in size. The oval-fruited is described by
| Dodonzus (1616) as of the form and size of an egg, but he
Says that in Egypt, where the plant is wild, it attains double or
ae times this size, which it has in France and Germany.
i Ray, in 1686, compares the size of the long-fruited to that of
_ at egg, or of a cucumber,—a comparison that would answer for
| Way, as cucumber size covers a wide range; but he adds that
the curved form is like a long gourd. The figures of the pear-
shaped in 1719 indicate a fruit which compares well with the
Sal sizes grown at the present time. It is in regularity of
, form, and in the large size of selected strains, that we see the
uence arising from careful selection and protected growth.

Other influence has climate exercised? We do not know.
This sketch illustrates the point I have already made in my
- og of the dandelion, celery, and other vegetables,—that types
ui. oneties have great fixity, are not produced through human
‘ection and cultivation, and, I wish I could add in this case,

mated from wild prototypes; but, unfortunately, I find no
Ena records of the variation observed in feral, or spon-
“ous plants, ,

* Gronovius, Orient., 25, 26.

980 oe History of Garden Vegetables.

. ELEcAMPANE. J/nula helenium L.
The use of this plant is now nearly abandoned, although i
was once highly regarded as an aromatic tonic. Columella,
Pliny, and Palladius mention its culture by the Romans of the
first and third centuries. Vegetius Renatus, about the begin
ning of the fifth century, calls it Znula campana, and St. Isidore,
in the beginning of the seventh, names it Jnw/a, adding “ quam
Alam rustici vocant.” It is frequently mentioned in Angi
Saxon writings on medicine before the Norman conquest, and
was the “marchalan” of the Welsh physicians of the thirteenth
century, and was generally well known during the middle ages’
The root is the valuable part, and it was used for candying e
a sweetmeat, as well as for a medicine, and is sometimes even
now used in distilling absinthe in order to give a flavor. Itwa
in American gardens in 1806, and its seed is yet advertised it

some of our seed-catalogues. i
The Zlecampane is called, in France, aulnée, aromate geri
ique, aunée, eil-de-cheval; in Germany, alant;’ in Ang
Saxon, hors-helene ; in Italy, elenio or enula campana*
The plant, now naturalized in places in the United States,
native to Southern and Central Europe, extending eastward
the Caucasus, Southern Siberia, and in the Himalayas. Its
occurs in-Southern England and Ireland, Norway, and Fi

=

fe

; Enpive. Cichorium endivia L.

There are two distinct forms of endive,—the one the curled,
the other the broad-leaved. The first does not seem to ae
been known to the ancients, although Dioscorides* and Pliny :
name two kinds. In the thirteenth century Albertus Magn
names also two kinds, the one with narrower leaves :
other; and in 1542 Fuchsius® figures two kinds of Like :
tion, and like forms are noted in nearly all the earlier
A curled broad-leaved form is figured by Camerarius? 1
Dalechampius,® 1587; Gerarde,* 1597, etc. Tt 1$, bo

* Pharmacographia, 1879, 380. 2 McMahon, Am, Gard. Kal» e
3 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 28. 4 Pickering, Ch. Hist., 461.

5 Dioscorides, lib. ii. c. 147. 6 Pliny, lib. xx. ¢- 29 3%

7 Albertus Magnus, De Veg., Jessen ed., 1867, 508 283.

° Fuchsius, De Stirp., 677, 678. 9 Camerarius, Epit., i

10 Hist. Gen., Lugd., 1587, 557. zı Gerarde, Herbal, 1597; 221

History of Garden Vegetables, 981

_ described in the “ Adversaria,”? 1570. These authors named all
_ furnish what may reasonably be considered as the types of the
_ four kinds of broad-leaved endives now described by Vilmorin.?
_ The origin of the curled endives, of which Vilmorin describes
_ twelve, I find difficult to trace. The peculiar truncate appear-
ance of the seed-stalks is very conspicuous, and this feature
would lead me to suspect that the type is to be seen in the
_ Sens sativa of Lobel? (1576), but the resemblances, I must
= confess, are quite remote. This is the Cichorium latioris foltt
of Dodonzeus+ (1616). They were in English gardens as a
e well-known sort in 1 778,5 and were named among seedsmen’s
= supplies in 1 726 ;° in the United States prior to 1806,7
The endive is called, in France, chicorée endive ; in Germany,
_ “ndivien, winter-endivien; in Flanders and Holland, andijvie ;
= Denmark, endivien; in Italy, zxdivia, endivia; in Spain,
_ thdivia, escarola ; in Portugal, exdivia® The curled forms are
2 called, in France, chicorées; the broad-leaved form, Scaroles ;
, 2 English, Batavian , in Arabic, Sjikuri; by Turks, hiddiba ;9
_ 'MEgypt, hendibe ; in Egyptian, saris, serin ;® in India, hasnee ;*
Japan, fanna tsisa ; 2 Hindustani, kasni; Tamil, žoschi.3
E In 1885 a curled endive, at the New York Agricultural Ex-
Periment Station, was crossed by lettuce-pollen. The crop of
1886 showed a plant resembling the lettuce in leaf, but with the
“ower of the endive. We may explain this result as being a
j case of atavism, the stimulus of the foreign pollen bringing out
Bee Of the lettuce-like broad-leaved forms, which had shared in
~~ Patentages from which the curled was evolved.

Encuish Bean, Vicia faba L.; Faba vulgaris Moench.

: The culture of the English or broad-bean precedes the period _
> written history, as the seeds have been found not only in the,
“Puan tombs of the twelfth dynasty, or from two thousand —

Pena and Lobel, Adv., 1570, 86.
-» 1885, 243, 244. ;
Obs., 1576, 114. + Dodonæus, Pempt., 1616, 634-

M Gard., 1778. 6 Townsend, Seedsman, 1726, 20.
aR “Mahon, Am. Gard. Kal., 1806, 8 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 89.
A “> “1. Zigypt- oy XXX. 1 Pickering, Ch. Hist., 257.
Fa 3i Ind. Handb. of Gard., r67.. = Thunberg, Jap., 304-
~-andolle, Orig. Des Pl. Cult., 78.

982 History of Garden Vegetables.

two hundred to two thousand four hundred years before Christ
and have been excavated from the ruins of Troy, but appear
among the débris of the bronze age of the lake-dwellers
ancient Switzerland; and the variety found continued to the

3
d

times of the Romans. Beans were also found at Teneriffe’ at
the period of the discovery; and Bretschneider® records that,
about 140-86 B.C., during the reign of the Emperor Wu-ti, the
celebrated general Chang-kien brought the bean from Westem
Asia; but these were probably only better varieties than those
then grown in China. The bean was grown by the ancient ;
Romans and Greeks, and finds frequent mention in their writings 4
and in Egypt was subject to many superstitious beliefs and prejt-
dices.” This bean is now more or less cultivated in all quarters
of the globe. It reached the British North American Colonies
early in the seventeenth century, having been planted by Gos
nold in the Elizabeth Islands, near the coast of Massachusetts,
in 1602. Beans were under cultivation also in Newfoundland 35
early as 1622, in New Netherlands in 1644, and in Virginia prot
to 16482 Atthe present time Vilmorin? describes twelve gardet
and four field varieties as worthy of culture in France. In Eng
land this bean is very extensively grown. Dr. Alefield® had
separated forty varieties in 1862. In America they are but little
grown, and our best seed-catalogues enumerate no more u
four varieties.
Linnæus forms this bean into two botanical varieties, 35 ae
also Moench, who names the one Aortensis, or the garden me
the other eguina, or the horse-bean. These are both fig z
ape by the early botanists: the hortensis or gardes :
y Fuchsius (1542), Tragus (1552), etc.; the eguina is desch"
by Pena and “spe in oe ` pean (15 70), and by Lyt? a
his “ Dodoens” (1 586), as well as by Dodonzus in I 566. :

beat

* G. Schweinfurth, Nature, Jan. 31, 1883, 314.

2 De Candolle, Orig. Des Pl. Cult., 272.

3 Gard. Chron., 1866, 1068; De Candolle, Orig. Des Pl. Cult., 255-

4 Darwin, An. and Pl., 1868, i. 385.

s Gea Coll. of Voy. of the Port, London, 1789, 183.

Bretschneider, On the Study, etc., 15. Phila., 1804 i

7 For an excellent summary, fa « Travels of Anacharsis,” 1804, 1% ©
157. , 210.
3 U, S. Pat. of Rept., 1553, 221. 9 Vilmorin, Les He pina
7° Alefield, Bonplandia, x. 1862, s. 348; quoted from Darwin, l. &

it

‘cies History of Garden Vegetables. 983

Tam too unfamiliar with the English bean to attempt a sy-
ney. R. T*[hompson], in 1850, describes ten varieties,
giving synonymes, and these include all sufficiently known to
him. Let us follow up his synonymy, in order to see whether
varieties of modern origination appear. This synonymy, we
must caution, is founded upon identity of names in the most
instances, and applies to the garden bean only, yet collateral
evidence would seem to indicate a substantial correctness :

gA 27 mazagan. R. T., 1850. Brought from a settlement
e Portuguese on ‘the coast of Africa, just without the
Straits of Gibraltar. Mill. Dict., 1807.
iy mazagan. Mawe, 1778; Bryant, oh McMahon,
1806; Thorb. Cat., 1828; Thorb. Cat.,
_ Feve naine hative. Noisette, 1829; Vilm., penn

FA Marshall 5 Early Dwarf Prolific. R.T., 1850.

3 Long-pod. R.T., see
__ Long-pod. McMaho n,
a Aha ‘pod. Mise. j s: Bridgeman, 1832; Loudon,

Early Portugal or Lisbon. Mawe, 1778; Mill. Dict., 1807.
E Lisbon. E Makon, 1806; Bridgeman, 1832.
eo ee: coed Mawe, 1778; McMahon, 1806; Bridge-

> Tal tong pod Mawe, 1778.
wich, „ Gent. , 1683; Townsend, 1726; Stevenson,
E, Mawe, 1778; Bryant, 1783; Bridgeman, 1832.
Ses lon, g-pod. Thorb. Cat., 1828; Fessenden, 1828;
ar ridgeman, 1832; Thorb, Cat., 1884.
Hang-down long -pod. Vil., 1883.
cve à longue cosses, Noisette, 1829; Vil, 1883.

+ Green long-pod R. T., 1850.
irei Genoa. McMah on, 1806 ; Bri doen! 832.
“ee maga McMahon, 1806; Thorb., Gard. Kal., 1821;
8; Bridgeman, 1832; Thorb. Cat., 1884.

850.
ill. Dict., 1807; Fessenden, 1828; Lou-
4 a Thorb. , 1884. r

ndsor,

Bridgeman, 1332.
* R, T., Gard. Chron., 1850, 84.

984 -History of Garden Vegetables.

Taylor's Windsor. Bridgeman, 1832.
Mumford.. Mawe, 1778; Bryant, 1783; McMahon, 1806;
_ Bridgeman, 1832
Small Spanish, Mawe, 1778; Bryant, 1783.
Windsor. Stevenson, 1765; Mawe, 1778; Bryant, i
ast AN Windsor. Van der Donck, 1653; in present t New
7. Green Windsor. R. T., 1850. it
Toker. Stevenson, 1765; Mawe, 1778; Bryant, 1783;
Bridgeman, 1832. e
Feve de Windsor verte. Vil., 1883. is

8. Green China. R.T., 1850.

9. Dwarf | Crimson-seeded. R.T., 18 50.
Feve très naine rouge. Vil., 188 3.

10. Dwarf Fan. R.T., 1850.
Dwarf Fan or Cluster. Mawe, 1778.
Dwarf Cluster. McMahon, 1806; , Bridge 1832.
Feve naine hative à chassiz. Vil.,

Wee sehen Sie o E aoe

bee
h

. Red-blossomed. Mawe, 1778; McMahon, 1806; Bridgemat,
8032. ok. T., 1850.

12. White-blossomed. gas 1778; McMahon, 1806; ie
man, 1832; R. T., 1850.

The only two other varieties I have seen advertised lately
Beck’s Dwarf Green Gem and Seville long-pod. o

There is certainly no indication here that types have appeared
in modern culture. The crowd of new names which 4
during a decade gradually become reduced to a synonymy:
we find at last that the variation gained has been within
only.

The European names of the broad Boii, or English | bers
Denmark, valske bonner; in Flanders, platte boon; in
Seve, gorgane, gourgane ; in Germany, Garten bohnen, ‘5
puff bohnen; in Holland, tuin boonen, roomsche
fava; in Portugal, fava; in Spain, haba. Other gene
are: Arabic, ful or foul; Hebrew, phul or pols Celtic, J
fav ; Slav, bob or bobu; Berber, ibiou ; Basque, baba?

* Vilmorin, Les Pl, v
itched, Gene > Bot., 956; Orig. Des Pl. Cults 259

Uae

1887] The Perissodactyla, 985

_ The horse-bean is called, in France, feverole; in Germany,
_ Pferde oder feld bohne ; in Italy, fava cavallina:

EVENING Primrose. Cnothera biennis L.

The roots may be used as Scorsonera, but it is cultivated in
_ France only as a curiosity.” It is said by Loudon: to be culti-
E Vated in Germany, and in Carniola the roots are eaten in salad.+
It was once under English culture A native of Northern
America, it first reached Europe in 1614.6 It is given by Burr?
tor American gardens in 1863, under the name German Rampion.
It is called, in France, Znothere bisannuelle, onagre, herbe aux
_ Mes, jambon, jambon des jardiniers, jambon de St. Antoine, lysi-
x machie Jaune, lysimachie jaune cornu, mache rouge; in Germany,
_ Tapuntica; in F landers, ezelskruid ; in Italy, rapontica, rapunzia ;
in Norway, natlys?
f (To be continued.)

THE PERISSODACTYLA.
BY E. D. COPE.
DIPLARTHRA.

r is to the order Diplarthra that the greater number of existing
__, SP&cies of hoofed mammals belong. It is represented by two
‘ub-orders, which have the following definitions:

Astragalus truncate distally; the median toe the largest j........e1+.-0+++ Perissodactyla.
Astragalus with the distal end convex anteroposteriorly, forming a

ce Singlymus (hinge-joint) ; number of toes generally even, the me-

dian two the largest... Artiodactyla.

4 “Note. The references in the list are to Bridgeman, Young Gard. Assist., N. Y.,

Ho: py Fl. Dict, Lond., 1783; Fessenden, New Am. Gard., 1828; Loudon, —
* Lond., 1860; McMahon, Am, Gard. Kal., Phila., 1806; Mawe, Univ. Gard.,
ae 1778; Noisette, Man., Brussels, 1829; Stevenson, New and p. Gard.
Dublin, 1765; Thorburn, Gent. and Gard. Kal., N. Y., 1821; Thorbarn’s

€s, 1828, 1884; Townsend, Comp. Seedsman, Lond., 1726; Vilmorin, 3
vy Pot., Paris, 1883.

in, Les Pl. Pot., 202. 3 Loudon, The Horticult., 1860, 653.
Nat. et Econ., Pt. 2, p. 398. ` 5 Johnson, Useful Pl. of Gt. Bit, 104.
taa U» Sp., 1763, 492. 7 Burr, Field and Gard. Veg., 1863, 35-
Schubeler, ulturpflanz de Norv., 118.

986 The Perissodactyla. | [Nov,

No undoubted connecting forms between these sub-orders
have been discovered, although they approximate at various

length. In the same genus the distal extremity of the asta
galus is somewhat convex, and the facet for the cuboid bone is —
large, somewhat as in the hippopotamus; but the angle sep
rating the two facets is diagonal, and not transverse; so th

form a ginglymus, as it does in the Artiodactyla. Ina few ie
stances some Artiodactyla have teeth which resemble those of
the Perissodactyla; for instance, the genus Listriodon. Bott
sub-orders probably arose from an undiscovered common at
cestor, which was a member of the order Amblypoda. It was
probably a type with tubercular molars, and belonged to
_ Puerco epoch. An approach to this theoretical type is 1
by the Pantolestidz, whose molars are bunodont, the superior
molars being tritubercular (with two intermediates); but
form of the extremities (the posterior only is known) is that
the Diplarthra. The hypothetical Amblypoda with bunodott
molars I have regarded as a sub-order, and have names
Hyodonta.* ;
The opinion has been expressed by Schlosser that the
tion of the Diplarthra, or alternate-wrist-and-ankle-jointed
lates, has been directly from the Taxeopoda, or straight
wrist-and-ankle-jointed Ungulata, without intervention
Amblypoda. The Periptychidz have been cited as the
ancestors of the Artiodactyla, and the Phenacodo
cestors of the Perissodactyla. I do not agree with

i

in both the fore and hind feet. This rotation has resu
or later in the loss of the internal digit (thumb and | a
from both extremities. In the history of this sliding
of the first row, the outside element of the row has oe
ceded in time the inside element. The Amblypo™ '
* Proceeds, Amer. Philosoph. Society, 1882, 446 :

| PLATE XXVIII.

NH,
La

: Aa aif if
os ee 2 hi

yi, My

J SAN IN is
PES Mar
2 as

Hyena striata, striped hyena.
ral History.)

The Perissodactyla. 987

-show this clearly. The lunar bone has extended outwards so

as to rest on the outside bone of the second row (unciform) in
part, as well as the one on which it properly rests (magnum),

_ But the scaphoid has not slipped outwards so as to rest on the

magnum of the second row. That continues to rest on its proper
successors below, the trapezoides and the trapezium, the latter
taking half the burden. This structure (Fig. 2) is absolutely
intermediate between that of the Taxeopoda (Fig. 1) and that of
the Diplarthra (Fig. 3), and I imagine that all ungulates, in pass-
ing from the taxeopodous to the diplarthrous stages, traversed

Ee magnum, while the lunar did not pass outwards beyond the
— dmits

_, > of the magnum. No such type has been found. On the

: other hand, I have shown that the Oredontidæ* have pushed the
2 transposition of the bones of the first carpal row to such an ex-

ee

we that the magnum has gotten entirely under the scaphoid,
ne the unciform supports the lunar completely. Thus the
mating position, with its useful mechanical consequence, has

been lost to this group, the effect produced being exactly t

E _* Proceeds. Amer, Philosoph. Society, 1884, pp- 503-9
e XXL—No, II, 67

988 ` The Perissodactyla. [Nov,
seen in the Amblypoda. This may have had something to d
with the extinction of the Oreodontidz. (Ege
The cause of this rotation of the first on the second rows o
carpal and tarsal bones may be now referred to. Mammals, et
cept those which are completely plantigrade (as the bear), tum
the toes out in walking! In the Ungulata, the toes of te
posterior foot are more strongly turned outwards than those of
the anterior foot. In the digitigrade Carnivora, which represent
the highest type of the Unguiculata, the movement is reverses,
the anterior toes being turned outwards more than the posterior.
As the foot is descending towards the ground, it is, with |
distal part of the leg, rotated from within outwards. The
tation of the foot is promptly arrested at the moment of
contact with the ground, and the effect of this arrest is to f!
duce a torsion of the leg, and a pressure from within outwat
of the proximal or moving element of each articulation, a?
the distal or fixed element. Thus a constant torsion strain 4
within outwards has been exerted by the first row of carga q
and tarsal bones, on the second row, and thus has iar
believe, the gradual transition from the linear arrangem
those bones of the Condylarthra to their alternation eee
Diplarthra. The advance of diplarthrism is in direct ratio al
advance of digitigradism, for the greater the length of the ‘|
the greater is the elasticity of the leg, and the greats Ki
torsion. This is especially true of the posterior leg, yee q
_ prominent heel; and thus is explained the fact that dip! Pe
appears in that foot before it does in the fore foot, aS in the aq
_boscidia. (Plate XXIX. A
To the same ASH torsion is. to be ascribed the aut ie
tension of the radius and tibia over the first row of vrticulatod
the almost exclusion of the ulna and fibula from the ee
This reasoning when applied to the Unguiculate a
fied by other circumstances. In the Carnivora the
the body does not rest on the ungues as in the Unten .
_ the pads of connective tissue beneath the digits. a
on the application of the foot to the ground the rigid"
the carpal and tarsal articulations do not present tH ie y
sistance seen in the Ungulata, but yield more of eget per
-Familiar exception to this rule is seen in some horses; but et ae
` _ Out, and the tapir, which represents the horse’s ancestors, turns the 2° i

oo

Gazella dorcas, gazelle,
(From the Standard Natural History.)

j 1887] The Perissodactyla, . 989

sion. Hence no alternation of these bones takes place in the
hind foot of the Carnivora, where the eversion of the digits is
moderate. In the case of the fore foot, the eversion and conse-
quent torsion are so great that the alternation is produced (Plate
_ XXVIII). Inthe manus of the plantigrade bear the alternation
is almost #727. con
It may be here objected that the camel walks upon elastic pads
= asdo the Carnivora, and yet the alternation does really take place.
lt is on this account (as I have maintained) that the distal meta-
podial tongue-keels were never completed in these animals. But
if the camel does not rest on the ungues sufficiently to resist
torsion, as in the Carnivora, this was not the case in the ances-
tors of the camels, the Poëbrotheriidæ, where the contact with
the ground was much as in other Diplarthra. But there is little
impact in the step such as occurs in other Ungulata, hence the
failure to complete the keels.
Our zoological gardens furnish excellent opportunities for the »
i ‘erage of all these observations on the progression of Mam-
ut:

I. PERISSODACTYLA.

The modifications of structure seen in the evolution of this
sub-order are principally those of the feet, teeth, and vertebræ.

already remarked, the changes in the feet consist in the
sradual reduction of the number of the digits from four, or per-
PS five, to one. In the teeth the changes consist in the con-
Version of tubercular, or bunodont, into crested, or lophodont,
3 molars, and in the increase in the complexity of the premolars,
_ *° that, instead of possessing a distinct and simple character of
T own, they come to resemble the true molars; also in the re-
4 duction in the dimensions and numbers of the canine and incisor
= in some lines, The modification of the vertebra consists
3 the conversion of a flat zygapophysial articulation into a con-
_ “vo-convex or embracing structure. This modification is sim-
T what is seen in some of the Artiodactyla, but the change
i eee further, and the structure becomes more complex in
: io = Suborder.” In the teeth the change pursues two paths,
"A different from that seen in the Artiodactyla. The modifi-
z
¢ Pag a ote Arrangement and Phylogeny of Artiodactyla,” in Proceeds.
~ S. Society, September, 1887.

990 : The Perissodactyla.

cation of the feet ‘is of a different type, as already stated in the
definitions of the two orders. oe

e first step in dental modification in the superior series is
the flattening of the external tubercles, and their connection
with each other at the base. The
beginning of this process is seen it
Heptodon singularis (Fig. 4) and its
allies of the Hyracotheriine.* A
concomitant change is the confluence
of the internal cusps with the inter —
mediate ones into crests or ridges,
which may be transverse or oblique
(Figs. 4, 12, and 15), or may be other-
wise varied, as in the equine line. 2
the lower jaw two limes of changè
have developed. In the one the tt-
bone of Heptodon singularis percles of the crown have been of-

Wasatch be

of New Mexico, From Captain : : a
Wheeler’sreport,iv.,ii.PLLXVI, Pairs by transverse ridges © he

(Fig. 12); while in the other =

cusps have become alternate, so that the ridges which joined

them have been oblique, each tubercle giving origin to T

crests extending in divergent directions,—that is, to the o

with which it alternates. The result has been a W-shaped z

or line of crests (Figs. 26 4, 28).

Ryder haš pointed out that the rhinoceros

(E. montanus, E. asinus, E. caballus), The same author
out that the masticatory movement in the selenodont
tyla is in the opposite direction, from within outware
appears to me probable that many of the primitive eee od
tyla had the same movement as the latter. They, wie
sent a remarkable difference from the selenodont Artiot i
in another respect. The mandibular condyle in Hy a

* These are frequently accompanied by an additional external cusp, WHC
from the anterior external angle of the crown. (See Figs. 4 4

* Proceedings Academy Philada., 1878, p. 45. Although
wards gave up this view, and concluded that the Artiodactyl
‘ment as in the Rhinoceros (I. c., 1879, 47), his first opinion W
correct one.

as angot

The Perissodactyla, 99I

main of relatively small dimensions, and often primitive form. In
: the tapir, where the movement in mastication is almost vertical,
neither set of tubercles attains a remarkable specialization.

For the three modes of mastication mentioned the following
_ terms are proposed: Vertical movement (Carnivora, Bunodonta),
l; from within outwards, Ental; from without inwards,
a Ectal (from ahew, to grind).

_ The three lines which originated from the Lophiodontide are
_ those which terminated in the Equide, the Tapiride, and the
. Rhinocerontidæ, They differ in the characters of the superior
Molar teeth as below pointed out. The mechanical cause of
these peculiarities is not far to seck. In the Equine line mastica-
Hon has been effected on that side of the mouth where the lower
f Jaw, in its transverse motion across the superior molars, was mov-
7 ing from the inside outwards, as in the selenodont Artiodactyla
(ruminants). In the Tapiroid line there has been little trans-
_ “erse movement of the lower jaw, so that Y’s have not been de-

‘

_ Weloped in the molars of either series. In the Rhinocerontine
a mastication has been performed on that side of the mouth
s : uthe lower jaw was passing from the outside inwards.
es is the method of mastication of the Rhinoceros to-day, as
ve by Professor Ryder: The effects of these distinct
anes of mastication are seen in different forms of the external
Walls of the Superior molars. Inthe Equine line (Chalicotheriide,
snodontide, and Palzotheriide) the edges of the ¢xter
ig are been drawn externally by the ental movement of the
4. jaw, thus producing the legs of the two Y's. In the Rhi-
ine the branches of the single large anterior V have

Teeedes S. Academy Philadelphia, 1879, p. 49. In this paper Professor Rydet 2
“Medes from hi f $

raa t the apices of the cusps which are engaged in primitive mastication, = a
And lateral ridges. The former fall between the cusps of the opposite

992 o The Perissodactyla.

been drawn inwards by the ectal movement of the lower jaw, so _
that the external wall slopes inwards at the point where it forms —
in the horse line a V with the angle outwards. In some of the _
genera (as Isectolophus) a median, inwardly-directed \ is de
veloped at this point. The posterior end of the wall is turneda
little outwards in some forms of this series, but this is due toa d
return or ental movement of the lower molar, of short duration,
which has also drawn out externally the external end of the —
anterior cingulum. The two lines of development are also indi-
cated in the lower molars. The one has Y's on the lower molars, ‘
and the other has cross-crests. The development of Y's is due i
to the development of intermediate tubercles of the superior
molars. These cause the crown of the inferior molar to pursue
a curved path across thé upper, so that when the external cusp —
of the inferior molar is deflected forwards by the intermediate
cusp of the superior, the inner cusp of the former must alter-
nate with the external of the same, in Order to pass between j
internal cusps of the superior molar.’
With these preliminary remarks, I give the following synops
of the families :?
I. No A-shaped space with the apex external between cusps
Inferior molars with cross-crests.

of superior mola
A. Premolars different from molars.

a. Superior canine teeth present

I, Toes 4-3; Age eee ,Lophiodontide.

Be TO Pie Ea isd e A Tri
aa. No superior canine teeth. ste
3. Mastoid bone not exposed in external wall of skull ;.....++-+++ Canopodide.

AA. Superior molars and premolars alike, with aoe

superi

5. ESAR man excluded from the walls of the skull by the con- on

_ tact of the occipital and squamosal; no superior, canines +++ Rhinoceride.
aa. Tea cusps of superior molars subequal, distinct-

6. Superior molars and premolars alike, and with cross-crests ; ae

oss “Se eeneeerere . eeereeere apiri

an " 3

II. The external cusps of the superior molars ica separi E ;
T with the ki enina; ; inferior molars with crescen eral asp
A molars; with only one int
7- “Toes 4-3: a vertebrarterial canal ;.,..... EE
+ * These relations will be more fully discussed and illustrated in an

to appear.

_& ? Modified from that published in the Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc,

oeoneee?

article
1881,

3 1887] _ The Perissodactyla. 993

8. Toes 3-3; no vertebrarterial canal; M. heniide
AA. Premolars like molars, with two internal lobes above.

OLT a ce ea AP) FF 0 000 00s ee condcncerecoesseecueesedeteeseteeuseeséce ‘enodontide .
10, Toes with digits 3-3; Paleotheriida
I. Toes with digits 1-1;... Equide.

The total number of well-determined species of this order is
_ about two hundred. It was abundantly represented during the
_ Eocene period, and the recent species are comparatively few.
_ Itmay be also observed that certain families predominated dur-
ing certain periods. Thus the prevalent Perissodactyla of the
Eocene are Lophiodontide and Chalicotheriide; those of the
Miocene are Rhinocerontide and Paleotheriide. The Ti apiride
and guide characterize the latest tertiary epochs. A genea-
logical tree of the order may be constructed as follows:

Equide.
Rhinoceridz. Palzotheriide.
Hyracodontide, Tapiride. Menodontidz.

Triplopide. Cænopidæ.

Lophiodontidæ. Chalicotheriidæ.

_ E modification of known forms (as Lambdotherium in the
ide, and Hyracotherium in the Lophidontide) would
~ necessary to obliterate this difference is quite clear. How |
readily the transverse-crested lower molar can be modified into
S ing type may be seen by comparing the inferior molars
Hyracotherium with those of a rhinoceros.

ao 1.

ns 2 the species belong to the Eocene period. They range
moe e Size of a rabbit to that of an ox. They resembled
ena living animals, the tapirs.

i. ~~ &enera are characterized as follows: a
l ‘Exteral lobes of superior molars well separated and little flattened; lobes of
_ Metior molars scarcely united (Hyracotheriina).

wo | The Perissodactyla,

A. No diastema
Fourth ikesi premolar unlike the first true molar.
oe inferior molar with five lobes; superior premolars
RO A rises sic ccavengec curds cited «++... Systemodon Cope,
AA. A diastema behind the first premolar in both jaws.
. Last inferiot premolar different from first true molar.
Fant inferior molar with heel; cross-crests of superior mo-
lars interrupted ; Hy th

ed

aa. Last inferior premolar asad ae true molar.
Dentition generally as in H Pliolophus Owen.

II. External lobes of superior molars well separated and little flattened; inferior —

molars with perfect cross-crests ( Protapirine).

Last inferior molar with heel; ? four premolars ; Isectolophus 8, and 0.
Last inferior molar without heel; inferior peak three ;..Protapirus Filb.

III, FER lobes of superior molars flat, not well distingata forming a
ferior molars with Aiea cross-crests (Lophiodontina).
. i No diastema in lower j
Last inferior molar with third lobe; Helaletes” Marsh.
AA, Lower jaw with diastema.
* No diastema behind first Sa es
a. No inferior premolars like the true molars.

Superior molars
Last inferior molar with heel; Heptodon Cope.
Last inferior molar without heel ; Hyrachyus Lay:
rior molars 6,

Last inferior molar with heel: Lophiodon. Cuv.
Last lower molar without heels, no horns; ege _Dilophodon odon Scott.
Last lower molar?; “an attachment for a Derat horn on

each nasal bone;”... ,Colonoceras Marsh.

The above table shows that the modification which this family
-has undergone in its superior molars, has consisted in the cot

ey fluence of the external tubercles into a more or less irreg
: external wall to the crown, and the confluence of the bee
ate and internal tubercles into cross-crests. In the lower i
cross-crests have been formed. It is impossible to page

Hyracotheriine sub-family as a family from the Lop as
Since the characters grade into each other completely. )
has been from the Hyracotheriine sub-family that ee :

Was derived; the Protapirine gave origin to the a
while the AIMERA have descended from the Lopht Jh j
Among Hyracotheriinæ the genus Systemodon (Cope a
the lowest place on account of the entire absence al
from the dental series, It is as old as any of ae genet’

PLATE XXX.

æ

Hyracotherium venticolum, Cope, skeleton restored, one-third natural size; from the joe EEN of Wyoming, N. A. Original except ribs,
which are after Osborn. Unshaded portions not preserved in specimen, which is in Coll, E.

1887] The Perissodactyla. ` 995

ring in the Wasatch (or Suessonian) epoch. A common ancestor
gave origin to Systemodon and Hyracotherium. It resembled
the former in the absence of diastemata, and the latter in the

three-quarters natural size; ~

a
Fis. 5. Skull of Z7 s j c
eh of Hyracotherium venticolum Cope, Fig. a from above; 4 from

p River Eocene of Wyoming. Original.

Steater distinctness of the cusps of its molars. The succession

Me genera may be represented somewhat as follows :

Es eee Tapiride. Equide.
Hyrachyus, = Lophiodon. Protapirus.
Heptodon. Pliolophus.
Helaletes. Hyracotherium.

Systemodon.

996 The Perissodactyla. [Nov

Š ee.”
In the Lophiodontine line we have Helaletes (Marsh) without
diastema, like Systemodon. In Heptodon the diastema appears, E

Ma

Fic. 6. Fore-leg and foot of HHyraco-
therium venticolum Cope, two-thirds nat-

from front; 4, ulna and radius from be-
hind; c; anterior foot from before. i

i In
and in the succeeding genera the first premolars de
Hyrachyus the heel of the last inferior molar vanishes, Y%

e nasal bones bear traces of dermal horns in C

close
Passage to the Tapiride is equally easy, through R he
resemblance of Protapirus (Filh.) to Tapiravus (Marsh) °

E 1887] | The Perissodactyla, 997

latter family. The latter only differs from the former in the
increased complexity of the premolars. The passage to the
horse line is suggested by the resemblance of Pliolophus

oP E
SE
a ee =,

Fic, 9. Heptodon ventorum Cope, superior molars of left side, natural size,
Original; from Wind River beds of Wyoming. From “ Report U. S. Geol. Surv.
Ters.” F, V, Hayden, vol. iii.

(= Orohippus Marsh) to Anchitherium of the family of the
‘aleotheriide. The transition is seen in some genera of the
intermediate family of the Chalicotheriide, beginning with
Ectocium (Cope).

Fic. 10. Hyrachyus agrarius Leidy, superior molar teeth, natural mee oe
Bridger bed of Wyoming. From Leidy, “ Report U. S, Geol. Surv. Terrs.,” F. V.
vol. i.

Three species of Systemodon are known, all from the Wasatch

E The largest, S. tapirinus Cope, was equal to a ia
ay A dozen species of Hyracotherium are known from -
“ocene of Europe and North America, which range in size

998 The Perissodactyla.

from that of a sheep to that of a kit-fox. Several species of —
Helaletes have been described from the Bridger Eocene.’ The
species of Hyrachyus are rather numerous, and range through

11. Lophiodon isselensis, superior molars three-fifths natural ee py

Fic.
Middle Eocene of France. From Gaudry, “ Enchainements du Régne 4m

the Wind River, Bridger, and Diplacodon beds. Dilophodon
has two species and Colonoceras one species, in the Bridget.
Lophiodon is, so far as yet known, confined to Europe -
of its species, Z. rhinoceroides, was as large as a medium-sized
rhinoceros, and several species ranged in dimensions to those
of asheep. They appear in the Bruxellian, and range aprem
through the Bartonian.. Heptodon is, so far, only American, l
two species, a large and a small, are found in the Wasii i
formation, and two, of intermediate size, in the Wind River. .

France,

and [seto

FIG, 12. Protapirus priscus Filh., Phosporites of Quercy,
natural size. From Filhol.

Protapirus is from the Phosphorites of France;

co S06) SRS DY Gea a PRN
anda mtn C=

Sea eo

rach pai “ai Leidy,
Coll, f: D. €

Ys natural size; from Bridger bed of Wyoming, Unshaded portions not preserved. Original, from specimen in

1887] The Perissodactyla, : 999

lophus is from the summit of the Eocene in North America, or
from the Diplacodon beds.

_ As but one genus of TRIPLOPODIDÆ is known, its origin and
_ probable descendants only can be referred to. It may very
readily have been derived from Heptodon, with which it agrees
indental formula. The loss of the heel of the last inferior molar
and of the fifth anterior digit would metamorphose Heptodon
into Triplopus. Two species are known, both from the upper
division of the Bridger Eocene. A possible third species is from
the Diplacodon bed (Prothyracodon S. and O.).

E i> pes is
SF

À
Y

IG. 13, Skull of Tyiplopus cubitalis Cope, from the Bridger Eocene les
Cing, three-quarters natural size; right side. Original; from the “Report U. S.
l ve Surv. Terrs.,” vol. iii. Fig. a, superior molars with deciduous premolars;
^ third and fourth superior premolars,

a The CaNopip# include genera which have lost the superior

: canine teeth, and have thus come to resemble the rhinoceroses.

te known genera resemble these animals also in the reduction

“tlie number of the incisors, and in one genus at least a dermal
"n was present. The two genera known differ as follows:

No dermal horn; .. Canopus Cope. TO.
A dermal frontal homp. iii ccsvessesresdecenasnassoyensse „Dihoplus Brandt. —

*tossesor

a> family constitutes the transition between the Lophiodon-
“™ group of the Lophiodontidæ by Heptodon or Hyrachyus,

1000 The Perissodactyla.

and the Rhinocerontide. Czenopus embraces, as yet, only
American species, of moderate and small size; the C. occidentalis
Leidy had four toes in front and three behind, representing the
type which is the phylogenetic ancestor of the lowest and only —
four-fingered genus of Rhinocerontide, Aceratherium, A cusp
is sometimes present within the inner extremity of the incurved,
_ transverse crest of the premolars in Canopus. Fusion of this
with the transverse crest has produced the double transverse
crests of the premolars of the Rhinocerontide. Dihoplus must
be regarded as a collateral outgrowth from Canopus. It is rep —
resented by one European species, the D. schleiermacheri, whith —
is of larger size than either of the known species of Canopus.

ize, from

Fic. 14. Cenopus occidentalis Leidy; cranium, one-fourth natural ray a
below; from the White River Miocene of Nebraska. From Leidy, “

Fauna of Nebraska.”

In the Hyracopontip& we have a direct descendant n
the Lophiodontidæ, but presenting a modification quite different
from the Cænopidæ. In that family the canines wers m.
the simple premolars retained ; in the present family the gye
_ are retained and the premolars become complex, as in the
noceroses. Three, perhaps four, genera are known:

I. Canines very distinct from incisors.
Premolars 4: Amynodon Marsh.
Premolars Fy Seok Metamynodon b and O-

II. Canines small, similar to incisors. i
Prem Hyracodon Leidy.

These genera are all hornless. . species
Amynodon is the oldest and ancestral genus; its ee in
belong, one in the Diplacodon formation, and the pane
Bridger. Desmatotherium (Scott) belongs here, but

1887) | The Perissodactyla. l 1001

_ know how to separate it from Amynodon. Metamynodon and
_ Hyracodon are from the White River Miocene. The family
_ is not yet known from higher formations, and appears to have
died out. Why such a robust and well-defended type as Meta-
_mynodon should have disappeared, and the comparatively weak
_ and entirely unarmed Czenopus should have survived, is not easy
to understand. In Hyracodon we observe a degeneracy of the
_ anterior dentition of both jaws. According to Scott, Hyracodon
nebrascensis was “a slender, long-limbed, and slightly-built ani-
mal, with a long neck.” Three or four species only are known.
The entire family is, so far, only known from North America.
The phylogeny may be thus represented:

Metamynodon. Hyracodon.

Amynodon.

,

“sem 15. Metamynodon planifrons S. and O.; skull, one-sixth natural size; ge
From Scott and Osborn, in “ Bulletin of Mus. Compar. Zodlogy Cambridge.

iue y. The general relation of the component parts of the |
tide molars in the rhinoceros family is that of the Lophiodon-
~~ ‘tall important respects. The external ends of the cross-

1002 © The Perissodactyla. > [Non

crests of the inferior true molars are generally turned forwards q
and inwards, showing a tendency to the formation of V's. `

um from below; from ;

Fic. 16. Metamynodon danas S. and Te the same cranium Mus. Compal

White River bed of DURER From Scott and Citioen:3 in “ Bulletin of
Zodlogy Cambridge
The PEE in the structure of the genera of this family
seen in the loss of incisor teeth, of the fifth digit
_terior foot, and in the greater co-ossification of various bone
the skull—among them of the nasal bones,—to eth? je
offensive dermal horns. In Ccelodonta and Elasmotheriu
nasal bones are further supported by the ossified nasal pe

and the last-named genus adds an osseous basis or eve?
for a horn on the frontal bone. In most of the pace
cross-crests of the superior molars are compara tively angles
but in Atelodus and Ccelodonta they display ee valles
which, on wearing, join each other. In this way
me surrounded or enclosed. This is especially er

1887] The Perissodactyla. 1003

with the extinct genera of the Old World, Ccelodonta and
Elasmotherium. In the latter the molars became prismatic, and
the vertical enamel-plates vertically plicate.

and from side; and atlas and axis, the latter from above, side, and below; from
White River Miocene of Colorado. Original.

the John Day, Miocene ages. Both were numerous in individ-
* Aphelops did not develop a horn. Dee a
1

z es *
For an illustrated account of this genus, see NATURALIST, 1879; P- 775 %
VOL. XXI.—nNo, 11, 68 : eee

1004 The Perissodactyla. [Nov,

from Loup 1

] size;
Peraceras superciliosus Cope, about Ee natura

FIG. 18.
Fork bed of Nebraska. Original. Fig. a, left side; 4, from below.

A. Four anterior digits. s ak
therium
Incisors f; canine {; no horn; posttympanic bone distinct Acera:
AA. Three anterior digits
a. Posttympanic process n not coossified with postglenoid.
l

Japs Cope
Incisors 4; canines 2; no der RE EE EE A eae
Incisors $; canines $; no dermal horn; ........sesseseere seseeeee
Incisors 4; canines fia tuberosity for a dermal thickening on 4 Marsh.
each nasal bone ; websesedsuses herin

Gray.
‘Incisors 4; canines 9; a median dermal nasal horn; PEET A eS |
Incisors $; canines $; dermal horn median ; no osseous nasal Atelodus Pomel.
aa, Posttympanic process coossified with postglenoid;
B. No median frontal horn-core.
Incisors }; canines $; ni horn median; nasal septum erus Linn.
Aam n

1887] | The Perissodactyla. 1005

J

Incisors 2; canines 2; dermal horn median; nasal septum
ossi ‘ @lodonta Bronn,
pB. A frontal median horn-core.

, ee Duane $ 4

> i,
2 VUY.

gits; from the Up- — front; from Miocene of Sansan,
x abaa of Greece, From rance. After Gaudry; in Les En-
cag cca du Régne Animal.

; mh he Phylogeny of the rhinoceroses may be represented as
Ws:

4. an. a
Fig.
ocene op c 7Otherium incisivum Cuv., skull, one-seventh natural size; from the
Epplesheim, ermany. From Gaudry, after

1006 The Perissodactyla.

É l
Fic. 22. Aphelops fossiger Cope, skull, one-fifth natural size, from side and below;
from Loup Fork beds of Kansas. From Marsh.

f Elasmotherium,
Peraceras. Rhinocerus. Ccelodonta.
Aphelops. Ceratorhinus. Atelodus.

oo Aceratherium. NG VA
A

| a.

Czenopus.

Fic. 23. Aphelops megalodus Cope, skull from above, one-sixth n

From the Loup Fork bed of Colorado; original.

The history of the Tarirrp# has been mainly pene Hy
Scott. Their origin from the Protapirine division ish
iate form

cotheriinz cannot be doubted, but the intermed Lower
been mostly lost.. The oldest genus appears 1m a followed
cene of North America (White River), and t 18

$ 1887] Editors’ Table. : 1007

Tapiravus (Marsh) of the Upper Miocene. Tapirus is first found
in the Upper Miocene of Germany (Epplesheim). The recent
species of the family belong to Tapirus L., and Elasmognathus
(Gill.
The three genera are distinguished as follows:
Two superior premolars different from true molars ;.. Zapiravus Marsh.

One superior premolar different from true molars;
no heel of third inferior molar; nasal septum

:

cartilaginous :

Tapirus L.
Like Tapirus, but nasal septum osseous ;........+.++0 Zlasmognathus Gill.

The order in which these genera stand above, represents their
phylogenetic as well as their taxonomic relations, the oldest genus
standing first.

(To be concluded.)

EDITORS’ TABLE.
EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

To discover the relation of mind to matter is the goal of
Scientific research, and every addition to knowledge may be
fegarded as a contribution to this subject. The advent of Neo-
Lamarkianism brings the question immediately within the
view of the student of natural history, where it belongs, and
brings it out of the metaphysical limbo, where it has so long
lain neglected by science. The evidence that the environment
_ 'S not the only factor in evolution is abundant enough, and

a attempt to restrict the remaining factors to “ heredity” has
"ot long satisfied the mind of science. The evidence that the
Movements of animal organs and tissues is the other factor, con-
ttuting the source of heredity, is becoming clearer and ce
x iba relation of sensation (consciousness or mind) to motion, 18
4 “Upposed to be well known, so that the direct dependence of
7 -Svolution On the former seems to be an inference fully justified
z by the knowledge now in our possession.

___ Put every step in this logical succession is, and ought to be,
oe : ed. It is denied by some that animal movements do ma-
‘rially affect animal structures. It is further denied that such

i

1008 Editors’ Table. [No

modifications if produced can be inherited. Since, however, it
is admitted that mechanically-profitable variations do appear,
and that they are inherited, the inquiry at this point is limited
to the question whether the impacts, strains, torsions, flexures,
etc., to which the parts of an animal are subjected by its motions
do affect the structure or not. The final contest is, however, of
a remarkable character. It is denied that the mental condition
of an animal—zz., its sensations—has any influence in the de
termination of its movements. This proposition is apparently
equivalent to the assertion that designed movements do not
exist. An animal does not eat because it is hungry; it does —
not seek flight because it is frightened; it does not seek shelter
because of temperature or storm; its voice is exerted without | 4
purpose, etc., etc. We imagine that it will be long before such a
an opinion can be sustained by any scientific evidence. Yet
seems to be the only alternative that is open to those who deny —
that consciousness is at the basis of evolution. It would tes
to be the final reductio ad absurdum of that side of the question
A brief statement of a discussion of these points referred t0
in the last NATURALIST is deferred to the December number,
general notes, department Psychology. o
THE appearance of the first number of Dr. Whitman's Jouri
of Morphology seems an event of sufficient importance 1M the
history of American science to warrant more than a an
nouncement. Several times have magazines been started
were fondly expected to play the same part in the United pene
that the Quarterly Fournal of Microscopical Science does eee
land, but all have lamentably failed. Their editors have
Succeeded in gaining the confidence and support of the R
American workers. This rock Dr. Whitman has apparently p
_ caped, and his first number, in variety of subject and p
treatment as well as in beautiful appearance, will compare ©”
_ ably with any publication in the old world.

Fh adt af hein
ad

“Origin of the ai rth Am

columns the parallel passages.
Bic similar passages are found.
the Northeast United States
Coulter and Thompson.

ing the flora of North Amer-

te fact of the identity any of our
senera, and even species, with those of

E Europe, ia st

} n

-Seems

‘ n the floras of
3 En United States and the Pacific

“Tn Bede to thes di
species, [refering ji 342 distinct

printed list yah
contains only 328 nanes] th

a is com
of api, there will be
other species common

Sh
Wide di .~ easy to account for =
not go ttibution rts cies if there wer
hes rove the th
by oe Sites in 1845, sie or
ng m

the loha aton of organie t bet
* globe, ngs over
a than the universal law, that

Recent Literature,

taphical Distribution of Plants

1009

Eon pes us

_ present year, contains a na article on the “ Origin of the Indi-
; by John M. Coulter and Harvey Thompson. he
_ second part of the article, Bebe on page 265, is on the
rican Flor
n article ‘published by" myself in the Journal

í Natural History in 1881, vol. iv.,
that I desire to call attention to it.

g

It is so similar in

I have arranged in parallel
The pages are those on which

My article is entitled “ On the
Common to Europe and

G as made it well ue
that there is far more resemblan
tween the plants of the Atlan = const o ‘i

the pagn States and the P
of Asia th iee r the alee sid th a
Pacific c f America, especially of

California. ni P, 67

“ The resemblance birak th e floras
et sit and the United States is bi
ned to the 360 identical
jida = (a ven in several There
ypt Sey related species,
y be grr keie to geo-
f to

represen tative

on PEA of ae 2277 indigenous species
nG

ive ray’s Manual resemble Euro-
pean r oret But the similarity between
the flo America and Eur
is by means con to the small
territory with which I have been dealing
bp rtheastern United States]. .

have no doubt but that a comparison
of the flora of the United

ooh mar the “oer me" one of Cali-
will show nearly as much re-

arcel: e
e asserti A of mi eminent auth
that ‘there is indeed nothing more eas;
to perceive, in .... uistribution of
beings over Bar lobe, ”’ ete., o S Ti
r (o

Roy. Society, 1846, p. 265.”

x

4

>

-fhem a broader
dy

'IOIO

Coulter and Thompson.
nature, in similar circumstances, has al-
ways produced similar or perfectly the
same iiie (lites it

e find the “xcientific thought
‘oe see aa

e
into ne eo nce, teti Fain ae in kataas
and time with a pre-existing, closely-
allied apesi” EHO

‘‘* Therefore, when we find identical
oan in two different quarters of the
globe, we believe the individuals in both
fone to be descended from a common
P. He

parent.’” [Quoted without
jerks)

“Naturally we look to the north for
this highway between the two continents
[Eur d America]; for there is no
very c men n Peis sia on the

ver, having evi

north
mais of former iad elevation in high
skys or Ts. Croll’s theo:
to the ent of the pace s

radius of the Pole.”
nd with these pe [se-
que, lip, e etc.] bone rey been pre-
rved mu shrubs and

Sw:
in smdl pos
land species,

ar North. = as these immense

called low-

orm
and all forms farther
rs. survived i in ogg “we
and by be w adaptation to climate
and aw ed changes, which dot ¢ give
field and more fa vieira
better developmen’

Recent Literature.

James.

. “ Wallace has expressed it,

coinciden

I.

oe Wallace, Contrib. to Nat. Selec,

N. Y., 1871, p. 5.” ;
hi Therefore, when we find identical

T in two different quarters | of the

globe, we believe the individ duals in both a

Tocalities to be dese a common

P. 51.

parent.”
«We may very reasonably s Ae
— the warm period at the

n was at a lower level than iti
a land ager cogs

e region lose

North Pole is, as yet, a a inc
e know “enough of it, however t

found suitable homes
plains of the no

[The list given by Co

son is not diyided in ay rat

nort northwestern xi
pies. pm entirely in the
in swamps, marshes, and

af
g remaini ng ['
‘The few hick “have b

1887] Recent Literature. IOLI

` Coulter and Thompson. James.

No doubt this gradual change, produced return to the north, at the close of the

_ by an attempted adaptation to climate glacial epoch.” P 57-

__ and surroundings, will account for many

of the very nearly related species and

varieties in North America and the East- :

_ em Continent.” P. 273.

_ _ “Hence we must conclude that our [I conclude] “ 2nd. That the species
of pl

ra
_ the far North, and once flourished around ica have had a common origin in the
_ the North Pole; that it driven south land about the North Pole.

_ by the cold of the glacial epoch,” ete. « 3d. That they have migrated south
R24 on account of the cold in the Arctic
; regions,” etc. P. 67.

__ These passages will give an idea of the similarity in thought
-between the two articles. There is no reference in any place to
_ Wty article, although the authors must have had it before them.
_ Isubmit that it is only fair to refer to an article from which so
_ Many ideas have been gleaned.— Foseph F. Fames, Miami Univer-
_ ly, Oxford, O., October 10, 1887.

i Ridgway’s Manual of Ornithology.'—In this book we have
the result of the knowledge of one of our first ornithologists,
Mr. Robert Ridgway, brought fully up to date. No one is more
_ fompetent for the task, and the student as well as the sportsman
th tely implicitly on the statements contained in this book.

adapted to the presentation of brief definitions, especially those
hike higher groups. When it comes to the presentation of
the nu

"P, and the results are a warning to all careless renamers. e

contr been adopted for that of a genus. The result is a

po, topsis of the Flora of the Laramie Group.*—In this im-
Questio Pet Mr. Ward gives a general view of the subject se
=` on, which embraces a total of 1540 species. f these
hundreg 3 rth American Birds, by Robert Ridgway. II ip
Lippincott Go -four outline drawings of pima characters. Philadelphia: J. B.
oy iz ` el ee

By taser pE Annual Report U. S. Geol. Survey of the Territories, 1886, Pa

1012 — Recent Literature.

286 are Cryptogams and 1254 are Phanerogams. The Crypto-
gams are 119 cellular and 167 vascular, and the Phanerogams —
are 125 Gymnosperms and 113 are Angiosperms. The Angio —
sperms embrace 467 apetalous, 406 polypetalous, and 106 gamo —
petalous species.” The comparison that is made between this —
flora and that of the Cretaceous systems below, and the Eocene —
above, is highly instructive. It is well known that the students

AN

eontology of the Vertebrata have been equally certain that this j
system must be placed at the summit of the Cretaceous. tne
specialists in Invertebrata have not produced very strong ewi- —
dence either way. It is therefore a matter of much interest that —
Mr. Ward, after this full survey of the flora, writes as follows: —
“Taking all these facts into consideration, therefore, 1 do not
hesitate to say that the Laramie Flora as closely resembles the —
Senonian Flora as it does either the Eocene or the Muiocene —

ee

settle finally the reference of the Laramie to the peer

; ry toa
_ treatment of the subject, this book is admirab

Batrachians and Reptiles of Central America and
—In this Bulletin (No. 32) of the United States Na
seum Prof. E. D. Cope has published a synony™ title. Th
graphical catalogue of the animals referred to in the 2

West Coast Shell «ye ee f the Marine, Fresh: Wate 18
Land Mollusks of cog alleen pe wa ‘of the Rocky Mountains:
> Keep, A.M. San Francisco: Bancroft Bros. & Co., 1887- ae

” 1887] Recent Literature. 1013
‘richness of the region in question is shown by the fact that they
number in total 705 species, which are divided among 197
: se Of the 705, 135 are Batrachia and 570 are Reptilia.
Of snak

l of the Smithsonian Institution January 16, 1886, it is not pub-
lished until October 16, 1887.

_Ulustrations of Vivisection.t—The errors of the antivisec-
_ tonists have been so often set forth that it would seem unneces-
_ Sy to repeat them, especially in view of the fact that the society
issues this pamphlet did at one time restrict its efforts to the
: dia Proper restraint of unnecessary and needlessly cruel vivi-
T section,
-Pressible and irrational lady, Miss Frances Power Cobbe, the
- Society lays itself open to a repetition of all the just complaints
_ Made against their movement by the science of the day. Dogs
| : rabbits strapped to holders in awkward positions may excite
yy i

Painless. In the infliction of suffering, however, which accom-
‘Panies some of the physiological experiments, the humane scien-
no m

tific man takes

This .
4 te IS one of the illustrations of* one of the noblest of
a qualities gone wrong.
io f Vivisection, or Experiments rp k Feompre sa y
pa gists, namely, Claude Bernard and Paùl Bert, as r ;
Cobbe, aS Martyrs” and « Light in Dark Places.” By Miss Frances Power
elphia : American Society for the Restriction of Vivisection.

1014 E General Notes. [Nov

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Weismann, A.—Ueber die Zahl der Richtungskörper und über ihre Bedeutung fir
die Vererbung. Jena, 1887. From the author. ne

De Man, F. G.—Uebersicht der indo-pacifischen Arten der Gattung Sesarma, Say. q
Ext. Zool. Jahrb., 1887.. From the author. i
——Bulletins U. S. Geol. Survey, Nos. 34-39. From the Survey. i
Shufeldt, R. W.—Contributions to the Comparative Craniology of the North Amet- a
' ican Indians. Ext. Jour. Anat. and Phys., 1887. From the author. dl
Farlow, W. G.—The Task of American Botanists. Ext. Pop. Sci. Mo, 188).
From the author. 4
Beddard, F. E.—Note on a New Type of Compound Eye. Ext. Ann. and Mag.
N. H., 1887. From the author. 7

GENERAL NOTES.

GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY. i
` Zittelľ’s Manual of Palzeontology.'—Professor Zittel’s Manual 4
of Palzontology has now passed beyond the Invertebrata, and it
the present part it enters the Vertebrata. This work appears 0
me to be the best synoptical manual of the subject which has
yet appeared. Its scope is more comprehensive than that of most
works of the kind, and its contents are more nearly brought up :
to the present date. In illustration it is especially

r as the end of
Ganoids, which 3 A

ba y : ucture :
on. A great deal of information as to the str ation which

buch der Palzontologie. Herausg. v. K. A. :
Miinchen, mitwirkung von Dr. A. te ag I. Abtheilung Pi T
i Lief. München u, Leipzig: R. Oldenbourg. 8vo.

i 1887] Geology and Paleontology. 1015

_ Pterichthys, and Bothriolepis in this “sub-class” is certainly a
= violation of the precision of definition which all true systems

should possess. Dr. Zittel says indeed of the Pteraspidide that
their position is entirely undecided. The “orders” of “Ga-
noidei” we find to be unnatural in various respects. We also —
object to the use of family terminations for orders, and ordinal
terminations for families, which the authors of the work have

ed

opted.

The fulness of this part of the subject as presented by Professor
Zittel enables the reviewer to give a synopsis of his own views
on the subject of the classification of the lowest Vertebrata, to
which he has hitherto only contributed fragments.’ This is now
done in anticipation of a fuller memoir with complete illustrations.

Preliminarily, the following point, originally propounded in
substance, I believe, by Professor Haeckel, is adhered to:

eo cee vertebrate which lacks the mandibular and scapular arches
ta

= _ On this account I have declined to include in the Pisces such
_ forms as the Pterichthyide and Bothriolepidide, also the Pteras-
_ Pidide and Cephalaspididze, but have referred the latter of them
_ tothe Haeckelian class Agnatha, which also includes the Mar-
= Sipobranchi, or lampreys. (See NATURALIST, 1886, 1027.
© AL The primary divisions of fishes are indicated mainly by thew

cranial structure.

This is an expression of the fact generally admitted by zoolo-
gists, that there are at least four primary divisions so de ned,—
_ Wiz, the Holocephali, the Dipnoi, the Selachii, and a fourth di-
_ “sion, which was first named by Professor Sir Richard Owen,
the Teleostomi.

M. The divisions of the Teleostomi are indicated by fundamental
difications of their fin-structure.

A This taxonomic truth was first insisted on by the writer (Zi =:
er. Philos. Soc., 1870, p. 445), and is now repeated with em-
>: He probably correct evolutionary patito of Dohrn re-
k € fins as remains of three or four primitive a

“Piblastic folds, which have been biori by mesoblastic

y i F
Sificati “atsactions of the American Philosophical Society, 1870, p- 4453 ° 3
pacal no , Adv.
w, reat the Extinct Fishes of the Lower Types,” Proceni: AD iay p
37, > P 292; “On an Interesting Genus of Chordata, aturalist, E

1016 General Notes.

supports of the external folds, to the proportions and positions —
which we behold them to present in the different groups of fishes. _

IV. The orders of fishes are defined by modifications of the skele-
ton of lesser significance than those included in statements II. and

Under this head come modifications in the structure of the
skull, vertebræ, and fins in which the multifarious character of
fish evolution has displayed itself, and in which relation to the —
other classes of Vertebrata does not enter as an element of esti-

mation. a

In accordance with proposition III. I define what appear to me —
to be the primary divisions of the Teleostomi. Before doing sol
will state the elements of the definition. The supports of all the
fins consist primitively (in the case of the pectoral fins, the evidence
‘is only partly in our possession) of at least three longitudinally i
connected osseous elements. These correspond to what have
been named (1) the neural and hæmal spines of the vertebræ, (2)
the axial segments* (interneural and interhæmal bones), and (3)
the basilar segments? (so called because when present they arè

; PVA,
EXPLANATION.—D, DF, dorsal fin; PVF, pectoral and ventral fins; :
pectoral, ventral, and anal fins; AZ, anal hg NSP, neural spine; Dap, tite j

pophysis; AS, hæmal spine; Axo, axonost; Bo, baseost.

* Proc. Amer. Philos. Society, 1877, May. org’

? Cope, Transactions Prend Phils: a EA 1870, p. 4453 Ryder, “ot US
of Heterocercy and the Evolution of the Fins and Fin-Rays of gr and “
Fish Cémmission, 1886, pp. 985, 1017. The terms “ actinost” (Gil )
phore” (Ryder) were subsequently applied to the basilars.

‘

Geology and Paleontology. 101 7

the distal parts which directly support the true rays as actino-

” ~
.

“ese Modifications. They may be called superorders:

a Dorsal, anal, pectoral, and ventral axonosts pres-

‘ presented by a single element to each fin. Rhipidopterygia.
T Dors

ng with a single baseost, if any; the pectoral
_ Xonosts present in variable number, articulating
ay numerous well-developed baseosts; the ven-
car gpa Single, articulating with numerous
se . ; 5 ; ; a Crossopterygta.
“inte and anal axonosts as in the last; no pec-
aa nonost, baseosts rudimental; a ventral axo- ae
ore numerous baseosts ; 7 . Podopterygia.*

sal and anal axonosts as in the last; pectoral
ost none, baseosts very few, small; ventral _ des
“onost Present, with minute or no baseosts; Actinopterygia.
“i = orders and families of these superorders appear to the
er to be as follows:

: RHIPIDOPTERYGIA. '

“Sosts present in dorsal and anal fins ; . Rhipidistia.

Da wanting to dorsal and anal fins. Caudal
Spine (1 Present, each one articulating with a neural oe
; (Huxley). : i : : g : j . Actimsta?
_ * Chondrostei, Owen, C , Olim.
s Actinopteri, Cope, Aran
Transac. Amer. Philosoph. Soc., 1870, pp- 450, 451.

: centra, both amphiccel ; pase) alecoms

The Lysopteri, one family, the Palzoniscide, i

1018 General Notes.

CROSSOPTERYGIA.

A. Dorsal baseosts present.

Dermal rays (actinotrichia, Ryder) more nu-
merous than baseosts ; each axonost RAAE TA: a
with a neural spine . Haplishat

ermal rays sie in number with, and articu-

lating with baseosts ; ; ; Taxistia,

AA. No dorsal baseosts.

Dermal rays equal in number with, and articu-
lating with basilars ; axonosts not articulating with Hh
neural spines; ‘ : i i ‘ . . » Cada

ACTINOPTERYGIA, 7
I. Dermal radii more numerous (octinotrichia) oe

than the baseosts and axia

Intercentra distinct, gaali- . tt
II. Dermal radii equal baseosts and axonosts.
Vertebrz with distinct intercentra on the chorda
dorsalis ; . Me BS
Vertebra with completed intercentra, ` which are
amphiccel or annular ; - Tsospondjë.
Vertebræ with completed intercentra, which are
opisthocce
Ve rtebeeal column with i completed intercentra and A

The other ord f the Actinopt ia anid those of the Po
er orders of the Actinopteryg athe conta

tia, the a

Phaneropleuridæ (Zittel does not at this mily Oi
been supposed). The Taristia, two, the Lye" 5
anid Glyptodipterini, which should be called th s
and the Osteolepididæ. The C/adıstia, one family, sbi
tysomidæ is scarcely distinct. The Merospondytt em
Sauropsidæ3 (= Microlepidoti and Cy clolepidoti, =
Pycnodontide, with other families embracing more
. cit. I endeavored (l. c.) to prove that the v ertical page
anion: of Polypterus are basilars, but I do not now co onsider this ae
* Cope, — fiakat, ist, 1880, pP. 440; Heterocerci Zittel, 1297»
3 Pig eas : sabi ‘oc. Amer, . . Ady. Science, 1878, P - 298,

$

1887] i ~ Geology and Paleontology. 10Ig |

ous genera, referred by Zittel to the families Stylodontide, Sphær-
v de, and Saurodontide. Genera with annular intercentra,
8 Aspidorhynchidee (Rhynchodontide, Zitt.), should be referred
‘oth sospondyli. Until the vertebral columns of the genera are
‘etter known, it will be difficult to decide which belong to the

erospondyli and which to the Isospondyli.
~The P lacodermi, after the exclusion of the Pteraspidida, Ce-
thalaspididze, Pterichthyidz, and Bothriolepidide, form’a homo-
neous order. So far as the structure of the fins is known, it ap-
_ Pas to belong to the superorder of the Actinopterygia,* but this
Snot fully established. If so, it appears to have the dorsal and
Banca) n-rays equal in number with the baseosts, and these to be
a ain number and continuous with the axonosts (according to
o Soenen, in Coccosteus inflatus), characters not known in any
the Seed of Actinopterygia. But one family is certainly known,
thv; osteidæ, which has a hinge-like articulation of the epi-

Vicula k

a descriptions and figures of Professor Zittel render it per-
“tty clear that the fishes rarely develop complete nia
ed K

-Origi :
: at wi the rhachitomous vertebra in the fishes is the same as
i ich I have pointed out in the Batrachia, viz., as the effect

Vii aeer-tooth Tiger from the Loup Fork Beds.—The
Hare 'ver‘and John Day Miocene formations in North Amer-
fimi well known to contain remains of saber-tooth cats of the

;
:

w . ) :
E ° Species of saber-tooths of the family Felidæ. i Hithe
Under the circumstances it was to
ts under the name o grodus catocopis. —
the name of Macherod: ie se bed he

.

d with the 1

ist, 1886, p, 1031, where it is provisionally

Intercentrum of the Terrestrial Vertebrata,”
p 243, by ED Cope.

XXL—No, 11,

1020 General Notes. C ENov, :

cisors ; and, second, the slight development of the flange of the
lower jaw. e angulation of the anterior part of the lower
jaw is very well defined, but does not descend as a flange below
the level of the inferior border. The anterior face is well dis-

large size of the canine and small size of the incisors. The
latter are three in number, and the roots are much compressed,

and so crowded as to alternate with each other. The crowns are

lost. The canine is considerably compressed, and has a sharp

serrulate posterior cutting edge, which descends to the base of

the crown behind. There is no anterior cutting edge. The

shape of a section of the tooth is lenticular, the anterior angle

rounded off; the long axis extends a little oblique to the median

line. The apex is lost. There are three foramina on one side,

and two on the other of the median symphysis; and there arè
three mental foramina on the best preserved ramus.

Measurements. x
Depth of BYORI Ssh nc oes chances casicesied coocesoneuesnntutesGuucte temsenets 068
Width of symphysis at middle Viste aoe
Width of space between inferior canines ceeded eee a a
Diameters inferior canine nee saei edbccsmensbscoesanansenceer or

transverse.. gcc Senewcsoseseeebeesessetee: 7

The large size of the inferior canine might lead to the ioke
_ ence that the superior canine is not so large as in the t ;
saber-tooths. It certainly exceeds in this respect the other :

nine. The present species is the largest saber-too of Nort |
America, except perhaps the Sim/odon fatalis Leidy. The pe ?
men on which it is based was found by Frank Hazard in Phil
County, Kansas.—£. D. Cope. =

Vote upon the Genus Athrodon.—In a paper

“Structure and Classification of the Mesozoic Mamma q
ceedings Philadelphia Academy, June, 1887) I proposed pusillis >
“ign founded upon the maxilla referred to Seyigden kar

by Professor Owen in his memoir u to the
malia. Professor Cope has kindly called my attention Gel,
fact on is preoccupied by Sauvage (Bu pro

1880, viii. p. 530) for a genus of Ganoid fishes. prace i
pose to substitute the term Kurtodon for Athrodon to a
this genus of mammals.—H. F. Osborn.

i
ni

Mineralogy and Petrography. 1021

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.*

_ New Minerals.—Langbanite is the name applied by G, Flink?
ta mineral which occurs in small black hexagonal crystals in a
granular limestone at Långban, Sweden. In habit it is tabular
_ prismatic, with the. prism faces but slightly developed. Its
Tatdness is 6.5, specific gravity = 4.918. Its axial ratio is
151.6437. - Its analysis yielded,—

As Sb,0, SiO, MnO FeQ >

| 15.42 10.88 -00 .

The discoverer regards it as silicate of manganese (Mn,SiO,)

H,O Loss at 110°
21.62 9.84 21.20

n and water of crystallization.

Pe Phillipsite.
Si0,) ESIOS, 344 (SiOs)s
Sa Al,(SiO3)s 2Ca(Si
) a! Ca(SiO,) + 4H,O K,(Si0,) + Aii H,O

estigations of American Minerals. Mica—Prof.
he U. S. Geological Survey, has recently tarn

in ques-
omelane from Baltimore, Md., and from Litchfield,
nite from Rockport. Their compositions may be
by the formulas
Iaa I . In" Si
Og (Rockport); R'R”R” Si O, (Baltimore); and RRR „SiO
: (Litchfield).
aiy ng W. S. BAYLEY, re Wisconsin.
: ür Krystallographie, xiii., 1887, p. 1.
* Neues Jahrb, f. Min., T, Band., v., 1887, P- 318.

ir, Sci., xxxiv., Oct. 1887, p. 131. 3

1022 General Notes. - [Nov. ;

The relations existing between them may be best shown by
supposing two of the univalent groups (AIO) to replace one
(R'ZO,). Assuming this, the formulas may be written:
R R” (SiO ) = Rockport mica.
“u 2 45
R (A10) R”
12 2 2

R’ (A10) R” (SiO ) = Litchfield mica.
10 Se 45

(SiO ) = Baltimore mica.
46

In the same paper there are also given analyses of iron-micas
from Auburn, Me., and Pike’s Peak, Colorado, and one of a
muscovite from Alexander County, N. C., containing 1.10 per
cent. of Ti —Howlite—This mineral was first identified by
Professor H. How,’ of Windsor, Nova Scotia, who named it silico-
borocalcite. Messrs. Penfield and Sperry,? having recently come
into the possession of a comparatively pure specimen of the min-
eral, have re-examined it. They find it to be composed as
follows:
; SiO, B,O, CaO Na,O K,O H,0
15.33 44.52 27.94 0.53 org 11.55
They regard it as a distinct species with the formula H,Ca,B,Si0w
—Cassiterite —The tin-stone of Mexico is divided by Professor
Genth 3 into two varieties, a red and a yellow variety. Both are
supposed to have been formed by precipitation from solution.
ie red variety is found in very small crystals, with a hexage

habit. Analysis shows it to consist of dioxide of tin, containing —
ies of arsenic —

* Philos. Mag., iv. xxxv 2 2 Amer. Jour. Sci., 1887 P. Pais -
pe Pin qa from the Choma! Laboratory of the University ee? :
XXIX., 1687, P. 4, ;

Mineralogy and Petrography. 1023

Montana ——Descloizite (ramirite), from San Luis Potosi, Mexico,
yielded Professor Genth* on analysis the figures,—

> fo CiO ZO AsO, V0; P,O; Loss on ignition
F352 6.58 12.70 3.63 19.99 33 2.62

_ isregarded by Rammelsberg as being represented by the ormula

_ pure material, with this result:

ee Ag Pb Bi Cu Te S

E> 38.59 7-24 25.05 0.21 17.43 8.24

which, after deducting the impurities, would give, as the compo-
_ Sition of tapalpite,

e A Bi Te S

. 46.09 24.99 21.67 7-25
_ Corresponding to a normal sulpho-telluro salt of silver and bis-
a muth——_In he i i

orro County, New Mexico; and /usingerite pseudomorphs after
te—This min-

has for some time been regarded as a basic carbonate of
muth, but its composition has not until very recently been

SO, Silicates co, H,O

0.34 0.08 8.03 0.47
responding to the formula Bi,O, CO, = (BiO),COs-—— Cree
= €—Messrs, Chester and Cairns’ have recently published an
sis of the bluish-gray fibrous crocidolite from Beacon Pole
near Cumberland, Rhode Island, with the result (as the
^ of two analyses) : HO
Fe,0, FeO M Na,O

oo 21.22 4 6% 1.37?

. Lig i. p- 36 I.

= Amer. Jour SGT October, 1887, P- 27%

1024 General Notes. [Nov, i:

This composition is represented by the authors by the formula

Fe,Na,H,Fe,(Si,O,), = 3FeO.Na,0.2H,O.Fe,0,.9SiO,, in which
the water is regarded as basic. The authors cannot accept the
prevalent view that crocidolite is merely a fibrous arfvedsonite.
Datholite—Mr. Whitfield? has analyzed the datholite from
Bergen Hill, N. J., determining the boric acid by the Gooch’
‘method. His figures are:
SiO, » FeO CaO B,O; H,O
35-74 0.31 35-14 22.60 6.14
corresponding to the formula B,O,.H,0.2CaO.2SiO, = H.CaSi0,
» the generally accepted formula for this mineral. Ulexite—
Ulexite, from Rhodes Marsh, Esmeralda County, Nevada, yielded
the same analyst? the following figures:
SiO. Cl B,O SO CaO Nao K,O. 4H,0
iy 2.38 43.20 0.28 acy 0:8 0.44 29.46

These figures are represented by the formula NaCaB,0,
+ 6H,O, after making certain allowances for impurities- =
Siderite (spherosiderite).—This mineral‘ occurs at Baltimore, Md,
associated with zeolites in the gneiss of the Jones Falls quarries.
The crystals are small and lenticular in shape. They

only the forms R and OR, except in one instance, where the neg-
ative scalenohedron —1{R* is supposed to occur. In these

crystals the faces are generally rounded, forming a lens-shaped

body. ae requently two of these lenses are grouped toge

as to form apparent twins. And further, many pean ate

together produce a perfect sphere. Analyses of selecte
by Mr. A. G. Palmer gave,—

FeO MgO MnO ZnO CO;
59.63 1.05 0.91 1.72 37-93

‘on of these rounded forms;

It is thought that the presence of manganese and zinc
had some i i

_ to above) occur. It is described by Professor pii rie T

‘ splintery, black mineral with a hardness of ab
specific i

Metallic acids HO; NY, Sy, ete. (CeTh)O ee
56.40 I 3.48 11.90 3-85
Fe | Al,0. VO
ri 2.00 oF

r re bi 1887, p. 281. Le i
- 7 Amer. Chem. Jour., ix., 1887, p. 23, and ii., 1880, p- 247- E E a

4 Notes on the Minerals eh Bagh the Neighborhood of Baltimore, bY 4
Williams, Ph.D., Baltimore, 1887, p. 12. - o

E
4
:
;
.
‘4
a
d
:
W
4

i
a Oa A a Ae a Seem

ae Sh E p X
E Aa ee E Mo. U E a AE eee T Sa he A EA

a2

1 aye

| 1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 1025
: The specific gravity of the metallic acids (5.769) is too high for
tiobic acid, while no tantalic acid was detectable by Rose’s

to suppose that it is not crystallographically identical with
_heulandite, as Des Cloizeaux found it to be in its optical proper-
tes ——Rutile—The rutile crystals occurring in the spodumene-
bearing pockets of the gneiss in Sharp’s township, Alexander
County, N. C., are described by Messrs. Hidden and Washing-

tl

On all the beryl from this locality it was observed that
m face œP is perfectly smooth, while œP2 is covered with
S ‘angular pits. ; l
ted the Occurrence of the plane oP# on the alternate prismatic

ay developed in each consecutive prismatic edge.——1. opaz.
poo crystal of topaz+ from Zacatecas, Mexico, contains the

, —~ Waters of the Yellowstone National Park. ne ie
~ Occurs as a green coating covering the siliceous sinter Ce-
Tee : 2 Amer. Jour. Sci., xxxiii., 1887, p- 501-
G. yasta., xii., p. 456. 4L. c.

Septem) wiams, Amer. Jour, Sci., Oct. 1887, p. 275-

~~ B37 p. ry.

026 | 3 General Notes. [Nov,
posited by the Joseph’s Coat Springs and other geysers, and is
-also often found in little nodules in the cavities of this sinter. —
An analysis of the purified scorodite yielded Mr. Whitfield—
Fe,0, As,Os H,O
34:94 48.79 16.27 |
Analyses of the waters of these geysers show a small percentage 4
of arsenious acid. eusch! has examined the crystallized —
kaolin from Denver, Colorado, to which Cross and Hillebrand «
first called attention? He declares it to be triclinic and not ortho-
rhombic as Hillebrand supposed. A. Kenngott3 describes two
peculiar crystals of gypsum from Poland, Ohio, and calls atten-
tion to a new formula for ¢anzalite from Dakota, based upon the —
analysis of Schaeffer,t published a few years ago. 4

BOTANY.

4
$
The Genus Geaster.^—Dr. G. B. De Toni, of the Botarial 4
Institute of the University of Padua, has lately made a Care 4
revision of the genus Geaster. Accepting, with Fries, the te
nition of the genus as proposed by Micheli in 1729, after mucl
reduction, he increases the number from fourteen, as enume’ ell-
by the illustrious Swedish savant in 1829, to forty-eight “te
authenticated species. Making a careful study of the ne
features of the species, he has been enabled to arrange them
_ Seven quite distinct and fairly recognizable sections, as lon
1. CoLtumnati.—Juner peridium supported on on several pedic a
This section includes the singular G. coliformis picis To
many mouths to the inner peridium, and G. columnatus —
from Chili, having but a single orifice distinct
= 2, Fornicati.—Outer peridium separating indo AUE T E
strata, one obversely Jornicate. d the
is contains three species,—G. fornicatus Huds, 3 We
little-known G. radicans B. & C., and G. welwitschii Mont. to
‘May here remark that this fibrous lowest am iis
baie earth exists in G. Ambatus Fr., and perhaps !

EA
CL EAE ee E Ee s

= 3. CUPULATI.—Outer peridium augmented by @
often irregular cupule about the base of the inner peridium incertailt
This section contains only G. triplex Jungh. and a
Fed duplicatus Chev. We have observed this basal me
other species of Geaster; it occurs as a mere inci .
away of the lower portion of the inner fleshy he foi
‘outer peridium. Specimens of G. duplicatus are are to
$ G.
‘Ne paa. f. Min., etc., 1887, ii., p. 70. <Da page
5 ; Edited by by Prof. CHARLES E. BESSEY, Lincoln, aay

S,, No. 20: 4
1884, xxviii.»

uctore Dr. G- P

7 P ROCER No. 34, Avril, 1887.

Botany. ' 1027

without the basal cupule, though it is generally present in all
fully-grown examples. This leads us to suggest that it might
be well to distribute the species of sections 2 and 3 among
_ those that follow.

4. Striati.—Peristome sulcate-plicate or pectinate-striate.

= Avwell-marked section! It comprises ten species. The salient
= species are G. bryant Berk., G. umbilicatus Fr., and G. striatus
_ D.C.; the others cluster about them as more or less closely-
_ telated species. The five species, G. striatus, elegans, striatulus,
ambiguus, drummondii, form an elegant group of remarkably
_ hear relatives.

F be identical. ;

_ 7. EXAREOLATI.—Pzristome either dentate, always destitute of
e circular areola, or irregularly or stellately dehiscing.
_ tis section comprises nine species, including the well-known
“rufescens Pers. and G. hygrometricus Per

Besides th

s.
seven sections there
fectly described,
em the singular G. Ankit Spreng., which does not seem
fave been found by any one except Link and Schweinitz.
are are specimens of it in Schweinitz’s herbarium, they
pn be carefully described. Te ee,
here is ‘an interesting table of the geographical distribution
the species. The seventeen species in the United States
ve been increased by the addition of G. coliformis, from
of Mycology, vol. i. p. 7. x-
"alg good plates Fairs pve characteristic species and
: Bea so wellknown. . : 3
tom the Western plains we have lately received two species
a nike any examples in our possession, and which seem
Det, Site different from any of the species described in Dr.
„Onis monograph. We figure and characterize them as fol-

; the segments (eight to ten) reflexed, whitish below,
Within. Inner peridium globose, subpedicellate, verru-

aster campestris Morg. (Fig. 1)—Outer peridium thick,

e

1028 General Notes.

cose, gray, or brownish, the mouth conic, sulcate-plicate, ina |
circular, marginate disk. Spores globose, verruculose, brown, —
.0055-.007 mm. in diameter. -

Growing in clusters, at first half immersed in the soil, on the
open prairie about Lincoln, Neb. Sent by Prof. Charles E.
Bessey

Pie 4; Fig. 2.

-fourths of an inchit
he outer

i
ridium is distinctly pedicellate. The peculiar feature of bor x
species, however, is the minute, scaly or granulose warts whic

=
z
O
[=a
an
a
wn
O
F
ak
w
z
z
2
S
o
a
s,
re
r.
w
g
ZA
ct
o
va
t
~
3
E

2. Geaster delicatus Morg. (Fig. 2)—Outer peridium tes

Cae lose, fuscous, .oo5-. m, in diameter. or
Chatles ing Res the prairie around-Lincoln, Neb. Sent by P y
‘ ar. diameteh, i

ey. < i

Inner peridium one-fourth to one-half of an inch MCT" shen

1e expanded segments an inch or more. The seg | er
fresh or wet, are strongly revolute, and become inflexed -

Entomology. 1029

very smooth. There is no determinate circular areola to the
inner peridium and the mouth is stellately lacerate or sometimes
amere slit or puncture. The nearest relative would appear to
G. bovista Klotsch, from which it differs in several particulars ;
‘itbelongs to the same section, the Erarcolati, of Dr. De Toni’s
monograph.— A. P. Morgan, Preston, Ohio.

: ENTOMOLOGY.:

Observations of Portchinski on Flies which, in their
Larva cause Diseases among Men and Animals.—
Baron Osten Sacken gives? an account of some publications of
Mr. Portchinski, from which we extract the following, as of gen-
eral interest :

_ For many years past Mr. Joseph Portchinski (at present sec-

‘lary of the Entomological Society in St. Petersburg) has been

“ung a great deal of time to the study of the life-habits of

“mivorous and coprophagous larvz of Muscidz, and several

Tg publications on that subject are due to his pen already.
a . š ` . :

remained less known than they deserve. Several of them,
er, have appeared in German in the Hore Soc. Ent. Ross.,
two of these are on the subject indicated in the heading to
a ract,
The Principal result which science owes to these papers is the
thcidation of the history of Sarcophila wohlfahrti as a danger-
but hitherto unrecognized enemy of men and animals, the
European Substitute of the celebrated Lucilia macellaria (syn.

i hominivorax
Vermibus per Nares excretis”) describing a case where peculiar
‘Inthe nose of an old man produced intolerable headache,

of America. In 1768, Dr. Johann August

d by Prof. J. H. Comstock, Cornell University, Ithaca,
cations, books for notice, etc., should be sent.
3. Zeitschrift, Bd. xxxi. p. 17.

_ have been introduced into that locality several yens ae
wid soma government is taking vigorous measures to

¥

1030 General Notes. [Nov.

dangerous propensities, nor of its identity with the species de-
scribed but not named by Wohlfahrt. Mr. Portchinski shows
that S. woh/fahrt occurs all over Europe, that it attacks animals,
domestic and wild, and that occasionally it causes horrible suffer-
ings and even death among men. In the work of Dr. Megnia,
“Les Parasites et les Maladies parasitaires,” Paris, 1880, the au-
thor acknowledges Mr. Portchinski’s conclusions, and says that
every time he succeeded in breeding the fly from such larvae it
was the Sarcophila wohifahrti which escaped from the pupa.

Lack of Parallelism between the Characters of Larve and
Adults.—“ The new article of Mr. Portchinski, ‘ Comparative

closely-related and almost undistinguishable imagos, species of

s
ei

through). In one case even (Musca carvina) larvæ © ye
species were found to have a different mode of developm

Pe

The Colorado Potato-Bestlo in Europe.— The Colora aS
tato-beetle has appeared in large numbers upon eo yt is be
of Malitzsch, a village near Dommitzsch, in Saxony. <" yst

lieved, from the abundance of the beetles, that the spectes z 4
Recent Publications.—A mong the recent publications up%
our table are two systematic works which are worthy,

-

RS ai EEE ee 7 Loe E D E N,

1887] y : Zoology. eee 1031

-the tribes and genera; and in the body of the work each generic
description is followed by a table of the species when the genus
contains more than one. :
_ The second of these systematic works is “A Monograph of
the Aphodiini inhabiting the United States,” by Dr. George H.
Hom? In this monograph eighty-two species are enumerated.
i Each species is fully described, and synoptic tables for separating
4 are given. e work is done in the careful manner char-
acteristic of Dr. Horn’s writings. It is based on practically a .
Complete series of specimens. Only two of the species are un-
known to Dr. Horn, and all but four are in his cabinet. The.
descriptions are so definite that specimens can be determined
fom them with certainty. |

2 From the Department of Agriculture at Washington we have
fectived the annual report for 1886, containing the report of
Dr, Riley as entomologist; and from the same source we have
"ceived Bulletins Nos. 13, 14, and 15 of the Division of Ento-
logy. The more important of the topics discussed in these
ports are the following: “The Cottony Cushion-Scale,” which
"S doing great injury in California; “The Southern Buffalo-
ii The Fall Web-Worm,” and “Insects Injurious to

as just been issued a volume by Mr. Maskell on the “Scale
Sects of New Zealand.” This is illustrated by twenty-three

„YS consists of a nervous apparatus and a pigment-layer,
i. latter, unlike the eyes of Lang’s Polyclada, consists of
rRucleated cells united. The cavity of this pigment-layer
a with end organs, each of which has a complicated EEA
‘though this whole apparatus has previously been descri

Si

: * Trans. Am. Ent, Soc., vol. xiv. p. I-110.

t 1032 General Notes. . . N

as a hyaline, structureless formation. Each end organ connects
with a nerve-fibre, which in turn leads back to a unipolar cell of —
the optic ganglion. No lens is to be recognized in the sections.
In Vorticerus auriculatus the two eyes (which lie directly on the
brain) have the optic cavity divided into two chambers by a —
middle pigmented wall. Each cavity is filled by fine rods, leav- _
ing a central canal free. Around the margin of the capsule are
numerous cells, which resemble ganglion-cells, and which se
fibres to the rods, and hence are regarded as retina-cells.

> nati a ki

A Parasitic Rotifer—Nearly twenty years ago E. Ray Lan-
kester briefly described and roughly figured a rotifer, which he
found parasitic in the body-cavity of Synapta from the Island of
Guernsey. Recently Dr. Zelinka has found the same form m —
the Adriatic, and describes it as Discopus synapte nov. gen. et sp.
According to the latter author this is not an endo-parasite, but
lives in folds of the skin of the Synapta, and from these large
numbers may be taken by a pipette. The animal belongs to the
Philodinidæ. Zelinka has been able to stain and section these
animals, and describes their internal structure in some deta
His conclusions are (1) that the bilobed wheel of the Philo-
dinide can be homologized with the ciliated band of the trocho-
sphere, (2) that the anterior end of the outstretched body z
homologous with the “ scheitelplatte,” and (3) that the brain 0
the, rotifer arises partly from separation from th
ane partly from immigration of primitively peripheral
cells,

bed the
to the

; f the
same genus have been described from all parts O ugh al

La

(Zoologische Fahrbuch, ii, 1887) Dr. J. G. de Man has ader

E
P
ct
=
e
oO
3
o
a
9,
5
92
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=]
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5
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2

Preliminary Notes on the Osteology of Alosa rar ly de
oe —In the shad the muscle of the lateral line is very RES
oo ed, and extends down quite deeply between "e tissue

_ ventral masses of the lateral muscles. In the conn

1887] ae Zoology. 1033

between the segments of the muscle of the lateral line a series of
vertical cartilaginous plates are developed, extending backward
and outward. They are irregularly triangular in outline, and
the apex of the triangle, which is directed forward and inward,
overlaps the distal extremity of the epicentrale. These carti-
lages seem to be evidence that a process of differentiation is going
_ on in the shad similar to that which resulted in the differentiation
of the sense organs of the head, and give support to the theory
that these are derived from integumentary sense organs allied to
_ those of the lateral line.
= A consideration of their relation to the other skeletal elements
of the abdominal segments suggests that the foremost visceral
aches are not homologous with the branchial arches, but may
long to a series including the extra-branchials of Parker, the
_ Sapula portion of the pectoral arch, and the epipleurals.
_,, they also suggest an origin for the free portion of the paired
i limbs from a ventro-lateral series of sensory organs, similar to
f those seen in amphibian larvæ which lie in a line connecting the
fore and hind limbs.
Such a development might afford some explanation of the
“phalic fin present in some elasmobranch fish either as a survival,
Be teversion.— Fanny R. M. Hitchcock.

; ot THE Epitors OF THE NATURALIST:
ko Owing to the failure of the corrected revise to reach

ue

p Publishers, my article, “ Remarks on Classification,” in the
Ctober number, requires some comment: :

i On page ots, last paragraph, the words neither tubular nor

», &00ved should be never tubular.

Near the bottom of the Table, the equivalent of Stereo-

muta should be “ invertebrates —tunicates. i

Poh att about the middle of the Table, under Monoccelia and
ycælia, the words axon unsegmented and axon vertebrated

d

cal News.—Ca:tenterates.—Mr. Richard Rathbun
a with notes, the species of the genus Madrepora in

, 1034 General Notes. i [Nor

the United States National Museum. This collection is rich in
formed the bases of both Dana’s and Verrill’s descriptions of
two large American exploring expeditions. In all fifty-nine —
species are enumerated. Later in the same volume he does the _
same work for the species of Porites and Synarza. Twenty-
three species of Porites (including P. branneri nov.) and three of -
Synaræa are included.

linii. my
In the same journal (Zool. Anzeiger, No. 261) Dr. Çi Zen ‘
notices a strange instance of batrachian teratology. In is! i
- urinary bladder of a specimen of Salamandra maculata he faund
a normal larva of the same species, pigmented, and two and one l
half centimetres in length. ble d
Mr. Charles H. Townsend contributes a series of krs
field-notes on the mammals, birds, and reptiles of Northern vat

; 1 : 887. Among
_ fornia to the Proceedings U. S. National Mus. for 5 be the tere

the hab

pag ae cranial characters which he regards
e Canada lynx. neg OF E
Jordan oe Evermann give a review of the food fishes o

diana in the last Agricultural Report of that State. , the mat-

hundred and fifty species but about fifty ever appear 17 wn in the

kets as food-fishes. The lake-sturgeon is said to Sp to tho

rivers in June, the red-horse in May,—points of interest

who are studying Teleost embryology.

acters of each of the parent species re pectively-

Embryology. | 1035

tame T. disectus. In its affinities it is nearest to T. woodhousei,
and the fact that it occurred in a region-so carefully studied
_ lends plausibility to the view that it is an introduced species.

A .van Lidth de Jeude contributes some notes on a collection
fishes and reptiles from the West Indies to vol. x. of the
_ Leyden Museum oes. The new species described are Gym-
_ ~‘Nodactylus antillensis, Phyllodactylus martini (= P. julieni Cope),
Cnemidophorus arubensis, Crotalus horridus var. unicolor, Pæcela
__“andepolli, and same var. arubensis. A larger acquaintance with
_ American literature would have reduced the number of nominally
. species.

EMBRYOLOGY.

txonomy, This is the case with the memoir before us.
After surmounting many discouraging difficulties, the Sarasins

ve succeeded in presenting a pretty full account of the develop-

continuations of the egg-membrane, so as to remind one of
eads. The individual ova are quite large, or nearly
arrow-fat pea. There is a considerable albumi-

ya : Teleostei, and Aves. The formation of the embryo

isse naturwissenschaftlicher Forschungen auf Ceylon. Heft IL, 4to.
.Kreidel.

I NO. TI. 70

1036 General Notes. [Nov.

and the method of infolding of the medullary groove is, how- a
ever, characteristically amphibian, At the posterior end of the
embryonic area the furrows characteristic of the Amphibia ap-

formed by Prof. Scott, of Princeton.

The cranial flexure is profound, and at times the head is well
differentiated, the branchial clefts and visceral arches are devel:
oped with great distinctness, so that from the side the head pre-
sents, at this stage, an appearance which is decidedly like that of
an embryo of a bird or a mammal. The last remnants of the
yelk are not absorbed below the cardiac region as in Teleosts,
but the yelk-sac is carried far back, so as to occupy a position
in front of the vent. In this respect there is a resemblance to
the mode in which the last remnant of the yelk is absorbed in
the Marsipobranchs, on which account the writer has called the
latter opisthotrophous in reference to this peculiarity. The em- -2
bryo is also folded off from the yelk somewhat in the same

,

scribed by C. Vogt many years ago.

_ The embryo also becomes coiled up in the ovum, and thea,
some time before its escape from the egg, three beautiful pore
or pinnate branchial processes grow out from either side in te
region of the posterior branchial clefts. These are compare eh

the plumose branchiz of the larve of Megalobatrachus japn
from Japanese figures. An amended figure of the larva of Lyp pa
nectes compressicauda, another Ccecilian, is also binds oe

account of Peters, which was based on the same ma ie
rected. The Sarasins find that the single pair of brana te
Typhlonectes are not vesicular, as supposed by Peters, but leal- es
Another singular feature which the memoir reveals 15 the (ie :
ence of vertical tail-folds on the tail of the larve of Ichthyog he
these extend forward to the vent, and back over the en a ee
tail, and forward over the dorsal side a little in advance ° .
tical line from the anus. ae l
Still more remarkable is the development of a ate ade
mentary limb-buds, representing the hind limbs, On ences
of the vent, or cloaca. These afterwards undergo à, erg he”
metamorphosis. The occurrence of a vertical tail-fold tix
opm t R D

structures in adult Urodeles, such as Triton, while the aog i.
limb-buds prove beyond question that these singularly ended .
burrowing and worm-like amphibians are undoubt ily is oe
from types which possessed well-developed ambulatory '
__ as proposed by Cope.

Embryology. 1037

‘Script, gives the credit of having been the first to suggest the
_ origin of the segmental ducts and the establishment of their con-
tection with the cloaca, as given in an abstract of Professor
‘Haddon’s paper, given in a recent number of this journal.

_ The Vestiges of a Zonary Decidua in the Mouse.—An ac-
‘Count of some researches on this subject was given in the Au-
gust number of this journal by the editor of this department.

tions of some of the material in my possession, cut in such

I find that the at first greatly thickened portion of the mucous
‘Membrane in the region of the embryos undergoes some very
es. At first the mucosa thickens very much

: fcetus and its membranes, is, as as in my pre-
note, nothing more or less than the transitory representa-
Of a zonary or girdle-like decidua, all traces of which are
before the end of foetal life.

Mode in which this hypertrophied portion or annular
of the mucosa is absorbed is highly interesting. In the in-

n of a zonary placenta. The presence o abortive vnc
face of the chorion in the vicinity is a further proot ©
© T Anatomischer Anzeiger, ii., No. 21, p. 646, iati -

1038 General Notes.

his. The area of the chorion frondosum is very small, not over —
one-fourth of the area of the under side of the placental disk —
The portion of the chorion underlying the placental disk, but —
not united with it, belongs to the chorion deve, and its abortive —
villosities even extend over and are developed on its surface
somewhat beyond the edge of the placental disk. 5

The cytoclasts spoken of above are many times the size of —
any of the rest of the cells found in the uterus, foetus, or foetal —
membranes, and they also possess very large nuclei. The pro-
cesses of adjacent cytoclasts spoken of frequently join, and there
is thus formed a sort of syncytium. This syncytial structure, if
isolated, would form a ring composed of cytoclasts just at the
edge of the placenta, and is especially developed at about the
time the zonary band of mucous membrane around the feetus's
nearly absorbed.

These data furnish further proof that the primitive or ancestral
type of placentation was a more diffuse one than in existing —
Rodents of the myomorph type, and throws some additional
light on the manner in which a discoidal type of placentation
has been derived from one which was zonary.—J. A. Ryder.

i
k
i
3
3
iV

:

;
:

Z
a
7

f
PSYCHOLOGY. a

On Duration of Memory in Wasps.—In studying the ye >

chology of insects, it is noteworthy that we have very a e “
isfactory evidence with regard to duration of memory. sft we |

=- Observation on leaf-cutting ants, which tends to show recolle ri ie
of a locality for one year, is by no means conclusive, as the |

are as well, if not better explained by supposing that tO es |

__ “Stickney relates a case in which some bees took poe
- of a hollow place beneath a roof, and having been then rem hé

into a hive, continued for several years to return and occupy t°

same hole with their successive swarms.” ded

ude that bees have i

as this.

o Again we quote from Romanes :? ne
- a ga q his own, showing

ae

shut. hen they were again opened in the spring,
_ returned, although there was no honey in the window. ne
The : y hat

e obvious criticism is that we have no evidenc

4 : Pee
= * Animal Intelligence, p..154, Prasad :

r} ; Psychology. 1039

bees that came in the spring were identical with those that came
the preceding autumn, it being possible, and indeed probable,
that they visited the window in the second case, as they did in
the first, by accident.

_ The facts which we have already published with regard to the
recollection of the properties of glass by hornets* suggest, but
Scarcely establish, a memory of ten or twelve days’ duration.
‘Sir John Lubbock’s observations demonstrate that bees remem-

carefully protected from cold at night. We fed them on
les and apple-jelly. Owing, probably, to the better care they
strong and energetic.

the August 25 we liberated seventeen, marked by a cut on
‘Me left upper wing, thirty-five yards from the nest. The ma-
ak f these flew towards the nest. A few settled on the

„On August 26 we liberated thirteen, with both upper wings
t thirty-five yards from the nest. They seemed to be in fairly
condition, and flew in various directions, seyeral of them

um into the nest, killing all the inhabitants. We the

Bina’: the d wasps, one by one, to determinine how wigs

» that we had marked and liberated had returned to the |

. The result was as follows : io :
n which had been retained fifty hours and were 4bé

dings of the Natural History Society of, Wisconsin, pp. 121-22.

nest, and by a lack of material to work upon. We were ableto —

the summer of the year before we had found thirty-three nests

1040 — General Notes. . [Nov. q

ated thirty yards from the nest, we found five. Of seventeen 4

ninety-six hours. ;

‘We had hoped to collect a much larger store of facts upon —
this subject, but were prevented from doing so by the difficulty —
of keeping the wasps alive after we had taken them from the —

find only one wasp-nest during the entire summer, although in

in the same neighborhood. {
Our strictures upon the observations of others may seem ae

percritical, but when it is remembered that the only wate 1
1

MICROSCOPY.: 1

Microtechnical Notes by Dr. Paul Mayer.—After describ- 7

ing the new water-bath and its accessories, Dr. Mayer P he |

to give the latest improvements in the methods employ an a

Naples Zoological Station: schnitt- ;
Section-Smoother, or Planisher?—The rod of the

and fastens them to the under side of the rod with very mi
ne. In this manner the rod can readily be an a it
desired extent; and the transparency of the ea
possible to follow the sections as they pass under mate general
2. Section-Fixatives—Of the three fixatives now ‘dered the
use,—shellac, collodion, and albumen,—shellac is considere? |
* Edited by C. O. WHITMAN, Ph.D., Milwaukee, Wisconsin. pee p
=“ Schnittstrecker” has been variously translated “ secti
i . ener,” etc. Perhaps the German r unsatisfactory
€ instrument is designed to prevent sections from curling; , pepo
to keep them plane, or Dat The word planisher, taken 1m 4 psi Bo
Sense, expresses the idea precisely enough, is both simp! 4 eda a
ture, therefore, to propose it as a substitute for the awkward an
itherto employed. :

_ Microscopy. 1041

er has been found to be unreliable in some re-
Spects, Carbolic acid warm is injurious to some AC ain
the dermis of vertebrates. The alcoholic solution is a perfectly
tarmless fixative. The method of using, which differs in im-
ee points from the one prescribed by Giesbrecht, is as

X ees are arranged dry, and then gently pressed down by
s of an elastic spatula (horn or metal) until they lie flat and

| Sections are placed while the a
and then lie as they fall.
ire reference to collodion, Mayer remarks t

hat it depends
loyed whether

a ee

ecesesseceossesree®

ten oe, igredients are mixed and thoroughly shaken together,

this mise a 224 Kept in a well-cleaned bottle. Mayer has kept

have proy a three years in a good condition. Other antiseptics »

~ Proved far less efficient than salicylate of sodium.

ayer em p ea the extraction of sublimate from tissues
l gianti oys tincture of iodine. The tincture is added in

S often ; ties to the alcohol in which the objects are preserved,
en as the color fades. |

1042 General Notes. [Nov

4. Mayers Carmine.—This staining-fluid, previously described
as “ Alcohol Carmine,”* is a modification of Grenacher’s acid

carmine,
Carmine 4 gm. $
Water. 15 ccm. 4
s Hydrochloric acid 30 drops. ;
Alcohol (85 %) 95 ccm.
Ammonia (enough to neutralize). i

The pulverized carmine is mixed with the water and the acid,

. The Latest Camera Lucida of Abbe?—Zeiss makes two —
forms of the new Abbe camera lucida. Both are constructed

field can be projected on the drawing-paper only by giving the

0
mirror an inclination differing so much from the angle (45) :
required for accurate drawing that the image is more oF d

_ the Abbe camera is superior to that of Oberhauser 1 s
important particulars: it gives a much larger field of ve
better light. Its construction does not admit of use ies ;
microscope-tube in a horizontal position. This is a defect w
ought to be at once corrected. sed to
The Abbe cameras, especially the larger one, can be gRr :
great advantage with the embryograph of His. It is on pe
sary to add to the stand a horizontal arm, to which the :
can be fastened. in the
The construction of the Abbe camera is illustrated 1 a
accompanying cut. | eo eflection
The Siiwitie surie is made visible by a a of 8
from a large plane mirror, and from the silvered The micro-
small prism in the visual point of the eye-piece. , the silvet-
~ Scopic image is seen directly through an apparatus 1n ed of the
Ing of the prism. By the concentricity thus pepan a
_ bundle of rays reaching the eye from both the "a without
ne paper, the image and pencil are seen edina a4
_ any straining of the eyes. With this apparatus, moreov’™
* Whitman, Methods of Research, etc., pe 39-
k Pissa Catalogue, 1885, P- 44, No.70.

zo
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= A Pia ie ao e ee eae

i peat aa a op ye A E T

eae ia

E pe Safe S
Ne ae ee eee EA ENET o

Scientific News. 1043

ings may be executed on a horizontal surface without perceptible
_ distortion. The brightness of the paper is regulated by smoke-

D

4 A,

tinted glasses which fit into the prism mounting. The appa-
falls is specially adjusted for the No. 2 Huyghenian eye-piece;
_ Mounted on this and fixed by a clamping screw the mirror only
ay turning in the proper position and it is then ready for

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

F The Proposed Monument to Audubon, —At the recent meet-
Sin New York of the American Association for the Advance-
hd Science, the fact that the remains of the great naturalist,

embers, and the propriety of marking the resting-
oh the founder of pee aye Ornithology by a suitable
The ent was appreciated.
tarbed Audubon plot in Trinity Cemetery will probably be dis-
Ste the continuation westward of One Hundred and Fifty-
: liber: ali The trustees of the cemetery have, with commend-
ity, assigned the Audubon family a new lot close to
wundred and Fifty-fifth Street, in full sight of Audubon
otal the end of Audubon Avenue, when this shall be

om. the north, and are in hearty co-operation with
ent enterprise.

ct autumn meeting of the New York Academy of
ilar > COMmittee was appointed to solicit funds and make
raangem nts for a monument. HERE
Th dent Trowbridge then appointed as such commutict
£ Dani as Egleston, of the School of Mines, “DR
Britton S. Martin, of Rutgers Female College, and Dr. k
~ “Rn, of Columbia College. This committee has orga

1044 Scientific News. [Nov. a

ized with Dr. Britton as secretary and treasurer, and is now —
ready to receive subscriptions, which will be properly acknowl- —
edged. Checks should be made payable to N. L. Britton, Treas- —
urer, and post-office orders should be drawn on Station H, New —
York City. ;

The committee estimates that between six and ten thousand
dollars will be required to erect and engrave a shaft worthy the
memory of America’s first naturalist, and, while confident that
this amount will be forthcoming, desires to have interest
in the project by scientists in all departments in all portions of 4
the country. 7

—Prof. A. H. Worthen has recently secured by purchase for
the State Museum of Illinois four collections of Carboniferous —
fish teeth and spines, aggregating about two thousand specimens, —
which probably cannot be duplicated on this continent. It will 4

arranged for exhibition in the course of two or three months. —

—Dr. M. E. Wadsworth has resigned the professorship of
mineralogy and geology in Colby University, and has accepted l
the directorship of the Michigan Mining School. His addet a
now is Houghton, Michigan, U. S. A. Exchanges are especially i
desired of papers relating to general and technical education, —
een general and economic geology, mineralogy, ©) a

y a

for 1887. Init are given generalizations base l 4
investigations of the lakes of Illinois and Wisconsin. 1
—Prof. A. F. Marion, of Marseilles, has been elected An
sponding member of the Department of Anatomy and :
of the Academy of Science at Paris. fe:

—Dr. H. Mayr, of Munich, has been appointed to the pro
sorship of botany in the University of Tokio. E

—Dr. Oscar Hertwig has been appointed ordinary pr

~ Of anatomy at Berlin, and Dr. G. Volkens has become a Pi"

- docent in botany in the same university. i a)

„Dr A Vachting; of Basle, goes to the chair of BOAT a
Tübingen.

: —Recent Deatus.—Olry Terquem, student of

` at Passy, aged ninety years; Dr. G. Grewink, Pro . Prof.

; eralogy at Dorpat, June 30, 1887, aged sixty-nine ly 1S

de Koninck, the veteran palzontologist, at Lattich, J ie

7 seventy-nine ; Julius von Haast, the New Zealand geo!”
Sixty-two years, |

Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1045

Natural Science Association of Staten Island —September
10, 1887—Mr. Wm. T. Davis presented the following entomo-
ical notes: A little over a year ago, on July 3, while sitting
the piazza in the evening, I saw a Calosoma scrutator running
ss the floor. After a time it came toa stand-still and, lower-

Winking she would lay them there. There was, however, quite
@small hole in the side of the box, and the moth, putting her

bya pin, the ima -ao in due time. I have since

y , go appearing in due ha

te Some chrysalids of the cabbage-butterfly (Pieris rapa),

Whey also brought forth perfect insects. One of these insects,

hatched, had the pin through the thorax as if transfixed in
sta

1046 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [Nov. 1887 :

:
The American Ornithologists’ Union held its annual meeting l
at the rooms of the Boston Society of Natural History, October ]
1I to 13, 1887. President J. A. Allen, of New York, occupied —
the chair. The secretary’s and treasurer’s reports were presented i
first, showing that the society had 25 foreign, 74 active, 46 as- 4
sociate, and 200 corresponding members. The foreign member-
ship is limited to 25, the active to 100, the associate to 50, while l
the corresponding membership is unlimited in numbers. ;
treasurer’s reports showed receipts of $1764, and expenditures
of $1217.’ The council advised the incorporation of the Union
under the laws of the State of New York. Some of the papers
presented were of general interest and permanent value, while
others were local lists of birds, and a few might even be enumer- —
ated as “cranky.” Among the more prominent were, “An Ac a
count of the Life and Ornithological Work of the Late Prof. S. F.
Baird,” by Robert Ridgway, of the National Museum, i
ant Fishing in Japan,” by P. L. Jouy; “ A Bird-Wave,” by Mon-
tague Chamberlain; “ Nocturnal Migrations of Birds,” by F. M.
Chapman; “Minor Notes,” by Colonel N. S. Goss.

The National Academy of Sciences held its autumn meeting
at Columbia College, New York, commencing November 8, 1887. :
The following papers were read: ‘‘ Seismoscopes and Seismo- —
logical Investigations,” T. C. Mendenhall; ‘
Specializations of the True Fishes,” E. D. Cope; "ADN :
the Behavior of Metals under Variations of Temperature, Wm. |
A. Rogers; “Chemism in its Relations to Temperat i
Pressure,” T. Sterry Hunt; “On the Mechanical Orig!
Structures of the Hard Parts of the Mammalia,” E D.
“Progressive Series in Chemistry,” T. Sterry Hunt,
a Basalt Volcano,” J. D. Dana; “Circulation of the ol
New York Harbor,” Henry Mitchell; “On a Study of í
Contrast,” Ogden N. Rood; “On the Relative
Men and Women,” W. K. Brooks; “On a New Form yan
production in Medusæ,” W. K. Brooks; “On the Lucay?
Indians,” W. K. Brooks; “Experiments in Meas Pee
Statical Electricity in Absolute Units,” A. M. Mayeri sjon”
tential as measured by Work: a Mathematical DN ae

A. M. Mayer; “A Comparison of Antipodal Fau th the
- Gill; “On a Discovery recently made in Connection Wir
e Determinat!

“cc On [ af
_ Star Magnitudes by Photography,” E. C. Pickering: nee of
$ ” eg Cretaceous C A
n” A. Hall; “ The Futu of Gold

_ the Moon,” S. P. Langley; “Ona Method of making m9 n
_ Length of Sodium-Light the Absolute Standard of °°"
_ A.A. Michelson and E. W. Morley.

AMERICAN NATURALIST.
a DECEMBER, 1887. No. 12.

HOW THE GREAT NORTHERN SEA-COW (RY-
TINA) BECAME EXTERMINATED.

BY LEONHARD STEJNEGER.

"og conclusions in regard to the extermination of the Great
j Northern Sea-Cow (Rytina gigas) and the causes which led
‘vit, arrived at by the Russian naturalists, Von Baer and Brandt,
7 by them discussed in numerous publications, were regarded
‘final, and were generally accepted, until Prof. A. E. Nordens-
ay recently made the startling announcement that, during his
È days’ stay at Bering Island with the “ Vega,” he discovered
e Tovertible evidence that at least one sea-cow had survived
3 eneral slaughter, and had been seen alive as late as 1854,
S than eighty years after the last one was supposed to
we been killed, This statement of Professor Nordenskiöld
w.. < upon his interpretation of an account of a strange ~
om. . = Which two Bering islanders claimed to have seen
"D era previously. Nordenskiöld gave no details to speak
ot Y asserting that the description of the animal by the
L tallied so completely with Steller’s description of the
DR. °° to leave no doubt that they had really seen a living
a 3 but, Notwithstanding this meagreness of the account,
ty auth rdenskidld’s name was then so great ee his
ty ony ould probably have been generally accepted. It was
sam fortune to seca a year and a half on Bering Island
Shy years after Nordenskidld’s visit, and, as the readers of the
. wow | ngs of the United States National Museum”* will

* Vol. vii., 1884, pps 181-189.
71

1048 The Extermination of the Great Northern Sea-Cow. [Dec.

prove conclusively—as I have published even the minutest de-
tails, any one can make up his mind as to the weight of the
evidence—that the animal seen by the men was noć a sea-cow,
but that, in all probability, it was a stray female narwhal. To
this Nordenskiöld has had no other reply than a reprint of his
former assertion, without even an attempt to give any further
details or to refute my arguments. The only new point in his
answer is an effort to:‘throw discredit on the accuracy of Sauer's
“ Account of Billing’s Expedition in the Years 1785 to 1794,
in which Sauer expressly states that the last sea-cow was killed
at Bering Island in 1768, twenty-seven years after the island had
been discovered by man. Ina paper published in the Bulletin
of the American Geographical Society* I have already been able

_ to vindicate Sauer. In the present paper I shall, therefore, only
try to demonstrate how easy it is to account for the rapid ex
termination of this huge animal, if we take all the known facts
into consideration. To any one familiar with the literature 0n
` the subject such an undertaking might be supposed to be
superfluous, so well has the task been performed long ago by
the great Russian scientists already referred to; but I may pe
haps be able to elucidate the subject a little further,—@ labor
apparently not quite unnecessary, in view of the following =
markable statement of Professor Nordenskidld (Bull. Amer
Geogr. Soc., 1885, p. 281): “It cannot very well be sup

that in a sea so rarely visited in the last century as the norther |
part of the Pacific Ocean the last specimen of the genus Ry jai r
should have been slain by the harpoon of the hunter. I€ i
imagine that the hardly accessible coasts of Bering and ge
Islands have been very rarely visited by hunters since ue
day, 1741.” As will be seen from the following pages, t me :
was no need of “imagining” anything of th

e kind, when a
j $

covered the then uninhabited island which afterwar®? a
its name from Bering, who died there shortly after. ie
vivors of the expedition wintered on that island, and K
landed there they saw the first living sea-cows Ryun
beheld by white men.

t 1886, No. 4, pp. 317-328..

ee

"i
|
{

|

1887] The Extermination of the Great Northern Sea-Cow, 1049
_ Unfortunately, Steller, in describing this animal and its habits,
only says that he found it numerous and in herds, without stating
exactly how numerous or in how large herds. We are thus left
to guess at their probable number when first found; and from
what he says in regard to their habits and the places they fre-
_ guented, and from what I know of the natural conditions of the
bland, I should regard fifteen hundred as rather above than
below the probable number. It must be remembered that the
| Sta-cow was an extremely bulky animal, twenty-four to thirty
ket long, which lived chiefly near the mouths of the rivulets,
_ feeding on the sea-weeds, especially the large Lamellarias. There |
| are hardly more than fifteen places on the island which could
afford them suitable grazing-grounds, and if each of these were
-gularly visited by an average of one hundred animals, one
Would easily be impressed by their number, especially if divided
"Pinto five to ten herds of from ten to twenty individuals.
: There can hardly be any doubt that these animals were the
; last survivors of a once more numerous and more widely dis- '

h

_ Mbuted species, which had been spared to that late date because
Tan had not yet reached their last resort. It is, then, pretty
ag to assume that this colony was not on the increase, and that,
_ Inder the most favorable circumstances, the number of surviving

eat
aire aa

Snot all, for more than half of the expeditions which win-
there did so for the express purpose of laying in stores of
» meat for their farther journey, which usually lasted two
S years more, ;
Pkr to substantiate the above assertion, I shall give a
e i t of the expeditions which are Anown to have winte
Island during the twenty years in question. The old

~

hundred and thirty-three men, and in 1762 to 1763, expeditions

winte

e Some of the records in regard to the above a

1050 The Extermination of the Great Northern Sea-Cow, (Dec.

records are very defective, and it is extremely probable that
many more of the expeditions which left Kamtschatka in order
to hunt and trade on the Aleutian Islands and in America
stopped at Bering Island, as was the usual custom; but we shall
only enumerate those of which the records expressly say that
they wintered there. The number of men employed on the
vessels is not givén in all instances, but,.as it varies between
thirty and fifty, I have estimated it to be thirty in most cases of
which we have no definite record. In the few instances in which
the length of time spent on the island is not given I have esti-
mated it to be eight months, which is shorter than the shortest
time actually recorded:

-~ Winter. or — of} Men. Months. Remarks.
Vessel. .
1743~-1744..| Basoff.......... (30) | (8) Numbers in parentheses anes aan :
1745-1746..| Basoff..........| (30) 12 Months, only approximate shat
1747-1748..| Kholodiloff.... . 50 9 (There is some ancertiin x
1748-1749..| Bakhoff....... (30) II the time Yugoff spent on pind
1749-1750! Tolstykh...... 50 8% sland. He is said to have pa:
1751-175 ff tered from 1751 to 1754 ad
1752-1753, YUBO.. osse 26 (16) g pper rope 2
1753-1754..| Kholodiloff... 10 thirty-two months. È
1754-1755..| Drushinin....| a (8 probable that he spent mehr 7
1754-1755 RCH cess ( pi, B |. half of this time on Bering :
1754-1755..| Krassilnikoff.| (30) 9% 3
1754-1755..| Jakovleff...... 33 (6) These four men belonging to Dru-
1755-1756 ea Vashi: shinin’s crew were left behind,
6- oo Krassilnikoff’s crew and ~~ ie
1756-1757..| Krassilnikoff.| (34) (8) Drushinin’s. a
1756-1757..| Tolstykh...... 38 9 i
1757-1758..| Shilkin........ 39 (8) :
1758-1759..| Paikoff....... 45 9% [> i
761..| Tolstykh...... (38) | 8% a
- ¥762~1763..| Korovin ...... | 9 ~
1762-1763..| Medvedeff....| 45 oy
pa

It will be seen that there wintered in 1754 to 17 55. abori pi
In addition to the above, we know of a number of 1 by
intering on Copper Island, and many more which on?
the Commander Islands on their way east. Besides, hor
were there of which we know nothing? And yet +
Nordenskiöld imagines that these islands “ have been ver:
visited by hunters since Steller’s day,—1741” ! expeditions 8°

1887] The Extermination of the Great Northern Sea-Cow. 1051

~ very interesti > .
' N Ee see a direct bearing on the question be-
Bering Islan 4 “he , à propos of Krassilnikoff’s wintering on
Fiat oasi ; a had already become customary for all
2 ‘aa ere ri runt sea-otters on the more distant islands
BG ithe meat poe Island] in order to provide sufficient
bsted usually iN the sea-cows (Manati).” These expeditions
Bs laid in provi P to four years, and it is safe to assume that
a wg for not less than twelve months. Of the
i four hw ee in the above list, ten, with an aggregate
E i aoe D red men, belong to this category.
Mwito ir are the details which have been recorded
consequently a a 4 expedition. He was a mining engineer, :
Pals testify, sent F of education and intelligence, as his reports
| investigate the Paes a the Russian government in order to
“Wand. The reco a occurrence of native copper on Copper
lan cu on s show, beyond dispute, that when this
"is beaches (and e (1745 to 1746) sea-cows occurred along
: et bet in myself have found remains of them on that
MN ta ing oc when Jakovleff was to explore Copper
| that carly date ` liged to winter on Bering Island, because at
: ‘been extirpated » en years after the first visit, the sea-cows ha
ii ding hi n Copper Island by man !
is crew, there wintered that year, on Bering Island,

ee y less tł
R than one hundred and thirty-three men, one of the
rocure, during eight

be hauled up on
t would spoil if left
the method for se-
ch more wasteful

the island. From
northern (ż. re scattered all-
aed thr t.e., northern and eastern) shore of the island
rees for the sake of catching foxes and other fur-
"It is even d available These
in — that Jakovleff refers to 4 more or less regular population of
o the crews of the wintering vessels.

1052 The Extermination of the Great Northern Sea-Cow. (Dec,

men, in order to obtain food, had to secure their sea-cow single-
handed, and whenever they got an opportunity—what they often
did—they would sneak up to an animal lying close to the shore
or in shallow water, and wound it mortally by thrusting the iron-
shod pole into it. The animal, which was hardly ever killed
outright, sought the high sea and died there. If it drifted ashore
the same day, well and good; but in most cases it came in unfit
to be eaten, if it was not carried away altogether. So impressed
was Jakovleff with the extreme wastefulness of this method that
he predicted the speedy extermination of the sea-cow unless
- some precautions be taken against this senseless slaughter; and
. when, in 1755, he returned to Kamtschatka, he presented a pe-
tition to the authorities there that it be prohibited by an ukas to
kill sea-cows in this manner, “in order that Bering Island may
not be devastated in the same manner as Copper Island.” Of
course, nobody heeded this eminently wise suggestion, and the
result became as he had predicted it: the last sea-cow was kill
within thirteen years,

Can anybody who contemplates the fact that the sea-cow wa
an exceedingly stationary animal, which was bound to the kelp-
fields near shore; that it was extremely stupid and sluggish;
that it was deprived of the faculty of diving; and that the island
offers absolutely no shelter or concealment for it,—can anybody,
after having read Jakovleff’s report and petition, possibly enter-
tain a doubt that the last specimen of the genus Rytina was slain
by the harpoon of the hunter ?

But let us attempt a calculation, based upon the

; d
as to the original number of living sea-cows when Bering Islan

f
3

former guess 2
presented |
:

_ was first visited, and ‘upon the facts as they have been ber of
above. Before doing so we will have to estimate the e made :
‘ d

animals wastefully slaughtered, and from the stateme ie
by Jakovleff I should think it no exaggeration to say pare 4
were killed five times as many animals as were actually 7 A
From Jakovleff’s report we learn that one sea-coW would th, aad-
_ food sufficient for thirty-three men during a whole ae 4
although it is probable that he made his party utilize €a e the
mal in a higher degree than the other hunters, we shall ta
above figures as indicating the average. It will
do not take into account Burdukovski’s statement, ar hearsay.

were eaten, for he only had his knowledge from’

1887] The Extermination of the Great Northern Sea- Cow. 1053

while from Jakovleff’s diary it seems evident that all the meat
_ was eaten. This is an additional reason why no weight should
_ beattached to the rest of Burdukovski’s story.

_ Now, to supply the six hundred and seventy men which we
— know wintered on Bering Island between 1743 and 1763, during
an average time of ten months, it required, in round figures,
about two hundred and fivé animals. According to the same
_ method of calculation, we find that the four hundred men who
hid in provisions for protracted journeys would require about
_ two hundred and ninety animals for an average time of twenty-
: four months,—together, four hundred and ninety-five animals.
i Iffive times as many cows were wantonly killed as were utilized,
_ Wehave a grand total of two thousand four hundred and seventy-
five sea-cows slaughtered up to the year I 763, or nearly one
_ thousand in excess of our estimate of the original number. e
Gü therefore either admit that there were more than two thou-
_ Sand living sea-cows when Steller discovered them, or else that
k only twice as many animals were wasted as were properly util-
ied; but, whatever conclusion we choose, it is manifest that

f-

our estimates have been very reasonable.

; * least, the records contain nothing definite that I am a

— come so nearly exterminated that the few left were insufficient

‘ to maintain any wintering and foraging expedition, while, at the
3 ‘ame time, the fur-bearing animals were also so badly decimated
ony to hunt them. The

erate when left undis-

Ned for a few years, and it was probably by a party who went

ut to Bering Island in 1767 or 1768—possibly on one of Popoff’s
us hat the last sea-cow was

Mm 1772, Dmitri Bragin
m the fact that in the
e island he omitted the sea-cow,
S reasonably safe to conclude tHat not one was left to
"corded by him.
as r all, there is nothing surprising in the speedy Bere
~" of this clumsy animal, which could not dive, and which ha
‘ually no means of defence or escape. It is too well known
did not emigrate, and the theory that

+

it was driven off to

æ

3 1054 The Materials of the Appalachians. [Dec.

other places is not only directly disproved, but is quite unneces-
sary in order to explain the sudden disappearance of the Great
Northern Sea-Cow from the shores where it was first discovered.

I think it will be admitted that we have succeeded in materially
strengthening Sauer’s assertion, that the Rytina was exterminated
in 1768, and that the above is a fair exposé of the causes which
led to its final extirpation. It was simply due to man’s greed,
and he accomplished it within the short time of twenty-seven
years.

THE MATERIALS OF THE APPALACHIANS.
BY E. W. CLAYPOLE.
(Concluded from page 962.)

THE Four GREAT SANDSTONES OF PENNSYLVANIA.

the former part of this paper I dwelt on the fact of the

existence of several thick sandstones and quartz conglom-
erates in the massive palzozoic deposits of Pennsylvania. I
further showed that these rocks indicate a supply of quartz far
greater than could be furnished from any existing source; aM
thirdly, that the nature of this quartz is such that the ad
known origin for it is the quartz-ledges of the South Mountains.
Hence I inferred the former extension of these strata over å
greater extent of country than at present.

In this second part I propose to try and give a more
shape to this conclusion, and to at least suggest where an
this palzozoic land existed.

definite
dwhen

to mention, the Potsdam Sandstone, there remain Tour er
sheets of sandstone, more or less conglomeratic, rt
mensely thick palæozoic deposits of the Eastern States,

ale, cost MMM a ss cca venooe choos mend
4 Sandstone and pebbles (Pottsville Conglomerate)....---
Shale (Manch Chaski... u.. serer aterrir E aa

..
MEE a iaa

; 1887] The Materials of the Appalachians. ~ 1055

Feet,

Shale and limestone (Devonian) 4000

2 Sandstone and pebbles (Oriskany Sandstone) 300
Shale and limestone (Lower Helderberg, etc.) 300

` I Sandstone and pebbles (Medina, Oneida, etc.) 1500
Shale and limestone (Trenton, etc.) 5000
Sandstone (Potsdam), 400

Here are four vast beds of sandstone, all more or less con-
glomeratic, lying between thick masses of softer rocks. In as-
ending order they are the Medina, the Oriskany, the Catskill-
Pocono, and the Pottsville. They vary in hardness, in thickness,
‘din coarseness, but they all agree in being composed of almost
nothing but quartz in the form of pebbles and of sand.

Now, we are quite safe at the outset in asserting that these
bur great sandstones, with their alternating shales, represent as
any changes in the conditions of deposition. The geographical
Mangement of land and water that allowed the deposition of
Sale would prevent that of sandstone. Results so different
“gue different causes. Regarding the origin of the shales I do
‘ Mt now propose to inquire, and will therefore dismiss them with-
t further notice, and refer only to the four great sandstones
dready mentioned.

Itis obvious that each of these implies the destruction of an
al amount of rock elsewhere. They were not made from
; Inch by inch and pound by pound they and their
Pebbles represent and measure the rock whence they were hewn.
So vast an accumulation of quartz, therefore, implies an equally
quarry from which it was obtained. But no such quarry
“sts; it has entirely disappeared.

y
WED

“use, I think we may see in them a history of what was
ng elsewhere during their formation. ak
“re, then, shall we seek the Eastern quarry of quartz

ae the massive Medina Sandstone was derived? j

_ waves. Sand and pebbles were again formed,

1056 The Materials of the Appalachians. | [Dec,

_ seems to me that in this great conglomerate mass we have a
record of a lost quartz-ridge or reef that existed in Middle Si-
lurian days, but which long ago disappeared,—a reef of rock
like that which now forms the ledges of the South Mountains;
a ridge large and enduring enough to furnish all the sand and
pebbles required, though the Medina is, in some places, two
thousand feet thick.

Nor is the existence of such a lost ridge along the Atlantic
sea-board altogether imaginary. We know that in later days @
force has acted in the same region that was fully capable of pro-
ducing such a result; and we have no reason to assume that
the tangential pressure which at the end of the palzozoic era
crumpled the crust and raised the Appalachian arches acted
then for the first time. The grand catastrophe which shaped
our Eastern States and closed the palzozoic era in North Amer-
ica may have been not its first, but its final, manifestation, and
may have been preceded by others of equal, or even of greater,
intensity. It is by no means unlikely that the same force that
raised the Allegheny Mountain arches also raised, in Mid-Silu-
rian days, a similar arch of the hard, semi-crystalline rocks like
those of the South Mountains, from whose wreckage the ™*
dina Sandstone was made. As it rose it was torn down by ai i
waves, its quartz dispersed, and a new rock formed at a lowèf
evel.

A time of rest ensued. The deposition of quartz ceased and
the Upper Silurian rocks were formed., But the resting e
came to an end and the earth-force again manifested itself i

crumplings set in and a new ridge was elevated, which "a
call the Oriskany Ridge, as from its material the Oriskany pared
stone was probably formed. This, though thin when gaer i
with the massive Medina, covers an equal or a pee

country, and in material the two can scarcely be one f
Rest again ensued, and the formation and depo sa sa
and pebbles again ceased. The huge beds of the ee
. Middle Devonian were formed, and meanwhile the pen p
accumulating for another thrust. is
At last it came. The long pent-up force son
ance. Another time of disturbance set in. Ano pie:

Archzan area was brought within the deanna

overcame the #°
th

a a a
x Ge

s 1887] The Materials of the Appalachians, 1057

_ quartz-bed of the whole series was laid down, - Judging by its
effects this was the most extensive disturbance of the four. It
formed a bed of sandstone reaching in some places a thickness
of seven thousand feet, for the Catskill and the Pocono united
sometimes surpass even these enormous figures, This implies .
immense erosion elsewhere, and the inference seems quite just
that this Catskill-Pocono Ridge formed a conspicuous or an en-
_ during feature in the Upper Devonian landscape.
_ But it disappeared and a time of inaction followed, marked by
the deposition of numerous soft beds on the eastern sea-board
din the midland basin. These are now the Lower Carbon-
irous Rocks. Again the compressing force overcame its resist-
ace and a fourth ridge arose, whose destruction in due course
é furnished the material of the Pottsville Conglomerate, underlying
the Coal-Measures. The manufacture of quartz-sand and of peb-
_ bles again began, and a sheet of this material was spread over
: Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio, gradually di-
-Minishing in thickness and in size as it recedes from the parent
g On this, when the stock of quartz was exhausted, were
: kid down the coal-beds, with all their intermediate limestones,
Sales, and sandstones,

Such, as I read it, was the history in brief of these four sand-
€s. I have omitted all details, all minor beds, and have
: touched only the great features of the story. Four acts in the
: aa a are now complete, and the fifth and last follows in due
Course,

;

ai
E

be No trace remains of the four elevations above mentioned ex-
a four monumental sandstones built up from their remains.
eg case is different with the last. This was the great earth-
wet that occurred at the close of the Carboniferous period.
= the suspended force again came into action, and the newly-
med coal-beds were crushed and crumpled into the arches and
è i in which their remains now lie. Of this latest catastrophe
“dant traces remain. The ridges then formed have not yet
‘appeared, and all the ranges of Pennsylvania, with the possi-
that ception of the South Mountains, date their beginning to
in kira This last act in the drama is one of the great Er
fhe tican geology. It is the greatest epoch in the history °
È “ontinent., The Appalachian Revolution closed the Palaeozoic
and lifted North America above the waves of the ancient ap

a

1058 The Materials of the Appalachians. [Dec. :

We need, therefore, only extend backward a known process to
explain the origin of these four sandstones. We can in imagina-
tion see a series of ridges rising one beyond another in time gone

_ by on what is now Eastern Pennsylvania. We see these ridges
destroyed as, or after, they arose, and we see their wreckage
forming new strata at a lower level. Extinct mountains, we may
call them, which have passed away and left no trace on the face
of the earth save the four great sandstones which form their
monuments,

The wide plains of Eastern Pennsylvania were the standing-
ground of these ridges. An extension of the quartzy strata of
the South Mountains over this district where the mica-schists of
the Archzan are now exposed, the successive crumpling of these |
strata and their subsequent erosion, complete the picture. Aba
dant material was obtainable, for we must be careful not to limit
the area to its present size. Crumpling causes compression, and

the site of Philadelphia must have then been much farther from

that of Harrisburg than it now is.* The Archæan terranes east
of the South Mountains were then deeply buried beneath later
deposits since removed. Each successive area of crumpling me ;

east to west became compressed beyond all further compression q

and then added itself to the compressor, thus aiding to shove
forward the adjoining area just as layer after layer of pul :

added in front of a snow-plough until the resistance beme i

great enough to stop the engine.

See EET Ne tee

ologist is often
distribute this
m the ridge a
the county
remarkable a
the quary

In the consideration of this subject the ge
puzzled to find a transporting force sufficient to
sand and these pebbles over so great an area. Fro
whence they were derived they have been strewn over
to the westward for five hundred miles, in sheets of
evenness, gradually thinning out as the distance from ©
increases. The Oriskany is especially remarkable in anes of
It extends over the whole area above named, and ove" ss of
New York, Maryland, and West Virginia, forming r d
almost unbroken continuity, but seldom exceeding two a ;
or three hundred feet in thickness. To what powt i
attribute the formation of so thin and yet so broad a ie

Without dogmatizing on this difficult subject, there hee

*See American Naturalist for March, 1885- |

ha

1887] | The Materials of the Appalachians. 1059

suggestion which I wish to make. It may be of some use in
explaining the phenomena, and it may not. I am disposed to
attribute it to the tide, whose forced wave, sweeping every day
over the successive ridges or through the successive archipel-
agoes which I have described, tore away the rocks and swept
- the fragments westward, rolling them over and over against one
another until they were ground to pebbles and to sand, The
_tide-wave reaches the bottom of the deepest water, and is not a
Mere superficial current. Its motion is incessant, twice a day,
and not occasional as that of the storm-wave. Finally, its di-
tection in this region was westward, and it is a fact of no little
- Significance, in this connection, that, so far as we can determine,
all the material of these four sandstones has travelled westward.
_ These considerations united induce me to believe that the
-tide-wave was the chief agent in their formation ; that, rolling,
às it did, every twelve hours from the East into the midland
ocean of North America, through the successive archipelagoes
Orreefs which I have here attempted to describe, it acted as a
Sinding and transporting engine of transcendent power to
-fshion and to carry the sand and pebbles of which our great
- Songlomerates consist.

__ There is nothing, so far as I am aware, in the rocks that is
incompatible with these views. It is well known that the con-
i glomerates are thicker and coarser in the East than in the West,

, and accordingly in the West this material constitutes
whole mass of the rock.

Une other point should be at least alluded to. Recent Te-
‘Starches have rendered it probable that this great grinding

i , Tegarding the origin and formation of the Conginmnm E
ennsylvania, prove to be of any value, they may por r
on the moot question of the antiquity of the Asians

1060 The Perissodactyla. [Dec.

Ocean; for, if the transportation of the pebbles and sand was
really due to the tide, it would indicate the existence of an At-
lantic basin in pre-palezozoic days, from which the forced wave
flowed over or through these successive reefs or ledges into the
midland basin.

THE PERISSODACTYLA.
BY E.D.COPE. ` i i

(Concluded from page 1007.)

T CHALICOTHERIIDÆ had numerous representatives during

Eocene time, and a few speċies of Chalicotherium extended
into Miocene time. The boundaries which separate the family
from the Lophiodontidæ on the one hand and the Menodontide
on the other are not always easy to determine. From the former
the symmetrically-developed external V’s of the superior molars
and the double Y’s of the inferior molars distinguish it; yet in
Pachynolophus the anterior cingular cusp produces a part of the

EPA -g

kat at pi

. l :
pi Pe b
from Wind ;
River Eocene of Wyoming. From Wortman, after Cope. , Fig. a, sec nd superior
molar; 4, last inferior molar. ae and fe, anterior and posterior €x

a
Fic. 24. Lambdotherium popoagicum Cope, molar teeth, natural size;

and
rior internal tubercles; acc and fcc, anterior and posterior intermediate tubercles; k
h, heel.
asymmetry found in the Lophiodontide. The character E s :
double inner cusps of the superior premolars, which disti eee
the Menodontidz, is only found in the last premolar in Dip eer .
of the latter, while a trace of the additional cusp of this oe
found in the Chalicotheroid Nestoritherium. a that the
In using the following table it must be borne in mind of the
structure of the feet has not been determined in Sev
genera: :

rah

T a

Ory
Bury.

ary =
mates anteus Leidy, one-twent T natural size; from White River: (Oligocene) bed of Nebraska, ; i
bulletin Mus. a r. Zoðlogy, Caida Baa ae e o e e A A

J 1887] The Perissodactyla. 1061

_ I Internal cones of superior molars separate from external lobes.
A, External tubercles subconic, separated by a vertical external tubercle.
Fourth inferior premolar like first true molar;.........seseee Ectocium Cope.
Third and fourth inferior premolars like the true molars; ... Æpihippus Marsh."
AA. External tubercles of superior molars become V’s, which are separated ex-
ternally by a vertical ridge.
a. Incisors present.

K

$

: B. No diastema in front of second inferior premolar.
Second premolar without inner lobe; last molar with one
inner cone: : Leurocephalus S. & 0.

Second premolar with inner cone; last superior molar with
an inner cone; Palæosyops Leidy.
Second premolar with inner cone; last superior molar with
two inner cones; ;

f imnohyus Leidy.
88. A diastema in front of second inferior premolar.

` . 4 O a

Two inner cones of last superior molar ; bdoth Cope.
aa. Incisors absent from both jaws.

Last superior molar with one internal CONG Sartr E AAACN Nestoritherium Kaup.

IL One or both internal cusps of superior molars united with the external lobes by
cross-crests, :
a. External cusps of superior molars more or less conic..
An antero-external cingular cusp; pamper ON
aa, External lobes of superior molars, inflected V's. .
= 8. No crescentic inner lobes.
4 Intermediate lobes confluent ;

Fic, 25

WwW - Ectocium osbornianum Cope, molars, natural size; from the Suessonian
" Wyomi `

ing. Fig. æ, superior molars; 4, inferior molars. Original.

%6. Lambdotherium popoagicum Cope, lower jaw ramus, natural size; from
River Eocene of Wyoming. Original.

The p hylogeny of this family is not difficult to read. Ecto-
: ‘cum, if it be truly a member of it (the feet are unknown), is
tes) the primitive genus, which is not far removed from Sys-
Saga of the Lophidontidz, in characters. The flattening of

emal cusps produced the two external Y's of the other
à and this, without further modification, would give us

cephalus and Palzosyops, the former having the second
'0r premolars more simple than in the latter. This type,

t Teste Scott and Osborn.

1062 The Perissodactyla. [Dee,

with diastemata, is Lambdotherium. The same type, without
incisors, gives us the Asiatic Nestoritherium. The development —

Fic. 27. Paleosyops major Leidy, superior molar teeth, one-half natural pre
after Cope. From the Bridger Eocene of Wyom

of cross-crests is accomplished, as in other families, by the com
pression and fusion of the intermediate and internal tubercles.
When the external Y’s are little pronounced, we have Pachyno-
lophus; when they are well developed and the anterior innet
tubercle remains distinct, we have the genus Chalicotherium
These relations are probably phylogenetic, and may be repte
sented as follows:

Limnohyus. Lambdotherium.
Palæosyops. Cale

Epihippus. Leurocephalus. Pachynolophus.

Ectocium.

PLATE XXXIIL

Murodon alti r. y
F altirostris C 1
Prom A oe Ope, skull, one-six iral size; I Thi i
Mt s Ge l; onei th natural size; from the White River Miocene of Colorado.
1 eol, Surv. Terrs., 1873.

the White River bed of

haces Cop
from ag ia from below, ee
~~ an. Report U. S. Geol. Su

$
one-sixth natural size;
rv. Terrs., 1873. :

r 1887] The Perissodactyla. 1063

E

The known genera of M # are all American. They
_ differ as follows :

= @. Last superior premolar only with two inner tubercles.

I Incisors present; no horns on the muzzle3........cccsccececeeeseenereee Diplacodon Marsh.
: aa, All the superior premolars with two interior cusps.

_ Six inferior incisors; canines very large; Deodon Cope.

_ Six inferior incisors ; canines very small; horns on the muzzle;...Menodus Pomel.
Noinferior, and four small superior incisors; canine very small;

4 orns on the muzzle £ Symborodon Cope.

Diplacodon, in its simpler premolars, approaches the Chalico-
_ theriidæ, and is the oldest of the American genera. It is from the
f Diplacodon bed or Upper Eocene. Menodus and Symborodon,
Which include some species of gigantic size, belong in the White
Riveror Oligocene, while Dæodon has, so far, only been obtained
_ from the John Day or Middle Miocene. The phylogeny of the
family is simple, as Diplacodon is clearly the ancestor of Daodon
_ onthe one hand and Menodus on the other. Menodus in time,
_ bythe loss of its incisors, gave origin to Symborodon. This line
4 left no representatives later than Miocene time. If Epihippus
4 enters this family, it may be the parent of Mesohippus of the
next higher horizon, the White River Miocene (Oligocene).
’ ere are numerous species of the genera Menodus and Sym-
_ borodon, and they are among the most remarkable of Mammalia.
They are readily distinguished, among other characters, by the
‘orm of the horns. In one group of species they are round ex-
pt at the tips, and are greatly elongated; in another they are
sub-round or slightly compressed; in a third type they are short
and trihedral; in a fourth type they are much compressed and
expanded transversely ; and in a fifth they are of insignificant size.
Four of these types exist in both genera. They may be compared
-8s follows:

Group rt. i Group a ;
Menodus........4/. dolichoceras S. and O. M. coloradoensis Leidy.
M. giganteus Leidy.
M. tichoceras S. and O.
M. angustigenis Cope.
Symborodon....S. acer Cope. S. altirostris Cope.
S. bucco Cope.
Menodus........ a Group 3. L nue - oe Group 5-
Jy v... M. ingens Marsh. . platyceras S. .
Symborodon...s. trigonoceras Cope. S, Aeloceras Cope.
VOL. XXI.—No, 12, 72

‘ELg1 “sia L Adaing *[o9D S'A poday ‘uuy worg ‘puu ‘opesojoD jo sped ADAYA PUTA WOI

fapis yet fezis [vnu yyy-əU0 ‘souoqg onemosdz pur Kye xeu moya ynys ‘adop 4279 noposoguidgy “Qt “OI
TE, P

The Perissodactyla.

1064

1887] - The Perissodactyla. 1065

j

-x ie a er el

Fic. 29. Eeee trigonoceras Cope, skull from above, one-tenth natural size;
fom White River b d of Colorado. Original; from “ Report U. S. Geol. Survey
Terrs,” (unpublished),

ppan”.
-
-
=

Res. 30, = ymborodon trigonoceras Cope, palate and teeth, one-fifth Pri size;
White River bed of Colorado. From a different specimen from PEETI
`n Fig. 29. Original; from “ Report U. S. Geol. Survey Terts. (unpub-

1066 The Perissodactyla. [Dec.

above; from White

31. Symborodon trigonoceras Cope, lower jaw from s,
«“ Report U.

Fic.
River beds of Colorado; one-fifth natural size. Original; from

C
Geol. Survey Terrs.” (unpublished).
nodus angist-

Transitional between the two genera is the Me
genis Cope, from the White River bed of Canada, which ger |
lower incisors of Menodus, with the narrow symphysis ne
known species of Symborodon. The phylogeny of the fam
can be thus represented :
Symborodon. :

Menodus.
Diacodon. Diplacodon. |
Ectocium.

A genus, probably of this family, has been descr! a
Transsylvania, under the name of Brachydiastemather! get
a -it has not yet been clearly distinguished from the known a

PLATE XXXIV.

i Itirostris ; Fig.
ke s skulls of species of Symborodon, one- „sixth natural size. Fie. 1, 5. eo
7 acer, . From Ann. Report U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., 1873- -

1887] The Perissodactyla. 1067

inthe genera Palzotherium and Paloplotherium. Thence it ex-
tends to the very summit of the Miocene, and may even occur
in the European Pliocene (Protohippus). Its members exhibit
considerable range of variation in the details of the teeth and
feet, but no striking break of family importance occurs. The
most noteworthy interruption is that which is found between the
Paleotherinze and Hippotheriinz, where there is a change in the
form of the proximal extremity of the humerus from a tapiroid
toa horse-like form, and a modification of similar significance in
the molar teeth, by the addition of a deposit of cementum.

Fic. 32. Paleotherium crassum Cuv., superior molars from below, three-quarters

natural size; from Gaudry. From the Upper Eocene of Paris.
The characters of the genera are as follows:

L Paleotheriine, Bicipital groove of humerus simple; teeth without cementum.
a. One or more internal tubercles of superior molars distinct.
External V’s of superior molars not well E exter-

nally ;.... ...Anchilophus.

External V's separated by a vertical rib; intermediate "tubercles

not Connecting fore and aft ;......cccsecesseenscsscersersanconnernet’”

al V’s separated ; TORSIE tubercles extended lore and :

aft;. „Anchippus.

..s.rsos
Whe Win E R died E E PS Gob EEA O E ITA TO E a a a eate

Pa loplotherium.

: Ti io molars with two V’s only; lateral toes large; ..------ serere
i erior Tas with distinct internal tubercles; incisors not

m

PEERI O T aa TA

ine, ntaa l groove of humerus " aale

rs
8g valleys. jon Se i tubercles saul at and aft; inciso
cupped.) i

1068 . The Perissodactyla. | [Dec.

a, One or more internal tubercles of superior molars distinct.
Inner lobes of inferior molars enlarged ; Hippotherium.

aa. Internal tubercles of molars not distinct.
Inner lobes of inferior molars enlarged; Protohippus.

P
Fic. 33. Paloplotherium minus Cuv., superior molars, naturab size, from below;
from Gaudry. From the Upper Eocene of Lebruge.

Five genera of this family are European, and five are Ameri-
can. The Eocene genera are European only. Paloplotherium
is found in the Middle- Eocene, and is, as
might have been anticipated, more nearly
allied to the Chalicotheriidze than any other
genus of this family. Chalicotherium '
not far removed from it. Anchilophus !5$
Upper Eocene, and is allied to the genus
just named, and also to Pachynoloph’®
among the Chalicotheriide. These Pi
genera constitute, by their similarity, °
bond of connection between the three
families, which, in their later and special-
ized forms, are very different
other. Palzotherium is chiefl y
gi the Upper Eocene, and Mesohippus is oY

ri š 0-
' Fic. 34. Paleotherium known from the White River oF lig
medium Cuv., anterior Eocene and Mio-
š cene, an age between /
foot, one-third natural . i i mmences in the
size; from Gaudry. From Cene. Anchitherium ¢o hippus for
the Upper Eocene of Paris. Middle Miocene, and has Anc > it re-

a contemporary.
mained, as late as the Ticholeptus epoch, i
Hippotherium existed only in the latter pa re of its
epoch, consistently with the greatly specialized str? te with it,
limbs and teeth. The nearly allied Protohippus live teeth iS
and in Europe a species with the same type of ne :
found in the Pliocene epoch (Forsyth-Major). ae ;

1887] The Perissodactyla. 1069

contemporary with the Equidz, which outlived them. They
have many points of resemblance
to that family, but, nevertheless,
remain at a considerable interval
from them in the structure of the

G. 35. sai ila serienn a, superior, and 4, inferior, molars, DARN
a from a Songs of France; from Gaudry, “ Enchainements.” Lette
anterior ext r; pri peiri Serk als az, anterior internal; øi, posterior at
cusps; Acc, a Satins intermediate ; acc, median intermediate; / , posterior interme ediate ;
st, posterior intermediate, cusps; 4, 2, and z, oblique cre ests.

Fig, ] size.
36. Anchitherium prastans Cope, a little less than one-third -o aa

ittle
wig from the John Day (Middle) Mi ocene - Oregon. Fig. 4,
Pad; * ditto Ro rhe fis i we vaw from above; d, metapodial and Part
bones from i inner sidt: ; e, the AERE oA from front.

1070 The Perissodactyla. [Dec,

The phylogeny of the genera of this family is clearly, then,
as follows: The genera with distinct internal tubercles must be
tr. go me. regarded as primitive (Sect. I, a),

cate and those with completed crests

(I, aa) are derivative forms. The
Hippotheriinz are still later de-
scendants on various accounts.
First, the development of the
intermediate tubercles is much
greater than in any other genera.
These tubercles are somewhat
enlarged in Anchitherium (see —
Fig. 35, the anterior one), and —
they extend much further antero-
posteriorly in Anchippus. In
the Hippotheriine they reach
and join each other at the mid-
dle of the crown (Fig. 40). In
this transition the relations of
Fic. 37. Hanes, the intériar tubercles are = ‘
, ae ioe ve pdam ef mete rious; for in Hippotherium, “o
thd Migcbue of Sanan Panes: Fig. of them (the anterior), rena :

, from Monts Z, from right side. distinct, while in Protohippus

(Fig. 39) both are confluent with the intermediates. It may’ 4

Berea

=

% Fic. 38. Hippotherium speciosum Lei
__ braska, se natural size. Original

: k bed of Nè
dy, skull, from the Loup Ae sides 6 W0
T Superior molar teeth from helow. ; ai

Fig. a, from below; b,

3 1887] The Perissodactyla. 1071

inferred from this that Hippotherium is a descendant of some
genus of Sect. I, a, while Protohippus came from a genus of
Sect. I, aa, The second point of modification to be ob-
served in the Hippotheriinz is the enlargement of the
expansions of the internal extremities of the adjacent
horns of the crescents of the inferior molars, which is

Fy iginal; from the

S 39. Protohippus sej „third natural size. Origi
we ejunctus Cope, one-thir 5 ¥
i Fork Miocene of Colorado. Fig. a, skull, left side; 4 eee = ne
> Posterior foot, left side; d, ditto, front; e, distal end of metapodials; f, prox

tnd of Ungual

l phalange or hoof.

i ag obvious on wearing, and which are foreshadowed in Anchi-
a ‘terium (Fig. 35, 4, ai, ai’). The third evidence of progress 1S
7 “en in the deposit of cement, which fills the valleys of the teeth,
Tra the two bicipital grooves of the humerus, which nee
Shp with those seen in the Equide. Fifth, the cupping 9
towns of the incisors. This only commences W

> of the cup, as has been shown by Scott.

1072 The Perissodactyla. [Dec.

. Hippidium spectans Cope, teeth.
from Pliocene formation of OF ©
on. Fig. a, superior molar from below;

4, incisor ‘oie of crown, showing cup.

Natural size.

Fic. 40. Superior molar of Hippo-
therium from which the cementum Oise
has been removed, goa the
forms of the crests, m Kowa-
levsky

These relations may be expressed as follows, in tabular form

Hippotherium. Protohippus.

Anchippus. ce

Paloplotherium. Mesohippus.
Anchilophus. Paleotherium.

*
Type with internal cusps and
with fewer premolars like true molars.

- Equus crenidens Cope,

‘ F
a
superior molar, pattern of enamel- Fic. 43. Equus caballus Le % Gaud-
molars. From ah

ridges of crown. Original; from 4, ‘ee rior, true
Pliocene epoch of Texas. Natural Five-sixths natural size
r Fig. 35

The Perissodactyla. 1073

1887]
i The genera of Equip# are but two in number, and they are
_ defined as follows :

Internal lobes of superior molars sub-equal ; ......sesseeseeees Hippidium.
= Anterior internal lobes af superior molars much larger
than the posterior; ; guus.

_ The genus Hippidium is extinct, and its species have been thus
és far found only in North and South America, in beds of Pliocene
and upper Miocene age. Equus made its appearance during the
l former period, and is represented by several existing species.

The Equidze adds another evidence of greater specialization
than the Palzotheriide in the structure of its feet—7e., the

Until recently, a puzzle to me. I have endeavored to show that
€ development of the tongue at the extremity of the meta-
Podials of the Diplarthra was due to the impacts of the terminal
phalanges often repeated, on hard ground, together with the
Compression of the surface on each side the keel by the flexor
ttndons with their sesamoid bones. But this did not account

Diplarthrous ungulates the phalanges are flexed at right —
Mer; n the

_ ver. This fact accounts for the late appearance

_ lime of its effect on the end of the metapodial bone.
‘dd here that the acuteness and narrowness of the keel is partly

~ to the movement of torsion conveyed throughout all the

x ones of the feet at the moment of arrest by the ground, as

"Ened to in the opening pages of this paper.

T must here describe another effect of torsion ©

“the
oe

I must

Re

mals extended inwards from the inner towards
the foot, so as to abut on the carpal or tarsal

thedigit next external to them, This is due to pressure through

1074 : The Perissodactyla. [Dec 4

the carpals and tarsals of the second row or the heads of the
metapodials, which is by the torsion turned from within outwards,
The pressure thus applied has gradually pressed the heads of the
metapodials outwards in the manner described. This effect be-
gan earlier than diplarthrism,’ as it is Seen in the Condylarthra.

In the preceding discussion of the phylogeny of the Perisso-
dactyla the descent of genera within families has been described,
and also the descent of families in their
entireties has been discussed. The attempt —
to carry the line of generic succession across
the boundaries of families has not been gen-
erally made. The lack of knowledge of such
intermediate genera is the cause of this
omission. Were such genera known, the
definitions of the families would be less _
precise than they are. This complete phy-
logeny has been attempted, however, 1n the
case of the genus Equus by various authors.
The first suggestion was made by Cuvier, and
the first arrangement of genera in the phylo-
genetic line of the horses was by Kowalevsky.
His series commenced with Anchitheriu™,
and had the other members Hipp
and Equus. To this series Huxley added
Palzotherium. Later, Marsh added ‘0
definite terms to the series, Hyco d
and Hippidium, giving to both, bee 4
names (Eohippus and Pliohippus), y r -
posed two other steps (Orohippus an prie ;
hippus), which were not sufficiently age a
ized to be since recognizable. The nO: :
writer determined the identity of paken
forms, and added the still more primitive genus SY see
don: He also discovered and defined the Condylarthra, fo
of which, (Phenacodontid), he announced as the ances a
all Perissodactyla, horses included? Dr. Wortman 5 > he
pointing out the double descent of the genus Equus coe
two lines of Palzotheriide, and indicating the relations of

* Cuvier and Kowelevsky have shown that in the genera Sus and
head of the second metapodial is expanded inwards as well as outwards. —
* Proceeds. Amer. Philosoph. Soc., 1881, p. 178-

Gaudry, “ Enchaine-
ments.”

The Perissodactyla, 1075

: 7 Equus to those of Hippotheriinz.t Subsequently Scott
pointed out the relation which the genus Mesohippus (Marsh)
bears to the series. Schlosser followed, throwing the Chali-
l cotheriid and Menodontid genera out of the line into which they
had been brought by Cope. In the present work the only change
the author has made in his views is to return to his inclusion of
"the Menodontidz in the line.
_ Asa result the following genealogy of the species of horse
maybe regarded as resting on the best evidence now available,
ê regards genera. It will be long before the line of species
which has propagated itself to the present day, and appears in
the Equus caballus, will be discovered.

- Equus sp, uus Sp.
| Hippidium.
Protohippus. Hippotherium
) aie Anchippus.
Mesohippus.

Palezotherium. Paloplotherium.
x
? Epihippus.
x
Pliolophus.
Systemodon.

Genus of Amblypoda Hyodonta (unknown).

PL

An unknown genus of Periptychide.

1.
“ogg 1883, p. 705. 2 Morphologisches Jahrbuch, xii., 1886, p- 3

ss
os. Soc. Proceedings, 1881, p. 380; American Naturalist, I P

1076 Hornless Ruminants. [Dec.

It is certain, if the observation recorded by Mr. G. K. Gilbert —

is correct, that man was contemporary with species of Equus on
the North American continent. I have identified* the remains
of Equus occidentalis Leidy and Eguus excelsus Leidy from the
Upper Pliocene bed of Oregon, where they were mingled with
obsidian arrow-heads and scrapers in a sandy bed easily dis-
turbed by the wind. The contemporaneity of these remains
being, under such circumstances, uncertain, it remained to dis-
cover them in a more solid deposit to confirm the suspicions
raised by their association as first observed. Such a discovery
is recorded by Dr. Gilbert as having been made in Nevada bya
member of the United States Geological Survey. The guus
occidentalis thus shown to have been a contemporary of man, is
not very close in characters to the true horse, but was propor
tioned more as in the ass, The head was as large as that of the
horse, but the legs were more slender and a little shorter. tt
ranged from Oregon to Southwestern Texas, but its remains
have not yet been found in the Valley of Mexico.

HORNLESS RUMINANTS.
BY R. C. AULD, F.ZS.
(Continued from page 902.)
ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND.
N treating of British cattle it is of interest to trace their aed
It may therefore be advantageous to quote the views of Prot
Boyd-Dawkins, especially as he has given the subject part
attention, and as I have had some correspon
regard to polled cattle.

“Th ean, i ll the i
e two principal stocks from which a imal wild 10 the

in te

ae

icular
dence with hia.” |

breeds are de-

1887] Horniess Ruminants. 1077

possession of farmers who lived on the wooden platforms and
artificial islands in the Swiss lakes.
_ “The remains of the latter are to be found all over Europe in
_tefuse-heaps belonging to various periods, from the Neolithic Age
down to well within the historical frontier. It is the only do-
_Mestic ox which I have met with in the large number of refuse-
heaps in the British Isles, ranging from the Neolithic Age down
to the time of the English invasion, and is represented by the
present Highland cattle, small Welsh, and small Irish cattle.
_ “The first, or the Urus stock, preserved to us almost in its
aboriginal purity in the so-called wild cattle of Chillingham, I
am unable to trace farther back than the invasion of Britain by —
the English, and of Ireland by the Scandinavians. As the evi-
dence stands, it was unknown in these islands as a domesticated
animal before this time.

“The present breeds are, in my opinion, descended from the
two stocks, and are the result of crossing and selection. The
Polled cattle I consider to be the result of selection, in which
advantage has been taken of a tendency to revert to an ancestral
$ hornless type, probably as far back as the Miocene Age. I should
to meet with them from time to time in every breed, Just
ð from time to time a horse is born with three toes, which have
| been derived from his remote Miocene ancestor, the Anchithe-

rium,”

A He then refers to the case of the “ breeding out of the horns
™ the Galloways” and the Gisburne polled cattle, on both of
Which points his observations are given in their proper place.

‘a subject, however, of tracing the ancestry of all of the nu-
: ets British breeds, he says,,he has as yet been unable to find

sI

tme to deal with.

: As supporting the view of the existence of the hornless char-
ned in the aboriginal races of cattle in Britain, there may be
i that certain foreign authors seem to have had evidence to
= Dr. Brocchi, in a most comprehensive and practical
>h *—dealing first with mammals, in which come the various
3 ds of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs common to France, or
„Sà have been introduced from other countries, with a descrip-
: mot their qualities and origin,—speaking of the race ists
"marks that the absence of horns characterizes this sprue a
k However true this may have been at one time, it 1S, p =
‘ents de Pisiculture, d’Apicul-
Paris: Libraire, J. B.

ge de Zoologi i lements de
te de Seria: ogie Agricole, comprenant des elements

" culture, d’Ostreiculture, &c.” P. Brocchi.
-te et Fils,

1078 Horniless Ruminants. ‘(Bee

critic has remarked, “ hardly correct, as a matter of fact, and is
peculiar, to say the least,” to-day. But if there had been a few
more Marshalls among the breeders of Britain, it would, I believe,
have been very true now.

Marshall, the celebrated authority, thus wrote (1780):

“There are already in this island three or four distinct breeds
of hornless cattle; or rather, breeds of cattle many individuals of
which are hornless. . . . These breeds are the old short-horned
breed of Yorkshire; the Suffolk breed; a breed in Nottingham-
shire propagated chiefly by the late Sir Charles Sedley,
ably a variety of the Yorkshire breed [or of the White Park
breed,—a herd of which is in this county]; and the breeds of
Scotland, all of which, I believe, produce occasionally hornless
individuals. y

“ The Galloways send out a breed almost wholly without horns,
and some of them of good quality. Some of the Galloway
are not deficient in flesh. That of Nottingham has not come
sufficiently under my notice to speak of its quality. For strong

e
provement. That of the Suffolk breed is well known to,
good quality. For lighter lands there may be superior indivi
of the Suffolk breed in their present state sufficiently perfect of
a basis at least. This breed has lately been used as beasts
draft in Norfolk with singularly good effect. nes

“T have digested my ideas, and I am clearly of piman
. a breed of cattle answering nearly, if not exactly, the
going description will, in the nature of human affairs,
prevalent, if not common, to the Kingdom.”
A prophecy that is likely eventually to become true, not only
in Britain but in America. ording
Youatt divided the breeds.of cattle of Great Britain, a¢ the
_to the comparative size of the horns, into five classes : @) i
long-horns, of the midland counties; (2) the skorka
northern counties; (3) the middle-horns, of Devon, Suss% ira
ford, etc. ; (4) the crumpled-horns, of Alderney and the ;
coasts; (5) the horniess, or polled, of England and pare
Polled Cattle among the Horned Breeds —Any one must = i
observed that what Martin says is true, — ; a
_ “Besides the polled ‘cattle we have here noticed, oy ad rack
titute of horns occur which confessedly belong to 4 th
[He then

. and must not be considered as distinct.

Flornless Ruminants. 1079

The Yorkshire Polls—It is of importance to find that there
tists a breed of polled cattle in Yorkshire described by all the
Grly writers. Marshall, in his “ Rural Economy,” says,—

In the North Riding of Yorkshire, at the commencement of
eighteenth century, the ancient black cattle were the only
bred in the district. They resembled the present breed of

irs of Scotland, mostly horned, but some of them hum-
bkd. (This is his “class 2,” noted later on.)

Culley’s supposition that they must have descended from the

y is untenable in the face of the existence of a county
of polled cattle of much greater antiquity than the Gal-

y itself. I am supported here by the highest authority in
n, among others, Mr. James Sinclair, editor of the Live
Fournal ;

What Culley says of the Yorkshire polls is as follows :*

The polled or humbled cattle come next under our consider-
well deserving of notice. We find a few of ited
sing through different parts of England and

the rest, I remember Lord Darlington, not many age
d a very handsome breed of them finely globed with

n

Parkinson? says, — iy
rkshire polled cattle vary from the — about

"b Only in being without horns, epa a apea fully.
| gs a beast, as will be explain for the pail. sce

nS on Live Stock,” by George Culley, 1786.
}- 12, 73

1080 FHlornless Ruminants. [Dec,

than many other kinds to bring them to perfection, and are the
most improper to breed on barren soils, badly sheltered, for such
stinting would render them, in a very short space of time, small
and coarse; and, as age is required, they suit best on situations
a great distance from market, where part of the land is not good
enough to fatten, but of a grazing quality, to keep stall stock in
a growing, thriving state, and a portion sufficiently good to make
them up for sale. Great numbers of these cattle bred in York-
shire are fed on the fine rich marshes of Lincoln. But the best

of them, both polled and horned, although of a good kind, are

fattened at a more early age than their nature requires. Some of
these large beasts are particularly fine on the crown of the head, —
a point to which great regard ought to be paid in the choice ofa
bull, for several reasons. have observed it to be a ee

e cow-
keepers in London, a cow having the least appearance of a bull
is a sure sign of her being a bad milker, therefore the finer the

Parkinson has a good deal more to say under the above head-

ing of “ Yorkshire Polled Cattle,” but he seems to fall away from.
those in: particular to others in general. The crown of the head
is twice referred to in the above. That doe-headed character T
an interesting definition, as will appear: it might, ¢g+ be easily
contracted doe ded.

= John Lawrence descants on them thus:

“The northern or Yorkshire polled cattle.—These have the
same qualities as the short-horned cattle, carrying vast 36E. pat
and some I have seen lately are of great size, alt ie

breed and
i cattle, they
ed, among
“of horned

1887] Hornless Ruminants. 1081

_ Having already quoted from Froude, I may be allowed to
_ make another extract, as evidence of the reputation of Yorkshire
_ for breeding fine cattle having existed from a very early date.
The following is quoted in his History, vol. v. p. 45, from a
_ Manuscript instruction to the English general commanding an
= &xpedition into Scotland. After saying that biscuit, wine, and
_ horse provender were to be lodged at Berwick, the order goes on
_ that two hundred and sixty-two carts were to be requisitioned;
_ and adds, “which may well be purveyed in York, where the
_ great oxen be, and the best wains.”

From a highly interesting table of the results of trials con-
_ ducted between the years 1833 and 1865, by the king of Wiir-
_ temberg, as to the milking propensities of various breeds, the
- polled Yorkshire is included along with the Friesian, Swiss,
_ Durham, and polled Norfolk, and is described as “ Reddish brown
_ 4nd white.” From this table, published 1883, it now appears
that the polled Yorkshire was a recognized breed for the dairy.
e Devon Natts.—Associated with the Devon breed there are
_ the Devonshire natts. Young, in his last tour, noticed them in
- the neighborhood of Barnstaple. Lawrence describes them as
middle-sized, thick-set, and apt to make fat.

= Youatt says of them,—describing them along with the West
: Somerset sheeted cattle,—

: be seen, but they are the same party-colored kind of which I
: have just spoken.” °

a The Meaning of the word xatt, or nott, will be given in the
, P er on Philology, which will be found of considerable
entific value in tracing the origin of these polled breeds.
tte Polled Somersets—Professor Low, in his “ Illustrations of -
tish Domesticated Animals,” published in 1842, gives an illus-
Hon of “ The Sheeted Breed of Somersetshire,” which shows,—
= Cow, of the polled variety, the property of John Weir, Esq; _
_ St Carnell, Somersetshire. oe
ag, One of the horned variety, four years old, from the stoc
the late Sir John Philips, Montacute House, —

1 In National Live Stock Journal.

reds ete

1082 Hornless Ruminants. [Dec.

Low describes them as “a variety of cattle rendered remark-
able by the striking contrast of colors on the body, found in
Somersetshire and the adjoining counties. It has existed in some
parts of England from time immemorial. The red color of the
hair has a light yellow tinge, and the white color passes like a
sheet over the body. | The individuals are sometimes horned, but
most frequently they are polled. The cows are hardy, docile,
and well suited to the dairy. The beef of the oxen is of good
quality and well marbled. The breed has become rare, which is
to be regretted, since it is much better suited to the dairy than
others that have been adopted. The peculiar marking which
distinguishes these cattle is not confined to any one breed. It
appears among the cattle of Wales, where they are crossed by
the White Forest breed, and is frequently among those of Ire-
land, and used to be so among the-older Galloways of Scotland.”

Again, in his other work, Low, in referring to their peculiar
marking, gives some additional particulars as to this:

“Tt is common in Holland, where the colors are black and
white." It may be ascribed to the intermixture of two mo l
having each a tendency to produce the pristine color of the st
from which it is derived. Thus a mixture of the White hg
breed and a Devon might produce an animal resembling
sheeted Somerset, with the Black Falkland one resembling
sheeted varieties of the Dutch,and so on. The peculiarity, when
“communicated, is very constant, and when two animals ga
ing it are mixed together in blood the progeny never ae
preserve the markings of the parents.”

The peculiarity of a white body on cattle was years 48° weir
uncommon in Aberdeenshire. I have seen several. In all cass :
the white was confined to the body. In Aberdeenshire they "o
called—when a cow, for example—a blanket cow or & plaidit co, .
—one having the plaid about her. The white in Galloways -e :
to have gone along the back, and, like the Irish cattle, in. oe

Derbyshire Polls—Arthur Young (“ General View of the 2 ,
culture of Hertfordshire,” published in 1804) gives pne ;

notes upon the variety of cattle of that county. pe homn

finding Devon, Hereford, Welsh, Long-horned and >? ass of
cows in milk, and in one place, Hatfield, the March ae
Salisbury had all these, “ and buffaloes both of the whole 286 © —

The Dutch Belted breed has been introduced into this country oN

ke

1887] Flornless Ruminants. 1083
a the half-breed crossed with Scotch and Devon, for veal and beef
_ of fine quality.’ Here, as generally throughout Herts, the Suf-
_ folk cows were regarded as the best milkers. He also states that
= “Lord Grimston has the Spotted Polled breed from Mr. Mundy,
__ of Derbyshire, and approves of the sort greatly.” These Derby-
shire Spotted Polls may have been descendants of the white wild
cattle of that district of which Mr. Storer * speaks.
~ Among Herefords and Short-horns—Mr. William Housman, the
_ well-known English authority on live-stock matters, has written:

of the head; and I have seen similar ‘scurs’ and top-knots on
= Several female short-horns. In the case of all the short-horns

‘Snot a long one. Unless we take for granted an inseparable
Correlation of sugar-loaf skull and tufted head with the lack of
is, we can scarcely suppose these cases to be original panei
The thick top-knot and the pointed ridge of the skull wot
to bear evidence of a polled ancestor, to whose soc i
other particulars than the mere absence of horns, the anima

Mr. A. B. Allen, of New York, the well-known authority,
commenting on Mr. Housman’s remarks, said,—
~T have seen an occasional superb specimen of what neem
a muley short-horn in Northumberland, Englan . y
the are thousands upon thousands of polled cows already
z United States.” `
The late Charles Stevenson, who was a juror at the 1857 Paris
“national Exhibition, states that “ one bull was |
~ aged short-horn class, color white, whose head em
small round knobs, not exceeding two inches in diameter.
1 Wild White Cattle of Great Britain.
- # National Live Stock Journal, October, 1882.

exhibited im »

1084 - Hornless Ruminants. [De

We have occasionally seen females of the short-horn breed with
horns descending by the side of the head, and apparently not very
firmly attached to the skull.”

. These facts should encourage short-horn breeders in their
desire to raise an improved breed of polled short-horns.

Shakespeare was acquainted with the polled cattle. One

would not have expected Shakespeare to have noted the polled
character, nor in the manner he does; but the lover of sport in
the forest supplies us with the following:
y Beat. Too curst is more than curst; I shall lessen God’s sending that way, for
itis said, God sends a curst cow short horns: but a cow too curst he sends none.
** Leon. So, by being too curst, God will send you no horns.” *

This is rather a different attributive explanation than has
generally been given.

Shelley is also another “famous writer” who seems to have
‘been acquainted with hornless cattle; and later, Mr. Rider
‘Haggard is acquainted with hornless oxen and goats.

In Wales—Pennant? says,— ‘sh
_ “Our native kind [of cattle], such as the Welsh and Scottish,
are small and often hornless.”

Wirt Sikes, a United States consul in Britain, gives a Mba
fairy legend; in which there is evidently a reference to p°
cattle:

ere was
ta lake

the good luck to catch one of these mystic cows, whic :
_<in love with the cattle of his herd. From that day ore tter an
-fortune was made. Such calves, such milk, such bu oh
‘cheese as came from the milk-white cow had never

been seen 1n
-h and
Wales before. The farmer, therefore, soon became rich, :

f i + but as Ta
came from all sides to see this wonderful pP E “abe lee.

.butcher’s bludgeon was severing its head a fea

* Much Ado About Nothing.—Act II., Scene I.
2 Ilistory of Quadrupeds, 3 British Goblins.

i

TAE E Whe SAE EEE Sage ee, at Taa

tha

1887] : Hornless Ruminants. 1085

_ sounded through the air, and the astonished assemblage beheld a
_ green lady crying with a loud voice,—

‘Come, yellow anvil, stray horns,

Speckled one of the lake,

And of the Zorniess Dodin,

Arise, come home g

In Ireland—the Bogs.—Sir W. R. Wilde; M.D., has given some
valuable details of the breeds of cattle of Ireland. He read a
‘paper in 1858, published (1862) in vol. vii. of the “ Proceedings
_ of the Royal Irish Academy,” entitled “On the Ancient and
Modern Races of Oxen in Ireland.” From it I quote as much
| as may be of interest:

__ “The animal-remains discovered in the great ee OD of

f a middle-horn.
h Jong-horned,

re or Craven. . + +

pt tothe Angus of t “
' Connaught, Mael in Munster, and Mwool in seoa In size
7 Were inferior to the foregoing, although large

1086 Hornless Ruminants. [Dec.

Kerry, or even the old crook-horned Irish, but were com

tively few in numbers. In color they were either dun, black, or
white, but very rarely mottled. They were not bad milkers,
were remarkably docile, and were consequently much used for
draught and ploughing.”

Describing each set of skulls corresponding to the above, of
the polled Sir W. R. Wilde says,—

“The last is the Maol, or hornless, which differs so little from
its living representative of the present day that it is unnecessary
to describe it. From the five specimens placed before the acad-
emy, it is evident that it was much smaller than the modern breed.
One head differs from another only in the amount of the occipital

` projection. The average length of the face is about seventeen
inches, and eight inches across the orbits.”

In a paper in the same volume, “ Upon the Unmanufactured
Animal Remains belonging to the Academy,” Sir W. R. Wilde
gives “a list of fifty-two ox-crania now in the museum.”

“Nos. 48 to 55 are eight hornless, or maohl, varieties, anda .
xcept the two first present a very remarie
Fic. 19. able protuberance, a frontal crest, but this

nication upon the ‘Ancient and Modem

Races of Oxen‘in Ireland?” (Fig. 19.)
I am tempted to add the following, from

Sir W. R. Wilde’s first paper, referring a =

the state of the best breed in Ireland 1

olden times:

mS I “The relics of our ancient meen net
interesting to nat ural
Proceedings of Royal only abundant and in agi cnt age
Irish Academy. Fig. 14, ‘sts, but are exceedingly ford un-
PrE historical point of view, as they x
deniable evidence that, so far back

eighth or tenth century at the latest, we had in Ireland eer
of cattle which, for beauty of head and shortness of hon Ta

4

1887] Hornless Ruminants. 1087

S
;
y
i
b

vie with some of the best modern improved races so much
_ admired by stock-masters, and which are now being reintro-
_ duced from England.”

_ Low and Youatt have long notes on this Irish breed:

once widely diffused. It is now scattered throughout the
_ country, and is only found in some numbers in the Vale of Shan-
non, They were of a light brownish color. They are superior
_ in size to the Suffolk Duns, and equalling in this respect the
: rclass of short-horns. The breed has probably been formed
byan early mixture of Dutch cattle with some of the native
_ faces. Had attention been directed to it at an early period, Ire-
_ land would have possessed a true dairy breed, not surpassed by
_ any in the kingdom.”

Of this ancient polled Irish breed the authors of the “ His-
_ Wry of Polled Aberdeen or Angus Cattle” quote from the /rish
| Farmer's Gazette in one of its August numbers, 1847:

“A relative of our own, deceased a few years ago at the age of
one hundred and fourteen, had polled cattle in Ireland, and stated
“at the same breed had been in possession of his great-grand-
—fither some two hundred years before our informant was born.
se cattle were chiefly black, and black and white on the back;
Occasionally red, and brindled with white stripes; in some cases
al white but the ears, which were red; and he believed there was
¿Tany intermixture of English or Scotch blood among =
the period he alluded to. They possessed the characters o!
being reat milkers and good butter-producers.”

=

Large importations of these Irish polled cattle arrived as late
1750 at Port Patrick, in Scotland, and met a ready sale.
Solate as 1826 these Irish polls seem to have existed. Andrew
: derson, son of one of the most extensive and spirited snaa
* Dumfries-shire, thus writes of them (“ The Practical Grazier,

1826)

“Several black or dark-colored ones are to be found, igh
An. brought to Dumfries market, are readily bought up by ttle
„ate jobbers, who soon convert them into pagar Pi or
“gy g them with such lots and passing their word alias:
"0 the Purity of the whole.”

a

1088 Hornless Ruminants. [Dec.

Youatt says the famous long-horns of England were derived
from the Irish long-horns. What has become of all these famous
Irish breeds? Mr. James Sinclair (already noted), in a recent
paper on “ Kerry Cattle,” says that, “ with the exception of the
Kerry, all the native Irish races have become extinct, being crossed
out by the short-horn.” This is one great irretrievable loss, the
cause of which has to be laid to the charge of the short-horn—
the loss of many of our finest old native breeds in various parts
of Britain as well as Ireland.

Prof, P. McConnell, F.H.A.S., of Oxford University, also re-
fers to these Irish polls or moylés in his “ Agricultural Note
Book,” third edition, 1887. ’

SCOTLAND.

In dealing with the polled cattle of Scotland I shall first give
what Marshall and Lawrence have to say on the subject, and
then detail the particular references to polled cattle discovered
by original research, reserving some important points bearing on
the wild white and the two black domesticated breeds for orderly
treatment. T ;

Mr. Marshall; about the earliest general authority adducible ,
thus classifies the Scotch cattle driven from Scotland and fed in
Norfolk in the end of the last century : nai ;
~ (1) Galloway Scots, mostly hornless, of a ‘black or brindl
color. 833

(2) Lowland Scots, some of them horned, some of them
their color black, or brindled, or dun.

- (3) Highland cattle have in general, but not always, hor

(4) Isle of Skys. TR

__In the second class are included the breeds of a region z fie
donian—three or four times larger than the region of the ue
ways. This it is important to remember, and it is mo wi si
that a large proportion of the Scots sold in England as ae the

polled were really Angus and Aberdeenshire polled, for

polled;

account of the propinquity of the district, thus being sotial
cnown, that its polled cattle obtained in England sat oe
term by which they became known, and hence also e driven
polled cattle from whatever quarter, as they had to

* Rural Economy of Norfolk, 1795, vol. i. p- 34%

! 1887] Hornless Ruminants. 1089

over the same routes into England as the Galloways them-
selves.

The information of Marshall is derive from direct observation,
hence it is of certain value.
John Lawrence thus treats of the subject:

= “The Scottish Island, Mountain, and Lowland Cattle—It is
not improbable that there were only two original species of neat
attle in Scotland : those common to the islands and the mountain

country, called kyloes; in color black, brindled, dun, brown, red;
_ black being the favorite color in Scotland; in form flat and deep,
like the short- and middle-horned stock, very small and hardy,
with small, upright, short, or middle-length horns: and the
polled breed, chiefly confined in latter times to the shire of Gal-
_loway, and known by that name. The former, the smallest and
Most hardy breed known in this island, and apparently the same

with that of the more northern counties, may be seen at this day
inits original purity, no motive existing for crossing a breed so
Perfectly adapted to severity of climate and scarcity of keep.
the original polled cattle were of the same colors, but more

Varied, and considerably larger in size; in shape somewhat long,

be Presumed of the genuine breed. In the Lowlands, .
‘ ‘ol is abundant in provision, and where in consequence larger-

shire, and of the runts,' which are at

tland.” (Pp. 72, 73.)

3 _The polled cattle of Scotland were known we
atly in France early in the century, for they
ions of them: “ Même en Ecosse on trouve la
‘ort souvent sans cornes.”
| shall now detail various original evidences of th
cattle in Scotland, discovered in various unsus
Homyl” Cattle at the End of Eighth Centuryz—
Notice of the existence of polled cattle in SCO =
a

İl enough appar-
had erroneous
race très petite,

e existence of

pected places.
Perhaps the

* See below: extract from “ Hand-Book to Scotland.”

1090 Hornless Ruminants. je
Scottis.” They refer principally to the domestic relation, and |
the twenty-first reads as follows: at

4

“ Quhen vncouth Ky fechtis amang thaym self, gif ane of thaym
happenis to be slane, and vncertane quhat kow maid the slauchter,
the kow that is homyll sall beir the wyte,” and the awnar thairoff
sall recompens the dammage of the kow that is slane to his
nychtbour.”

“This,” says a commentator on the passage, “ certainly pro-
ceeds on the supposition that the animal slain exhibits no marks
of having been gored,”

In Rev. Raphael Hollinshed’s work the passage is thus ren-
dered: cht

“If oxen or kine chance by running t er to kill one
another, the truth being not known which it was that did the
casion of the skeath, and he that is owner of the same,
have the dead beast, and satisfie him for the losse to whom
belonged.” "i

The only comment to make is that the polled cattle of those
days were credited with much vigor, and must have been very
` numerous,’

a Dr. Norman Macleod's Legend—I\n the: beautiful l by ad
Spirit of Eld,” given in his “ Reminiscences of a High
ish,” “three dun hornless cows” are prominently mentioned, yi
drawn in the accompanying illustration by Millais, This di

color was, according to Youatt, the usual color of i High-
landers’ “ fairy cattle.” The mention of “hornless py
ee ry lore indicates a very early existence for pored ©

n - Polled Cattle on the Sculptured Stones of Meigle—The 8°

~ these stones is given as dating from goo A.D. to 1000 A.
-may be seen in the old school-house of Meigle. The T
_ stone is figured in Plate LXXVII. of the sg a .

A correspondent, Mr. William McCombie Smith, Per
t For an illustration of the meaning of this, see “ The Breed
Record,” by the author, p. 60 (Aldine Co., Detroit, Mich).
instone’s Scottish Dictionary.

PLATE XXXV.

In minister’s garden at Meigle. Plate 77. Spalding Club,

3 P x
į i CEN -—> i
: : Spalding Club. : ea

R
7] Hornless Ruminants. I0QI

- mischi
ief you: that they may not use more

udibrasses Horse had been of this race,

of

a

>
:

gowrie, w. “ pees
a i onan miles in two and one-third hours” to
“pressions he ong mH me, and from the descriptions and im-
cu. “ie E them I am satisfied that they represent
Mathe polled ports that the natives regard the figures as
pect them to take eon ga remarkable, as we might ex-
in their favor. Th ` peior view. This is strong testimony
time, in the ehnal be ec of homyl cattle about the same
the same place sa Kenneth, who had his court not far from
favor, and the ee 2 w also contributory evidence in their
te of his aes ilustrate he ae

en

quaint, E sty s hike Curious Source-—There is a most curious,
entitled “A Modern ites preserved in the British Museum,
oF the Cout ccount of Scotland. Being an Exact De-
“the Manners, w ry, and a True Character of the People and
_ Printed in the airar ee thence by an English Gentleman.
e year 1679.” Itis attributed to one T. Kirke, He

| gives an in i i
; teresting peep into the state of the country at that

time, but i
ops strongly prejudiced against the people he Atid.
e following passage from him:

“u Their
Cattle are only representatives of what are in other

Countre .
ys, these being so Epitomized that it is hard to know what

s th :
Gal zz hers to. Their Horses are hardy, and not without
say other Horses are), using both tooth and nail to
te

r t
‚TS, they go Barefoot, which preserves them
he had not needed

Saddle. Their Bed and Board too is all of the same dry Straw,
arness and away. Their

propriety in these
for one

À orma ,
i ments, nor should I deny them their Necklace too,
them. Their

; ace.
Hogs, but more like Porcupines bristled all over,

»

ferring to certain Norfolk manors, to include horses. Sint |
_ cattle-dealers of the present day the old term deast is used in

1092 Horniess Ruminants. [Dec

likewise fastened to the Freehold by the former artifice; all their
quadrupeds (Dogs alone excepted, in which sort they much
abound) are honored with wooden Bracelets about their necks,
legs, or arms, &c.’

The first word cattle is here used in its original sense as given
by the lexicographers. Todd says the term chattail, a provincial
term, is used about Lyons, in France, for all the beasts of every
kind on an estate. Johnson’s definition of the word is “Beasts
of pasture—not wild nor domestic.” Richardson’s definition is
“ Kine, horses, and some other animals appropriated to the use of
man.” en we have the term neat. It is not accompanied by
the word cattle, as it isin later forms, as neat cattle. It is used
also in its original manner. It is the same as the English nol
and the Scottish zow?t, The latter word, nowt, is still used in
Scotland, by itself, to signify cattle, exactly as it is by T. Kirke.
These facts are interesting, and are useful in explaining how after-
wards kine and oxen had to be termed, generally, horned catile,
“to distinguish them from horses.” This term horned cattle was
used of beeves in England, whether they were long-horns, mid-
dle-horns, short-horns, or polled. But in Scotland, where cattle
(neat) without horns had been as indigenous as cattle (horses) that

Se se ee

baile

_ never had such “ preferment,” the former were called “dodded,”

Shee used also to be termed small cattle. While on this mat-
ter I may note here that I have seen the word szot, meaning 2
young ox, applied, in documents of the fourteenth century ryt

4
etc., “to distinguish them” from the latter.’ :

same sense as nowt in Scotland. The word Beast is the :
still stereotyped on the bills of sale of the London salesmen to —
denominate cattle of the cow kind, and still pronounced ier :

I shall not venture further to explain the passage Bé
Kirke, but’ along with the somewhat paradoxical case from
lenden allow the reader to make his own construction. For ba
however, the interesting fact remains that previous to aise
the cattle of the Scots are stated by an observant raat nf
have been hornless. Where had he seen them? or to what |
existent race could the observation a ly:

It certainly would not be in the jee of Scotland that the

* Statistical Account of the Parish of Bendochy, 1795- _

1887] Horniess Ruminants, 1093

English gentleman” wrote his account. It would be farther

a a north, in a region where the “neat were horn-
so many mark R FERRA was bare of wood, etc. Where could
Pit Buckon : RES be found applying to any other district
through this = ich was applicable Dr. Johnson’s (who pas
ttee might be r ae) not very correct remark of Scotland: “ A
~ been an, oN e i as a horse in Venice,” and which has
Who wrote of th y: succeeding Sassanach visitors, as the “ Druid,”
_ Was great in ‘d $ PR disthigh that in 1820 “ Zimberless Buchan
coig oriasi meaning, possibly, to perpetrate a witti-
-any rate: his SONEA of the country and the cattle in it, At
-nian re observations would have been made in the Caledo-
: gion,
sid 2 R Cow again—In a book, “The Modern Husband-
: » Written by W. Ellis in 1750, is the following passage:
s the dun breed
and their being

polled, ér without horns. These are of the Scotch kind, will
i i j hers of the

fave brought th

] hae “ty emselves under by 0
ty l that they knew before to be unlucky.
a
aes North of Scotland—Captain Burt, in
vel “orth of Scotland to his Friend in London,
í 2 $ 1l., letter xXx., says, —
Cas have several times seen them driving great numbers of
“ttle along the sides of the Mountains at 2 great distance, but

his “ Letters from
' published 1754,

1094 Hornless Ruminants. : [Dec

never, except once, was near them. This was in a Time of Rain, —
by a wide River, where there was a Boat to ferry over the Drovers, ,
The Cows were about fifty in Number, and took the Water like
Spaniels; and when they were in, their Drivers made a hideous
Cry to urge them forwards: this, they told me, they did to keep
the Foremost of them from turning about; for, in that Case, the
rest would do the like, and then they would be in Danger, es-
pecially the weakest of them, to be driven away and drowned by
the Torrent. I thought it a very odd Sight to see so many Noses
and Eyes just above Water, and nothing of them more to be seen,
for they had no Horns, and upon the Land they appeared, in size
and shape, like so many Lincolnshire Calves.”

Noted by Pennant, 1769.—Pennant, in his tour, has noted the
existence of polled cattle in Sutherlandshire, and, at an earlier
date, noted that the Scotch cattle were “ often hornless.”

By Dr. Samuel Fohnson and Boswell in 1773.—Dr. Samuel
Johnson, in his tour in Scotland, passed through the Buchan
district of Aberdeenshire, in 1773, on his way to the Highlands.
When in Skye the doctor appears to have been particularly
struck with the cattle and the manner of treating and marketing
them: |

sting. Whether this difference be specific or accidental, though
we inquired with great diligence, we could not be informed. ai
are not very sure that the bull is ever without horns, tho ‘
have been told that such bulls there are. What is produ a
putting a horned and unhorned male and female together i
man has ever tried that thought the result worthy of observation.
A worthy passage! As a sequel to it I quote a passage |
from the constant Boswell :

“ This forenoon (November 4, 1773) he (Dr. J.) observe ee
cattle without horns, of which he seems to have taken nonet
his journey, and seems undecided whether they be of a parit ol
race. His doubts appear to have had no foundation, apie se
spectable neighbor, Mr. Fairlie, assures me they are a PEN
species, and that when any calves have horns a mixture @ ont to
can be traced. In confirmation of his opinion he po! Ge wk
me the following passage in Tacitus [‘ De Mori et ver ohnson.” i
(already quoted)], which he wondered had escaped Dr. Jon oo

It is impossible that in Skye the Scots called these ah :
Cattle humble. The only word they knew was maol. aor o

EIT

| 1887] Hornless Ruminants, 1095

doctor must have picked the word up from “the Scots” in other
parts, as in Buchan, which he passed through.

References by Sir Walter Scott—lt is of great interest to note,
as has already been done, what light our leading men of letters
throw in their works on subjects of local investigation, when, es-
pecially, they held the traditions and antiquities in their minds
sothoroughly. Luther, Shakespeare, and others had not allowed
the natural character to escape their notice. By Burns this
mention of polled cattle is conspicuous by its absence. This
fact is the more remarkable, as he farmed for a time in Galloway.
In one of the statistical accounts he is mentioned, not as being
satisfied with Galloway cattle, but as introducing Ayrshires, It is
Passing strange that this natural character, which, as to proverb,
lent itself so well to endearing use, should have not been utilized
by him. We have failed to discover a reference by him, It is
quite different with Scott. In “Old Mortality,” chap. iv. (the

lreby and a “ Highland” drover, hailing from Doune:

| “And which peasts wad your honor pe for having p= be.
let me see—the two black—the dun one—yon doddy—him

à ll that
fouldna have set off the pest six peasts better myseñ, me
Ken then as if they were my bairns, puir things, etc.

In the Same chapter another drove is referred to by the same
Mirties, together :

Site, Passed another drove,’ said the squire, ‘with gio bd
~~ tymen behind them—they were something less
VOL. XXI.—No, 12 74

.

i

1096 Hormless Ruminants. [Dec. ]

your drove, doddies most of them—a big man was with them— —
none of your kilts though, but a decent pair of breeches—D’ ye —

know who he may be?’—‘ Hout aye—that might, could, and —

would be Hughie Morrison—I didna think he could hae peen sae
weel up. He has made a day on us; but his Argyleshires will
have wearied shanks. How far was he pehind?’” etc.

In the same chapter is the following sentence:

“Ye ken, Highlander, and Lowlander, and Border men are a
ae man’s bairns when you are over the Scots dyke.”

How applicable is not the above to my contention as to the
different Scotch breeds, on their crossing the Scots dyke? There
was no distinction, all the horned Highlanders were Kyloes, and
all the polled Lowlanders were Galloway, and Kyloes and Gal-
loways were all Scots. Doune was in the centre of Caledonia,
the region from whence class 2 of Mr. Marshall were drawn.

What influence was it that made doddies and humlies of s0 live
an interest to Sir Walter? He was a personal friend and guest of
Mr. Hugh Watson, Keillor, Forfarshire, the celebrated breeder of
polled Angus cattle. It was undoubtedly from this association
that Sir Walter got his knowledge of the polled cattle of his native
country. Nowhere does he mention the term by which they
became known—“ Galloway”—in connection with cattle at all, |
though he uses this term in connection with the nags of that regions :
and no man was better acquainted with the border counties sae
he. He always uses the terms—to describe his polled ae
by which were exclusively known the Angus and Buchan pol :
(doddies and humlies). From this it may be inferred that he st 3
that these descendants of the original polled cattle of Scotlan i
were exclusively an appurtenance of the great Caledon
region.? :

- Rev. James Headrick, A.M. (first editor of the Hig

* To prove how early the cattle trade from the north to the south existed, 4 q i

the following: i üi
an, 2

“In those days [about 1560 A.D. ] a drover of the name of Rory, hag ere
loing a large trade, was in the habit of lodging with Allancuaich [in $ wae
his way to and from the south markets, after an unusually great “se s na ;
at Amulrie.” (Legends of the Braes of Mars. By John Grant, G an eee
_? See a paper by the author, “ Origin of Scotch Breeds of Cattle,” in Age D

Gazette Almanac, 1887.

hland So-

1887] Hornless Ruminants. 1097

ciety’s Transactions), author of the “Agricultural Survey of
Angus-shire,” published in 1813, writing twelve years later, said,—

“The polled are not confined to Galloway. I have frequently
seen individuals without horns among the cattle in various parts
of the Highlands and isles.”

This is very important evidence. But, further, and even more -
interesting, William Aiton, author of the “General View of the
County of Ayr,” dated 1811, writes (p. 412), referring to the horns
of the various breeds of cattle, “the breed of Mull have none.”

John Smith, D.D., in his “Survey of Argyleshire,” says of the
cattle, “ Few of them are polled;” which indicates that polled
ones did, however, occur.

Obliteration of a Modern Polled Race—Fife Polls —Youatt,
P. 117, says,—

“A breed of polled cattle has also made its appearance in Fife,
possessing all the good qualities of the horned, with even superior
Propensity to fatten, and much greater quietness and docility.

Professor Low, p. 333, says of them,—

“Extending from Fifeshire westward to the Ochil Hills, the
cattle are generally hornless, and of a size intermediate between
the breeds of the Highland mountains and those of the plains.
me of these cattle, especially those of the Ochil Hills, are
really good, and suited to the country in which they are —_
and merely demand that attention to the selection of the breed-
ing parents which shall call forth their more useful properties.

Pik Mr Dickson, in his work on live stock dated 1851, but which
4 also refers to the beginning of the century, says of this polled
i breed, it is “unlike any others in Scotland ;” it “is of good
_ Size and substance, and rather coarse, but equally suitable for
Shipping. Lays on flesh very well, and seldom deceives =
butcher in weighing.” Dickson ranks this breed as one of the
‘ “four distinct polled breeds in Scotland.”
~ f them the late Charles Stevenson,
ritish Agriculturist, wrote, in 1863,—

editor of the North

X 4 At no very distant date there exi

a re the Ochils to the east of pare eins Hills,
= — tule, a very valuable breed of polle
colors were brown, brown and white, black and wh

1098 Hornless Ruminants. . [Dec.

stock, they were equal to the Ayrshire in quantity, while the
quality was superior.”

“ Highland Humties.’—In Mr. McCombie’s early days “ there
was a race-starved vermin which were known by the name of
‘Highland Humlies, which I consider the worst of all breeds.
. No keep will move them much. At the top of these I must

place those with the brown ridge along the back. They can be.

made older, but it takes more ability than I ever had to make
them much bigger. Keep is entirely thrown away on them.”*

The following extract officially and accurately summarizes the
state of the polled breeds in Scotland in 1860. It is taken from
the “Introduction—General View of Scotland,” p. xiv. of Nel-
son’s “ Hand-Book to Scotland,” by Rev. John M. Wilson,
author of the “Imperial Gazetteer of Scotland”:

“Three breeds of hornless cattle, the Galloways, the Angus
humlies, and the Buchan, grazing the districts from which they
take their name, together with contiguous ones, are known in
the English shambles. A large-horned breed, called the runts,
hata hg in Fifeshire and Aberdeenshire, serve chiefly for salted

eef.”

The Angus and the Buchan polls have long been amalgamated,
as they are radically of the same race, territorially belonging to
the same geographical Caledonian region, so distinct and separate
from the southern and Border region.

Curious Description of Orkney Cattle —A manuscript of date
1529, in referring to the Orkney cattle, says .. . “ the oxen
yoaked with cheats and haims and breachams, which they call
weases, albeit they have horns.” The last clause might lead one
to suppose that the writer had only been accustomed previously
to hornless cattle. |

* Cattle and Cattle Breeders. 4th ed, By Wm. McCombie, of Tillyfour, M-P,

(To be continued.)

Ege

is was,
Covered the whole northern part

ie tes Geol
the Interior, 1884-85. By J. W. Powell, Director.

1887] Recent Literature. 1099

RECENT LITERATURE.

Sixth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey."—
The sixth annual report of the survey under Major J. W. Powell
is issued two years after the period to which it refers, and hence
the accounts of progress which the volume contains are some-
what antiquated by the time they reach the public. This, how-
ever, is presumably the fault of the government printing-office,
and not of the survey. Old as the news thus is, a few data
not prove uninteresting, The annual report for the fiscal year

‘ending June 30, 1885, shows that the expense of the survey

aggregated within a few hundred dollars of the appropriation
of half a million. During the year, the topographical survey
was completed and maps prepared for the engraver of fifty-seven
thousand square miles of territory, at an average expense of
three dollars per square mile. The usual administrative reports
by the heads of the divisions appear in their proper sequence,
and from them we learn that in the future relief-cuts are to be

five in number. Mr. L F.
? Group,” and de-
fossil plants. Mr.

’s method of

as, as it were, an island in the grea

Chamberlain and Salisbury have been ff F

_ Area, and their accounts are given in this repo 2 pa

ena
Parently, painstaking researches upon all the PEEN Secretary of
* Sixth Annual Report of the United Sta Ocoee, 1885 [1887].

1100 Recent Literature. ee,

ited in the region, and, while one may not agree with all their
conclusions, the paper will always have a value in connection
with the question of several successive glaciations and of the
formation of the loess. Their explanation of the cause of this
driftless area is the same that has been advanced before,—

it is difficult to estimate.

Professor Shaler’s study of the phenomena exhibited by the
sea-coast swamps of the eastern United States is also a valuable.
contribution to dynamical geology. The steps, as he traces
them, in the formation of a salt-marsh are first, the deposit of mud
by the currents in some sheltered spot, and next, the growth of
eel-grass on the mud-flats thus formed. This in turn entangles
still more mud, and soon the level is raised to where other plants
can grow. This process is still further complicated by the forma-
tion of sand-beaches and sand-dunes, and of these two, or even
more, may be formed in succession, broken here and there by

produced in abstract, so strange is the region described. Here

strata resting directly upon those of Cambrian age, and 4 series
of mountain-peaks and necks not easily paralleled in other parts
of the world, other than this strange western region which the

t twenty years have shown to be so wonderful from every
geological point of view.

Packard’s Fossil Arthropods.'—Dr. Packard has for some
d in these
the out-

2 ba ei i .
To the reviewer it would seem that the forms included ge
Amphipoda, and that “ Syncarida” can at most have ould have a
rank. A wider knowledge of existing amphipods wọ A

x oo

Ont ri : : i of Extinct Foss,

he Syncarida, a hitherto undescribed nee pete vdal Schizopod :

-Crustacea ;’”’ “On the Anthracaridz, a Family of Carboniferous Macrurous Tg? i
Crustacea;” “On the Carboniferous Xiphosurous Fauna of 7 he Memoirs of

y A. S. Packard Fifteenth and sixteenth memoirs of vol. ill. of the o
the National Academy of Sciences. 1887.

1887] Recent Literature. IIOI

shown Dr, Packard that his definition and limitation of that
group 1s extremely faulty. Dr. Packard’s new family, Gamp-
_ Sonychidz, is apparently valid, and belongs, where he has placed
t among the Schizopoda. In his paper on this group we ob-
_ Serve that he regards his Syycarida as an ancestor of the schizo-
pods. It is not easy to see how our knowledge of crustacean
_ embryology supports such a view, for in development a schizo-
_ podal condition usually precedes the single-branched appendage.
So far as the plates show, there is nothing except the telson to
_ Separate the family Anthracaride from the true Caridea, or to
Indicate that it differs from any existing group. The telson,
however, is greatly different, approaching most closely in its
E ie to that of the existing genus Euceramus of Stimp-
n Á

5
9
z
3
©
5
m=?
z
=
O
D
Lass |
(aF
co
©
et
=
a
©
er
>
D
-t
Ey
"m
3.

a

a.

D

th

Q

a

a
fi.
°
La
-t
$

hat Dr. Packard, in this
ich in

d Dohrn makes this
da of Packard, while,
da and Podostomata

and his pages fairly bristle with “arthrosome,” “benopoe,
“urosome” u ne phalula,” and the like,—all synonymous yo
-Previously-coined and widely-used terms. The learning of a
; ee Nomenclature, in order to read intelligently zA of Tre
$ rd’s later productions, is, as suggested ee alee:
Yman in another connection, extremely like sri seagate

_ Thomas on Mammalian Dentition.*—The reader whoeri

ry i evuride, with an

ies the Homologies and Succession of the Teeth in a ih estat By

Oldi to trace the History of the Evolution of Mammalian ie 1887, p- 443-
meld Thomas (British Museum). Philos. Transac. Royal ety, ?

Coryphodon aier: Cope. It is quite unnecessary to complete

1102 Recent Literature. [Dec,

to find in this memoir a history of the evolution of Mammalian
dentition will be disappointed, for it embraces only a history of —
the evolution of the milk-dentition and the nature of dental —
succession. To this end the author has written a very useful
paper, and illustrates it with numerous instructive diagrams and

He first describes the dentition of the Dasyuride, and

single skull of Phascogale dorsalis a supernumerary tooth between
the first and second premolars. In our opinion, this super-
numerary tooth, if anything more than an abnormality, can only
represent a former tooth of a series of five. Similar teeth have
been‘ observed in the inferior series in Miacis edax Leidy, and

i
a
|

the number of four premolars, since four are accounted for, after
the replacement of the third, which is wanting in Dasyurus.
The fourth is of molariform structure, and has been the
regarded as a true molar by Flower and Thomas. The fact
it is in the genus Triisodon and probably others (as Mioclænus,
where there aré four inferior premolars), shed and Sucre w
ogy, as I have pointed out” Mr. Thomas finds. my description
of this genus “incomplete and confusing,” and the reaso
he does so is apparent from the above descriptic

r. Thomas believes that the milk-dentition 1s n heh
of a primitive succession derived from Reptilian ancestor ee
holds, with Professor Flower, that it is a superaddition gra mi us
introduced in the evolution of the Mammalia. e lack of milk
teeth other than the third premolar (or its homologue), a

of Flower. On this view it appears that the placen
to the implacental milk-dentition one tooth posterior
anteriorly. It then looks as if the deciduous dentition
of primitive teeth retarded in their protrusion by more Fo”
ones. This is essentially Mr. Thomas's explanation, metho
approximates that of Baume, who, however, differs in Me ©

= Final Report U. 8. Geol. Survey Terrs.» il. Bk. i. By 22% 12>

r

1887] Recent Literature. 1103

of statement. Baume‘ regards the milk-dentition as expelled by
the crowding of the germs of the permanent teeth in the jaws,
and so caused to protrude earlier. The opinion of Thomas is
preferable, since teeth of accelerated growth will certainly retard
or repress germs of slower growth, and not weaker germs expel
stronger germs, as Baume’s theory requires. Moreover, milk-
teeth appear at normal age for teeth, while the permanent ones are
late. Mr. Thomas finds difficulty in accounting for such pre-
cocity and such crowding. Mechanical evolution furnishes the
explanation. It is due to the shortening of the jaws; and this
is a consequence of the development of the canine teeth from
use, and the consequent forward movement of the masseter
muscle and its insertions. ;

It may be observed that the unnecessary terms Prototheria and
Eutheria, which are generally ascribed to Professor Huxley in
England, were really introduced by Professor Gill3—Z. D. Cope.

Jordan’s Science Sketches.s—When Dr. Jordan undertakes
the description of a fish his language is the language of science;
when he turns his pen to the popularization of scientific subjects
he still retains his former conciseness, but at the same time he
Manages to introduce many epigrammatic sentences and no little
quiet humor, the latter the more enjoyable from the thoroughly
natural manner in which it is used, His recent book, “ Scientific
Sketches,” is made up of a series of articles, lectures, and ad=
dresses, most of which have appeared separately before, but
which are welcome in permanent shape. Four of the neas
relate to fishes, dealing with the life of a salmon, the habits o
the “John Darters,” a sketch of the salmon family, and the dis-

ol a Stone” is a bit of geological history. for young igr k
the “ Ascent of the Matterhorn” is the least scientific, the “ N

f .
ast essay in the volume, “ The Evolution of the College Curric-

“vipa EERS : | iana University
Struction which is being tried at the India so ata eb
lege ‘should provide both the facilities for a gener
also for detailed study; that, while teaching 886
5 I only know this from Schlosser’s description, Morphologishes Jahrbuch, 1 o

P. To, i ; ition, Proceeds. Amer,
ac See Cope, The Mechanical Origin of the Sectorial Dentition, or
1 Contributions to Knowl-

i

Assoc. Ady, Sci., 1887. ;
ae een of the Families of Mammals, Smithson! x
B®, 1872, pp. v., vi. n te
De Sketches. By David Starr Jordan. Chicago: A. C. urg

1104 General Notes. : [Dec.

several subjects, it should give each student a thorough drill in
some one branch. The scheme has been thoroughly worked out
on paper, but time alone can tell how it results. It must be said,
however, that it has amply satisfied its advocates during the two
years that it has been tried.

Hepaticæ Americanæ.—The first twenty numbers (Decades
I. and II.) of this distribution, by Dr. L. F. Underwood and
O. F. Cook, were received in the latter part of November. The
species represented are as follows, viz.: 1. Riccia. natans L.;
2. Marchantia polymorpha L.; 3. Conocephalus conicus (L.) Dum.;
4. Anthoceros levis L.; 5. Blasia pusilla L.; 6. Steetsia lyelli
Lehm.; 7. Frullania grayana Mont.; 8. Lejeunia serpyllifolia
Lib., var. Americana Lindb.; 9. Madotheca porella (Dicks.) Nees.;
10. Radula complanata (L.) Dum.; 11. Ptilidium ciliare (L.)
Nees.; 12. Bazzania trilobata (L.) B. Gr.; 13. Trichocolea tomen-
tella (Ehr.) Dum.; 14. Lepidozia reptans (L.) Dum.; 15. Kania

17. Cephalozia curvifolia (Dicks.) Dum.; 18. Fungermania
schradert Mart.; 19. Scapania nemorosa (L.) Dum.; 20. Plagw-
chila porellioides Lindenb.

GENERAL NOTES.

GEOLOGY AND PALZ ONTOLOGY.

The Sonora Earthquake of May 3, 188'7.—On the eT
of May 3, 1887, at 2.12 Pacific time (=120° W. of Oe an a
the first of a series of earthquake movements was felt in the te
of Sonora and the adjacent parts of Mexico and the United ane e
over an area extending from El Paso in Texas on the east re oak: 7
river Colorado and the Gulf of California on the west, an : < à
- the State of Sinaloa on the south as far north as Albuquerg™ 2

in New Mexico; the extremes in both directions being OVer 5

hundred miles. It was the fortune of the writers to be at a
time at the great copper-mining camp of Bisbee in Arne p
a narrow gorge of the Mule Pass Mountains, about rder of
sand three hundred feet above the sea, and near the bo

Sonora. A violent tremor of the earth, including ir
shocks, and lasting over ninety seconds, was succ

i

: 1887] Geology and Palæontology. : 1105

quent intervals by many lesser movements in the next three
- days, and less frequently at least up to May 29. In this part of
Arizona solid house-walls, of adode, or unburned brick, were
“cracked or overturned, while huge rocks in the steep mountain
gorges rolled down, causing much damage. Fires, perhaps
kindled by these in their course, appeared immediately after-
wards in various wooded regions in Sonora and Arizona,
giving rise to many false rumors of volcanic eruptions. The
movement here seemed from south to north; the Sonora railroad

f was nearly destroyed, many people being killed and wounded.
} Opoto suffered in a similar way, and Fronteras to a less extent.
} The district chiefly affected by the earthquake is, however, for

€ most part a desert, with some cattle-ranches and mining
stations.

Interesting studies were made by the authors in the valleys,
or mesas, between the parallel mountain ridges in this region,
both in the San Pedro and Sulphur Spring Valleys. The latter,

f several hundred feet,
uth course, verti-

Case

eas evidently connected with outbursts
which, along cracks,—marked by depressions on
ometimes covered areas of many hundred

Ographs, which were exhibited. They

1106 General Notes. ) [Dec, |

earthquake movements in the adjacent hills of Palæozoic strata
had left no marks, the dislocations over many square miles in
the valley would have sufficed to throw down buildings and to
cause great loss of life in an inhabited region. There are believed
to be no evidences of previous earthquake disturbances in this
region since its discovery by the Spaniards centuries ago.
From the published reports of commissioners named by the
State of Sonora it appears that the regions injured by the earth-
quake are in two nearly parallel north and south valleys in the
district of Moctezuma, along the river Bavispe, a tributary
the Yaqui. The town of Bavispe itself, of fifteen hundred souls,
lies about seventy miles south of the American frontier and one
hundred and ten miles southeast of Bisbee, Arizona; its eleva-
tion being three thousand and seventy feet above the sea. Here
forty-two persons were killed and twenty-five wounded. Bace-
rao, twenty miles farther south, also suffered much damage, and
the estimate for property destroyed in this valley was two hun-
dred and eighteen thousand one hundred and ninety-nine dol-
lars. Opoto, Guasalas, Granados, Bacudebachio, and Nacovi
lie in a lower valley about thirty miles west of the last, the ele
vation of Guasalas being only seventeen hundred and twenty
feet above the sea. The loss of life was here confined to Opoto,

Re: eee Oa

ine ere ey

ECEE

i nagen i ae b

one hundred and fifteen dollars. In both regions arè
noticed the opening, in the arable lands, of numerous Tt
generally north or northeast in direction, from many ofw d
water flowed abundantly. The river thus supplied in a time

excessive drought swelled to the volume usual in the rainy ie.
summer; a condition which lasted up to the time of wo :
port of Señor Liborio Vasquez, dated at Bavispe, May 29) ‘ling :
The fields had become green and the air moist with prevaii™s.
entions MX’ —

at for

Bi aan

less than seven volcanoes in the vicinity, which were hey:
ing for two days, but without any flow of lava; while

formation that the celebrated crinoid beds are situated: ise,
Below the Louisville, New Albany and Chicago railroa eee

+1887] Geology and Paleontology. ‘1107

on the north bank of Sugar Creek, section 29, township 19
north, range 4 west, is seen a high bluff of sandstone, which
been left exposed by excavation. This sandstone forms the roof
of the crinoid beds and overlies the blue shale in which the cri-
noids are found. These beds were discovered by the late Prof.
E. O. Hovey, of Wabash College, in 1836. He first noticed the
shale, which seemed to be full of crinoid stems and shells; he
collected a number of these and exhibited them to his classes in
college, afterwards he called public attention to them.

In 1842, Horace C. Hovey, son of Prof. E. O. Hovey, began
to collect these crinoidal fragments, and while he was thus en-
gaged he found the first crinoid head found at these beds. This
specimen was an Actimocrinus.

Mr. R. K. Krout and Mr. Ira Crane visited these banks in the
year 1851, and collected quite a number of specimens. Mr. Crane
found, in the ravine, one of the finest specimens of Onychocrinus
txsculptus that has ever yet been found; this specimen was pic-
tured in the Scientific American of July 12, 1887.

Mr. O. W. Corey was the next person to visit the banks. He
_Was an excellent machinist, but nature seems to have vag

t €

own as Corey’s Bluff.
oe hie at once set Pro-
then working for
orace C. Hovey, when he was en Marsh, of
pete Cincinnati, came
Charles Dyer, an Englishman, who lived near Cincinnati =
oa and bought specimens and shipped them to the British
useum.
“i beds were then purchased by Professor Bassett, who has
n out many hundreds of fine specimens. |.
| The following is a list of the species of the Crinoidea found at
ss locality : g
1881. Agaricocri nri White. Ind. Rep. 1881.
6 Earicocrinus springeri Ee Sih (B. hoveyi var.
herculeus), Tl. Rep., vol. v. hooi: Ill. Rep,
: vol. v. To ea
ISo: Batocrinus indianatnsis Lyon. and Cassiday UTETE
re indianaénsis). I. Rep. vol. V- :

w

. Poteriocrinus (Senphiocrins) gibsoni White.
; Sci. Phi

. Poteriocrinus (Sestelocrinus) grandis Wachsmu

‘ Mca c ( Scaphiocrinus) Indianaénsis Meek and "r ,
; Find nodobrachiatus Hall. Bost. Journ.
; Pei evens robustus Hall.

; Damien (Pachylocrinus) subæqualis Wac

. Poteriocrinus eiv unicus Hall.

General Notes. [Dec,

- Batocrinus wachsmuthi White (Actinocrinus wachsmuthi), —
i

Ind. Re

O.
69. Calceocrinus bradleyi Meek and Worthen. Ill. Rep., vol. v.
. Catillocrinus bradleyi Meek and Worthen. Ill. Rep., vol. v.
. Cyathocrinus arboreus Meek and Worthen. Ill. Rep., vol. iii. —
. (?) Seas rea S. A. Miller. Journ. Cincin. Soe.

. Hist.
Cyathocrinus inspiratus (?) Lyon. Trans. Amer. Philos.
vol. xiii.

oc
i Cyathocrinus multibrachiatus Lyon and Cassiday. Amer.

Journ. Sci., vol. xxviii.

. Cyathocrinus ‘poterium Meek and Worthen. Ill. Rep., vol. v.

Dichocrinus ficus Cassiday and Lyon. Ill. Rep., vol. v.

. Dichocrinus polydactylus Posatdan and Lyon. Proc. Amer.
Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. v. Syn. expansus Meek and
Worthen. Ill. Rep., vol. v.

. Forbesiocrinus wortheni Hall. Rep. Iowa, vol. ii. part ii.
. Ollacrinus tuberosus Lyon and Cassiday (Goniasteroidocri-

nus tuberosus) Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, vol. on
. Onychocrinus exsculptus Lyon and Cassiday. Syn. “IL
crinus ee) norwoodt Meek and Worthen.
Rep., vo
- Ongehocrimus ramulosus Lyon and Cassiday. Amer. Journ.
Sci.

vol.
i Platycvinus hemisphericus Meek and Worthen (Pleur ocr

nus). Ill. Rep., vol. iii

. Poteriocrinus concinnus Meek and Worthen (Pot. (Zeacrimis)

concinnus). Ill. Rep. y.
. Poteriocrinus (Deca DRIER depressus pars and Worthen
(Scaphiocrinus depressus). Ill. Rep., vol. v.
Poteriocrinus lee ge coreyi Meek and Worthen.
a yo: Proc. Acad. a
Ill. Rep. vob

Springer, described as Poteriocrinus coreyi.

Piirin errr) gurleyi White. Proc. Acad. “
t. Sci :

Rep., vol. iii Nat. He :

Springer. Ill. Rep., v

1887 | Mineralogy and Petrography. 1109

1858, Zaxocrinus multibrachiatus Lyon and Cassiday (labelled
i mer. collections Forbestocrinus meeki Hall).
Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. xiii.
1861. Vaxocrinus lyoni Hall (Cyathocrinus lyoni) Meek and Wor-
_ then. 1868 (Barycrinus lyoni). Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Phil. Syn. Cyathocrinus hexadactylus—Chas. S. Beach-
ler.

The Carboniferous Genus Stereosternum.—The reception of
a nearly entire specimen of the remarkable reptile Stereosternum
tumidum Cope, from San Paolo, Brazil, through Professor Or-
ville Derby, enables me to add a number of characters to those
already known. The sternal region presents a large coracoid
on each side posteriorly, and a transverse element anteriorly.
Whether the latter is clavicle or the transverse limbs of a large
interclavicle, is uncertain. The foramen of the humerus is er-

the ectepicondylar
membered.—£. D. Cope

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.*

teries locked up in the depths of rock-masses, and must examine

geologist, but of
them with the critical eyes not merely of ice th fr ania
“e chemist and physicist as well. We oo Mme,

* Edited by Dr. W. S. BAYLEY, Madison, |

2 Miner. u. Petrog. Mitth., vili., 1857, p 4

II1O General Notes. [Dec.

obtain some knowledge as to the origin of rocks, their relations
to each other, and the causes of the great variation in structure
observed in them. The paper is full of interesting facts and
valuable suggestions. It begins with a discussion of the theory
proposed by Rosenbusch to account for the successive crystal-
lization of rock-constituents. It has been recognized for a long
time that the minerals in a rock did not crystallize in the inverse
order of their fusibility, as might at first thought be expected.
The order in which the separation takes place bears no relation
to the temperature of solidification. Rosenbusch regards the
acidity of the minerals as the important element governing their
crystallization. He states, as a general law, that the order of
the separation of the minerals from a rock-magma is inversely
as their acidity. Roth’ has called attention to the very many
exceptions to this rule, and in its place gives seven empirical
laws of association. Lagorio refuses to accept Rosenbusch’s
law, and proceeds to investigate the subject by chemical methods.
He analyses the glassy ground-mass and crystallized portions .
(Ausscheidungen) of artificial and natural glasses, and thoroughly .
discusses the figures thus obtained. He finds that the sodium-
silicates possess a stronger tendency to crystallize from a molten
magma than do the corresponding isomorphous potassium com-
pounds. Sodium is concentrated in the crystallized portions,
and potassium in the residual ground-mass. With this discovery —
as his governing principle, Lagorio examined rocks varying

that in which all the other silicates are dissolved, or, more ab
cisely, the last substance to crystallize from a molten rock ©

SiO, This

the different amounts of the elements in solution and their wes n
ity for each other, the sodium-bearing minerals always 8 era
lizing before the corresponding potassium-bearing compou i
) The order of solubility of various compounds in o ae ze
magnesium-, iron-salts; and, finally, oxides of the bay aie
the latter being the most soluble. The greatest amount 0 am Me
saturation obtains in the case of the most soluble compoun
From such a supersaturated solution—a rock-magm |
separate in the order of the excess of saturation,—V!4+
of the heavy metals first, then the silicates of the heavy
then sodium-silicates, and, finally, quartz and the po

1 J. Roth, Chem. Geologie, ii. pp. 49 and 69.

E

1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. IILI

silicates. (4) The stronger tendency of sodium compounds to
separate, as compared with potassium compounds, is seen in the
case of the sodium-bearing hornblendes and augites. (5) Sani-
dine crystallizes from a molten magma only after the relative
proportions (molecular) of K,O and Na,O in it become as 2:1.
(6) The affinity of the elements for each other is an important
factor in determining the order of crystallization. Calcium and
sodium are widely found associated in the same minerals, mag-
nesium and sodium rarely. Potassium, on the other hand, occurs
frequently with magnesium, rarely with calcium, etc. (7 e

of the different portions of a rock, Lagorio also discusses several
theoretical questions of general interest. He believes that the
hornblende and mica in rocks were formed in the presence of
water? and under pressure. The existence of basic hydrogen in
many members of the mica group, he thinks, would indicate this

The rocks of the range he divides into three classes,—eruptive,
foliated, and stratified. The first consists principally of Pree ed

_ Glabases, gabbros and granites, and felsites. These he

_* Cf. American Naturalist, 1886, Pp» 160.

o TID., February, 1887, p. 172.

_ VOL, XXI,—No, 12. 75

3 August, 1887, p- 481-

‘crystals of this mineral in such a manner as to bring out the

1112 General Notes. uf Dec

singly. The most notable fact in their consideration is the sup-
osed occurrence of topaz in the felsite and the grouping of little `

me
E E ac a a a cca E

inclined to regard . . . as probably being more or less altered
volcanic tuffs, or as sedimentary rocks mainly composed of erup-
tive material derived from the disintegration of rocks of a dioritic

small for isolation. In an aplitic tourmaline gra

Zschillen, near Wechselburg, in Saxony, Cohen fi
ficient quantity for isolation, but not for analysis. ‘
occurs in isolated columnar and acicular forms, and not in S
as in the case of contact rocks and the crystalline schists.

Mineralogical News.—A fter experimenti
high temperatures on the optical properties of faujasite cry
Rinne? concludes that this mineral is normally regular
tallization. When exposed to the air it begins to lo

becomes uniaxial, breaking up at the same time into eig

dinary ray becomes less and less as the temperature Z
until at 150° =e, At this temperature the mineral

* Comptes Rendus, cv., 1887, pe 247+
zi Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1887, ii. p- 178.

conditions

LEA e e en heated to 150° it loses two molecules of

oli a Sane orthorhombic. It regains its original con-

E o of the ce the action of the atmosphere. This pe-

Be duc partly t reasberg heulandite is supposed by Rinne
y to the large amount of strontium it contains,

j: tutile needles .
O a tint: imbedded in the graphite. This, says Sandberger,
apati ndication that the latter mineral was for A efi yc

i sition. He examines
to poss (Zillerthal) and finds
e ` es ’
ss the ideal composition of talc. Cathrein also de-
€ garne | arnet after gehlenite.
Pot Eo Paesomotpes here described are the first known
cin and Ja pseudomorphic origin of garnet. According to
ll nnasch,* the /manite (NiSbS) crystals from Lol-
; re neb. f. Min., etc., 1887, ii. p- 39- 2 Ib., p- 12.
tM Petro. Mitth., viii, 1887, P pa
€ Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1887, ii. p. 169.

1114 ) ; General Notes. PE

ling (Carinthia) and from Sarrabus (Sardinia) possess the same
chemical composition. The mineral from Lolling, however,
crystallizes in the inclined hemihedral division of the regular
system, while the Sarrabus occurrence is parallel hemihedral.

On éarite crystals from the dolomite, near Volpersdorf, the
four new planes œP5, 3Pæœ , 5Poo, and 1% P2 have been detected
by Traube.’ Patton? studies crystallographically the horr-
blende, oligoclase, and titanite crystals in the druses of the Schries-
hiem diorite——Igelstr6m?3 describes the occurrence of braunite
and hausmannite from the Sjégrube, in the Gouvernement of
Oerebro, Sweden. Ch. Lory notes the occurrence of micro-
scopic crystals of a/éite in various limestones and marbles from
the Western Alps. , Their origin, he thinks, is connected in some
way with the specific nature of the calcareous deposits and with ,
the conditions which produced their crystallization.

BOTANY .5
Character of the Injuries produced by Parasitic Fung
upon their Host-Plants.—The first and most general injury
which is produced upon plants by parasitic fungi results in con-
sequence of the essential character of the fungus. ` Green plants

fore, is a loss of food, a withdrawal of formed nutritive peal

resulting, to greater or less extent, in starvation. divi
‘cells the contents usually suffer the greater injury,
is also injured, as when penetrated by the haustoria, or.
e.g., upon the mycelium of Peronospora. But the special
the haustoria is to absorb nutriment from the cell-contents. val
some cases, as the above, the cell may live to be the contin ag
prey of the parasite, and in some cases the cell is killed. ap
(2) While the food-supply of the plant is reduced, its pon
to replenish it is at the same time impaired, —2./., UO rently-
fungus grows upon the green parts, as it does most eek E i
The passage of light to the cells may be obstructed. e poi
moulds, or mildews, must obstruct it to some extent, black M? ar
growing over the surface, much more. The latter may m
either as true parasites, or as saprophytes upon “none a the
Impaired nutrition weakens the physiological aes n
chlorophyll. The life of the cells preyed upon 18 74 <
3 the ibe f. Min., etc., 1887, ii, p-69- Ib. P. 8.

i

s Edited. ty Seat han A aar Lincoln, Nebraska,

6 Read before Section F, A. A. A. S., August, 1887-

1887] Botany. III5

to li eA
= = S activity of the chlorophyll may be lessened in
M y oy a change in the position of the infested stems
and rigid Ho aA PRESES effect of a parasite is a more erect
E o > an , as in blackberries diseased with Ceæoma nitens,
and E id i and in the garden spurges, Euphorbia maculata
Morir g4 oe infested with the cluster-cup, Æcidium eu-
Re reading. urges normally grow prostrate, with leaves
sunlight, I ing, allowing the greatest possible exposure to
. In the diseased condition the stems are erect and the

lerated or retarded, and

bot
both these effects may be produced in different cases by the same

n Be
gus. Peronospora parasitica growing upon the commo
felted coating of

-latte
oa e be somewhat contracted. The same tungus growing
e stems of Sisymbrium canescens causes swelling and
istorts the

and the stem bent.
0 di; eos ; i i
Exobasidium vaccinii on species of Vaccinium causes the leaves

to shrink - ‘
shrink ; forms believéd to belong to the same species, growing
d sacs, often several

chlorophyll-bearing parts of
ts; woody stems, roots, flowers, See» and fleshy fruits a

: -Aave their parasites. One of the i eed

cetes,
-root in the roots of
club-root of roses, which is

La, causes the disease call
e. The appearance of the

1116 General Notes. [De
troublesome in American green-houses, suggests a similar cause.
Among those on woody stems are the black knot on species of
Prunus and the Gymnosporangia on cedars.

e flower is attacked in the case of the “ double blossom” of
blackberries, the smuts of many grasses (such as Ustilago raben-
horstiana on Panicum sanguinale), and other cases that will sug-
gest themselves. Often the entire inflorescence is arrested in its
development. Smut of Indian corn attacks both staminate and
pistillate flowers, and the green parts as well. Ustilago anther-

upon Caryophyllacee produces its spores in the anthers.
Tilletia caries, the bunt of wheat, destroys the inner structure of
the seed, without much changing the external appearance. The
majority of Ustilagineæ attack the inflorescence, flowers, and
fruit.

The young ovary is affected in various ways. Ergot distorts
it and produces an abnormal, horn-like mass of tissue; smuts
convert it into powdery spores. Exoascus changes that of
Prunus into a pouch. Fusicladium kills the newly-formed pe

5) The last case is also an example of the premature falling
of diseased parts, apparently by the formation of the separative
layer before its time. Such a falling of leaves is well illustrated
by Septoria ribis upon the currant. On the other hand, diseased
parts may remain green after the other parts have matured in the
usual way. Ovaries of Eragrostis poæoides filled with Ustilago
spermophorus are most readily detected by this sign. Probably
this may be classed as retarded development. hed

(6) Many fungi cause decay of ripe fruit, both while wine
to its plant and after removal, while still alive. From a Bee i
stand-point, the injury to fruit may be of two kinds; it may ater
simply the appearance, and hence the market-value, or KA
the quality, when it does not entirely destroy. The scab 0
apples is injurious in either of these degrees. :

Some fungi begin their growth as parasites under iai
conditions, to continue it under conditions more like those wil

: : be men-
accompany saprophytic growth; in this connection may plant
tioned the potato-rot, beginning its growth upon the green till

: ; r. the $
and sometimes completing it in the cellar, but upon
living tuber. esa-

(7) Some valuable plants are liable to infection from oth a
less value; a knowledge of this fact in individual cases iy :
of great practical utility, as a remedy may be more easly ee
effectively applied. It is easier to destroy wild grapes s e
pelopsis than to destroy Peronospora upon cultivate rs y
which have suffered infection from the wild ones. This F a
especially commends itself when one stage of the fungus Spa a

i

x

upon one kind of plant and another stage upon another

-as do cedar-apples and orchard-rusts. M
Perhaps no line of investigation in economic mycology PF ae

gi imperfecti
ference to hosts,

5 acti K
of Coreg than herbaceous plants. Water-plants and those
i p og are freer from attack than those which grow upon

: depriving them of nourish ; impai
Boe. \ourishment ; (2) impairi
“mation; (3) abnormally accelerating or retar

1118 General Notes. [ Dec.

ENTOMOLOGY.

Phengodini.—The American NATURALIST for September, p.
853, contains an interesting account of some of the metamorphoses
observed in Phengodes laticollis Horn., by G. F. Atkinson. From
the descriptions of the form of the female, its mode of life, and
also of the egg, is but a counterpart of all these stages observed
in Zarhipis. Indeed, without more definite and microscopic
details, the descriptions of these stages in Phengodes would do
quite as well for Zarhipis, showing how close these genera are.

On page 855 the description of the egg of Phengodes appears,
and it applies so well to that of Zarhipis as to make me think

yellowish; size, 4 mm. diameter. They are not much unlike
small slugs’ eggs. As the sexes are so much unlike in form,

Mr. Atkinson, on page 855, says, “ The luminosity in this case
is of sexual significance, attracting the males at night.” This is

me,

is
observation would make it appear that Zarhipis is also nocturnal
in habit. The composition of the powerfully-diffused pes
light is so good an imitation of that of day that it can hardly

e two sets of observation would go to show, if they are
both correct, that Zarhipis possesses the double habit of simply

) W
F. F. Rivers, University of California.

* This department is edited by Prof. J. H. Comstock, Cornell University,

Ithaca,
N. Y., to whom communications, books for notice, etc., should be se e

1887) Zoology. IIQ

Senses of Insects.—M. A. Forel" contributes a most interest-

ing and exhaustive account of experiments made by himself and

many others on the much-discussed problem of the senses of
insects.

(1) In regard to the sight of ants, he notes especially these
three conclusions: (a) They perceive light, and particularly
ultra-violet (Lubbock); (4) they really see the ultra-violet rays,
_ without eyes they are almost indifferent to them, and only re-
= spond to solar light more or less intense; (c) the dermatoptric
sensations are feebler among the ants than in the animals whic

Graber studied.

2) After reviewing new and old experiments as to the sense

of smell in insects, he notes the following general facts: (a) In

_ Many insects which are essentially directed by sight, as in the
Libellulids and Cicadas, the antenne are rudimentary, and the
Sense of smell likewise. During the night these insects are
passive, while during the day they trust to their power of sight,
or possibly, in some cigalids, also to hearing; (4) the sensitive
region, in spite of Graber’s protestations, is situated in the anten-
næ, especially in those parts where the antennary nerve ramifies ;
(c) in certain insects, as in most Diptera, the antenne serve almost
solely for smelling purposes; (d ) in other cases, however, where ©
they are mobile, as in the Hymenoptera, they are used for detecting
their food or their mates at great distances.

(3) As distinct organs of caste, M. Forel regards the nervous
terminations (2) on the proboscis of flies (Leydig), (4) on the
Jaws and on the base of the tongue (Meinert), (c) on the end of
Ow. im (Forel), and (d) on the palate or on the epipharynx

olf).

(4 and 5) Forel’s results as to hearing are, as yet, too negative
to admit of notice. He finally discusses the sense of touch in
its various manifestations, and the last chapter of his interesting

_ Memoir discusses the relation of the five senses to the general
_ Psychical life of insects.— Sour. Roy. Micr. Soc., 1887, p. 577-

ZOOLOGY.

__, Fresh-Water Sponges.—The Proceedings of the Philadelphia
: Academy of Natural Sciences for this year contain Mr. ard

1120 General Notes. [ Dec,

enia leidyi, M. fluviatilis, M. robusta (nov.), M. milsii (nov.), M. sub-
a

and C. tenosperma. Mr. Potts also describes as new Parmula
nesbyt and Meyenia minuta, from South America. The paper is >
‘illustrated by eight well-executed process-plates of spicules, etc.,

of the species.

Arthropod Eyes.—The first number of Dr. Whitman’s Yournal
of Morphology contains three articles dealing with the structure
and growth of the eyes of arthropods. The first, by Dr. J. S.
Kingsley, treats of the development of the compound eye of
Crangon, an abstract of which appeared in the NATURALIST for
November of last year. Dr. Kingsley claims that the compound
eye arises as an invaginated pit of ectoderm, and that the retinal
layers are inverted, the light traversing them in the same way as
in the vertebrate retina.

The two other papers are by Dr. William Patten. The first,
entitled “ Eyes of Molluscs and Arthropods,” is a summary of
the results obtained by this author, and embodied in his longer
paper in the Mittheilungen of the Naples Zoological Station for
last year. The most important points brought out are that the
whole of the so-called retinal elements of the compound eye are
formed from a single-layer of cells, and that this layer has not
been inverted, as believed by Dr. Kingsley. He also shows that
the rhabdoms of Grenacher are in reality formed by prolongations
of the same cells which secrete the crystalline cones. According
to his interpretations it follows that these eyes are not adapted
for “ mosaic vision,” but that the nerve-fibres in the crystalline
cones are the essential light and image pércipient elements.

Dr. Patten’s second paper deals with the development of the
eyes of Vespa, and with some points in the structure of ocelli in
insects. In the young embryos of Vespa the cephalic lobes pre-
sent a thickening, which becomes pushed in and covered by an
ectodermal outgrowth from the dorsal margin of the thickening:
This thickening breaks up into at least six cords of cells, oo
of which ultimately enter into the formation of the optic gangs
a fourth (dorsal to these) probably forms the antennal lobe, pee
the other two probably give rise to the mushroom bodies of

brain. While the foregoing steps are in progress a second eer

3
=

consists of three layers, the inner furnishing the retinal elements,
ni ove in Cran-

1887] Zoology. 1121

the three cords of cells already mentioned, as well as the formation

_ of the nerve-fibres and the inner and outer medulla. Besides

this, he gives, but with less detail, the history of the retinal—

= or, to use the term with his significance, ommatidial—elements.
In their history he agrees well with Dr. Kingsley.

= Dr. Patten’s paper contains a number of other observations.

_ He shows that the median ocellus of Vespa arises as two ocelli,

_ Closes with some observations on the eyes of Phalangium.

7 “seal for September, 1887, has a “ Note on a New Type of
9 m

interpretation of Carriere’s eye of Nereis. The author incident-
ally makes some corrections of his former account of the eye of
Serolis, in the Report of the “ Challenger” Expedition. —
_Itmay be stated, in conclusion, that American students promise
to increase the literature of the arthropod eye to a considerable
ER as work oe now being conducted AKIA = po peers
ureOrpions, heus, marus, and Trilobites, and po:

on

1122 General Notes. [Dec,

Argiope riparia var. multiconcha.—For the past two years
I have been studying an Argiope, which has sufficiently marked
characteristics to entitle it to the rank of a variety of A. riparia,
if not to a distinct species. The female is larger than any speci-
men I have seen of A. riparia, and she makes a group of cocoons,
usually four, sometimes five, which she hangs in a cluster by the
side of her snare, in the midst of an abundance of bright yellow,
flossy silk. The cocoons are fashioned like those of A. riparia,
and are about the same size. In honor of these multiple cocoons
I call the spider Argiope riparia var. multiconcha.

Female 23 mm. long, first legs 33 mm. in length. The cephalo-
thorax is about 9 mm. long, and nearly as wide as it is long, an
covered with white hairs close up to the eyes. The two first
legs are black, and the rest have the femora a deep orange-color.
The abdomen is oval, and on the front is a sharp-pointed hump
at each corner. The back of the abdomen is black. interspersed
with deep orange, darker than that of A. riparia, and the color is
more irregular in outline than in riparia. 3

e under side of the body is colored and marked like A. ripa-
gia, and the epigynum is covered in the same way by a long

' -black process.

The young dook very different from the adult spider. Before
the last moult there are five transverse bands of white and brown
on the back of the abdomen. All of the legs are annulated with
white and gray. i ;

This spider lives in Guthrie, Missouri, and probably in other
places. It frequents more sheltered places than our A. 71pai@.
It likes to make its home under the roof of a piazza, and some-
times gets into houses, where, if undisturbed, it will hang its
cocoons. I have a set of four cocoons that were made in 4
kitchen where a great cooking-stove was in almost constant use

to supply the demands of a large family.—Mary Treat.

__ The Migration of the American Magpie to Eastern Nebraska,
Twenty-five Years ago.—In Goss’s “ Birds of Kansas,” bee's
35, the magpie (P. hudsonica) is mentioned as “an occasional ga
and winter visitant in Western Kansas,” no mention being Ma
of the magpie in Eastern Kansas. Dr. Aughey, in his
“Birds of Nebraska,” 1880, says “the magpie exists in Western

and Northern Nebraska.” Dr. L. E. Hicks, State University, in A ‘

private letter, dated November 4, 1887, says, “ I have not
the magpie in Eastern Nebraska, and only one in the w

part: in Dawes County, last month. I have reliable page 4

is rather

of a pair nesting near Grand Island. They undoubte
Nebraska.”
Hence it is safe to conclude that the magpie (1887 )

nr bird in Eastern Nebraska, and most especially in the south-

list of

astern portion of the State. Such was not the case twenty wes

; 1887] Zoology. 1123

is usually the first bird mentioned. I am told by a dozen or
more reliable persons that it was a greater pest than the common
crow: pecking holes in the backs of fat hogs, eating off the tips
of their ears, etc. They were very numerous in the fall and
winter; one reliable witness stating that, about twenty years ago,
he put out poison for the wolves, and on going to the spot the
next morning found no less than forty dead magpies. The “ Birds
of North America in Smithsonian Institution,” published in 1860,
gives descriptions of twenty magpies killed in 1856, at various
points on the Missouri from central Eastern Nebraska to the
Black Hills.

Iam fully satisfied that twenty or thirty years ago the magpie
(P. hudsonica) made its annual fall and winter visit to the Missouri
River bottoms, extending from Southeast Dakota to the Kansas
State line, some few breeding in this section —W. Edgar Taylor,
State Normal, Peru, Neb.

Missouri River Crow-Roosts.—In vol. xx. p. 780, AMERICAN
NATURALIST, it is stated that “ the number of crows in the West-
ern States, comparatively speaking, are so insignificant that their
roosting-places have not been noticed by the ordinary observer.”
Probably the writer did not aim to include the Missouri Valley,

Incorrect.
A large roost of C. americanus, covering perhaps four or five
= acres, exists on Hogthief Island, in the Missouri River, about six
miles above Peru, Neb., and fifteen miles below Nebraska City.
Two other good-sized roosts are known, one ten miles north, and
the other on an island eight miles south of Hogthief Island. Mr.
N. S. Goss, author of “ Kansas Birds,” in a letter written October
29, 1887, says, “ The crows had, several years ago, quite a large

A g on and
: „near this island for at least twenty-five years, beyond which time,
Owing to the new settlement of the country, I have not, so far,
en able to trace their history. Probably, at some time previous

1124 General Notes. [Dec,

to the settlement of the country, the crows at these various roost-
ing-places in Eastern Kansas and Southeastern Nebraska had
one roost,—different roosts being formed by the change of food-
supply occasioned by the settlement of the country.
crows assemble on the island named about the first of

October and disperse about the first of May. About daybreak
on a fine morning, when setting out for the day’s journey, their
chatter and noise, made in taking flight, may be distinctly heard
in Peru, six miles away. A reliable witness, who has lived in the
country for some ten or fifteen years, states that he has often
“ observed, flying in one direction, flocks of crows six miles long
and one-half mile wide.” In the winter the crows are so very
plentiful in the surrounding country, including a radius of from
twenty to forty miles, as to attract the attention of the most care-
less observer. Farmers have very often been compelled to guard
their feed-pens. I have frequently been told by reliable persons
that the crows in severe winters peck holes in the backs of hogs,
- in some cases eating off the ears.

Sometimes these crows roost in small bushes and large weeds,
but generally in trees, often the willow or cotton-wood.

numbers, former roosts, and mode of life.

The roost on the island may be plainly seen from the tower on
the Normal School building.. W. Edgar Taylor, State Normal, -
Peru, Neb. i

. -
through, and was found loose in the room next morning. er
SS present writing she is alive in the National Museum, byte” n

~ was sent at the request of Prof- G. Brown Goode. I have kept ie

1887] Zoology. 1125

4 live minks with heavier wire-cloth, of smaller mesh, but never
imagined that they could cut poultry netting.—Fved. Mather, Cold
_ Spring Harbor, N. Y.

_ Fauna of Beaufort, N. C.—Beaufort has long been a favorite
locality for zoological collectors, and the recent establishment
_ there of the marine laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University
_ has brought it into greater prominence. A recent number of
the Studies of the university contains four papers on the fauna
_ of the locality. r. McMurrich catalogues nine species of sea-
anemones, Sagartia pustulata and S. gracillima being new. The’
molluscs of the region are enumerated by Dr. H. L. Osborn.
His list is confessedly incomplete, but sixty-one species being
_ enumerated outside of the group of Opisthobranchs, where the
forms were not identified. Professor Nachtrieb, in his account
of the ten species of echinoderms, gives considerable informa-
_ tion of value, in that he mentions the probable or ascertained
_ times of spawning of each species. Prof. O. P. Jenkins enumer-
_ ates one hundred and thirty-four species in his list of fishes, of
_ which twenty-three are not included in any previous catalogue of

3 the fish-fauna of the locality.

luzzle and in the possession of two roots to the inferior tuber-
cular tooth instead of one.

The Chihuahua, or naked Mexican dog, is the Canis gibbus of
€rnandez,? and Pellone of the Mexicans. I have examined the
dentitions of three specimens of this dog, and Professor Duges
described and figured that of a fourth. In none of them 1s

ig : Academy, Philadelphia, 1879, p. 186. Cane <
See Dr. A. Dugés, Naturaleza, Mexico, 1880 (1882), p. 14, for an article on this

~

_ The two together, the eye and the pineal body, rese beT -

1126 General Notes. [Dec.

2 and where the second superior true molar is wanting. But
one specimen of the C. gibbus possessed the second superior true
molar. The species may be called Dysodus Zibbus. It differs
from the Japanese spaniel (D. pravus Cope) in its elongate muzzle,
and in the great sparseness or absence of hair, in its erect ears,
and in various other respects.

The characters of these genera are as well marked as those of
non-domesticated forms of Canidæ. The deficiencies of denti-
tion, although concomitants of reduced size, are not caused by
it, since a majority of the extinct Canide, which preserve with
great constancy the characters wanting in Synagodus and Dyso-
dus, are of equal and smaller size.

I have had a female Japanese spaniel in my possession for
eight years, and she has had pups several times. With one ex-
ception they never lived to be more than a few months old, and
were of very erratic mental constitution. They displayed a great
deal of ferocity in their family relations, nearly killing each other
on several occasions. They nearly all died of convulsions—

E. D. Cope.
EMBRYOLOGY.

The Rudimentary Pineal Eye of Chelonians.—In the Quar.
Four. of Micr. Sci. for October, 1886, W. Baldwin Spencer de-
scribes very fully the presence and structure of the pineal eye m
Lacertilia, but makes no mention of its occurrence in any of the
Chelonia. The other day, while looking over some sections pre:
pared by the writer from an embryo of Chrysemys picta, pre
sented by Dr. C. S. Dolley, Prof. J. A. Ryder called my attention
to an organ which he took to be the pineal eye. Subsequent
investigation showed this to be the case.

The embryo first cut was one measuring three-quarters of a
inch from the tip of its nose to the end of the tail. The sections —
were made in a vertical longitudinal direction, and in the pi
line the structure referred to was found. The pineal rapes
lies just behind the fore-brain ; the proximal part of its $
tubular, while the distal end is flattened from above. It qe :
towards the tip of the snout, and its lower surface faces the sor
margins of the cerebral hemispheres. Oe se

The eye occurs as a hollow vertical evagination from the pots `
surface of the pineal outgrowth, and leaves the stalk of thelat
at the beginning of its distal fourth, measuring from its rear €n“

m
much in longisection the outline, as seen from the side,

hammer of a gun.

ight specimens ae
1 Naturalist, 1881, p. 233, where the dental characters of eight spt E
described, < iiy o PE
2 Edited by JoHN A. RYDER, Ph.D., Biological Department, Unive o
sylvania, Philadelphia. : ee

: 1887] Psychology. 1127

_ Approaching the eye from without inward, one finds first the
epidermis of the skin, then the corium, then a few irregularly-
‘branched connective-tissue cells, the pia, and, finally, the outer
surface of the eye. Surrounding it like a collar is a blood-sinus,
which even after two or three years’ preservation in alcohol was
still filled with corpuscles, whose nuclei came out very sharply
on staining in borax carmine.

The cells composing the eye are distinctly columnar through-
out, with well-marked nuclei. The eye is balloon-shaped, or
pyriform, and the cells on the upper half point towards the centre,
While the remainder point towards the long axis of its short stalk.

On looking at the upper surface of the head in other unstained,
alcoholic, specimens of Chrysemys picta, there is no external evi-
dence of the presence of this unpaire

: ely defined brownish pigment-spot. Judging from analogy
ar s

y that none of the Chelonians, in the adult condition, as far as
`am aware, have a parietal foramen developed, ; 5
m many Lacertilians. It is therefore clear that the pineal eye in
p elonians cannot at any time during life attain to even th
whi ional importance of that organ in any of the Lizards in
hich it has hitherto been observed.— George Fetter olf, Biological
aboratory, University of Pennsylvania, November 9, 1887.

PSYCHOLOGY.

The Theology of Evolution." —[In the pamphlet beari l
title is contained a statement of the evidence in favor of

itive and creative mind in nature, brought to light by the
a eology of Evolution, a lecture, by E. D. Cope; A Review of the
wey of Evolution, a reply to Dr. Maa, by E. D. Cope; The Relation of
ind to Matter, by E. D. Cope; all, 1887, Philadelphia, Arnold and Company-

= 2. 76

1128 General Notes. [Dec.

doctrine of evolution. Its theses may be stated as follows:
First. The mind of animals and men exercises a directive, though
not a creative, power over their movements. This directive power
is an evident direction of the course of energy by consciousness,
and is, as such, a direct interference with mechanical process.
Second. Since the evolution of animal types is due to their move-
ments within their environment, and the movements have been
inaugurated in conscious states by the directive power of will
(not free will), the evolution of organic types is due to mind.
Third. Since protoplasm is sustained as a chemical body against
the ordinary chemical forces by the presence of vitality or some
of its class of energies, the origin of protoplasm cannot be due
to chemical energy, but to some energy of the vital type. This
third thesis should be modified so as to read: Since protoplasm
is decomposed as a chemical body by the attacks of living micro-
organisms only, at ordinary temperatures, it is evident that vital
energy possesses a direct control over the chemical energy. And
vital energies are believed to possess no peculiarity by which they
may be distinguished from the non-vital, excepting the stamp of
a pre-existent or present consciousness.
rom these premises it is inferred that there is and has been a
primitive mind as an attribute or property of primitive matter. -
And this mind directs energy profitably to conscious beings an
produces advantageous types of automatic energy by cryptopney-
It thus acts as a building and creating agency, opposimg
chemical and physical forces, whose outcome is destruction only,
or the “dissipation of energy and the integration of matter.
In the second of the brochures referred to, the articles of the
“Theology of Evolution” are stated as follows (p. 28):
“I. Nothing exists excepting tridimensional matter and its
properties (or behavior). :
“II. The properties of matter are energy (motion) and con-
sciousness. t
“III. Consciousness is not a property of universal matter, bu
is conditioned by the axiomatic qualities of matter, as extension
and resistance. , ther
“IV. The mode of motion (energy) of matter is, on the o
hand, primitively conditioned by consciousness, but ceases a m
so conditioned when it reaches a certain degree of automatis
ger better defined by future research).

from matter and

1887] Psychology. 1129

_ Professor Cope in the second and third brochures referred to, and
_ Ma fourth in the Open Court, of Chicago, entitled “ Idealism
a D. é.

ung bull. The bull was standing very patiently, slightly nod-
ding his head up and down, while the donkey, with a rather
oad Stick about two feet long in his mouth, was scratching

Stavely, to the evident satisfaction of the bull. We often see

eee
atte

k earl
‘4. zed his poverty in the matter of horns, and happily supplied
© deficiency — Charles L, Edwards. |

1130 General Notes. [Dec.

MICROSCOPY:

Method of Photographing Serial Sections.—The develop-
ment of microtomical technique has made it a comparatively
easy matter to produce great numbers of fine sections in a very
short time. As the sections with which an anatomist or an
embryologist has to deal are generally too small for macro-
scopical examination, it is often difficult to obtain an outlook
over the material accumulated. The microscopical examination
of hundreds or thousands of serial sections, if only for the pur-
pose of general orientation, is a slow and tedious work. One
cannot carry the asta of the series along while examining the
sections, one by with the microscope. This can only be
accomplished indirectly, through representations enlarged just
enough to make it easy to examine them macroscopically. To
make outline sketches of the whole series, or at least of the
more important portions of it, calls for an enormous sacrifice of
time, together with a large amount of most fatiguing mechani
labor. Much more satisfactory results may be obtained by the
st A photography, and with relatively little expenditure of time
an

Professor His? of Leipzig, to whom we are indebted for the

“embryograph” ‘and a method of “ plastic reconstruction,’ ’ previ-
ously described in this journal, employs the apparatus seen in
the accompanying cut for photographing serial sections.

The objective (Ob) is a Steinheil avtplanatic of 12 cm. focal
distance, or an aplanatic of the same factory of 14 cm. focal dis-
tance, The latter gives a little less light than the former, but
pae the advantage of an accurate and uniformly-sharp
-definitio

For embryos that are not exceptionally small, a naa
of ten to fifteen diameters generally suffices. Wit me
fication not exceeding twenty diameters all the jeo moun

time, Long series of sections can thus be photograp

teni ee etek” of every kin
projec tion-apparatus consists of a horizontal rack any
ing at the anterior end a plate with the photographic obje on),
- (Ob); behind this a second plate (C) (with a central perfo 2 eae
connected with the first by a bellows, and servi aE
for the object-slide; then a double banae i
diameter, with a focal distance of 8 cm.; an
argand gas-burner (B).
* Edited by C. O. W ee, Wisconsin. soe
a iat Ueber das Photographiren von S pert ittreihen ;” Arch. La.
_ Phys., Anat. Abth., 1887, 2d and 3d Heft, p. 1

sai in
hind d all, an

base-boar d (B), which can slide forward or backward between
guides on the table (T). The coarse adjustment is effected, first
of all, through this sliding movement of the base, and then by
a Screw-movement of the object-carrier (C). The fine adjustment
is made by turning the objective, which works in a fine screw.
Extraneous light is excluded by inclosing the whole apparatus
_ Ma tin box (Gh) provided with a wide side-door.

__ The size and distance of the picture vary within relatively
large dimensions, so that an ordinary photographic camera could
hot conveniently be employed. The arrangement is such that
_ ile picture is projected upon the wall of the dark-room, in front
of the objective, instead of a ground-glass behind it, as in the
ordinary camera.
of ` The dark-room is divided by a partition (P), which is provided
With a door and a sliding screen (S). On the wall opposite the
n is fixed a large frame (F), which carries a glass plate (PI).
pa Mage is first brought to a focus on a sheet of white paper
behind the glass plate; and then, after closing the screen, the
white paper is replaced by the photographic paper.
de- photographic paper, known as the “ Eastman bromide-

The rack bearing all these parts has two feet resting on a

eo aE ne ANA

ae AA A IE E T a paren a a Pb E g e a

ver paper,” is sensitive enough for use with lamp-light, and
oe manipulations are extremely simple. ao
SA S time of exposure varies according to the magnification
ee diaphragm employed. With the Steinheil aplanatic and
ee. (4) an amplification of ten diameters requires an €x-

1132 Scientific News. [ Dec,

posure of six to eight minutes. Very thin, transparent sections
require less time than thick or deeply-stained ones.

The pictures are, of course, negative, but they are none the
less valuable for the purposes before named. If positive pictures
are desired these are easily obtained, as the photographic paper
is sufficiently transparent to admit of copying. For this purpose
lamp-light is better than sunlight, and an exposure of one-half
to one minute is sufficient. Both the negative pictures and the
positive copies admit of further finish with pencil or color.

ull details of manipulation are furnished with each package
of the Eastman paper. The operations which follow exposure
are (1) softening of the paper in water; (2) development of the
picture by means of potassium oxalate and ferrous sulphate ;
(3) washing in acidified water; (4) fixation through hyposulphite
of sodium; (5) washing and drying. ei

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

—In the November number of the American NATURALIST
Mr. J. F. James kindly calls my attention and that of the general
public to what seems to be a slight put upon his work. A word
of explanation seems to be due both to Mr. James and myself.
The object of the paper entitled “ Origin of the Indiana Flora
was simply to apply well-known facts with regard to the No
American flora to the specific case of Indiana. In order to do

sary for the scientific public. My former assistant, Mr. Thom-
son, was asked to look up the literature of the subject and pre-
pare as compact a statement as possible of the known ene
suppose that he found Mr. James’s paper useful, as being č
most concise compilation of facts so well known as to have
come general property. That due credit was not given”
James for this assistance was a great oversight, but that it cov
not have been intentional appears in the very extracts that Mr.
James has culled out. He is there mentioned by his i’ aM
as an authority for some statement or other. I am blamewo ei
for not more closely inspecting this part of the work, but, a> is
chief trouble was failure to give full credit to Mr. James, 5 im
"hereby done, with an expression of regret that the omission W
not seen in time to remedy it— Hohn M. Coulter.

—The Imperial University of Japan has recently establishe’ 5
marine biological station at Misaki, a day’s journey from paak
an account of which has recently been published by Pro T

_ Milsukuri in vol. i. of the Yournal of the College of Science ©

Scientific News. . 1133

Pennatulids, a Pentacrinus “two or three feet long,” Chiton,
Haliotis, Doliolum, pteropods and heteropods, Actinotrocha,
Tornaria, Pilidium, etc., characterize the general facies of the
ocality when viewed from the zoological side.

—Dr. G. H. Sternberg, U. S. A., has just returned from Ha-
vana. He was sent by the U.S. Health Commission to examine
the claims. of the various methods reported by physicians in Rio

Janeiro, Vera Cruz, and Havana for combating yellow fever by
inoculation. The discovery of the supposed yellow-fever bacilli
has been followed by attenuation cultures, after the method of

_ Pasteur. Dr. Sternberg has brought with him culture series of

_ these bacilli from all these localities, and will proceed to develop

them and test their merits as preventives of this dread scourge

of the tropics. l

_—Prof. Alfred Giard, of Lille, has been called to Paris as

“maitre de conférences à l’Ecole normale supérieure.”

—Dr. O. S. Jensen, who had just published a valuable paper
on “ Spermagenesis in Mammals, Birds, and Batrachia,” died in
r Christiania, September 14, 1887, aged forty years. BES
-Skilful anatomist.

_—Professor Hugo Lojka, of Buda-Pest, a student of lichens,
died September 7

_ bued with that love of natural history to the study of which his

life has been devoted. His attention was early directed to botany,
a subject which he pursued with unabated zeal throughout life,
and it was the success that attended his early efforts in this study

1134 Scientific News. oe

mathematical calculations for life-insurance companies and for
Professor Newton. The two following years were spent in natu-
ral history studies in Sheffield Scientific School with Professor
Verrill and his most intimate friend, Prof. S. I. Smith. In 18
he was appointed assistant in paleontology to Professor Marsh,
a position he uninterruptedly held to his death.

His life for twenty years has been wholly that of a student and
investigator, but the published works by which he is known to
the scientific world are not numerous or extended, though im-
portant. His chief work was a “ Report on the Marine Isopoda
of New England and Adjacent Waters,” published in 1880, but
he also published not a few other papers in the American Fournal
of Science, and elsewhere, on isopods, myriapods, and a fossil
spider (Arthrolycosis) from the Coal-Measures. The real work
of his life, however, will never be appreciated save by those who
knew him well. A patient and accurate observer, possessed of
truly remarkable logical powers, and a man of very extensive
and most accurate knowledge, the results of his eighteen years
work in vertebrate paleontology have been of great value, not-
withstanding the fact that none of them have been published by

im. In eight years’ daily intimate association with him in the
Yale College Museum, I cannot recall an instance where his
matured opinions and statements were assailable ; errors he made,
of course, but they were fewer than I have ever known in any
other person. Unfortunately, his opinions, though never gain-
said, were not always followed. To my personal knowledge,
nearly or quite all the descriptive portion of Professor Marsh's
work on the Dinocerata was written by him, and was published
without change, save verbal ones. The descriptive portion
the Odontornithes was likewise his work, but this I cannot say
from personal knowledge .

orn with unsound physique, his life has been a constant strug-

gle with difficulties that a man with a less indomitable will would

and retiring disposition. The few intimate friends that —
him cherished and respected him in a remarkable degree.
w

—Ferdinand V. Hayden, M.D., Ph.D., the well-known geol-

,

ogist, died December 22 at his residence in Philadelphia 7

an illness which had confined him to his room for over a |
and a half.
He was born in Westfield, Mass., September 7,

College in 1850. He afterwards studied medicine at the Al k

1829, and ae 3
an early age emigrated to Ohio, and was graduated from Ober 4

y

1887] Scientific News. ; `a Eas

Prof. James Hall, explored one of the remarkable ancient deposits
of extinct animals, and returned with a large and valuable collec-
tion of fossil vertebrates. He spent the three following years in
exploring the Upper Missouri, and his large collection of fossils

was partly given to the Academy of Sciences in St. Louis and a

part to the Academy in Philadelphia. These collections attracted
the attention of the officers of the Smithsonian Institution, and he
was appointed, at the suggestion of General J. A. Logan, geologist
on the staff of Lieutenant G. K. Warren, of the Topographical’
Engineers, who was then making reconnoissance of the North-
west, and continued on duty till 1861, when he entered the war
as a surgeon of volunteers. He was brevetted lieutenant-colonel
for meritorious services at its close.

In 1865 he was elected Professor of Geology and Mineralogy
in the University of Pennsylvania, and held that post until 1872,
when he resigned on account of the increased labor in managing
the survey. In the summer of 1866 he made another expedition
to the Upper Missouri.

The United States geological survey of the Territories, under
charge of Professor Hayden, was commenced in the spring of
1867 and continued until 1879. Seven annual reports of the sur-
vey have been published in 8vo, and eight volumes of the quarto
oe report. Three volumes of the 4to series are not yet pub-

ished.

His reports of the exploration of the famous Yellowstone re-
gion in 1870 and 1871 induced Congress to set apart by lawas a
national park three thousand five hundred and seventy-five square

miles of the public domain, containing within its limits most of

the geysers, hot springs, and other wonders of that region.

_ The United States owes to Dr. Hayden the establishment of
its Geological Survey. Those acquainted with the history of
this great work can testify to the energy and perseverance which
he expended in accomplishing it, qualities which were in a high
degree inherent in Dr. Hayden’s character. Dr. Hayden s influ-
ence was only second to that of Baird in securing for science the |
aid and recognition which it has received from the government
of the United States. And at the period of his greatest success
Hayden was always the same unpretentious and enthusiastic
Seeker for knowledge. He was singularly free from sordid mo-
tives, and he left the service of the government a poor man.
His retirement was caused by an intrigue discreditable to all
Who participated in it. His removal from the position which he

oS had won through so many years of toil, was influential in bringing

on disease to which he succumbed.
Dr. Hayden left a widow but no children.

1136 Scientific News. [Dec.

—By the death of Prof. William Stebbins Barnard, on the 13th
of November, in his thirty-ninth year, American Science has lost
a biological investigator and teacher of unusual ability, training,
and originality.

r. Barnard was born at Canton, Ill., on the 28th of February,
1849. After a year at the University of Michigan, he entered
Cornell University at its opening in 1868. While a student he
paid special attention to Natural History, and was selected by
the late Prof. Chas. Fred. Hartt to assist in his expedition to
Brazil. In that country Dr. Barnard made important explorations
and collections, and some of his specimens are in the museum of
Cornell University. After graduating in 1871, he spent two years
under the best teachers in Germany, and on taking the degree of
Ph.D. at Jena, in 1873, received from Haeckel a personal certifi-
cate that in his studies he had “shown the highest degree of
excellence.” Returning to Cornell, he made many observations
and drawings of the Protozoa, on which group he gave courses
of lectures at the University, at the Anderson School on Penikese
Island, in the summer of 1874, and at the summer schools in
Normal and Peoria, Ill., in 1875. From 1876 to 1878 he was
professor of natural science in the Oskaloosa (Iowa) Normal
School, and then for two years gave at Cornell University the
instruction in entomology and invertebrate zoology during the
absence of Prof. J. H. Comstock as United States entomologist.
Under Professor Comstock’s successor he became an assistant 1n
the entomological division of the Bureau of Agriculture, and
during the following five years made valuable observations upon
destructive insects, and devised several appliances for spraying
insecticides upon the cotton-worm and other forms; his appara-
tus and experiments are described in the department reports and
_ bulletins, and were highly commended by the chief of the divi-
sion:

During the last two years he was professor of natural history

in Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa, whose faculty and su
dents at his death adopted resolutions expressing their affection,
esteem, and sense of irreparable loss.

Besides his contributions to the U. S. Entomological Reports,
Dr. Barnard’s publications were as follows: ee

I. “Observations on the Membral Musculation of ems
tyrus (orang) and the Comparative Myology of Man and
Apes.” Amer. Asso. Proc., August, 1875, pp. 30, two plates.
2. “ Observations on the Development of Didelphys vg? T
ana” (the opossum). /éid., pp. 2, one plate. a i

3- “ Catalogue of the Invertebrates” (excepting insects) &
Ward’s natural science establishment, octavo, pp. 96, eight pla
Rochester, 1876.

ee

New Rhizopods,” pp. 3, one plate. Amer. Quar. Mier re

_ Sscopical Journal, 1879.

1887 | Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1137

5. “Zoological Education.” Read before the University Con-
vocation, July 13, 1879. Report of the Regents of the University
of the State of New York, 1879, pp. 529-532.

6. “ Protoplasmic Dynamics.” AMER. NATURALIST, April, 1880,
pp. 10, five figures. Hundreds of accurate and beautiful draw-
ings and diagrams, with notes and manuscripts equivalent to
several large volumes, bear witness to his scientific spirit and
industry, and indicate what he might have put in.shape for pub-
lication but for imperfect health and an almost too faithful devo-
tion to his duties as a teacher.

In 1874, Dr. Barnard married Miss Mary Nichols, sister-in-law
of Prof. B. G. Wilder. A son inherits much of his father’s general
ability, artistic talent, and fondness for natural history.—B. G. W.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

t was not stated whether specimens of this material were the
ones analyzed, but if they were it would not be difficult to ac-
count for the finding of copper, iron, and perhaps other metals,
as it is evidently the refuse of some metal-working establishment,
and is of recent formation. :

Mr. Hollick exhibited drawings of lemon-pits, which had
germinated while inside the lemon. One had developed two
imperfect green cotyledons, and had pushed its way for about
three-quarters of an inch through the pulp of the fruit.

A skin-scraper and several arrow-heads, from Old Place, pre-
aa by Mr. L. W. Freeman, were shown. Also a skin of the
Spotted warbler (Dendræca maculosa), obtained by Mr. R. H. Brit-
__ ton, at New Dorp, on May 7. The same species had been noted
_ on May 15 in the neighborhood of Eltingville by Messrs. Wm.
e T. Davis and Arthur Hollick.

1138 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. (Dec. 1887

Mr. Jas. Raymond stated that while sailing in a cat-boat, near
the Long Island shore, a fish-hawk lit on the mast-head, where
it remained some time, but finally flew to the mast of a schooner
lying near by. These birds visit Staten Island in early spring,
but are particularly numerous in late summer and autumn. They
frequent the sea-shore and ponds, and many are shot while perch-
ing on certain favorite dead trees, eating their prey. So far as
known only one pair of these birds has attempted to nest on the
island. The nest was in process of construction on June 14,
1874, in a partly dead chestnut-tree on the meadows near Garret-
son’s, but the birds were frightened away before completing it.
If protected from persecution there is apparently no reason why
they should not nest here as freely as they do along the coast of
New Jersey.

Mr. E. M. Eadie reported the capture of a walking-stick insect
(Diapheromera femorata) at Old Place. It -is of quite rare occur-
rence, only three other specimens having been collected by
members of the Association on Staten Island within the past six’
years.

Boston Society of Natural History.—The first general meet-
ing for the season was held on Wednesday evening, November 2,
1887. Prof. William M. Davis spoke of the “ Physical History
of the Somerville (Mass.) Slates ;” Dr. W. G. Farlow discussed
the “Conception of Species in Cryptogamic Botany ;” and Dr.
J. Walter Fewkes described a “New Mode of Life among

use.”

Meduse.

November 16.—The question of holding the general meetings
once or twice a month was decided in favor of twice a month,
Prof. A, Hyatt spoke of the values in classification of the stages
of growth and decline, and propositions for a new nomenclature.
Mr. S. H. Scudder described the means employed by the butter-
flies of the genus Basilarchia for the perpetuation of the species.
Prof. Wm. T. Sedgwick spoke of the new American Journal of
Morphology and the “ Lake Laboratory of Biology at Milwaukee.

sixteenth regular meeting was held on Saturday evening, De-
cember 3, 1887, in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club.
The following communications were read: Mr. Charles Hallo

Disappearance of the Cast Antlers of the Cervidæ ;” Dr.

bald Smith, “Peptonizing Ferments among Bacteria; ae
C. D. Walcott, “A Fossil Lingula preserving the Cast of m :
Peduncle ;” Dr. Theo. Gill, “The Phylogeny of the Cetacea.

Abbott, Helen C. De S., nog. en chemistry
of higher and low er plants, 719, 800

Actinistia. 1017.
Actinobolus, w
Actinopt

Albumin si og’ ee for mounting anatomical

zi, 53+

_Allum schceenoprasum L., 827.

eg A vom ao of, 288,

ila. ms, $7

_ American Association at New York, 833.
Poammitiee ig = International Congress of
logis 3:

oe of £ the Jaterastionst Geological

Congress n classification and no-
> ante
Cress, 56.
peng 163.
v i $ tape The, 1046.
ant 17, 18.
teat i ar preparing, 595.

a iblas ei s
ERa Sn TY, 347

Anton a tae
‘Rel n Anthum graveolens arrg 201
: — Animal sympath » an expression of, 1129,
a n Laboratory, 405, 6or.

> 2I.

INDEX TO VOL Ii

Ano 275.
Antedon
Antherozobids, at.
Anthrax

Tati and aphids, 3 579.
and col co olored ign, 383

Appia ph
Ara chnida, notes on, 194 393-

mee of,

Arau asa mo p, 501.

A i gue tions of aang og

Arctium, 442.

Areschong, J. E., the Swedish botanist, death,
ope riparia var. multiconcha, 1122.

oie ngore sep ortality of fishes, 188,

ae 4
— li Ss psa, fe)
ap 784.

> b> > b> > > > D
og
Seo
°
23
i
=

Artichoke, 126.
Artificial parthenogenesis, 484.
aes 985.

144.
spermatozoo, 23.
Asclepias corn pei , 608.

g mai mg 363 9 561.

129, I

f

A

2 ze rust again

Asia, the Saras
Aspidorhynchidae, 1 1019.
J

spermatozoon oon, 23-
Asteracanthion, 21i.

1020.
on the female
fora of Phengodes latice istels lis Horn, 853.
ee A

Aapaieede. 375-
Audubon, ‘ag monument to,
R Lan aR, T "#85, 1076.

Bacteria, classification of, 78-
n arthropods, 383-
wait gs Beer a the tomato
phological is
path of, 836.
peni ea jossus, 39.

tomato from a mor-

>

1140

Index to

sree vulgaris Willd., 903.
Barbarea, 56.
x

acle,
Barnard, Wan. Stebbins, death, 1134.
Barneville, Henri Brisout de, 953.
Barth, 375

Basella, 322

Basil, 324.

Basin of the E cage 938.
Batrac pi = of Central America and

oben on, 8, ic. 861.
. Bra
ratol ra
iaaah oviposition,
um, J. C., intelli rn of. a rat, 295.
„on mineralogy, 57:

morphogeny of carapace ‘of Testudinata, 89.
mo cal a eg Aia and o of the Ichthyopte-

morphology ‘of eo 942.
Beachler, Chas. S., crinoid beds at Crawfords-

We PG experiments with Lima beans in
germination,
s Grasses 0 Brah America, 647.
Bian, se yee
Beans, pes
in germination, 576.
carota ot ah i of segmental duct in elasmo-

Slem ke
pe ong Racer, Set:
d, F E., note on a new type of compound

Berg, Carl, 30;
Bergeron, E in Carboniferous of Aveyron,

Berthold, ; © s ordinary professor of botany at

Beryl, 102
ba E Chas, E., a duty of botanists, 767.

cæ
notice of Ellis and Evi gan en A. Fungi,
— of Hay’s Economic Fungology, 552.
of Strasburger and Hillhouse nein Pac:
Beat Botany, 357.
notice of Trouessart’s Microbes, Ferments,

the element of i

the Nat wa nc of time botanical study, 768,
study of lichens, 666

Sara ant diseases 276,

929.
ward extension of the black
Wolie’s Fresh-water Algæ of the U.S k A

Vol. XXI.

Bism i agro 1023.

Bite ae obra

ee of british vo maportiges 69.
atta, sperm 23.

Bland pli er Grigis 2 oft 82.
dae ee
Blitu
Bluefish, Measte of, 195.
Boas, 2
Bollm á; °c. H., new N. A. myriapods, 81, 946.
Bo mbinato or, 4) 489.

spermatozoa
a volcanic, ae,
Boo , Wi liam, death, 954.
Borata
Born neo, 63.
Bos, spermatozoa, st

— S, 74-
nuals for meme 376.
hows: 381,
study, the aan of time in, 768.
Botanists, a duty of, 767.
Botany, Practical, Strasburger and HilJhouse’s,
A.A. iggy 930.
Bothriolepid wos
Boulders of decai, 366.
Boulenger, G. A., Apare pre ae
Bo nego rs kg accoun e Indian earth-
i

Preis, gives 20.
of Ceratodis, 54
Branal, Karl, poviheng at zans Institute of
ka bai of Kse ‘
ranc a e w Roo
mare or of poi e University of

“Branner, f. tl a nes of the geo-

Brazilian 8.

Brennan, Serenan of the Navajos, 206.
Bridger

Britton, ay vt of spotted brie 1137.
Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thi

Bro

arar Pae

ruce, A. T. > i ee:
Rowstiys in biology, Johns Hopkins Univer’

sity, 7
oa ts, 440.
Bucksthorn plantain, 442.

Burdock, 4

urmah, akg s 189.
Burme! ister, H., 303
Burnet,

| Bush, George, 106. `

Bustonite, 374.

Cabbage,
eae Cinese, $26.

Gaddis lis y's 's emergence from water, 480-
pest of North America, 445, 451-

6.
| Call, R lleworth, food of Amblystoma mexi-

cana
on Cten E ium of de aberti Conrad, 857-
Calotropis gigantea, 615.
Cambrian of Sardinia, 659.
is gibbus, r125.
eas gooseberry, 55.
a ,52
Capparis,

Carchesium, 19.

Viet

Index to

Cardamine pratensis, L. è
Cardoon me. 525. cB oie
Carettochelys, 585.
ey’s journey, 653.
Supe columbianus, teratology of the antlers

ono, development of, 394.
Carphosiderite, 472. “A
Carroll, A. L., garnets from artesian well, 1137.
Carro E >
Carterius, 1119.
Carum, 524.
Cassino, S. E., 494.
oa, spermatozoa, 22.
reste angie
Casuarius, 5 TI
Eaten de 701.
athrein describes grassularite crystals, 1113.

Gatom J. D., origin of a small race of turkeys,

Tazama habi ts of,
eres 708 e e

; ual, a
contie did org.

t h; vopods, eo Tar aa forms, 64.
eratium, 1

Cercopithecus TEASEE EN 1034.

Ceriodaph: aia, 86

eb
ag
BHI
ER
8
$2
~
a3

Cestoid Shas os,
aes oa 5 $i
ium, 321.
Chet 583.

curled Swiss, 708.

- Chelonia, 43

Chelonians, 1126,
Chemical integration, 474-

Fhilodon 19..
Chives, 265 jade i in America, 96.

tus, 8

Chromulina, 1

Chufa, 327. picta, 1126.

coreg endivia L, , 980.

Cilioflagellata, 4 487.
inosternum pen

pba KEA
ame degle Aua N Navara 953

Clary, 82
Claypole, E. W., sandstones of Pennsylvania, the

K T great
the materials of the Appalachians, 956, 1055-

Vol. XXT.

Claytonia perfoliata Don., 829.
ress bite, 394.
occosteidze, 1019.
IoI9.

Coding m moth, 480,

ns, development of, 1035.
Ceelacant hide, 1018.
ane rie 390, 487, 673, 1033.

449.

Europe, the, 1030.
Colton’ s Practical Zoology, 554-
Colymbetes, 20.
up, 447+

— Y chemiatry of higher and lower

met
Comstock, UK a ny K ware form of vial for alcoholic

region,

Conjugation, ed 221.

Conn, Na

notice of Co ope’ s Origin of the Fittest, 465.

scientific fact and scientific inference, 791.

Conodonts,

Consciousness, seat of, 29

Constant temperature apparatus, 597:

ach A aE in ancient American art, np
E. D., American Ass' ociation at New York,

33- &
ee” committee the International

acute th of nae at F. Bat

we ption of brain-case
evolution and idealism acd tai
hyoid bones in salamana ans
International Congress ogists, 643-
$ on new —_ oe mammalia,
be Bist ill’s C oa of a, 469-
n gef ill’s Cretaceous >
notice Of Kedzie’s Gravitation, Heat, and
gt 8
on Brazi me Reptilia, 388.
n nursing frogs, 310.
the Dinosaurian, Coelurus, 367,
on the for ons of the Belly River of

Cana
f test, 465.
origin of the Fi st, Pip Fork? is, 019.
tific theism, 951-
Scot and born on White River Mamma-

Scott on Cre a Creodonta, 7; pills Cretaceous,

1142 Index

Cope, boa D., Thomas on Mammalian dentition,
n, 100
Tropidonotus new spenn 1035.
tology, 164.
Zittel’s Maai of Palzontology, 1014, 1019.

ushroo
Corchorus clitoris a » 829.
Coriander, 830
Coriand:

568.
naa e e 488.

c Fer M., correction of origin of Indiana
Crabs, fi er, 415.
aang ner, pee E of life-history of Stegocephali,

ie organ of smell, 486.
Cress, 56, PF
Cresson, by acne Med the oo of
America north of Mex
‘to.

ee Se Indiana, 1106.
Grocidoline, 1023.
Crocker, Lucretia, scholarships, 684.

Crustacean eyes, p: n of, 40
Giidi of Uni news, a 374, 663, 852.

Ctenidium of Un nio o aberti Conrad, 857.
ngs g 669.
Cuckoo-flower,
Cucumaria, 193.
s tozoa, 22.
Cucumber, 906.
Cucumis sativus L., 906.
Culture cells, 478.
Cumin, 910.
Cumi i L., 910,
C; 193.

yanosoma,
Cet thomonas, 139-
C) ipterini, 1018.

Dahl, rear ancl wen os n
the’ Ualveunice of <r eg duties =
Dakota group,
eaa verei B 220.
na, James

» Voyage to the Hawaiian Islands,

geological iav emer ty a

physical history the Somerville (Mass.)

Vol. XXT.

sJ.
Day, Francis, Weh between pilchard and the

erring, 10 TES
De nla hy! Strasburg, chair of err in
Unive f Leipzig, 790.

Deer, oe pA Treland, 188.
Deities of Nav Ae 206,
Delamination
Dendrzca maculosa, 1138.
Dendrobates, 3
Dero, 391.
Descloizite (ani, 1023.
Desert a lage rat,
Deuto 8.
Daiane af an pie eg sage vertebrate, 862.
ee of Pyrenees, 369.

os osoma, I 386.

ii area femorata, 1138.

Dichelaspis, 488.
Didrichsen, D. F., professor of botany at Copen-

hagen, death, 790.
Tiea Do 106.
Diho gor

a
ilop odah 994.
Dinoflagellates, 487.

Dipod 1018.

4
of, 4
ages “paced in ‘tenia nia, 382.
parasite of silkworm, 482.
Di 221.
Diseases of plants, 276.
Distribution of molluscs, 83.

aie ge var. ihe an 928.
eee ee the Sonora BES 1104.
Lake, 362.

l Duin, Thos., range of variation of the human

shoulder-blade, 627. il
Book. on a 4 of Le ween gore 774s

rene, 150.
Dysodus pravus, 1126.

E. M., piny gg femorata, 1138.
Early man, Mauletee fai
Ears of i
-n 912.
Earth-wo

-worms, 391.
notes on, 193.
Eastward extension of Ea ponderosa Douglas,
rum, 92

Echin re An oroa, 289.
Echinoderms, 779.
intelligence © of, 683.
on, 99, 193, 39
Echi haben sae ts rol, 7
Ecker, Alexander, ana!
of Freiburg 1g, , death,
ocium, 1061. s
Edwards, Chas. L., an expression of animal sym-
pathy, 1 1129.
Egg, fertilization of, 221.
ee 494-

and anthropologist

E lant ;
Eichler, k Wilhelm, 493: r id fishes,
E ORREN Aag Wa study of Embiotocoid

Elohis, 585-

Elecampane, 980.
El ysis, 150.
Elephant spermatozoa, 21.

| Index to Vol. XXT. | 1143

Forel, M. A., senses of insects, 1119.
Forficula, spermatoz00n, va

he co orman, E. S.,
Fo

Eliot, ' Walter, death,
sere: s or 379-
rating ofthe Bely Siver of Canada, 17%.
Oesterle, 75-
ossils of Canaan, N. Y., 2 '
te nual report of the ureau of Ethnology,

Fox Hills group, 449.
Frazer, Persifor, G. G K. Gilbert’s address before

ae
Section E, A. A, A. Science , Columbia Col-
a Ei Wales ‘and Treland, 1076. lege, N. Y., 841
ey - English be Freeman, L. W., arrow-heads, 1137.
ig names for hand i, — Frenzel, John, of Berlin, now professor of zo-
3 o and director of = museum in Cordova,

Ennion, x of, 3
Entomological news, ot
Eeienophtho Sen agi

ne syste
cut y porpiyrite, 471.

logy
- — Republic, 9
resh-water Crus

7

uus beds, 458, 1073. Fulgurites, 472.
4 imo, 133. Fungi of North America, 379-
: me pe at Salem, Mass., 688 "English n names for, 264.
ie Eth. n poss am on of a home ofits own, 789. upon th eir host- ore 1114.
Age or , fourth report of as reau of, 646. Fungia, structure 0 86.

of the = 0, koni on t!
~ Euglypha, 1 .
Ee rmato
x Evermann, B W., Hen aaa birds, 291.
and Jordan, oa — on or 1034.
Evolution, t the theo

Galanthus
Gata java, 486.

Et 38.

Gamsi adite, 473-

Gan = a F.i Š Littorina litorea indigenous or
prie T 387.

Garden wegen, history of, 125, 321, 432+ 52%
701, 826, 903,

Garnet, 1113.

eu Pl ee

ye-piece, mi icrometer, 477-
in Protoz zoa, 390.

985
urg, p , accepts “chair of botany at Uni-

Gastrula
ton of species in pto- Garcombe , Johe, “death 95% se
1238. d it Gaule, Alice Leonard, method of staining and ,

opkins Univer-

Geograph
Geological news, 507, 959. 2
Geokony and epee of Lake Superior, 654-

orc Metschi:
4. Giant-cell, 17.
i Peso Grote, on the rudimentary pineal eye Giard, Al proses to Paris as master of normal
Fewkes, J. Wisin ii
es oli > ithecus, 1034-
a eat Ue cance Moiri; 1000. Sie Bra terco , before Section E. A. A. A S3
crabs, 415. College, 41. a
, A. K., Muhlenberg’s tortoise, 672. Gill a ie. on ribbon-fishes, 86.
a “guttolineatus Ho folbrook, rae Gil , discovery of an ae tomb
ropidonotus clarkii, 672. near the holy sepulchre, Jer usalem, 805.
og As; a Ginglymodi, 1918.
? 393, > 584, 673, 861, 946. Giraffa, 5085. |
and ge ag from West mi: wer Girard, Maurice, 106.
Ane, Ba: al epoch, 460.
‘Fletcher, Pi I Agassiz, 361.
ie group, synopsis, 101 Guyot, 361.
- Cochin China g F T: aa. 361.
White Riv 1 > s
Glacial flow in lowa, 759.
iation of 250.
icana, 776. Glacier Bay, 254-
exi > 776 we 255; 360. = ae molluscs, 670- 4

1144 Index to

Gl girpeeaipees terisi, rors.

Goldmine, ‘Kimberley, 62.
Goniobasis, 86

be
Gordius, 488.
Gottsche, C., 494.
Grackle, ‘American, i in England, 189.
Grantia, 485.

curvy, 5
par S, Aa of Brussels elected professor of bot-
any at Lain, 790.
Gray, Robert, 686.
kere
Great takes Srigin of, o
Green River s

Grovanite,
Growing parts wat Pinus, 178.
Growth, 2

of Tu a ae ma mammosum, 665.
Guyot Glacier, i
Gymnosporangium, 277.

Haast, Julius von, death, 1044.
Haddon on — duct, 587.
Embryology vont
A

pa, 5
Halecomorphi, ‘1018-1019.
Hahomm:
Haller, Gini, 106

Halsted, B. D., on Pollen-tubes of lobelia, 76.

Mansen: apenas, whale-fishing, Bergen, Nor-
way, =

ae peed

of the massasauga, 211.
Hayden, Ferdinand V., death, a

2
h, 9:

me a ke
Hahaaa. aaga 60
sued np oe: pe
on
Beich, prana ea 602,
Herderite,

uneg
Hise T C ge van, 106.
To

H rv
H
en is, 384.

Hill on mye of Texas, 469.
Hillocks of decomposition, 366.

Hindia, 5
F., Terias lisa, 548.

Hinsdale,

Vol. AAL

Hippother
Hitec eack, pipe z 2. M., homologies of Edestus

eolog y of Alosa sapidissima, 1032.
Hollick, Arthur, garnets from artesian well, 1137.

of Tedestus
>the arapa. tia
yi piore 730, 885, 1076.

Horford, E Nap si printing Zeisberger’s Indian Dic-

Ho UER. Walter, ethnology of the Congo, 689.

Howlite, 102

Hoya globulosa, 614.

Hoyt, B. F., tree-trunk and branches, 70.

Hulst, G D.,

Humboldt formation, 45 457.

Humming-birds, largest collections of, go.

Hunt, T. ne on chemical integration, 474.
Taconic’ question apes » 114, 238, 312.

Huth, Ernst, 303.

on primitive forms of cepli alopods, 6t.
vala in cia saniteta of the stages
an
Hybrid | between ‘iar peg a herring, 1034.
Hydr:
» 387
turning inside out,—a correction, 773-
Hydrodictyon, 1
H ANAE REA history of, 387.
Hydrophilus, r
Hydropsyche, +h
H
H
H

yoid bones | in salamanders, 87.

Hyracotherium, 994-996.

Ichthydium, 583.
Ichthyophis glutinosus, Sarasin on, 1035-
Ichthyosaurus, 567.
na aho Ba beds . 458.
ioplasm 3 .
Igel- Kei eoii braunite and hausmannite,
Imbedding-baske ets, eta
apparatus, 101,
Donna of the o consciousness, 400-
aro boulders ta the Upper Minnesota Valley,

India, birds a 189.
Indiana birds, 291.
flora, origin of, 1132.
Universit , 685.
Indices of = coud apes, 637-
ens
nsect hus, 994
na per light, 383.

ars 579-
nary organs of, 388.
Instruction, biologi

nula hilenium

Irish marine faunz, yin the ya Islands, 685-
Isopods, deep-sea ;
Isosoma hordei, sie |

Isospondyli, 1018-1019.

Inversion of the germinal layers in Hesperomys, : ‘s

Index to

ade, ae ee in America, 96.

ames, J. F. origi n of ] Indiana Ped 1132.
origin o , 1009-1011.
the a ikweais; Ge

anthænas, 583-

, geo of, 369.

ersey
Ge. ‘Brat = fishes and reptiles from

eude,

ordan’s science sketc shes
fournals, niic, 45
ulus ellipticus, 8r.
burkei
Jurassic ee 446.

Eaa Tete, 373.

cake iun; ro61.
ear ritherium, 106,

11.
?

1012

ty ~~
Key to «sg a femily of sponges, 935.
Kickx, i:
— ef gold- min set ey
Ki +) ac cepts sig of biology
in ina diana Peive, 6

conventionalism i in ancient American art, 713.

r Heat, and Sun-
on een of of spiders, by Kowalevsky
orientation for section cutting, 102.
science and duty
summer echoch « biol 747-

= und Ordnungen des h hierreichs, Bronn,
Klein, C., 601.
Klossia, 18.
Knäuel, 14
_ Knox, Arthur Edward, 686
Koninck, L. G. de, death, 1
Korschelt, E., assistant in koolonid institute of
‘the Univers gY of Berlin, 953.
$ rgans of smell in arthropods,
Kurtodon, 1020.
Kynoblast, 426.
— ni Arnad
Lal yrinthala, 18.
parallelism between the characters of
larvæ and PETN Y donee 1030.
Fea Ghr. A van der Sande, 493-
- Mistassin Lo

, Ont., 267.
entomologist, death, 684.

Vol. XXI.

1145

Leuco
pant bse nb ioc a ant
n pper
639.

nt
praras 686.

Lithoph

Littorina ioe talpenen or introduced, 287.
cardinalis

]

]

]

eee, histo: AT
iverpool Bey una ah) 581.
Lobelia ee 75.
Lockwood, S sor pn the sea-horse, 111.

sa p Fork group, 457-
shiten PP EE 945-

roxephyllum, 19.
pror sit sP
Huber called to Zoological Institute in

Ly ait

Lycopodium fo a 554

Ly — Pit aad ebitiviar, ts
Piera ye

Machzerodus catocopis, -n
ee 993-

Mac
Malpighian ey a f cockroach, 388
Mammalia, a t of, 394-
Mammals, 93,585 +93» 5857 wah. 86r.

š a a6
Mio By B., review of the progress of N. A
æontology in 1 886, 53. Vs by Imperial

al station at

rocks of, 371-
, habits of, 211.
steine, 172.
ve rocks, texture of, 375-

assive

Mastodon,

Materials ‘of the Appalachians,

Mather, Fred., dom a
a mink gnaws iron

seid fowl, 778-

1146

Mayer, gaa microtechnical notes by, 1040.

„Ma .» appointed professor of botany in
aiversity o Tokio, 1044.
Bride, T. Mar ere botanigi carts
MeCertez, D. De
McMurric! S 3
Megalonyx beds, 459
Meionite, 3-

>, H., a new species of Motoma, 191.
paii ‘570.
Mesodon, 84.
Mesohippus, 1067.
som of North America, 445.
ya mon a Isr.
Mon
Metazoa, o oiea of, 334, 419.
Meteorites, 72,
Method of phot

icrocosm, the lake as a, 1044,
Microlepidaci wn oe aoe.
€, 477-
Maea dem,
R rein mata, 18 18, 1, 15
icrotechni notes, fake
Microtome, Ryder’ s, Gk

Mi igation’ot of the American magpie to Eastern

ae ‘the, 60
ee of Wesley ao community in the

1 ousi il news, 373, 662 ó 850, I1
and petrography, 66o, SEN

Mitsikuri K. ihe turning inside out,

Möbius, Kari, is to Berlin as pna LA el
A aii

eyes, preparation of,

i distribution of, 83- ge

notes on, 194, 291, 392, 780,

A P., the genus Geaster, 1026,
and origin of the ickheyoonertele.

Index to Vol. XXI,

t. Lebanon region, geology of, 3
ME Licancaur, 558. 4 fs:

Muir ae 255, 3 360.
doch, J., on East Greenlanders, 133
errors E aie Eskimo, 9
Mocsde ea nace structure of, 3

po nie fa light perception, 384.
fui ey pe te 384.
Nae Fon oa Ca ‘
a ‘development of, 293-
Myzo: a, Nansen’s, 186.

Naples water-bath, 951.

National Academy of Sciences, the, 1046.
herbarium, the, 7

scam Science Association of Staten Island, 1045

Nava: ee ing, 98.
x ata of,

Nelson, a J» significance of sex, 16, 138, 216.
eoce

New Britain n gr rou p, 3

New pelts, “ie bate museum, Berlin,
completed, 6
New Guinea
New Fpa fe ‘Fish and Game Commission, 788.
New ory Cre s, 66.
New York Acai os ‘af "Sciences, 688.
Sagara Rive, veel of, 269.
56x.

pilke Malabar, 322.
cate il, 20.
mphodus, 1020.
Niobrara l group, 44
, 457-
Noctiluca, pe

Notonect:
edena Zemlia, — of, 386.
uclear figu

Nuclei, m

aes, X73

Nucleoplasm, 3, 35, 15

Nursing in Dendr era 307-

0 ns on = female form of Phengodes
laticollis Horn

Ocimum, 324.
Odium antitheologicum, 356.
Ocbbecke, K., 304.
Se es L., 985.
my

Ohio Archaetostea and Historical? Quarterly, Pg
| Olfa organs of arthropods,

of i ink d 2
Oligocene, 456.
Sites 1114

Oliv
lees iair ae us, 139.
Open wave 138.

lus, 190

ell in — a gga
Oaa inim n
Origin of a small race © turkeys 350.
of A: eg lo ps! terms,
of cave faune
of pr bang dlio and on C

$ z
structures in the placentÆ of ine mouses?

Index to

Origin of the Fittest, 465.
of the North American flora, 1009.
_ of tomato

vot

cephalic vicies, 40.
Osborn, H L., 0
Crustacea, 673
Sosa of opa. 486.
Osteolepididæ, 1
n the, 10
Oudemans, a. C., 106.
Oviposition in Dendrobates, 307.
25.

ists,

P oF

.

SHER 19, 135.

ve gi pus, 106r,
Pac pe eoat glaciation, 250,
S., abstract of Hauser on organs of
sapa in insects, 279.

cave fauna, 82.
on Kraepelin’ s organs of smell in arthropods,
2.
Packard’s fossil arthropods, 1100.
Paleoniscidse, 1018,
Palzontology in America in 1886, 532.
Palsotheriiti, os 1066.
Palzotherium, 23,
cr; mC ., 1067.
_ Palestine, rocks of, see :
omni į C birds ro pottery, 97-
mer irds roosting in town, i
Paloplotherium, 1067. z pe

oplot
Palpi of spiders and myriapods, function of, 384.
ra udina, spermatozoa, 22, 23.

» 458.

ioe i r

fungi, opa their host-plants, injuries pro-
> ie
ifer, rose
h es,
Parenchymelia theory, 421.
Parnassia

Pe a

S
renesis, artificial, 484.
illiam, eyes of mollusks and arthro-

n'on EE A oligoclase, and titanite,

Son and E. G., duration of memory
in wasps, 1038.

moths,
fauna

i of,
S 400.
news, es ai. 568, 660, 761, 848,

Vol, XX. 1147

Petrosani of Pipi Islands, 273.

of S
Phagocyte sella fe tang 427.
ape degen 426.
Phaseol
Phenac ins

nengeting po
Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, 687.
Philo
Philonth ag ee
ere EA 585.
Phoma, 27
Pucsphaleosiansd in an earth-worm, 773-
Physa, 85.
piyas 53-
Physianthus.
Physiology ‘of “planes, vines, 266.
Pig “fe edin oa experiments in, 396.
Piret, sperm
Pike, Nicolas, marine alge,
Pilsb: n Floridan PE 287.
Pimpine Fog
— hitek of Chetonians the rudimentary, 1126.

oo of, 178.

ro
Pieauingheraice, 1018.
Planorbes of da, 286.
Planorbis, 286.

mel asats; 276.

Planit buckthorn, 442.
Planula theo: "Y, 34 46.
Plasmodia

>

Pocket-ra'

Po oan S., St. Sy es died, 684.
en, François G. L.

Pollen-tubes p lobelia area
cotylus

Polytoma, 139: R tees
Pomatomus, parasite
— a, petrography of, 273.
Porphyrie ‘Cutting Eocene, 471.
Portchi

nski on flies bie in a phy z stage

1148

Potts, Edw., fresh-water i sponges, 111
Practical Botany, Strasburger and

Parihi s explorations, 652.
Preparation of mollusc eyes, 401.
Pria ope 793:

Prick!

an Society rm > fa

45.
Prochromatin, 1 ee

Progress nology in America, 963.
Prophas eget

Pro placula, 347.
Protapirinæ, 994.

corpions, anatomy of, 583.
Puieescoshertiisn megalodus. , 469-
multifragum, 469.

5
Tæniodonta, 469.
Pug-dog and Chihuahua dog, the, 1125.

Pyroxene, 1025.
Pyrrhotite, 1026,

Rabbit, spermatozoa
Rabbits, Australian, i in i Adelie: 265.
» 204.

ting N. Archer, death, 869.
Range of variation of the human shoulder-blade,

Ranvier, L. L., 303.
Rare Indiana birds, 291.

intelligence of, 295.
0zoa.

S 52i.
un, Richard, Ceelenterates, 1033.
rie, 211.
Raymond, Tei fish-hawk, 1138.
Recent investigations of American minerals, 1021.
~- publicatio

’ To
tion of chromic solutions in animal tissues,
Repi me aara Stenders Sp of Ancon, Peru,
completed, 9

Rejavenece ng S
of the dorsal commissures of the brain
to the sear yen of the encephalic eae

R v. S Fish
eport U.

Reptiles of Brazil, 388.
Reptilia, 861

of mind to matter, fies the, too
Commission,

Index to

illhouse’s,

n Creodonta
| Scurvy-grass, a
Scymnus, 54

| Sea-cow (Rytina) exterminated, 1047-
-horse, I

Vol. XXT.

Rice, William North, Stizostedium vitreum in
the basin of the Connecticut, 938.
ieks son, E. L wk a
idgway’s Manu oh
Nomenclature of Couns
Rink’s paper on th . begat Gevehlontiang 749.
Rinne, faujasite, 1
ivers, , Phengodini, 1118,
Rivers, length of, S58,
Rock te s in Swe n, 69.
Eia 77:
pcos fennel » 59.
Rom , Prof., and the Michigan Geological
sie,
RSE SSE Massige orm 172.

Ru lótonite, analysis, 72.
Rutile, 1025 Aaa i
Rutley, on RAN ills, rrrr.
Rra J: A., development wa an eight-limbed
verte brate, 862.
inversion of the germinal layers in Hespero-
mys, 863.
new im dding apparatus, 597-
origin of placental types and on Certain vesti-
ek iy structures in the reo centz of =
in the
a8
Kydes pary eLA 298.
Saber-tooth = from Loup Fork beds, t019.
Saccha nomre
Saccobranch:
— of Crino » 289.
Safranophil,

Fodor, ereilea, 1125.

ary i ap " shells, 83-
mula waaga ueous origin

ied the drift, in = Misso issouri, 917.
andberger, origin of graphite, 1113
Sanistones of Pennsylvania, the four great, 1055-
ord, E., on the growing parts of white pine,
eens
Saprophytes, 1. r

Sarasin, development of the Cæcilians, 1035.
Sarcolite p 373-
Saurians a the Fox Hills Cretaceous, 563-
oan tidæ eii
Tome
Seapolie z aig , H., goes to Bremen, 7
Schisomyeites of Encyclopedia Ti mi 77:
Scholars fe gaa Cr or er

cholarshi ucretia Cr , 684.
Schu "method of preparing the amphibian

ann

Science and tw À! on
Science i p
Scientific. i C Ra in England, 189-
Sco oe nes oe aber E
“mesate 1025.

Scorpion, development of, 140, 201

Sea-anem ee, parasitic, 582.
TI.

Sea: nt,
ne urchin »P poisonous, 193-
tion-sm
Segmental pem p blastic ori origi gin of, pos a
in elasmobranchs, origin of,
Selachii, 1019.

» Snowy owl, 290
Solan elong
Doiy um gera E975

Index to

Sense-organs of arthropods, 182.
auia, p

of Turbellarians, 1031.

the genus, 1
Sex, significance of o a ah 211;
99-

a aisia
characte i in eee, 88.
A. B., = et by parasitic
Pct < ae
ah ea
Shufeldt, R

ider 1024.
ome ae of sex, a 138, 211.
Silk-worm diseases, 482.
wegen at a n arthropods, 182.

Şnilodon fatalis Leidy, 1

Smith nursin = wil a a in the
otal ry Deso Ð

geo, . B., 494.

-, Bacteria, r.

» 354-
so earthquake of
re a Mosisippi, 6 7 3, 1887, 1104.
ion, 162.
Spain, 362 562
Sparrow, spe
Spelerpes penis chi Holbrook, in the vicinity
of TTY D. C., 672.
Spencer, Za hillocks ane boulders of decom-

iy

meande at Brantford, Ontario, 267.
boulders he drift, or subaqu
gaip ‘the drift i in Central Missouri, 917-
š soe = e-i crust in relation to the
I

Spencer, W, Baldwin, 208.

<n structure of the pineal eye in Lacer-

‘a sport oa called to Geissen, 788.

a, 946.
mir 21, 41.

eR cea £
i Lof as ee of, 294, 674.

Ee irnak, 391.

Vol. -XAL

Araujia albens as a moth-trap,

1149
pen L., sea-cow (Rytina), exterminated,
047.

Siia

bothrus 23.
Stenote division, 152. ;
ny

wren
Stephens, Jibs new species of Dipodom arte ams
Derr es H., on yellow fever bacilli culture,
Sti dium vitreum in the Connecticut, 9:
Soniapa of the Challenger rete n Egy 393-
Strata and thrusts, 267.

Straw mato, 53-
Students as collectors, 477»
Studer, Bernard, death, 953-
Study of 1a, 2
of plant diseases

Sturtevant, n L., iso of omia ne

321, 433, ney 826, 90
Stylodontidz, 10
Stylonychia, soc
Stylorhynchus, 18.
Sumatra, 561.

Sunflowers and Long
Sweden, science in, 499.
Symborodon, 1063.

rigonocerus,
Synagodus retusus, 1125.

mansue! 126.
Syncitium, 18
Synergid, 220,
Sy oa 485.
Synoic cag
ibe a co the Hymenoptera of America north

of Mexico, 772-
Synthesis s of saga 475-
Systemodon, 99
T sic ogy, 270.
n restated, 114.

s etn 238, 3
T: system, from the Puerco, 469-
Tæniosomi cha zed, 86.
Tantalite,

Tapirus, 189. ;
Tare xacum officinale, 911.

Taxistia, off migration of
T Popa 2 rene Nebraska, 1122.
issouri River crow-roosts, 112
Teall, J. J., hornblende 660.
Teeth of Rigo , 3.
Temi mounting, 4
Tenney, $ SG. — of 1 Collyrio, 90.
Tenore Vin nçen:
Terias lisa, 548.
Terquem, a we 104
tos he glands in the foot of nudibranch
molluscs, an 89
Testudinata morphogeny of Carapace, "9;
Tent aes 199-
Texas, Cret: of, 469.
© a of, 172-
assicolla, ©
Seth Meeting of A. A. À. 869.
Thirty-sixth argues 2 jcntition, 1101 i
' E. H , ruined cities of ¥ , 787-
Thompson, Elizabeth, fund, 686.
rusts and strata, 267-
Ticholeptus beds, 456-
Tissues, 26.
Titanite, 1114-
O: O, > 55-
gin of, 573-
t,
stra Jerusalem,
Tomb near the Holy Sepulchre, aod
ery t, 865.

II50 Lndex to

Topaz, r
emi axis of, 2
eben Malteetene
ry, Ch., when tals = pi esa III

Tourmaline, t sg Rage Characters, 275:

Towns teratol of the antlers
fC: Caia columbian, Io a

Toxopneustes, 2

Trachelocerca, eo

Trachypterus, 86.

p — 8
Tradesca 141.
ieee William 6 86.

PE o PREE ee ite,

ibe gone mg hie comet upon his duties
at ves o of Kiel,
TTR Mary riparia, var. multiconcha,
Treek and branches, 70.
Trias, 659.
Triassic system, 446.
Trichoplax, 349.
Triodopsis, 84.
T poodi. 992.
aaan ren
Triton, spermato:
Trois, Henri, liquid her preserving larve, 772.
Tropidono
bises k bag
clarkii B. G., in 5 Soudeers Louisiana, 672.
Trouessart’s microbes, ferments, and moulds, 551.
oe beds, 456, 458.
ie e, F, W.,a new bat, Vespertilio longicrus,

Trybom, F., present condition of natural sci-
409

Tran 19,
unicates, notes on, 3J:
Turkey -skull > 777- or
Turkeys, origin of a small race of, f 350.
Tylophora eens » 615
Tyndale Glacier, 361
ypotho:

nderwood, pee M., progress of arachnology
in America,

Universal lang age,
University instruction i in biology, 507.
Unnat
Urinary — eae invertebrates, 388.
Uronautes 564.

Urostyl: a, I 9.

Uruguaya, 11

U. S. Fish e A T report for 1883, 555.

S aa Survey, report of the, 1099.
Ustilago, 47
. Valerian, African, 50.
bannir en alitoa Í Moench., 831.
Vanadinite, 374, 1022.
Vegetable pathology, 277
bs TRA » history of, 125, 321, 432, 520.
es on, gt,
iraran derge Zoa, g5 103 291, 391, 487.
classification of, 9
eiai ba ‘ene
ilio longicrus, a new ba‘
Vetch, Chickling, 712 >

Villarsi
Vine’s Bitelogy of Plants, 266,
Vitality of buried seeds, 666.
ladoceria eggs, “86.
on encysted forms, 485.
Lemar $ illustrations of, nena,
., chair botany nT
Volcanic bor! nbs, 271. nent E

Minerals of Peri, 273

Vol. XXI

y new, m
so ig W prag i righ ge
1034-
WwW po og we ? Carboniferous fishes, 1044-
Wortman’s Teeth of Vertebrata,
Wright, G. F., on giaciarion of Pa Paci c coast,’
bed right ne E. M., fid bs,
i 10
S Argulus ; and mortality of BS 188.
ore cells, 18, >

Volken’s privat-docent in botany at Berlin, digi
Von Lendenfeld on sponges, 856. j

Notre y i IQ, 140, 219.

Vulpian, F. A., death, 953.

Wadsw se E., director of Michigan Mining
Sch cal

Wagner, fine death, 953.

behead H. L., life-history of Monachus tropicalis,
th a et Indian s seal, 257.

Warping of earth and its relations to great lakes,

Wass itch group, 453.

Washakie group, 454.

Sara Maia $ 303.

| Webskyite, 1

Webster, Cenei L., on the glacial flow ied
758-7

Weed, Clarence M., genera of North American

35- a.
ag sot ce of nits ving rias of insects, 932. i
on EAA enia pop 4
Weight of brain i Eya 389.
Weinkauf, H. C.,
Werneburg, A., pre
West Indian seal, 257.
Western grebe, 2gr. Í
Weawats extension of the black walnut, Ti 3
Whale-fishing, Bergen, Norway, Armau

sen, 685.

Wheaton, John M., 686.
White pints growing parts of, 182.

Whithield, ra nS New Jersey Cretaceous, 66.
Whitman, C. Oi;
biological iara ilS on in universities, 507-
Wilder, B. G., brain of Ceratodus, 545. $
want sification of Vertebrata, 913-
mite, , 102
Wilhams. HS. methods of instruction in ee
eral geology,
Wilso = ve pee on the study of moulds,
Wilson ae ae oe translation of Me
germ layers; 334; 419-
Wilson, Thomas, death
Winchell,

Witch -hazel, 354 PEPEN
Wolle’s Fresh-Water Algæ of the United States,

ake rat,

er bacillus Ke 1133-
Tee
Yucca, fertilization ge 484.
Zeisberger’s a dictionary, Pri

Želi mis C., ias dre h 13t
unie )
Ziel ual of of Palzeontology, rot, o19

= Un ger bi vot Halle, 953- the vestiges
Zonary de in the mouse, the
Zonites l beg 779-
d news, 67
Zoey o of rade 189.
eres, 221.
Zymog in granules, 20.

s og vigin ii y > a
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