AMEKICAN NATURALIST. THE STATUS OF THE ALGO-LICHEN HYPOTHESIS. BY THOMAS A. WILLIAMS. I" treating this subject it will not be out of place to give first a short history of the growth of knowledge concerning lichens and their structure. The earlier lichenologists knew but very little of lichens as now understood, and comparatively nothing as to their internal structures. Asthe magnifying power of microscopes was in- creased, so the knowledge of the lichen thallus was increased. The affinities of lichens to the discomycetous fungi on theone hand and to the algee on the other were early noticed and commented upon, and some species have been alternately placed among the fungi, then among the lichens, and others have been repeatedly changed from lichens to alge, and vice versa. Later authors, as Cornu and Tulasne, consider the lichen very near if not belonging to the As- comycetes, while De Bary, Krabbe, and others place them among the Ascomycetes without any doubt as to that being the proper place for them.’ Lately Cora and several other genera have been placed among the lichens under the name of Hymenolichens—1.e., lich- 1 Stahl found the reproductory organs of Collema to be very similar to those of the Discomycetes.* Borzi confirmed Stahl’s observations by his own. Fiinfstiick, after a study of the development of the apothecia of Pel- tigera and Nephroma, believed that ‘‘ the reproduction is by apogamy, with rudimentary sexual organs, as in Podosph:xra among the Discomy- cetes.” De Bary says (Morph. and Biol. of Fungi, etc.): ‘‘ The formation of the perithecia of lichens from the primordial coils of hyphz follows in general the same course as that of Xylaria, Polystigma, etc.” This is con- firmed by the observations of Krabbe, Fiisting, and others who have made an extended study of the Cladoniz, Sphyridium, Lecanora, Lecidea, etc, A 2 _ The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis. ens which, according to Johow, are made up of the hyphal ele- ments of a hymenomyceteous fungus and an alga. Massee claims to have discovered a Gasterolichen. So that now we have lichens placed among the Ascomycetes and the Basidiomycetes, and by good authority. Wallroth (1825) was the first to make any study of the gonidia. He was followed by Koerber (1839), who studied them more fully than did Wallroth. But not until 1851 was made anything like an ex- planation as to their probable origin and subsequent growth. This. was done by Bayrhoffer. He asserted that the gonidia came from the *‘ fibrous stratum, the fibres of which swelled at the top and produce male gonidia." Speerschneider, who was the next to study the gonidia, differed from Bayrhoffer on some points, but agreed as to their probable origin. Schwendener, in his earlier works, took a similar view, basing his argument on the fact that the gonidia, many of them, seemed to be connected with the ends of the hyphe. De Bary, in his work of 1865, agreed with Schwendener as to the heteromerous lichens, but in case of such species as belong to the Collemaces, etc., he said: ‘‘ Either the lichens in question are the perfectly developed states of plants whose imperfectly developed forms have hitherto stood among the alge as Nostocacee and Chroococces, or the Nostocaces» and Chroococcee are typical algæ, which assume the form of Collema, Ephebe, etc., through certain parasitic Ascomycetes penetrating into them, spreading their myce- lium into the continuously growing thallus and becoming attached to their phycochrome-containing cells." This gave to Schwendener the idea of dualism which he afterward formulated and presented tothe world. Such wasthe beginning of the much-debated ** Algo- Lichen hypothesis." Schwendener in this famous theory declares. that all lichens, so-called, are dual organisms, consisting of a fungus, parasitic upon an alga,whole colonies of which it envelops with hyphe.. These alge he divides into two classes, Phycochromaces, or those with bluish-green coloring matter, phycochrome, and Chlorophyl- laceæ, or those containing chlorophyll. The first of these he di- vides into five types: 1, Sirosiphones ; 2, Rivularies ; 3, Scytone- mem; 4, Nostocaces ; 5, Chroococces. The latter he separates into three types : 1, Gotiferteoód: 2, Chroolepides ; 3, Palmellaces. To some one of these types, he Sarnia, the gonidia of every lichen could be referred. About this time Famentzin and Baranetzky by cultivating the gonidia of several lichens Ka [ T'heloschistes] parietina, etc.) The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis. 3 produced zoospores. ‘These in time developed into unicellular alge, and by judicious management they produced several generations. Although they drew different ideas from this the Schwendenerians immediately took this as an argument for the dualism of lichens. Later (1872) Woronin confirmed the observations of Famentzin and Barentzky by his own experiments made with Parmelia pulverulenta. When Schwendener propounded his theory one of the first to accept it was E. Bornet. He immediately began a series of obser- vations and experiments to prove it. In his treatment of this sub- ject (An. de Sc. Nat., vol. 17, ser. 5) he divides his observations into two divisions corresponding to those of Schwendener—i.e., those made upon lichens with chlorophyll-bearing gonidia, and lich- ens with phycochrome-bearing gonidia. Under the chlorophyll- bearing gonidia he found those belonging to such genera as Tren tepohlia, Phyllactidium, Protococcus, Cystococcus, Pleurococeus, etc. He found the gonidia of several of the Opegraphe, as O. varia, to be Trentepohlia. The branches of the alga were found ramifying the tissues of the bark, frequently going so far that the hyphe of the lichen-fungus could not follow them. As they near the outer sur- face of the bark the hyphe and alge became more and more inter- laced until they reached the thallus proper. When studied at all ages of the thallus the nature of the relations between the two were easily seen to be such as to preclude every chance of the one being developed from the other. The study of other lichens with simi- lar gonidia, as Verrucaria nitida, Rocella phycopsis, Chiodecton nigro- cinctum, etc., led to the same conclusions. The gonidia of Opeg. felicina he found to bea Phyllactidium. The broad thallus of this alga was so large that the hyphe did not en- tirely envelop it, but by gradually branching, surrounded parts of it. and even sent small branches into it. He found in an old thallus of Opegrapha varia the normal filaments of Trentepohlia together with sporangia, showing that it could not be the ‘‘ first stage of the lichens," but was an entirely separate plant. He sowed the spores of Physcia (Theloschistes) parietina on Protococcus viridis, and found that the hyphe of the germinating spores readily enveloped the algæ, and did not envelop any other objects with which they came in contact. He also sowed spores apart from the alge, and although germinating and producing hyphe as did the others, they produced no gonidia and died as soon as the nourishment from the spore was consumed. He obtained similar results with Biatora muscorum. E The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis. As to those lichens containing phycochromgonidia, he found that Colothrix furnished gonidia for Lichina pygmea and confinis; Scytonema and Lyngbya were found in such genera as Pannaria, Erioderma, and Stereocaulon (Cephalodia); Nostoc was found in Col- lema and allied genera; Etigonema in Ephebe, Spilonema, etc. ; and Gloocapsa in Synallisa, Cora, Omphalaria, and similar genera. Some- times he found the alga to be very little changed by the parasitism as in Ephebe and Spilonema; at others they were so changed as to be recognized only with difficulty. Two modes of contact were noticed : 1. Where the hyphæ are applied simply to the surface of the algz, as in Peltigera, Stictina, etc. 2. Where the hyphai branches enter the algal cells, as in Physcia, Omphalaria, etc. From these observations he draws the following conclusions: that since Trentepohlia, Phyllac- tidium, etc., are so complex in their nature, and since no instance of the hyphe enlarging and producing them has been found, and since these alge (Phyllactidium, Trentepohlia, Nostoc, Protococcus, etc.) are found in the free state, there can be no doubt of the dual nature of those lichens containing them, and that, 1st, all gonidia can be referred to some algal type; and, 2d, the relations between hyphz and gonidia are such as to exclude all possibility of one be- ing produced from the other, and the theory of parasitism alone can explain these relations satisfactorily. Reess made a series of cultivations with spores of Collema glauces- cens sown with Nostoc lichenoides. By careful manipulation he produced a complete Collema thallus, butlacking the fruits. Hesaw the germinating spores ‘‘send out hyphs which branched and forced themselves into the Nostoc." Treub used the gonidia of one species of lichen and the spores of another. His success was similar to that of Reess Stahl uses the hymeneal gonidia and spores of Endocarpon pusil- lum and spores of Thelidiwm minutulum. He succeeded in produ- cing a fully developed thallus, showing that these hymenial gonidia are ejected at the same time as the spores, to serve as gonidia for the young plants. He cultivated these hymenial gonidia separately, and found them to grow and divide just as do the undoubted unicellular alge. Lately Bounier has succeeded in producing a complete lichen thallus with mature fruits by using lichen spores and alge. Among the botanists in the United States who have favored Schwendenerism in their later works are Dr. Asa Gray, Dr. Bessey, H. Willy, ete. Most of the English lichenologists, together with Koerber, Nyland- The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis. 5 er, and Th. Fries, oppose the theory of ‘‘ dualism of lichens.” There are, however, several different ideas as to the origin of the gonidia, Fries holding one opinion, Nylander another, and Crombie, taking a mean between the two, seems to believe either. Muller supports the **micro-gonidia" theory of Dr. Minks, as did the la- mented Professor Tuckerman. Nylander, while acknowledging the external similarities between lichens and ascomycetous fungi, asserts, as does Crombie, that there are too many differences between them to admit of their being placed together. ‘‘ The hyphz of lichens,” he says, ‘‘ are perennial, tough, thick-walled, straight, and insoluble in hydrate of potassium, while the hyphe of all fungi are soft, thin- walled, flexuous, immediately dissolved in hydrate of potassium." Besides the ** Lichenian reaction " is seen in all lichens and in none of the fungi. Both these points are denied by many eminent lichen- ologists and fungologists. De Bary has found the **Lichenian re- action” in several undoubted fungi. Hartog, de Seynes, etc., say that fungal hyph are no more soluble in hydrate of potassium than are lichen hyphe. Nylander also speaks of the ‘‘ improbability " of the lichen hyphe being endowed with the reason and sagacity necessary to search out a peculiar kind of alge which it may imprison and press into ser- vice.” 1 He further urges, as does Crombie and others, that no alge will grow in such bare, exposed places as those chosen by most lich- ens. Cooke, who uses this same argument, says further that those lichens that do grow in low, wet places, as Collema, etc., are by some authors supposed to be alge themselves and therefore should not be used in an argument for Schwendenerism. Nylander, how- ever, takes an opposite view and places many of the alg: of Schwen- dener and Bonet, etc. (such as Sirosiphon, Scytonema, Stig: nema, Nostoc, Trentepohlia, etc.) among the lichens, as he has found fruits upon them. But he finds no hyphe. From these discoveries he argues that even if there is parasitism, itis not that of a fungus upon an alga, but rather of a lichen upon a lichen. He was one of the first to place Cora among the lichens. Crombie says that finding and producing of zoospores in free gonidia does not prove that gonidia are identical with alge, but that they are only similar to them. The autonomists raise quite an objection as to the relative size of 1 Why isit that any parasite, either vegetable or animal, is generally limit- ed to but one or at most to but a few species upon which it feeds ?—Heredity, etc. 6 The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis. “ Parasite" and ** Host,” and insist that there can be no such @ thing as a * mutual benefit" parasitism in nature as is claimed to be present in case of the lichen-fungi and the algæ. The latter ob- jection Sargent explains (Am. Mo. Mic. Jour., Feb., 1887) by say- ing that while the alge furnish the necessary nourishment for the fungus, the latter in turn protects the former from excessive dry- ness and sunshine, allowing only enough softened light as is neces- sary to decompose the carbon dioxide, and, by acting as a sponge, takes up water readily and retains it, thus insuring at least a mod- erate supply of water for the alge even in dry weather ; moreover, it is a well-known fact that fungi in growing give off carbonic diox- ide. This the lichen hyphe furnish to the alge, and they in turn give back oxygen, etc., to the hyphe. As to the fact that some lichens grow in comparatively dry places. he thinks that this is not & very serious objection, since in some lichens we have hymenial gonidia which are ejected together with the spores; in others sore- dia, by means of which new plants can be formed without the aid of spores. Again, the species of alge supposed to act as gonidia are those species that have become adapted to the frequent dry spells incident to terrestrial life. He further insists that the differ- ences between the fungal-algal elements of a lichen and free-living fungi and alge are just those differences that would result from the parasitical relationship claimed by the dualists. Nylander says that in no case do the gonidia arise from the hyphæ, but from the parenchymatous cortical cells observed by him in the prothalline filaments of germinating spores. Crombie for- merly held that the gonidia might come from the hyphs or the hyphe from the gonidià. Later, he says the gonidia are of thalline origin. He claims to have seen the germination of spores and growth of young lichen thalli on rocks, etc., where no alge or gonidia could be seen. At first only the young hyphs were seen. Later. go- nidia were found. These he believes to have originated in certain glomerules noticed on the young hypothallus. These glomerules he claims contain gonidia in various stages of development. They finally become thicker and form the cortical layer. He then uses Nylander’s explanation as to the free state of the gonidia in the in- terior of the thallus: *‘ The cortical stratum gradually increasing and extending is at the same time dissolved (resorbed. physiologically speaking) beneath, and the gonidia consequently become free.” Crombie says further that “the contact between the hyphs and gonidia is in no way genetic or parasitic. . . . The gonidia are The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis. 7 neither adnate to or penetrated by the hyphæ, but only adherent to them by the lichenin. . . . Imall cases the apparent union is simply amylaceous adherence, and the fancied penetration the result of erroneous observation.” He says that Stahl’s observations are of no account, as he is a very careless observer, etc. Koerber, who is one of the best of observers, while he opposes Schwendener, admits that ‘‘ the germinating spores must have free gonidia belonging to the same species in order to develop a complete thallus,” but that * these gonidia are not algæ belonging to the lich- ens as a fungus, but gonidia previously separated from the thallus and which have become ‘asynthetic.’” He practically admits the * whole thing. Hartog says, speaking of Crombie's arguments, that he either utterly ignores the strongest points in favor of **l'arasitism " or laughs at them and says **improbable," or that they are the result of ** poor work " and * erroneous observation." 'To use a favorite Cookian phrase, both Cooke and Crombie answer many of the best arguments in favor of ** Dualism of Lichens” simply by ** rhet- oric." It is a noticeable fact that in a new country where new groves of trees are being planted, before the trees show any signs of lichens they are covered, especially on the north side, by ** green slime,” and the thicker the **green slime” the more rapid is the growth of the liehens when they doappear. Again, it is noticeable that when lich- ens begin to grow on fences and trees they take the dampest, cool- est, shadiest places first, and gradually, if it all, extend to the dryer places, as seen on fences where boards cross the posts, where the lichens may be seen to extend a short way from the post along the centre of the board, avoiding the dry, windy edges. Our largest lichens are almost always found in the darkest woods. These facts show that lichens in general are not the ** lovers of light, dry places," as one author claims. But on the contrary, while they do not choose such places as do the saprophytic fungi, they generally choose places where plenty of the lower algæ are to be found. Most of the botanists who have made any experiments with spores, gonidia, and alge have obtained results conclusive enough to con- vince them that Sehwendener is right. In conclusion, we now have lichens belonging to the Ascomycetes, the Hymenomycetes, and the Gastromycetes, according to most of our latest and best authors. "The gonidia are pretty conclusively proven to be algæ, notwithstanding Crombie's ** rhetoric ;” and the 8 Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. parasitism of the fungus hyphe on the alge has not only been shown to be possible but quite probable, and to be the only way to explain the peculiar relations existing between hyphe and alge sat- isfactorily. Schwendenerism, like ‘‘ The Heterocism of Rusts,” may be considered as a settled fact, and our ‘‘ beloved lichens” must sooner or later be placed among the fungi, where they rightly be- long. The University of Nebraska, Dec., 1888. AMONG THE ANCIENT GLACIERS OF NORTH WALES. BY F. JOHNSTON EVANS. quce are few spots in the British Isles which present so many attractions to the geological tourist as that most picturesque of localities into which the traveller by rail from Holyhead is suddenly ushered when the “‘ Wild Irishman ” express, which had been rush- ing at the rate of some sixty miles an hour across the Island of An- glesea, after emerging from the Menai tunnel, somewhat abruptly pulls up at Bangor station. Around on every side are piled strange rock formations, tilted and upturned in every conceivable fashion. Within a comparatively short distance are the famous slate quarries of Penrhyn, in themselves a beautiful study; while in nearly an op- posite direction are visible the lofty summits of Snowdon and Cader- Idris. Let the reader accompany me in imagination into the midst of this magnificent mountain region, our special object being to wander and speculate, for a brief space, among the ancient glaciers of North Wales. Proceeding through the Vale of Llanberris, we per- ceive, lying high above the road, near the top of the pass, a huge block of stone which has long attracted the notice of even the least obser- vant traveller. It is perched on the edge of a rock a few hundred feet above the bottom of the valley, on its northern flank—that is to say, on the left hand of the traveller who is ascending the pass. It is from fifteen to twenty feet long, and six or seven feet high, sharp and angular as on the first day that it was detached from the parent mass. It rests on a face of rock which, for a few feet, slopes sharply towards the valley beneath, and then ends in a perpendic- ular face of rock, and it is so lightly poised on its narrow base, that Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. 9 a finger-touch would seem sufficient to dislodge it from its precari- ous position. The thought involuntarily occurs, how came it there? What agency could have transplanted it thither without rounding or breaking off a single corner, and left it where it stands, with so cautious and gentle a hand that it rests securely not at the edge but on the side of a steep and smooth incline? It is utterly impos- sible that it could have rolled thither; for if so, the momentum which carried it to its present position, must have precipitated it down the cliffs below. In all probability, any force which could have moved it three inches from the top of the incline on which it rests would have been sufficient to send it crashing down to the bottom of the valley. Hardly any traveller can have passed up the vale— from one part of which this rock forms a very conspicuous object— without having had some such thought presented to his mind. Those, however, who are aware that the existence of a great glacier in this valley at some remote period is a geological certainty, will be at no loss to recognize in this rock a remarkable and most charac- teristic specimen of those transported blocks whose occurrence in various parts of the world, at great distances from the parent for- mation, was so long a mystery to the philosophic inquirer, but which are now recognized as among the surest indications of glacial action. Climbing now from the high road to the block I have been de- scribing, we perceive that it is only one—although much the larger— of a great number of similar blocks, which are deposited in thesame manner on the sides and at the edges of the sloping or precipitous faces of rock which flank the northern side of the Vale of Llanber- ris. The greater part of these extend in a well-marked and toler- ably regular line, and at elevations varying from 300 to 500 feet above the course of the stream, for perhaps a mile further down the valley—until, in fact, its sides become too steep and precipitous to admit of such deposits being made. Clambering along this side of the valley, we examine the faces of the rock around and beneath these blocks, and find many of them—especially such as have not been exposed to the action of the water-courses which trickle down here and there into the stream below—deeply scored with the char- acteristic strie of glacial action. If we now cross to the opposite or southern side of the valley (the flank which lies beneath Snowdon), we shall find all the indications of glacial force—the deep notchings of the stris, the polished and rounded surfaces which continental geologists term rochers moutonnés, and the transported blocks poised 10 Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. in the most critical manner upon slopes which seem too steep to give them support—still more clearly and unmistakably exhibited. : The transported blocks and glacier scratches in the Vale of Llan- berris are so well known to geologists that I simply refer to them to call to the mind of the reader the general aspect of the phenomena which I am about to describe as occurring in other parts of the Snowdon district, where they are not so well known, or so univer- sally ascribed to the action of an extinct system of glaciers. Just at the top of the Vale of Llanberris, there is a hollow in the profile of the ridge which forms its northern boundary. It lies exactly be- tween the cluster of houses called Gorphwysfa on the south, and the lake of Cym-ffynnen, at the base of the two Glyders, on the north. A few hundred yards to the east or southeast of the lowest part, at a distance of not more than 300 yards from the great block of the Vale of Llanberris, there is a little round knoll of rock which rises by itself above the neighboring parts of the ridge. It is some- thing like an inverted basin, so that the ground falls away pretty steeply on either side, and the top is nowhere less than fifteen or twenty feet higher than the surrounding parts. Perched on the very top of this knoll, resting on three points of contact at most, is an irregular piece of rock, of a different formation from that upon which it rests, seven or eight feet long, three or four broad, and as many high. It has never been subjected to any process of abrasion or rounding, for every corner is perfectly sharp and angular—pre- senting in this respect a marked contrast to the rock on which it rests, which is round and smooth, and somewhat weather-worn. What could have brought this block to its resting-place? To have rolled thither it must have rolled some twenty-five feet up-hill, from whatever direction it had come. "The ridge, for some hundreds of yards on either side of the knoll, rises but gently, and presents an undulating surface, along which a sharp oblong, irregular block of stone could by no possibility have preserved for any distance a eonsiderable velocity: and between this knoll and the spur of the Glyder Fawr—the only considerable altitude within a mile of the spot—there is a hollow at least 150 feet in depth. But a little below the top of the knoll, on its eastern slope, is a still more remarkable block. 1t is about the same size as that which is seated on the summit of the knoll, and similarly sharp and angular, but consists of a coarse conglomerate of a very marked and peculiar kind, in which large round white pebbles, apparently of quartz, are imbedded in a kind of matrix, which looks like a coarse red sandstone. The Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. 11 most incurious person can hardly fail to be struck with the great difference between the character of this rock and the clay slate upon which it rests. If the observer casts his eye around him, he will be unable to see in any direction traces of a similar geological forma- tion in the neighboring rocks. A few feet further on, however, he will observe a third angular block of stone, larger than the others, but resting, like them, upon two or three points alone. He can hardly fail to be struck with the fact that these three blocks are in às exact and regular a line as if their places had been laid down by the nicest measurement. They run nearly northwest and southeast —about half a point to the west of N. W. and to the east of S. E.— that being the general direction of the ridge which descends from the spur of Glyder Fawr. If we now remount to the top of the knoll, we shall perceive that the side of the steep inclines towards the hollow referred to before, is dotted here and there with large blocks of stone resting gently upon the sloping rock, or imbedded in the turf. All these, on ex- amination, will turn out to possess the same sharp and angular character ; and all of these suggest the question: Is it possible they could have rolled so far up hill; and were it possible, could they be as sharp and unrounded as they are? Still. however, we see no sign of the red conglomerate. As we pursue our way north- west towards the spur of the Glyder, we find the ridge growing rapidly steeper, but still we see this regular line of sharp blocks, deposited often on their sharpest edges, and nearly on the edge or backbone of the rock. As we mount, they become larger and more frequent, and amongst the higher rocks are one or two small . fragments of red conglomerate—until at length, just behind a huge mass of clay-slate of a size which would do credit to any moraine in Switzerland, we come suddenly upon a block of conglomerate fifteen feet long and ten feet high, large enough and sufficiently overhanging to afford us no mean shelter from a Welsh mountain storm. Five minutes’ further climbing in the same direction brings us to a most gratifying sight—a large patch, seventy or eighty yards wide, of the red conglomerate in situ—of exactly the same character in every respect as that which we first observed resting on the side of the clay-slate knoll some two miles away. Looking back we shall be able to trace distinctly the line of stones by which we have been guided in our ascent. It is so regular that they might almost have been dropped one after the other by a railway train. On each side of the principal line of stones we may observe other 12 Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. though less regular lines, by which we may very nearly map out the exact extent of the ancient moraine to which they belonged. The last deposited blocks are not a hundred feet higher than the out- cropping of conglomerate ; and we are now standing nearly upon the brink of the huge lake of ice which must have filled up the bason of the Glyder Fawr and the Glyder Fach, and poured out through the opening above the well-known little inn of Pen-y- gwryd into the valley of Gwryd, and terminated in the open space of the wide valley. Many of the rocks on the southern side of the opening, just above the lake which now occupies the bottom of the hollow between the two Glyders, present the general appearance of glacier-rounded rocks. But the material is so soft, and therefore so ill adapted for preserving the minuter and more indisputable marks of glacier action, that it would be unsafe to draw conclusions from their configuration, were they not supported by the independent testimony of the old moraine, which, with the exception perhaps of the moraine of the great glacier that filled up the whole basin of Snowdon, is the best defined that we may see in North Wales. The southern side of this hollow—forming the northern flank of the ridge along which lies the moraine of the Glyder—is also of a soft and easily disrupted stone, and much covered with turf and mould ; and accordingly we are unable to find any very distinct marks of striæ. The places where the rock is least covered and has been least exposed to the obliterating action of trickling water, are the places where such indications could not be expected to exist— namely, near the top of the ridge, and on its southern flank, high above the Vale of Llanberris. It is not easy to say to what system the great block in the Vale of Llanberris belongs. An attentive examination will show that it lies higher than the well-defined line of deposits which extend along the same side of the valley. Indeed, it is considerably above the level of the actual crest or col of the pass; and there is no pre- cipitous or disintegrated height in its immediate neighborhood from which it could very well have been detached. Indications appear to be not wanting that the great glacier of the Glyder, at some re- mote period, rose above the lowest part of the hollow in the ridge toward the Vale of Llanberris, and overlapped the southern flank of the ridge. If so, this block, instead of belonging to the Llan- berris glacier proper, is really a contribution from the stones of the Glyder glacier, and was brought down upon its surface from some Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. 13 of the precipitous heights near the outcropping of the red conglom- erate. Of this, however, it is difficult to speak with confidence. We shall now select a new, and possibly a still more interesting route. At the head of the valley of Nant Francon, towering above Lake Ogwen and the high road from Bangor to Capel Curig, is the sharp and rugged peak called Tryfan—the most precipitous sum- mit and the finest single mountain in North Wales. It is separated by a short, sharp ridge, running nearly north and south from the range of the two Glyders. Tryfan is an irregular continuation of this ridge, terminating abruptly on the Bangor road, and forming the western, as a spur of the Glyder Fach forms the eastern flank, of the romantie and secluded valley known by the name of Cwm Tryfan. The general level of this valley is considerably higher than the road, from which it is little seen, and as the approach to it is over broken and boggy ground, its very existence is unknown to multitudes of those who pass from day to day within a few minutes’ walk of the spot. Yet it is one of the most curious in Wales. The explorer, on rounding the shoulder of Tryfan, comes suddenly upon a deep valley of gentle and tolerably regular inclination, half a mile wide and a mile and a half long, full, from one end to the other, of rounded and polished rocks of the most marked and characteristic aspect. "They exist, not by the dozen, but by the hundred, and erop out from the moist turf all along the bottom of the hollow and to the height of several hundred feet along its sides. "They are found up to nearly the same elevation along both sides of the valley, and above a well-defined line they cease altogether. Sometimes they are mere rounded knolls protruding through the turf and peat, but many of them are broad slabs and walls of living rock, hundreds of feet in length, every corner and angle of which has been carefully and elaborately rounded and polished off. More perfect specimens of the rochers moutonnés it would be hardly possible to imagine. Below the level of the glacier boundary, a sharp rock is not to be found, from one end of the valley to the other ; and the vast num- ber of the rounded knolls and shoulders, together with the general coincidence in their forms and in the directions of the polished sur- faces, affords conclusive proof that they were subjected to the action of one uniform, regular and constant force. "The glacier which filled up this valley must have been, like the glacier of the Aar in Switz- erland, remarkable for the evenness of its surface, and for the uni- formity of its motion. It must have been almost a normal glacier —for there are no sudden contractions of its channel, no anomalous 14 Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. elevation of its bed. The direction of its flow must have been very: nearly uniform, from its origin just beneath the ridge which con- nects Tryfan with Glyder Fach to its termination in the broad valley which the Capel Curig road pursues. Such a confirmation is un- favorable alike to the development of a large moraine and to the- existence of that excess of pressure against the sides and bottom of the glacier which causes the deepest striations of the polished sur- face : and hence these indications cannot be expected to be found of so striking and unmistakable a character as in the ‘‘Cwy Dyll,” the great hollow of Snowdon, with its irregular bed and contracted orifice, or in the narrow outlet of the gorge of Aberglaslyn. Nor is the rock of a kind favorable to the preservation of the minuter- traces of glacier action. Still, some may be seen of a peculiarly inter-- esting and instructive nature. The extreme regularity of the bed of the glacier, the unusual absence of all disturbing or anomalous. conditions, has given rise to the formations of stri» of great length and regularity. Some of those which score the rounded rocks on the southern flank of the valley are as much as fifteen or twenty feet long, and very distinctly marked. They are the more interest-- ing as they intersect the line of stratification, and are crossed at. right angles by the superficial markings caused by the dropping of water. From the upper end of the valley the view is very striking. lf we stand by the shore of the ancient sea of ice which has now melted from the sight, we can define with precision the limits. which bounded it on every side, and look down upon a succession of worn and rounded surfaces, which though upon a smaller scale, are hardly less curious or characteristic than the old glacier bed of the Hóllenplatte, which is crossed by the traveller from Meyringen to the Grimsel. While one considerable glacier thus poured from the eastern base- of Tryfan, one of immensely greater extent—so long, indeed, that it. would bear comparison with some of the existing glaciers of Switzer- land—streamed down to the northwest, occupying for many miles. the valley of Nant Francon. This glacier had its origin in the ro- mantic amphitheatre of rocks and. precipices which surround Lake- Idwal, one part of which is well known as the ‘Twll Du,” or- “ Devil's Kitchen," and extended for at least five miles down the- valley towards the spot on which Bangor now stands. The rounded and striated rocks which still tell the history of this glacier are to- be found in considerable abundance, and of very characteristic form and aspects, all along the Vale of Nant Francon. No better speci- Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. 15 men of a rocher moutonné exists in Switzerland than isto be seen on our left hand, as we are descending the valley, at the bridge just below Lake Ogwen, and within a few feet of theroad. On the other side, the rocks rise precipitously above the road, and the glacier must have been borne with great force against the wall of rock which there checked its progress and altered its direction. Although the rock is not of a very durable kind, it is conspicuously rounded to a height of some 250 feet, where the limits of the glacier level are apparent. The upper rocks overhang the lower, and are very rough and jagged, with a trace of rubbing. Below the road on the left hand, terrace after terrace of rock is rounded and smoothed. This is the part of the valley where the glacier traces are most prominent and striking. Here, they actually obtrude themselves upon the eye, but they do not cease for many miles. ‘lhe gently descending line of the glacier level may be easily traced from the road along the op- posite side of the valley, the smoothing action being the more ap- parent from the contortion of some of the strata, as seen in the upper and unworn faces of the rock. Between five and six miles from Bangor is a very interesting group of rocks which crop out from the turf in a little wood above the road. They formed somewhat of an elevation in the glacier bed, and have consequently been subjected to severe pressure. They are worn very round and polished quite smooth, and the stri» are most distinct, passing sometimes up-hill, over the undulating surfaces. The most striking evidences of glacier action, however, are to be found in the great hollow of Snowdon, which is literally full of them. From some distance above the Copper Lake, almost to the bottom of Nant Gwynant, they stare at us in the face at every step. The ** Cwm Dyll” was one vast mass of ice from whose bosom the peak of Snowdon rose to the height of some 1000 or 1200 feet at most. Grib Goch, Grib-y-ddysgyl, Snowdon, and Lliwedd formed an amphitheatre of mountain peaks enclosing the great Snowdon glacier, as the chain of the Aiguille Verte and the de l'Echand guard the Jardin and the glacier du Taléfre ; names doubtless more familiar to American travellers than those of the subsidiary peaks in the Welsh mountain ranges. A large proportion of the rock in the basin of the Snowdon range is very hard and smooth, and has preserved, in singular freshness, even the minutest scratches. It is curious to trace, as we descend from the summit of Snowdon. into the bosom of the hollow, the gradually diminishing inclination of the glacier and its increasing pressure, as marked by the dimin- 16 Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. ishing slope and deeper intaglio of the strie. The moraine also of this glacier is wonderfully perfect. The cart-road from the now abandoned copper works is cut partly through the lateral and ter- minal moraines; and the sections might, save for the different geological character and the smaller size of the blocks, be that of the ancient moraine of the Mer de Glace between Les Tines and Lavanchi in the valley of Chamouni. ‘There is. the same utter absence of sorting in the disposition of the materials, and the same angularity in individual blocks—the whole being cemented together by a fine deposit of grit and sand. To use the words of Professor Forbes, in his description of the Chamouni moraine : ** We find the mound to be almost entirely composed of detached fragments, rough and angular, or only rounded by partial friction, and accu- mulated in the utmost disorder, mingled with sand, without any appearance of stratification." Among the fragments of stone ex- posed by the cutting are some very interesting ones. They have originally belonged to the bed, or to the containing wall of the glacier, much higher up, from which they have been detached after being highly polished and deeply striated ; and being now un- covered, they display the notchings and scourings, not, of course, in their proper and original directions, but just as they happened to have fallen when the stones were deposited in the places they now occupy. It must have been a strange scene of desolate magnificence that North Wales presented at the epoch I am writing of. There were Snowdon and his associated peaks, the centres of one vast system of glaciers, pouring down on every side, east, west, north, and south— the Vale of Llanberris choked with ice, and fed from the heights and recesses on either side—a great glacier, taking its origin in the deep basin between Snowdon and Lliwedd, streaming up the valley of Nant Gwynant, diverted a mile or two above the site of the sleepy little hamlet of Beddgelert, by the opposing rocks at the lower extremity of Llyn y-Ddinas, and at length struggling through the narrow gorge of Aberglaslyn, rounding and scoring its rug; sides to the height of hundreds of feet. Another great glacier probably descended through the deep inlet which reached from below Llanberris to the very heart of Snowdon, extending to within four or five miles of the present coast line, and leaving records of its passage which to this day are apparent on every uncovered surface of rock along the Llanberris and Carnarvon road. Nor did the Snowdon glaciers, though the greatest, constitute the only glacier The Food of the Owls. 17 system in Wales. It is certain that from the group of the Glyders and Tryfan, no less than three glaciers—one of vast extent—poured into the vales and plains below ; and probably round every peak or group of nearly equal height, and whose masses are broken up into those deep hollows and amphitheatres which are so favorable to the collection of a reservoir of snow—and, in a climate of variable tem- perature, to the consequent development of glaciers—similar ice- streams must have filled up the valleys and choked the gorges in every direction. The great peculiarity of this scenery must have been the small elevation of the peaks and mountain ranges above the general level of the glaciers. In Switzerland the summits com- monly tower for thousands of feet above the highest parts of the highest glaciers, properly so-called ; and the great glacier basins and reservoirs are commonly bounded by huge aretes of bare and rugged rock, specked only with snowy deposits, such as the ranges which hem in the glaciers de l'Echand, the central tributary of the Mer de Glace, or which block up the extremities of the glacier of the Aar and the lower glacier of Grindelwald. In Wales, the cor- responding heights must have been measured by hundreds, instead of thousands of feet, for many of the glacier basins themselves lie high ; and in this respect, despite the magnificent effect of such a wide expagse of snow and of broken and crevassed ice, the difference must have been unfavorable to the grandeur of the scenery. Some- thing of the same kind may be seen in the northern glaciers of Nor- - way, though the heights which surmount them are higher above the glacier level than was probably the case in North Wales, and there is no reason to suspect the existence in Wales of those vast fields of snow whose aspect and distinguishing peculiarities are so essentially different from those glaciers, and which give to the scenery of Norway a character so unique and extraordinary. THE FOOD OF THE OWLS. BY W. 8. STRODE, M.D. A FEW years ago Pennsylvania, Ohio, and some of the more east- ern States enacted laws offering a bounty of fifty cents per head for all hawks and owls that should be killed. This munificent bounty aroused the professional hunters, and for the time being legitimate game was abandoned in many sections of 18 The Food of the Owls. these States for the more remunerative business of hawk and owl shooting. Thousands were killed and the Raptores seemed in a fair way to be exterminated. This merciless slaughter arrested the attention of ornithological and scientific societies, and they at once set to work to devise means to check the work of destruction. Committees and individuals were appointed to investigate the food habits of the hawks and owls. Hundreds of dissections of stomachs were made, and after a thorough research the following report was made : ** Resolved, That the hawks and owls are of great benefit to the farmer and render him far greater service than injury, and that it. is unwise to select any of them for destruction.” This report was concurred in by the leading naturalists through- out the length and breadth of the land, and as a consequence these obnoxious laws have been repealed. A partial exception was made against the Sharp-shinned Hawk, Coopers’ Hawk, and the Great-horned Owl. It is to the latter bird that I will mainly give attention. As the eagle heads the list of the diurnal birds of prey, so is the Great-horned Owl the most noble of the nocturnal birds, and the ancients chose well when they assigned to Minerva this bird as the emblem of wisdom. Owing to a suitable habitat probably more of these owls are to be found in the Spoon River country of Central Illinois than in any other section of like limits in the United States. From my boy- hood to the present they have always excited within me a lively in- terest and curiosity. Their unsavory reputation as chicken thieves has led to their be- ing destroyed whenever possible, and as a consequence in many parts of the country where they x were once quite common they are now extinct. This bad reputation and consequent destruction of this owl, in my experience and observation, is not all deserved. Many times when a lad have my slumbers been broken in upon by my mother's voice calling up the stairway, ‘‘Get up quick ! an. owl is after the chickens.” A careful investigation would reveal the intruder perched in the top of an apple-tree or on a limb close by the side of an old hen that would be waking the echoes of the night with her squalling. The owl in the meantime would be bow- ing and swaying his body to and fro, occasionally uttering a low The Food of the Owls. 19 hoo! hoo! hoo! seemingly regarding the whole performance as a huge joke. Unfortunately for the owl, this comedy would sometimes be quickly turned to a tragedy by a load from my shotgun, bringing him to the ground, and perhaps the hen also. The principal food of the ow] in the Spoon River country con- sists of small rodents, and the gray rabbit furnishes the greater part of it. Reference to my note-book for the years 1887-8 shows the following : March 20, ’87. Found a Bubo’s nest in a large red oak tree, forty feet to first limb, seventy-five to nest. A tremendous climb, but with the aid of a splendid pair of climbers I got up to it, find- ing it occupied by a trio of downy baby owls of different sizes, who tried to look very fierce at my intrusion. In the nest with them was a whole rabbit and parts of another. March 27, '87. Great-horned Owl’s nest in white oak tree, standing in a steep hollow. Could see young birds from hillside above. An easy climb to the nest found it containing two half- grown young and half of a rabbit. March 30, ’87. Discovered a Great-horned Owl’s nest in a cavity of a soft maple tree, thirty feet from ground. Found in it three young and parts of several rabbits. March 31, '87. Located a Bubo's nest in an elm snag fourteen feet high, standing on a creek bank. Found in the nest three young owls with their feathers turned wrong end to, snapping their bills wrathfully and looking the very personification of fierceness. The largest of the three was half-grown, while the smallest was near the size of a quail. In the cavity was one whole rabbit, the hindquarters of another, a flying squirrel, and a quantity of fish-scales. While I was sitting on a limb by the side of the cavity, watching the little fellows, the parent owls suddenly appeared upon the scene, and I had a cyclone about my ears for a few minutes. Such a whirl of feathers, claws, fierce eyes, snapping beaks, hootings and sereechings about my head was calculated to terrorize one unaccustomed to the actions of this, the greatest of all the owls. After continuing these demonstrations for a few minutes, one of them, the male I supposed from his coarse voice and white crescent under the chin, settled down upon a limb a few feet from the ground just over the creek. His manner now underwent a change. Swaying to and fro for a 20 The Food of the Owls. short time, he fell off the limb to the ground, and then tumbled about in the leaves in an apparently very crippled and helpless con- dition. My dog, that had been sitting all this time in a perfect frenzy of excitement at the foot of the stub, watching the owl, now forgot his training and made a headlong rush through the creek for the owl, but it was up and away, leaving him disappointed and crest- fallen. I returned to the ground and departed, leaving this inter- esting family to the enjoyment of their well-furnished larder. I subsequently learned that these young Bubos came to a tragic end. Some boys, finding them in the stub, threw them out into the creek, where they were worried to death by their dogs. March 28,788. Found a Great-horned Owl’s nest containing two young owls, parts of a rabbit, and a flying-squirrel. Nest in a cavity in a soft maple. March 29, 88. Bubo’s nest in top of a white oak tree. An old nest of Red-tailed Hawk, two small young owls, a whole rabbit, and a half rabbit—a great deal more rabbit than owl. March 30, °88. Nest in a wild cherry tree. A crow's nest pre- empted and reconstructed. Contained one young owl, a rabbit, a flying squirrel, and a robin. This is the only nest in which was found the remains of any bird. Last spring, while out hunting Bubo’s nests, I found a dead Screech Owl lying on the upper side of a broken plum tree limb. Its back, from the neck to the tail, was as neatly laid open as it could have been done withasharp knife. I credited this piece of wanton- ness to the Great-horned Owl. One bright day in March, ’87, I was returning from a professional call. At this season of the year, when the hawks and owls are nest- ing, it is my custom, when not hurried by business, to leave the highways and ride haphazard through the woods, regardless of fences, hills, hollows, or creeks. On this day I was riding leisurely along through heavy timber, down **Johnson's Creek,” when my attention was arrested by the noisy cawing of a large flock of crows on the hillside two or three hundred yards to my right. I at once guessed the cause of all this tumult to be a Great-horned Owl, for of all the denizens of the forest none other will so arouse the uncontrollable indignation of the family Corvide. I had not thought of disturbing this camp-meeting of the crows, until suddenly a regular pandemonium of shrieks, and directly the scurrying by of a number of the sable birds, each one The Food of the Owls. 21 shouting bloody murder at the top of his voice, plainly told me that something terrible had happened in the dark woods on the hillside above. Turning my horse loose, I went noiselessly up the hillside on a tour of investigation. Presently a large Bubo flew up from the ground a few rods in front of me, and upon going to the spot I discovered the cause of the sudden great consternation of the crows. The owl had wreaked summary vengeance upon one of his tormentors, and the smoking body lay upon the ground in two halves, having been divided trans- versely instead of lengthwise as in the case of the Screecher. A part of the viscera had been devoured. Last spring, while wandering about in the woods on ‘‘ Geetur Creek,” a tributary of the Spoon, I was attracted by the barking of my dog, and on going to him, found a young Bubo that had fallen _ out of the parent nest. It was in a little creek bed, and the parent owls had nicely concealed it by covering it up with leaves. I decided at once to make a pet of it. A few days later I took from a family of four in a hollow sycamore a half-grown Barred Owl (Syrniwm nebulosum), and placed it with the first, with the intention of studying and comparing the habits and dispositions of the two birds. They are now full grown and have indeed proved to be very in- teresting pets. They have the run of an outhouse that gives them plenty of room to fly about in. They have become very much at- tached to each other, and if one is removed from their apartment the other is inconsolable until its return. And then such a bowing and nodding to each other is ludicrous indeed. The disposition of the two birds is very dissimilar. The Bubo is by far the nobler bird —as tame as a cat, good natured and intelligent, pleased at the ap- pearance of familiar faces, but suspicious of strangers. Always greets my appearance at the door of the owl-house with a low hoo! hoo! hoo ! followed immediately by a shrill screech or at times almost a quack, Greatly enjoys having his head scratched; shuts his eyes, and his voice will sink almost to a whisper. The Syrnium is just the opposite; untamable, sneaking, revenge- ful ; suspicious alike of everything and everybody. Anything from mussels to cats is relished as food. Fat or tallow they will not touch. Mice, rats, ground-squirrels, kittens, chicken-heads and small birds are first thoroughly crushed by their beaks and are then usually swallowed whole. Before swallowing birds they first pluck out their feathers. 22 The Food of the Owls. ' It is said that if an owl once gets a taste of fish he is a fisherman ever afterwards, and of this fact I have seen many demonstrations. At Thompson's Lake, on the Illinois River, I have several times in the dusk of the evening seen the Barred Owl feasting on discarded fish. The shutting down of the water-gates of the mill often leaves many small fish stranded on the gravel bed of the river, just below my house, and I have many times witnessed a pair of Great-horneds fly down from the trees on the opposite bank to feast upon them. During the summer months small fish formed the staple diet of my pair of pets, and a pound of shiners three times a day was about the amount they required. Their manner of feeding is very different. "When a canful of minnows is poured out to them the Bubo will jump into their midst, and, as my boy sometimes remarks, ‘‘ Just hog them down,” two at a time. The Syrnium will pick out a particularly lively minnow, eye it for a moment, then spring upon it and grasp it in the talons of one foot, and after holding it for a few seconds quickly transfer it to his beak, after which he will gaze about defiantly for a short time and then swallow it. This bird has developed a great hatred for the boys, probably as a result of their disposition to guy him whenever an opportunity offers. This dislike has lately taken shape by his making a dive at every boy that enters his house, raking the top of his head with his claws as he passes over him, and then giving vent to his peculiar, laughing ery of ** Who ! hoo! hoo are you !” This trick he has played so often on the ** gamins,” that, at present, not one of them can be induced to enter his apartments. Some days ago a venturesome lad laid his eye up to a knot-hole in the side of the owl-house to take a peep at them. His lusty screams quickly brought me from my office to his side. The blood was run- ning freely'down his cheek. The aim of the Syrnium had been unerr- ing. From his perch on the opposite side of the building he had made a dive for the eye, and running one foot through the hole had lacerated the skin badly, but luckily not injuring the eye. Sometimes I put a live rabbit in the owl-house, and then there is fun to see the Bubo getting up courage to attack it. No bully ever gave better evidence of a mixture of cowardice and bravado. He will bow and sway his body to and fro, run along his perch and back again, look to me for encouragement, then bow, look at the rabbit and bow, all the while uttering his shrill scream, which becomes The Food of the Owls. 23 more and more fierce as his courage rises. Finally, after assuring him that he is a brave fellow, and no coward, to go for it, etc., he makes the attack. And now his whole nature suddenly changes, and instead of a hesitating bully he more nearly resembles a raging lion. It is said that the tiny Downy Woodpecker more nearly resem- bles the great Ivory-billed than does any other of the many species. of the family Picide. The same may be said of the Little Screech and the Great-horned Owl, the little Scops being a tiny image in action and appearance of its great relative, from whom it probably evoluted. In the spring and summer of 1887, at the request of Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U. S. A., I was making a collection of nestlings of repre- sentative American birds, that was to be sent to Prof. Parker, of London, to be utilized by him in his great work on ‘‘Avian Osteol- ogy." Among the many birds brought to me by my boy collectors was a family of four young Screech Owls. Downy little fellows, all beak, claws, and eyes. Wishing to use but one of them as an alco- holic specimen, I was at a loss what to do with the others, as the nest from which they were taken was on a creek five miles away. I finally concluded to adopt them, and a family of kittens, which they resembled in many respects, would not have proved more interesting and trusting pets. From first to last small fish was their main diet, and it was amus- ing, indeed, when their food was brought, to see the downy little fel- lows rush and tumble over each other in their eagerness to get at it. If a mouse was given to them it would first be put through a bone-breaking process and then swallowed. Small birds would be thoroughly picked and then swallowed head first. After they became able to fly about, they were taken from the box in which they had been kept and put into the apple trees growing in my yard to shift for themselves. But they refused to shift; on the contrary, seemed to consider themselves as a part of the family, and for weeks remained about the yard, and in the dusk of the evening would come at once on being called, sometimes from the mill a hundred yards away, or from the trees across the river. A very interesting feature connected with these little Scops was the manner in which they were treated by the other birds of the. vicinity. About once a day the birds would assemble to harass and scold them, the usual time being a little before sundown. At a signal, generally from the Robin, they would come from all direc- 24 Primitive Architecture. tions—the Jay and the Purple Grackle from their nests in the apple trees; the Rose-breasted Grosbeak from the top of the hack- berry; the Cardinal and Wood Thrush from the box elders across the river; the Orioles from their swinging nests in the elm and sugar maple; the Bee Martin and Warbling Vireo from the silver- leaved ; the Jenny Wren from the eaves of the portico ; the Cat-bird and Brown Thrasher from the gooseberry bushes, and the Maryland Yellow Throat from his nest in the thick weeds on the river’s bank— all would come to devote a few minutes to scolding their common enemy. The Jay, the Grackle, the Cat-bird; and the Robin would do the aggressive business, while the other birds, from a respectful distance, would be the spectators. The Robin, in particular, would show the greatest excitement in these attacks. He would often fly down to the ground near where I sat and in the most frantic man- ner try to call my attention to the fact that there was a terrible owl in the apple tree. At first these attacks almost frightened the Screechers to death ; but they soon became accustomed to them, and, in fact, seemed rather to enjoy this bird matinée. One of these interesting birds was stoned to death by a man as it was perched upon the fence near his repair-shop. Another was shot and killed by a kind-hearted lady that wished to display her marksmanship. A third is still about town, and his tremulous notes are often heard around my pen in the dusk of the even- ing. PRIMITIVE ARCHITECTURE. I; SOCIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES, BY BARR FERREE. OOD and shelter constituted the first and chief wants of primitive man, and to their satisfaction he devoted his dormant energies: At first, unable to construct his own shelter, he was obliged to de- pend upon such as nature furnishes. The cave was at once the most convenient and the safest. Its universal use in primitive times Primitive Architecture. 25 is attested by the vast number of remains and relics we find therein. Its use by the Rock Veddahs—one of the rudest races of mankind— has continued to the present day. History, however, furnishes other reasons for the use of the cave. Thus hermits affect them that they may be uncontaminated by worldly things, and the fisher- man of the Yank-tse still uses them, as they are most convenient for his occupation. As man became more accustomed to his surrounding, as his ideas became stronger and more definite, he set about building his own shelter. At first it was a mere pile of leaves and branches. If sub- ject to a constant wind, he arranged a semi-circle of branches thrust upright into the ground, and often built a fire in the open side.’ In a more advanced stage he builds a circle of branches, brings their tops together, and ties them with a strip of bark. But the hut is still incomplete, and remains so until the frame is interwoven with cross-branches and twigs, sometimes, as with the Fuegians, only on the windward side, sometimes, as with the Damaras, over the whole. The shed has an origin equally early as the hut, although it was developed differently. In fact it depended on the material on hand whether this form or the other was adopted. In Australia,? where large strips of bark are readily obtained by the natives, a lean-to is the usual form; in Fernando Po.? on the other hand, a coarse mat- ting stretched out on four poles is in universal use. The latter may be considered the normal form of shed. and we can trace its progress from these slightly inclined roofs to the elaborately finished, high- pitehed roofs of the hot regions of South America. The early habitations of man may be roughly classified as circular and rectangular. Much speculation has been indulged in as to the causes of this difference, and it is a singular fact that the two styles of dwellings are frequently found side by side in districts where there does not seem to be a natural cause forany distinction. It has been suggested that rectangular houses are characteristic of the communistie manner of living and circular ones of single families. The members of a single family can readily sleep around one fire ; when several families are congregated under one roof several fire- places are required, and the house is extended, usually in one direc- tion. While this is true, there are many circular houses occupied in common, and there are also numerous instances among the rudest * Tasmanian Journal, i., 250. ? Angas's Aust. and N. Zeslani, H. 212. > . * Allen and Thompson's Narrative, ii., .197 - 26 Primitive Architecture. peoples of one family occupying rectangular dwellings. The truth is, that the development of both the rectangular and the circular house is merely a plain case of natural development. First, we have a simple breakwind, a single strip of bark. Then comes one on two sides, another is added, and it is only necessary to close the remain- ing side to complete the square. These changes can be illustrated by numerous examples, but it is only necessary to mention two; the breakwind of the Australian savage represents the first stage, and the Patagonian tent,! formed of skins stretched on three sides of a square, the second. The shape of the dwelling does not, as might be supposed, depend on the manner in which the logs forming the sides are laid. When horizontal. we invariably have the rectangular hut, but they are placed vertically in both rectangular and circular dwellings. Nor is the explanation difficult, for the shed, supported by upright poles, is easiest enclosed by placing logs parallel to the first, and the rectangular house with walls of vertical logs is ob- tained. The manner of life is an essential element in determining the form and character of a dwelling. In the earliest times man was constantly moving, seeking new shelter, new resting-places, new food. He could carry nothing with him in his migrations, for he had no means of conveyance. He was equally satisfied with a cave or a heap of leaves. Later, when he has learned to use a few simple tools, to skin animals, to prepare their skins, and to build his hut with some little care, he carried it with him. Hence the dwellings of nomadic peoples fall naturally into the two divisions of transportable and non-transportable, and the former are again subdivided into those covered with mats and those covered with skins. Dwelling e of Nomads transportable 1 Mats skins Being easy of construction, mat tents are used by the rudest peoples. The Abipones pass their lives under two poles and a mat; the Zulus, standing higher in the social scale, find comfort in cages of pliant sticks, covered with finely woven rush mats? Skin tents are used by more advanced races, since their use implies knowledge of the manufacture of the weapon with which to kill the animal, and of the mode of skinning and preparing the skin. They are ? Anthro. Jour., i., 197. 2 Burchell's Travels in Africa, ii., 198. Primitive Architecture. 27 used alike both by pastoral and hunting tribes, but seldom by ‘purely agricultural ones, by the hunting Indians of North America, the Dakotas and Chippeways, by the pastoral bands of the extreme ast and the far south, the Arabs and the Patagonians. The agricultural nomads, moving less often than do the hunting and pastoral ones, build more permanent dwellings. Some, as the Gonds, move every few years. Their houses are of wattle and daub, thatched with teak-leaves ; within are two rooms, separated by a row of grain baskets, or by a bamboo screen, one serving as a living room, the other for storing.‘ Greater care is shown by the Bodo and Dhimals,? who, in addition to the central dwelling, build a cattle-shed ; and if the family is a large one, complete the quad- rangle with two other dwellings. The Santals,? moving only when they have exhausted the soil at one place, build even a more elabo- rate group of buildings ; a verandah is placed at the gable end, and pigstys, buffalo-sheds, and dove-cots built within the common en- closure. Many other causes than the fertility of the soil occasion the re- moval of the agriculturist. The Khonds‘ abandon their dwellings ‘on decay; the Western Kareens® seek new quarters on the en- €roachment of their enemies ; while the diseases generated by the heat expel the Caribs from theirs. Turning to communism, which is, E as early a phase of life as the nomadie, we find that it also produces numerous varia- tions in structure. And, first of all, it is interesting to trace the origin of communism as shown in the dwelling. The protection gained by numbers led many tribes to adopt this form of life. Such, for example, are the Pueblo Indians,? who erect large ter- raced buildings, often with no opening on the ground floor. Such, also, are the Mandans,’ an unaggressive people, brave, but unable to contend with their powerful neighbors, the Sioux. Their houses are circular, from 40 to 60 feet in diameter; the walls are of thick logs, the roof of beams supported by posts, thatched with willow- boughs and prairie grass, and the whole covered with several feet of earth and clay. Two doors of buffalo skin protect the entrance. * Forsyth, Highlands of Central India, 99. * B. H. Hodgson in Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, xviii., 741. * Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, xx., 570. * Macpherson, Report upon the Khonds of Ganjam and Cuttack, 59. ^ Parrish in Jour. As, Soc. Bengal, xxxiv., 145. * Morgan, 136. 7 Ib., 126. 28 Primitive Architecture. In addition the whole village is fortified. To the same cause may be attributed the peculiar villages of the Tupis, which consist of several houses arranged with their entrances opening on a common court, and the whole surrounded with a strong palisade. The greater facilities communism affords for obtaining subsist- ence led the Iroquois to adopt that form of life. Those residing in villages lived in common, all partaking of the common store, while the venturous brave who went out after food lived a solitary life. To the same reason may be probably attributed the all but universal custom of communism among the North American Indians. The natives of Guiana furnish a curious variation of the women and chil- dren living in a detached cook-house. In the far north cold has produced communism. The desire for greater warmth induced the Kamtschatdales, the Ostyaks! and the Esquimaux ° to live in common during the long, cold months of winter, while light cool dwellings suffice for their abode in summer. In studying the effect of communism on the structure of the dwellings, we note, first, that all communistic houses are very much larger than those intended for single families. "They are of all sizes, from the Ojibwa wig-e-wam? for two or three families, up to the immense Long House of New Guinea, 30 x 300 feet and more, or the American Pueblo of à thousand rooms. As the size varies with the number of the inhabitants, so does the construction. The greater the number of people engaged in erecting a building, the greater the care taken and the better will be the materials used.. Such is found to be the case with the dwellings of the Clatsops and Chi- nooks,‘ the walls of which are of white boards sunk in the ground, with a roof of timber fastened by cords of cedar bark and covered with two or three ranges of light poles. The Long House of the Seneca-Iroquois is another example. It is formed of a strong double frame of poles, with either a triangular or a semi-circular roof, en- closing large strips of elm bark, tied to it with strings or splints.* The Esquimaux furnish even a more striking instance, for the huge blocks of snow and ice used in their dwellings cannot be moved without the assistance of many men. ‘The great care taken in the construction of communal dwellings is further shown by the use of ! Latham's Des. Eth., i., 454. ? Cook's Sec. Voyage, ii., 237. * Morgan, 113. Primitive Architecture. 29 larger material than is possible or even desirable in individual dwell- ings, as is shown in the huge pieces of bark covering the Ojibwa wig-e-wam, and the Iroquois Long House. Finally, it should be noted that communism sometimes produces remarkable changes in the appearance of the dwelling. Perhaps the most noteworthy in- stance is the village of the Yakut nation of Southern California,’ consisting of a row of conical or wedge-shaped wig-e-wams, with a continuous awning of brushwood in front. Although the changes produced by communism are of a limited nature on the exterior of the dwelling, it causes a great variety in the interior. First of all, we note variation in the number of par- titions and in their construction. Some dwellings, as those of the Dakotas and of the Tupis—the latter containing from 20 to 30 families—are without any partition whatever. Others, as those of the Chinooks, have partitions in the larger houses—80 families— but none in the smaller. Then come partial partitions ; some, as in the elliptical lodges of the Kutchin tribe, radiating towards a cen- tral open space; others, as in the Iroquois Long House, having side partitionsonly. Finally, there are complete partitions, separate cabins under the same roof. These last are found in the houses of New Guinea, huge edifices containing cabins of bamboo 10 feet square, with doors at the side and a fireplace between every two cabins. The Mishmis,? with similar dwellings, have a fireplace in each com- partment. Quite as much variety is found in the distribution of the passage- ways. First, none at all, as in the Kutchin lodges; next, a’straight aisle down the middle, as in the Iroquois Long House. Differing from this only in position are the houses of the Mishmis, with a passage along one side, and the Kareens,‘ who form a passage all around the house. Finally, there is a perfect maze of passages, as in the dwellings of the Brokpas.® A similar evolution is found in the arrangement and number of the fireplaces. Many, as with the Powhatans and Dakotas, the Kutchins and the Mandans,? have but a single fire in the centre of the dwelling. Others, again, as the Iroquois’ and the Uraupes, * Morgan, 107. * Jukes, Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of H. M. S. Fly, 272, * Griffith in Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, vi., 333. * Mason in Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, xxxvii., Pt. 126. * Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, xlvii., Pt. 1, 34. * Morgan, 126. 7 Ib., 65. 30 | Primitive Architecture. arrange the fires in the central aisle, so that one fire serves for four cabins. More developed are the dwellings of New Guinea, with a fire to every two cabins, and of the Mishmis, with a fire to each cabin. Another form is found among the Mayas, who build a sep- arate cook-house where the cooking for the whole village is done. ben Ostyaks keep their food safe from the dogs in a village store- ouse. | There is no more singular mode of building than that of elevat- ing the dwelling on poles. It is of most frequent occurrence among communistic peoples, but is by no means confined to them. Its. origin has been long a favorite subject for controversy among stu- dents of primitive architecture. ‘The historians of Timor allege that it arises from the fear of the reptiles that infest that fertile island, and we are also informed that such houses are constructed at. Kurrecchane that the children may sleep safely at night. | However well this custom in these places may be explained by these state- ments, it is sufficiently obvious that the explanation is not a universal one, and its origin must be looked for elsewhere. The best theory yet proposed is that of M. Frederick Troyon,! but which, though it. is supported by many facts, fails when put to the test of universality. Beginning with the observation that all such buildings are built. over or near water, M. Troyon argues that the rafts used in the early migrations afforded little protection to their owners, especially when the men were off hunting. Safety, however, was readily ob- tained by mooring in midstream, while, when pulled ashore, the raft. was best kept from being washed away by the waves. by being elevated beyond their reach. Unfortunately for his theory, how- ever, M. Troyon has ignored the fact that elevated houses are to be found both on the coast line and in interior districts where rafts: would be impractical. Other and possibly many causes have contributed to the custom ; among them especially the desire for greater protection. It is not sufficient for the Sumatrans? that. they hide their dwellings amid the trees on a hill-top, to which there is but one, or at most two, narrow paths of access, nor is à. high and strong fence enough. "They elevate their houses on posts. and enter by means of movable notched poles. The theory of pro- tection is confirmed by the solitary houses being more elevated than: are the village houses. If the custom of building elevated houses. ; T Habitations Lacie des temps anciens et modernes. Lau- : 1860. sanne i: Marsden, Historylof Sumatra, 56, Ea Rat Mae oat oO a a A Primitive Architecture. 31 originated with the natural fear of man for his race, then, in houses built over the water, the land side should be the strongest portion of the building, while the water side should be open or only lightly con- structed. "This is found to be the fact in the houses of New Guinea,! which have a stage on the water side that affords a convenient place for keeping the canoes. A confirmation of this explanation is seen in the eustom of many maritime tribes of placing their dwellings where embarkment is attended with the greatest difficulty. Again, this mode of building is found prevalent among both warlike tribes, as the northern Kareens, and peaceful ones, as the Mishmis. All such instances point in the direction of the same cause ; that they may better defend themselves against their enemies. But greater protection is not the sole reason for the building of elevated houses. High floods make it imperative, as with the Waraus, or else drive the natives to elevated bits of land, as in the basin of the Orinoco. Tribes living near the coast and supporting themselves by fishing adopt this style of dwelling almost exclu- sively, while interior tribes prefer houses built directly on the ground. This distribution is especially marked in the East Indies. Besides acting as an integral factor in producing communistic and elevated dwellings, the desire for better protection has brought about many other variations in structure. The location of the vil- lage is frequently selected with this end in view. Sometimes the hill-top is chosen, as by the Maiwar Bhils—who have a back door conveniently arranged for flight; with others the most secluded valleys are sought, as is done by the Santals ;? others, again, hide their dwellings in clumps of trees. Some, also, as the Khonds,? place their villages in close proximity to each other, while the Bushmen‘ take the opposite course of building in high open spots where they cannot be attacked without warning. A suitable site selected, the next step is to defend it. This leads to a judicious arrangement of the dwellings ; a favorite plan being a circle with the entrances opening towards the central space, which is usual among the Andamese, the Bushmen, and the Kaffirs. When the chief of the village has developed into an important personage, his dwelling, for greater safety, is placed in the centre of the enclos- ing village. The Rajput and Bihé villagesare illustrations of this fact. ! Forrest's Voyages, 95. * Jour. As, Soc. Ben 569. * Campbell, Wild Tribes ot Khondistan, 49. * Burchell, Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa, ii., 55. 32 . . Editors’ Table, The mere arrangement of the houses does not, however, furnish suffieient protection to the timid or the warlike tribes. Artificial fortifications must be raised. These are of two general kinds, those intended for the whole village and those only forsingle houses. The former include palisades, sometimes erected at the end of the street, as in the Khond villages, and as is usual in Africa, sometimes continued around the whole settlement, when ic becomes a wall. The second class includes a great variety of expedents, dependent, chiefly, upon the ingenuity of the builder. Some, as in New Cale- donia, are satisfied with building a fence close to their dwellings; others, as the Angain Nagas, surround themselves with a stone wall; others, again, as the New Zealanders, barricade their doors and sition with strong bars. Rank and wealth have their influence upon dwellings. This is chiefly to be seen in their construction and size. ‘The poor of every society, the lowest as well as the highest, live in meaner houses than do the wealthier classes. Not only will a rich man's house be larger than a poor man's, but in warm climates it will consist of more parts. 'The wealthy Kalmuck has a separate cooking tent, and the palace of a Javanese prince resembles a walled city. Rank is further indieated by sundry external forms ; for example, by the height of the dwelling, the elaboration of ornament, the shape and number of the roofs. The house of a Javanese chief has eight roofs, while the mass of the people are restricted to four. EDITORS' TABLE. EDITORS : E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. The American Society of Naturalists at its recent meeting in Bal- timore passed a resolution which requests its Executive Committee to consult with the corresponding representatives of certain other scientific bodies as to the next time and place of meeting. The societies referred to are all newly organized, and are : The Ameri- can Physiological Society, the Society of Anatomists, and the American Geological Society. One of these, the Geological Society, arranged to meet during the Christmas holidays at Ithaca, N. Y. and it was stated that several of the geological members of the American Society would probably prefer to attend the meetings of NUES UL SC SPEO Ee T eru PLATE XXI. Cpe Condon Bald Men Jeffe: Son Part of the Cascade Range. Ed fors" Table. 33 the Geologieal Society should they be held: contemporaneously in future. It was also plainly seen that the multiplication of societies would reduce the membership of the body then in session at Balti- more, and a remedy for such contingency was proposed and dis- cussed. The proposition is that the four societies hold their meetings in future at the same time and place, so that the members of one of them can have the advantages of the others. The plan was gen- erally acceptable to the members of the American Society, and it is to be hoped that it will be so to the other societies as well. Such an arrangement has much in its favor, and the only objection arises from the slight difficulty to be experienced in making the prelimi- nary and local arrangements. ‘The existence of so many societies necessarily diminishes the strength of each one, since few naturalists can hold, for various obvious reasons, a membership in more than one of them. The co-operation of these societies once obtained, the re- sult will be beneficial to American science. It will be, in fact, a national scientific body intermediate in character between the Na- tional Academy and the American Association. Such a body will produce a distinct impression on the energies of its members, as well as on the attention of the public. If the membership is properly guarded, it will have a distinctly valuable influence on the adminis- tration of scientific trusts of all kinds. That the membership can be guarded we fully believe, since the American Association is the popuiar body and furnishes every opportunity for expansion in that direction. The new body would furnish a winter meeting for naturalists of all departments, under the influence of a festive sea- son, in every way well calculated to encourage and stimulate them in their often locally isolated labors. We hope that the three socie- ties named will take this view of the subject, and that next winter will see a combined meeting of all of them at some accessible point. Tus Naturatist informs its readers that it commences the year 1889 with a new department, that of Bacteriology, under the editor- Ship of Professor W. T. Sedgwick, of the Institute of Technology, Boston. The department of Physiology will be edited by Professor Frederick S. Lee, of Bryn Mawr College, Pa. The numbers of the NATURALIST for 1888 were issued on the fol- lowing dates: January, Feb. 3; February, April 2; March, April 21; April, May 25 ; May, June 29 ; June, Aug. 8; July, Aug. 30; August, Sept. 30; September, Oct. 24; October, Nov. 22; November, 34 Recent Literature. Dec. 13 ; December, Dec. 26, Postal delays caused the omission of some plates from the December number. These will be issued with the January and other numbers of the present year. Haste in the printing of the December number caused the numerous typo- graphical errors which it contains, and neither authors nor editors are responsible for them. The publishers have made new arrange- ments for printing, so that the delays in issuing the magazine to subscribers, and separate copies to contributors, will not again occur. Errata.—In November number, p. 955, fourth line from bottom, for 1700 read 700. Do.. p. 997, for 1,600,000 read 160,000. Do., p. 1029. for Clione read Cleome. In December number, p. 1073, for Septocladus read jare ; do., Plate xxvii., for facies read brevi- facies. RECENT LITERATURE. Tuomas’ BurtAL Mounps.!1—To one who, like the present re- viewer, received most of his archeological knowledge at the feet of tnat most accurate student of the American Indian within the his- toric period, Mr. Lucien Carr, of Cambridge, Dr. Thomas’ monograph appeared like an old friend. There is, indeed, much new material, and a new presentation of old facts, but there is, too, the same con- clusion which we have been led to hold as true: that those mounds which dot our Western and Southern States and which have given rise to such an amount of speculation and hypothesis, were built by the Indians in possession of that region within the historic pe or by their ancestors. The facts brought out by Mr. Carr in his e on the ** Mounds of the Mississippi Valley Historically Considered ed” have not been controverted, and the present paper but adds to the evidence that there is no necessity for invoking the aid of a i garei race of ** Mound-Builders ” distinct from the Indians found in pa of the eastern half of the United States at the time of its dis- cov m Thomas takes up the get in the following order : (1) Burial Mounds of the Wisconsin Distri ; (2) Burial Mounds of the Illi- nois District ; (3) The Ohio Districts (4) The Appalachian District; (5) The he Cherokees probably mound-builders; (6) Concluding remarks; . while in a supplementary note he gives an account of the burial customs of the Hurons, translated from the pages of the martyred Bi pus the ‘‘ Relacion " of 1636. es of the mounds of Wisconsin as well as of those of the ninoi district (including Northern Illinois, Eastern Iowa and _ 1 Burial Mounds of the Northern Section of the United States. By hU dira] Thomas. Extr. Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. ngton, 1888, pp. 119. Recent Literature. 35 Northeastern Missouri) it is clearly shown that the historic Indians did build burial mounds, but in the case of Ohio this is not so easy. History and tradition tell us almost nothing of the aboriginal in- habitants of that State, for soon after the advent of the French in the nation and legends of the Tallegwi, but what the affinities of these tribes were, history tells us nothing. Dr. Thomas, however, com- pares the Ohio mounds with those near Charleston, West Virginia, and gives much evidence to show that both were made by the same people and more than suggests the identity of the Tallegwi with the Cherokees. These latter are shown beyond much possibility of doubt to have been a mound building people even in post-Columbian times. Among the other conclusions drawn may be mentioned these : That there is no evidence of human sacrifice in mortuary rites ; that noth- ing indicates that the people building the mounds had arrived at any higher culture-status than had some of the historic Indian tribes of the same region; and that the period of mound-building could not have continued for more than a thousand years, and hence its com- mencement probably does not antedate the fifth or sixth century. Comstock’s ENTOMOLOGY .'—This work is nearer our ideal of what a text-book of entomology should be than anything, American or foreign. which has appeared for many years. It is concise, clear, and bears evidence of careful preparation and abundant knowledge, while most of the illustrations are new and fresh, many being en- graved by Mrs. Comstock expressly for the work. In the present part the subjects treated are (1) The Characters and Metamorphoses of Insects, (2) The Anatomy of Insects, (3) The Orders of Hexapoda, (4) Thysanura, (5) Pseudoneuroptera. (6) Orthoptera, (7) Physopoda, and (8) Hemiptera. In the second part (which we sincerely hope may not be long delaved) the remaining orders will be taken up, and with them we are promised chapters on economie entomology, directions for collecting and preserving insects, a bibliography, a glossary, and an introductory chapter. In the treatment of the different orders we notice a lack of uni- formity; in some analytica! tables extending down to genera are even while others are treated less fully. This is doubtless owing to e pr : : Hexapods or Myriapods. With the sequerice of orders some fault might be found. A division of Hexapoda above Thysanura into * An Introduction to Entomology. By John Henry Comstock. Ithaca, ei ME published by the Author, 1888. '[Pt. L, pp. 284, with 201 figures.] 36 Recent Books and Pamphlets. Ametabola and Metabola is convenient, but it accords too high a rank to an adaptive feature. Complete metamorphosis i is but a compara- tively recent introtluction in the life of insects, and with it as a basis forms closely allied in structure are necessarily widely divorced. gain, in our opinion, the Orthoptera are clearly lower than the Pseudoneuroptera, a view which is not negatived by paleontological evidence nor by embryology. We notice a few slips which can readily be corrected in the prom- ised introduction. On the first page the author writes ‘‘ Vermes’ where he clearly means ** Annelida,” and the unnatural group of Tracheata is referred to on thesame page. On theseventh pagechitine is stated to be deposited **in" the body-wall. On the eighth page it is stated that the eyes Joy possibly be modified legs, a view which is completely negatived by embryology. On the twenty-third page the sting of certain insects should have been stated to be a modified ovipositor. Perhaps the greatest omission of all is the ab- sence of any account of the embryology of Hexapoda. Still these, with the exception of the last, are minor points, and this exception we hope to see rectified before the volume is conipleted. Asa whole, the work is of great value. The illustrations and descriptions will make it a true guide to the young student of insects, the accounts of noxious insects will aid the agriculturist and horticulturist. and we venture the prediction that it will be the most often referred to of any book on the shelves of the working entomologist. REGENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. Abstracts of the Proceedings of the London Geological Society. No. 515. Agassiz, Alewander.—Annual Report for 1885-86 of the Curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. From the au- thor. Allen, Harrison.—On the Methods of Study of the Crowns of Human Teeth, Including their Variations. Reprint from the Dental Cosmos for June, 1888. From the au Auld, R. = —Breeding the Pf. Reprint from the Breeder's Gazette, March, 1888. From the author. P uA aus H.—Report on Fishes Observed in Great E arbor. Ex- ract from gye 7 U.S. halons pe peer chit 1887. From a author. Bòdington, Alice. per from the Journal of Microscopy nd pmi Science. win the author. Bon G. A. rele ription of a New — (Urbi ighas mq rine m Afghanistan. Ext.from Annalsa d Manes e of Nat 1887.—On the Affinity of the Nerth- Am can Tizard F auna. Re. rini from t Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Nov., 1887. m the au Bios Henry dh or Stenotypography. From the publisher. _ Recent Books and Pamphlets. 37 Dame, L. L., gnd Collins, F. S.—Flora of Middlesex County, Mass. From the author Dickerson, Edward N.—The Telephone Appeals. Du Bois, A. J.—Science and the Spiritual. Reprint from the New Eng- lander and Yale pW heas for May, 1887. From the author Dugès, A.—Erpetologia del Valle de Mexico. From the aa Dulles, Charles W.—Report on Hydrophobia. Reprintfrom Transactions of Medical Society of the State of Pennsylvania, 1888. From the author. Emmons, Samuel F.—Atlas to Accompany a Monograph on the Geology and Mining Industry of Colorado. From the U. S. Geological Survey. Everman, Barton W., and Jenkins, Oliver P.—Notes on gee te mat Proceedings of U. S. National Museum, 1888. From the au F cod Max.—Untersuchungen zur Morphologie und Bus der gel. I. Spezieller Theil. II. Algemeiner Theil. Mss Samuel.—The Rattle of the Rattlesnake. Ext. from the Bulletin x —— Museum of Comparative Zoology. Vol. XIIL, No. 10. From the aut Gaudry, Albert M.—Sur les Dimensions Gigantesque de quelques Mammi- fères fossiles. Extrait des Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des ende t. CVIII., 1888. From the author. ME C. K.—Statistics ‘of the seen RM Society of Washington, om its Foundation. From the author nor Asa.—Synoptical Flora E North eant The Gamopetale. From the Smithsonian Institutio hes ei ci sai of "o Challenger Expedition, Vol. XXII., Zoology. From the author Hampden, John. re to Professor Huxley. Letter to Canon Driver, 1886. Letter to the Presidents s Lien Philosophical, or Christian Institutions. From the publis Herrick, C. L.—Bulletin of the Sentit Laboratories of Denison Univer- sity, Vol. III. From thea Higley, W. K.—Reptilia and sand of Wisconsin. Reprint from Trans- actions of Wis. Acad. of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Vol. VII. From the au joe Hutton, F. —Notes on the Mueller Glacier, New Zealand. From Vol. III. Bi Series) of the Proceedings of the oe Society of New South Wales. May 31, 1888.) From the autho Hill, Robert T.—Notes on Geology of ANO Tisak. ee from Texas Geological and Scientific Bulletin. From the author James, U. P., and James, Joseph F.—On the Multiculiporoid Corals of the Cincinnati y ani with a Critical ga of the Species. Reprint from the Journal of the Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Jan., 1888. From the author. Jordan, David Starr.—A Brief mie of the Darwinian Theory of the Origin of Species. From the a — ajeg SE O of the Director of the Mint for 1887. ea Macloskie, Prof.—Scientific Speculation. Reprint from the Presbyterian Re 18 From the author Mosley, E. L.—Lists of the Mammals, Birds, Birds' Eggs, and Desiderata of MichiganzZBirds, of the Kent Scientific Institute. From the author. 38 Recent Books and Pamphlets. Newton, Alfred.—Early Days of Darwinism. Reprint from Macmillan’s Magazine, 1888. From the author Prosser, Charles S.—The Section of the Morrisville Well. The Upper Ham- ilton of Chenango and Otsego Counties, New York. Reprint from Pro- Goo dipgic of ke ak A. A. S., Vol. XXXIV. — of the Pennsylvania State Kp for the Year 1887. Part II. Re- on the Condition of Tropical a emi-Tropical Fruits in = United goatee i in 1887. Bulletin No. 1. From Department of Agricu Riley, C. V.—On the Luminous Larviform Females in the Phengotin Re- print from Report of British Ass., 1887. From the author Scott, W. B., and Osborn, Henry F.—Preliminary Report on the Verte- brate Fossils of the Uinta Formation, collected by the Princeton Ex. of 1886. Read before the Philosophical Society, Sept. 2, 1887. From the authors. Scribner, F. Lamson.—Report on the Experiments Made in 1887 in the Treatment of the Downy Mildew and the Blackrot of the Grape-Vine. From the oe of Agriculture. Sedgwick, W. T., and Bartlett, S. R.—A Biological Examination of the biu Supply of Newton, Mass. Readbefore the Society of Arts, Jan. 12, 1 sene Ron R. W.—Observations upon the Morphology of Gallus bankiva of . Reprint from the Journal of Min eet Medieine and Surgery, and Physiology, Vol. Taylor, Edgar W.—Geology in our Public Schools. Reprint from American Geologist. From the author. Thomas, Charles Hermon. ai Tenotomy i in the Treatment of In- sufficiencies of the Ocular Muscles. Reprint from Transactions of the Philadelphia peas Medical Poen March, 1888. From the author. áp Charles B. pev L and its Critics. —Miracle, irt and Evolu- Reprints from Transactions of the New York Academy of Sci- betel Vol. VIL, No. 7. From the author Whiteaves, J. F.—On some Fossils from the Hamilton 1 oun of Onta- rio, with a list of the species at present known fro at formation and Province. Reprint from Canada Geol. Survey. From the author. Winchell, Alexander.—Some Effect of Pressure of a Continental Glacier. Reprint from the American Geologist, March, 1888. From the author. Winchell, Alexander.—The Taconic Question. Reprint from the Am. Geol., June, 1888. From the author TE énan Aani Donnelly’s Comet. Reprint from the Fo- ; m, Sept., 1887. Pade, A. Smith.—Note on the Occurrence of a Species of Onychodus in the Lower Old Red Sandstone Passage Beds of Ledbury, ee i i rac Yorkshire Pucci ies draco Annual Report for 1887. Geography and Travels. 39 GENERAL NOTES. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Asta.—According to a letter in a recent number of the Revista de Geografia Comercial, the population of the Philippine Islands is very unequally distributed, since while there are sections which, without being the mst fertile, contain 223 inhabitants to the square kilometre, other sections, and these among tlie most fertile. have only three or four inhabitants to the same area. According to the same periodieal, the sanitary conditions of the port of Paraqua Island (Pwerto-Princesa) have become much more favorable since the forest, which forme:ly extended to the coast, has been cut down for a width of six kilometres, and the cleared space has been occu- been greatly neglected by its owners. Its population does not ex- ceed 28,000—viz. : . . the 5., about 6000 Tachanuas, 500 negritos, 1500 tandalanos, and 4000 manguianes. Easter Istanp.—The Revista de Geografia Comercial (Nov. 15, 1888) states that the Republic of Chili has resolved to annex Easter Island, which was discovered by Juan Fernandez, and which in 1470 was formally taken possession of in the name of King Charles IIT., of Spain. Easter Island is of triangular form ; 35 kioii in cir- cuit, and its highest point in the extreme northwest is 597 metres above the sea. It is emphatically a land of extinct volcanoes ; one of these is placed at each angle ; Kau on the south, Horni on the north, and Utuiti on the east. There are many other smaller vol- canoes. The volcano Kau has an elevation of 408 m. and its crater, which is 200 m. deep and 1500 m. in diameter at the bottom, is re- markable for the regularity of its shape. In the bottom of this crater there are springs of potable water and fine plantations of sugar-canes and plantains. 1 Edited by W, N. Lockington, Philadelphia, Pa. 40 ; General Notes. The inhabitants are probably not more than 200 innumber. The average height of the men is 1.57 m., that of the women, 1.50. aster Island is celebrated for its gigantic statues which the natives call moai, and also contains ruins of houses, vast platforms, and cemeteries. The statues represent the upper part of the body as far as the hips, with the arms united to the sides, the hands em- bracing the hips, and the face with a disdainful expression. They are carved from a compact gray lava which abounds in the crater of Utuiti, but haye crowns of red lava of conical shape and about three feet in height. Most of these statues are from fifteen to nine- teen feet in height, but some are much larger, notably two which are stretched upon the ground near Utuiti. In one of these the body alone is 12 m. high, and the nose 3.40 m. The interior of the crater of Ronororaka contains forty of these statues. all with the face turned towards the north ; and the summit of this mountain seems a great workshop of unfinished statues. One of the plat- forms, on the south coast, is .9 m. high, and 100 m. long, is enclosed with a wall, and contains numerous overthrown statues as well as some low columns which apparently served as altars. The cemeteries (Papakoo) are double platforms, the upper one containing sepul- chral chambers. Wooden slabs with hieroglyphics exist upon the island, but no one can decipher them, so that the origin of the huge ruins is unknown. ‘There is, however, great similarity between the statues and the sculptures of the Aymaras of Peru. Japan.—According to the first official stat stics published by the Japanese Government, the empire contains 381,845 square kilometres, and has a population of 38,151,271. The number of men greatly exceeds that of the women, and divorces are so numerous that they amount annually to 3 in every 1000 inhabitants The mortality is low compared with that of most European countries, since it is only 19 per 1000. Japan has 721 towns with more than 2000 inhabi- tants, and five of more than 100,000—viz.: Tokio, 912,837; Osaka, 353,970; Kioto, 235,403; Nogoya, 126.898; and Kanakasa, 104,020. The production of tea each year is about 23,000,000 of kilograms and . that of silk 3,000,000 of kilograms. The amount of rice, wheat, barley, sugar-cane, and other agricultural products, is such‘as to prove that either the soil is superior to that of Europe, or that it 1s better cultivated. The very considerable extent of forest that still remains may perhaps partially explain the fertility. Two hundr and fifty six telegraphic and 92 telephonic offices exist in the empire. A carpenter earns about 35 cents a day, a stone-mason about cents, ERICA. OASSIQUIARE.—The Revista de Geografia Comercial dissects sarcastically the discoveries of M. Chauffanjon in the region of the Upper Orinoco. If the Revista is correct, and it certainly fortifies its assertions with names and dates, M. Chauffanjon's achieve- ments are similar to those of the immortal Captain Glazier. The Geography and Travels. 41 Revista states that in 1743, the Jesuit P. Roman passed along the Cassiquiare from the Orinoco to the Rio N egro; that Diaz de la Fuente and Bobadilla followed the Orinoco nearly to its source and gitu point of origin of the vers and calculated its altitude at 337 Spanish yards above sea-level; and that the mountains which M. Chauffanjon has rebaptized bai the title of Parima, though in different portions of their extent they are called Ta apiraperú, Patüi- biri, Arihuana, Maritani, Humirida, Pacaraima, etc. GEOGRAPHICAL News.—The principal articles of export from Spain, besides wine, are iron, copper, lead, cork, and oranges. The values of these articles during the first four months of 1888 were, according to the Revista de Geografia Comercial, respectively $2,166,000, $2,921,000, $1, 626,000, $3, 363,000, $1, 351,000, and $1, ,783, 000. The value of wine exported during the same four months was $20,466,800. A project to run a line of steamers between Vigo and New York has been set on foot by the Spanish Chamber of Commerce at the latter place. Vigo is only 60 miles further from New York than Queenstown, and is 231 miles nearer than Havre. it vete lati- tude, independent route, and comparative freedom from fog and wind, will more than compensate for the slightly spir distance. The Manchester ship canal, now in course of construction, will be 35 miles long, the width varying from 170 to 260 feet at the top, a width at the bottom in no case less than 130 feet, and a minimum depth of 25 feet. The contract is let for £5,750,000, but the com- pany has a subscribed capital of £8,000,000. The opening of this canal will practically make Manchester a seaport. As the city with its suburbs contains 850,000 souls and will be geographically the nearest port for 7,000, 000 of people, the construction of this canal cannot but be injurious to Liverpool. The province of Santandar, Spain, contains in operation 360 zinc mines, 312 iron mines, 30 lead, 19 copper. and 17 coal mines. Less than a fourth part of its area is cultivated, and rather more than a fourth is in pasture. The population of Aue" according to the census of Dec. 31, 1887, amounted to 5,974,000. 42 . General Notes. GEOLOGY AND PALZEONTOLOGY. FisH OTOLITHS or THE SOUTHERN OLD-TERTIARY.—In a re- cent article! Dr. E. Koken in Berlin describes the fish otoliths collected by Dr. Otto Meyer in the Old-Tertiary of Mississippi and Alabama. The locality * Jackson River" of Mr. Koken ought to be “Jackson, Miss.," and the locality ** Newton, Miss.," cannot be considered as belonging to the Vicksburg beds. Ohanged accord- ingly, Mr. Koken's table of species is given below. c g d P sd | $8 | 54 | 38 14 Sm 32 | 2 o > Otolithus (Carangidarum) americanus...... + T onidarum) hospes .......... > E (Pagelli) elegantulus ............. T z (Sparidarum) insuetus............ + T (Scizenidarum) radians ........... 7 M émmb .. vr. + " d eporrectus ........ 4c and se xe claybornensis ..... + + |Bluff, Miss e " intermedius.......| + g E PUTIN es Gs cn esa T T i decipiens.......... + " (Trachini) levigatus ............. RA ka (Cottidarum) sulcatus............ 4- gy (Ergil) eor i eol ors sra PS + = (Leno C0me8. ods ss eat ttr + Ey (Mugilidarum) debilis ............ + - (Gadidarum) meyer eai es + s elevatus. ....2.5..... bs T e mucronatus ........ + e Fiatenu) sector, i. ioe nonce nies = + + " (Soles) glaber /............-eee T. = (Congeris) brevior..............-- pm " incert. sedis) aff. umbonato...... = We see that Mr. Koken has succeeded in determining the genera or families of all fishes which are di deni eda by these ear-bones, with the single exception of one worn specimen from Newton. The enumerated families and genera indicate a strictly litoral fauna, no abyssal form is among them. It is different in its character e the fish fauna of the German Tertiary, which has been studied ! « Neue Untersuchungen an tertiaeren Fische oH Mur ger d. deutsch, geolog. Gesellsch., 1888, p. 274, 3 plates. : REM Eoi. ERAT C ipa PA ag hs - Geology and Paleontology. ` 43 by Mr. Koken from the otoliths, but resembles in general the present fauna of the Gulf of Mexico, of the West Indies, and the Southern coasts of the United States. The dissimilarity of the fish faunas on both sides of the Atlantic existed. therefore, already during the earlier Tertiary. We are indebted to Mr. Koken for having de- veloped an entirely neglected subject, the study and determination of fossil fish otoliths, to such-an extent that important conclusions can be derived.—0O. Meyer. CATALOGUE OF FOSSIL REPTILIA AND BATRACHIA OF THE BRITISH Museum Pt. I., by Dr. Lydekker. In this volume we have what has been long needed, a synopsis of the fine collection of Brit- ish and such other European extinct reptiles of the orders Ornitho- sauria (Crocodilia), Dinosauria, Squamata. and Rhynchocephalia, which is embraced in the national museum of Great Britam. Ths Synopsis is, like its predecessors, systematically arranged. and the text is enlightened wiih comments on the structural relations of the forms embraced in it. Many of the forms, especially of Dinosauria, described by English authors, have been hitherto in a state of ob- scurity to foreign observation, and a great deal is done in the present volume towards clearing this away. Especially valuable are the diagnoses of families and genera of the Crocodilia, in which the mesozoic formations of Europe are so productive. While we accord generally with the systematic views expressed by Dr. Lydekker, we must point out a few points of divergence. We cannot perceive the raison d'etre of an order Proterosauria. which the author, indeed, seems to regard as provisional. We do not believe that the Opistho- cela (Sauropoda) is distinguishable as an order from the Crocodilia. In nomenclature, we find the two divisions of the true Dinosauria to accord exactly with our own, and not with those of Professor Marsh, yet the names of the latter author are adopted. As usual, we find some generic names adopted, which were never characterized, as Trachodon instead of Hadrosaurus. Finally, stanc In concluding this review, we must record our appreciation of the author's method of clear definitions for all divisions he proposes and adopts, a custom which is the necessary basis of all good taxonomie work.—E. D. Cope. GEOLOGICAL Nxws.—GENERAL.—M. M. Bertrand (Bull. d. l. Soc. Geol. de France, No. 7, 1888) endeavors to reconcile the oppo- 44 Geology and Paleontology. site views of French and German geologists relative to the relations between the structure and age of eruptive rocks. While Frenc geologists have, by long study of the eruptive rocks of France, come to the conclusion that their structure shows indubitable traces of the youth, maturity, and old age of the earth, the German school has from its studies concluded that there is no relation between the - structure of eruptive rocks and their age, but that all varieties may have been produced at any time in the world’s history. Mr. Ber- trand believes that the fact that. in the Tertiary period, a series of ancient textures reappeared in consequence of the long period of re- pose that preceded that period, may be brought in to reconcile the two beliefs. lf there was one such recurrence, others, greater or less, may have occurred from similar causes. Still, M. Bertrand believes that there are variations between these recurrences, and sets himself the task of explaining them. ** All the eruptions of the same period (in Europe) are grouped around their corresponding chain, the most ancient around the Caledonian or in the more northern regions; those of the Permian _ and Carboniferous around the Hercynian chain, those of the Terti- - ary round the Alps. If the entire globe is studied, at every age rocks of all compositions and structures will be found, which bears — out the idea of the German school; but if the same zone is studi , Ep details of structure in relation with the age of the rocks can be found." — M. Bertrand considers the continent of Europe to be formed of four zones. each of which exhibits its series of folds. ‘These zones - are: (1) the Huronian, which hasits principal European extension - in Russia, Finland, and Sweden ; (2) the Caledonian, which oc ^ cupies Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and Norway. thus introducing itself . wedge-like into the sinuous outline of the Huronian ; (3) the Her- | cynian or Carboniferous, the northern edge of which, in both Europe and America, is marked by a line of coal measures ; (4) the Alpine, comprehending the Pyrenees. Alps, Carpathians, and — Balkans. By a curve in its outline the Hercynian mass takes m | the Asturias and the central plateau of Spain. Mr. Bertrand gives — diagrams of the distribution of the zones in Europe, of their folds, — and of the masses of eruptive rocks connected with them, and enters — into details regarding the separate masses. E Parn;Eozorc.—Charles Barrois notes the presence in the Pyrenees | of a species of Oldhamia found in the paleozoic schists in the de" rtment of Haute-Garonne. 'Thenew species is named O. hove — acquet. The presence of this species, distinct from O. antiquus, dis- — covered by Oldham in Ireland in 1844, proves the existence of the — Cambrian age in the Pyrenees. 1 M. D. P. Oehlert describes some Devonian Acephala (Aviculide) i found in the Devonian strata of France. Three new forms of ; Pterinea, five of Avicula, one of Palxoneilo, and two of Modio- - morpha are added to those previously known. 2 General Notes. 45 Mzsozorc.—M. Deperet (Bull. Soc. Geol. France, No. 7, 1888) treats of a brackish-water horizon in the Huronian ; and describesa new species of Cassiope, one of Cerithium, and one of Corbula from it. The horizon occurs at La Mede and Callauch, near Marseilles. M. H. E. Sauvage (Bull. Soc. Geol. France, No. 7, 1888) de- scribes the reptiles of the Upper Portland series of Boulogne-sur- er. These include Megalosaurus insignis, Iguanodon prestwichit Caulodon precursor, a Dinosaurian not yet named ; three cheloni- ans, two crocodilians (Machimosaurus interruptus and Goniopholis undidens), an Ichthyosaurus near to J. thyreospondylus, and two Plesiosauri. Cretaceous region of the southwest of France presents (Bull. Soc. Geol. de France) characters strongly contrasting with those of the Jura, Pyrenees. and Brittany. The beds offer both vertical and horizontal continuity, the country not having experi- enced the disturbances of other Cretaceous basins. ‘There is a con- siderable hiatus between the Jurassic and the Cretaceous of the southwest of France. The Wealden, Neocomian, Urgonian, Aptian, and Gault are absent, the Cretaceous sea did not invade this region until the Cenomanian period. The Turonian and Danian are present. Louis Dollo (Ann. Soc. Geol. du Nord, July-Aug., 1888) states that Pachyrhynchus Dollo, Erquelinnesia Dollo, and Glossochelys Seeley, are equal to Huclastes Cope. .TERTIARY.—M. Gosselet (Ann. Soc. Geol. du Nord, July, 1888) disputes some of the conclusions of Prof. Prestwich regarding the correlation of certain Eocene beds of England with those of Belgium and the north of France, and proposes a table in place of that drawn up by Prof. Prestwich. M. Gosselet believes, contrary to the opinion of Prof. Prestwich, that the London clay is represented in the basin of Paris. 46 General Notes. MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY. PETROGRAPHICAL Nerws.—In a recent number of 7'schermak’s Mittheilungen? Mr. Hyland gives a most interesting and detailed account of the lavas of Kilimandjaro, a voleano in eastern Mr rial Africa, and of the rocks in its vicinity. Pegmatite, gneiss, a phibolite, basalt-obsidian. limburgite, nepheline- and feldspatol basa'ts, tephrite, basanite, tufas, and other fragmental rocks are described. The basalt-obsidian was taken for andesite glass by Bon- ney,? whereas it!really contains no augite—the mineral regarded as augite by Bonney being olivine. Among the limburgites three types are recognized. In one porphyritic olivine predominates over augite ; in a second the olivine is subordinate to augite and horn- blende ; in the third hornblende is absent and augite is more abundant than olivine. The first and second kinds are closely allied to the feldspathie basalts, and the third to the nepheline-basalt. The olivine in these rocks contains a large number of inclusions of mag- netite, augite, and spinel. It iszonally developed and is frequently surrounded by a rim of augite needles. The feldspathic basalts em- brace hornblendie varieties, in which the hornblende is corroded and surrounded by an opacitic rim, compos d of augite, magnetite, and olivine, and porphyritic varieties in which the large prophyri- tic crystals are anorthite. The nepheline-basanites are especially interesting because of the occurrence in them of anorthoclase so well developed that Hyland was enabled to determine its optical proper- ties with great accuracy. This mineral is undoubtedly triclinic. Its extinction on the basal plane varies between 0° and 34°, and on the orthopinacoid between 5° and 6°. Its specific gravity is 2.63. Freed from impurities and analyzed it yielded : SiO, A1,0, CaO K,O Na,O H,O 1.3 23.1 9.02 5.34 7.11 A leucite basanite contains almost ideally developed leucite crys- tals—the first discovered in Africa.' e other rocks described in the paper present no features of stain interest.—An important contribution to the study of the younger nepheline rocks has re- cently been made by Stock,* of the University of Leipzig, who has thoroughly investigated the material composing the basalt hills near Lóbau, Saxony. This material comprises nepheline- an ! Edited by Dr. W. S. peyer Colby University, Waterville, Me. 2 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., x., p. 203 ? Report Brit. Ass., 1 T 682. 1 Cf. Amer. Naturalist, Nov., 1888, p. 1024. 5 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., ix., p. 429. Mineralogy and Petrography. 47 plagiocla:e-basalt, and nepheline-dolerite. The latter rock has been classed by Rosenbusch! among the nephelinites because of the supposed non-existence of olivine in it. The nepheline rocks have been erupted since the beginning of Tertiary time and are older than the plagioclase-basalt, which occurs in them in the form of dykes. The normal constituents of the nepheline rocks are augite, olivine, nepheline, apatite, biotite, and magnetite. The dolerite contains these as idiomorphie crystals in a groundmass compo-ed of micro- lites of the same minerals and plagioclase in a devitrified base. In finer grained variety the nepheline occurs principally as the interstitial substance between the other constituents. In both varieties this mineral possesses a tendency to pass into natrolite, phillipsite, and stilbite. The olivine is often so filled with magnetite that its true nature can be distinguished only with great difficulty. Twins of this mineral parallel to P% are not rare. Apatite is abundant, and frequently contains inclusions of the groundmass. Rubellan was discovered in a large number of sections, and hyalite and aragonite were found filling druse cavities. Both varieties of the nepheline rock are regarded as portions of the same magma. The dolerite is over the basalt, and is supposed to have cooled first. Inclusions of it are common in the underlying rock. Foreign in- clusions, found also in this rock, consist of augite and sanidine, of which the former is usually on the exterior. Other common con- stituents of these inclusions are hematite, green spinel, and orange- - colored rutile. The plagioclase-basalt contains quartz inclusions surrounded by rims of augite crystals.—Prof. Judd? calls attention to the fact that petrographical classification is based on the qualita- tive and not the quantitative determination of the constituents of rock masses. He shows that rocks composed of the same minerals MINERALOGICAL News —Note.—In the mineralogical notes for the current year the crystallographic axes will always be repre- * Mikroskopische Physiographie, ii., 1887, p. 791. * Geol. Magazine, Jan., 1888, p. 1. : ud 48 . General Notes. sented by theitalicized small letters, a, b, c, and the axes of elasticity by the italicized capitals A, B, C, the latter indicating respectively the axes of greatest, mean, and least elasticity.— New Minerals.— Sulphohalite is a transparent, pale greenish-yellow mineral, crystal- lizing in the form of a dodecahedron, that was obtained from a drill- hole at the depth of thirty-five feet below the surface of the alka- line deposit at Borax Lake, California. It was associated with hanksite, and only one specimen was secured. The only two other specimens known to exist are in the collection of Mr. Bement, of Philadelphia. The mineral has been examined by Messrs. Hidden and Mackintosh.! Its specific gravity is 2.489, and its hardness 3.5. Its composition is represented by Na, (i SO,. 4 Cl,) or 3 Na, SO, +2 Na Cl, a formula analogous to that of the rare mineral con- nellite, which is thought to be a copper sulphato-chloride.— Auerlite is a new thorium mineral from the zircon mines in Henderson County, N. ©. It is described by Messrs. Hidden and Mackintosh ° as occurring in disintegrated granite and gneissic rocks, intimately associated with zircon, and frequently implanted upon this mineral in parallel position. The color of the new mineral on a fresh frac- ture varies between a lemon-yellow and a brownish-red. Its weath- ered exterior is of a dull yellowish-white. It has a waxy lustre, 1s subtranslucent to opaque, and is very brittle. Its hardness is 2.5-3, and its specific gravity 4.422—4.766. In crystallization it is tetrag- onal with the simple P and co P faces. Its composition corresponding to ThO, 1;255,! H,O is: H,0.C0, SiO, P.O, ThO, Fe,0, CaO MgO ALO, 11291 7.64 746 70.18 1.38 .49 29 1.10 Auerlite thus appears to be a thorite in which part of the SiO, has been replaced by P,O,—the first recorded replacement of this kind in mineralogical literature.—T' wo new sulphantimonites are reported by Mr. Eakins? from Colorado. The first was found at the Domingo mine, Gunnison County, in aggregates of small acicular dull grayish-black crystals in the cavities of a gangue composed of siliceous material and calcite. Its analysis yielded : Ag Cu Pb Fe Mn Sb S Gangue tr. tr. 39.33 1.77 tr. 86.34 21.19 .02 corresponding to (Pb Fe), Sb, S,. The second is also found in little groups of crystals, of a bright steely-gray color. The indi- vidual crystals are larger than those of the first mineral, and occur together with D ge and sphalerite in a siliceous gangue. Their composition is Pb, Sb, S,,, resembling freieslebenite in which the silver has been replaced by lead. Analysis gave : ! Am. Jour. Sci., Dec., 1888, p. 463. ? Ib., p. 461. * Ib., p. 450. Mineralogy and Petrography. 49 Ag Pb Fe Sb S (calculated., tr. 55.52 tr. 25.99 18.98 General.—Scacchi' has published a complete catalogue of the minerals occurring at Mount Vesuvius. He divides them into (1) crystallized minerals occurring in pieces of foreign rock cast up during the eruptions of Monte Somma and the earlier eruptions of Vesuvius; (2) those forming lava bombs ; (3) those occurring in the Monte Som- ma conglomerate, as a result of contact action ; (4) those produced in the fumaroles by sublimation ; (5) those formed in the lava during its cooling ; and (6) those present on the walls of the amygdaloidal cavities in the lava. One hundred and twenty five mineral species are briefly described, and the name of the writer first mentioning em is given. The catalogue will prove of great convenience to collectors in the region and to those in charge of collections embrac- ing many Vesuvian specimens,—Brezina ? would add ¢el/urite to the group comprising the oxides claudetite and valentinite. Crystals obtained from a porous sandstone at Facebaja were measured and predominant faces are œ Px, o» Pg, wPy, o P and P, and the plane of the optical axes is oo Pa .—In the limestone near Bagnères de Bigorre, France, are little crystals of black albite, which, accord- ing to Lacroix,? have the following composition : ‘SiO Al,O Na,O CaO Ign Specific gravi 67.04 — 20.45 10.57 65 130 pr v det —Limur* describes a stawrolite crystal from Moustoir-Ac, Morbi- han, France, which i _ NEW Books.—RurLEY’s * Rock-ForMInG MINERALS.” 5—This little volume constitutes an excellent book for beginners in the study of microscopical geology. It includes an introduction to the methods made use of in the investigation of the optical and other physical properties of minerals, discusses the thevry of polarized light, explains what is meant b * optical axes," ‘‘ bisectrices,” double refraction, etc., describes the polarizing microscope and other instruments used in the examination of minerals, and gives the principal characteristics of those minerals which enter into the com- osition of rocks. The explanations of the phenomena presented y sections of minerals when observed in polarized light, are given * Neues Jahrb. f. Mi ii , i REN cup f. -yer n ii, p. 123. ; : Bull. Soc. Franc. de Min., xi., p. 64. + Ib., xi., p. 61. * Rock-Forming Minerals. By Frank Rutley. With 126 ills,"and 252 pp Thos. Murby, 3 Ludgate Circus;Buildings, London, 1888. 50 General Notes. with great clearness, with the aid of good figures, most of which are new. ‘The second part, which deals with the properties of the indi- vidual minerals, is not as full as is Mr. Idding’s translation of Rosen- busch’s manual, but is entirely sufficient for all the purposes of students. Although a most excellent text-book for colleges, Mr. Rutley’s work is hardly full enough in its special part for those who desire to make a specialty of petrography as an important aid in geological work. For those who wish merely to become acquainted with the methods of the science, there is no better book in any language. * Das MINERALREICH," ! the fifth volume of Lenze's Natural His- tory Series, has been revised and brought up todate. In its present shape it isa handy little volume of five hundred and forty-four pages. It treats of the universal and special properties of minerals in a manner adapted to the wants of general readers and others, who are desirous of becoming acquainted with these substances. but who are unwilling to enter into their technical study. In the special part a large amount of space is devoted to those properties of the various minerals which make them suitable for economic use. As a conse- quence this prao of the book is much more interesting than the corresponding part in most text-books. In general style ‘‘ Das Mineralreich ” reminds one of Quenstedt’s Mineralogie. Crospy’s ‘TABLES FOR THE DETERMINATION? OF COMMON MINERALS,” has a great advantage over all other similar tables in com- mon use, in that it deals only with those minerals with which the student is likely to meet in his every-day work. The determinative methods are based upon the physical properties rather than upon the blowpipe characteristics of the individual species. The tabula- tion is carefully done, and the little book will surely be welcome in those schools which are not provided with complete sets of blowpipe apparatus. 1 Das Mineralreich. Bearbeitet von Dr. Otto Wünsche. V. Auf. Gotha, Thieanmanns Hofbuchhandlung, 1887. 544 pp., 16 Taf. ? Second Edition. By W. O. Crosby. Boston, 1888. Botany. 51 BOTANY.! * FoRTUITOUS VARIATIONS IN EuPATORIUM " is the title of a paper recently read by Lester F. Ward before the Biological So- ciety of Washington. This was an interesting and wire talk without being a set paper. and led to many remar bers present. Several definitions of life have been given, but Prof. Ward considered the best to be ‘‘a general tendency on A part of living matter to multiply itself, to increase its quan- tity.” This increase may take place in all directions, and often does take place in more than one. If it is not in all directions it i because of obstacles in the way, and the real increase is in the di- rection of least resistance. Many variations are noticeable in both plant and animal world, that are apparently of no special advan- tage to the organism. ese chance or fortuitous variations can m- did not believe all variations were of use to plan The bird tendency to vary in every direction is often rt comet by a de- termined progress in one direction, and this is generally useful. The specimens of Eupatorium were so arranged as to show the variations in the leaves, these being more prominent than in the flowers. The leaves varied from finely dissected to linear, then to lanceolate and ovate. One hybrid with intermediate leaves was shown. There - about four hundred species in the genus, most of them South American, one Australian, and about thirty North American. The fact of great variation in the plants was undoubted. The fact of these being all beneficial is not proved. How a sharp or an obtuse point, a serrate or a crenate margin to a leaf would be of any ben- efit to a plant in any situation he could not see. Therefore it seemed to him that many of these variations diu be considered fortuitous or chance variations due to the general tendency of all life to increase in all directions and so adding to the total quantity of life in the world. r. Merriam rather dissented from the views of Prof. Ward, he believing the variations to be generally of some slight advantage, ! Edited by Charles E. Bessey, Lincoln, Neb, 52 General Notes. though to us it may be inappreciable. Dr. Goode mentioned anal- ogous variation in fishes, especially in the number of scales, the real usefulness of a greater or less number of these being unknown. Some families (as the Cyprinidaw) are remarkable for these varia- tions, while others (e.g. Perches) are noted for few or no variations, the species being very distinct in all their characters. Prof. Riley fully agreed with Prof. Ward. His studies of insects showed the existence of many variations which were undoubtedly useful, but at the same time many others the purpose of which was not in the least apparent.—Jos. F. James. AsTER SHORTII.—Mr. E. S. Burgess has noted the occurrence of Aster shortii in the vicinity of Washington, D. C., a plant which had not been previously recorded. Prof. Ward in this connection mentioned he had found a species of Lemna new to the flora, and Dr. Vasey said he had found a species of Festuca not before known from the locality.—Jos. F. James. * CAUSES OF CONFIGURATION OF TREES.”—Prof. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry, read a paper upon this subject. He ex- THE NEED or MAKING MEASUREMENTS IN MICROSCOPICAL WORK. —It is greatly to be desired that all workers with the microscope should make much more general use of the micrometer than is now the custom, particularly in botany. It is still a common thing to find descriptions of tissues accompanied by plates or figures with little to guide the reader as to the absolute size of the objects. In this the fathers sinned more than we. but we are by no means sIn- less, as may be seen by taking up almost any descriptive paper on botany. Cells, cell masses, filaments, hyphz. spores of all kinds, pollen cells, etc., etc., should all be subjected to careful measure- ment. We may say that so many measurements are needless, but so the older botanists thought, greatly to our present discomfort. n our botanieal laboratories the student should be not only taught to make measurements of everything he studies, but the making of such measurements should be a part of the study of the object. No laboratory microscope should be used which does not have as one of its accessories always at hand an efficient micrometer. Such a micrometer need not cost much. A simple disk of ruled glass dropped upon the diaphragm of the eye-piece will answer Botany. 53 every purpose in ordinary work. Or it may be a slip of glass which may be pushed through a slot in the eye-piece. Neither one ought to cost more than from one to two dollars, and ought to be afforded for every microscope in use in the laboratory.—Charles E. Bessey. THE Questions or NomENCLATURE.—For some months a lively discussion has been going on in this country and England upon a few questions as to the proper interpretation of the laws relating to botanical nomenclature, the discussion in some cases broadening out so as to take in the inquiry as to the validity of certain laws, and the expediency of enacting new ones. ‘‘Shall we rigidly enforce the law of priority ?" is the question which is causing the greatest disquiet just now. On the one hand we have those who urge its rigid enforcement, while on the other are those who say with Prof. Babington, **I think that we are going too far in enforcing the rule of priority in nomenclature as it is now attempted." (Jour. Bot., Dec., 1888.) Then there is the question as to the citation of the authority in case of a removal of a species from one genus to another. Shall we cite Linnzus still in case we remove one of his species into a genus which he may not even have known? If we do, we make him (say those of one party) say what he never said, while to cite as the au- thority the name of the author of the combination makes us lose sight of Linnzus as the originator of the specific name and the de- scriber of the species. Upon this we merely inquire now whether we are to consider primarily the men who have worked in systemat- ic botany. or the men who are working now and who will work after we are gone. Is all this matter of the citation of authorities for the purpose of ‘‘ doing justice” to men, or for conducing to scientific accuracy? Do botanists think more of the “ glory ” of the individual, or the advancement of the science? We shall return to this erelong.—Charles E. Bessey. Botany IN Sr. Lovurs.—The recent reception of a volume of the Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis (Vol. V., Nos. 1 and 2) reminds us of the work in botany which is being done in this Western city. Of the thirteen papers published. five are botani- d liam Trelease: On the Pollination ‘of Phlomis tuberosa L. and the Perforation of Flowers, by L. H. Pammel; Measurements of the Trimorphic Flowers of Ozalis suksdorfii, by W. G. Eliott. Jr.; Observations suggested by the preceding paper, by William Trelease. „tn the first-mentioned paper twenty-one species of Linum are recognized as natives of North America. They are grouped under three tribes, viz.: (1) Eulinum, which includes D. lewisii Pursh = L. perenne Auct). (2) Linastrum, including L floridanum Trelease (L. virginianum, var. Floridanum Planch). L. virginianum L., L. striatum, Walt. , L. neo-mexicanum Greene, L. kingii Watson, 54 General Notes. L. sulcatum Riddeli, L. rupestre Engelm., L. aristatum En- gelm., L. rigidum Pursh, and var. puberulum Engelm., L. berlan- dieri Hook., L. multicaule Hook. (3) Hesperolinon, including L. digynum Gray, L. drymarioides Curran, L. adenophyllum Gray, L. breweri Gray, L. clevelandi Greene, L. micranthum Gray, L. sper- gulinum Gray, L. californicum Benth., and var L. confertum Gray, L. congestum Gray. Two good plates illustrate the fruits, petals, and filaments. The new Lycoperdon (L. missouriense) is 3 to 4 inches high and 2 to 4 inches in diameter, narrow below and enlarged and rounded above (7.e., somewhat pear-shaped). Color of interior buff, spores globose, smooth, ‘yellow 23-32 x in diameter. It grows in sod un- der trees. Mr. Pammel's paper is a valuable one, but too long for a synopsis here, a3 are also the two remaining ones. ARBOR Day LrrERATURE.— This annual tree planting day, which has spread from the place of its origin on the Nebraska plains east- ward to many of the States, has given rise to a number of books, the latest of which is the neatly bound and printed volume, ** Arbor Day," by R. W. Furnas. It makes no pretence to profundity, nor poetry, but gives in sketchy way the history of the tree planting movement in the West, with appeals for the growth of trees for beauty and for profit, and includes lists of those most valuable for various regions, with practical suggestions as to methods. The book is dedicated to and contains a fine portrait of the ‘‘ author of Arbor Day." Mr. J. Sterling Morton, of Nebraska. It is a pretty and pleasant contribution to the literature of a part of botany too often neglected or ignored by botanists. ANOTHER SCHOOL Borany.—Verily in botany ‘‘ of making many books there is no end,” and if one were obliged to study some of them he might well say with the wise man of old, ** Much study isa weariness of the flesh.” The last work to claim attention is one with the ambitious title of ** Botany for Academies and Colleges, consisting of Plant Development and Structure from Seaweed to Cle- matis,” by Annie Chambers-Ketchum, and brought out by the house of J. B. Lippincott Company, of Philadelphia. The book is a book of definitions. and often not good ones at that. In the first paragraph we read that * Natural Science treats of all things in nature. Nature is a synonym for the Universe,” and pa agraph 5, ‘‘ The plant is the vital link between the mineral and the animal. Plants feed on minerals and digest them into organic food.” The style is sometimes rather lively, as, for example, in a note on zoospores (p. 7), ‘‘ These little creatures are very social; they dance among themselves, circling merrily, but never jostling ; no human dancers could be more polite ; then when the heyday of youth is over, they withdraw their cili: (sic), produce an outer wall, send out root-like projections, and develop into staid mother plants” !! Botany. 55 In her attempt to make matters plain the author uses some odd terms, as ** Virgin-parentage,” ‘‘ The Man's House," ‘‘' The Woman's House,” etc. he second part of the book consists of a manual which is said to ade ** All the known orders with their representative genera." In this the Alg» consents the first order, the Fungi the second, and the Lichens the third! Without question the book cost the author a great deal of hard work, and it is a pity that it has been such a waste of energy.— Charles E. Bessey. A VALUABLE Book ron THE HERBARIUM.—Indispensable as Ben - tham and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum is in the herbarium, it is often a troublesome book to handle on account of its great size. When one is obliged to search through the three volumes for some epee genus the time taken is so much lost from work, and the ar and tear of the book itself from so much use is such as to dun its early destruction. This is especially the case in those herbaria where advanced students have free access to the books and Specimens. The recently issued Index Generum Phanerogamorum by Th. Durand, of Brussels, is intended to take the place of the Genera Plantarum for much of the work in the herbarium. ‘The orders i genera have the same sequence as in Bentham and nd . The mode of m may be made out from the follow- E taken from page 1 Ordo I. RANUNCULACE 4 TRIBUS I, CLEMATIDER. J. eer ye » JE 3 et ee cn descript. ultra 200, acl. Kunze ad t. Orbis. tot. reg. temp. et trop. Sect. T Vitice lla De. ° Viticella Mórch. Sect. 2, Cheiropsis DC., Atragene L., Epe et Viorna Spach. Sect. 3. Flammula DC., Meclatic Bpeo 3. Naravelia DC. G. I. 4.—Sp. 2 v. 3, Asia etes The first column of figures consists of a running enumeration of the genera which iui throughout the volume, the second col- umn enumerates the genera of the orders merel In the prefatory gasei the following table is given, showing the number of species (estimated) for the Phanerogams rdines, Genera, Basses : Polypetale 90 3,050 28,300 Dicotyledones 4 Gamopetalz 46 2,885 37,800 . Monochlamydez 36 849 12,100 172 6,784 78,200 Monocotyledones 85 1,587 19,600 Gymnospermze 3 46 2,420 Summa 210 8,417 100,220 The book is published in Berlin by the brothers Borntraeger, at about 20 marks.— Charles E. Bessey. 56 General Notes. BACTERIOLOGY ! A New ATLAS oF BAcTERIOLOGY.—Àn important announcement. is just received ofa new photomicrographie ** Atlas der Bacterien- kunde,” shortly to be issued by Doctors Fraenkel and Pfeiffer, of the University of Berlin. The names of the authors and their connec- tion with Koch’s laboratory make it probable that the undertaking will be of great service and will supply to working bacteriologists a. convenient standard of paren The plan which will be followed in issuing the ‘‘ Atlas" is, to give “a systematic representation of e most important haitarin ai objects.” Accordingly, there will be given “first, the bacteria in general. in the various stages of their life history, and, then, in particular, the microorganisms of the principal infectious diseases of men and the lower animals.” The figures will be accompanied by an explanatory text; and ex- treme care is promised to secure unusual mechanical excellence. The ‘‘Atlas” will appear in from 12-15 parts, each containing about 10 photographs. The first is promised in January, 1889, and the others at intervals of about six weeks. The number of copies is to be limit- ed, and the cost, per part, is tobe 4 marks. The “ Atlas” may be had of Hirschwald, in Berlin. Tur BACTERIOLOGY OF NATURAL AND OF ARTIFICIAL ICE.— One of the latest numbers of fae ‘Contralblati fiir Bakteriologie (IV., 22, 673) contains a summary of a recent paper by Heyroth, in which the latter gives the results of some three years of investiga- tion of the purity of ice, and brings the tet so far as it has been pursued by himself and others, up to 1888 The usual ** plate " cultures were employed, and the conclusions Y aa, at are : Water on freezing into ice always excretes from itself, so to ipai a portion of its chemical and organic contents. 2. Certain organie substances are less affected than are inorganic salts 3. Above all, the microórganisms, and among these not merely the ordinary harmless water bacteria, but also disease.producing forms, are able to withstand the process of freezing as it occurs in nature, and even a protracted exposure to the frozen condition, without loss of vegetative capacity or eie andit of their viru- lence The investigations of artificial ice did not make for itas favorable a showing—or, at least, not in all cases. It appears that the water This Department is edited by Prof. Wm. T. Sedgwick,.of the Mass. Insti- tute of "Tuchholn , Boston, Mass., to whom brief communications, books for review, etc., shou d be sent. Zoology. 57 employed is not always as unobjectionable as ordinary drinking water, and also that the water employed is sometimes rendered more or less impure by the careless use of the process it undergoes. Accordingly, figures as high as 528, 960, 1323, and even 1610 bac- teria per cc. were found, although, on the other hand, specimens were found which were absolutely sterile. The following conclusions were reached, viz. : 1. That the ice used for preservative purposes and for the cooling of drinks ought, no matter how prepared, to be made of such water only as has already been found to be pure, and at least as good as that adapted for a public water supply. 2. For the sake of the continuous protection of its composition periodical and repeated examinations should be made of the ice sup- ply and its sources, DISSECTION or THE Doa as A BASIS FoR THE STUDY OF PHYSIOL- oay.—A handsome and conveniently arranged guide to so much of anatomy as may be learned from a fairly thorough dissection of the dog has been prepared by W. H. Howell, of Johns Hopkins University, and published by Henry Holt & Co., of New York. The work is avowedly done by a physiologist for physiological purposes ; and in our opinion it has been done wisely and with discrimination. The worker who is endeavoring to get broad ideas of the position and relation of orgins and parts as mechanisms, should never be buried under anatomical minutiz to him of secondary importance, or confused beforehand by being told minutely what to do, or worse yet, what to see. By giving undue attention to his guide he is dis- tracted from the objects before him, and sooner or later is in danger of losing both the interest and pleasure of discovery and, above all, the final reward of increased power and independence. e book is not too large, possesses the great merits of simplicity and brevity, and ought to prove a real help to classes of a certain grade, in physiology.— W. T. Sedgwick. ZOOLOGY. THE ANATOMY oF PRoroPTERUS.—Prof. W. N. Parker commu- , pm is packed with goblet cells, and besides contains here and there multicellular glands like those of Amphibia. The normal ep- 58 General Notes. body serve as a food supply during the period of hibernation, their substance being catried away by leucocytes. The account of the nervous system is reserved foralater paper, but the fact is mentioned that the pulmonary nerves cross at the base of the lungs. A sym- pathetic system was not found. The body is well supplied with epi- dermal sense organs except on the paired fins. The author has no suggestion to make concerning the rich nerve supply of these latter organs. The olfactory organ partakes of the character of that in both Fishes and Amphibia, having the accessory cavities of the latter and the epithelium of the former. The eye has a large lens, the cho- roid is rudimentary and pigmentless, and iris and pupil are absent. No sense-cells were seen in sections of the tongue. A curious tube- like epithelial organ opens on the floor of the mouth in front of the tongue. Except the large liver no glands were connected with stomach or intestine, digestion being largely performed by the instru- mentality of leucocytes. Parker cannot verify Ayres’ supposition that the lymphatics connect directly with the lumen of the stomach. The so-called urinary bladder is a cloacal cecum, having much the position of the rectal gland of Elasmobranchs, and probably has no homology with the urinary bladder of other forms. The corpuscles of the blood are large, and the white are very abundant. The red corpuscles are oval and measure from .040 to .046 mm. in length and from .025 to .027 mm. in breadth. Of the white corpuscles two kinds may be distinguished: (1) large leucocytes of the ordinary form, and (2) leucocytes of various sizes, which, besides the ordinary pseudo- podia, form stiff filamentous processes. Experiments render 1t prob- able that the latter convey nutriment from the alimentary canal to the blood and there disintegrate. Hyrtl's description of the circu latory apparatus of Lepidosiren would answer almost equally well for Protopterus. There are no nephrostomes in connection with the kidneys. Ina male with immature spermatozoa the anterior parts of the Müllerian ducts were present, each with an abdominal open: ing like that of the oviduct. In sexually mature individuals all traces of the Müllerian ducts disappear. The spermatozoa are carrot- shaped and are provided with two long cilia. The head of the sper- matozoan was about .04 mm. in length. ANOTHER SPECIMEN or HYLA ANDERSONII.—On June 1, 1888, I found a single specimen of Hyla andersonii Baird in a wet place on the border of a pine barren, at May's Landing, N. J. I was quite lively when caught, but it soon became sluggish m confinement. Its voice was shrill and light, comparatively speak- ing ; and it consisted of a repetition of the same note three or four times in regular succession, in a sort of ** peep, peep, P perks as nearly as I can give it. The specimen was sent alive to Dr. C. v. Abbott, of Trenton, N. J., who says, in his ** Catalogue of the Verte- brate Animals of New Jersey " (Geology of N. J., Cook, 1868, p. 805) : that it is ‘‘a Southern species, a single specimen of which was E! found in Camden Co. in 1863 ” by Dr. J. Leidy Zoology. 59 Jordan’s ** Manual ofthe Vertebrates,” 5th ed., says ** N.J. to $. C. rare," which statement is still further confirmed by my discovery as given above. e specimen is still alive, and may be seen by applying to George Pine, Esq., Trenton, N. J.—John E. Peters, Sc. Doc., May’s Landing, N. J. A New SPrnwoPHILUS.—Dr. Merriam has recently described a new species of ground-squirrel from the Sierra Nevadas of Califor- nia. He calls it Spermophilus beldingi. The characters are taken from the coloration and from certain peculiar features of the skull. A broad band of rufous brown runs down the back of the new species, while in the one nearest allied to it the whole back is cov- er-d with small spots, giving it a peculiar maculated appearance. The difference in coloration of the two is not due to seasonal changes, as suites of the two species were collected at the same period of the year.—Jos. F. James. . THE DEER or CENTRAL AMERICA have been recently inves- tigated by Mr. F. W. True. All the species are small, even the Virginia deer, which extends that far south. The Mexican deer seems to pass into the Virginian form. All the species are ve much mixed up, and few characters seem to be constant enough to certainly characterize the species. The antlers. which have been largely depended upon, he did not consider reliable. A new species o was described from the material in the National Museum.—Jos. F. James. AN INTERESTING MAmMMAL.—In the last number of the AMER- ICAN NATURALIST was noticed the discovery of a new Australian mammal. The Zoologischer Anzeiger for November 19, 1888, con- tains a short account by A. Zietz, from which we condense the fol- lowing additional details. In form and size it resembles Chryso- chloris. has a thick, short, fine whitish-yellow pelt, a small head with rounded snout, which is covered above by two horny plates, one be- hind the other. The skin is not perforated for the eyes, and the eyes themselves are only two black-pigmented points. The ear openings are covered by the fur; the nostrils lateral and slit-like. The salivary glands are very large. The fore feet are short, stout, and directed outwards, and the handsare folded longitudinally, bring- ing the fingers into two series, one of which is composed of the short digit 1 and digits 2 and 3 with long pointed nails. The other (outer) series consists of the 4th digit, with a small elongate, and digit 5, with a large triangular shield-like nail. The soles of the hinder feet are directed outwards; the toes, which are connected by skin, are armed with broad claws. The long, strong tail is hairless, 60 General Notes. very peculiar and appears related to that of Amphitherium of the Eng- lish Oólite. A clavicle is present. Only a single specimen is known, and that lacks the viscera and is partially decayed. It was found in the sandy region 500 miles north of Adelaide and 150 west from Charlotte Waters. The natives were questioned about it, and only one old woman could recall having seen one before. It appears to be a burrowing animal, and a portion of the alimentary tract which was preserved was filled with the remains of ants. It also appears o be a monotreme, and if the dentition can be relied upon. it forms an interesting remnant of the ancient fauna, and is to-day the old- est living mammal. A Correction : ARVICOLA (CHILOTUS) PALLIDUS.— The August number of the AMERICAN NATURALIST contains a description of the above-named species (Vol. XXII., 1888, pp. 702-705). Through a most unfortunate blunder, the illustration accompanying this de- scription (p. 704), instead of being the drawing sent with the man- uscript, is a figure of Arvicola (Pedomys) minor, which was pub- lished with a description of that species in the preceding number of ) Mm ^ FA AD A^ Am No. 4431. Female Arvicola (Chilotus) pallidus Merri From Ft. Buford, Dakota (Type) 1 and 2, skull, double natural size; 3, upper molar series, X 5;4, lower molar series, X 5.4 the NATURALIST (July, 1888, p. 599), the same cut being made to illustrate two very distinct subgenera! The accompanying figure 1s that of Arvicola (Chilotus) pallidus, and should be substituted for that on p. 704 of the August number. In the lettering under the skull of Arvicola (Pedomys) minor, p. 599, the skull number 18 given as 2245. It should be 2224. C. Harr MERRIAM. ZOOLOGICAL News.—GENeERAL.—Prof. J. B. Steere says (Nature, IX., p. 37) that the Philippine Islands are readily divisible into several distinct sub-provinces clearly distinguishable by their faunz. Entomology. 61 These are (1) Northern Philippines, consisting of Luzon and Mu- rinduque and a few small islands around Luzon; (2) Mindoro; (3) Central Philippines, embracing Panay. Negros, Guimaras, Zebu, Bohol, and Masbate; (4) Eastern Philippines, comprising Samar and Leyte; (5) Southern Philippines, made up of Mindanao, Ba- silau, and perhaps Sulu; and (6) Western Philippines, consisting of Palawan and Balabac. EcuHINopERMSs.—Prof. P. Herbert Carpenter is studying the Comatule of the ** Blake” explorations in the Caribbean Sea. Wonws.—F. E. Beddard (Nature, XXXIX., p. 15) describes some very large hooked bristles upon the caudal end of an earthworm (? Urochzeta)received from Bermuda which he suggests are correlated with the habit which most earthworms have of lying with the an- terior part of the body out of the ground, only the tail being kept Msi the hole. These bristles would thus form very efficient anchors, the Northern hemisphere.—Jos. F. James. ENTOMOLOGY.! ON PREVENTING THE RAvAGES OF WrrE-Worms.—In a recently published paper,? the editor of this department makes a preliminary report on an investigation of wire-worms, now in progress. In the course of this investigation a method of combating these pests has been devised which promises to be of considerable importance. At the beginning of our study of wire-worms, experiments were tried to ascertain if it were practicable to protect the seed and young " This Department is edited by Prof J. H. Comstock, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., to whom communications, books for notice, etc., should be sent. u ? Bull. Cornell Univ. Agr’l Exp. Station, iii., pp. 81-89. 62 General Notes. tate the examination of them. It now seems probable that more worms would have been attracted had the baits been buried. The results of our efforts to trap wire-worms were very different from what we had expected. A few were taken in traps baited with sweetened dough, not enough, however, to be of much practi- cal importance. But to our surprise, large numbers of click-beetles were taken. This at once opened a new line of investigation. If it is possible to trap and destroy the beetles before they have laid their eggs, we have at our command a much more effectual method of preventing the ravages of wire-worms than by destroying the larvee after they are partially grown. As indicating the possible efficiency of this method, I will cite a single instance. A series of twelve traps, which had been left un- disturbed for only three days, yielded 482 beetles, or an average of more than 40 beetles per trap. And this notwithstanding that a considerable number had been attracted to other traps in the imme- diate vicinity.! Of the substances used as baits clover attracted by far the larger number of beetles. The clover baits were small bunches about one- quarter pound in weight, of freshly cut stalks and leaves. Next clover in the order of efficiency was sweetened dough. ‘This was made by mixing one part sugar with ten parts corn-meal and suf- ficient water to make a dough. About one-half a teacupful was used in each trap. Unsweetened dough and sliced potatoes proved to be of nearly equal value, but much less attractive than sweetened dou We thus demonstrated that it is an easy matter to trap click-bee- tles in the places where they abound—that they will collect in large numbers upon baits of clover or of sweetened corn-meal dough. The collection of the beetles, however, from such baits involves con- siderable labor. We therefore conducted experiments to ascertain if this labor could be saved, and obtained the following results: Many beetles were collected from our traps and placed in breed- ing cages. Some of these cages were supplied with clover, others with sliced potatoes, others with dough, and still others with sweet- ened dough. In one series of cages these substances were poisoned. In another, used as a check, the food was not poisoned. At the same time an extensive series of traps were placed in the corn-field. In this case alternate traps were poisoned, the others not. ? More than one-half of the click-beetles collected in these experiments were Agriotes mancus. Next in abundance was Drasterius dorsalis. A few specimens of Agriotes pubescens were also taken. Entomology. 63 l pecially in its cæcal appendages, which are often literally crammed with it from end to end. This disease somewhat resembles that known as schlaffsucht or flacherie in the literature of the silkworm. Its germ is freely cultivable both in beef broth and in solid gela- tine media, by the processes usual in bacterial investigation. : . Both the Entomophthora and the Botrytis finally imbed the insect in à white fungus—the efflorescence of à spore-bearing mycelium. The Bo'rytis been much more abundant and destructive in Illinois than the Entomophthora, although seemingly less so at pres- ent than the bacterial form. : t now seems likely that these diseases, occurring as they do Ame 19. Prof. Burrill from my recent cultures, solid and fluid, and from the affected chinch bugs themselves, proves to be a Bacillus of peculiar character, and nota occus, à i A American Naturalist, xvii., p. 3 This microbe, studied anew 'by e 64 General Notes. spontaneously over a large area, will soon suppress what has prob- ably been the longest continued destructive outbreak of the chinch bug known in the history of that insect. Their present activity is illustrated by the fact that in a single field in Southern Illinois dead chinch bugs imbedded in this mould were found by an assistant, Mr. John Marten. so numerous as to suggest a recent flurry of snow.— S. A. Forbes (in Psyche, Oct., 1888). Porson or HyMENOPTERA.—One of the most interesting phe- nomena met by the student of the habits of insects, and one that has long excited wonder, is the fact that the Digger-wasps or Fossorial Hymenoptera sting the insects with which they provision their nests in such a way that the insects are paralyzed, but not killed. It has been commonly believed that the Digger-wasps could easily destroy their victims if they chose to do so; but instead of doin so they sting them ‘‘ just enough to paralyze them but not enough to kill them ;” for they know instinctively that on the one hand d insects would not be suitable food for their young, and on the other, that if the insects with which the nest is provisioned are left unin- jured, the larva which hatches from the egg placed with them would be unable to overpower them. Some have held that the paralyzing of the prey isaccomplished by making a slight sting in one of the ganglia of the ventral nervous stem. This, however. implies an instinctively obtained knowledge of insect anatomy which is t» say the least remarkable. A very different explanation of the phenomenon is now offered by M. G. Carlet.! In an earlier note? he showed that the wound inflicted by the Hymenoptera with a barbed sting (Bees and true Wasps) always resulted in a mixture of two liquids; one, an acid, the other, an alkali, each secreted by a special gland. And he also showed that the venom produced the usual results only when it con- tained these two constituents. He has now studied the poison of Hynenoptera with a smooth sting (Philanthus, Pompilus, ete.) and finds that with these the alkaline gland either does not exist or is rudimentary. These are the Hymenoptera whose incomplete poison does not kill the insects with which they provision their nests, for the purpose of feeding their larve with living prey. In M. Carlet’s opinion it is the presence of the two liquids or of one only which produces respectively the mortal poison or the anesthetic, and not the asserted power to select the point of the body at which the Digger-wasp will sting its victim. Report or THE STATE ENTOwOLOoaIsST OF New YoRk.—Dr. Lintner’s Fourth Report has just appeared. It makes a volume of 237 pages, and includes accounts of a large number of insects, some of which are described here for the first time. This report, like those that have preceded it, is the result of a great amount of pains- ! "Comptes Rendus, cvi. ( ("rg pp. 1737-40, ? [b., seance du 23 juin 1 Embryology. -OD taking labor, and is a valuable addition to the literature of Eco- nomic Entomology. The number of subjects described is so large that it is impracticable to give an abstract of the report. THALESSA AND TREMEX.—A paper was recently read by Prof. Riley, entitled ** Notes on the Economy of Thalessa and Tremex.” T'halessa is an Ichneumon fly having in some species an ovipositor six and seven inches in length. The eggs are laid in the burrow of the larva of Tremex and not in the larva itself, so it is an external and not an internal parasite of the larva. The ovipositor performs the part of a saw and drills a hole in the bark over the burrow of Tremex. Owing to the great length of the ovipositor, it was long a question how the insect could reach the bark to deposit its eggs. lt is accomplished by the insect so manipulating the organ with its feet as to form a double coil in a special membrane between the last two segments of the abdomen, then curving it over and passing it downward so as to reach the wood. In the pupa this ovipositor is bent round and along the ventral surface and then backwards again along the dorsal surface. A ** HUMAN PanasrrE."—Prof. Riley mentions in a general way the occurrence of parasites upon orin the human body. He mentioned particularly the case of a lady in Washington who felt herself stung y some insect. In the course of a few weeks she was annoyed by a pimple on her neck. When pressed, there was forced from the spot a small larva, of some species of bot-fly, but as nothing was known of its parent, its identification was impossible. Reference was also made to another parasite noticed by a physician of New Orleans, an account of which had been given in a late mumber of ** Insect Life.’” —Jos. F. James. EMBRYOLOGY.: , THE Byssus or THE Youxe or THE Common Cram (Mya arena- ria L.).—During the past summer Mr. Vinal N. Edwards, the well- known collector of the U. S. Fish Commission, at Woods Holl, found young clams adhering in great numbers to the surface of floating timbers in the harbor of New Bedford, Mass. They were associat with Ascidians ( Molgula) in this unusual position, and very naturally attracted the attention of so observant a field-naturalist as Mr. Ed- wards, who very kindly brought me an abundant supply of speci- mens. The S as they came into my hand were in flakes formed of marine alge and earthy matters, sand, and mould, which * This Departments edited by Prof. John A. Ryder, University of Pennsyl- vania, Philadelphia. 66 . General Notes. ` had been peeled off of the surface. of the floating timbers. These masses were traversed superficially by a mat of fibres which were found to be derived from the outer tunic or mantle of the Ascidians, by means of which the latter were adherent to their support. At first, in separating the young clams from their singular place of support, it was supposed that their rather firm adhesion was alto- gether due to their having been caught during the very early veliger stage in this mat of fibres formed about the bases of the Ascidians. As they grew larger it was further supposed that they were held fast in their unusual position by the fibres and cement substance secreted by the mantles of their Ascidian neighbors, and thus were suffered to attain a considerable size (from two to fifteen millimetres) before they finally became free and sank into a more favorable position on the bottom. However, further investigation showed that in this I was in error, for after a careful search, a few individuals were found from which a single byssal thread was found to proceed, invariably from the point where the tip of the foot is thrust through the me- dian opening in the mantle. To make it still more certain that there should be no mistake, the byssal thread was pulled out of its insertion in several specimens, when it was found to present the irregular swollen proximal end usually found to characterize the in- - traglandular portion of the byssus in molluses which possess this organ. The subject at this point became sufficiently interesting to warrant farther study, and, inasmuch as but a few individuals were found which had the byssal thread in place, that structure being usually torn loose in removing the specimens from their support amongst the Ascidians, it became necessary to resort to the meth- o y sectioning to determine if there was a byssal gland present in the foot. To this end a number of specimens were treated first with a dilute chromic acid solution (one-half per cent.). After this had fixed the tissues, the solution was renewed and acidulated with nitric acid (one-half per cent.), and allowed to act until all of the calcareous matter had been removed from the shell. This left the specimens in good histological condition for cutting, after which the specimens were washed, dehydrated, and saturated with celloidin, in which they were embedded and sectioned on a Schanze microtome. The sections were cut parallel to the median longitudinal plane, or so as to coincide with the union of the edges of the mantle along the margins of the valves. Besides disclosing the unmistakable an- atomical structure characteristic of Mya, there was found in the sections of the median region at the apex of the foot a median saccular depression which was undoubtedly the byssal gland with the thread in place or with remains of the secretion from which the byssal thread was formed. This discovery leaves no doubt as to the fact that this well- known mollusc is provided with a byssus during its early life. One series of sections in my possession, from a specimen ten millimetres long, shows the structure admirably. How much longer than u . Physiology. ; 67 the young clams were kept suspended in this instance on account of their accidental and supplementary adhesion to the Ascidians can- not be determined, but it is fair to suppose that their period of sus- pension would be prolonged on that account beyond the usual time. 1e presence of a byssal attachment in Mya arenaria reopens the question of the life-history of this important shell-fish. In fact, it is probable that some of its allies may have an unknown byssal stage, and, perhaps. types somewhat distant from it in the system, but with similar habits in the adult condition, such as Glycimeris and Panopea, may also have such a stage. In that case the methods hitherto proposed to be adopted in order to secure the ti will accordingly be necessary to resort to some form of **col- or cultch, such as is used in oyster-culture, to allow the fry to affix itself. While there is a very sharply defined homogeneous larval shell or protoconch in the young oyster, this seems to be absent or not sharply defined in the young of Mya arenaria in specimens two to three millimeters long. In Chlamydoconcha the protoconch or lar- val shell is preserved even in individuals supposed to be adult, since here both valves are completely invested by the closed mantle sac, - the shell being internal. "The detection of a byssus in the young of Mya is of interest also from the fact that it suggests that such or- gans are probably present in the young stages of still other Lamelli- branchs, where it has not been hitherto suspected.—John A. Ryder. PHYSIOLOGY .! Ox THE RHYTHM or THE MAMMALIAN HEART.— Prof. John A. MeWilliam,? of the University of Aberdeen, extends to a study of the mammalian heart the methods of work which in the hands of situ, and obtains many interesting data, which he compares with the known facts in the cold-blooded animals. As in the latter, so in 'This Department is edited by Dr. Frederic S. Lee, Bryn Mawr Col- lege, Bryn Mawr, Pa. * The Journal of Physiology, Vol.9, p. 167. 68 General Notes. things, by the slow rhythm in the isolated ventricle (which 1s in harmony with what exists in the lower Vertebrates) ; the rhythm originating at the venous terminations apparently dominates the whole heart, and determines the rate of its action ; hence the causes determining the rhythm of the intact heart are to be sought for at the venous end of the organ. The usual order of contraction may be altered and even entirely reversed by artificially stimulating 8 portion of the surface—e.g., stimulation of the ventricle is followed by contraction of the ventricle, then auricle, then venous termina- tions. The question of the mode of propagation of the normal contrac- tion over the auricles and ventricles 1s discussed by the author at some length, in view of the fact that Gaskell has urged that in the tortoise the phenomenon is simply one of muscular conduction. Such an explanation is negatived at once for the mammalian heart, as regards the passage from auricle to ventricle at least, by the fact that here is a distinct break in the muscular continuity, the auricles and ventricles being separated by a considerable amount of connec- tive tissue. It seems impossible to account for the sequence on Physiology. 69 purely physical grounds, such as the distension of the ventricular cavities, the electric variation accompanying the auricular beat, o the sudden tension of the chord: tendinex resulting from the con- traction of the auricular muscle fibres which go down into the auriculo-ventricular valves. The author is hence forced to a belief in the existence of a nervous mechanism for the propagation. What this mechanism is, is not. known, but it is possible that an extensive nerve plexus exists throughout the whole of the cardiac wall. Pas- sage of the contraction through the substance of the auricle is inde- pendent of the great nerve-trunks, since these may be destroyed and the wall even eut into zigzag strips without interfering with the action. CONNECTIONS OF MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH.—In Fishes, Amphib- ians, and Reptiles the ductus endolymphaticus of the inner ear has long been known not to constitute a closed cavity, but to join the exterior (Elasmobranchs) or the lymph-spaces of the cranial cavity. Rüdinger! finds an analogous arrangement to exist in mammals and man. ‘The ductus does not here end blindly, as has hitherto been supposed, but by means of several branched canals is in communi- cation with the subdural lymph-spaces of the dura mater. These canals are probably homologous with those of the lower vertebrates. ‘he author regards the ductus as an elastic bag, the function of which is to enable the differences of pressure occurring within the labyrinth to be readily balanced. The size, the bladder.like form, and the situation of the ductus in the cranial cavity, instead of within the bony labyrinth, favor such a theory. FUNCTION oF THE CocHLEA.— The most commonly accepted hypothesis regarding the mode of analysis of composite sounds by the cochlea is that of Hensen, according to which a small portion of the basilar membrane is put into vibration by the incoming waves ; deep tones affect the membrane where it is widest—i.e., at the apex of the cochlea; high tones affect the narrow portion at the cochlear base. This theory is supported by an observation of Munk that a dog, in whom the base of the cochlea had been injured, could hear low tones only. Stepanow? has recently tested the theory experimentally by de- stroying the apex of the cochlea in the guinea-pig, in which animal the cochlea projects freely into the auditory bulla. Different instru- ments, comprising the violin, piano, harmonica, Galton’s whistle, B-bass, tuning-fork, etc., were employed to test the power of hear- ing; and the perception of sound was inferred from the reflex move- ment of the ears. In spite of destruction of a considerable portion of the apical region of the cochlea, accompanied by loss of en- dolymph, the animals reacted to all tones, and, what is especially ' Sitzungsber. d. math.-phys, Cl. d. k. bayer., Akad. d. Wiss., 1887. Heft. 3, p. 455. Cf. Münchener Med. Wochenschr., 1888, p. 139. EM rwr. ies f. Ohrenh, xxii, p. 85. Cf. Centralblatt f. Physiologie, , p. 298, 70 General Notes. important, perception of the deep tones did not seem to be wanting. The author regards Hensen’s hypothesis as not proved, and inclines to the theory of Voltolini that each nerve fibre of the cochlea recog- nizes all tones. A Recent STUDY or ‘‘Ricor Morris.”—Some important work on rigor mortis has lately been done in the Physiological Institute at Königsberg by Max Bierfreund, cand. med.‘ Since the time of Nysten (1811) physiologists generally have suspected that the ner- vous system has some appreciable influence upon the time of appear- ance of rigor, and possibly upon its subsequent intensity. Munk, Bleuler and Lehmann, v. Eiselsberg, Tamassia, and others have in- vestigated the question and have come to quite contradictory conclu- sions. 'l'amassia asserts that rigor is completely independent of the nervous system, and supports this theory by the results of a number of experiments on frogs, sparrows, and guinea-pigs. A. v. Gendre, v. Eiselsberg, and now Max Bierfreund have, on the other hand, arrived at the opposite conclusion. Bierfreund has found in all the experiments performed by him decided evidence that some influence proceeds from the nervous system. When he cut the eout by experiments upon the central nervous mechanism. Division of the lateral columns of the spinal cord or extirpation of one of the cerebral hemispheres will cause a delay in the appearance of rigor on the side which is dependent on the part removed. Bier- freund found, also, as might have been anticipated, that destruction of the central organs diminished the intensity of the rigor. The red muscles stiffen much later than the white (11-15 hrs. as against 1-3 hrs.) ; and the time taken for completion of the rigor in the red muscles is much longer (52-58 hrs. as against 10-14 hrs.). Bierfreund sees in this fact an explanation of the so-called law of Nysten that the muscles of the body fall into rigor in a fixed and definite order. He observed, for example, that in rabbits the muscles of the hind limbs, where white muscles predominate,- invariably stiffen sooner than those of the fore limbs, where the muscles are exclusively red. igh temperatures hasten the onset and the subsequent e — rigor. Narcotics (chloroform and ether) if inhaled, elay it, but, if injected into the blood, produce a condition similar to rigor by their direct effect on the muscle substance. Chloral, which has no direct influence upon the muscle, effects a retardation of rigor when injected into the blood. Curare, vias. i to von Eiselsberg and von Gendre, appears to destroy completely the influ- E ! Untersuchungen über die Todtenstarre, Pflüger's Archiv, Bd. XLIII., «190. | ? , Physiology. 71 ence of the nervous system. Stimulation of the sciatic on one side iian a inima electric current causes rigor to appear later on that si The disappearance of rigor is not due to the fact that eig on liquefies a coagulated proteid. Putrefaction and rigor do not run parallel courses ; frogs are ee ee found in a state of rigor in spite of intense putrefactio If putrefaction be checked by in- jection of carbolic acid or ema sublimate into the blood-vessels of the animal the rigor disappears just as quickly as in an anima in which putrefaction is given full sw Bierfreund regards as highly denitnakt, the fact that rigor vanishes of itself and independently of the putrefaction. He looks upon rigor mortis as the last contraction of the muscle, the last act in the life-history of the muscle fibre ; but by what stimulus or stimuli this contraction is called forth, he leaves us still uncertain. —JE. D. Jordan, Boston THE MECHANICAL ORIGIN or THE HARD PARTS or THE MAMMA- 1A.—A paper on this subject was ge by the writer before the roe Philosophieal Society, Jan. 3. Summarizing the investigation, the author stated that the structures of the mammalian skeleton and dentition may be referred broadly to the two general classes, excess of growth and defect of owth. Each of these may be again divided into two series as fol- OWS : Use. Exoess. of- gro ovt Luxuriance. Disuse. Defect of growth | Poverty. The paper dwelt prinsipens. rc the first two conditions, which have frequently co-operated in the development of structures. These were classified iir the following mechanical energies as causes: A. Motion in articulation. 1. Impact only. Facetting of distal end e: radius in Diplarthra. Oravat of proximal end of radius in eedem Grooving of proximal end of astragalus by ti at trochlea of dde in Potente p eporidis) and meta- co and humerus in Diplarthra 2. Torsion only. Alternation of carpal bones in Anthropomo oput. Ue flanges of ulnar cotylus in Anthropomorpha . nsymmetrical flanges of ulnar cotylus in other mammalia, Rounding of head of radius in Edentata and Involution of eygapophyses in Diplarthra, etc. 3. Torsion and impact without flexure. Alternation of carpal and torsal bones in Ungulata. 79 General Notes. 4. Torsion, impact, and flexure in one plane. Tongue and groove joints in many orders. 5. Flexure in two planes. Saddle-shaped cervical vertebra in Quadrumana. 6. Flexure in several directions. Ball and socket vertebral articulation. Heads of humerus and femur. . Motion not in articulation. (Teeth.) 7. Displacement of cusps of triconodont molars by crowding. Tritubercular molars. 8. Transverse thrust. The Vs of molars teeth in various orders. 9. Longitudinal thrust. The Vs of the Multituberculata. Obliquity of molars in many Rodentia. 10. Stimulation of pressure and strain. Incisors of Rodentia, Multituberculata, etc. Prismatic molars of Diplarthra, Rodentia, etc. Confluence of cusps into crests generally. Sectorial teeth of Carnivora. Canine teeth in general. Incisors of Proboscidia, Monodon, Halicore, etc. As a general result we may assert that that it is a general law of animal as of other mechanics—viz., that identical causes produce identical results. The evidence for this law may be arranged under two heads, as follows: I. The same structure appears in distinct Se which are sub- jected to the same mechanical conditions. Examples of this are: the identical character of the articulation of the limbs in Diplarthra and Rodentia which possess powers of rapid locomotion. The iden- tical structure of the head of the radius in Edentata and Quadru- mana which possess the power of complete supination of the manus. the latter are developed. Different structures appear in different parts of the skeleton of the same individual animals in consequence of the different me- chanical conditions to which these parts have been subjected. Ex-' amples: the diverse modification of the articulations of the limbs 1n consequence of difference of the uses to which they have been put, in mammals which excavate the earth with one pair of limbs only, as in the fossorial Edentata, Insectivora, and Rodentia. The reduc- tion of the number of digits in the posterior limb only, when this 18 exclusively used for rapid progression, as in leaping ; this is seen Psychology. 73 in the kangaroos and jerboas, in the orders Marsupialia and Ro- entia. There are a good many structures in the skeleton of the Mammalia which have not yet received a satisfactory explanation on the groun of mechanical necessity. Such, for instance, appears to me to be the condition of the history of the origin of the canine tooth; that is its use in preference to an incisor for raptorial purposes. Such may be also the history of the origin of the complex vertebral articulations of the American Edentata, as compared with the simple articulations of the Ol orld. In these, as in similar cases, however, an ele- ment enters which must be taken into account in seeking for ex- planations; that is, that every evolution is determined at its incep- ion ] e material or type from which it originates. Thus is explained the fact that identical uses have not produced identical structures in the limbs of all aquatic animals. The fin of the fish is essentially different from the paddle of the Ichthyosaurus or the whale, The beak of the rapatorial bird is different from the canine tooth of the rapacious mammal. When this principle is duly considered, many mechanical explanations will become clear, which now seem to be involved in difficulty or mystery.—Z. D. Cope. PSYCHOLOGY. GRASSHOPPER REASONING.—I was on the railroad train from Newport, Vermillion County, for Terre Haute. A grasshopper in a heedless spring lit on the glass window of the coach. It wasa warm, dry, dusty day of the drouthy summer. That little hopper looked through the glass and seemed astonished; the car was moving with increasing velocity, and thus surrounded by the current of air, the quiver and rattle of the car, seemed afraid to jump; and perhaps re- calling the terrors of railroad accidents, was too cautious to fall off. So, calmly studying the situation, he decided to stay and ride to the next station. On the polished surface of the giving, dusty glass, his feet became dry and his footing insecure. Mental resources came to his rescue. His memory and reason notified him that he must keep the suction cushions of his feet wet to insure an adhesive vacuum. So, after care- fully planting his feet in safety, he carefully raised one foot to his mouth or lips and moistened it. was a success, as reason and old memories and hopper philosophy had told him. Another and an- other foot was so moistened, and the hopper, armed with memory, prudence, and philosophic reason, rode on the train to the next sta- 74 General Notes. tion, affording entertainment to several admiring friends. Hon. ohn Whitcomb, of Clinton, first called our attention to the cute little fellow.—C., in Indiana Farmer. Frogs EATING SNAKES.—For several months I have kept in the house a sort of **zoological garden " in which there have been a few specimens of frogs, salamanders, and snakes. A few weeks ago I placed therein two full-grown leopard frogs and a hog-nosed viper about nine or ten inches in length. "There were already in the box two garter-snakes two feet long and three salamanders—nothing else at that time. For a time everything went well, but about two weeks later the little viper was missing. A diligent search failed to find it, and careful examination of the cage showed no place of escape. The disappearance seemed quite mysterious, and the con- clusion reached was that it had fallen a victim to cannibalism on the part of one of the other reptiles, although neither showed any signs of having feasted so extensively. Ten or fifteen days later a friend and I went to take alook at the pets. We found in the excrement of one of the frogs what on examination proved to be the skin, etc., of a snake, apparently the lost viper. When first found not more than half the length had passed, and the process was evidently causing the frog considerable effort. It was using its hind feet to assist m freeing itself. | - as the inference that the frog had swallowed the snake justifi- able? I had never heard of such an occurrence ; nor have I since been able to find any one who has. I was greatly surprised, for it seemed to me almost impossible. The swallowing of frogs by snakes I have several times seen, but I have never known the operation to be reversed, except in this instance.—H. L. Roberts, Lewistown, Ill. ARCHZEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY.! ent colors. An abstract of the Major's remarks and description is as follows : 1 This Department is edited by Thomas Wilson, Esq., Smithsonian In- stitution, Washington, D. C. Archeology and Anthropology. 15 ** There is but one human species; but one human race. Alldif- ferences are but variations of the one and original species. "There were two great peoples of this one human species living on the two different hemispheres, unknown to each other. Columbus, voyag- ing from the one, discovered the other. and introduced them to- gether. Further acquaintance developed the fact that even before his time there was a greater number of living languages in America than in Europe. If there was not more civilization, there was cer- tainly more philoRophy. We have failed to comprehend the extent to which this is true. ** Fifteen years ago I was called upon in my official capacity o clas- sify the North American Indians. After various attem n much consideration, F decided that the only practical or S gal classification was that to be made by language. Other persons had treated the subject in the light of zoology, and had attempted to Classify man as an animal. Divers measurements of the crania were resorted to, anthropometry was put in active operation, tests were made of the color of the skin, hair, eyes, etc., but all such have failed as means of classification. We discovered as we pro- gressed that classification by language was fundamental and wrought a classification i in civilization, sociology, religion, mythology, art, etc. his map age our conclusions so far as our work has been completed. It is intended to represent the condition and location of Indian tribes as nd by their languages at the advent of the white man, b OnE succeeding epochs have sometimes neces- sarily been s **'The Tubi occupy the northern coast line likea pag um Labrador to Alaska. They speak practically the same language Athabascan, occupying almost the entire territory of British N oath America, speak many languages, each distinct from the other, and yet belonging to the same stock and showing that they were the same people. We find this pe nk scattered in spots through’ California and Old and New Mexic ** The next group of poping, leas or fifty in number, scattered over the eastern and northeastern United States and Canada, was the Algonkin, and yet we find the Arapahoes down near the Gulf of Mexico to belong to the same stock. Likewise the Iroquois, vari- ously called the Tire or Six or Seven Nations, have a modern repre- sentative i in the language of the Cherokees. ‘‘ The Siouan group had its habitat on the prairies between the oes pi and Missouri. The Shoshonian group "usu a ve different languages. The Pueblo Indians employed or b e different mock, but they all Ts to the Shoshonian pe guage. * We have claret material sh t lifferent stoc] of languages and nigh eight hundred dialects : Soa the Indians of orth America, and we have been aided in our work by the labors of missionaries, scholars, and of volunteers. ** Our work has made us more conservative. We now depend more 76 General Notes. on evidence and less on theory. Our arrangement is based on the vocabulary—the roots of words. We have not depended upon the structure of their language. Structure means only different grades or degrees in development. A single language in its different dia- higher order of structure and a better grammar than had the English. The grammar of a language is born in barbarism. ** An attempt has been made in the present day, by a German, to construct a new language, and its inventor or maker has declared his purpose to take the good things of all languages and put them together for his new language. Suppose a zoologist should attempt to construct a new animal, or a new species, upon the same line, and, for instance, for the extremities of the body, he takes the hoofs of the horse, the wing of the bird, the fin of the fish, and the hand would be the same as in the new language, Volapük—the conglom- erate monster of modern language." We have seen the Linguistic Map of North America prepared b Major Powell and his assistants. It is a great work, worthy all commendation. The science had need for it, and it could scarcely ever have been done by private enterprise. It was fit and proper that it should be done under Government patronage, and all credit is due to the men who have made it. In giving it this commendation, we do not at all assent to Major Powell's criticisms of other means of classification, and his laudation of language as the only correct or valuable one. : is may be, or may not be, the best system for the classification of the modern North American Indian tribes, but certainly is Mee m APPROPRIATIONS BY CONGRESS FOR THE U. S. NariovarL MU- SEUM.—'' England has become thoroughly aroused to the necessity wy Archæology and Anthropology. i7 of encouraging science and art. Availing herself of the fifty thou- sand volumes and the hundreds of cases of natural history left by Hans Sloane, a native of Ireland, she founded the British Museum. Later in the century she spent half a million dollars on the National Gallery, and has annually bestowed upon it a liberal allowance. The South Kensington Museum, the National Portrait Gallery, and the India Museum are all of comparatively recent origin, and have cost the Treasury millions for their foundation and support. Mu- seums of art have been opened in the provincial towns, supported in England nearly $5,000,000, and upon science and art in Ireland nearly $300,000."— Margaret F. Sullivan, in December Century ported by the United States Government which stands as a repre- sentative of the British institutions mentioned above, and on which its Government has spent millions. The appropriations made by the United States Government for the National Museum are barely sufficient to keep it alive. They are provision for its daily running expenses, and_barely adequate for that. What the museum, its contributors and corre- spondents, persons throughout the country interested in kindred scientific pursuits, and the public generally, have good right to complain of is that no provision is made in these appropriations for e purchase or securing of specimens, however great their value or importance, nor for the enlargement or increase of the collections. The Congress, it would seem, fails to comprehend the scope and purpose of the National Museum. It seems to consider it as a mere gathering of curiosities (maybe monstrosities) which may serve to amuse and interest for an afternoon a stray constituent who may have come in from the rural districts and seek attention at his Congressman's hands. The Congress at large seems not to know, or, if it does, ignores the fact that the National Museum is an extensive, and ought to be fully equipped, organization for the education of the people and for conducting investigations in science not possible to be done by private individuals. In other countries it would be liberally supported and generously sustained. With a geographic area larger than combined Europe the United States treats its science, especially its science of archeology, 78 General Notes. with less interest, or care or attention, if we measure these things by the appropriations made, than do the third-rate powers, such as Portugal, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, etc. Yet the area of the United States is as rich and as new, and will pay as largely for cul- tivation, as any like area in Europe. The States of Ohio, or Wis- consin, or West Virginia, or Mississippi, not to mention New York or New England, have either of them within their borders as much unstudied, unsearched, and unclassified archzeologie riches as has any one of the great countries of Europe: England, France, Germany, Spain, or Italy. Yet these countries, each of them, do more for their archeology than equals the combined efforts of the United States and all the State governments. : i I confess to a feeling of depression when, on visiting the Prehistoric Museum at Salisbury, England, I found there stored and displayed, - in a beautiful building, erected in the midst of a lovely park, for its sole occupancy, the prehistoric collection of Squier and Davis, gathered by them from the mounds of the United States in the hio and Mississippi valleys. It went begging through the United States, knocked at the door of Congress, and besought a purchaser at the ludicrous price of $1000, but without finding a response. And in disgust with their countrymen, and in despair of ever being able to interest their Government or fellow-citizens, they sold their collection to England and retired from the field of archzologie investigations. : The National Museum courts the fullest investigations into its mode of conducting business. It is willing to be held to the strictest accountability for its expenditures. imperatiye. But it should receive at the hands of Congress an mM- telligent co-operation and a generous response to its efforts for the elevation and education of our people. he Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and Director of the National Museum has labored with all zeal to establish a zoologii ark and garden in the environs of Washington for the preservation and display of our native wild animals, now rapidly on the ro to, extinction. Looking in that direction, a few of these animals have been received as gifts under the promise that they would be pro- tected and cared for. And they have been established in temporary wooden buildings, and a park, with a wire fence around it, as big 38 an onion patch, in the Smithsonian grounds, in expectation that they might form the nucleus of a future zoological park and garder. The House Committee on Appropriations seem to calculate or figure how much refuse meat, how many bushels of corn and bales of hay, how little of provision would support these animals, keeping them — from starvation during the coming year, and so has reduced the ap- . propriation by one-half from the estimates. One might suppose . that the Secretary, meeting with such responses, would grow weary of his efforts in well-doing and retire from the further contest dis- appointed, if not in despair. : T owore, the people of the United States are not niggardly 12 These should be made Archeology and Anthropology. 79 the matter of money needed for the benefit of science, if the object be properly explained and fairly understood. It rests upon the Secretary and Board of Regents to do this, and the people will jus- tify them in asking for any reasonable amount so long as they shall be satisfied, as they may be under the present administration, that it is honestly expended and faithfully accounted for. Legislators seeking a reputation for economy will net be sustained by the peo- le in refusing to vote the appropriations sufficient to secure, in these matters, a degree of excellence which will cause the United States to compare favorably with other countries. FORGERIES OF PALÆOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS IN EUROPE.—Mr. John Evans, of Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, England, the distin- uished numismatist and prehistoric archeologist, says in a private letter lately received : ‘‘ We have lately had very extensive forgeries of paleolithic implements in the neighborhood of London. Many of them are of great size and remarkably well made. Several col- lectors have been taken in, and I should not be surprised if some of our dealers exported a few to America. I recommend you to be on your guard." Monsieur Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville, the discoverer of the palxolithic age and implements in the valley of the river Somme, was often deceived by the workmen on whom he had to depend in his search for these implements. It was in the beginning of all knowledge of this subject, and no one could claim to be an expert or have much experience in their detection. Monsieur Boucher de Perthes stored his collection, if he did not make it a donation, to the Archeologic Museum of the town of Abbeville, and died with- out knowlege of the frauds of which he had been the victim. His son-in-law, M. D'Ault Dumesnil, the geologist, equally learned and practised as a prehistoric archzologist, became director of that museum. In the classification made by him of the paleolithic im- plements he detected the forgeries and withdrew them from exhibi- tion. The United States National Museum has to thank him for a series which are there exhibited as specimens of these forgeries. So habile did M. Dumensil become in the detection of these forgeries that he was able to tell from an inspection of them, not only when ey were forgeries, but from their peculiarities he could determine the identity of the forger. The ‘‘ personal equation " was so mani- fested in this work as to enable him to do this. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF PREHISTORIC ANTHROPOLOGY AT Paris, 1889.—The International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropol- - ogy will profit by the French Exposition of 1889, and hold a meet- ing at Paris, in August of this year. These Congresses were organ- ized in 1866-67, and have held their meetings in various capitals of Europe with greater or less regularity until the last one at Lisbon, in 1880. A session was organized for Athens, in 1883, but failed, owing to the rumors of approaching war. We are glad to hear of this revival at Paris for 1889. 80 General Notes. A few individuals (I dé not know whether they were enough to make it the plural number), living less that a hundred miles from the city of New York, having a greater desire for notoriety than to benefit the human race, attempted last spring and summer to organ- ize a private international congress of prehistoric anthropology. The list of complimentary officers, Vice-Presidents, etc., was formi- dable, and comprised most, if not all, distinguished foreigners, and the farther away the more there were of them. ‘The list appeared to have been copied from the records of some young and ambitious anthropological society, and to have contained ail its honorary assocl- ates and corresponding members. The scheme was doomed from the beginning, as an international affair, for, while no anthropologists at home were consulted, or at least gave their adhesion, the time was too short to perfect arrangements with foreign countries and have their societies represented. But one foreigner of any note attended, and he—well, he concealed his disappointment with that suavity which belongs to his nation. No great harm was done to the science of prehistoric anthropology by the failure of this pretended Inter- national Congress, for no one was greatly deceived ; but its instiga- tors should take warning from this attempt and not repeat the fiasco. | Think of getting up such a congress without the co-operation of any of the members of the anthropological section of the Association for the Advancement of Science, and without a representative from any of the anthropological societies of the United States except the local one interested. ANTHROPOLOGICAL News.—Dr. A. B. Meyer, of Dresden, writes — to Nature (XXXIX., p. 30) to state that there are no autochthonie Papuans or Negritos in Celebes, and to express doubts of their 0c- curring in other islands to which they are attributed by Quatrefages and Flower. The first discovery of remains of cave-dwellers in Scandinavia has recently been made in a cave on a small island near Gottland. The remains consisted of the old fireplaces, and the bones of various animals, pottery, flint chips, etc. Most of the bones had been broken to extract the marrow. In the upper strata the bones of pigs, horses, etc., predominated, but in the lower those of seals ine. crease. 3 During the past summer the museum at Copenhagen has explored a large kitchen-midden in Jutland, situated in a forest a couple of miles from the sea. Besides the usual assortment of bones and — shells, many flint implements and fragments of pottery were found, p well as some bone and horn tools, a few of the latter showing traces of ornamentation. Microscopy. 81 MICROSCOPY.! THoma’s CAMERA Lucrpa.*—The cameras now in use are not well adapted for a low magnifying power (1-6), nor is any allow- ance made in their construction for the refractive index the In order to obtain sharp images one is often obliged to brin e inue paper nearer the eye, thus materially reducing the. fiel Bg fe the construction of Thoma’s camera the above difficulties ri avoided, and it is specially recommended for drawing with a gnifying power of from 1-10 times, and for the production of radios drawings. -o —" 1. The camera consists of a Date metallic frame containing two mirrors, one of which, fig. 1,a, is an unsilvered glass plate from 0.15 to 0.20 mm. in thickness, while the other (c) is a plain silvered mirror. Both mirrors are parallel with each other an in- clined at an angle of 45? to the horizon In order to draw an object mag ified four times, we place at v à convex eye-glass with a focal distance of 40 cm., and then fasten e camera upon the vertical rod so that the distance bc andc z = 40 acd oe by C. O. Whittman, Director of the Lake Laboratory, Mil- * Zeitschrift f, wiss. Mikroskopie, v. 3, p. 297, Sept., 1887. A 82 General Notes. cm. As the distance b c is constant, 10 cm., c z must be 30 cm., and may be easily found on the ruled rod that supports the camera. Next a convex eye-glass of 10 cm. focal distance is inserted at d, and the upper end of the sliding ring to which the stage is attached brought within 10 cm. of the lower edge of the ring to which the camera is fastened. The amount of light is regulated by means of smoked glasses in- serted above the convex glass at d. f the eye of the observer is myopic. it is necessary to insert at f an eye-glass for correction. A myopic person will often find it con- venient to use a glass a little stronger than is required in looking at distant objects. Finally, in all cases, except where a magnifying power of from 1 to 2 times is used, a diopter (g) must be placed above f. I using the high magnifying powers the focal points of both systems do not exactly coincide, so that a parallactic displacement of the images is produced, if the diopter is left out. ‘This isa defect of all cameras and is usually corrected by the use of small prisms, while here the same object is equally well, and at the same time more conveniently, accomplished by the diopter. e magnifying power is equal to the ratios of the distances. bcz and d — 40:10 — 4:1. In using the camera, it must stand before the observer, as in fig. 2, with the drawing on the right and the diopter andfobject on the left. Microscopy. 83 Only in using a magnifying power of from 1-1} times is the position of the camera reversed, the drawing and object maintain- ing the same position as before (fig. 4). In this way we look direct- ly at the drawing, while the object is seen through the two mirrors. For other powers than that given above, the following table may be used: MAGNIFICATION TABLE. i Diopter and object on the left, drawing and silvered mirror on the right, as in fig. 2. i : qim ied = a con- senor gero Msn [espn Smoked goers rad eae ap dong a RE con, apeg i ng fication any os b € from'the convex ens d. in fig. 1 +15 =1045 c 66 mm.|| 6 + 2.5 — 400 mm. +12.5 —12.--05| c 80 5 + 2.5 — 400 ** +10 c 100 4 + 2.5 — 400 ** +10.5 —10--0.5| c 95 34 | —3 — 833 *' + 7.5 d | 188 8 + 2,5 — 400 ** + 6.25 =6+ 0.25) d | 160 24 + 2.5 — 400 ** +5 d | 200 2 + 2.5 — 400 “ LÀ 84 | General Notes. I. Object and silver mirror on the left, diopter and drawing on the right, as required for a magnification of 1-14 times, as in fig. 4. [Distance of IDio Distance , of i iDis pters of the wi Pope ze foa, potre the object a convex lens sg set d be pen s "homWqu Y , rom eon-|fication| necessary at| $ T vex f sary at biin fig. 1. No. vex lens b. | | d in fig. 1. No. - ~~ : +5 — |200mm.| 14 {/8.25=8+0.25] d | 800 mm. +4 zs | 980 ats i ||44=8+1 c | 250 When in use the whole apparatus is placed upon the drawing: paper, which serves as the source of transmitted-light, but reflected light may be used equally well. One advantage of this camera is that, even with low powers, the E MD ^ om. d E ig eU drawing, and the drawing in place of the object (using the above table), one can reduce the magnification from 1-1. others, 6.25 diopters smaller. With a concave glass of + 5 D. at f, it is possible to obtain a magnifying power of 8 times by inserting at d, 50 em. from the object, a convex glass of + 20 D., and at 5, à convex glass of + 2.5 D., 400 mm. above the drawing-paper. the concave at f is omitted, then, leaving object and lens in same —— position as before, it will be sufficent to place at d a convex glass of ^ 20 — 6.25=13.75 diopters, and at b one of + 2.5 — 6.25= — 3.79 Ds. One may thus obtain an 8-fold power without using t00 strong glasses. Foreyes of a different refractive index, the num- ber of diopters to be deducted changes. If in the previous combination it is necessary to have at f a con- — cave glass of — 1 D., this may be removed by deducting 1 D. from —— the glasses at d and b. E In the same way, E A concave glass of — 2 D’s at f, may be replaced by — e D'satdandb. . s T s dt és é& m one D. "m éé LL s: pem! 66 66 és PM 1 <6 é ‘6 E D é« €i Lr cu Ey ‘6 é: sé aes é 6 és ze "us a ee Lj ‘ S [11 64 [11 4 D 5g t ‘6 ii LE — «i 6 [2 elf B0." 4 If in the first named combination a concave glass of — 2 D. is 3 e WP hese at "EM Microscopy. 85 necessary at f, a myopic condition of — 8 D. may be Sia i if a convex glass of + 6 D's is placed in front of the one at f. n the same way : For an eye of — 3 D’s—we must add + 5 D. «& [11 das 4 [1j [11 ég + 4 [17 66 €& aká 5 «e é& c6 -+ 3 “ec mm € Ge d c m € 49,8 € ‘ec ind] c T LIN n 1“ «€ ec jn « «c 6 0“ «& «€ 9 [11 [T1 PEU re 1 “ce ‘6 c zu) t c6 E « in order to produce a myopic condition of — 8 D’s. When this con- pei is produced, we may obtain higher magnifying powers, as o Diopter. ra object on the left, Parl A and silver mirror on the right, as in figure Diopters of gh Smoked [Distance of the : Diopters of the Distance of the We v a: glass, object from Magnifica- chan len- pdb 3 pp t d. No. te aa tion. as st rom the con- lens d. vex lens b. Ra ee ER gu +7 d 57 mn, 7 9 400 mm +8.5 =7.5+1 d 50 8 —9 400 * +11 = 6+ C 44 9 B 400 “ +13.5 —7. 516 c 40 10 —9 400 “ These ps crt produce perfect images, except when the strongest m ing power is A: Mage a slight distortion is visible on dha we edge of the field of v The above described camera, together with a case of 25 may be obtained of R. Jung, Mechanic and Optician, in fidel. berg, for 120 marks. 86 General Notes. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR PsycHicAL RESEARCH ; Boston, Dec. 12, 1888.—Dr. J. W. Warren read the report of the Committee on Mediumistic Phenomena, of which the following is the substance: provided we are permitted to impose such conditions as seem to us reasonable and necessary.” Secretary Richard Hodgson read the report of the Committee on Thought Transference. In the experiments made by this committee, numbers selected, 584 were guessed correctly, instead of 300, which fact, the members of the committee think, points to some other 1n- fluence than chance. It was noticed that when the right guess was made in the first place, the subject displayed no desire to change it, and it was only in cases where the first guess was wrong that the subject showed any uncertainty in announcing it, or attempted to change it afterward. Prof. J. Royce read the report on phantasms and presentiments. He declared that, in his opinion, the methods of research adopte by the committee on phantasms and presentiments had been justi- fied by the results obtained. After he had stated the subdivisions he had made of his subject, he gave his special attention to what he called ‘‘ pseudo-presentiments" and to coincidences that seem to have some bearing on telepathy. Under the head. of pseudo-pre- sentiments he cited a number of cases where individuals, after events people often aving there before." These hallucinations, he said, were attributable to surprises which make so strong an impression upon a man's mind as Proceedings of Scientific Societies. , 87 t0 lead him to think that the subject has long had a lodgment in his brain. He spoke of three cases of telepathic coincidences, sup- por 7 by documentary evidence, but these were all of them men- s ib. in his report of last year.. These cases he considers very valuable for the purposes of the society, but as to the cause for them 5e expressed no opinion. Dr. James made a short speech, setting forth the aims and needs ` of the society. It was the intention to extend the work of the so- ciety, T that specially interesting psychical cases in all parts of the country were to be scientifically investigated. Information in regard to alleged haunted houses was often receive}, many of which the society was unable to investigate, owing to a lack of funds, but there were over 700 cases now being investigated. The society, in self- defence, would be forced to publish more than it had ever done be- es and all these matters required money. The new members, he , had more than supplied the loss by withdrawals, so that the aioe was growing a little. BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY or WASHINGTON. — December, 15, 1888.— The followi wing communications were read : Prof. Lester F. Ward, “ Fortuitous Variation as Illustrated by the Genus Eupatorium, with exhibition of specimens; " Prof. C. V. Riley, ‘ Note ona Human Parasite ;” Mr. E. S. er ed ** Aster shortit i Washington." December 29. —The followi commun ication were read : ; S Th. Holm, **Not y Linn.;* Dr. ae Curtice, ^ Notes onthe Sheep ‘Tick, Melopha- gus ovinus Linn.’ 88 General Notes. SCIENTIFIC NEWS. — Dr. G. Ruge, of Heidelberg, has been called to the Professor- ship of Anatomy at Amsterdam. — Prof. A. C. Haddon, of Dublin, who sailed last summer for Tor- — res Strait, has arrived there safely, and is engaged in studying the | ea Anemones, Nudibranchs, and the habits and placentation of the - dugong or southern sea-cow. He is also collecting all the ethno- — logical material obtainable, as the native population is rapidly dying — out. : — The Copley Medal of the Royal Society is this year awarded to Prof. T. H. Huxley for his investigations on the morphology and histology of vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Baron Ferdinand mH von Müller receives the Royal Medal for his investigations of the a Flora of Australia. — The Costa Rican government has established a National Mu- | seum at San José. di — Samuel P. Fowler of Danvers, Mass., died Dec. 14, 1888, aged 88 years. He was a contributor to the AMERICAN NATURALIST M- its early years. —— Scientific News. 89 - — Prof. T. Kjerulf, the well. xe geologist of Christiania, Norway, died in that city, Oct. 25, 1888 - — Mr. Francis Darwin has been elected University Reader in Botany in the NEA of Cambridge in succession to Dr. Vines, now Professor at Oxfor — Mr. Charles B. Cory, chairman of the Committee on Hypno- tism of the American Society of Psychical Research, has issued his report. He believes that its use in connection with nervous diseases is worthy of consideration. r. H. A. Pilsbry is "prater the Manual of Conchology, TEER and Systematic, begun by the late Geo. W. Tryon. Part 39 of the first and Part 15 of the second series have recently been issued. — Q. Bellonci. Professor of QUA ony in the University of Bo- logna, died July 1, 1888, aged 30 years — G. Johann Kriesch, Professor of nir Mh in the Polytechnicum at Budapesth, died October 21, aged 54 year — Dr. Robert Lamborn has presented a cast of the Phenacodus primevus to the American Museum of Natural History, New York. He has also deposited a fine collection of Mexican antiqui- ties in the Metropolitan Art Museum, New York, and a collection of Tuscan antiquities in the Museum of the School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia. — Professor Joseph Leidy, of Philadelphia, has received the Cuvier prize of the French Academy of Sciences in recognition of his important work in Natural History. — A work on the Extinct Mammalia, by Professors Scott and Os- born, of Princeton, N. J., has been announced by D. Appleton & Sons, New York. — Mr. E. T. Dumble has been appointed State Geologist of Texas. — Prof. J. T. Branner recently reported unfavorably on the sup- posed silver and gold mines of Arkansas, of which State he is Geol- ogist. The abuse he received from the papers of the alleged min- ing regions was extraordinary and unparalleled, but when he offered to submit the question to the judgment of other geologists, they did not accept his challenge. Two INTERESTING MODELS FOR ANATOMICAL StuprES.—Every- body who has visited the British Museum of Natural History in London has noticed the highly instructive anatomical ae tree in the Central Hall of this wonderful building. A great part of these preparations are made by the very skilful hand of Mr. Rich- ard S. Wray, B.Sc., one of Prof. Flower's assistants. 90 General Notes. Besides these specimens Mr. Wray has prepared some very good — ae the Museum ; two of these can be now obtained from him. of Amphioxus, showing the general relations and dis- tne of the organs as seen from the left side. Price, £2 2s, ($10, about.) This is a reproduction of the original wax model forming part of. the series of models and drawings prepared to illustrate the struct- ure of Amphioxus for the Index Museum of the British Museum (Natural History). The different organs are distinctively colored, and the model shows at a glance all the more important anatomical relations of the animal. The disposition and relations of the central nervous system, notochord, alimentary canal (pharynx, liver, anus, etc.), the epipleural cavity with its backward extension towards the anus, the cardiac and dorsal aortz, are all clearly shown together with other details. 2. Enlarged model of the left side.of the lower jaw of a young (2,00, about) showing the tooth germs in situ. Price, 10s. 6d. $2.60, about following quotation from the label attached to the original aren and model in the Index Museum of the British Museum (N Natural History) will fully explain its nature : ** In the Ornithorhynchus teeth are absent in the adult, . In the young state, there are, however, distinct tooth rudiments with cal- Supe. beneath the region in which the horny plates are afterwards develop **'The small eg vessel contains the left side of thelower jaw of a young Ornithorhynchus, prepared to show the tooth germs in situ, the characters of which are more clearly shown in the enlarged model placed by it.” Communications relating to the above to be addressed Richard 8. s 23, St. Germain's Road, Forest Hill, London only recommend these highly instructive nici to every iade of Diology. G. Baur, New Haven, Conn. ~e 5 A a E a R ET E G THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vor. AAMT FEBRUARY, 1889. No. 266 A CONTRIBUTION TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE GENUS BRANCHIPUS. BY O. P. and W. P. HAY. 1. The Hatching of the Eggs of B. VERNALIS Kept in Dried Mud. Branchipus vernalis is, according to our present knowledge, distributed from Eastern Massachusetts to Western Indiana. It lives in ponds which are filled with water during the colder parts of the year, but which are dry during the summer months. The eggs, therefore, which when laid by the females sink down into the mud, remain during the hot months enclosed in the dry and baked earth and resume their activity and complete their development only when the cold autumn and winter rains come on. The species of Branchipus whose life-history has been most thor- oughly studied is B, stagnalis of Europe. As long ago as 1820, Benedict Prevost experimented with its eggs. Some of these were kept in dried mud for six months and at the end of that time on being put in water developed into swimming larve. Some of the eggs, similarly dried, were sent to M. Jurine at Geneva, and this naturalist also succeeded in obtaining the young." Naturalists have hitherto not been so successful in hatching out . the eggs of our species, In Dr. A. S. Packard's * Monograph of ái * Claus, Branchipus stagnalis, etc. Gottingen, 1873, p, I. 92 Branchipus. the Phyllopod Crustacea of North America,"? Dr. Paul F. Gissler gives the results of his efforts to obtain the larve from dried mud: “During the whole summer of 1880 I experimented with dry mud from ponds inhabited by either the normal or pale race of this Branchiopod, but all in vain. Neither jars kept on ice in a large refrigerator, nor frozen dampened mud, gradually or suddenly thawed, developed any larve. The mycelium of a fungus, a few Daphniide and microscopic organisms were the only result.” Some time during April, 1888, the junior author collected a con- siderable number of females of B. vernalis, and selecting such as had their ovisacs filled with eggs, put them into a jar of water, in the bottom of which was placed earth taken from the garden. These females were allowed to remain here until they died, which was within about two weeks. The water was allowed to evaporate, the mud became dry and was moistened only once or twice during the summer. It was, of course, as dry as dust the greater portion of the time. On September 27, this dirt was broken up and put Ps into another jar and covered with water. Immediately numbers of | the eggs came to the surface and remained floating there about - two days, when they went again to the bottom. On October 9, lat- _ væ were, for the first time, observed swimming about in the jar and soon large numbers appeared. This experiment proves that the — hatching of the larve of B. vernalis is by no means difficult to bring about, and that we may almost at will obtain them for obser- vation. It also shows that it is not necessary that the eggs should — ever be subjected to a freezing temperature. That we have in our experiments succeeded in getting a view of the larve immediately after their exclusion from the eggs, we are not wholly certain. They could, at all events, have escaped but 4 short time before they were seen. One specimen was observed while in the act of escaping from the egg-shell ; but the specimen seemed to be unable to extricate itself and may have been sticking there for some time and meanwhile undergoing change. One thing, however, appears to be evident, namely, that the larva differs in some important respects from that of B. stagnalis as figured and described by Dr. C. Claus in his paper, “Zur ee des Baues und Entwickelung von B. agentes und Apus cancriformis; | ? U. S. Geol, and Geog. Survey Wyoming aud Idaho for 1878. — Washington a 1883. Branchipus. 93 and it is highly probable that it leaves the egg in a more advanced stage of development. According to Dr. Claus the nauplius of B. stagnalis on leaving the egg is of a dull yellow (/ruége/?) color, which has, as its cause, a multitude of bright granules and globules, and this color is so de- cided that for some time the view of the internal anatomy is ob- scured. The larva of B. vernalis, on the contrary, is very pale, and will, therefore, more readily lend itself to investigations on the early condition of its internal organs. In the case of B. stagnalis the post-cephalic portion of the body is at first globular, but later becomes more elongated and oval,and finally, when the limbs have begun to bud out, changes to a conical form. The same portion of the body of B. vernalis is from the first proportionately shorter and broader. Furthermore, there are, in the earliest stages seen by us, the lateral buds of three or four pairs of post-maxillary appendages. The most striking difference between the larvae of the two species appears, however, to be found in time of appearance of the paired eyes. According to Claus those of B. stagnalis do not appear until the first and second pairs of thoracic segments have become four-lobed and ten or eleven segments have been marked out. The larva of B. vernalis appears to possess both the median and the paired eyes at the time of escape from the egg ; at least the paired eyes are plainly visible in the earliest observed stages, when there are but the merest swellings to indicate the positions of the first four thoracic limbs. Thus the true nauplius condition of B. vernalis appears to be passed through before the larva escapes from the egg; it is ex- cluded as a metanauplius. It is interesting to note that the larva which we saw endeavoring to escape from the ruptured egg-shell was enveloped in a thin transparent membrane. Whether this was the inner egg-membrane or a blastodermic moult we do not undertake to say. Zaddach's ob- servations on Apus will be recalled in this connection. (De Apo- dis cancriformis, I841). Our smallest larvæ measured in length % inches. Il. Description of a supposed new species of Branchipus, B. GELI- Dus. Male conforming closely to the description of B. bundyi, Forbes, except that the caudal stylets are linear-lanceolate instead of broad and blunt. Frontal appendages long and narrow. Clas- * Illinois M useum Nat. Hist., Bulletin No. 1. p. 25. 94 Braanchipus. pers grooved on inner side near the tip, and terminally tridentate rather than bifid, there being a third process which is situated on the anterior edge of the tip of the clasper ; this process rounded in- stead of pointed, Femalecl terized by a structure that could hard- ly have been overlooked had it been present in B. dundyi. This con- sists of two prominent processes of a conical form that grow out from the dorso-lateral surface of the tenth thoracic segment, one on each side, and project backward, across the eleventh segment and for a short distance on the segment that contains the genital organs. The posterior ends of these processes stand out free from the body. The ninth segment with a similar but much small- er process on each side, which overlaps the one on the tenth seg- ment. Ovisac about as broad as long and with a prominent medi- an process. The function of these dorsal outgrowths is not known to us. It may be suggested that they furnish means for the male to retain firm hold of the female. The claspers of this species are far less powerful than are those of B. vernalis and may not be alone equal to the task imposed on them. Possibly the rounded tubercle found at the base of the second joint of the claspers is applied to the processes on the back of the female and hold retained by means of the minute suckers on the tubercles. In order to ascertain the nature of the outgrowths found on the females, consecutive series of sections were cut from hardened and stained specimens. The organ in question is, of course, bounded outwardly by a chitinous wall; but it is also, at most points, dis- tinctly separated from the rest at the body by another wall of chit- in. This is, however, incomplete, so that the cavity of the process is in communication with the cavity of the body. From the interior wall there radiate outward to the external wall a great number of bands or trabeculz also apparently of chitin. These bands,as they pass outward, divide and anastomose so that the interior of the process is divided into communicating cells. | Where the process frees itself from the body these bands soon cease to be seen. For some little distance behind the points where the processes leave the body there is found, along the middle of the back, the double- wall arrangement, with chitinous bands running from the inner wall to the outer. In the meshwork of chitinous bands, especially of the processes, there are found numerous small nucleated cells or corpuscles. The extremities of the processes are filled with these. A Corner of Brittany. 95 As to the habits of this species little is known. In the pond where large numbers occurred in the spring, no specimens of B. vernalis were seen. This fall when the same pond was visited not a specimen of the new species was to be found, while B. vernalis abounded. It was observed that while the males were swimming about, the long and narrow frontal appendages were frequently rolled up and again extended. They present under the microscope a beautiful network of muscular fibres, in the meshes of which are numerous ganglionic cells. A CORNER OF BRITTANY. By J. WALTER FEWKES. mek BAR Oy pour Roscoff, s’il vous plait.” The train is waiting a the Gare St. Lazare in Paris, and in a few moments we are hurried along beyond the fortifications, past Bellevue, Sevres and Versailles, through a wooded country, alternating with rich farms and beautiful fields. All day long we ride through Normandy and Brittany, looking out of the window of the coupé on one of the most interesting landscapes of France, crowded with towns and cities of historic interest and scenic beauty, every hour presenting some new phase of life to relieve the monotony of the trip. What is our destination and what leads us to turn from the beaten tracks of European travellers? We have abundant time to answer these questions before we reach the end of our journey. Our destination is Roscoff, a town in the department of Finis- terre, frequented by artists, better known to naturalists, and too rarely visited by travellers, who have penetrated into all the most pic- turesque ‘corners of Europe. Roscoff, a fishing village, truly Breton in character, preserving many features of the old France, and presenting a pure example of ancient Brittany, unchanged by modern innovations. Roscoff has not a casino nor knows the swarms of pleas- ure seekers which many other towns on the coast of France draw to themselves every summer. It has no delightful promenades, no beautiful forests, but it has its wonderful rocks, its soft, laughing ch- 96 A Corner of Brittany. mate, its southern flora, its fertile lands, its hardy fishermen with their original costumes, its picturesque homes, and its beautiful church. Of more importance than all to the naturalist, it attracts him as the site of one of the most interesting of all those institutions for the study on the sea-shore of marine animals, the Laboratoire Exper- imentale et Générale, founded by Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers. It is this establishment which turned me to this distant corner of Finisterre, where I was permitted to spend two of the most charming months of a summer's vacation in Europe. Roscoff is situated on the confines of Brittany, on a peninsula which juts out into the English channel, about opposite Plymouth in England. Away from beaten lines of travel it is unaffected by the changes which are being made in the larger cities about it, and remains, as it was when Mary Stuart landed on its shore, a veritable survival of the old Brittany of three centuries ago. Artists know it, and naturalists have long studied the rich life which peoples its coast and the waters which bathe its shores. Lovers of nature find there a sea most savage, and cliffs most rugged and picturesque. The blue sky of the Mediterranean and the beautiful water ever chang- ing and never tranquil are here. Its islands are eroded by the ocean into fantastic shapes so that their contours rival our own “Garden of the Gods” in their grotesque shapes. The whole ap- pearance of the coast, changed in a few hours by the great tides, the wonderful scenery on all sides, these are some of the beauties of nature which once seen retain the visitor in this interesting place day after day and week after week. The place is situated ona small peninsula, the main street extend- ing along the sea, and terminating at either end on the coast. Neat one end of this street there rises a bald cliff capped by an ancient chapel of Sainte Barbe and a small fortress called the Bloson. At the other end this road broadens and opens into a place called the vil upon the sides of which arise the Hotel du Bains Mer, the church, and the Marine Laboratory. On either side the main street of the town is lined with picturesque old houses, many of which date three centuries back, bearing the stamp of an old civilization. Small side passages lead to the shore on one side of the street, while bee the other are narrow passage ways leading into tortuous alleys which | extend out into the cultivated fields. Midway in the course of the : main street, between the chapel of Sainte Barbe and the vil or place of the church, is the port, an artificial structure, forming 4 A Corner of Brittany. 97 high breakwater in the hospitable protection of which lie a few small craft. At high tide these vessels swing at anchor, but the re- treating sea leaves them stranded high and dry on the shore. The old houses which line the main street of Roscoff date back to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and are all built in the pecu- liar style of those times. The doors are low with oftentimes a small lookout or window at one side of the entrance. The object of these windows carries one back to the times of the corsaires, when the prudent inhabitant was obliged to have some means of observation before he opened the door and allowed a visitor to enter his home. The windows are placed high upon the roofs and are orna- mented with rudely-cut, grimy faces and grotesque heads of dragons. The long sloping roofs, sparsely covered with plaster, give the appearance of a recent snow storm. The houses are built of granite much eroded and with their walls often whitened by lime. With the exception of the apothecary and one or two other modern buildings none of the shops have visible signs to denote the wares which are on sale. Glass is rare in the windows and the cellars open oblique- ly to the pavement of the street. On the seaward side the houses are separated from the ocean by courts and gardens protected from the ravages of the ocean by high walls, which form the fortifications of the place. Atintervals onthe walls there are lookout towers in which, no doubt, many atime the old Breton corsaires have watched a strange vessel on the channel, or from which the wreckers perhaps have enticed a passing ship to its doom. These houses are now the homes of the sailor and the fisherman, butin times past the smuggler found there a secure refuge from his enemies. These mysterious, small, narrow streets, leading down to the water’s edge, all remind us of the trade of the smuggler and the wrecker. These men have long since disappeared from Roscoff, but the old houses, the narrow tortuous passage ways still remain and recall the history of the romantic times of the past. On the western side of the peninsula on which Roscoff stands there is a sandy beach out of which rises in the form of a marine monster a precipice called Roch-Croum. Seaward from this cliff a number of islands much eroded project in fantastic shapes, a scarred battlement broken in points by the resistless ocean. In the forms of these rocks we can trace many a giant’s head, or fancy many a monster rising out of the waves which continually beat at their ases, 98 A Corner of Brittany. The eastern side of the peninsula is still more picturesque than the western. It forms a part of the magnificent bay of Morlaix and its cliffs rise abruptly out of the sea. Here the fortress of Taureau, a wonder of Brittany, projects out of the ocean from a submarine reef. There 1s but one road leading to Roscoff from the mainland, and that bisects the peninsula entering the main street near the church. It is the national road to the neighboring city called Saint Pol. On either side there branch off true Breton lanes lined by lofty embankments thrown up by the farmers. No trees, noth- ing but sandy fields of onions and potatoes line its borders. Every- where the, land swept by the high winds of the Atlantic, has a som- ber, melancholy look. The hills are low, and here and there rocks project through the thin covering of sand, but otherwise the land- scape is little varied. The sea, however, at Roscoff makes up the interest where the land fails to attract. Nowhere have I seen such a variety in the sky and horizon, nowhere a more savage coast resisting a more de- termined ocean. There are many neighboring islands, the largest of which is called the Ile de Batz, a strange name, taken fromatongue reaching back before the origin of the modern French tongue. Near by this Island there are the so-called Bourguinous, and still further away Tisosou, “the house of the English." Some miles more distant seaward the rock of Pighet, all of which islands are remnants of a former battle- ment which, resisting the inroads of the sea, are fast loosing their form and size in protecting the mainland. Sown here and there are submerged rocks most fatal to navigation around which course “cail- loux” or currents which render the approaches to the port so dreaded by sailors. As one glances across the channel from the island, Ros- coff seems a very large city. Its sea-wall, its row of houses along the shore and the elegant church would lead one to exaggerate the size, but the town is simply a crescent of houses, enclosing fertile — fields of potatoes and onions. Such is a brief sketch of the place to which we are hastening E. through Brittany by way of the railroad from Paris to Brest. We alighted at Morlaix, a picturesque old town, which has contributed many a sketch to the artist's portfolio, early in the evening, andtake a branch road to Roscoff. Somewhat later the train halts and we have reached our destination. E 22 ANE ORE T Fare dà Se eee s OTIO D UNA ae NES T CIS MEAT BE MEN A Corner of Brittany. 99 * A La Maison Blanche,” says a man near me, in an accent which is immediately distinguished from that of the Parisian ** cocher." “Oui!” is replied in a confident tone as if a knowledge of the whole French language was at the tongue's end. He asks if I am the American who is going to work in the laboratory and I reply that lam. We trudge down the dark road unlighted by a single lamp, and in a few moments the hostess of *La Maison Blanche " had me in charge. The hotel looks comfortable but its surroundings are very strange. The threshold of the entrance is lower than the pavement of the street. Along the entry hang rows of chickens, legs of lambs, sausages and vegetables. A crowd of Roscovites hang about the bar, which is elaborately filled with all the necessities. The hostess has picked up a little English from the numerous sailors who frequent her house and gives me a good reception. A bed of purest white and an excellent cup of coffee and bread in the morning form a cordial introduction to a town in which I was destin- ed to pass many, very many, happy days. French naturalists were the first to found special institutions on the seashore for the study of marine zoology. There are many prob- lems connected with the study of marine life which cannot be success- fully taken up without a residence near the localites where the ani- mals live, for they must be worked out either on living or fresh material, and it must be possible to have ready accesstothe habitats of these animals to study these questions. A first step in this work is to watch the animals in aquaria and carefully study their mode of life. With the improvement in methods of research a work room near the aquaria thus becomes a necessity for a successful answer to many problems. One of the earliest laboratories founded especially for the study of marine life on the shore was created by Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers at Roscoff. This institution is an * Annexe" of the Sorbonne in which the founder holds a professorship of Natural History, and over the door is placed this significant inscription, so often found on public buildings in Paris, * Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité." This motto has here a new significance, and I thought as I approached the build- ing of the well-known laboratory in Roscoff on the morning after my arrival, how much that motto means in the organization of the institu- tion, The advantages are free to all of every nation, French, English American, Russian. Every specialist is freely given without expense the advantages of the institution. All are equal who enter its walls 100 A Corner of Brittany. with a love of nature and a desire to study, or to investigate. No one who has known its hospitality can question the justice of the third word of the legend. | The laboratory founded by Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers is a laboratory for students as well as investigators, and it numbers among its workers those who have earned the title of naturalists as well as those who have just begun their studies. It is not too much to say that every facility which experience and money can suggest are here placed without expense within reach of every student of zoology who makes a choice of Roscoff for a working place. Everything is free, microscopes, reagents, boats manned by ex- perienced collectors, books, work-table, instruction, all are given with a lavish hand, with no distinction of nationality or peculiarity of scientific belief. There is no charge for an opportunity to contri- bute to the advance of knowledge or totake the first steps in the ac- quisition of methods of research. The students in the laboratory are even furnished with sleeping rooms near their working tables, so that no time may be lost or ex- pense incurred. In liberality there is no known institution outside of France which does more or even as much for those who wish to investigate marine animals. The laboratory at Roscoff is a laboratory for summer work and is supplemented by a second creation of the same founder at Banyuls- Sur-Mer on the Mediterranean Sea, for research in winter. These two, both connected with the University of France, offer a contin- uous opportunity at all times of the year for the study of marine animals of the two shores of France. They open to students two different faunas under the most experienced instructors, the most favorable influences under the most liberal circumstances. The laboratory at Roscoff not only furnishes material for investi- gation, but it also presents opportunities for collecting, and forthe study of marine animals in their native habitats. In the study of marine animals on the shore, as well as in museums and laboratories situated inland, students may become closet natural- ists. Itis recognized that it is a good thing to collect as wellas to study animals after they are collected. Two methods of work on marine animals are possible. Either the naturalist may remain at his work-table and have experienced collectors bring him what he desires to study, or he may himself visit the localities where the an- — — imals live and find them himself. Both methods have advantages A Corner of Brittany. 101 but the latter gives a wider knowledge of the whole subject than the former, for it familiarizes one with natural conditions of the life of the animals. The laboratory at Roscoff not only permits a study at the work- table but also offers facilities for collecting. Excursions are made to grounds where certain animals occur and in that way the possibilities of knowing more of their mode of life are increased. This feature in the marine laboratories of Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers is certainly a most important one and one which particularly commends itself to a person whose sole knowledge of animals is based on specimens preserved in a museum or brought to him by a profes- sional collector. We may study the histology, or anatomy of an an- imal without knowing whether it lives in the sand or is free swim- ming, whether it is dredged or inhabits the shore line, but it is bet- ter to combine with that knowledge some familiarity with its natural habitat and its mode of life. One excellent feature in the Ros- coff laboratory and one which attracted me to it is the fact that it offers facilities for both kinds of work. There are two different departments inthe laboratory at Roscoff, one for students who are beginners, the other for those who are investigators engaged in original research. These two depart- ments work harmoniously and the advantages are equal for both. The apparatus of a laboratory and the manner of investigation be- longs to the technique of zoological work, a consideration of which : would take me too far into details for this article. There are many ex- cellent features in which this laboratory differs somewhat from those of other institntions of this kind, but in all marine laboratories with the readiness with which new methods are made public there is a sur- prising uniformity in technique in all marine stations. I should say that at Roscoff there is a proper regard to the relative importance of all branches of marine research, toxonomy, histology, anatomy and embryology, although perhaps the published results in the latter branch may show that it is not at present given the predominance that it has in some other similar institutions. An excellent feature in the laboratory at Roscoff is the existence of a small local collection identified for the use of investigators and students. Forthe information of those engaged in the study of animals found there a card catalogue with a notice of the time of collecting the genus, locality where it is found,the time of laying 102 A Corner of Brittany. its eggs is an excellent help. Anyone describing a new species or genus is expected to deposit in the collection a single specimen to serve as a type for the good of those who may later avail them- selves of the advantages of the place. Inour own marine zoological stations the existence of a catalogue stating the time when ova, embryos, or adults could be found or had been collected and where they occur in abundance, would be an excellent thing, and must in the course of time be made by com- petent observers. The beach of Roscoff is one of the richest grounds for collecting marine animals which I have ever visited. The enormous tides lay bare an extent of bottom which is extensive, and betrays the home of a very large number of different genera of animals which live along theshore. Moreover the character of this life is greatly influenced by a branch of the Gulf Stream, which making its way from the main current bathes this part of Brittany and imparts to it the mild cli- mate which it has. This same current also tempers the climate of the Scilly Islands, which lie in its direct track, so that several plants, which are limited to the shores of the Mediterranean, here flourish in a more northern latitude. The rich fauna of the coast at Roscoff is, no doubt, more or less modified by the warm action of this branch of the Gulf Stream, still the floating life which distinguishes this great ocean current off the coast of the United States is almost wholly wanting. Now and then some straggling ‘Portuguese man-of-war” drifts into the channel, or some medusa, whose home is in the tropics, is captured, but these are exceptional. The wealth of floating marine life which the Gulf Stream brings even to the coast of New England is not found inshore on the coast of Brittany. The most interesting building at Roscoff isthe church, the steeple of which is to been seen from almost all sides of the city. This church, which has an appearance wholly Breton, has also a style part- ly Florentine, partly Spanish ; forthe interior, at least of many of the Breton churches, has a true Italian appearance, and the style of the exterior is characteristic. The most curious part of the church is the steeple, which, as We approach the city from the sea, rises light and airy and seems al- most to hang from the sky. On the side of its bell-tower, pointed toward England, the hereditary enemy of the Roscovite, there are two cannon, cut in stone, forming parts of the varied ornamenta- tion of the steeple. A Corner of Brittany. 108 At the base of the tower on either side of the entrance one sees at right and left bas-reliefs ascribed to the fourteenth century, repre- senting the Passion and Resurrection of the Savior, while above the entrance is one of the most interesting bas-reliefs of all the sculp- tures of Roscoff, a ship of the fifteenth or sixteenth century, carved in stone with scrupulous exactness. This ship is found on the walls of the church and on the hospital situated on the way to Saint Poll and seems to be the coat-of-arms of the city. Its bizarre shape, re- calling the old ship of the corsaires is of very great archzological or, at all events, historical interest. The church itself is surrounded by a low wall enclosing many trees. On either side of the main entrance there are two small buildings one ornamented with a bas-relief of the ancient ship ; the other a small mortuary chapel. These are ossuaires which in old times served for receptacles of the dead. When the church-yard was full, these buildings received the overflow. Their little niches are now empty, but they still remain mute remnants of the man- ners and customs of a time not long past. In the neighboring city of Saint Pol, however, we find the ossu- aires in the cemetery still occupied by the little boxes in each of which is a human cranium, and around the altar of the church in the same place, we find similar relics of the dead. In the cemetery of Saint Pol these ossuaires are small buildings with covered shelves along which is seen a row of boxes each resembling a dove cot with a roof-shaped top. Each box has a small opening, diamond or heart- shaped, through which the skull of some old inhabitant can be seen, and each box bears the name of the dead. Around the altar of the church these boxes are arranged in a melancholy row. “ It is considered an honor,” said the father who showed me about, “ to have the head thus preserved near the altar, an honor which only a few and those the most influential are permitted to share. This survival of a habit of burial once widely spread in Brittany and France is archeeologically very interesting, but at the present day the custom is wholly given up. The church of Notre-Dame de Croatz-Batz with its interesting ossuaires may be called an historic monument of France and is an instructive relic of times long past, but there is another church, now in ruins at Roscoff, which also merits our attention. This is one of the few places of this distant town connected with the gene- ral history of France. Nothing now remains of this chapel but the 104 A Corner of Brittany. bare walls, a veritable ruin looking out on the main street of the place. Mary Queen of Scots landed at Roscoff on the 14th of August, 1548, on her way to espouse the Dauphin of France. Years after a chapel was dedicated to a Scottish Saint, Saint Ninien, in commemoration of this event. Mary Stuart was but six years old when she landed at Roscoff. She remained there but a short time and then proceeded to Mor- laix where she was officially received by Seigneur de Rohan. Af terwards she went to Saint Germain en Laye, where she is said to have remained until she was eighteen. Long after, when the wid- ow of Francois IL, she returned to Scotland and to the sad history which awaited herin England, the hereditary foe of the Bretons, on whose land she had set her foot in happier days long before. The chapel which marks the event of her landing was for many years ornamented with many presents and remained a magnificent - monument of her generosity. Later it fell in ruins and now after many years the Roscovites have placed on its wall a tablet that tells tothe curious the event which the building of the chapel commem- orates. Not far from the chapel of Mary Stuart, there stands a house re built in modern style, the interior of which is always interesting t0 visit. This house is separated from the chapel by a narrow street, and in it one still sees the remnant of an ancient cloister, with E beautiful garden protected from the sea by a tall wall in the form of the prow of a vessel. Once a cloister, then a place of meeting of merchants, it now remains an interesting relic of the Roscoff of the past, its sold columns and architecture recalling some old Ital- ian palace of medizval antiquity. Many other interesting houses exist in the quaint old town of Roscoff. The many hiding places for bandits and smugglers, the dark cellars, narrow streets, all recall the old days when much of the enterprise of the place was turned to the plunder of passing mêr- — chantmen, or equally nefarious practices. The history of the Ros- covite corsaires has yet to be written, but the story of Le Negrief a still preserves something of the romance of the past. Here we read of the old hotel Terard, where the notorious Captain Le Bi- han recounts his escapades. We also read of a ball of the col saires in which all the inhabitants of the place participated. The little port of Roscoff was the rendezvous of the corsaires who fled to its hospitable walls protected by the Ile de Batz. A Corner of Brittany. 105 secure from English cruisers, they remained until another opportu- nity gave them a chance to sally forth on their marauding expedi- tions. There are many other interesting old houses in Roscoff. As we follow the road to St. Pol, we pass the famous Hospital built in 1598, on the walls of which stand out the escurian of the Compte de Leon, boldly cut above the gate. More distant still the monastery of the Capuchins, inthe garden of which may still be seen, the giant fig-tree, a marvel of Roscoff, and a proof of the wonderful fertility of the soil. This gigantic tree was planted long ago by Capuchin monks and still remains contributing its fruit—a tree more than two centuries old. One should not neglect, in visiting Roscoff, to see the place called Kersaliou. Midway in the route from Roscoff to St. Pol, hidden in the trees, and approached by a by-path, is the retired house known in the country round as the Kersaliou, an interesting place where one can at the present time study the true Breton home. Our visit to Kersaliou gave us a good sight of the mode of life of the Breton farmer and his family. The old house, Kersaliou, was evidently formerly the residence of men of more property than at present. It stands back from the road hidden in the trees, and as one approaches it from the main road to St. Pol, it has a most picturésque outlook. We pass through the gateway, an elaborate stone edifice, into a small court yard in which the poultry of the farm find their home, through the low door into the living room of the families which at present occupy the place, The room on the lower floor is certainly a study. At one end of the apartment there is a large fireplace on which the fire contin- ually burns or smothers in the coals. On either side are seats where children sit in the recesses of the high chimney. No matches are used to light the fire, but a small pan of sulphur hangs near by and a bundle of sticks. When there is need of more fire these sticks are. used, their tips dipped in the sulphur and ignited by the live coals. There is a cemented floor to the apartment, which is kitchen, din- ing room and sleeping room combined. On one side we notice a large cabinet, like a huge bureau with elaborately carved wooden front—it is an enormous wall cabinet with what appears to be many drawers, which are the beds, and as the house-wife pulls them out one by one, in the depths we see the whitest bed clothing. These 106 A Corner of Brittany. drawers are bedsin which sleep the three generations of two families which live in this house. A small box covered with a lid in which holes are pierced, is the cradle from which ominous cries have already issuea indicative of the contents. It was time for the afternoon meal wnen we visited Kersaliou, and we were invited to share their repast with the hos- pitable family. The house-wife had already placed fourteen rough, earthen bowls on the table, and was breaking in each fragments of bread. The soup was boiling over the fire, and in a few minutes the dinner was ready. Each bowl received its share of liquid poured over the bread, and the family began their simple meal. Above the table hung a frame on which were placed wooden spoons and each one took his spoon from the common source. There was no need of knives or forks. The kind-hearted inhabitants of Ker- saliou were true Bretons, conservative, religious, hospitable and in- dustrious. Two grandmothers, two mothers, their husbands and a host of children, of whom only one little girl spoke French. Allcon- verse in the antique language of Gaul, a Celtic tongue allied to the Gaelic of Wales. We do not have to travel far from Roscoff to lose the soft, melodious French and then hear on all sides the old Bre- - ton, which is not a patois, but the original celtic language that dates into the remote past, and which no effort can eradicate from — the country. The old language is the common language of the country. © French is an innovation which makes its way slowly but surely. - The preaching in the cathedrals and churches is in Breton; the — common people use noother language, and all localities bear names which will probably recall this tongue even when unspoken by the descendants of those who now inhabit the land. Brittany is full of those curious stone structures antedating historic times, and called cromlechs and dolmens. Everywhere we find - «these druid monuments, at one time formed by circles of stones — simply stuck up in the ground, by lines of huge rocks as at Carnac, — : or simple slabs placed on uprights. Roscoff has one of these mon- — 4 uments in its immediate vicinity. On the road to St. Pol near the latter place, we turn off from the main road into a field of cabbage and not far off we find the dolmens of Roscoff, high upright rocks, upon which is placed a horizontal slab. Unfortunately one of these horizontal slabs has fallen, for a hunter for buried treasure has dug under the foundation and undermined it, but one can still study the A Corner of Brittany. 107 general character of the monument. This monument, as all the others of similar kind, is associated with the worship of the Druids, and dates back to ancient times. More of its use we do not know, but we were well repaid for our short visit. We turn back towards Roscoff from this antique structure along the road. In the distance we see the beautiful cathedral of St. Pol, but we must reserve our visit to this city to another time. The far distant sea, the Ile de Batz and the beautiful town of Roscoff stretching along the shore lies just before us, lit up by the rays of a setting sun. The Roscovite is a Celt with traces of the Spaniard. He is in- dustrious and frugal, always conservative and religious. He still retains the costumes of his fathers, his gz/e with conspicuous but- tons, his waist girt by a highly-colored band, his round hat with rib- bons falling on his shoulders. He wears the sabots, he clings to the old language of Gaul. The women are not beautiful, but they have fine eyes and well- preserved teeth. "They also still retain the old costumes. The small white bonnet, worn at all times, is so tightly bound about the head that nothing can be seen of the hair. On the days of baptism or mar- riage, however, when the bonnet is taken off, a charming coiffure is seen and the beautiful hair bursts forth in all its charms from its hermetically-sealed prison. Each town in Brittany has a peculiar onnet and that of the young maidens differs from the matrons. If you wish to see religious faith go to Breton, to Roscoff. Mod- ern science, modern free thought, has not yet a hold in this place. The Breton is religious by nature. Every one goes to the church and the whole population turns out ez masse to the morning ser- vice. According to Reclus, Brittany is still pagan, but while the in- habitants do not worship the forces of nature, the rocks, the foun- tains, or the trees, they repeat the same prayers to God in the Chris- tian church, which they have made for two thousand years, only addressed to a new divinity. “Itis always the same religion con- tinued from century to century without the inhabitants of the land perceiving the change in their divinities.” The geographer, how- ever, has drawn an exaggerated picture. The country has emerged from its old beliefs, but while much of the middle-age thought still clings to the religion, it moves less rapidly, more ibid crue than in many other lands. No one who visits Roscoff should fail to see the giant fig-tree. The soil of France nourishes no greater marvel of plant-life than * 108 A Corner of Brittany. this wonderfully vigorous growth of the ages. This tree, situated not far from the main road in an enclosure in which it is sheltered by a high wall, yearly bears its fruit in a latitude which in America is half the year buried in the snows of Labrador. The mild cli- mate which Roscoff owes to the Gulf Stream, gives to this land an exceptional flora, and the intelligent cultivation of the soil has transfomed the country into a great garden for the raising of all kinds of vegetables. The potatoes, onions, beans, cauliflowers of Finisterre are well known in England, and many an English vessel is engaged in the transportation of them across the channel. The inhabitants cultivate one of the most storm-swept coasts of France, but the yearly products of their industries is inferior to no other in quality or in quantity. Roscoff is also a shipping port forthe lobster and the Palinurus, many of which are found in the restaurants of distant Paris. huge vivier where these animals are kept before shipment has been built near the entrance tothe harbor. This vivier is supplied from the waters around the place and even from the distant coast of Spain Thousands of these animals are yearly sent to the great cities of France and England from this little town. The shrimps of Finisterre are well known far and wide and the “ crevette " fisherwomen with their huge nets are often found in thè pictures which artists have brought home to their Parisian studios, - after their vacations in Brittany. When the tide is out these toilers of the sea take advantage of the small pools in whichthe shrimps are re tained and fill their nets with this much-desired crustacean. The table of the hotels in Roscoff know also the periwinkles, a small gastro pod which is universally eaten. "The sea furnishes many a food fish which has not yet been adopted in other lands. As the days go by all too fast and the time of our tarry in Ros coff is more and more reduced, we came to love its quaint old streets and church, its old houses and its antique walls more and more, but the summons back to Paris is imperative and we find our _ selves back again at the station of the railroad to Morlaix. We bid adieu to the Maison Blanche, the Café de la Marine and the hospi - ; table walls of the Laboratoire. We say good-bye to the naturalists who still linger there to finish their researches, with many a regret In a few moments all are left behind, but we retain what can nevef — nths |. be effaced from memory, a souvenir of the happiest two mo of scientific study which we have ever past. May the splendid mie Li TT Permian Formation of Texas. 109 rine station at Roscoff and its enthusiastic master long continue the work which has had so much influence on French science, and may its liberality and hospitality be imitated and fostered in other lands by other people. ON THE PERMIAN FORMATION OF TEXAS. BY CHARLES A. WHITE. * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. URING the past ten years Prof. E. D. Cope has from time to time published descriptions and figures of vertebrate remains from Texas which he referred to the Permian,’ although other authors have generally regarded the formation from which the fos- sils were obtained as of Triassic age. A year ago Mr. W. F. Cummins, Assistant State Geologist of Texas, who had collected a large part of the vertebrate fossils just referred to, gave me a small suite of invertebrate fossils which he had collected from the same formation with the vertebrates. I found these fossils to possess so much interest that I afterward, in company with Mr. Cummins, visited the region in question and made collections from, and observations upon, the formation con- taining them. Thirty-two species of invertebrates were collected, about one-half of which were readily recognized as well-known Coal-measure spe- cies, but a few of them were new, among which are two belonging to mesozoic types. It is this paleontological feature, in connection with important correlated facts, that especially excited my interest in the formation from which the fossils were obtained. Although I have personally examined a considerable portion of the region within which this formation occurs, I am indebted to s This article is an abstract from a bulletin of the Survey now in course of prep- aration. ? For his summary of North American Permian vertebrates, including this Tex- m. an f auna, together with references to the places of publication, see Trans. Philos. Soc. Vol. XVI, pp. 285-288. 110 Permian Formation of Texas. Mr. Cummins for a large part of the facts upon which the follow- ing description of it is based. This is especially true with regard to the extent of the area which it occupies. In Texas this formation occupies an area, many hundred square miles in extent, which constitutes the western part of the southern extremity of the great central paleozoic region of the continent. The southern boundary of this area is not now definitely known, but it lies at least as far south as the Concho river. Its eastern boundary may be approximately designated as extending from Red river to the Colorado through Clay, Young, Shackelford, Callahan and Runnels counties; and its western border as extending from the Canadian river to the Concho through Hemphill, Wheeler, Don- ley, Briscoe, Motley, Dickens, Garza, Borden and Howard counties. The formation is known to extend northward far within the Indian Territory, but in this article special reference is made only to that portion of it which is found in Texas ; and the description which is herein given is drawn mainly from observations made in Baylor, Archer and other contiguous counties. . This formation rests directly and conformably upon another se- ries of strata in which a characteristic Coal-measure fauna prevails but which is not now known to include any fossils of mesozoic types, if we except the Ammonites parkeri of Heilprin, which he states was obtained from Carboniferous strata in Wise county? Notwith- standing the mesozoic character of a part of the molluscan fauna of the upper formation, the preponderance of evidence makes it necessary to regard it as belonging to the great Carboniferous Sys tem, and as constituting an upper member of it. For these and other reasons yet to be stated I have little or no hesitancy in desig- nating this Texan formation as Permian, as Prof. Cope has done; but I shall briefly discuss in following paragraphs the propriety of the use of that name for all of the North American strata to which it has been applied. ' The Texas Permian is distinguishable in general aspect and B in lithological character from the formation which underlies it and a which represents at least a large part of the Coal-measure series | as the latter is known inthe Upper Mississippi Valley. And yt | the Permian strata blend so gradually with those of the Coal-mea*" — ures beneath, and with the gypsum-bearing beds, above that it Is d l difficult to designate a plane of demarkation in either case. 3 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Vol, XXXVI, pp. 53-55. pM alles BSS Mi a 4 a b. j $ Permian Formation of Texas. 111 Thestrata of the Texas Permian consist of materials which are somewhat difficult to describe, but they may be stated in a general way to consist mainly of sandstones and sandy andclay- ey shales, which are sometimes calcareous, with a few layers of im- pure limestone, besides one somewhat important limestone horizon. A common characteristic of many of the layers is the presence of an abundance of small, hard, rough concretions, which usually be- come separated and accumulate upon weathered surfaces as the im- bedding clayey material is removed by erosion. But what strong- ly impresses the general observer is the prevailing reddish color of the formation, which is due to the prevalence of red oxide of iron in most of its component materials. During the rainy season the waters of the streams which traverse the formation are reddened by the abundant ferruginous, clayey sediment, which they obtain by ero- sion. The stratification is generally more or less regular, but in the district here especially referred to it contains comparatively few com- pact, evenly-bedded strata. Therefore the formation having been, in this district, only slightly disturbed since its deposition, few strik- ing features in the landscape occur. That is, the district is a com- paratively plain country, the surface of which, in the, general ab- sence of forests, is diversified only by shallow valleys of erosion and low hills of circumdenudation, with here and there a hill or bluff of like origin which reaches a height of one or two hundred feet above the general level. From the top of these higher eleva- tions extended views are to be obtained, which are of much advan- tage in the study of geological structure in that region. Because of the slight disturbance which the Permian strata have suffered in the district referred to, and the general absence of bold escarpments, it is difficult to arrive atan accurate measurement of its thickness, but it is approximately estimated at 1,000 feet. By dis- tant view from the hills before mentioned, a general, gentle dip to the westward of the whole formation is plainly discernable. It is from a succession of such observations of the dip, together with measurements of the thickness of exposed strata and estimates of that of the unexposed, that the foregoing estimate of the full thick- ness of the formation has been made. A list of all the species of invertebrate fossils that have been dis: covered in the Permian of Texas is given on a following page. Prof. Cope's list of vertebrate species, already referred to, shows 112 Permian Formation of Texas. that the same formation has furnished 10 species of fishes, 11 of batrachians and 33 of reptiles ; 54 species in all. The full thickness of the Coal-measure series in Texas is not yet . known, its base not having been observed ; but the portion that has been examined reaches an estimated thickness of 1800 feet. The strata are generally somewhat evenly bedded, and consist of bluish and gray limestones, gray and ferruginous sandstones, blu- ish and carbonaceous shales and clays ; and several coal horizons are now known in the series there.* These strata have furnished at numerous localities, and in greater or less abundance, such char- acteristic Coal-measure invertebrates as the following: Zerebrafula bovidens Morton, Spirifer cameratus Morton, Athyrts subtilita Hall, Productus cora d'Orb., P. nebrascensis Owen, P. costatus Sowerby, P. semireticulatus Martin, Hemipronites crassus Meek and Hayden, Myalina subquadrata Shumard, A/lorísma subcuneata M. and H., Nu- culana bellistriata Stevens, Pleurotomaria tabulata Conrad, Bellerophon carbonarius Cox, B. percarinatus Conrad, and Macrocheilus pondero- sus Swallow. Many other species also have been found associated with those which have been just named, but the latter are quite sufficient to characterize the strata containing them as belonging to the Coal- measure series. No attempt has been made to subdivide the Coal: measure series of Texas into upper, middle, and lower portions a5 has been done in the Upper Mississippi Valley, and they are prob- ably not capable of sucha subdivision in this southern region. - The Lower or Subcarboniferous portion of the system has also not been recognized in Texas. Along the western boundary of the Texas Permian, as it has been indicated in a previous paragraph, a series of strata, about 250 feet in maximum thickness, now generally known as the *gypsum- -bearing beds " and thought by many to be of Triassic age, rests conformably upon the Permian. In general aspect, in a prevailing reddish color, and in general lithological character, except in the prevalence of gYP* sum in many of the layers and the somewhat greater prevalence of clayey material, these overlying beds resemble the Permian strata upon which they rest. With only one known exception these gYP sum bearing beds have furnished no fossils. The exception refer- : red to is the discovery by Mr. Cummins in Hardiman county, in n $ upper stratum of those beds, of a thin magnesian layer containing . * Mr. Cummins informs me in an unpublished letter that he has distinguished " ee 1 less than nine coal horizons there. Mc: c... 0: 0: 20 c il c i sl. ca ML EE p d ie T LE PL ee v Permian Formation of Texas. 113 numerous Casts of a species of Pleurophorus. This being a charac- teristic genus among Permian molluscan faunas and a prevailing form inthe Permian strata beneath the gypsum bearing beds, the question is suggested whether the latter ought not to be regarded as constituting an upper portion of the Permian. If these beds are not separable from the Permian, it seems to be doubtful wheth- er the Trias has any representation in Texas. It will be seen from the foregoing remarks that in the part of northern Texas to which special reference has been made, there is a great conformable series of strata having a slight general dip to the westward, its base being covered from view by mesozoic and later formations. The estimated thickness of this older series, so far as it is exposed to view, is 3050 feet. The lower 1800 feet, to- gether with an unknown thickness beneath, is referred to the Coal- measures. The next overlying rooofeet of strata are designated as Permian; and the upper 250 feet of the series is doubtfully refer- red to the Trias, although as already intimated there seem to be reasons for regarding the latter beds as constituting the upper part of the Permian. Cretaceous strata rest unconformably, and with a contrary dip, upon the earlier eastern portion of this series; while upon the later western portion they rest with apparent conformity ; although their real conformity there may be properly questioned because the Jura seems to be entirely wanting, and at most the Trias is only slightly developed. As already stated, the Cretaceous strata appear to rest conforma- | bly uponthe gypsum-bearing beds; and the latter beds lie quite conformably with the Permian and Coal-measures beneath, all hav- ing a westward dip. On the contrary, all the beds from the Dino- saur Sands, which are regarded as the lowermost Cretaceous forma- tion in Texas, to the Tertiary inclusive, have an easterly dip and seem tolie unconformably with the Coal-measures and Permian. It is not certain, however, that the Carboniferous and older strata do not dip to the eastward beneath the Cretaceous strata, forming an anticlinal axis, Having thus shown the stratigraphical relation of the Texas Permian withthe other formations, the following remarks will be confined to the Permian alone. The following descriptive section of the Texas Permian is tak- en from Mr, Cummins' field notes, but it has been in large part verified by my own personal observation. The different members of this section, which are indicated by consecutive numbers, are not 114 Permian Formation of Texas. distinctly definable from one another, but the section is presented in this form for convenience in making reference to the respective horizons at which collections of fossils have been made. DESCRIPTIVE SECTION OF THE PERMIAN OF TEXAS. 1. Reddish and mottled sandy clays, with occasional layers of sandstone 2. Variously colored clayey and sandy concretionary strata, with a few irregular layers of impure concretionary limestone ; embrac- ing near its middle a somewhat persistent stratum of limestone of greyish blue color. 3. Sandstones alternating with clayey and sandy concretionary layers and a few fine grained silicious layers. 4. Reddish and buff colored clayey and sandy shales with occa- sional layers of sandstone. 5. Sandstones and sandy shales; with beds of reddish sandy clay : passing gradually into the.Coal-measures beneath. Vertebrate remains, which Prof. Cope confidently refers to the Per- mian, occur at numerous localities and at many horizons from the base to the top of this section ; but invertebrate remains have hith- erto been discovered only in strata which are included in Nos. 2 and 3 respectively of that section. The lowermost known horizon of in- vertebrates is about 400 feet above the base of the series, and the uppermost is about as much below the top of the same. That is, the invertebrate fossils described and figured in this article come from the middle 200 feet in thickness of the Permian series as it has just been defined. The localities at which these fossils were obtained, only three in number, are in Baylor and Archer counties; and as the country is still an unsettled one, they can be designated only in an indefinite way. The first of these localities, which is in the northwestern cor- ner of Archer county, will be designated as ‘‘Camp Creek." The second is in Baylor county, near the middle of its eastern boundary line, and will be designated as “ Godwin Creek." The third is in the northeastern part of Baylor county, near where the old military | road, constructed by General Van Dorn, crossed the Big Wichita river. This locality will be briefly designated as the “ Military crossing of the Big Wichita." The strata of the two first mention- - ed localities occur in No. 3 of the foregoing descriptive section of the Permian, and the last named one, in No. 2. Permian Formation of Texas. 115 The following is a list of all the invertebrate species which are now known to have been found in the Texas Permian, all of which are discussed on following pages. The list is presented in tabular form for the purpose of giving a synoptical view of the fau- na, so far as it is at present known, and also to indicate the locali- ties at which the respective species have been discovered, as well as their inter-association there. As to the latter condition, it is proper to state that specimens of all the species found at the local- ity which is indicated as the Military Crossing, were collected by myself from a single stratum, where they were found commingled in such a manner as to leave no doubt as to their having been all members of one and the same contemporaneous fauna, Specimens of the greater part of the other species were also collected by me at the localities indicated. LIST OF SPECIES. Camp Godwin Military Creek. Creek. Crossing. to aties buylorensis 2.3. le IR ts X t Py commisi & 4. cereo osse cue X Peet, COMET ears os hes a as X 4. Popanoceras walcotti n. s...... TRAN Ud CURA. MO X 5. Orthoceras rushensis McChesney?.............-.-. X 6. Nautilus winslowi Meek and Vnde iR Ii X 7. N. occidentalis Swallow. X 8. 1 wi -— Te eer duy o cL in X 9. N,——— ——3 : diea x Io, DY sr a i vdd D en Eds X IT. N. (Endolobus)———— E o o si eset X I4 Néneopae rener White eeu. sens ellos X X I3. N. shumardi McChes s AD ee TE ere X I4. Euomphalus nuer MAUS X IS. E Tue. uL LLL De iret war oed des ys X 16. Murchisonia —ÓÀ.... X x 17. Patella Pes UE MN ba oar eek X 18. Bellerophon crassus M & W................... s X X t9. B. stay Norwood & Praiten ....... A x 29. B— a UE a a X 21. Sedgwickia oni Shumard sp ceceo vs x 22. Pleurophorus ——————?. 0... cece uus cee X 23. Clllophoras occidentalis Geinitg i... seres X 24. Yoldia subscitula Meek & Hayden... . ........... X 25. Myalina permiana Swallow .. ...................- X X X 26. M. aviculoides MESH LIES, ulia iic. X 27. M. perattenuata M & H........... ee x X X 116 Permian Formation of Texas. 28. Gervillia longa Geinitz..... NU bile She > on X 29. Aviculopecten occidentalis Simul... (ow iux mori dp eS ci» X 30. Syringopora [PPP CAELO D E ae X .31. Spirorbis PEERS udo REN EAE X ga. Cythere tie brascensis Geinit?: 02 oo oh eise X SUMMARY. ( Cephalopoda........ II species. Mollusca. ; Gastropoda ......... 9 d | Conchifera: «i2 uuu 9 a ie TEMA Loi omnes ok I T Articulata, Crustacea ROC esses I $ "Total. :32 E By reference to the foregoing list of species, and especially to the summary at the foot of the list, it will be seen that the invertebrate collections which have hitherto been made from the Permian form- ation of Texas, do not represent a fauna in its usual proportions, as regards the classes and families to which the species respectively belong. This is especially true when we compare these collections with Permian faunas already known in other regions. For exam- ple, it will be seen that the Cephalopoda are in unusually large pro- portion, that the Brachiopoda and Polyzoa are absent, and that the Polypi are represented by only a single species. In short, it is plain that the invertebrate fauna which existed during the period in which the Texas Permian was deposited, and in the same, or in contiguous waters, is imperfectly and disproportionately represent- ed by these collections. Some of the causes of the imperfection and disproportion refer- red to, are too plainly apparent to need extended comment, and others are suggested by the lithological and stratigraphical charac- ter of the formation in which the remains are found. Besides the inevitable causes of imperfect representation of extinct faunas by their remains, a conspicuous reason for the imperfection of these collections is that the formation has yet been carefully examined in only a small part of the large region which it is known to occupy, and an exhaustive search for invertebrate fossils has yet been made at only a few of the localities which have been visited by competent collectors. Again, there are few strata entering into the composition of the Texas Permian where it has been examined, the character of which indicates that they successively formed the bottom of waters where at least a large proportion of then existing invertebrates Permian Formation of Texas. 117 could not have found a congenial habitat. That is, sandy and oth- er silicious strata, as has already been shown, prevail in this forma- tion, while calcareous strata are comparatively rare. It is true that certain families, especially of the Mollusca, find a silicious, sandy bottom, such as the material of most of those strata doubtless formed, more congenial than a muddy or calcareous one ; but to far the greater part of all invertebrate faunas the latter kind of bottom, other conditions being favorable, is much more congenial. In short the lithological character of a formation often presents ob- vious reasons not only for the comparative paucity of all invertebrate fossils in itsstrata, but even for the absence of representatives of certain families which we have every reason to suppose existed when they were deposited, but in other, not far distant places, and in more congenial waters. But these collections, imperfect as they are, present subjects for consideration which are of far greater interest than that which at- taches to a mere addition to our knowledge of a few of the forms which constituted the fauna of any given epoch or period. Such, for example, as the relation which the fauna of one period in a given region bore to faunas which were presumably contemporaneous with it, and to those of the periods which immediately preceeded and followed it ; and the indication which these fossils give as to the geological age of the strata containing them. Three of the Cephalopod species, the names of which are given in the foregoing list, are represented on the accompanying plate, and brief descriptions of them follow. Ptychites cumminsi n. s. Plate I figs. ^ 5 6, 7 an 8. . Shellcompressed-subglobose, volution g, umbilici small ; septa numerous and complex, the suture line as represented by fig. 8. Medlicottia copei n. s. Plate I, figs. 1, 2 and 3. Shell thinly discoid, periphery narrow, medially grooved, umbilici small; volutions deeply embracing ; septal suture as shown by Popanoceras wwalcotti n. s. Plate I, figs. 9, 10 and 11. Shell discoid ; periphery deeply embracing; umbilici minute ; surface marked by slightly sinuous radiating lines or indefinite ridges ; septal suture as shown by fig. 11 The other species which is definitely recognized as new is a Goz- latites whose general character is not unlike that of known Carbon- 118 Permian Formation of Texas. iferous species. The Ptychitesand Popanoceras may be properly re- garded as of mesozoic type, such as might be expected to occur in Triassic strata. The Mediicottia is the first species of the genus to be discovered on this continent, and has been usually regarded as indicating the later Carboniferous, or Permian age, of the strata containing the genus. EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. MEDLICOTTIA COPEI. . Lateral view. Outline showing transverse section of volutions. Suture line. ` | Ww oe EBEN I Q WM ^ PTYCHITES CUMMINSI. Lateral view of a small example. Peripheral view of the same. Lateral view of a larger example. View of a septum of a larger example. Suture line of the same. POPANOCERAS WALCOTTI. Lateral view of a small example. o. Peripheral view of the same. * 11. Suture line. All the figures are a little less than natural size. It will be seen from the foregoing descriptions and notes, that of the 32 species of invertebrates which are represented in the col- lections from the Texas Permian, only four of them are recog- nized as new, all of which are cephalopods, and all belong to the Ammonoidea. The others have either been previously described and published, or their specific identity with published forms is in doubt because of their imperfection, either of the specimens in hand, or of the manner of publication of the species which they probably represent. Fifteen of these Texan species are satisfacto- rily recognized as having been previously published, a part of which have been by some authors referred to the Permian, but the Coal- measure age of the remainder has never been questioned. Some authors also assert that not only all of the fifteen species just men- tioned, but all North American invertebrate species which have ever been referred to the Permian, are really members of the fauna which characterizes the Coal-measure period. Indeed, so generally has this view prevailed during the last twenty years, that if the taue new cephalopods before mentioned were not present in the Texan OS A P - La A A La] e PLATE: T SPQ, a aH 8 : | fio 92.57 0 2, fige J | / Permian Cephalopoda. Permian Formation of Texas. 119 collections, no American palozntologist who is familiar with the Coal-measure fauna, would probably have hesitated to refer them all to that period. . It is doubtless true that because so large a proportion of the in- vertebrate species, which have been obtained from reputed Permian strata in North America, occur also in characteristic Coal-measure strata, no satisfactory sepa”ation of them into two groups has hither- to been practicable upon the evidence of invertebrate fossils ; and stratigraphical evidence has hitherto been unsatisfactory also. The GpHeqHiond, however, which are represented by the foregoing list and h consisting mainly of Carboniferous forms, con- tain at least. two types which are so generally regarded as indicating the Mesozoic age of the strata containing them, that if they alone, and without any statement of correlated facts, had been submitted to any paleontologist, he would not have been warranted in refer- ring them to an earlier period than the Trias, if he had followed the usually accepted standard of reference. These two forms have been described on preceding pages, under the names of Péychites cumminst and Popanoceras walcotti respectively ; and with the ex- ception of the Ammonites Parkeri® of Heilprin, also from Texas, similar types have never been found associated with recognized Carboniferous species in North America. This, however, is by no means the first, nor the most important discovery of the commingling of Mesozoic and Paleozoic tvpes in such a manner as to indicate that they all lived contemporaneously, and were members of one and the same fauna. The remarkable discovery by Professor Waagen, in India, of* many molluscan spe- cies belonging to mesozoic types associated with a characteristic Carboniferous fauna is well known. It is also well known that mes- ozoic characters are recognizable among certain of the Carbonifer- ous and Permian cephalopods of Russia and Armenia, as well as of certain parts of Europe. The special interest which these Texan collections possess lies, first, in the presence of the two cephalopods of mesozoic type as members of an invertebrate fauna composed otherwise of paleozoic types; and second, in the association of this invertebrate fauna with a vertebrate fauna composed mainly of Permian types, as de- * Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1884, vol. XX XVI, p. 53. ° See Paleontologia Indica Series XIII ; Salt Range Fossils. 120 Permian Formation of Texas. termined by Professor Cope, and in the known superposition of the formation containing these faunas upon characteristic Coal-measure strata. The first point pf interest relates to the interdelimitation of the Mesozoic and Paleozoic; and the second, to the assumed Permian age of the Texan formation from which the collections re- ferred to were made. The biological interdelimitation of the Mesozoic and Palzozoic ages in geological history has long been regarded as clearly recog- nizable in all parts of the world. While it was well known that a considerable number of generic forms, especially of the inverte- brates, respectively occur in strata of both ages, paleontologists have generally regarded it as a fundamental fact that certain orders, families, and even genera, which possess certain characteristics of structure and form, were rigidly confined to each age respectively. That is, they believed that the types which fall into the one cate- gory all ceased to exist at the close of the Paleozoic age, and that no member of the other category began its existence before the opening of the Mesozoic age. The presence of remains belonging to either the one or the other of these categories was therefore re- garded as affording unquestionable proof of the geological age of the strata containing them. Attempts were made to explain the first discoveries of the commingling of earlier and later types in one and the same stratum, by assuming that the specimens showing the earlier types of structure were derived in an already fossil condition from pre-existing strata in the process of their destruction by which the materials for new strata were produced. However unphilosophical those views concerning the chronolog- ical restriction of certain types may appear in the light of modern biology, it is not to be denied that until within comparatively few years paleontological observations in the field seemed, as a rule, to favorthem. These later discoveries, important instances of which have been referred to, show conclusively that animals belonging tO both the categories which have just been indicated lived contempo- raneously. It furthermore appears that some of those which have been regarded as exclusively mesozoic in character began their ex- istence while yet Paleozoic forms were far in the ascendant ; and also that many Palzozoic types survived their earlier associates and lived in association with Mesozoic faunas. As I shall discuss this subject in another publication, it need not receive further consider- ation here; but I offer in following paragraphs some general re- Permian Formation of Texas. 121 marks upon the reputed North American Permian, in the course of which reference will be made to the bearing which the pres- ence of Mesozoic types among the Texan Permian fossils has upon the question of the geological age of the strata containing them. From time to time during the past thirty years there have been discussions among geologists as to whether there is in North America any true equivalent of the Permian formation of Europe. Some writers have been uncompromising in their advocacy of the affirmative side of this question, and others have been equally pos- itive in asserting the negative. Much of this difference of opinion has arisen from imperfect knowledge of essential facts, and much from want of a clear definition by the respective writers as to what they have regarded as constituting equivalency in this case. Al- though much addition has within the past few years been made to our knowledge of facts bearing upon this question, and it is evident that clearer views upon it are now generally held than formerly prevailed, it is too much to expect that the views of all geologists | should even now fully agree. The following statement of the present condition of this question, as the writer understands it, is presented that the reader may understand more clearly his views, and the reasons for the conclusions and opinions which are ex- pressed in this article. In Europe the Carboniferous system is understood to be divided into three great groups, namely, the Lower Carboniferous, the Coal-measures and the Permian, which are definable from one an- other, not only by palzontological, but by stratigraphical character- istics. In North America, the great Carboniferous system is quite as largely developed as in Europe. The Lower Carboniferous and Coal-measure groups are, upon both stratigraphical and palaeonto- logical grounds, as clearly recognizable and distinguishable from each other, in some parts of this continent, as they are in Eu- rope, but the Permian has hitherto had no such undisputed rec- ognition. Therefore, the question now to be considered is whether the Permian of Europe has really an equivalent anywhere in North America; and if so, how that equivalency is recognizable. There are seven principal regions in North America within which strata occur that have been by different authors referred to the Permian. These are (1) southwestern Pennsylvania and northern West Virginia ; (2) Prince Edwards Island ; (3) eastern Illinois ; 122 Permian Formation of Texas. (4) northeastern Kansas and southeastern Nebraska; (5) South Park, Colorado ; (6) isolated portions of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah and Western Colorado, and (7) northern Texas and the adja- cent part of Indian Territory. In all these cases there seems to be no room for doubt that the strata in question are not older than the Upper Coal-measures, as that formation is distinguishable in North America, but aside from their evidently high position in the Carboniferous system, their recognition as Permian has been based upon different kinds of evi- dence in each case. In the first and second mentioned cases it was based wholly upon plant remains ; in the third, upon vertebrate re- mains alone; in the fourth, upon invertebrate remains ; in the fifth, upon plants and insects,’ and in the sixth, mainly upon stratigraph- ical position. The evidence in favor of the recognition of the strata, as constituting a separate formation in the seventh case, is presented in this article. Two general ideas seem to have prevailed respectively in the minds of those who have considered the question of the recognition of the Permian in North America. On the one hand, the discovery on this continent of remains belonging to generic or other types of vertebrate, invertebrate, or plant life, which are respectively similar to forms found in the European Permian, have been regarded by some authors as surely indicating in each separate case the Permian age of the strata containing them, even in the absence of, or without regard to, correlated facts, whether paleontological or stratigraph- ical. On the other hand, it has been contended that no definite recognition of the Permian, even in the first-mentioned cases, ought to be made until after due consideration of all obtainable corre- lated palzeontological and stratigraphical facts ; and not then, unless the preponderance of all that evidence should plainly favor such recognition. The untenableness of the position indicated in the case first stated is shown by the facts mentioned in preceeding paragraphs of the occurrence in one and the same stratum of forms which have been held to be characteristic of separate geological periods, and even of separate ages. It is conspicuously shown in the case of the Texan formation, which is specially discussed in this article, be- 1 These insects, however, have been by Scudder referred to the Trias, although they are associated with the most characteristic Permian flora that has yet been dis- covered on this continent. Periman Formation of Texas. 123 cause both its Coal-measure and Triassic age can be even more readily proved, in an ex parte way, by special selections from its fossils, than its Permian age. And yet the sum of all the evidence is in favor of the latter. The following paragraph from the work of Professors Wm. M. Fontaine and I. C. White tersely states? the principle which ought to govern the investigator in these cases, although it was written only with reference to the Permian character of the flora which they were then investigating. “ Itis good evidence that we have to deal with a more recent for- mation, when we find it to show a decadence of old forms, andan introduction of new ones, destined to reach their culmination at a later period. Thus if we find, in a series of rocks, plants charac- teristic of the Carboniferous formation, and perceive that these die out and disappear, we should not conclude from their mere pres- ence that the age of the strata is Carboniferous, but rather that it is Permian. So also the finding of genera and species, even iden- tical with those of the Trias or Jurassic, would not necessarily imply a Triassic or Jurassic age. If we find them to be exceed- ingly rare, their presence is rather indicative of a formation older than;the Trias or the Jurassic. It is only by taking into considera- tion all the above named characters and other points which may be presented by the entire body of specimens, that we can determine the nature of the evidence offered by the life of a formation. It will not suffice to say arbitrarily that this or that feature is without value as evidence. Circumstances might reverse the normal relative weight of evidence from the several sources, and give preponder- ating weight to what would, if unaffected by them, have slight value. Besides the observance of this principle, the investigator should remember the entire improbability that distinguishing types could have been simultaneously introduced in all parts of the world ; and the no less evident fact that certain types in different parts of the world long survived their extinction in other parts. He should al- SO bear in mind the now evident fact that the rate of pro- gressive development of vertebrate, invertebrate and plant life respectively has not been uniform in all parts of the world. It therefore ought not to be expected that precisely the same associa- 4 Permian or Upper ‘Carb. Flora of West ‘Virginia and S. W. Pennsylvania. Second Geol. Surv. Penn. Rep. Prog. P. P., pp. 109, 110. 124 Permian Formation of Texas. tion of types would be found on this continent that occur in Europe and elsewhere. Much difference of opinion has prevailed even among those who recognize the importance of considering all the facts which bear upon a given case of assumed equivalency. Some have believed that it should be strictly chronological as regards the whole of a giv- en formation ; while others claim that the most we can reasonably as- sume in any case is approximate contemporaneity, and all that we can ever certainly know in such cases is the homotaxial relations of formations in different parts of the world respectively. The scope of this article, however, will admit of only a partial discus- sion of those views. If all the time which is represented by the entire Carboniferous system in Europe is represented by the entire Carboniferous system of North America, the Permian of Europe must necessarily have a complete time equivalent somewhere on this continent If that gystem is everywhere incomplete at the upper limit on this conti- nent, and the same is complete in Europe, it necessarily follows that the stratigraphical time equivalent of the European Permian is either absent or incomplete in North America. But all the known facts which bear upon this case are of such doubtful value in their application to the question of strict chronological equiva- lency that it seems to be unprofitable to discuss it. "Therefore the only question that remains to be considered in this connection 1$ that of homotaxy. The question, even after being reduced to these limits, is a com- plex one, for it still involves the consideration of conflicting and disagreeing paleontological evidence as well as a recognition of : upper and lower delimiting boundaries of the formation. There can be no good reason for doubting that there are in various parts of North America strata which are homotaxially equivalent, at least in part, with the Permian of Europe. But it is equally true that much of the reputed North American Permian cannot be satis: factorily separated from the Coal-measures, and even those which have been separated more or less satisfactorily, are found to be S® intimately related to the Coal-measures as to make the lower limit indefinable.? : the : n *In view of the last mentioned condition, several American and Pope writers have applied the compromising term ** Permo-Carboniferous " to that definable upper portion of the Carboniferous system. Unfortunately, howeve ‘ if- some American authors have of late applied the same term to the whole Carbon Permian Formation of Texas. 125 Heretofore it has been impracticable to say whether the upper limit of the Carboniferous system in North America is complete or not. For example, none of the reputed Triassic strata, which occur in various parts of the continent, have been found in such relation to the reputed Permian as to indicate that there was continuous sedimentation from the one formation to the other; nor have those Triassic strata been found to contain any kaistat palæontological evidence of their immediate succession to the Permian. Indeed, as regards the remains of invertebrate life, the existence of aüy Triassic strata in North America rests upon comparatively slight evidence ; slighter, indeed, than it might have seemed to be before the discovery of Triassic types associated with well-known Carbon- iferous forms.?° The conflicting character of a part of the evidence afforded by the reputed North American Permian as to its age has already been shown, but there is an important case of want of harmony of different portions of certain accepted paleontological evidence that deserves mention. In Professor Cope's systematic catalogue of the Permian vertebrate fauna of North America," he shows that it has been discovered mainly in two limited districts, one in eastern Illi- nois and the other in Texas. His catalogue also shows that of the 76 species enumerated, not one, and of the 32 genera only five, are common to the two districts. He also states that *the Permian vertebrate fauna of Illinois and Texas exhibits close parallels, but not yet generic identity on this continent."? On the contrary, the marine invertebrates which characterize the North American Coal-measures, a part of which usually range up into the reputed Permian, are widely distributed on this continent, erous series; seeming thereby to imply that the series includes an inseparable equivalent of the Permian, as well as the remainder of the system ?? The Triassic character of a part of the Permian fauna of Texas has been suf- Meekoceras beds of southeastern Idaho. Besides this, those beds appear to have an intimate stratigraphical relation with the characteristic Carboniferous strata be- neath them. Add to these facts the further one that types similar to those which have been relied upon in referring the Idaho beds to the middle Trias, also occur in undisputed Carboniferous strata, and it seems possible that those dudes Trias- sic beds ought to be referred to the Permian rather than to the Trias 1 Trans. Am. Philos. Soc. vol. XVI, pp. 285-288. 1 See Vol TIL, Book I. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., p 25. 126 Permian Formation of Texas. and their geographical range includes both the Illinois and Texan vertebrate localities. That is, the invertebrate fauna referred to is uniform over a region in which the vertebrate fauna is diverse. In all the vertical and geographical range of these invertebrate fossils, there has never been observed any evidence of the deca- dence of old forms? such as would be taken to indicate an approach- ing close to the geological period which they have especially char- acterized ; and it is only in the case of the Texan Permian that an introduction of new forms has been yet observed which might be regarded as forerunners of a new one. Finally, while it is freely admitted that a considerable number of the invertebrate species which characterize the Permian of Eu- rope have nearly related representatives on this continent, it should not be forgotten that they are as characteristic of our undisputed Coal-measures as of the reputed Permian. Even if those forms are really specifically identical on the two continents it does not neces- sarily prove the contemporaneity of the respective formations con- taining them, In fact those formations must be necessarily of a difference in age equal to the time required by the distribution of the species. The recognition of the Permian of Texas as a separate upper group of strata belonging to the Carboniferous system is based up- on both stratigraphical and paleontological evidence, and this evi- dence is fuller than that which has been adduced in favor of any other reputed Permian strata of North America. First, it contains invertebrate species which have been referred to the Permian in other districts to the northward, some of which are closely related to Permian species of Europe. Second, it contains the large vertebrate fauna published by Professor Cope, which he regards as characteristically Permian. Third, the Texan formation evidently constitutes an upper, apparently the uppermost, portion of the Carboniferous system. Fourth, the lithological] difference between this formation as a whole and the Coal-measures beneath it 13 It has been pointed out by some authors that certain of the brachiopods and other spezies which characterize the Coal-measures, have never been found in any of rhe reputed Permian strata, and it seems to have been assumed that their ab- sence was due to a final decadence of those forms before the Permian period was reached. It seems, however, not at all unreasonable to infer that successive changes of conditions differently affected different classes of animals, in conse - quence of which the forms referred to were not extinguished, but only differently dispersed. ee ee ae ee REUNION CERRO ORUM EUIS Permian Formation of Texas. 127 is sufficiently marked to make it conveniently distinguishable by the eye. Besides this, the mesozoic element which has been shown to exist among the invertebrates of the Permian of Texas may be properly regarded as holding an opposite relation to the Paleozoic element, and thus to suggest a balance of paleontological evidence in favor of the Permian age of that formation.“ The present state of our knowledge, or warranted opinion, as to the existence of the Permian formation in North America may be summed up briefly as follows :— Although the two earlier groups of the Carboniferous system, namely, the Lower Carboniferous and Coal-measures are asclearly recognizable in the region traversed by the Mississippi river as they are in Europe, in many parts of this continent where Carboniferous strata are largely developed no distinctive recognition of either of those groups, or of the Permian, is practicable. In those regions where the Coal-measures or their equivalent strata are recognizable, certain strata are sometimes found resting upon them which have been referred to the Permian; but those strata are as a rule, not distinctly separable from the Coal-measures upon either stratigraphical, or paleontological ground. That is, no distinct stratigraphical plane of demarkation between the Coal- measures and the reputed Permian is observable. ^ Besides this many of the common Coal-measure species range up into those Per- mian strata, and many acknowledged Permian types, according to the European standard, occur inthe unquestioned Coal-measure strata beneath them. The upper limit of the Carboniferous system and the lower limit of the Trias, have never been clearly recognized upon this conti- nent, and it is therefore not yet known that either of these systems are here at any point complete in that respect. But the upper lim- it of the Carboniferous system is known to be incomplete at most places where strata of that age occur. Notwithstanding the mezozoic character of some of the fossils found in the reputed or true Permian strata the relationship of all these strata, both palzontologically and stratigraphically, is far more intimate with the Carboniferous than with the Trias. 14. The value of this suggestion is somewhat lessened by the known presence of the Ammonites parkeri of Heilprin in the underlying Texan Coal-measures, and by the presence of similar types beneath the Permian in certain parts of the old world. Still, such forms as Ptychites cumminsi may properly be regarded as mmediate harbingers of the Mesozoic age. 128 Mammalia of Southern Brazil. A large part of the North American strata which have been by various authors referred to the Permian have no valid claim to be either so considered, or as being separate from the upper Coal- measures. Buta part of them may be reasonably assumed to be homotaxially equivalent with at least a part of the European Per- mian ; although their delimitation from the Coal-measures may in most cases be difficult or impracticable. The evidence upon which the Texan strata have been referred to the Permian is fuller than that which has been adduced with re- gard to any other North American strata, that have been so re- ferred. That is, the evidence of both vertebrate and invertebrate fossils is in favor of such reference, and the difference in the char- acter of the strata from those of the underlying Coal-measures, al- though not great, is conveniently distinguishable. Still, it is true that the Texan Permian strata bear many Coal-measure invertebrate species ; and its flora is at present unknown. ON THE MAMMALIA OBTAINED BY THE NATURALIST EXPLORING EXPEDITION TO SOUTHERN BRAZIL. BY E. D. COPE. ger Naturalist Exploring Expedition left New York for South- ern Brazil in the year 1882, and landed at Porto Alegre M the department of Rio Grande do Sul, with the object of making collections in that province. It was under direction of Herbert H. Smith, whose former service under Prof, Frederick Hartt in the . Geological Survey of Brazil, had given him ample acquaintance with the peopleand language. Regular collections were first made at the village of Sao Joao do Monte Negro, on a tributary of the Ura- 1 Articles descriptive of this region by Mr. H. H. Smith will be found in thè AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1883, pp. 480, 707 & 1007. Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 129 guay River, in the western centre of the province, in about lat. 28° south. After a residence there of several months, Mr. Smith and party proceeded north-west to the interior province of Matto Grosso, ascending the Paraguay River to Cuyaba. From Cuyaba the party went about thirty miles to the north-eastward, to the little village of Chapada, where they remained for months. This locality was es- pecially favorable for the objects of the expedition, being on the boundary line between the great plains to the south and the forest- covered mountains on the north, and at the heads of the drainage of the Paraguay to the south, and of the Xingu tributary of the Am- azon on the north, at about lat. 15? S. The difference in the characteristics of these localities is easily observable in the collections obtained from them. I have already published reports on the Batrachia and Reptilia from both localities,’ and the present report embraces the Mammalia. The insects and birds are in the Museum of Natural History, Central Park, New York. Researches on the Mammalia of these regions have been al- ready made by Hensel? and Von Jhring in Rio Grande do Sul, and by Natterer at Cuyaba. The collections of the last-named explorer are worthily described by Wagner of Munich, and a full report on them has been made by Von Pelzeln. ł of Vienna. Sixty-five spe- cies were obtained by Mr. Smith, most of them represented by many specimens, and five of the species appear to be new to science. The distribution of these as to locality will be stated at the close of the paper. MARSUPIALIA. 1. DIDELPHYS MARSUPIALIS AZARÆ Temm. (Thos.) Two skins with skeletons from Sao Joao; three skins with skele- tons from Chapada; one skin with skull from Sao Joao; two skins from Chapada, two from Sao Joao, and four without locality; also one skeleton from Chapada, two skulls from do, three skulls from Sao Joao, and two skulls and a skeleton of unknown localities. 2. DIDELPHYS MARSUPIALIS AURITA Wied. (Thomas). One skin from uncertain locality. Although fully grown, the long dorsal hairs and the ears are perfectly black, and there are large spots above the eyes. Belly light brown. 1 Proceedings American Philosophical Society, 1884, p. 185 ; 1887, p. 44. 2 Memoirs of the Akad. Wisseusch. Berlin 1872. ¢ Zoolog. Botan. Gesselsch. Wien, 1883. i 130 Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 3. PHILANDER PUSILLUS Desm. A specimen in alcohol, and a skeleton, probably of this species, from Chapada. The generic name Philander is used here for the opposums with- out marsupial pouch, without regard to other characters. 4. CHIRONECTES MEMINA Cuv. One skin with skeleton from Chapada. CHIROPTERA. PHYLLOSTOMID4E. PHYLLOSTOMA HASTATUM Pallas. Chapada. . CAROLLIA BREVICAUDA Weid. Chapada. ARTIBEUS PLANIROSTRIS ! Spix. Chapada. ARTIBEUS BILOBATUS Peters. Neither of the two specimens from Chapada agree with the de- scription given by Professor Peters in all respects. The edge of the lancet of the nose-leaf is not crenulate, and the border of the horse- shoe is but slightly lobed. In all other respects the specimens agree with the descriptions, The degree of the lobing of the edge of the Cn e ~u LJ e ! DERMANURA EVA Sp. nov. Founded on two adult males from the Island of Saint Martins, West Indies. Dentition, L$; c.1; pm.2; m.2. Median upper incisors emarginate ; all the inferior incisors emarginate. Lip tubercles as usual in this genus and Artibeus, those of the permaxillary region narrow and separated by vertical plicæ, and with- out an interior row of rounded warts as in A. planirostris. Inferior border of horse- shoe free and not appressed, its lateral borders once undulate. Ear laid forwards reaching to middle of eye. Tragus acuminate, widest at the middle, triangular 12 section, the edge external. lnterfemoral membrane notched to a line opposite to the middle of the tibia. Hind legs and feet, interfemoral membrane to line of. knees, and proximal half of fore-arm, with a sparse silky fur. Wing membrane furred to middle of femur above and below. General color brown, reddish tinged on the limbs and head, Sides of head a pale shade, above each eye to inner side of ear, paler. Length of head and body, m. .079 ; of interfemoral membrane to notch, .012- Length of head .032 ; of leaf of muzzle, .0125 ; of fore-arm, .059; of tibia, 02% ; of posterior foot, .o17. ccording to Dobson, this species approaches nearest to the D. quadrivittata, : but it differs in its much superior size and in the different form of the external w— cisor tooth. It is as large as the Artibeus planirostris. Dr. R. E. Van Rijgersm^ — — Mammalia of Southern Brazil. | 13 horse-shoe may be variable; and I observe some crenation of the edge of the same in some specimens of the Vampyrops lineatus which is wanting in other specimens. 9. VAMPYROPS LINEATUS Geoffroy. Chapada. IO. STURNIRA LILIUM Geoffroy. Chapada. EMBALLONURID&. II. Mo Lossus RUFUS Geoffr. One specimen from Sao Joao. 12 NYCTINOMUS BRASILIENSIS Is. Geoffr. Four specimens from Sao Joao. VESPERTILIONIDZE. I3. VESPERUS ARGE Sp. nov. Dentition r. $;c. 14; Pm. 3; m. $. Inferior incisors trilobate, placed transversely to the mandible; superior incisors unequal, the external simple, narrow, not quite so long as either lobe of the inter- nal, and placed close to it and to the canine. “ First " (second) in- ferior premolar much smaller than second, and in line with the latter. Ears much shorter than the head, when laid forwards reaching a short distance in front of eye, near the apex. Helix openly notched .on the external margin, which is thus turned outwards and obtusely rounded. Tragus convex, separated from helix by a very open emagination. Antitragus elongate lanceolate, with the greatest width near the middle, and with a rounded lobe at the external base. Lateral swellings of the muzzle large, covered with sparse hair. At their anterior extremity and just above the nostril is a deep fossa which is connected by a groove with the nostril, giving the appear- ance when closed of an oblique slit-like nostril, as in V. platyrhinus of Dobson. Notubercles on the soles. Interfemoral membrane in- closing all the caudal vertebre, which terminate in a short free ca- tilaginous apex. Wing membrane to base of hallux. Calcaneum long; postacalcaneal lobe distinct, narrow. Tibia elongate. Fur extend- ing on the wing membranes by a narrow border only above and be- low, not extending on interfemoral membrane. Antebrachial mem- brane not reaching middle of fore-arm. Color above dark brown tinged with reddish; below similar, the hairs with lighter brown tips. Inferior side ot interfermora] mem- 132 Mammalia of Southern Brazil. brane pale or milky, the color becoming less decided towards the margins. . Length of head and body m. 061; of tail .038; of head .o20; of hind foot, oro; of third digit, .o71. One ! from Sao Joao. EDENTATA. MYRMECOPHAGIDA, 14. MYRMECOPHAGA JUBATA Linn. Four skins with skeletons, and three skulls, from Chapada. 15. MYRMECOPHAGA BIVITTATA Desm. Two skins with skeletons, and two skeletons and a skull from Chapada ; one fresh skin purchased at Sao Joao. 16. MYRMECOPHAGA BIVITATTA STRAMINEA Sp. nov. This species is represented by a nearly perfect skin in good pre- servation. Its proportions are much as in the M. divittata, includ- ing the relative length of the tail. The internal claws are smaller than in the common species. The most obvious peculiarity is the color. "This is a general straw-color, uninterrupted excepting by two black bands on the shoulders, and a black patch on the middle of the abdomen. The black bands commence immediately in front of the shoulders, and extend posteriorly over them, and terminate above a point about an inch posterior to the axilla, converging very slightly, or nearly parallel. A blackish band passes from the eye which it surrounds, to the muzzle. Claws dark horn-color. Measurements of skin in normal proportions. — to base OF tail (below). cioe ee Ce US .410 OF tilii. Roe es a aS TONS .365 "^" from end of miile to e... vie orn .055 a Je n BE DURO cee eye Cie ee .095 Uc OF OMB. vive Cred ke va geek et oe she rs CAVES id .028 ee: Bo v quU QU PUO ba Ur DAE .153 st. of second Claw (choi) t Vra TV EVA, .O16 "^ of thd claw (chotd) 3 25703 VIG iis LET .037 ‘* of hind leg.. erty I .150 ** of sole of hind foot qas: of dui: 42723 P4 .069 te of posterior fourth claw... ede .O0I5 1Ina cave near Chapada, Mr. Smith found skulls of species of bats of the genera Molossus, Phyllostoma, and Chiroderma. Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 133 Burmeister (Thiere Brasiliens) refers to specimens of the M. divit- fata in which the black of the dorsal regions is very much reduced in extent. The type specimen is not fully grown I suspect. The label has been lost, so that I do not know whether it was obtained at Sao Joao or at Chapada. 17. MYRMECOPHAGA ?SELLATA ! Cope. A skin from Chapada resembles almost exactly this species or sub-species, in coloration, differing only in the non-continuation of the median yellow dorsal stripe to the yellow of the rump. But un- fortunately it lacks the end of the tail so that the length of this part cannot be ascertained. I therefore refer it here with doubt. Two specimens from French Guiana are in the Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences in this city. "They are grizzled straw- color, and have no black bands or spots. The hair of the entire superior regions is black at the base. The tail, is as long as the head and body together. These animals I suppose to belong to the M. longicaudata of Schreber, but the tail is not twice as long as the body ! MYRMECOPHAGA SELLATA sp. nov. This species is founded on a skin which I obtained from Dr. Fritzgaertner, who brought it from Honduras and displayed it in the exhibit from that country at the World's Exposition at New Orleans. It is characterized by its long tail and peculiar coloration, exhibiting characters between the M. longicaudata of Wagner and the M. bivittata. While the tail is as long as the body in the latter, it is said to be nearly double that length in the former. In the M. sellata it is at least equal to the héad and body together, but as the extremity is wanting it may have been longer. The hairs on the extremity of the tail are very sparse. he color is characteristic. The ground is straw-color. An oblique black band commences on the front of the upper arm and extends upwards and back- wards over the shoulder, and converges rapidly towards its fellow. They do not, however, meet, but each is continuous with a large black patch which covers the back and sides on each side of a narrow median band of the light ground-color. These patches extend posteriorly above to the end of the lumbar region, and then the boundary runs obliquely forwards on each side to the groin. This leaves the thighs, rump and tail of the pale ground color, regions which are black in the 77. bivittata. The dusky color in front of the eye is very indistinct. The feet and end of the muzzle have been unfortunately cut off from this specimen, so that their characters cannot be ascertained. The length of the body to the base of the tail is 0.400 m, ; length of tail, .515 m. Besides the three skins above mentioned, there are two of the M. divittata in the Museum of Philadelphia, one from the Magdalena River, and one from Brazil. 134 Mammalia of Southern Brasil. as Gray states, but as long as the head and body, as in the M. sellata, and considerably exceeding that of the M. bivitatta. DASYPODID.E. 18. XENURUS GYMNURUS, Illiger, 1815. Three skins, with skeletons, one from Sao Joao, and one from Chapada. ; 19. XENURUS HISPIDUS Burmeister. Twelve individuals, all from Chapada: evidently abundant, and constant in its characters. 20. DASYPUS SEXCINCTUS Linn. Two skins, five skeletons, and nine skulls, all from Chapada. 21. PRIODONTES MAXIMUS Kerr. One individual complete, and one skull from Chapada. 22. TATUSIA PEBA Desm. 3 Two skins, with skeletons, from Sao Joao ; one skin with skull, four'skeletons and nine separate skulls, all from Chapada. : 23. TATUSIA MEGALOLEPIS Sp. nov. Movable bands, six ; transverse bands or rows on the scapular shield, counted near the border, and omitting the large posterior row, twelve. Transverse rows on the pelvic shield, counted near the border, twelve, without the anterior wide marginal row. Tail consider- atly shorter than body, cylindric to the end. No rudimental thumb on the forefoot. Ears one-third as long as head. Two short hairs issuing from each scute of the movable rings. Hair of inferior sur- faces very sparse. Measurements. M. Length of carapace (axial) e foe Pel eere ne .197 te: Of shield of head Li. o rl de eun .055 Width between Orbs y Cris cule vl Lern .026 ength of 6r... oiii ee C auus 6 .025 EE d opo DUE OM p v DN e qe i .166 "* OF fore 10g. L0 x a NL 052 * of third claw of fore foot (fourth)... ..... O17 " - " bind foo. iL UD E .012 The largesize of thescales distinguishes the Tatusia megalolepis from the 7. peba and the 7. Aydridaat all ages. The number ofscuta in a mov- able band in the former is only 43, while in both the latter the number ranges from 57 to 60, It resembles the 7. Ayérida in the short tail, Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 135 but differs from this species in its longer ears, which are quite as in the T. peba, and also in the rounded and not angulate posterior bor- der of the head shield, with one and not two rows of scales. The skull displays some slight differences from that of the D. peda. One char- acter appears to be of value. The pterygoids are produced towards the median line, so that their opposing edges are parallel and separ- ated by a fissure only, and this fissure is continued on the middle line into the palatine bone for a distance of nearly 2 mm. In all of my numerous skulls of 7:Peóa, the pterygoid borders are either divergent or are separated by a wide space, and the palatines are not notched posteriorly. The palate is flat, with the borders rounded, and not recurved. A single specimen with skeleton from Chapada. RODENTIA. SCIURIDJE. 24. SCIURUS ZSTUANS Linn. One skin with skeleton, one with skull, and one entire skeleton, from Sao Joao. 25. SCIURUS VARIABILIS Geoff. var Langsdor fii Natt. Four skins with skeletons, four skins with skulls, nine separate skins, and four separate skulls, all from Chapada. Mr. J. A. Allen refers the S. /angsdor fii of Natterer to this species as a color variety. All of the above seventeen skins are identical in color, showing that if it is but a variety, it is very constant in this locality. I may add that of the eleven skulls of the collection, all have but one superior premolar, and not two as given by Mr. Allen for the S. variabilis. MURID.E. 26. CRICETUS sp. Chapada. 27. CRICETUS sp. Chapada. 28. CRICETUS sp. Chapada. 29. CRICETUS sp. Sao Joao. Report U. S. Geol. Survey Terrs. XI, p. 768. 136 Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 30. Mus ALEXANDRINUs Geoffr, Chapada. With a litter of young. 31. Mus DECUMANUS L. Sao Joao. ECHINOMYID&. 32. DACTYLOMYS AMBLYONYX Wagner. Three skins with skeletons, from Sao Joao. These specimens agree with the descriptions given by Hensel and Burmeister. The dentition differs from that of the D. typus Geoff. as figured by Geoffroy * and F. Cuvier,f in having the two component V-shaped columns in both jaws united by a narrow isthmus, as is the case in the columns in Echinomys. This fusion is probably due to the age of the specimen, as it takes place on wear- ingin the genus Echinomys. Another character is the transverse lamina-like anterior plate of the first inferior molar (premolar), which is represented by a cylindric column in the D. £ypus, accord- ing to the authors cited. The superior molars are not nearly so close together anteriorly as is represented by St. Hilaire to be the case in the D. typus, and they diverge a little posteriorly. HYSTRICID.JE. 33. SPHINGURUS PREHENSILIS Linn. Three skins with skeletons, and one skull, from Chapada. 34. SPHINGURUS SERICEUS sp. nov. AII the inferior surfaces with the forearm and lower leg destitute of spines, but clothed with a silky,hair of which the basal half is black and the terminal half silvery white. Superior surfaces to the middle of the length of the tail, spinous ; the spines concealed by long silky hair except on the head, nape, and proximal half of the tail. This hair is much longer than that on the inferior surfaces, and is simil- arly colored, i. e., with the basal half black, and the terminal half silvery, but more inclining to gray than on the inferior surfaces. The spines are an inch and a half long, becoming shorter on the tail, the front, and the upper lip, and are rather slender, and on the nape are decurved. "Those on the interorbital and suborbital regions are still more slender. The nasal, preorbital, and subcaudal regions are 1 Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Nouv. Ann. du Museum I, 450 pl. XVIII, t Lue Geoffr., NM de Zoologie, 1840, p. 27, pl. XXVIII, figs. 1-3. + Dents des Mammifers Mammalta of Southern Brazil. 137 covered with rather stiff hairs, the latter becoming silky towards the end of the tail. The spines are generally black on their basal half, and sulphur yellow on their terminal half, without other color on the apex. Those of the interorbital, suborbital and prescapular regions, are white, with a black space at the middle, and the base of the spines is also white below the black on the posterior regions of the body, and on the tail. The hairs covering the basal half of the tail below are yellow ; those covering the terminal half are black. End of muzzle projecting beyond mouth, covered with minute silky hairs. Whiskers long, black. Measurements of skin. M. PORE OUR. ois dks usos x ER A EAD Cakes a .665 Length from end of muzzle to vent............. sese 395 T i " ^ orbit (on axis). ........- .020 We oE FORE HDi Ub V o RR A EACH vn ER EI RIA 4130 . DE: " foot on sole (total). ....... DAR NRAR as ey .045 xk Sor ANN TN a ca sous ves AE AS ER ceca ed .020 " or Bind DB iss Sac seve eens VERE ees pose ns 135 " "t O foot on sole (total isin. ieee xen .063 5 OF third bind: claw... eas coo cabs an hoc .o18 Measurements of skull. es Total length on base............ Bs ig ar pe pre a .073 Length to line of orbits (axial). OF fone leg. is Gwe ev ak tse veo Visus da 142 $ my foot belowt hilos ews a .032 ” SOF mod lep. osea mne) 165 à * fóot beloW. d.i si erre Lee 103 This species seems to be nearer to the D. croconota than to the D prymnolopha. Unfortunately I can find no skeleton or skull per- taining to the type, so that I can not describe their characters. It is much larger than the former species, exceeding it by more than sixinches. Its uniform coloration is also entirely peculiar in the genus, for the hairs are not annulated. The feet are relatively much shorter than in the D. croconota; for according to Waterhouse, with a total length of 17 in. 9 lines, the feet of the latter measure (minus the nails) 3 in. 5 lines which is identical with the length of the foot in D. aurea, with a total of twenty-four inches. The head is the D. croconota measures 3 in. 11 lines. The relationships of the D. ra- rea appear to be with the 2. azare. 38. HvbROCHOGRUS CAPYBARA Erxl. Four skeletons, one with a skin and a separate skull, all from Sao Joao. 39: CAVIA APEREA Erxl. Four skins, three with skeletons, from Sao Joao. LEPORIDA. 49. LEPUS BRASILIENSIS Linn. _ Two skins with skeletons; three skins with skulls; six separate skins, and four separate skulls; all from Chapada. CARNIVORA. CANID&. 41. CANIS CANCRIVoRUS Desmarest. : Three skins with skeletons; one skeleton without skin, and one skin without skeleton, all from Chapada. 140 Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 42. CANIS VETULUS Lund. One skin with skeleton, and one separate skull, from Chapada. 43. CANIS ENTRERIANUS, Burmeister, Reise durch die La Plata Staten 1865, II, p. 400. Two skins with skeletons, and one skin with skull, all from Sao Joao, Rio Grande do Sul. I am not as certain of the identification of this species as I would wish, and find it easier to determine what it is not than what itis. It differs from the preceding two species as follows : C. cancrivorus ; Mandibular angle robust, truncate; posttympanic process adherent to bulla ; larger ; sectorial teeth relatively larger. C. vetulus; mandibular angle slender, acute; posttympanic process adherant to bulla; smaller; sectorial teeth relatively small. C. entreríanus; mandibular angle slender; acute; posttympanic process well posterior to bulla, but connected at base; larger; sectorial teeth relatively large. This supposed C entrerianus agrees closely in general characters with the C. griseus, Gray, described by Burmeister * excepting in the superior size. It agrees in dimensions with the C. azarae Cuv. but differs from both that species and the C magellanicus Gray, in the possession of but one inferior premolar tooth with posterior cutting lobe instead of two. 1t also differs from both these species, and agrees with the C. griseus in the wide separation of the premaxillary and frontal bones. "The general color is reddish, the hair on the an- terior regions above, yellow near the tips, and brown at the tips, the brown becoming blackish on the posterior regions and the tail. Limbs light clean rufous; soles reddish brown. Belly and neck white, a gray band crossing justin front of the breast. Chin black except at tip, which is white. Upper surface of ears (which are large) bright rufous. The animal is at least as large as the red fox. The coloration differs from that of C. griseus only in not show- ing the two white spots on the throat as described by Burmeister. MUSTELIDZE. 44. GALICTIS VITTATA Schreb. Three skins with skeletons from Sao Joao. 1 Erlatiterungen zur Naturgeschichte Brasiliens, 1856, p. 48. Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 141 45. GALERA BARBARA Linn. Five skins with skeletons from Chapada. 46. LUTRA PLATENSIS Burmeister. A skin and skeleton from Sao Joao; do. from Chapada ; do with- out locality. A comparison of the skulls of this species with two of Zutra cana- densts in my collection, and three in that of the Academy of Natural Sciences, show the following differences. The palate is not so much produced posterior to the molar teeth : the superior tubercular molar has smaller anteroposterior diameters, especially at the interior ex- tremity; and there is no preglenoid crest. The length of the skull is 103 mm., and the total length of the same individual is 1200 mm. PROCYONIDZE. 47. PROCYON CANCRIVORUS Cuvier. Black-footed variety, Sclater, Proceedings Zool. Soc., London, 1875, p. 421. One skin with skeleton of a male, and a separate skull; both from Sao Joao. The skin is that of an adult male in excellent condition. The hair is dense and woolly on the body, but is very sparse on the an- terosuperior faces of the feet. The tail is fusiform and bushy. The fundamental color is brownish-yellow above, but the hairs on the middle region of the back have long black extremities. The color below is light brownish yellow. The feet are all black up to the midde of the tibiaand forearm. The tail is black, crossed by five annuli of yellowish brown. For comparison with the skulls of this species I have eight of the P. lotor and two of the P. Aernandezii. Of the former, one is from New York, and one from Pennsylvania ; of the latter, one is from S. W. New Mexico, and one from Western Oregon. The characters of the P. cancrivorus are easily observable ; while those of the two other Species are also visible. I compare them in the following table : I. Canines less compressed ; metaconid of P. m. I. often present. Postdental Part of palate wider than long; malar bone Weak; front narrow, width equal diameter of orbit ; each nasal bone obliquely truncated ; larger. P. cancrivorus. 142 Mammalia of Southern Brazil, Postdental part of palate as wide as long ; malar bone very robust ; front wide, flat, exceeding diameter of orbit ; each nasal bone truncate with produced outer angle. P. hernandestt. Postdental part of palate longer than wide ; malar bone robust ; front narrow, convex, width equal that of orbit; each nasal bone deeply emarginate distally....... P. lotor. II. Canines much compressed ; metaconid of P. m. I always wanting. Muzzle shorter; palate angularly elevated posteriorly ; last inferior molar wider, heel median ; larger... P. nasicus. Muzzle longer ; palate nearly flat posteriorly ; last inferior molar narrower, the heel internal ; smaller.......P. nasua. In the two specimens of Procyon cancrivorus before me the metaconid of the p. m. r. is well developed. In the P. ofer it is distinct in four out of eight skulls, and is represented by a mere trace in the other four. In a single P. Aerzandezii a trace only is visible. The form of the free extremity of the nasal bone is not constant in these species, and that of the last inferior molar will bear further examination. The question is raised by Dr. P. L. Sclater, as above cited, as to whether the southern black-footed raccoon is specifically identical or distinct from the rufous-footed form from Surinam and Central America. In the lack of specimens of the latter region I cannot give a definite answer to this question. In the skull of the P. hemandezii, above described, the processus pyramidalis of the palate has on its external face, a deep groove, bordered above and below by an alate crest, which are wanting in the P. Zofor. The malar bone is also produced downwards at its inferior border next the maxillary, and the postorbital processes of the frontal and malar bones are both more distinct than in the £. lotor. Whether these are individual characters or not I cannot now determine. 48. Procyon NASUA Linn. Nasua rufa Desm. Allen. Three skins, with skeletons, all from Sao Joao. 49. PROCYON RUFUS Desmarest. Twenty skins, three with skeletons, and one with a skull ; seven- teen separate skulls and eleven skeletons, all from Chapada. The skins of the Coatis from the two localities, differ constantly Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 143 and essentially, so that there appears to me to be two species, or, perhaps, subspecies. The most important difference is in the shape of the naked part of the nose. In the P. nasua from Sao Joao, in each of the three specimens, this region is not longer than wide above, and is wider than deep below, being separated by a broad band of hair from the lip border. In the P. rufus this region is constantly at least twice as long as wide above, and much deeper than wide below, with an angular outline which approaches near to the lip border. In the P. nasua, the white on the upper lips is wide and conspicuous, and the cheeks and top of head are of a light gray or pale brown. ‘The top of the nose is light except at the end, and the median head stripe when present is of a darker color than the top of the head. In the P. rufus the white line on the upper lip is very narrow or wanting, and the head is generally blackish gray, the color of the vertex continued on the middle line to the black of the top of the nose. In the ZP. zasua the general color is light brown or gray ; below light yellowish brown. Less than half the leg is black. In the P. rufus the back is dark rufous, the hairs generally shortly, sometimes deeply, black tipped : belly and throat bright rufus, except the white chin. More than half the legs black. The colors of these specimens are as constant as the different character of the naked nasal surfaces, and the resulting appearance is that of two species. The specimens of the P. nasua appear larger and more robust than those of the P. rufus. I cannot detect any difference in the skulls and teeth; there being no osseous character corresponding to the different proportions of the external nasal organs in the two species. I find the characters pointed out by J. A. Allen! to distinguish the two Brazilian species from the Mexican, to hold good. CERCOLEPTIDAE 50. CERCOLEPTES CAUDIVOLVULUS Pallas. A skull from Chapada. FELIDA. 51. Uncia onca Linn. One skin with skeleton, and three skulls, from Chapada. 52. UNCIA CONCOLOR Linn. One skull from Chapada. 1 Bulletin of the U. S. Geolog. Survey of the Terrs, 1879, vol. v, p. 161. 144 Mammatia of Southern Brazil. 53. FELIS PARDALIS Linn. One skin from Chapada. 54. FELIS GEOFFROYI D'Orbigny. One skin with skeleton from Chapada, and a skin with skeleton from Sao Joao. 55. FELIS JAGUARONDI Lacep. One skin with skeleton from Chapada, and a skull from the same locality. 56. FELIS BRACCATA sp. nov. Size of F. jaguarondi. Claws very small, white. Tail to end of vertebre extending one inch beyond extended posterior limbs. Fur of irregular lengths, mingled everywhere with numerous long hairs. Color above brown, the hairs on the middie of the back, and on top of head and muzzle, with several black sections, which give a mixed black and brown hue to those regions. Upper portion of limbs of the same color, interrupted by black cross-bands, two on the fore leg and three on the hind, the former extending on the inner face as well. Distal half of all the legs black, without brown intermixture. Ears of moderate size with an apical angle a little less than right; the anterior half black, the posterior half gray. Inferior surface anteriorly furnished with long hairs of a buff color, which with short hairs of the same color near the anterior margin, show from above, giving a narrow brown border. Hair of the muzzle terminating in a straight transverse line which extends be- tween the posterior parts of the nostrils. Lip whiskers long, buff with black bases. Some slender superciliary vibrisse. A buff spot below each nostril, and a similar one above the anterior part of each eye. Cheeks yellowish brown, hairs black-varied. Chin very pale buff. This color deepens posteriorly, soon pass- ing into the yellowish brown of the lower surfaces. Numerous white hairs are scattered on the thorax and abdomen, and numerous deep brown spots form transverse series, which sometimes become bands, mark the same regions. Three cross-rows of brown spots appear on the throat, the most anterior consisting of two small lateral, and a large median spot, crossing below the ears. The spots become more indistinct on the sides, and are wanting on the inferior surface of the tail. The latter is colored like the back above, and is black at the tip. Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 145 Measurements of the relaxed skin. M. Length from end of muzzle to vent..... dA dd pal ay die .467 ‘* A of tail from vent to end of vertebre............ .230 "pO 685 ADOVES see ba ovo DUREE RE ee MU due .017 Width between bases of ears. ......... 2. o eso evo seve 052 unm from anterior base of ear to end muzzle....... 052 ot fore dag; 5... r ANN Ne ket Clu C ns 195 ‘Ob fourth anterior claw. i1 (Ge aT ALIENO Y 006 DM CE hipa sas ne idea Bi ray, Oe sie ri 195 he inem POT in sits i ase ERALARA 220 '" of second posterior boni vis ad ra dde, Ways 005 This cat is evidently more nearly allied to the F. jaguarondi than to any other known species, and I need only point out the charac- ters in which it appears to me to be distinct. The F. jaguarondi is evidently subject to considerable variation, but none of its forms approach sufficiently near to the F. draccata as to lead one to be- lieve in the identity of the two. Ihave before me the skin of the F. jaguarondi above referred to from Chapada. In what might be called structural differences I note the follow- ing. The feet of the F. braccata are smaller than those of the F. jaguarondi, and the toes are of more equal length. The claws are very much smaller. Both the internal and external toes are rela- tively considerably shorter on both limbs in the ZF. jaguarondi than in F. braccata. The fourth anterior and second posterior claws of the former species measure 6 and 5 mm. respectively; in the latter they measure 11 and 13 mm. respectively. The tail is rather short- er in the F. draccaéa, being less than the length of the body from the axilla to the vent, and only an inch in excess of the posterior legs extended posteriorly. The tail in the F. jaguarondi equals the body, and extends two inches beyond the limbs. This character may prove to be unimportant. Finally the ears in F. /aguarozdi are broadly rounded; in ZF. draccata they are so prominently angular, as to present an apex rather less than a right angle. The fur of the muzzle has a truncate border, while in the ZF. jaguarondi the border presents an acute angle forwards, as itfollows the superior outline of the nares above. The differences in color are as follows: The upper surfaces of the ears are like the top of the head in Z. Jaguarondi;in F. braccata they are of two colors in strong contrast, and both different from that of the head. In Z. jaguarondi the in- 146 Mammatia of Southern Brazil. ferior surfaces are like the superior ; in F. draccata they are totally different, resembling various spotted cats. The legs are colored on the upper surface like the back in F. jaguarondi, and are black below; in F. draccata they are cross banded proximately, and the distal halves are totally black. The aggregate of characters indicates the specific difference of the F. draccata from the F. jaguarondi. The only approach to any of the peculiar characters of the F. draccata in descriptions of the F. jaguarondi, which I can find, is in that by Mr. Alston in the Fau- na Centrali-Americana, who states that there are transverse bars on the inside of the legs. It is to be much regretted that the label belonging to this speci- men has been lost. I do not know therefore whether it was obtain- ed in the province of Rio Grande do Sul, or in Matto Grosso. DIPLARTHRA. TAPIRIDJE. — 57. TAPIRUS AMERICANUS Briss. One skin with skeleton from Chapada. HIPPOPOTAMIDA, 58. DICOTYLES LABIATUS Cuv. One skin with skeleton from Chapada; six skins from Chapada; one skin from Sao Joao; two skulls from Chapada. One of the skins from Chapada presents certain peculiarities. It is not larger than the D. /ajassu, and the bristles are longer and denser along the back, and especially on the rump, than in the other skins. The dirty white or yellowish part of the hairs is replaced by red-orange, giving the animal a fiery tint when the bristles are erect- ed. It was labelled “red-pig” by Mr. Smith. Unfortunately its skull was not preserved. It does not appear to me to represent anything but a slight variety; perhaps it is a young male. In all the characters of the feet, muzzle, etc., it agrees with the D. Jadbiatus. 59. DICOTYLES Tajassu Linn. Two skins with skulls from Chapada ; two separate skins from do.; three skeletons from do.; thirteen skulls, do.; one skull from Sao oao. On comparing the sixteen skulls from Southern Brazil with five skulls in my collection, and one in the Museum of Princeton College, from Texas, I find such constant and important difference as to Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 147 satisfy me that the two forms cannot pe regarded as specifically identical. Their differences may be compared as follows : D. tajassu. Malar crest terminating above infraorbital foramen ; nasal bones rounded in cross-section ; first superior premolar (fourth of old works) tritubercular or rounded in outline, premolariform ; molars not wrinkled. D. angulatus sp. nov. Malar crest continued forwards to base of canine alveolus ; nasal bones pinched or angulate on the middle line; first superior premolar quadritubercular, with intermediate tubercles, and quadrate in outline, molariform ; molars wrinkled. The characters cited are constant, although the amount of angu- lation of the nasal bones in the D. angulatus is subject to some vari- ation. Another character, generally constant, is the form of the fos- sa above the diastema. In D. ¢ajassu it is a narrow groove ; in D. angulatus itis a wide fossa. On comparing two Texan skins with five from Brazil, I notice but one distinctive character. The naked spot on the rump is very much larger on the former, and it is follow- ed by a large patch of brown hairs, forming a distinct spot. In the D. tajassu the brown hairs exist, but in smaller numbers, and they are completely covered by the black hairs which are mixed with them. The feet have been cut off from my Texan skins, and those of other specimens are in skeleton, so that I cannot compare the hoofs. The Texan skulls average larger in dimensions than those from Southern Brazil. The characters of the first premolar, and of the dentition gener- ally, are well represented by Professor Baird, but the prolongation of the malar angle and the roof-shaped nasal bones are not very clearly expressed in the outline figures he has given.’ His specimens came from the Rio Grande. Mine are, one from the Guadalupe R., two from the Llano R., and two from a tributary of the Red River. The character of the first premolar in the D. — approxi- mates it to the D. nasutus Leidy. CERVIDÆ. 60. CARIACUS CAMPESTRIS F. Cuv. One skin with skeleton; three skins, and three skulls ; all from Chapada. ! U. S. Mexican Boundary Survey, Pl. xxvii. 148 Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 61. Coassus RUFUS F. Cuv. One skin with skeleton: one skin with skull; two skulls with skin of head, and six separate skulls, all from Chapada. 62. COASSUS SIMPLICICORNIS Illiger. One skin with skeleton ; one skin with skull; three skins and three skulls, all from Chapada. QUADRUMANA. CEBIDAE. 63. MYCETES SENICULUS Linn. Very abundant at Sao Joao do Monte Negro. Varying in color from bright rusty red, to brownish black with dark rusty crown. No specimens from Chapada. 64. MYCETES BELZEBUL Linn. Three specimens from Chapada Matto Grosso. The skull of this species does not differ from that of the last. The hair differs, especially on the head. It is procumbent and radiates in all direct- ions from a point on the middle line posterior to the ears. It points directly forwards on the crown and front to the base of the nose, and anterior eyebrows, when it is met by hair directed upwards and backwards, forming a low tranverse elevation bordering the front, much as described by Slack in the M. niger. In the M. seniculus, the hair of the crown is erect and woolly from front to rear. 65. CEBUS CIRRHIFER. G. St. Hilaire. One adult (female) from Sao Joao. 66. CEBUS ELEGANS G. St. Hilaire. Abundant at Chapada. In the males there is generally a low sagittal crest, the glabella is swollen, and the frontal profile is convex. In the females there is no sagittal crest, the glabella is less swollen and the frontisless convex. In the specimen above referred to, the C. cirrhifer, the characters of the skull are like those of the female C. elegans, but the front is flatter in profile. SYNOPSIS. The species obtained by the Naturalist expedition are distributed as follows, as to numbers and localities : Total. Sao Joao. Chapada. Mérsapiaike csi eas 4 4 Cbiroptera....-. over eere eo 9 3 "o Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 149 ROGGE sus. Ai eo wees 17 9 IO ROPING S s aes ea os ek RU 9 3 9 A a aaa PREE P Va as ROLES 16 6 12 Peo, a ene Rakes s 6 2 6 MIURGTUMENS «ens 6 SPR sae Sra 4 2 2 65 26 49 In the following lists the species of Sao Joao and Chapada are compared : SAO JOAO. CHAPADA. MARSUPIALIA, tn marsupialis azare. Didelphys marsupialis azare. is auritus Philander pusillus. Chironectes memina. EDENTATA. Myrmecophaga jubaca. Myrmecophaga bivittata. " bivittata. T ? sellata, Xenurus gymnurus. Xenurus gymnurus. eco AMispá Dasypus sexcinctus. Priodontes maximus Tatusia peba. Tatusia peba. t lolepis. RODENTIA. Sciurus estuans. Cricetus sp. Dactylomys amblyonyx, Sphingurus sericeus. Cælogenys paca. Dasyprocta azare. Hydrocherus capybara. Cavia aperea. Sciurus variabilis, Cricetus sp. Cricetus sp. Cricetus sp. Sphingurus prehensilis. Cælogenys paca. Dasyprocta azare. en Lepus brasiliensis. CHIROPTERA. Phyllostoma hastatum. Carollia brevicauda. A —— planirostris. bilobatus. ampyrops lineatus. paci lilium. 150 Mammatia of Southern Brazil. Desmodus rufus. Nyctinomus brasiliensis, Vesperus arge. CARNIVORA. Canis entrerianus. Canis cancrivorus. T etu ` | Galictis vittata. Galera barbara. Lutra platensis. Lutra platensis. Procyon cancrivorus. emer Procyon rufus. Cercoleptes caudivolvulus. Uncia onca ee eee, Felis pardalis Felis geoffroyi. “ geoffroyi. "o faguarondi * Óraccata DIPLARTHRA. Tapirus americanus. mei e labiatus. Dicotyles labiatus. tajassu. ‘* tajassu. Cariacus campestris. Coassus rufus. "o simplicicornis. QUADRUMANA. Cebus cirrhifer. Cebus elegans. AMycetes seniculus. Mycetes belzebul. From the preceding lists, it appears that but ten species were procured at both localities. Of the thirty-one genera obtained at Chapada sixteen were found at Sao Joao. Of the twenty-three genera found at Sao Joao, sixteen were obtained at Chapada. especial peculiarity of the Sao Joao collection may be mentioned the absence of the water opposum, the tayra, the six banded and giant armadillos, and of all the leaf-nosed bats. Also the absence of most of the cats, including the jaguar; also the absence of the deer. The Chapada collection lacks the crab-eating raccoon, and the gray coati; the capybara and the wild guinea-pig ; and the bats of the families Emballonuride and Vespertilionide. Editors Table. 151 EDITORS’ TABLE. EDITORS: E, D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. At the last meeting of the Society of Charities and Corrections the Rev. Oscar C. McCulloch, of Indianapolis, read a paper on the Tribe of Ishmael, in which he detailed the result of his studies on the pauper families of Indianapolis. The story he tells is a sad one. It is the history of generation after generation of paupers and criminals, of people sunk so low as not to have the slightest aspiration for a better life, who obey Scriptural injunctions only in that they are fruitful and multiply their vicious kind. Five gene- rations of thirty families are traced, and of all the individuais whose records are worked out, but one ever emerged into a respectable life. This Tribe of Ishmael is but a repetition of the Jukes family, but it brings again to prominence a problem with which society has to deal. What shall be done to check the growth of these and sim- ilar parasites? They are sunk toa depth where no church can reach them ; the so-called charity which gives to beggars and which patronizes the halt and maimed but encourages them in their pres. ent life ; our present laws having no terrors for them, for imprison- ment means but a winter of warmth, comfort and idleness. Were pauperism and beggary the only sins of these people then existence might be endured, but in the case of both the Jukes family and this tribe of Ishmael—and the same is true ofall other similar families— every species of crime from murder down has been perpetrated by Its members, What can society do to protect itself against these pests? isa eestor which must be answered. Growth of cities means a dis- proportionate increase of this undesirable class. An answer seems difficult; in fact, we can only see one direction from which relief can come. The teaching of evolution must be recognized and incor- porated in our laws. Evolution teaches that variation, the influ- ence of environment, and adaptability to changed conditions are ‘mportant factors in organic life, but it also teaches that these are T m perpetuated by heredity. It is this aspect of evolution dec VAS point to the answer. The children of these people in- ede k E à good trait, but are heirs to all that is vicious and eir parents. They are begotten in criminality, nur- 152 Recent Literature. tured in vice, and their maturity is crime. Our good people should refrain from indiscriminate alms giving, for this is offering a premium foracontinuance of present conditions, and our laws should recognize the existence of heredity and make provision whereby the reproduction of this inherited vice could be checked. Such laws may seem harsh, but consider for a moment the saving to the country had the notorious Margaret, the mother of the Jukes family, been imprisoned so that none of her illegitimate chil- dren could have come into the world. Such a step would have been deemed cruel, but in the light of what we now know of the crimi- nality of her descendants, society would have been justified in such extreme measures. The record of her children is but a continuous account of murder, highway robbery, burglary and prostitution, while the cost of prosecuting these criminals mounts up into the hundreds of thousands of dollars. RECENT LITERATURE. THOMAS’ CATALOGUE OF MARSUPIALIA AND MoNOTREMATA.— This publication is very timely, as it places in the hands of students the means of becoming acquainted with the characters of the species of the important orders named, at a time when it is important that they should have the knowledge. The Marsupialia are ar- ranged in six families, of which three are referred to the Diproto- dontia, and three to the Polyprotodontia. The species number as follows : Diprotodontia. Polyprotodontia. Macropodide, 56 Peramelidz, 14 Phalangeridz, 34 Dasyuridz, 26 Phascolomyidze, 3 Didelphidz, 24 Totals. 93 Totals. 64—157 1 Catalogue of the Marsupialia and Monotremata in the Collection of the Brit- ish Museum. By Oldfield Thomas, 1888, pp. 401 ; xxviii plates. Recent Literature. 153 We have fault to find with the lettering and other signs affixed to the paragraphs of the analytical keys of the various divisions. Were it not for the indenting and correct ranging of these paragraphs, their relations to each other could be only discovered by a consider- able study of the signs affixed, and then many students, we suspect, would be hopelessly confused. The same system or wmsystem has been adopted by Mr. Dobson in his catalogue of Chiroptera. It is to be sincerely hoped that in future the taxonomic keys may be ar- ranged on the usual plan, such as for instance is employed by Mr. Boulenger in his catalogues of the Batrachia and Reptilia. The twenty-eight plates are a welcome aid to the study, but the dental cusps are often poorly represented. THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE CRINOIDEA appears now to have reached sound and rational basis as is clearly set forth in a recent important contribution’ to Crinoid morphology by Messrs. Charles Wachmuth and Frank Springer. Although the sub- ject is approached chiefly from a palzontological standpoint, mor- phological deductions derived from the latest researches among living crinoids have been duly considered. The systematic arrangement of the Crinoidea as indicated is of not less supreme interest to the paleontologist than to the biologist ; and the classification as now proposed appears to be practically in agreement with the views of Dr. P. Herbert Carpenter, the distinguished English authority on recent T axocrinus. It is now clearly demonstrated that in this genus, and doubtless in the Ichthyocrinide generally, the mouth is open, and surrounded by five conspicuous oral plates, as in the recent genera the orals are the hitherto denominated “ central” and four “ proxim- ate “plates. The plan upon which modern crinoids are constructed is therefore one of high antiquity, dating back geologically to the Lower Silurian. The Crinoidea are thus divisible into I. Camarata. um ^ Inadunata, comprising the branches Larviformia and Fis- ulata, 3. Articulata, including Ichthyocrinidz and possibly Uintacrinus and Thaumatocrinus. . 4. Canaliculata, including most of the mesozoic and recent crinoids.—C. R. K. 1 Discovery of the ventral structure of Zuxocrinus and Haplocrinus, and conse- quent modifications in the classification of the Crinoidea.—By Charles Mir eoe ia, Now, springer. Proceedi h atural Sciences. iladel- phia, Nov. 27, 1598. ings of the Academy N 154 Recent Books and Pamphlets. FRITSCH AND KAFKA’sS CRUSTACEA OF THE BOHEMIAN CRETA- crous.*—This elaborate folio memoir of 54 pages is richly illus- trated by ten plates printed in colors and 72 woodcuts, giving both views of the actual specimens and what — to be excellent re- storations of some of the more interesting form Beginning with the cirripedia of the "o deenieme chalk, remarks are made on the species, most of which have been previously described by the authors, but the new details and excellent figures add much to our previous knowledge. The same may besaid of the Ostracoda which are illustrated by 20 figures in the text. The richest material consisted of the remains of Decapoda, especially the Macrura, and this is the most valuable and interesting portion of the work. Some of the new material in this order belongs to the Palinuride. Our knowledge of the extinct Mesosoic family Gl hæidæ, so well de- veloped in Belgium by Winckler, is farther extended by the full ac- counts of the remains ed Glyphaea bohemica Fr., the figures including a restoration. t amily, Astaco omorpha Enoploclytia leachii Mantell is fully cito with dorsal and side views, and the text contains a very detailed description. The same may be said of Schititeria tetracheles Fr., and of the species of Hoploparia, Para- tribution to our knowledge of extinct Crustacea.—P. RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. American Society of Naturalists. Vol. I. Part Fifth. Boettger, Oscar.—Aufzahlung einger neu erworbener Reptilien und Batrachier aus Ost-Asien. Beitrag zur Reptilfauna des obern Beni in Bolivia. Bericht Senckenberg Naturforsch. Gess. Frankfurt, 1887-'88. Both from the author. Brinton, D. G.—Obituary notice of Philip H. Law, Esq. Read before the American Philolosophical Society, Oct. 19, 1888. From the author. Goode, G. Brown.—The P of American Science in the Third Century. From the au Buller, Walter jx of the Collection of New Zealand the Manor House. Letcombe Regis, Wantage. Petherick and Company, London. *Die Crustaceen der Bóhmischen Kreide formation. Von Dr. Ant. Fritsch und Jos. Kafka. Prag., 188 Recent Books and Pamphiets. 155 Clark, Wm. B.—Discovery of Fossil-bearing Cretaceous Strata in Anne Arundel and Prince George Counties, Maryland. Reprint from Johns Hopkins University Circulars. No. 69. From the author. Cooke, W. W.—Report of Bird Migration in the Mississippi Valley in the years 1884 and 1885. Edited and revised by Dr. C. Hart Merriam. From U.S. Agricultural Dept. Dawson, George M.—Glaciation of British Columbia. be has from Geological Magazine, Aug. 1888. From the aut Dawson, William f.—Specimens of Eozoon canadense dud their Geological and other Relations. From the author Dollo, L.—Achenosaurus multidens. Extrait du Bulletin de la Société Belge de Géologie, Tome IL, 1888. From the author Dollo, Louis.—Sur la AR a du “ Trochanter Paidat " des Dinosauriens. Extrait du Bulletin Scientifique de la France et de la Belgique. Doua, G—Note Erpetologiche. From the author. Dugés A.— Description of Storeria dekayi, var anomala. Extract from Proceedings of U.S. Nat. Museum, 1888. From the author. Ganong, W. F.—The Echinodermata of New Brunswick. Extract from Bulletin to New Brunswick Natural History Society. From the aut Gilbert, G. K. Erin of Level of the Great Lakes. Reprint from the Forum. Vol. V., 1888. From the author Gould, George M.—Is the Electric Light Tijani to the Eyes. Reprint from the Medical News, Dec., 1 The Psychological Influence of Errors of Refraction ind of their Correction. Reprint from the Medical and Surgical Reporter, Sept., 1888, From the author. Li eic Instinct. Reprint from Progress, Oct., 1888. From ea Henshall, James A.—Contributions to the Ichthyology of Ohio. —Some Peculiarities of the Ova of Fishes. Reprints from the J BS d Cin. Society Natural History, 1888. Both from the * mud Hicks, Den E £.—Irrigation in Nebraska. Extract from Bulletin of Nebraska Agricultural Station. Vol. I. From the author. James, Joseph F—The Ivorydale Well in Mill Creek Valley. An Ancient Channel of the Ohio River at Cincinnati. Reprints rom the Journal of the Cin. Society Natural History, 1888. Jordan, David Starr.—Manual of the Vertebrates. Revised and enla arged. From the publisher 156 Recent Books and Pamphlets. Keyes, gil R.—On the Forms of the Lower Coal-Measures of Central Iowa.—Descriptions of Two New Fossils from the De- vonian of Iowa. Reprint from the Proceedings of the Phila. Academy of Natural Sciences. From the author. Lord, William R.—Homing of Dogs. From the author, Langley, S. P.—Energy and Vision. Reprint from American Jour- nal of Science. Vol. XXXVI., Nov., 1888. From the author. Lydekker, R.—Catalogue of Fossil Reptilia, &c. Extract from the Geological Magazine, Oct., 1888. From the author. Macoun, John.—Catalogue of Canadian Plants, Part IV.—Endogens. From the Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Canada Le Marquis de Saporta.—Origine Paléontologogique des Arbres cul- tivées ou utilisés par l'homme. From the author. Mitchell, Henry.—On the JR Wen of the Sea through the New York Harbor. From U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Miller, Max F.—Science of Thought. From the publishers. Newberry J. S—The Coals of Colorado. Ext. from the School of - Mines Quarterly, Vol. IX, No. 4, July, 1888. From the author. Orr, Henry.—A. Contribution to the Embryology of the Lizard. eprint from the Journal of Morphology, Vol. I., No. 2, Dec., 1887, From the author. Hillel No. 2, Bulletin No. 3.—Ohio Agricultural Experiment Sta- oe Wes Fair field.—Additional Observations upon the Struc- ture and Classification of Mammalia. Ext. from Proceedings of Phila. Academy Nat. Science, Oct., 1888. From the author. Packard, A. S.—Aspects of the Body in Vertebrates and Arthro- po ods. Reprint from Am. Nat., Sept., 1884. From the author. Penna. State College Agricultural Station, Bulletin No. 3, Bulletin No. 4. Penn Geological Survey, Atlas Bucks and Montgomery —Atlas Eastern Middle Anthracite Field, Part II.— Atlas Western Middle Anthracite Field, Part II. —Atlas North- ern Anthracite Field, Part II.—Atlas Annual Report, 1886, Part III.—Annual Report, 1886, Part IV. and Atlas. From the Survey. Pennsylvania State College Agricultural Station. Bulletin No. 5, 1888. Report of the Pennsylvania State College for the year, 1887. Part II. Report of Trustees of Peabody Museum of Am. Archeology and Ethnology, V. IV, No. 1. Recent Books and Pamphlets. 157 fost Edward B.—The True Teeth and the Horny Plates of nithorhyncus. Reprint from the Quarterly Journal of Mi- istic opi Science. From the author. Preiiminary List of the Lower Crustacea of Staten Island. From the Proceedings of the Natural Science Association of Staten land. Read, M. C.—Archaology of Ohio. From the author. Renard, A.—Recherches sur la Composition et la Structure des Phyllades Ardennais. Extrait du Bulletin du Musée Royal d'Histoire Naturelle de Belgique. Tome III. From the author. Riley, Charles V.—Report of the oer ae for the year 1887. (with illustrations). From the author Seeley, H. G.—On the Dinosaurs of the Menta Beds.—On a Sacrum of a Bird from the Wealden of Brook. Reprints from the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, May, 1887. On the Nature and Limits of Reptilian Characters in Mammal- ican Teeth—Researches on the Structure, Organization, and Classification of the Fossil Reptilia—On the Classification of Fossil Animals commonly named Dinosauria—On the bone in Crocodilia which is commonly regarded as the Os Pubis, and its representative among the Extinct Reptilia—On Parieasau- rus bombidens (Owen), and the significance of its affinities to Amphibians, Reptiles, and Mammals. Reprint from Proceed- ings of the Royal Society. Vol. 42, 43, 44. From the author. — vei C.—Observations on the Female Generative Ap- paratus of Hyena crocuta. Ext. Proceedings, Cis "inus of Natural Science. June, 1888. From the aut Slade, D. D.—On certain Vacuities or deficiencies in the Crania of Mammals. Bulletin of Harvard Museum of Comparative Zo- ology, Vol XIIL, No. 8. From the author Smiley, err W.—Altruism Considered Boe From the author Smock, John C.—Building Stone in the State of New York. Bulle- tin of the New York State Museum of Natural History. No. 3. March, 1888. From the author dg Edgar W.— Geology in our “Prades Schools. Reprint m the American Geologist, May, 1888. From the author. Tyndali, John—Diamagnetism and Magneto-crystallic Action. Ap- pleton and Company, New York. Tyrrell, J. B. —Report on Portions of Northern Alberta, Assiniboia and PS Part E., Annual Report 1886, Canadian Geol. Surve 158 General Notes. Tuckerman, Se eee Note on TZenia saginata. From the aut Vaillant, Léon M. pur POR pic pen uunE | sur l'antomie de : Anat des lugubris Hallowell.—Remarques sur le genre Ripistes de- Dujardin. Extraits du Bulletin de js: Société Phübinstique de Paris, 1885—1886. Vanfleet, W.—Some Native Birds for Little Folks. From the pub- lishers Von Klein, Carl H.—Address on Rhinology. Reprint from the Journal of the American Medical Association. From the author Ward, Lester F.—Our Better Halves. Reprint from The Forum, Vol. VI. From the author Civil Service Reform. estat from The Historical American, July, 1888, Vol. I. No. I.—What Shall the Public Schools Teach ? Reprint from The Forum. Both from the author. Weithofer K. Ant.—Einige Bemerkungen über Carpus der Pro- boscidier. From the author Woodward, A. Smith.—A Comparison of the Cretaceous Fish-fauna ount Lebanon with that of the English Chalk. Ext. from the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. On the Genus Synechodus.—Note on the Occurrence of a Species of Onycho- dus in the Lower Old Red Sandstone Passage Beds of Sudbury, Herefordshire. Extracts from the Geological Magazine. From the author. GENERAL NOTES. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL! AFRICA, THE WESTERN SAHARA.—As Spain has recently an- nexed the African coast between Morocco and Cape Blanco, with an indefinite extension inland, the geography and ethnography of these regions is naturally prominent in Spanish geographical papers. Sres. Coello, Cervera, Quiroga, and Costa have recently explored this region, especially that part known as the Adrar Temar whichis a raised rd or meseta containing an area equal to a sixth of that of Spain. The mesa terminates in a point towards the south and is crossed here and there by ranges of hills, which have a slighter slope in its 1 Edited by W. N. Lockington, Philadelphia, Pa. Geography and Travel. 159 eastern than in its western portion. In the centre opens the princi- pal valley, that of Atar, which runs from north-west to south-east, and is the most thickly-populated part of the oasis. The greatest height of these hills is not more than 125 metres and most are muc lower. The shifting sand-dunes which surround the whole of the oasis have penetrated between the two principal ranges of hills until they reach the walls of the towns of Uadan and Xingueti. The hills of Adar contain pines (P. maritimus) and several other kinds of trees, with spiny shrubs‘and herbage which grows even among the sand. Gazelles and other antelopes, foxes, hares, porcupines, etc., are among the wild animals. The natives have herds of oxen and buffaloes and flocks of sheep and goats; they cultivate wheat, barley, millet, sorgum, maize, cucumbers, etc., and tobacco; but have no olives, figs, or oranges. Their principal article of food is the date. Everywhere in the Sahara there is water beneath the sur- face, often at a slight depth. The oasis is salubrious; and the tem- perature varies from 4 to 40 degrees, centigrade. The inhabitants of Adrar are Berbers, and some preserve the type tolerably pure, POT and religious head of this peopleis a hereditary sovereign, but the real power in each tribe is in the hands of an assembly of notables. A hundred slaves form the bodyguard of the king, who resides in Atar. Most ofthe natives belong to the mussulman sect of the ^ie whose religious head or Great Makkaddem resides at adan Xingueti, the most populous town of the oasis, contains from 3 to 4,000 souls; Atar 2,000 to 2,500; Uyeft about 1,500, while Uadan, which in the XVI. century was the capital, has greatly decayed. There is another Adrar, the Adrar Sutuf, about which less is known. The district next the coast and between the two Adrars is known as Tiris, and its inhabitants are shepherds and guides of caravans. In this country there are some curious rocks that are wider at the top than at the bottom, looking like basaltic monuments. At some points the basalt is formed into great arcades like those of an aque- duct. The districts called Skarna and Semmur form the drainage area of the Seguia-el- Hamra, which may be called a river though it has no perennial flow. Yet the Seguia is never entirely dry and there must be springs at certain points; it has many affluents, and the whole basin is humid and very productive. The indolent in- habitants are more given to the chase than to cultivation. ; e most powerful tribes are those of the Erguibat, who reside in the upper part of the river. This tribe sends caravans in a 160 General Notes. HE Oasis oF Ficuic.—France has intended to annex the oasis of Fizuig, which is situated near Algeria, south of the mountains of Maiz and Beni-Smir. This territory is in Morocco and pays a small tribute to the Sultan, but is practically independent. The people are freebooters and their excursions have given the French govern- ment the pretext for claiming damages against the Sultan of Morocco. The last governor of Figuig was a fanatic Musselman and stirred up against the infidel rulers of Algeria all the Arabs under his juris- diction. Three employes of the Algerian government were taken prisoners, and the French, after occupying with their forces the rail- road fom Saida to Ain Sefra, have procured the dismissal of the governor of Figuig. GEOGRAPHICAL NEWs.— The Philippine Islands, although prob- ably the most valuable of Spain's remaining possessions, and although their productions are exceedingly rich and varied, have not hitherto attracted emigrants from the mother country. It is now proposed to choose for colonization the Island of Paragua, not more than a thousandth part of which is at present occupied by settlers, the re- ae being Ee exclusive property of the State. The forest riches of Paragua are immense, the species including some that are not E in the en of the archipelago. Among these is Fragosa peregrina. Without the province of Algeria or the protectorate of Tunis, the French “colonies” or possessions, scattered over the four quarters of the world, contain an area of more than two millions of square kilometres, and a population of rather more than twenty-two millions, without including that of the Congo and Gaboon territory. The colony of Senegal contains about 805,000 square kilometres and that north of the Congo at least 600,000. GEOLOGY AND PALZEONTOLOGY. THE VERTEBRATE FAUNA OF THE Equus BEkps.—While the Equus Beds are found at various localities in North America, the greater number of characteristic species of Vertebrata have been ob- tained in three regions. irst, the Oregon Desert; second the Country of the Nueces, 3. W. Texas ; third the Valley of Mexico. I give lists of the species found at these s and their localities. Recent species are indicated b 1. The species found in the Oregon Desert are the following: MAMMALIA, Holomeniscus vitakertanus Cope. hesternus Leidy. Geology and Paleontology. Eschatius eee Cope. 7 ope. Equus major Dus 3 rh Ai Leidy. celsus Leidy. Elephas p primigenius Blum, Cants latrans Sa Lutra ipiscinaria Leidy. Free (8 Pg “ Casto Arvic T) homomys talpoides Licht. o Mylodon Men ipe . AVES, Podiceps era Lawr. cali, f, Podilymbus S odiceps.* Graculus macropus Cope. A nser Aypsibatus Cope. canadensis L. * — gambeli.* nigricans Lawr,* [11 4“ And numerous other species. PISCES. Leucus altarcus. Cope. Myloleucus gibbarcus Cope. Cliola angustarca Cope. Catostomus labiatus Ayres.* batrachops Cope. IL From S. W. Texas we have the following species. Equus barcenei Cope. L1 ae cre. pe. sc gt ica, Blum. a Glyptodon petaliferus Cope. Cistudo marnochii Cope. III. From the Valley of Mexico the following have been recorded.? ! See American Naturalist, 1885, p. 1208 ? Proceeds. Amer. Philos, Society, 1884, p. 1. 162 i General Notes. Bos latifrons Harl. Eschatius conidens Cope. Holomeniscus sp. minor. ve hesternus Leidy. as sp ? californicus Leidy. Platygonus compressus Lec. Equus barcenaet Cope. " excelsus Leidy. tau Owen. af * crenid idens Cope. Elephas primigenius Blum. Dibelodon shepardi Leidy. Canis sp. Ursus sp. - Glyptodon ? petaliferus Cope. Mylodon sp. IV. The following species were derived from a locality in Whitman Co., Tacoma (or Washington). Mylodon sp. Taxidea americana* ( T. sulcata Cope.) Equus sp. Holomeniscus sp. Holomeniscus sp. " ALCES BREVITRABALIS, Sp. nov. This deer is represented by the basal part of the antler of three large and one small specimens. "They agree with those of the genus Alces in the absence of a brow-antler, and the flattening of the beam preparatory to a palmation. The palmate part of the horn is lost from all the specimens. It was probably not nearly so extensive as in Alces macAlis since its base is not wider than that of the bez- antler. The beam is short, and becomes rapidly much compressed in a plane transverse to the axis of the skull (judging by the obli- quity of the base), which is also the plane in which the equally com- pressed bezantler is given off, in the external direction. The sur- face is not very rough, nor are the tubercles of which the burr consists, very large. A few nutritious grooves are well-marked. The external edge of the beam becomes truncated towards the base, and the section of the latter is a spherical triangle, transversely placed, with the external apex more or less obtuse. Measurements of No. I. M. Diameters at base of beam i anteroposterior..... ... .043 DEVOTEE is? CA ce os .058 Length to base of bezantler... ...... one Cece skouiae -100 N Ou. 2. Long diameter of bezantler at base..... .045 Geology and Paleontology. 163 In No. 2 a tuberosity on the external face of the beam a short distance above the base, represents the brow-antler. As compared with the year-old moose of which a figure i is given by Prof. Baird (Rept. U.S. Pacific R. R. Exped. IX, p. 632), these horns differ in the relatively shorter and more compressed beam, with the less expansion of the portion immediately distad to the bez- antler The specimens of this species are all mr Whitman rd Tacoma (Washington), and were obtained by Dr. J. L. Wort ALCES SEMIPALMATUS Sp. nov This species of elk is known to me from a basal portion of a horn of a larger individual, and the corresponding part of a smaller one. The larger specimen is considerably smaller than the adult of the A. brevitrabalis, representing a species of about the size of the black-tailed deer (C. macrotis), while the latter is as large as the SUS. tively and absolutely longer beam, and the relatively greater expan- sion at the base of the bezantler. The general characters are other- wise much as in that species. The beam is compressed, with the external face truncate, and the bezantler directed outwards in the several tubercles on the external border. Unfortunately the beam is so split that its transverse diameter can be only surmised, from the curves of its surface. | Measurements. M. Dind at loss oL biam | anteroposterior........ ... .OIS to .020 . CANSEI 5 liue mA rare .030 to .035 Length of beam to base of bezantler............ ...... Long diameter of bezantler at base. ................... .035 Besides the greater length of the beam, its expansion near the base of the bezantler and away from it, is greater than in the larger species above described, and the concavity of the surface is wider. From Whitman Co. , Tacoma, Dr. G. M. Sternberg, U. S. A. Te ENSIFER, sp. n ov. and not very long, and is accompanied by a twin process at its base, with which it is united by a horizontal lamina or palmation. The beam is, like that x the species already described, compressed, with a flattening of one edge, that immediately above the brow-antler. A similar marflcsid characterizes the base of the external edge, 164 General Notes. which is not wider than the internal base, the reverse of what is seen in the Alces brevitrabalis, The beam soon becomes compressed, especially on the antero- external edge (above the brow-antler), and in the specimen where it is best preserved, it is quite acute. In neither specimen is there any indication of a bezantler. The longer specimen may be possibly young, but its surface is strongly keeled and furrowed. The burr consists of acute edges connecting sharp points. The other specimen is smoother and rather more robust. It shows no indication of the expansion of the species referred to Alces, which it would do were it proportioned as in the A. drevitra- balis. Measurements. No. r. M. Does ut hate of hinn bera eae ims TEU qoa v e 022 e Tal CUI COMES POI ee. ive 035 Estimated length of ‘cuties Mitre wed Wa ree i) .040 Diameters beam .ogo M. from but 1 ——— ES pm t Verse... 4v. .025 From Whitman Co., Tacoma, Mr. C. H. Sternberg. 'This species is referred to Cariacus, although the position and direction of the brow-antler are different from those of any known species of the genera. I suppose it to i one of the Telemetarcapi solely from its resemblance to the Alces here described. Several species have been found in localities not far removed er those mentioned, and in beds possibly of the same geological As it is not yet possible to determine with accuracy the ages of these fossils, I only refer to them. Such are an Aphelops from the valley of Toluca, Men ; and Mastodon americanus and M. serridens from S. W. Texas. The close paratteltem between the faunze at the three localities is seen in the probable and ascertained identity of severa the listsof each. The following species have been found in the two regions most remote from each other, the valley of Mexico and the Oregon Desert. schatius conidens Cope. Holomeniscus hesternus Leidy. Equus excelsus Leidy. Elephas primigenius Blum Of these, the " excelsus, and Elephas primigenius have been found in S. W. T ese species, with the Aguus barcenat, E. gu crenidens, and probati) the Glypiodon petaiferus are common to the last named locality and the valley of Mex orizon to which these beds shoul] be referred was held by King to be the Upper Pliocene. I have coincided with this opinion on palzontologic grounds, since the fauna presents a much greater diversity from that now inhabiting North America than that of the Plistocene beds of Europe exhibit when compared with the existing Geology and Paleontology. 165 . THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF SEVILLE.—The city of Seville is situated in the alluvial plain of the Guadalquivir, which every few years, at the height of the winter rains, rises sufficiently high to flood the streets. On both sides of these alluvial flats is a greater part of the formations. are either Paleozoic or eruptive. Granites, gneiss, syenite, diorite, diabase, and porphyry cover exten- Sive areas, there are patches of Carboniferous strata, and a consider- able extent of. Cambrian. At Pefiaflar, a few miles above Seville, the mountains (Sierra Morena) come near to the river, and in the hollows are deposits of gold-bearing clay, which is supposed to be derived from the diorite and diabase above, though it is mingled with material from the archaic limestone and mica-schists. A section at this spot shows the limestone interrupted by two broad bands of diorite, also with lines of phosphorites, a thin vein of magnetic iron, and two bands o mica-schists. Near the Guadalquivir there is a great fault, which brings the Miocene suddenly to the surface. The upper portion of the Miocene is conglomerate, the lower molasse. Two wide bands of amphibolite intersect the Miocene. On the south of the Guadal- 166 General Notes. quivir a second fault, affecting only the Miocene, occurs.— W. JV. Locking ton. AN ATTEMPT TO COMPUTE GEOLOGICAL Epocus.—The pre- cession of equinoxes and the periodical change on the eccen- tricity of the terrestrial orbit are reflected on the geological series of strata, and are the key to the calculation of the duration of epochs. The precession causes the winter and summer to be alternately longer and shorter. In the semiperiod when winter is longer than summer, the distinction between inland and coast climate becomes more prominent. The currents of the atmosphere become stronger, and in consequence of that, the ocean currents increase in strength, and that again reacts upon the climate. The periodical change of the climate produced by the precession is not great, but it is sufficient to imprint itself in the alternation of beds, and in the formaticn of beach-lines, terraces, series of moraines, etc. To each period of precession corresponds one alternation of strata. The eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit is periodically changeable. ts mean value rises and falls for a period of about 17 millions of years, with 16 oscillations. Such a rise and fall I term a cycle, and each cycle is, in the calculated curve, composed of 16 arcs. The tidal wave, which is the most powerful agent in altering the sidereal day and in lengthening it, rises and falls in some measure with the eccentricity. It so exceeds the other forces that act in altering , the length of the day, that the day steadily becomes lengthened, on the average, more quickly in the middle of the cycles, when the mean value of the eccentricity is greatest, and more slowly at the limit between them, when the eccentricity is the least; and in respect of the respective arcs with increasing speed during falling eccen- tricity. form. But according as the sidereal day becomes lengthened, and the equatorial regions of the earth increase in weight; a steadily increasing strain acts outward towards higher latitudes, and the strain increases until the resistance is overcome. We must also bear in mind that forces too slight to produce a sudden change in à solid body, may still produce a change of form when they act through long periods. "Therefore the lengthening of the sidereal day acts not only on the seas, but also on the form of the solid globe. The earth approaches steadily more and more to the spheriform, but the solid crust is more sluggish in its movement than the seas, which immediately accommodate themseives to the altered time of rotation. As the motive force of these movements of seas and solid earth is periodically changeable, according to the eccentricity of the earth's orbit; these movements take place also, periodically quicker and slower. And as the seas always accommodate them- selves to the forces before the dry land does, it is likely that the PLATE II, Eccentricity of the earth's orbit, calculated according to Stockwell’s formula by R.W.Mc. Farland (Amer. Journ. of Science, ser. 3 vol. 20. New Haven 1880). Sic ential EBORE + 0,15 mill. : -115mill. Qo hsomin : , €42gmüL | = : ,* feomil : : Qo 005m : ; : Cycle Ill. 19" . n" | 0 06 2° ad — 0 0$ € o 09 a < dem A 0.02 0 9: +0 75 null + 025ml. ; Hi I E acm CL c 1 r P Bi 0,25 mill 4 Qoa CAEN 1 4 i Geology and Paleontology. 167 beach-lines come to oscillate up and down once, for each rise and fall of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. That is the case in re- spect of both the respective arcs of the curve and of the cycles. On such a cycle “the mean level of the sea” rises and falls once in 16 oscillations. The sidereal day has (cfr. Damine) become several hours longer. It is therefore probable that there must have accumulated such a strain in the mass of earth, that a slight increase of strain would be sufficient to cause changes of form at the weakest points. It is also likely that those partial changes in the solid mass of the earth must occur, especially at times of great eccentricity, or some time after such an occurrence, when the motive force increases quickest. The change in the tidal-wave, caused by the variation of the eccentricity, is presumed to be sufficiently great to explain the dis- placement of the beach-lines. A few metres of vertical displacement of the beach-line is sufficient to produce in the deep basins, an alteration of many metres of thick marine and fresh water beds. And as regards the changes in the solid body of the Earth, we must recollect that the series of beds is not complete at any single spot. In other words the oscillations were not general to such an extent that they were contemporaneous everywhere. nly by partial changes of form sometimes here, sometimes there, always at the weakest point in each age, has the solid earth approached to the spheriform. To each arc of the curve there corresponds, therefore, tions of the beach-lines or 16 geological stages. In each of these stages there are as many alternations of strata as there are preces- 168 General Notes. sions in the corresponding arc, and the mean sea level rises with the mean eccentricity in the middle of the cycles, and falls at the limit between them, and hand in hand with the mean sea level, rises and falls also, the temperature in the higher latitudes. The doctrine here discussed agrees with Lyell’s great principle. Slow changes in the length of the winter and summer and in the force of the tidal-wave, produce periodical changes of climate, and displacements of the beach-lines. The earth changes its form globe, its life.—4. Blyit in Christinia Videnkabs Selskabs forhandlingar, 1889, JVo. 1. THE WESTERN SAHARA.—According to the data brought together by Sr. C. G. Toni, in the ZL’ Esplorazione Commerciale, from the ex- plorations of Spanish and German travelers, the western coast of Africa consists of a Cretaceous mass which is continued from the Cre- taceous nucleus of Morocco and terminates at Cape Blanco.*In imme- diate contact with the Cretaceous band of the coast and immediately above it, exists a thick deposit of desert sands, which covers all the subjacentformations. Beneath this sand through a large portion of its extent, rocks of the Devonian period are believed to extend and crop out in a few points. The hills of the oasis of Adrar Temar contain trachyte and have some peaks of granite and basalt. These hills also contain quartz, marble and various siliceous and ferrigen- ous rocks, In the “Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, Geologie und Pale- ontologie, Jahrgang, 1888, I Band; drittes Heft," Dr. Ferd. Roemer . escribes and figures a new genus of Echinodermata from Texas, to which he gives the name of “ Macraster," and calls the only species Macraster texanus. This fossil has long been familiar to the writer in his stratigraphic investigations in Texas, and it makes a well de- fined horizon near the very top of the immense thickness of lower marine Cretaceous in Texas, and does not occur, as Dr. Roemer in- fers from the specimens which accompanied it to Germany, with the Lxogyra texana fauna, a statement which has been verified by Mr. Geo. Stolly, the collector. This fact is important because of the tendency upon the part of European paleontologists to underestimate the value of the stratigraphic differentiation of the Texas Cretaceous. —K. T. Hi. CaNozoic.— Teeth of Ælephas antiquus found at Rinconada, Cantillana and other places in the province of Seville S; ain, to- Mineralogy and Petrography. 169 gether with vertebrz of the same species, are to be found in the mu- seum at the University at the last named place, which museum also contains the mandibles of Zvephas armeniacus found at Almudovar del Rio near Cordoba. GEOLOGICAL News.—GENERAL.—Herr Schliiter in two papers entitled “ Ueber die Vipüitet- Echinodermata der Kreide Nord Americas," and “ Ueber Inoceramus und Cephalopoden der Texan- ischen Kreide, (Niederrhein. Gesselschaft at Bonn, March, 1887), de- scribes Salenia mexicana, from Chihuahua, Mexico, and Inoceramus subquadratus, Ti ire: irrideus, and T. varians from Austin, Texas. The validity of the three e species last mentioned is exceedingly doubtful, as ^ie descriptions give no data sufficient to differentiate them from species already described by Roemer and Shumard. He also asserts that the Austin Cretaceous is equivalent to that of Ems, Germany, a rather indefinite statement since within the corporate limits of Austin is found nearly the whole range of tne comprehen- sive Texas Cretaceous under conditions which could hardly be duplicated —2. T. Zl. MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY} PETROGRAPHICAL NEws.—Messrs. Adams and Lawson * of the Canadian peewee Survey have been examining the rocks associat- ed with the apatite in the Canadian apatite mines, to determine whether or not there is present a rock similar to the scapo- lite-diorite occurring in the N orwegian apatite region. They find that in some instances the Canadian apatite veins occur in a rock, compos- ed essentially of orthoclase and biotite,with or without augite.i.e, either mica-syenite or augite-mica- -syenite. None of the thin sections of the rocks associated with the apatite resemble inthe leastthose of the Nor- wegian rock. At other regions in the Canadian Laure entian, owes pears in some cases to be primary and in “others to be seconda ary. The scapolite is in large colorless grains, many of which show poly- synthetic twinning lamella, which may be due to the remains of the 1 Edited by Dr. W, S. Bayley, wed University, Waterville, Me. * Can. Rec. of Science, 1688, p- 170 General Notes. original plagioclase from which the scapolite was derived. Inclu- sions of dust and fluid cavities are present in the scapolite in large quantities and microlites are developed along its cleavage planes. The rutile occurs in grains closely associated with the scapolite. In several instances boning Bane appear to be made up of lamella, in which, however, there is no alternation of extinction as in the case of polysynthetic airing! The authors call the rock a scapolite-dio- rite. A rock from McDougall, Parry Sound District, contains a basic pagioclase in addition to the minerals mentio ned abov ve, and has been called plagioclase-scapolite-diorite. Schistose rocks with the composition of the last mentioned diorite, have had their schist- isty produced in them by pressure, as is evident from the shattered condition of the plagioclase constituent. The scapolite in these rocks bear no marks of a secondary origin from plagioclase. Augite phases. The former consists of plagioclase, oe pene pies augite, olivine, a little enstatite, magnetites, apatite and titanic i é olivine is a pure hyalosiderite, elongated in the dirention of the c axis, and intergrown with plates of titanic iron in such a way that these are perpendicular both to the cleavage planes and to the long axes of the olivine crystals. Amygadaloidal cavities contain the rock forming minerals together with little crystals of hornblende, and tridymite and masses of hyalite. To account for the existence here would naturally circulate through the amygdaloidal cavities. The écris theory proposed to explain the existence of druse min- erals in cavities of eruptive rocks he dismisses as unsubstantiated by facts. Upon the surface of the glassy dolerite is a crust of altered material with the characters of palagonite.—Loewinson- Lessing * ‘has embraced in a very readable article the views which are gradually becoming prevalent among petrographers in reference to the origin of diabases, gabbros and diorites. After briefly calling attention to the acknowledged differences between the structure of intrusive and effu- sive rocks, and emphasizing the peculiar features of the diabase struct- ure, the author declares that this is the structure ofan effusive rock rather than of an intrusive one. e association of diabases with fossil-bearing tuffs and their gradation into augite-porphyrites leads him to regard them as effusive under water, with the augite-porphy- 1 Streng : Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc. 4 II. p. 181. 2 Bull. Soc. Bélg. d. Géol. II. 1888, p. 8 Mineralogy and Petrograpny. 17L and (4) sub-marine (ophite-diabases ) The diorites he would separate into those which are merely altered phases of dia- base (including the epidiorites and the proterobases), and the pri- mary diorites, which owe their hornblendic constituents to the pres- ence of water vapor in the magma from which they solidified. Since hornblende is found only in those portions of rocks which cooled in the intratellurial period, 7. e., under such pressure as would pre- The quartz of the granite has been enlarged by the addition of new gregate of quartz and feldspar, in which are numerous concentric and radial spherulites, and a well-marked fluidal structure. Inclu- sions of a mica schist, and of a cordierite bearing andalusite contact rock are also found in the same kersantite.— Mr. Cross * communi- cates some brief descriptions of a few of the eruptiverocks occurring in Custer Co., Colorado. The first rock described is a garnetifer- ous rhyolite with a eutaxitic structure. It is remarkable for its sim- ple composition which is as follows: SiO; Al,O; Fe,0O; FeO MnO CaO MgO K,O NaO H:O P,O; 75.20 12.96 .3 .03 .29 .12 8.38 2.02 .58 tr.— 100.22. A sanidine-oligoclase-trachyte possesses the peculiarity of a second- ary porous structure due probably to the alteration of inclusions. Its biotite has yielded augite on its corroded edges. In a syenite Occurring in narrow dykes are irregularly-shaped pieces of biotite, with their greatest development in the direction of their ¢ axes. Peri- dotite and an olivine-augite-diorite are also described. The former contains brown hornblende and hypersthene in about equal propor- tions.—The same writer? announces the discovery of a second oc- currence of phonolite in the United States. The specimen examin- ! R. Pohlmann: Ne i 2 ciL p. 87. : Ps Papers cue dca etc. 1888, II. p. 87. oc. Col. Scient. Soc. 1887. p. 167. 143 General Notes. ed was not foundin place. It was picked up on the Eastern slope of the Hayden divide, between Florissant and Manitou, Colorado. The rock consists of about 25 per cent. of nepheline, of granular sanidine, prismatic particles of a deep green homblende, and little nation o the specimen of altered diabase from Quinnesec, Mich., Cathrein * concludes that the rutile, which Williams * thought to be secondary after ilmenite contains no titanium, and can, therefore, not have given rise to the rutile by alteration. LSA porphyritic horn- blende—andesite from Dewéboyun in Turkey in Asia, is described by Leewinson-Lessing? as composed b large crystals of hornblende and tapradate in a groundmass consisting of plagioclase microlites in a glassy base.—Karl Schneider * has observed the alteration of sphene into calcite and perofskite in a phonolite from Bohemia MINERALOGICAL Nrws.—JVew Minerals, Sperrylite® is the first compound of platinum that has been found asa mineral. It occurs in the Vermillion mine, in Algoma, Ontario, in a layer of loose material on the SES between a vein of gold-bearing quartz and the enclosing rock, in pockets in the decomposed ore. In bot cases it is RAI with copper and iron pyrites. The sperrylite is found in small lustrous grains, which are fragments of crystals on which Mr. Penfield has discovered cubic, dodecahedral, octahedral, and pyritoid faces. The color of the fragments is tin-white an their powder black. Their hardnesss is between 6 and7. Although their specific gravity is 10.602 the grains have a tendency to float upon the surface of water. Analysis yielded : As Sb Pt Rh Pd Fe SnO: 40.98 0.50 52.57 43 tr. .07 4.62 corresponding to Pt As, after allowing for the cassiterite present as an impurity. The artificial compound made by passing vapor of arsenic over red hot platinum possesses many of the properties of Fa ghe substance, the most characteristic of which is instant n upon contact with red hot platinum, with the evolution of init odorless fumes of arsenic, and the production of porous ex- crescences of the color of platinum. The composition of the mineral and its pipers iru relegate it tothe pyrite group.— Attention has already been called to the new mineral? Beryllonite. A full de- scription of its occurrence and properties has recently been given by Messrs. E. S. Dana and Wells! The mineral is found at the ur. f. 6 Amer. Naturalist Nov. 1888, p. 1023. 7 Amer. Jour. Sci., Jan., 1889, Pp, 23. Mineralogy and Petrography. 173 base of the McKean mountain near Stoneham, Maine, in the destritus of what is supposed to be a granitic vein in mica schist. In ad- dition to the facts announced in the former notice it may be added that the mineral is orthorhombic with æ : 0 : c —.5724 : 1 : .5490. It has four cleavages parallel respectively to o P, oo Po, © P3 and c» P% in the order of their perfection. Twins parallel to % P are not rare. It is colorless or yellow and transparent. The plane of its optical axes is o Pæ. Its double refraction in negative and Ha = 72° 47’ for yellow light. The mineral is remarkable for the presence in it of cavities elongated parallel to the ¢ axis. 'Fhese sometimes contain two movable bubbles, and are so numerous as to produce an apparent columnar structure in the mineral.—DadAlite from Bamle, Norway, is described by Brógger and Bäckström’ as a new mineral occurring as a thin yellow crust on massive apatite. This crust is composed of little fibres arranged perpendicular to its surface, which is smooth and lustrous. The mineral is translucent, is optically negative, has a hardness of about 5 and a specific gravity of 3.053. Itisahydrous double phosphate and carbonate of cal- cium (4 Ca; (PO,)2 + 2 Ca CO; + H:O) It gave on analysis : P40; CO; CaO FeO N&O K,0 H:O 38.44 6.29 53.00 .19 .89 iti 1.37 Awaruite is the first nicket-iron compound described that is not of meteoric origin. It occurs in small plates and granules in the sand of George River, in the western part of South Island, New Zealand. Its composition is : Ni Co Fe S Si 67. 19 31.02 N :43 The mother rock of the mineralis a serpentine that has origin- ated from an olivine rock by alteration.— Darapsky? adds Waposite to the list of iron sulphates from Atacama, Chili. It is found in radially fibrous, glistening, brittle, dark-red crystals containing 24.72 percent. of SOs, 30 per cent. of Fe3Os, and 16.43 per cent. of H*O, thus corresponding to the formula Fe (FeO; SG 43, + 10 H30 It is decomposed by water and by acids,—A¢azapilite. Dr. König’ an- nounces the discovery of a new arsenide of calcium and iron from Zacatecas, Mexico. It occurs in dark red and black, probably or- oe crystals, with a hardness of 7 and a specific gravity of +507, MiscELLANEOUS.—Gonnard* describes natural corrosion figures in Barite from the Puy-de-Dóme, that consist of little depressions ! Aefv. Vet.—Akad. Fórhandl, 1888, d. 493. Ref. Am. Jour. Sci. Jan. '89, s Vom Rath: Ref. Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 188ọ, I. E 23. Mi vg d. 1. Soc. Nac. Min., Santiago de Chile, Ref. Neues Jahrb, f. , . P. 33. * Bull. Soc. Fr. d. Min., 1888, XI., p. 269. 174 General Notes. with an orthorhombic or a monoclinic symmetry. ‘Those of the lat- ter kind are triangular in shape and are supposed to owe their abnormal symmetry to twinning.—Mr. Cross has noticed striations in the cubic faces of ga/ena from the Minnie Moore mine, Bellevue, Idaho, which he believes to be due to twinning lamelle produced by the slipping of alternate bands of the mineral along gliding planes, as a consequence of pressure, The twinning planes he in the zone between co O œ and c» O—New methods for the detection of tin. caesium, and rubidium under the microscope are suggested by Streng? The detection of tin depends upon the fact that KCe and Sn Ce yield modified by icositetrahedrons. Caesium and rubidium chlorides with stannous chloride in hyrochloride acid solutions give crystals of the same shape as those of potassium and stannous chlorides, but in rocks. The solution which he proposes for use is made by dissolv- ing four parts of dry aluminium chloride in sixty parts of water and adding to it six parts of haematoxylin campechianum, BOTANY.‘ Two BIG-ROOTED PLANTS OF THE PLAINS.—Now and then some of the plants of the plains present odd characteristics not ob- served in some of the eastern regions. Two species native of the open plains at an altitude of from 2,000 feet above thesea to the base of the Rocky Mountains are remarkable for their enormous roots. One 1 Proc. Col. Scient. Soc. 1887, p. 171. 2 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1888, II., p. 142. 3 Zeits. d. deuts. geol. Gesell. XL., 1888, p. 357. 4 Edited by Chas. E. Bessey, Lincoln, Nebraska. Botany. 175 of these is the Wild Pumpkin (Cucurbitale perennis Gray), which pro- duces a trailing stem, bearing triangular, woolly pubescent leaves, whose blades are six to eight inches in length. The fruits are about the size of an orange, and are perfectly spherical in shape. When ripe they are yellow with some greenish longitudinal markings. pn ternally they are exceedingly fibrous, and contain a great number o seeds (aboot 200) which are about one-third of an inch in length feet in length, and at the to inches, T the cavity bein 176 General Notes. is covered with a healthy cortex, and there is no sign of decay about it. Around the margin of the cavity are the remains of several stems, showing that in this portion the buds for the annual running stems occur. At about two feet from the crown the root bends ab- ruptly and sends out a couple of branches. When in the ground the part below the bend was vertical, while that above was inclined. The root grew upon a hillside and its upper portion was nearly if not quite perpendicular to the surface of the ground. e bend was probably occasioned by the slow sliding of the upper strata of the soil down the hill. The branches are much smaller where they emerge from the main root, and enlarge considerably within the first six or eight inches. The smaller root (Fig. 2) measured when taken from the ground nearly four feet in length, and had a diameter of about eight inches. lt is regular in form, and is not much branched. Its crown is ex- tended into a neck five or six inches long, and upon the upper part of this are the remains of the branching stems. Both roots are very fibrous internally, almost woody in fact, but they contain also an enormous amount of stored up nourishment for the rapid development of the annual stems. The first (1) weighed eighty pounds when fresh, and the second (2) thirty-three. But this store of nourishment is amply protected against the hungry gophers, moles, mice, rabbits, squirrels and larger animals, for it is intensely bitter. In the struggle for existence those only have remained whose bitterness was sufficient to overcome the hunger and thirst of the ani- mals of the plains. The second big-rooted plant is the Wild Morning Glory (/pomea leptophylla Torr), a beautiful plant of a bushy habit, bearing numer- ous large pink-purple flowers closely resembling those of the common cultivated Morning Glory of the gardens. The stems are numerous and branching, But not twining, and they rarely attain a height of more than a couple of feet. The root is enormous, often approaching the size of that of the Wild Pumpkin. A specimen in my laboratory is shown in Fig. 4- Itis nearly three feet in length, and evidently was originally much larger, and has a diameter of eight inches. As may be seen, It branches at about fifteen or sixteen inches from the top. On the one side there were originally several branches, but on the other but one. This shows, also, the peculiarity noticed above of the smaller size of the branch root at the point of its origin, and its subsequent enlargement. Both of these plants come down upon the plains to about the rooth meridian. In northern Nebraska at Long Pine, I have seen the Wild Morning Glory ten or twelve mileseast of that meridian. The wild pumpkins are abundant in Lincoln County (south of the Platte River), not more than fifteen or eighteen miles west of the line mentioned.— Charles E. Bessey. Botany. 177 HERBARIUM Notes.—AN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT.—In arranging an herbarium one’s first thought would be to arrange it ac- cording to some recognized natural system of which it would then alphabetical arrangements based on assumed convenience are pro- bably the prevailing ones. These alphabetical arrangements may be either of species in a genus or of genera in certain large groups, as the Fungi, the composite or the Grasses; but they are all based on the idea of convenience of reference. As to the alphabetical arrangement of genera. Without consid- ering the question whether a natural arrangement, even if slightly less convenient, would not be preferable, I believe that such an ar- rangement can be shown to be equally convenient. In the first place the largest families of Fungi, for example, as the Icacez, Uredinez, or Spheriacez; are by no means as large as A, C, S, or P of an alphabetical arrangement. The larger groups like S and P are exceedingly inconvenient unless subdivided; and surely it is of more value to the student to know the subdivisions of the Spheriacee than of S, unless he is preparing himself to be a Register of Deeds. he convenience of an alphabetical arrangement arises from the familiarity of the alphabet, yet the names of the natural sub-divi- sions of plants should be scarccly less familiar to the botanist. Then, too, allied genera are often wanted at the same time; genera of the same initial letter probably never. Plants are generally studied in small groups; and nothing could be more inconvenient to the student of a tribe than to find six genera in six distinct groups, each of which must be carefully searched, nor more convenient than to have them together, perhaps even placed in the very order in which he wishes to study them. Somewhat more can be said in favor of an alphabetical arrange- ment of species in a genus. Such an arrangement is not needed to such genera as Carex, for example, a natural arrangement is equally convenient, without regarding the fact that it is infinitely e Eri the species of a group together than to be forced to search through five or six letters. But in genera of Fungi, as Cercospora, where there is no very good natural arrangement, it might be said, is better than one based on the host, such as is usually given in the books, 178 General Notes. grape and therefore, goes in the section “in Di cotyledonis ligno- sis," while he-could gain very little from the reflection that its spe- s h é« I cific name begins wit This, too, is done on the plea of convenience, as they are usually studied by different students. Letting alone the question of whether it would not be better for the mycologist to think more about Algz, I believe that an herbarium where all plantsare arranged according to a natural system without regard to anything else is perfectly con- venient for reference, as long as the families are clearly indicated on the cases. If this is so, the natural arrangement is clearly prefer- able. For these are not mere questions of convenience. Inthe case of a classification, if mere convenience of placing specimens in their proper genera and species were all that was to be considered, per- haps no system would be superior to the celebrated one of Linnzus But thisis one of the last things which we demand of a classification. The function of a classification 1s to teach us the relations, the an- cestry and thus a part, it may be, of the history of plants. So with an herbarium. Its object should be no moreto furnish authentic specimens for the determination of single species than the higher one of teaching us the relations of these species by bringing together their names.— Roscoe Pound. SaccARDO'S GREAT WORK on FuNGL.—Although Saccardo’s Sylloge Fungorum has been noticed in the NATURALIST from time to time upon the appearance of the volumes, it may be offservice to our readers to indicate more fully the scope of the great work. The intention of the author (Professor P. A. Saccardo of the University of Padua) is to publish in one work the descriptions of all the Fungi now known in all parts of the world. Such an undertaking involves as all will admit, an immense amount of labor, and he must have been abold man indeed who willingly entered upon it. As a matter of course such a work, intended for the whole world, could be written in Latin only. : The first volume appeared in 1882, the second in 1883, the third in 1884, the fourth in 1886. In the latter year A. N. Berlese and P. Volgins brought out a supplementary volume to volumes I to IV, in which additions and corrections were made. The fifth volume appeared in 1887, and the sixth and seventh in 1888. The. eighth and concluding volume may be looked for some time during the resent year. The total number of pages thus far printed is 6898, and doubtless the final volume will bring the number up to 7709. The system adopted by Saccardo may be learned from the fol lowing synopsis: Botany. 179 ORDER PYRENOMYCETE Fr. Em, De Nat. Family 1. Pertsporicee Sphaeriacee Fr. a Hypocreaee “ 4, Dothideacee Nits. et Fkl * 5, Microthyrtacee Sacc " ophiostomacee Sacc * 7, Hyster zacee Corda. - ORDER Veri te tia , Including six “Sections” which are designated Hyalosporee, Scaloce- ailentogpoteey iat eye FS rice vitm Phragmosporez PHOMYCETE# Mart Family 1. Mucedine@ Link emen li H i —— rn " 3. Stzibez ue CE eie Se ER Ehrenb. emend. ORDER HYMENOMYCETEJE Family 1. Agaricinee Fr. “ 2. Polyporee Fr. ORDER GASTEROMYCETE Wild. Family 1. Phallotdee Fr. " 2. Nidulariecee Fr. “ 3, Lycoperdacee Ehreub. “ 4. Hymenogastracee Vttt. ORDER Pacouicives DeBary. Family 1. Mucoracee DeBary. “ 2, Peronosporacee DeBary. . Sapr 7 6. eBary COHORT MYXOMYCETEE Wallr. Subcohort I. Myxomyceteae (Grauinz) ORDER PROTODERMIALLE Rost. Family 1. Protodermiacee Rost. 4 ORDER AMAUROCHETE# Rost. Family sh AMNEM OE. Rost. temoni s x | oA AK dastu Bel. 180 General Notes. < 4 Amaurochaetacee Rost. " 5. Brefeldiacee Rost. 9 Oye a es Rost. ORDER ANEMEJE Family 1. Liceacee y , " 2. Clathroptychzacez Rost. ORDER HETERODERMEE Rost. Family " Perichaenacee Rost. . Archriacee Rost " Trichzacie Rost Appendix. ORDER SOROPHORE Zoph. Family 1. Guttubinee Zoph. * 2. Dictyosteliacee Rost. Sub Cohort II. Monadineae Cienk. ORDER MONADINE AZOOSPORE# Zopf. Family 1. Vampyrellee Zopf. opf. " 3. Plaamodiodiphor te Zopf. ORDER USTILAGINEJE Artificially divided into * A sadrüilictu " * Didymosporez ” and * Dictyosporez." ORDER UREDINEZ Bron E divided into ‘ " Amérosporeze " “Didymosporee "and the species of certain groups entirely re-written. The total cost of the whole work will be about one hundred dollars. — Charles E. Bessey. ZOOLOGY, Two REMARKABLE RADIATES—In the Aarsberetning of the Bergen Museum for 1887 (but recently issued), Dr, D. C. Danielssen describes two interesting forms obtained by the dredge in the re- cent Norse North Atlantic Expedition. When collected they were Loology. 181 . In general terms they may be described as sea anemones whose so-called stomach (Actinostom of Agassiz) has extended down to the base thus partially (Aegir) or completely (Fenja) separating the digestive from the mesenterical spaces, while in both an anus is developed in the base. In both the ccelome thus formed is divided by twelve per- fect septa, but in Aegir these spaces communicate by twelve slender fissures with the rectal area of the digestive tract. In Fenja there are twelve genital pores around the anus, outside the rectum ; in Aegir the genitalia are more like those of ordinary sea anemones. Both forms are hermaphrodites. ' As will be seen these forms which in every other respect are true sea anemones differ from all ccelenterates in the distinction between by over twenty plates is promised at an early date. THe Eyes or Tritopites.—Mr. J. M. Clarke gives an account of the eyes of the trilobite Phacops rana in the Journal of Mor- phology, Vol. IL, 1888. He divides the trilobites into two groups, Holochroal and Schizochroal, according as the external surface of the cornea is faceted or not. The Phacopide belong to the latter group, and their eyes are to be regarded as aggregate rather than compound. The corneal lenses were hollow or filled with some sub- stance different from the cornea. Nothing like a crystalline cone has been preserved. Until maturity the number of eyes in an optical organ increases by the addition of new lenses at the ends of the diagonal rows, and these new lenses are apparently formed by a thinning of the integument. (The reporter would remark that there seems to bea difference in the way in which, according to Mr 182 General Notes. Clarke’s observations, the visual area is increased in the trilobites and that shown by Mr. Watase's unpublished observations on the eyes of Limulus.) After maturity, although the trilobite may con- tinue to increase in size, senility begins and with it there is a decrease in the number of optical elements. In a concluding note Mr. Clarke calls attention to the fact that in the Leptostracan genus Mesothyra of the Portage Panes group "the eye consists of a single deep pit at the summit of t optic node. THE Sexes or Myxine.—Dr. Fridtjof Nansen (Bergens Mu- seum's Aarsberetning, 1887) states that in his studies of the nervous dd of Myxine he wasstruck by the fact thatit semed as if females only came under Ninian’ He therefore investigated the subject, and atiet reviewing the more prominent papers te detailing his own investigations states his pale rte that “ Myxine is generally or always (?), in its young state, a male; whilst at a more advanced stage it becomes transformed into a female.” The genital organs are female in front and male behind. Nansen has investigated the spermatogenesis but his results are widely at variance with those of Cunningham. He has also tried, but in vain, to obtain the embryol- ogy of this form. Myxine is extremely abundant at Bergen, but dredging in the — at all seasons of the year has failed to pro- duce a single o He has tried to breed them in confinement but though pein females were kept in wooden cages for half a year they obstinately refused to lay their eggs. From his studies of ovaries he concluded that eggs were deposited at all seasons of the In and he adds to our knowledge of specimens of the eggs of ne ii recording [n dredged in 1857 by Dr. Danielssen and un son near Molde. ansen does not seem to be familiar with a paper by Punt on Morus and Bdellostoma in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History some years ago. ZOOLOGICAL NEws.—PRoTOzoA.—Mr. Beddard, in his earth- worm studies, has recently met (Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1888, p. 355) a gregarine in the body cav vity of a New Zealand Perichzta which is remarkable among gregarines in forming a nucleated cyst. Dr. L. Plate (Zool. Jahrbuch, III., 1888) describes under the the Acinetz : bears a clubbed suctorial thread for ikg food, which is shorter and stiffer than those in the true Acinete ; and it possesses besides longitudinal rows of cilia on the ventral surface. Acinetoides forms colonies and has been seen to divide transversely. CŒLENTERATA.—Gireg describes and figures as new (Bergens Museum's Aarsberetning for 1887) Rhisoxenia alba and Sympodium margaritaceum from the Norwegian coast. Embryology. 183 EMBRYOLOGY.’ THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN SPERMATOZOON.—Any new light which i is thzown upon the structure of the sexual elements by the aid of more refined methods of research, will be welcomed in view of the possible bearings which such information may have upon questions of inheritance. That variations in the structure of the male elements do occur as abnormalities seems to be established by the researches of E. M. Nelson ?, who finds that not only do they vary in the number of heads, but also in the number of tails and even as to the number of the nuclei; forms were also met with which were praes together in pairs by a band. Those familiar with Se- lenka's work on the Opossum will recall in this connection the sin- gular fact abri pan by that embryologist as to the double nature of the fresh spermatozoa of Didelphys virginiana. The most interesting facts, however, which Mr. Nelson records as the result of his studies, with the aid of the new apochromatic wae di of Zeiss, relate to the details of structure of the human ale ele The head, which has always been figured as a simple, somewhat flattened pyriform rm body,according to this last observer, is pee complex when studied by the aid of better appliances. It is rather obovate in outline from the broad side, but when viewed siguni it is seen to be curved upon itself, so that it bears a resemblance to an oblong meniscus lens Furthermore, this observer givesnames to its parts. The anterior portion containing the nucleus, he calls the spore, and at its extreme anterior pole it bears an excessively minute flament as he names it, which is hardly as long as the spore itself. He suggests that this is a sort of feeler or tentacle by means of which the spermatozoon finds Lyx. ext follows the szem or “middle nel ' which at its posterior extremity is slightly swollen. This swollen posterior extremity of the stem and the anterior end of the tail there occurs a constriction Which has been previously noticed by Nelson, aud to which he gives l Edited ur Prof. John A. Ryder, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. : T men s ser. I1, Vol MO igs uekett Microscop. Club. Ser. b 184 General Notes. the appropriate name of joint. It seems, in fact, as if such were its nature, as a very short refringent and dark band of substance here joins the stem and tail together. This band is so much narrower than the stem or tail that it appears as if there were a deep notch on either side of the tail portion of the spermatozoon at this point. Immediately behind the joint, the flagelliform tail i is continued as that tapering organ! familiar to all histologists since the time of Leeuwenhoek. e structure of the spermatozoon is therefore more complex than is usually supposed, and the following TIAE parts may be dis- tinguished, beginning at the anterior extremity : Filament, spore, cup, calyx, stem Kio A^ The following measurements are giv Head (spore : and cup) long ine in. 5.9 y broad ror " 3.4 K Stem long soo "44H Tail from joint te tip Tiv d Total, head, stem and tail z3z “ce From what has preceded it is clear that there is great capacity for variation. Further, it is proms that this high “a of com- be modified when the subject is viewed from the s of a renewed study of the structure and function of the spesmatozoon at all phases e: the procéss of its union with the ovum. May it not be that some mportant parts of the process of union have escaped observation in virtue of the optical difficulties which are involved? The con- seausners. of didnt. as the result of union with abnormal sper- oa is also worthy of paeen not only from a purely iR i iE but also account of the possible light it with the great number of forms assume the male element throughout the animal kingdom, and the very diverse psc under which fertilization occurs, it seems as if Du Bois Reymon reproach— Zgzrabimus—may here remain true. 1]t may poen be of advantage to use the word organula her e instead of organ, following a suggestion of Móbius. Functionally differentiated "multicellular seer ally in ‘multicellular forms or metazoa are in this se nse organs, while for functional lula or for such differentiated portions of the unicellular gesmeleeneats of x metazoa the diminutive—organ is appropria Archeology and Anthropology. 185 ARCHZEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY! MOUND AND OTHER EXPLORATIONS BY MR. WARREN K. MOORE- HEAD.—On the high wooded hills bordering the Little Miami Rivcr in central Greene County are a number of mounds. One is the large mound on the farm of Mr. J. B. Lucas, three miles west of Xenia. Up to June, 1885, this mound had never been thoroughly explored. It was about twenty feet in height with a slightly flattened summit, perhaps seven feet across, and sixty feet in diameter at the base. Four good sized trees grew out of the sides, one of which was an oak perhaps ninety years old. This mound was opened in June, 1885. A shaft was sunk, from the summit downwards, twelve feet, but nothing of interest found. We began a trench on the outer edge of the east side, and carried it to the center ; then extended the trench from the summit down until these two met. Completing this work, we caved in the sides, and threw back the earth taken out, thus restoring the mound nearly to its former shape. The trench from the outer edge of the mound to the center was about twenty-five feet in length. For the first ten feet of this dis- tance the earth was fine clay, not mixed with ashes. At twelve feet from the outer circumference was a bed of ashes and charcoal, perhaps two feet in thickness, and sticks of the half-charred wood three feet long and quite well preserved were taken out. These had een laid with regularity and were probably covered with earth before the fire had consumed them. At sixteen feet a thin irregular stratum of ordinary river sand was found, three or four inches in thickness. shaft above. We had not thrown out a foot of earth until we came to a mass of charcoal and ashes. This occurred without intermis- sion for two feet or more when we came upon a layer of pure clay, nearly two feet in thickness. Immediately below this was the thin stratum of sand, and under this sand, resting on the “altar” of were buried side by side; the heads to the south. At the feet were fragments of a clay urn, peculiarly shaped. It had been broken into seven or eight pieces, but could be easily restored. It was of the basket-moulded ” pattern, having plain marks of the basket reeds 1 This department is edited by Thomas Wilson, Esq., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. — - 186 General Notes. on the surface—a pattern rare in Ohio. Save a few perforated bear teeth and three rough spear-heads, no other relics were found. The excavation from both summit and base were carried rout the burnt clay to the original level below. The clay contained fragments of oe bones evidently of animals such as the deer, bear, and racco The opposite side of the mound (the west side) has since been opened by parties living near, but nothing found. ; Two INDIAN CE':ETERIES NEAR ROMNEY, HAMPSHIRE COUNTY, W.Va.—Eight miles up the south fork of the Potomac River from Romney, W. Va., is an island owned by Mr. I. Pancake, and on this island once stood a large Indian village. A flood some two years ago cut a channel through the island and exposed to view the skele- tons of many human beings, as well as relics and objects of aborig- inal manufacture. Recent newspaper reports attracted Mr. Moore- head's attention, and he visited the spot for the purpose of investiga- tion. With a force of several Irishmen, work was commenced the morn- ing of January 16’89 A large part of the island was tomeny dug over and the earth examined to a depth of four feet. It was found that over one-half of the bodies originally interred had ay ed out by the flood ; those that remained were scarcely two feet below the surface, consequently when the island was cultivated the bones would be much disturbed. Only five skeletons could be taken out entire, those at a depth of three feet. With two of them were buried several triargalar arrow-heads, a clay pot, whole, (not Ancorsied) and fragmentary bones of deer, ground hog, and turtle. With t others nothing big’ found. On the surface of this island we wicked up many beads, se ene broken pottery, split bones, carv bones, unfinished Seles The space occupied by the evidences of Indian occupation Wi bunt 150x200 yards. ‘The most interest- ing find met with during the excavation of these graves was the dis- covery of a large ash pit, about six by seven feet, five feet in depth. In this there were many deer bones, broken pottery, ashes, charcoal, etc. There was no order observed, the accumulation seemed to re- sult from a hearth or wigwam. The only object found in the pit was a long sharp bone awl, a fine specimen. A part of a skeleton (said by some to be Ox, by ‘others Bison) was taken from the bottom of this pit. The bones edes action of fire, and many of them were broken into fragment wo days were ti in 1 examining another village site, on the north ded the river twelve miles below. "This was smaller than the one above mentioned, but as it had been little disturbed we found pate skeletons, etc. This site does not exceed 200x450 feet. Ina space of 6oxioo feet we took out fifteen skeletons in a fairly state rel preservation. All were buried singly and extended, save Archeology and Anthropology. 187 second had a neat little urn with handles, and containing a carved mussel shell, placed by his head. "This pot was seven inches high, third personage had nearly 3oo glass beads between the ulna and radius. A small iron tomahawk near his hand showed furthermore that he had known the “ long-knives." The fourth Indian had a copper plate (Lake Superior copper) over his head, four and a half inches long, two inches wide ; per- forated near one end. Beneath his head were twenty-four broken quartz fragments about the size of an egg. The fifth individual has a small copper earring, a tip to an arrow made of copper, and three large glass beads. The skulls of three of these five were taken out nearly whole. The average dept The owner of the land presented the writer with a copper plate and a stone tomahawk (greenstone) from the same spot. He claimed that after a heavy rain twelve circular spots about ten feet in diam- ather could be plainly seen in the field, that these spots had a red- dish color, and were arranged in two rows. He further said that he thought them burnt spots of ground where the wigwams stood. That the field had been cultivated only a few years which accounted for the spot being still discernable. The bodies found by myself were all under these spots. No skeletons were exhumed in ground not in- cluded in these reddišh circular places. : After the work here was completed, a mound on one of the high hills overlooking the valley was examined. Its dimensions were 35 x45 feet diameter and six feet high. It was one mile north of Romney. The material was half stone, half earth. Seven men were all day in digging it through; the whole structure was removed. Nothing was found save one decayed skeleton. This skeleton had five large mica plates placed where his breast had once been, a copper bead has served as an earring, a slate ornament as a breast- plate, and five black serrated arrow-heads as weapons. e mica was 7x10 inches in size. The ornament 5x2, with two perforations. 188 General Notes. SCIENTIFIC NEWS. —The Geological Society was organized at Ithaca, New York, on December 29, 1888. ‘The original fellows number one hundred and nine. The admission fee is $10. —The trustees of the Australian Museum, Sydney, have recently decided to continue the publication of the rich collection of drawings and MSS. left by the late Alexander Scott, and since acquired by them, and the work of ortine i and editing this material has been entrusted to his daughter, Mrs. E. Forde, and Mr. A. Sidney Olliff. — The Marine pi — has just issued its circulars for the coming summer's session. Dr. C. O. Whitman will be the di- rector. He will be assisted in the Investigator's Department by Drs. Howard Ayers and E. G. Gardiner, and in the Student's Department by Drs. J. S. Kingsley and J. P. McMurrich and Prof. J. Eilis Humphrey. The laboratory is located at Wood's Holl, Mass., near the labora- tories of the United States Fish Commission. The bu uilding consists of two stories : the lower, for the use of students receiving instruction, the upper, exclusively for investigators. The laboratory has aquaria supplied with running sea-water, boats, collecting apparatus, and dredges ; it will also be supplied with reagents, e ate and a limited number of microtomes and microsc copes. The library will be provided, not only with the ordinary text-books and works of refer- ence, but also with the more important journals of zoology and botany, many of them in complete series. The Laboratory for In- vestigators will be open from June 3 to August 31. It will be fully equipped with aquaria, glassware, reagents, etc., but microscopes and microtomes will ing be provided. ia sie department: there are eight fifty dollars. The proces for isot will be opened on Wednes- day, July 10, for regular courses of seven weeks in Marine Zoology and Microscopical Technique. Botany will be taught for the present season during August. Opportunities will be given for collecting and preparing material for use in the class room and for special lines of study. The fee for workers in this department is twenty-five dollars, payable in advance. The number of students will be limited to twenty-five, and preference will be given to teachers or others already qualified. By permission of the Director, students may begin their individual work as early as June 15, wit thout extra ciana but t regular courses of iagerhetion will not begin before July Applications should be addressed to Miss A. D. Phillips, ‘Secretary, 23 Marlboro St., Boston, Mass, Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 189 —An important series of lectures on Evolution is being delivered . in the Second Unitarian Church of Brooklyn (Dr. Chadwick's), under f the auspices of the Brooklyn Ethical Association. e lectures are delivered on alternate Sunday evenings, beginning on Oct. 14 and ending May 26. They are issued in pamphlet form and may be ob- aaa from Dr. Lewis G. James, President, No. 55 Liberty St., New ork, PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. BIOLOGICAL Society or WASHINGTON.—Annual meeting, and elec- tion of officers for 1889, January 12, 1889.—The following. officers were elected : President—Lester F. Ward. ie ait dpinis sie roe V. Riley, R. Rathbun, C. H. Merriam, Frank aker Recording Secretary— J. B. Smith. Corresponding Secretary-—F, A. Lucas. Treasurer—F. H. Knowlton. Members of Council—Geo. Vasey, J H. Bean, R. E. C. Stearns, C. D. Walcott, F. W. True. January 26.— The following communications were read: Dr. Cooper Curtice, Notes on the Sheep Tick, Melophagus ovinus Linn.; Dr. Geo. Vasey, New Species of North American Graminee of the Last Twelve Years ; Mr. Th. Holm, Contributions to the Morpholo- gy of the Genus Carex ; Dr. C. Hart Merriam, A New Species of Pika (Lagomys), NATURAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION OF STATEN IstAND.— January 12, 1889.—Mr. Wm. T. Davis read the following notes in regard to the appearance of shad along our shores : It has been the custom among those engaged in shad fishing in the ay to preserve a record of their first catch, which sometimes merely rig their nets and live, so as to lose no time at the turning of the €. In one of these houses I copied the following dates, posted on - H: Wardell, who lives at Bay Ridge, Long Island, but who fishes from the Staten Island shore sis dien me UR following cord of his first captures : ARR à 1878 ; March 29, 1879 ; March 28, 1880; April 9, 1881; (aaa 7,1982 ; April 5, 1883 ; arf 1884 ; April 3, 1885 ; April 5, & : b a ant of the signs of the Indians’ calendar was the blossoming of the ush’ (Amelanchier), which occurs about the middle of April, 190 General Notes. and it will be seen from the above dates to be an excellent Buide, for it is not until its flowers appear that the fish come in num Mr. Chas. W. Leng presented the following vemonhdn - * In the Proceedings of April 14, 1888, a correction must be made in regard to the pupation of water beetles, the fact being that they pupate not under water, but in soil. Mr. Davis has this year raised the larvae of Hydrophilus triangularis and supplied a part of the larvae with soil under water and others simply with soil. The first lot refused to pupate, while many of the second lot formed pupa in the ground.” THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SciENCE held its annual meeting in the Court-House at Indianapolis Dec. 25, 26, and 27. The follow- ing papers were read : Geographical Distribution of Umbellifers, J. M. Coulter; A Study of the Sub-epidermal Rusts of Grasses and Sedges, H. L. Bolley ; The Future of Systematic Botany, J. M. ter ; Raphides in Fruit of Monstera deliciosa, W. S. Windle ; T he Spines of Cactace, Walter H. Evans ; Strengthening Cells and Resin Ducts in Conifere (by abstract), S. Coulter ; The Epidermal purs of Tillandsia, H. Seaton ; Peculiarities of ibe Indiana Flora, J. M Coulter ; An Objection to the Contraction Hypothesis as Accounting for Mountains, F. B. Taylor; The Old Channel of Niagara River, J. T. Scovell ; "The “ Collett Glacial River,” J. L. Campbell ; A Sketch of the Geology o of Arkansas, J. C. Branner ; fidens of Shallow Water Deposition of Silurian Rocks, Chas W. Hargitt ; Meanderings of the Arkansas River Below Little Rock, . C. Branner ; Occurrence of Ancistrodon contortrix in Dearborn County, Ind., C. W. Hargitt ; Some Strange Cases of Color Variation in Animals, C. W. Hargitt ; Amoeba : a Query, S. Coulter ; On a Striped Spermophile Mammal New to toin, A. W. Butler ; A ai Sa of the United States Fish Commission in Virginia and North arolina, D. S. Jordan ; Analog between River Faune and Island Faune, D. S, Jo ordan ; Outline of Work in Physiological Psychology, W. J. Bryan ; The Ancestry of the Blind Fishes, D. S. Jordan LA New Kind of Phosphorescent Or- gans in Porichthys, Fred. C. Test ; Notes on Indiana Reptiles, A. W. Butler ; On the Skull of the larva ‘of Amphiuma means, On the Hyo- branchial Apparatus of Soran. microstomum, Further on the Habits of Some Amblystomas, O. Hay ; Contributions to the Knowledge of the Genus Branchipus, ©. P. and W. P. Hay ; The Oc- currence in Indiana of the Wood Ibis (Tantalus loculator), B. W. Evermann ; The Relation of Systematic Zoology to Museum Adminis- tration, D. s. Jordan ; Observations on the Destruction of Birds by Storms on Lake Michigan, A. W. Butler; Additions to the Fish- Fauna of Vigo County, Indiana, B. W. Evermann ; Some Notes on ` the Natural History of Guaymas, Mexico, O. P. Jenkins and B. vermann. The Presidential pepe " Religion and Continuity," was E E delivered Christmas night by Dr. D. P, D. John, The following offi- cers were elected for the following year : President, John C. Bran- ; Vice-Presidents, T. "sx Mendenhall, Oliver P. Hay, John L. Canh: Secretary, Amos W, Butler ; Treasurer, Oliver P. Jen- kins. The Field- -meeting will be held at ‘Greensburg, Ind., in May. glee ene, S RAO SNR SS * , TIE AMERICAN NATURALIST. MARCH, 1889. 20607. Vor. XXIII. THE MIMETIC ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF BIRD LANGUAGE. BY SAMUEL N. RHOADS. W HBATELY, Archbishop of Dublin, remarked a half-cen- tury since, —'* man is not the only animal that can make use of language to express what is passing in his mind and can understand, more or less, what is so expressed by another;” a remark which echoes with the increasing emphasis of another fifty years, the pious poet's couplet— ** I shall not ask Jean Jacques Rousseau Whether birds confabulate or no." Darwin thinks *' the sounds uttered by birds offer in several respects the nearest analogy to language: for all the members of the same species utter the same instinctive cries expressive of their emotions, and all the kinds that have the power of singing, exert this power instinctively, but the actual song is / learned from their parents or foster-parents." The longer this subject is critically considered, the more are we convinced that the communication of ideas by means of sound and gesture (language) is instinctive and common to all animals ;—that it is a genetically transmitted faculty, quite in- dependent, in its earliest manifestations, of experiential or em- piric knowledge, and that laws, governing the development of gi The American Naturalist. [March, any one language, have an equal application to all the rest. It is quite generally conceded that the present status of human language is the result of slow developement or evolution from the innate, inarticulate and exclamatory utterances of our hu- man progenitors. We see apt illustration of this in the gesticulations and cries of,the newly born of man, bird or beast; which cries, origina- ting in the primal idea of want, are its natural, spontaneous ex- pression, and, in consonance with the other faculties, develop through early life to maturity, furnishing, in the momentary individual life, a brief, actual epitome of the genesis of language through successive generations in the infinite past. Therefore in so far as he may have “ no knowledge but a cry " man may account himself not only a little lower than the angels, but quite as low as the creatures over whom he has dominion. Thus far language is an instinct common to all, and, in nature, identical among all animals; a conclusion necessitating in us the sort of humility which nowadays leavens all progressive inquiry. Of language, in its original and primitive exercise, such a view is tenable, but in its wider acceptation, as Horne Tooke remarks, —“ language is an art, the developement of which is consonant with that of the mental faculties," and it is reason- able to infer that while articulate language (speech) is peculiar to man, distinctly separating him, as Cuvier states, from other animals, “ it is not the mere power of articulation that distin- . guishes man from the other animals, for as every one knows, — parrots can talk, but it is his larger power of connecting defin- _ ite sounds with definite ideas." ' E It follows therefore, that the language of birds differs not in | kind from that of man, though far removed therefrom in degree | of perfection as an art. Allowing for the difference in mental 3 capacity, betwixt man and the lower animals, the comparative - attainments among men in the linguistic art exhibit disparities no greater than may daily be observed of birds zer se. As the singing of a thrush to the chatter of sparrows, so the solo * Descent of Man. Vol. I., P. 53. 1889. ] Development of Bird Language. 93 of a Patti to the hurly-burly of an Italian marketplace; or (ex- tending parallels to tribal characters) if we compare the Fue- gian or Caffiric tongues with those of more enlightened races, the contrast, however startling, finds its equivalent in a com- parison between oscine and non-oscine orders of birds. Between the higher and lower oscines there exists the same gradation of vocal attainments as exhibited by the dialects of nations speaking a language derived from the same parent tongue, and Bechstein, pushing the analogy further, instances how slight geographic differences of song among members of the same species inhabiting widely separated districts, may be appositely compared to “ pracem dialects’? among speaking peoples. The inference of Darwin, “that an instinctive tendency to acquire an art is not a peculiarity confined to man " receives daily confirmation in the life history of all the creatures. It is apparent not only in the language of birds, but also in the construction of their nests and in their methods of discovering and storing food. The ratiocinative processes which distinguish artificial from natural or innate actions are unmistakably apparent in the musical performances of our higher oscine birds. Among the North American Turdide are several species which habitually retire to more secluded portions of their forest haunt to rehearse, in critical undertone, difficult bars and pass- ages of the favorite song, and it is demonstrably true that the older and more experienced of these vocalists surpass the younger by reason of their longer practice. In this respect bird- language has developed into a fine art analogous to the attainment made in bird-architecture, as ex- ampled by "- play-houses of the Bower Bird and two Amer- ican wrens,’ and in the ornate embellishment of their nests by the Trochilide and Vireonide. Barrington, in his paper on the “Songs of Birds" * has well remarked that * that there is no better method of investigating ! Troglodytes aedon & Cistothorus palustris. * Trans. Phil. Soc. 1776. 94 The American Naturalist. [March, the human faculties than by a comparison with those of (other) animals,” and vice versa the same will hold in an inquiry like the one now before us. In the evolution of language as in everything else, we may recognize the all-pervading unity of plan and purpose, the “ one law, one element and one far-off divine event to which," not man alone, but ‘‘the whole crea- tion moves." This granted, the wealth of all past philological research is at our disposal and by so much are we warned of quicksand hypotheses and set upon a theory of some endur- ance. Perhaps the theory most generally accepted as accounting for the origin of human language, is the onomatopoetic or mimetic, coupled with that elaborated by Wedgewood,—the interjectional or exclamatory theory. Wedgewood's theory has more to do with the original and instinctive sounds which form the primitive utterances of the speaking animal, while the mimetic accounts for the subsequent development of language into an art. Leaving all discussion of the tenability of these in their application to human language, let us apply them to birds. The most cursory study of the songs of our feathered favor- ites must lead every inquirer to believe them the result of imi- tation, and a more critical examination would demonstrate that not only does this apply to the transmission of song from one generation to another, but it may be held to account for the origin and development of all bird-language in the past. Consonant with our proposition, we find among the least specialized of avian forms that language is limited to half audi- ble hissing or choking sounds or even to life-long silence,—an attempt merely, with sure-attendant failure. Insuch,language has been doomed to perpetual infancy; development in this direction has done nothing, has nought to do with it; it is not this noise or that noise, but 2 noise they are trying to make. The primal death-birth of speech is the result. Except asa proof that language, out of the chaos of silence, had a begin- ning so dumbly weak and abortive, we here have nothing to do with it either. Next come such as have found a tongue; an * 1889.] Development of Bird Language. 95 unruly, screaming or croaking member, ’tis true, yet a tangible something for us to hear and heed; its products tangible too, for there is some attempt at combination and modulation there for discriminating ears. And so, from Pygopodes ascending, we start with promises, attempt and failure to climb the vocal scale through Longipennes upward. I will classify a few of the better known species illustrating the mimetic development of bird language into three,—1. Mimics of sounds in animate nature exclusive of other bird-notes: 2. Mimics of sounds in inanimate nature: 3. Mimics of song and human language. In the first class are many, probably a majority, whose notes in greater or less degreeare intentionally imitative of those of other birds, and, for sake of illustration, are not so significant as those which (unlike the Mocking-bird, Catbird and Carolina Wren etc.) are not intentional, but seemingly unconscious mim- ics of animate sounds produced in their immediate environ- ment. The Mocking-bird, Catbird, Shrike and Jay are studied and artistic imitators of their feathered associates, indicating the perfection to which bird-language has developed as an art, but if we would seek examples of the primary, instinctive exer- cise of the mimetic faculty, the notes of the Prairie, Bluewing, and Yellow warbler, the Grasshopper warbler of Europe, the Yellow-wing and Savannah sparrow together with most of those of the Ardeidz, Anatidz, Rallidz and of some of the bet- ter known Strigidz and Falconidz, afford a better illustration. The resemblance of the notes of many smaller birds to those of insects of contemporary habitat is very noticeable in the songs of the five first mentioned in the above list. Each of these sings so like a grasshopper haunting its respec- tive locality as to deceive the unpracticed ear, causing the care- less observer to overlook them entirely. Among the lower orders, thisornithic mimicry, owing to the less complicated and exclamatory nature of their language, is more easily studied. To receive forcible proof of this, let the reader adventure on an April evening's tramp along our river marshes. To most, the novelty of such an experience would lend just the necessary stimulus to imagination and when, after 96 The American Naturalist. [March, having every sense of musical concord outraged by the vast callithumpian chorus, there should come, asthere surely will, an echo of tenfold emphasis from overhead, eliciting now here, now there, the wierd password till all is hushed along the shore, —then, methinks, in sounds not sweet he could detect a direful harmony. But the Qua bird’s is as one among the many voices of the night which nearly concerns us. Of perhaps four species of frog which in the spring make such localities nightly jubilant, two, more especially, are as well “ taken off,” vocally speaking, by the Bittern and Green heron as they are in the more literal sense of the phrase. Tothe third it seems fair to assign the origin of all quacking and its corresponding modifications among the Anatidz, while the fourth makes a sound so like the notes of a Sora Rail as to put one in doubt which is the best - mimic. Turning over the pages of Nuttall's ** Ornithology” at this moment, the following, relating to the morning cries of the yellow-breasted Rail seems opportune. ‘As soon as awake, they call out in an abrupt and cackling cry, ‘ kreck, ‘krek, * krek, ‘krek, ‘ kuk ‘k’kh, which note, apparently from the young was answered by the parent in a lower, soothing tone. The whole of these uncouth and gutteral notes have no bad resemblance to the croaking of the tree-frog, as to sound." To the student of shadows of things gone by, nocturnal sounds and scenes are a fitting environment. How to-day's dark guess gathers increasing light by this backward look into the infinite night of myriad yesterdays, where lie, in silent readiness, the unspoken but not unspeakable secrets of the past ! In considering the second class of bird-mimics,—viz., those which imitate sounds in inanimate nature, we approach nearer the question of the origin as distinguished from that of the de- velopment of their language. Aristotle goes to the root ofthe matter when he queries regarding the European Bittern's note, —'' why do those which are called Bomugi, and which are fabulously reported to be bulls consecrated to some deity, usually dwell among marshes which are situate near rivers? Is E 1889. ] Development of Bird Language. 97 not such a sound produced when rivers inundate marshes or marshes overflow their boundaries and are either roughly checked in their impetuous course by the sea and thence send forth a rushing sound? Similar sounds are produced in cav- erns underground into which currents of water rush and dispel the air through small apertures."' According to both the Mosiac and Darwinian genesis we are to believe that this ele- mental turmoil and river rushing was a primal thing and pre- cedent of reptilian life just as reptilian life preceded avian life ; therefore the whole family '*Bomugi" may have had their music second-hand, through batrachian ante-cessors, from wind and wave and chafed shore. If this be true of Bomugus, it is true of all, however shrouded now by the intricate processes of their evolution from such crude, unmusical beginnings to the higher minstrelsy of the present. At risk of the imputation of having a too fertile imagination, I will separate the second classof sound mimics into two divis- ions,—viz: 1. Mimics of water sounds; 2. Mimics of wind sounds. The long and short-billed Marsh Wrens and the Win- ter Wren sing songs so in harmony with their aquatic surround- ings that you must be attentive to separate them from thé rippling, bubbling sounds of moving water which they affect, the songs of the former being as characteristic of a marsh- receding tide as the other is in its unison with the prattle of woodland rivulets. The same may be observed of the Dipper, Kingfisher, Aquatic Thrush, Blue-yellow-back Warbler, Sea- side Finch, Swamp Sparrow and others of like predilections. Many years ago, when the subject began to claim my attention, I call to mind having nearly decided that the Swallows all sang improvisations of a single theme, the rapid clattering of their own mandibles. But on a later occasion, it having struck my fancy that I detected in the joyous little flight-song of a White- bellied Swallow coursing near by, a likeness to the dripping sound of water, I waited till its repetition and then asked my companion, a wide awake negro boy, if he heard “that bird"? “ Why,” said he, “ was that a bird? I thought it was * Aristotle, Problem II., 35. 98 The American Naturalist. [March, rainin'." illusion. Foralong while, too, the shrieks and hootings of sundry owls continually suggested an unnameable likeness to other sounds in nature, but save that impossible originalin the north window casements, none other presented itself to mind. Then in hypothetic despair I bethought me of an empty porter bottle which once hoo-hooed and shrieked, to the wind responsive, from a nigh fence panel, till a wrathful storm made end of it. With twofold thanks that the bottle was empty, I now am wont to picture how, ages ago, the mute, inarticulate Scops sat taking music lessons in his porter-bottle house, and how in piny solitudes remote, great Bubo tuned those bass-viol mon- otones of his in full accord. The mourning Dove is typical of a family whose voices are in symphonious keeping, with the sighing cedars and moaning pines of their choice. The same correspondence is noticeable in species which, like the Grouse, Vulture, Swan and other aquatic kinds are mute or nearly silent. ^ In contrast with the silent Vulture, content with silent vic- tims, the nearly related Eagles and Hawks are a screaming, noisy set of birds which seem to have adopted for their own a quin- tessence of the dying utterances of their victims merely because of carnal policy and from no delight in language in itself con- sidered. However, the further consideration of this, more properly belongs to the last division of mimics, Ze. those which inten- tionally imitate the sounds produced by their contemporaries. It were best, ere passing on, to allude to a few others of those birds whose notes resemble the sounds produced by the action of wind. The Broad-wing Hawk's love-notes are like the sound of high-whistling winds or the shrill creaking of interfering tree limbs, or may be imagined by another to be the exaggerated shrieking of a stricken hare or field- mouse. Possibly, yes, probably, all of these may have had combined influence. A showery April day had sufficed to complete the £889. ] Development of Bird Language. 99 The same previously noted of Doves, may apply to the ** pewee ” of the Flycatcher, the ** yank yank” of Nuthatches, the scolding of our Vireos, parts of the song of many higher oscines, (Turdidze and Icteridz), and all songs of the more essentially whistling birds, or at least, such part of it as they have not acquired from the whistling Batrachia. Whistling, and its fife-like modulations was likely among the smaller thick-billed families, to be the natural outcome of the imitative faculty, limited in quality and variety by the peculiar struc- ture of their mandibles, but the appearance of tenuiostral forms enabled the more specialized vocalists to produce those more flexible, flute-like songs, which characterize them. The third class division of mimics will include birds unmis- takably imitators of their contemporaries in song,—mockers in the strict sense, and indebted to furred and feathered originals for the greater part. All in this class have a score of their own, a thread of original prose melody, lavishly embellished by poetic quotations from their favorite authors. By way of distinguishing these from the rest let us compare the Mocking- bird and Song-Sparrow. Each are songsters par excellence in their separate classes; each boast of a varied repertory, yet in the last, these variations are merely varietal combinations of the “sui, sibi, se or sésé” solus of ancestral Melospiza, and (inter se) differ only by numerical sequence of the syllables in a “four foot iambic,” or by a change of accent or the addition of a final syllable, convert iambus totrochee and wind up with anapest flourish; whereas Mimus, multiplying his own wild originality by a hundred borrowed roots endlessly declines and conjugates, or with Pentecostal inspirationspeaks all languages in one. From “yon trim Shakspeare on the tree," we pass again by exquisite minor gradations of the feathered genius, to sweet sparrow-rhymes and rhymesters many. Past Brown Thrush, Cat-Bird and White-eyed Vireo, by whom a sort of five minute rule has been set up in which each borrowed phrase is given impartial hearing, according to calendar, as if it were; —so on, by way of the Baltimore Oriole, Carolina Wren and others, which are not chronically mockers, but hold thattalent IOO The American Naturaltst. à [March, in heroic reserve for after-dinner speeches, we reach the notes of such as quickened the highly sensitive ear of a Nuttall or Burroughs by some vague likeness in them to other note of bird or beast, ——chance utterances remotely suggestive of a first attempt at exercising the latent talent for mimicry. But so nearly do these nice discrimations bring us to the mysterious borderland where fact and fiction intermingle, it were well to pause and confess our fallibility. In his “ Birds in the Bush," Mr. Torrey aptly remarks of a turn or grace-note, in the song of Dendroeca virens, which he. was tempted to number among “ the latest ” of philological dis- coveries, that “ perhaps after the lapse of ten-thousand years, more or less, the whole tribe of Black throated Greens will have adopted it, and then when some ornithologist chances to fall in with an old-fashioned specimen who still clings to the plain song as we commonly hear it, he will fancy that to be the very latest modern improvement and proceed forwith to enlighten the scientific world with a description of the novelty." Beyond what has been said of this native genius in feathers, I may not in present limits so enlarge as to notice that inter- esting subject, the influence of domestication and human train- ing upon the language of birds, save to note that every exper- iment made with a view to solve the problem of its origin and development justifies the belief that bird language, as now existent, is, like human language, “the result of some opera- tion of the imitative principle, quickened in all probability by circumstances which we are able to a certain extent to recon- struct, and aided at first very largely, but always in lessening measure, by the language of sign and gesture. ' The joke of Prof. Schleicher, '* If a pig were ever to say to me, ‘I am a pig,’ it would, zpso facto, cease to be a pig," while controverting the ultra Darwinian theory by its reference to the impassable language barrier, twixt man and the rest of the animal kingdom, nevertheless assumes a serious and question- able significance if the names of certain birds were substituted for the pigs.’ Independently of the question of man's descent, : 1 See Philology ; Appleton's Ency., New Ed. 1889. ] Development of Bird Language. IOI however, the result of Darwin's life-long study of psychical and physical evolution receives wonderful confirmation in the fam- ily resemblance of notes peculiar to species whose genealogies, according to the development hypothesis, are tracable to the same ancestry. The Icteride form a group, the genera of which emphatically demonstrates this. In the song of the Bobolink, a well known representative, he who runs may read a sure word of prophecy, proclaiming to the ear in its every emphasis, the same scientific facts as does his anatomy to the eye. Who, that hears him say, in lusty May-song, “I’m a finch, I'm a finch, Icterus, Icterus, Quiscalus, Molothrus, Sturnella, one and all; as you'll see if you look at me, chee! Agelazus et cetera, all linked in me, a bobolink, bobolink, as you can see ! "—dare contradict a word of it on biological grounds? Not less confirmatory of this and of the theory of the mim- itic origin of bird notes is the evidence given by species of widely separted generic characters which frequent the samesort of habitat and are subject during life to the same environing influences. Some of these, as the Robin, Scarlet Tanager, Rose-breast Grosbeak and Baltimore Oriole, have song-notes in common, while the Woodcock, Night-Hawk and Snipe, have nearly the same squeaking call-note when associated together at night as frequently happens, thus indicating that their inspiration was derived from like natural sources, and that, in harmony with their limited vocal needs, it has remained content with squeaking. But, strange to relate, the members of this same trio have each made an attempt at something higher, and, (which is stranger than all) with nearly identical results. In the Goatsucker it is a hollow, booming sound, produced by its sudden downward descent during flight; in the Snipe and Woodcock it results from a whirring of wings during a slowly ascending and descendingspiralflight. Such is the commonly accepted belief of observers of these manceuvres, and, if correct, they illustrate how, in the retarded organic development of any faculty, nature supplements it by mechanical ingenuity. 102 The American Naturalist. [March, May we not in conclusion, fittingly adopt the words of a modern seer, with him agreeing that “ between two opposing tendencies, one urging to variation, the other to permanence, (for nature herself is half radical, half conservative) the lan- guage of birds has grown from rude beginnings to its present beautiful diversity, and whoever lives a century of milleniums hence, will listen to music such as we in this day can only dream of. Inappreciably but ceaselessly the work goes on. Here and there is born a master singer, a feathered genius, and every generation makes it own addition to the glorious inher- itance! " A MONTH IN THE EASTERN PHILLIPINES. BY J. B. STEERE. WE spent the last days of March, 1888, at Cebu, in packing our collections from the Central islands. We were for- tunate in finding an American vessel in port, sailing to Boston, and nearly loaded with sugar and manila hemp, and shipped home several cases of bird skins and other valuable and per- ishable collections by her, while the bulkier part, corals and sea shells, were left to be forwarded in the same way at a later date. We then took passage on the little Spanish steamer ‘“ Gravina," for Catbalogan on the island of Samar, the most eastern of the archipelago. The weather was of the ordinary Philippine ' kind, calm and with smooth seas. We left Cebu about noon, passed by the northern end of Bojol, and were then in sight of the mountains of Leite, and we spent the evening in coasting | up the west shore of that island. The next morning when we waked up we were lying at anchor in front of the town of Cat- balogan. We were started out of our berths a little sooner than common by an outcry among the Spanish passengers, and a call for the “ Naturalistas Americanos." Hurrying into one of the passage ways, I found a Spanish military officer 1889. ] A Month in the Eastern Phillipines. 103 standing ina tragic attitude, with his sword thrust through a poor little centipede, which he had pinned to the floor. The harbor of Catbalogan is formed by several small islands but is not considered safe in storms from the northwest. The town is on low ground near the sea, and has about ten thou- sand inhabitants, and shows the usual church and parish house with a governor’sand other officer’s residences, for it is the capital of a province ; in addition to the usual streets of Indian houses supported on posts in the ordinary way. The town had an un- mistakable appearance of age and unthrift, though the little square in front of the church was decorated with triumphal arches and flowers, for we had brought a new governor with us, the same who had so courageously attacked the centipede in the morning. The island of Samar is some one hundred and twenty miles long, by thirty or forty broad, and is said to have two hundred thousand inhabitants. Its native name is babao, which means up above, and we were certain before we had left it that it was well named. It is very mountainous and steep so that a great part of it is uncultivable. The exports are chiefly of manila hemp which is sent to Cebu or Manila for shipment. The captain of the steamer landed us and our goods on the beach and steamed away, and we were left again to find a home among strangers. There was no hotel, as is usual in such towns, and the people were too busy with the new gover- nor to care for us, and it looked for some time as if we might go hungry and without shelter unless we took refuge in the tribunal, the court-house, jail and common assembly room of the Indian population, but after noon we found an empty house and making a bargain with the owner, and hiring a young In- dian for cook, we moved in that night. Our house was out on the borders of the town near the hills. It had a room large enough to hold our hammocks, and another back one open on all sides, serving for a kitchen, dining-room and a place in which to skin birds. The hills covered with second growth were just behind us and we could see unmistakable patches of virgin forest on the mountain sides, two or three miles far- 104 The American Naturalist. [March, ther back and we concluded to make the place our headquarters for the month we had devoted to this part of the island. The next morning I dressed and started to the governor’s residence, to present our passports and other papers, but the rest of the party, anxious to see what could be found in this new field, were in the hills before my arrival, and the reports of their heavy guns were rolling down upon the town as if it was besieged. A squad of Indian soldiers were hurried out after them, and made out to capture one of the party, and march him in, just after I had shown our papers, when he was released without ceremony. The birds, in the jungle of second growth near town, were, many of them, the same we had found in other parts of the group, but the first day’s hunt ati ie that we had reached.a new and distinct location. A number of birds, including the large Philippine crow, the yellow oriole, the black, and bald headed starlings, the white collared kingfisher, one or two sun birds, the fruit-thrushes, and the little scarlet breasted parrots, and many others, are such common residents about the Indian towns, and especially in the coco groves, and are so rarely found in the virgin forest, that we learned to expect them everywhere we went. Their distribution may have depended in part upon the habit the na- tives have of capturing these birds and carrying them from place to place. Since the islands have been inhabited there can be no doubt that man has been the chief agent of distribution, and of much greater importance than storms, floating timber, etc., all taken together. We had,at a step, passed from the region where the dry season was at its height in Negros, Cebu, and Bojol, to where the rainy season was beginning. The mountains behind were much of the time enveloped in dark mists and thunder clouds and, one or two showers had already reached down to the town. The steep hills between us and the true forest were wet and slippery, and we found our best means of reaching the hunting grounds was to employ native boatmen to pilot us up the little tidal river in their canoes to the foot of the mountains. The 1889. ] A Month in the Eastern Phillipines. 105 authorities seem to have become discouraged in trying to make roads in such a country, and though a bridge had been built over the river, the road after running along the beach for two miles, had been abandoned, and all the commerce of the place is carried in boats and on men’s backs. The mountains were heavily timbered and very steep. Several mountain streams formed the river, these flowing along narrow ravines, running for some distance over flat-ledges of rock and then breaking over perpendicular precipices in waterfalls into deep pools below. We found the beds of these shallow streams our best paths, and adopting the native a/pargate, a canvas sandal with hemp sole, we spent our time in following their beds, shooting from the overhanging trees, and the mountain sidesabove. It was stilldry at the town, though it rained nearly every day in the mountains, but usually in the afternoon, and everything was dripping with moisture. We seemed to be in the rain clouds themselves. The land leeches were swarming and very troublesome, even making their way through the meshes of our stockings. But with all our discouragements we were rapidly adding species new to our collection, and new to science. Among these were a new squirrel, a new broad-bill of the genus Sarcophanops, first described from Basilian, two new woodpeckers, and another fruit-thrush, and alittle crow, these two latter staying in the mountains and not interfering with their relatives about the town below. A great horn-bill proved to be distinct from its allies in Mindanao and Luzon. A division of the party took a native boat, and pushed down to the south into the strait of San Juanico, between Samar and Leite, and stopped for ten days at the village of Babat- gnon, on the latter island. The faunaappeared to be identical with that from Samar as might be expected, the strait being in many places not over a mile or two in width and this fre- quently narrowed by small islands. Toward the latter part of our stay, the rains came farther and farther down the mountain side, and storms became fre- quent at the town itself, and so continuous in the mountains as to hinder us considerably in our work. Reptiles were abund- 106 The American Naturalist. (March, ant, crocodiles were found in the river we used as a highway, and our Indian boatmen would devoutly cross themselves and say their prayers before wading into the deeper places. Nearly every day we started the large plant-eating lizard, called z2z/, from the bushes on the sides of the river, and they frequently made directly across the stream in front of us, not swimming in the water, but moving rapidly over the surface, apparently chiefly by strokes of the broad flattened tail and of the hind feet, the head and fore part of the body being elevated high in the air. This is much nearer the position of birds in swimming than that of most reptiles. Perhaps some of the fossil reptilia moved in this way. Weencountered two or three cobra de capellos in our hunting. One of them, an immense fellow, lay coiled behinda big rock with its head raised and neck flattened in the traditional style. The Vaturalista Americano, was within fair biting distance of him as he turned the corner of the rock, and was so frightened that he allowed the snake to drop down and glide out of sight. He did not do much collecting the rest of that day, but spent most of his time in looking out for snakes. There is no doubt butthat the cobra, hearing the noise, was looking out for food, but finding the game too big to swallow, got out of the way without striking. One of the under officers at Catbalogan had a large python which he had kept for a number of yearsina cage. The snake was about fifteen feet long, and as thick as a man's thigh. He was fed once a month, and his appetite de- manded a good sized dog at a meal. As the time for his dinner arrived, he became active, gliding about the cage with head raised and when the trap door was lifted and the dog dropped in it was seized before it touched the bottom, and a coil being thrown about it, it was crushed to death before it had time to howl. After his meal the snake lay for weeks in so deep a sleep that I could not waken him by punching him with my cane. One could run over such a snake in the jungle and hardly know it. A large number of deaths undoubtedly occur in the Philippines from poisonous serpents and pythons, but from the apathy of the people but little attention is paid to it. If a person is killed in this way it is his swerte or fortune, just 1889. ] California Food Fishes. 107 as it is of the gains or loses on acock fight. Remedies for snake poison abound as in other countries. One old Indian who had been to Manila and had dabbled in drugs, assured us that if he could reach the person bitten before he was quite dead he could save him by applying muriaticacid. The flying lizard, Draco, found here differed from those we had collected in other parts, in its larger size, and in having the under surface of the membranes bright red in color. At the end of the month devoted to Samar and Leite, we found a little brig, built in the Philippines, and commanded by a Spaniard, loaded with manila hemp and bound for Manila. Making a bargain with the captain to land us on the island of Masbate, which lay very close to his route, we hurriedly gath- ered our collections and luggage together, and embarked. ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF CALIFORNIA FOOD . FISHES. C. H. EIGENMANN. ROM a biological standpoint the Surf Perches are the most interesting of the California fishes. The species inhabit- ing the shores of California are probably all well known, and the later stages of their larval development have been well treated by Agassiz, Blake and Ryder. Dr. Charles Girard was able to examine younger stages than the other writers, but he did not contribute much to our knowledge of them. Until now the ripe eggs and embryos of these fishes have not been seen. During the past two months, December and January, I have been enabled to examine many individuals of almost all the species found in San Diego Bay. In most of them I have found embryos or ripe eggs. Micrometrus aggregatus, on account of its abundance, the ease with which it can be caught, and the fact that different individuals of the same date have young in widely different stages of development, has proved to be the 108 The American Naturalist. [ March, most interesting of the species. An account of it will serve for all the others. Asis well known, the egg-bearing lamella are broad sheets which are suspended from the roof of the ovary ; there are usually three of these sheets in each half of the ovary. The eggs are very small (.2 mm.) as compared with the eggs of other fishes : they protrude from the lamellz much as other fish ova do and they seem to be surrounded by a more transpar- ent area. I have seen the eggs of several species but for lack of proper facilities to study the material collected a more de- _ tailed description cannot be given at present. The eggs of Micrometrus aggregatus have the yolk collected in spherical masses, and there seems to be no oil globule, while the eggs of Ditrema jacksoni have from one to three oil globules. Whether the eggs are fertilized before they are freed from the lamelle, I cannot state at present; long before hatching, the eggs are found lying in the folds of the ovary. The eye is much less conspicuous than in other fish embryos, and the hypertrophied hind gut is developed before hatching. In larva in which the mouth was apparently not yet formed, the vent was open and the vigorous peristaltic action which was confined to the hind gut began at the vent and traveled forward; this would seem to make it probable that food is taken in through the vent in the earliest stages of the larval existence. A structure whose significance has not yet been determined is found in larvae less than half an inch long. It consists ofaspirally twisted, opaque white substance lying free in the hind gut; it terminates pos- teriorly in a knob; its anterior connection has not been traced. During the peristaltic movement mentioned, this spiral moves freely, and in several instances it was entirely withdrawn from the hind gut, the knob at its posterior extremity seeming to form a partial plug at the anterior end of the posterior intes- tine. The first indications of the peculiar prolongations of the ver- tical fins was noticed in larvae an inch long; all the fins were well developed and the interradial membranes projected as short, broad flaps beyond the tips of the rays. The Herring, Clupea mirabilis, enters the bay of San Diego 1889. ] California Food Fishes. 109 in great numbers during December and January. The eggs are very adhesive when first deposited, but half an hour after deposition they lose their stickiness and remain free when loosened. The yolk is collected in spherical masses. The pro- toplasm is yellow, and the formation of the germinal disk can readily be watched. Strands of the protoplasm can be seen extending from it into the yolk. The first cleavage furrow is formed about two hours after fertilization, and the first cleav- age occupies about forty-five minutes. The furrow travels slowly towards the base of the germinal disk, which it reaches in about twenty-eight minutes; at this stage the two newly formed cells seem well separated. As soon as the furrow has reached the base of the disk it begins to retreat, leaving but a line to separate the two cells. When the furrow has entirely retreated, the division of the two cells is not very plain, and the second furrow is immediately formed. The division of the disk into four cells is more rapid than its division into two. The further development very much resembles that of the shad as it is described by Ryder; it is, however, much slower. The blastopore closes about thirty hours after segmentation. The heart is formed near the close of the second day. Kupfer’s vesicle appears about fifty hours after fertilization. On the sixth day one shell was found, but the escaped fish could not be seen. Other embroyos continued to be active in the shell five days longer, when they died. The Smelt of California, Atherinopsis californiensis, is one of the most abundant of the food fishes. It enters San Diego bay in December to spawn. The eggs are large and transparent, and, during the earlier stages of development the oil is distri- buted in a number of globules, while in a later stage but a single oil globule is present. Each egg is provided with about ten long filaments which differ somewhat from those of Fundulus. The base of each filament is enlarged, disk-shaped and appar- ently hollow, and the substance of the zona seems to enter it. The filaments are uniformly distributed over the surface of the egg, and in the ovary they are coiled around the egg in one direction only. IIO The American Naturalist. [March, The eggs were artificially fertilized; after three hours twenty-five minutes, the first cleavage was completed. Twenty minutes afterwards four cells had been formed. The time of the development of the other phases may be best tabulated : 16 ells... eus edi cnut oswa 4 h. 45 min. after fectilisa in, 13 OM, Quique osanm TR wobuss Rd 5h. Ilo min. * First horizontal fürfow................2.. 6h x At this stage the free nuclei are very abundant and cover about half the yolk. They are much larger and more numer- ous just at the edge of the blastula. The blastula stage lasts less than half an hour; the embryonic shield is first seen forty- one hours after fertilization. Two and a half days after fertili- zation the optic vesicles appear. The blastopore closes after abouteighty hours. Kupfer’s vesicle and the myotomes appear on the fourth day, the heart onthe seventh day; on the twelfth the embryos move vigorously; on the sixteeth day pigment spots appear on the top of the head and along the median line ofthe back. The water space which at first was inconsiderable has greatly increased. The embroyos were at this time near hatching, but, unfortunately died. Some larvæ of this species procured afterwards show the fol- lowing pigment spots: A series along the median line of the back from the occiput to the' caudal fold; a spot above the posterior portion of each eye; one medially above the front of the eye; a small one at the nares. A series of spots along the median line of the sides; numerous spots over the air-bladder and upon the abdomen. Later a series is formed along the base of the anal fold. Yellowish dots are found between the black pigment spots of the back and sides. These larve have a con- tinuous fin fold from the abdominal region of the back around the tail to the vent; a smaller fold in front of the vent. The embryonic rays are most numerous and best developed at the tail. The caudal shows heterocercal tendencies. ‘adoy snurnofn3 snasoyoousy II] ALV TA 1889. ] The Artiodactyla. III THE ARTIODACTYLA. - BY E. D. COPE. (Continued from page 1095, Vol. XXII., 1888.) e passing from the lower to the higher Artiodactyla we en- counter a succession of modifications of the skeleton which give the suborder a higher specialization than any other among mammals. These may be considered under three heads : First, the consolidation of the bones of the carpus and tarsus; second, the development of a tongue and groove of the humero-cubital and metapodio-phalangeal articulations ; and third, increased complexity of the intervertebral articula- tions. Of consolidation of the bones of the feet we have first, the coössification of the larger two elements of the distal row of the carpus and tarsus ; viz. ; the trapezoides and magnum in the former, and the meso- and ectocuneiform in the latter. This commences in the Oreodontidæ (Scott) and continues throughout the succeeding families. The next modification of this kind is the coóssification of the cuboid bone with the navicular. This commences with the Tragulidz, and con- tinues throughout the remaining families. The fusion of the metapodials into cannon bones first appears in geological time in the Tragulidae, as does also the fusion of the ulna and radius (in Hypertragulus ), and also in the contemporary Poé- brotheriida. The reduction in the number of the digits pro- gresses with varying correlation with the other changes, from five in Oreodon to two in Camelus and Bos. As already explained, similar reductions took place in the Eocene mem- bers of the suborder, Anoplotherium having the digits 3-3, and Xiphodon 2-2.. The mechanical cause of these coóssifications must be re- garded as strains incurred in the act of rapid locomotion. Where not sufficient to produce actual flexure, strain is met by resistance and increased nutrition of the tissue, resulting in a strengthening of material at the point ofresistance. With such coóssifications comes increased mechanical effective- lig The American Naturalist. [ March, ness. Kowalevsky has shown that with the reduction of the number of the digits, the metapodials of those which remain, have increased in transverse diameter, so as to articulate with two distal elements of the carpus and tarsus each, Fig. 7. Tra vri sections of molars of ER showing successive com- lications of structure, A. Sus erymanthius ; B. Ovis E C. Bos taurus ; rom Gaudry, jor metus Letters: e, giis e, enamel ; d, dentine. instead of with but one, as in the primitive types, as Anoplo- therium, Hyopotamus and Hippopotamus. (Fig. 8.) He shows that where this expansion of the metapodials did not Fig. 8. Fon fet of: 1. Hippopotamus; 2. Hyopotamus ; 3. Dorcatherium ; 4- Gelocus ; From Kowalevsky. S, ed /, lunar; c, cune eiform ; tz, traperium ; b QUAD) m, magnum; z, uncifor 1889. ] The Artiodactyla. 113 take place, the type became extinct, as in Elotherium. He supposes that the extinction of such types was due to the feebleness of the latter construction, which precluded the attainment of any considerable speed on the part of its pos- sessor. The types in which this expansion took place per- sisted, and became the ancestors of the existing forms. As an example, see Procamelus. (Fig. 10.) The pecia on of the elbow joint first becomes pronounced in the Artiodactyla in the Tragulidae. This consists in the devel- opment of the external part of the condyles of the humerus into a roller of contracted diameters, and sepa- rated from the remain- ing part of the con- dyles by a keel, or a corresponding plane and groove of the head of the radius, forming an interlocking joint of great strength. The strength of the union between the radius and the ulna is in- creased by the devel- opment of a keel on T B. the inferior side of the Fig. 9. Pes of Artiodactyl , yla. A. Mery NE head of the former montanus Cope, two-fifths —€— size. B. x fi : aurus: L. onesfourth natural siz which fits a groove on the upper side of the latter. Both of these structures can be traced from their be- ginnings in the Artiodactyla. (Plate V.) II4 The American Naturalist. [March, Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Fig. 10.—-Part of anterior foot of Procamelus occidentalis from New Mexico. From Repórt of of Capt. G. M. Wheeler, Vol. IV, Pt, II. Fi ig. 11.—Metacarpals of Cosoryx furcatus from Nebraska, two thirds natural size ; ge anterior ten à, posterior ; c, proximal end ; d, distal end. ig. 12. —Left forefoot with par «t of radius of Poebrotherium vilsoni Leidy, from Calais three-fifths natural size. From Hayden's report (unpublished). The trochlear keel or crest, as the tongue of the humerus may be called, is first represented by a convexity of the roller, precisely as in the unguiculate 1 The trochlear crest of the SeS is not homologous with the inter- trochlear eu of the Anthropomorpha PLATE IV. 5 ~ AW NWS : Nw T pow : f 1889, ] The Artiodactyla. 115 | mammals. (Plate IV. figs. A, D, Hyzna, Eucrotaphus.) With the compression of the external part of the condyle, the external slope becomes steeper and is at length nearly verti- cal (Ibid, fig. E, Cervus). The mechanical cause of this troch- lear crest is the use of a single fore leg to support the body in rapid locomotion. As had been remarked by H. Allen, a mod- ern Artiodactyle in rapid motion lights on one forefoot, which strikes the earth immediately on or even beyond a point below the middle of the body (fig. 13). This throws the im- pact principally on the external side of the humeral condyles, with the result stated. A similar cause produces a similiar result in the development of the tongue and groove articula- tion between the metapodials and first phalanges. In light- ing on a didactyle foot, the toes are naturally spread, the result being to throw both the first phalanges away from the median line, or axis of impact, in diver- gent directions. There- sult of this impact is to produce on each metapo- dial condyle as in the case of the humerus, an exter- nal roller of smaller diam- eter than the rest of the condyle (fig. 1 1), and sep- arated from it by an ab- rupt crest. Inboth humer- us and metapodial bones these crests are accentu- ated by a pinching process during flexion and exten- sion. This is produced by the longitudinal tor- sion which results in all limbs in motion from the : arrest of the outward Miar ted aped canadensis in motion, rotation of the foot by the graphs. — m the Muybridge photo- eorth onalighting. The 116 The American Naturalist. [ March, pinching of a keel by its groove takes place at all points in the length of the former reached by the opposite sides of the extremities of the latter during flexion and extension (fig. I4). This keel becomes acute and prominent in the Boóidea, and extends to the anterior face of the condyle fig. 11, Cosoryx furcatus). This development has been apparently especially due to the presence of two sesamoid bones, embedded in the flexor tendons, one on each side of the middle line of the posterior side of the metapodial con- dyle. The fissure between these bones has permitted the moulding of the surface into a keel to fit it. That this has been the case is further indicated by the fact that a single me- dian trochlear surface exists at the distal extremity of the first phalange in all mammals. Buta single flexor tendon crosses 4 Fic. r4— Tongue and groove joints in Cervus elaphus. 1-3, elbow joint with trochlear keel and groove. 1-2, in place; 3, radius dislocated by external torsion. 4-5, metatarso-phalangeal articulation ; 4, in place; 5, dislocated by torsion of phalange; D P, the dead or fixed point. 1889.] The Artiodactyla. 117 this articulation, and it contains but one sesamoid bone, to which the trochlear surface is moulded in a concave surface, as in the case of the patella and the rotular groove of the femur (figs. 8, 9B, 9, IO, 14). The increased complexity of the intervertebral articula- tions,’ is seen in the modifications in the shapes of the zyga- pophyses.’ In reptiles the mutual articulating surfaces of these processes are horizontal and flat. In the lower Mammalia they are slightly oblique. In many Carnivora the obliquity is strongly marked, and a similar form is seen in the lower 4 = al eo Fic. 5—Diagrams oe movements of the vertebral column in locomo- tion. 1, The pace; 2. the run; 3. the trot. Diplarthra. As we ascend the scale of the latter, the pre- zygapophyses become involute and embrace the postzygapo- physes above, as well as externally below (Plate IV., fig. 1, Antilocapra). This superior part of the prézygapophyses develops, and reaches the basis of the neural spine, with which it forms an articulation. The base of the spine expands * For a tabular borea of these, see Proceedings Amer. Ass. Adv. Science, 1883 ; Origin of the Fittest, 1885. * On torsion in Vorne Seeart. Perissodactyla, NATURALIST, 1888, 988, 1073. 118 The American Naturalist. [ March, above this articulation, forming a second process above the postzygapophysis, the episphen. This occurs in the Suoidea and the Bodidea (Plate IV., figs. 2 and 3, Dicotyles and Capra). The mechanical explanation of the origin of this structure is probably found in the nature of the movement of that part of the vertebral column which is between the limbs during progression ; and especially of the more flexible region (lumbar) which is posterior to the ribs. All the gaits of quadrupeds may be reduced to three types, and their varieties. In the first, the extremities of the column are alternately elevated and depressed, without lateral motion. This is seen in the run. In the second, the sides of the column are alter- nately elevated and depressed. This is seen when the limbs of one side move simultaneously, as in the pace. In the third type, limbs of opposite sides of opposite extremities, move together, as in the walk and trot. The effect of this move- ment is to twist the column in its long axis. These effects are diagrammatically represented in the accompanying figure 15. It is this torsion which has produced theinvoluted zyga- pophyses, and later the episphen. It should be the fact that animals which display this structure should walk and trot, while others should pace and run. And this is the case. The trot as a habitual gait is especially characteristic of the Di- plarthra. The Proboscidia and Carnivora pace, although the dogs frequently trot as well. We must suppose that the trot was the favorite gait of the Creodonta, since they possess the involuted zygapophyses. The only genus certainly referable to the DICHODONTIDA, is the Dichodon Owen, from the upper Eocene of England. In this form we have the earliest quadriselenodont molars, the intermediate fifth crescent having disappeared The first superior premolar is like a true molar, while the first inferior is trilobate (Kowalevsky ; molariform, Owen). The other premolars are very elongate and compressed, resembling those of Xiphodon. This resemblance is heightened by the incisi- form shape of the canines, and the uninterrupted dental series. In the same beds occur limb and foot bones which probably belong to Dichodon (Schlosser) which are didactyle, but in 1889. ] The Artiodactyla. 119 which the fusion of the trapezoides and magnum in the tarsus, has not yet taken place. The metapodials then rest on a single carpal or tarsal bone each, instead of on two, as in modern didactyle genera, representing the inadaptive type of Kowalevsky. Dichodon cuspidatus is about the size of a fal- low-deer. Smaller species have been found in Germany. The genus is probably represented in North America by Stibarus Cope, of the White River bed. I have associated provisionally with the Dichodontide two North American genera, Agriochoerus Leidy (Plate III.), and Coloreodon Cope (fig. 5). These genera differ from Dichodon in having the first premolars in both jaws molariform or nearly so, and in having the other ones much less compressed, except the fourth inferior, which is caniniform, as in Oreodon. There are four premolars and little or no diastema in Agri us, and three premolars and a long diastema in Coloredon. The former possesses six species, which are equally divided between the White River and John Day beds,-and the latter, two spe- cies from the John Day Miocene. Their feet are unknown. The remaining families of the Cameloidea are the Poébro- theriidae, Protolabidida, Camelide and Eschatiide. I have already described their characters in the pages of the NAT- URALIST. I will only add to that account the interesting discovery made by Profs. Scott and Osborn, of a third genus of Poébrotheriidae which they call Leptotragulus. It differs from Poébrotherium and Gomphotherium, in the separate condition of the ulna and radius? It is from the highest Eocene beds of Utah (Brown's Park, or Uinta system), and thus stands in ancestral relation to Poébrotherium. The Cameloid phylum presents a noteworthy peculiarity. The Poébrotheriidz have acute trihedral ungual phalanges like those of most other Artiodactyla. In the Camelidz, in- cluding the extinct genus Procamelus, the ungual phalanges are short and obtuse, and apparently undergoing atrophy. This form is associated with the presence of a cushion of con- nective tissue on the inferior side of the phalanges, which * 1886, p. 611: The Phylogeny of the Camelide. : * My knowledge of this genus is entirely derived from the unpublished mss. of Profs. Scott and Osborn. i 120 The American Naturalist. [ March, supports the weight of the animal, thus removing it from the ungues. This cushion has relieved the metapodials from im- pacts and torsion, a fact which I have regarded as explaining the absence of the trochlear keel from the extremity and front of those elements in the Camelida. We must then sup- pose that the development ofthe elastic foot-pad of the camels began in the Miocene period before this character appears, and caused a divergence from the Booid linein the foot struct- ure. This divergence probably took place before the devel- opment of the third stomach, and the addition of water com- . partments in the paunch may be supposedto have commenced at about the same time. Existing Camelide pace, yet they have more or less dis- tinct episphenal processes to the vertebra. These are dis- tinctly visible in Procamelus. We must suppose that their ancestors, as the Poébrotheriida, were trotters, and that the habit has been changed in later periods. With the TRAGULID;E we commence the great, mostly modern division of the Bodidea, or Ruminantia. As already related, most of the characteristic peculiarities of the special- ized Artiodactyla commence with this family. The trochlear cylinder and crest ofthe humerus appear here for the first time, for the Suoid and Cameloid series never develop more than traces of either. The naviculocuboid bone is character- istic. How variable the conditions of the other bones of the limbs are in the Tragulida: may be gathered from the accom- panying table. A few species of two genera, Dorcatherium and Tragulus, still exist in the warm parts of Africa and Asia. These agree with the Camelide in the absence of the third stomach, the other three being present. I. Both metatarsals and metacarpals distinct ; molars brachyodont (Hyper- tragulinz). Lateral toes behind Anterior internal cresent of inferior molars represented by a conical cusp. Lophiomeryx Pom. Interior cresents of inferior molars developed Dorcatherium. Kaup. , . No seist toes behind. Dist in both iaw Cope. I. Metatarsals Sinis a cannon bone; metacarpals distihct ; molars bra- chyodont (Gelocinz). IY. 1889. ] The Artiodactyla. I2I Lateral digits of the manus, none of the pes. Superior premolars with a small internal tubercle........ Leptomeryx Leidy. aa. No lateral digits. POUT 1OWEL PremoOlars I I ween Gis asic cus coh sd nA eee sy ae d UA Gelocus Aym. Three lowkr-premolate sus. Sa i ht oe deu VM os obs Bachitherium Filhol. A metatarsal cannon bone; metacarpals forming a cannon bone; molars brachyodont (Tragulinz). a. Lateral digits well developed. Premolirs entirety (II IC > ce L e aE a a enal CL Tragulus Briss. aa. Lateral digits weak. Four inferior premolars, the posterior with branch ridges; superior premolar 3 Wb strong CIN O oo. ess s nr ans usa sna Amphit-agulus Pomel. Three inferior premolars, the posterior with branch ridges; superior premolar 3 with strong cingulum, elongate.... .......... Prodremotherium Filhol. IV. Metatarsals and metacarpals unknown; molars hypsodont (Hypisod- ontinze A diastema behind p. m. 2: canines below not distinct from incisors. Hypisodus Cope. Cem mmc see eee commas see esse cease Dorcatherium, an existing genus, has four well developed digits, andis nearest the Oreodontidz. The only difference be- tween that family and the present one being the presence and absence ofthe naviculocuboid bone respectively, Dorcatherium must be placed on the Traguloid side of theline. Probablyex- tinct genera will be found which will connect this genus more intimately with the Oreodontidze, for the slight complication of the premolars of extinct genera of the latter, testify to earlier members with simpler ones. phiomer yx and Hypertragulus must be associated with Dorcatherium on account of the lack of cannon bone. Lo- phiomeryx has an inferier type ofinferior true molar, and like Dorcatherium has four toes on all the feet. Hypertrag- ulus displays greater specialization in the absence of lateral digits from the posterior feet. The ulna is also coóssified with the radius, and there is a naviculocuboid bone. The premolar teeth are nevertheless very simple, and are separated by diastemata in both jaws. It must be regarded as a mod- ified descendant of Dorcatherium on one side ofthe main line of descent. (Plate VI.) n the next group the metatarsals have united while the metacarpals remain separate. This is the case in Leptomeryx ofthe American Oligocene. In Tragulus the premolars are much simpler than those of the other genera of Section III, Fan 122 The American Naturalist. [ March, and simpler than those of Leptomeryx, so that these two forms must have been derived from an ancestor which com- bined the simplicity of both forms. For this we must again recur to Dorcatherium, and I therefore insert this genus at the base of the following diagram. With its entirely pris- matic molars Hypisodus has one element of superiority, but the number of its superior premolars is unknown. Prodremotherium Bachitherium Amphitragulus Gelocus Tragulus Leptomeryx Hypertragulus Dorcatherium Lophiomeryx Two species of this family are very abundant in the Czenozoic beds of North America. These are the Leptomeryx evanst Leidy of the White River series, and the ZZypertragu- lus calcaratus Cope of the same, and ofthe John Day Miocene series. Either species was of the size of a spaniel, and had delicately formed limbs. The Æ. calcaratus had large eyes, and a compressed muzzle. Larger species are found in Canadian beds. The least species of the family belongs also to the White River Beds. This is the ZZypzsodus minimus Cope, whose size does not exceed that of a gray-squirrel. Like the Leptomeryx, it does not extend upwards into the John Day beds. The remaining families of the Bodidea agree in possessing the following characters. The second and generally the third superior premolar teeth possess an internal crest as well as the fourth fig. 16), The inferior premolar teeth have oblique transverse crests. The keel of the distal extremity of the metapodial bones ex- tends to the front of the condyle (fig. 11). The lateral met- apodials are represented by their extremities only, the middle PLATE V. Elbow joints of A, Hyena; B, Simia; C, Rhinolophus; D, Eucrotaphus; E, Cervus. 1889. ] The Artiodactyla. 123 (Fic. 16.) Blastomeryx borealis, Cope, superior molars natural size. From Tich- oleptus bed of Montana. Original. portion having disappeared (fig. 8-5). The median pair are united into a cannon bone. There are no superior incisors. The odontoid process of the axis vertebrais trough-shaped. The stomach is divided into four parts. The lowest family ofthe seriesis that of the Moschide. In its hard parts it differs from the Bovide in the simplicity of the anterior third superior premolar, which is without the internal crescent found in the other Bodidea. In this respect it is intermediate bet ween that division and the Cam- eloidea, where the first premolar only possesses the internal crescent. But two genera of Moschide are known, Dremothe- rium from the Lower Miocene of France, and the living Mos- chus. Both lack horns and have well developed canine teeth. The origin ofthis groupis clearly from the Tragulide, and the genus of that family which approaches nearest to it is Amphitragulus, which indeed only differs from it in den- ` tition in the imperfection of the internal crest ofthe second superior premolar. In turn, Dremotherium must be regarded as ancestral to Paleomeryx, the most primitive genus of the Bovide. The Giraffide differ (see table of families )in the mode of attachment of the horns. These are originally separate from the skull, but become attached to it like the epiphyses on the extremities of the bones ofthe skeleton. Their dental char- acters are like those of the Cervida and the lower Bovide, the molars being short crowned or brachyodont. It may be that the condition of the horns in Giraffa represents the mode of origin of the horns of the Bovide,' and that the genus is simply to be reckoned a primitive type inthat family. The * In the sheep the horns begin as bodies separate from the skull. 124 The American Naturalist. [March. specialization of the long neck and fore legs would not ex- clude it from that family. It is merely an adaptation for the habit of browsing on the foliage of tall trees. In the extinct species of its single genus, Giraffa, these characters are found in a less degree than in the existing one, forming transitions to the ordinary forms of Bodidea. The most obvious distinction between the Bovidz and the Cervidz is in the differing character ofthe bony processes of the skull, used for offense and defense. But where horns are wanting, as is the case with some genera, these distinctions fall to the ground. The horn-type of the Bovidz is more primitive than that of the Cervidz, since the horny process is permanent in the former, and is shed and reproduced annu- ally in the latter. The dental type is, however, never so specialized in the deer asis the case with the highest genera of Bovide, remaining always distinctly rooted, while in Bos and some other genera of the latter they become prismatic. But the lower genera of Bovide do not differ from Cervide in this respect. In accordance with these facts the bovine ruminants appear a little before the cervine, though authors generally refer the earliest genera to the latter division. Suchare the genera Dicrocerus and Cosoryx,' which appear in the latest Miocene beds. Dicrocerus only differs from Palaeomeryx in the pos- ` session of horns, which resemble those of deer, but which were, according to Schlosser, never shed, a fact which com- pels its location in the Bovida. In Cosoryx the horns have the same character in this respect, but the teeth are antelo- pine, or prismatic. It is clearly to be placed in the Bovide with Antilocapra (the prong horn, ) and it is closely allied to Dicrocerus. Here wesee that the point of origin of the two families was from a common ancestor, and that this ances- tor was, as has been already expressed by Schlosser, the genus Paleomeryx. Nearly related to this point of departure are the Sivatherium, Bramatherium, and Hydaspidotherium. As they did not shed their horns, they cannot be referred to the Cervide. In their covering with the integument, Cosoryx probably possessed a character of Giraffa, which is a primitive ! Leidy, Cope ; Procervulus Gaudry. 1889. ] The Artiodactyla. 125 stage of the essential character of the horns of the Bovide. Perhaps the retention of the primitive dermal character of this investment, instead of its metamorphosisinto horn, might be regarded as a basis for a dis- tinct family, the Cosorycide. But it is highly improbable that this covering remained in Siva- therium and Bramatherium, whose horns were apparently perfectly naked. It is not evi- dent how all these animals can be retained as distinct from the - that family. The Cosorycine, (Fic. 17.) Dicrocerus furcatus, pos- which will include Cosoryx terior part of skull, one-fourth natural size. Miocene, France. From Gaudry. 2nd Blastomeryx, are charac- terized by the sheath of the horns being dermal ; the Sivatheriinz by the absence of any sheath whatever. The synopsis of genera will then be as follows : I. No horns in the male. Molars brachyodont dias E IE Ss ET cue ied Paleomeryx! Von Meyer. II. Horns covered with skin (Cosorycinz). Teeth brachyodont ; no frontal excrescence Blastomeryx Cope. Teeth prismatic ; no frontal excrescence Crsoryx Leidy. Horns naked (Sivatheriinz). Teeth brachyodont; two pairs of horns, all separate. ....Sivatherium Cautl. Falc. Teeth brachyodont; two pairs of horns ; those of the anterior pair from a common B therium Cautl. Falc. DA Pee Teeth brachyodont ; one pair of horns, from distinct bases....... Dicrocerus Lart. Horns covered with a horny sheath; teeth hypsodont (Bovine). a. No internal column of true molars, E 8. No lateral ungues. (Nasal bones normal; postzygapophyses single). Horn-sheath furcate .... Antilocapra Ord. Horn.sheath simple .....Manotragus Sund. IZ el gap eens P. eminens,type of Palaeomeryx, have possessed horns, as suspected by la "rye. the generic name must take the place of Dicrocerus below, and be re- P'aced by one of the various names which apply to hornless species. 126 The American Naturalist. : [March. BB. Lateral ungues present. y. asal bones. separated from maxillary and lachrymal bones. HOrHs SIMIC, ONG PREF SoU 655, cu in o I Chay Soa de tend OR hM ud Sega Gray. Yy. Nasal bones more or less in contact with lachrymal or maxillary ones. ô. Lumbar postzygapophyses single. (Numerous species not ex- mined) e. Inferior premolars three. PUn. dde DANS oes ere a ks cs Aa es ies Antidorcas Gray. ee. Inferior premolars four. Home tebe poirion vis a Qd o 0l se cee esc P Ne re Tetracerus H. Smith. Horns one pair; last inferior molar with four columns.......... Neotragus! Gray. Horns one pair; last inferior molar with five columns...... ...... Ovis? H. Smith. Lumbar postzygapophyses double. Horns one pair; inf. mol. 3 with five columns...................... Capra Linn. a. One or more superior true molars with a median internal column. Lumbar icum dcus íi. igs roe SON Seok E EM ^ AE gocerus ie Her Lumbar postzygapophyses double............5. uc Uean ese ce ceu ee Bos.* Linn. A great number of names have been given to groups of species of the Bovine, especially within the limits of the genus Ovis of H. Smith. Here the various forms of sheep and antelopes have been distinguished as genera, and named accordingly. So far as concerns the skeleton, further subdi- visions than those indicated in the above table do not appear to exist, and none have been pointed out. The divisions proposed appear to be rather those of one extensive genus. The modifications of the skull have reference to the position ofthe horns. These are processes of the frontal bones, and are placed at points from above the eye to the posterior angle of the facial plane of the skull. In the latter case this angle approaches very near to the supraoccipital crest or inion, and the parietal bone is reduced to an exceedingly narrow band between the frontal and occipital bones (Riitimeyer).* Forms with anterior horns and well developed parietal bones are Ovis gazella and Tetracerus quadricornis; while the Ovis gnu 1 N. saltianus type. This Sapete is derived from authority to which I cannot now refer. I have not seen * Includes the ir 985 supposed genera: Antilope, Gazella, Cervicapra, Oreotragus, Cephalophus, PN rus, Damalis, Alcelaphus, Nemorrhaedus, Ra apices pra, Caloblepas, Haplocerus, Ovis i nd Anoa 3 Includes Rss has we supposed genera: isis, JEgocerus, Oryx, Addax — Por In ept on the last lumbar. 5 Die Rinder der rnit Abh. Schwieiz. Pal. due v, 1878. 1889. ] The Artiodactyla. 127 displays the parietal extremely reduced, and become chiefly lateral in position. As regards the forms of the horns them- selves, they present no important differences, but are angular and revolute in the section Ovis, and cylindric in the division Antilope. In the latter they vary in direction from straight to spiral or curved in different directions. Within the genus Ovis the end of the muzzle is naked or hairy, the latter in the typical forms and in those inhabiting northern and alpine localities generally. Those species that inhabit grassy or desert plains have the end of the nose naked. Within the genus Bos modifications are observed parallel to those in the genus Ovis. The frontal bones with the horn processes are produced more and more posteriorly until the parietal bones are reduced to a narrow band across the pos- terior part of the skull. The bisons have the horns most anterior ; then follow the buffalos, and the extreme is reached in the true oxen, of which the domesticated animal is the type. The following table will give an idea of the phylogeny of the Bovide. Sega Bos Tetracerus Sivatheriinz Cervide Ovis Antilocapra Dicrocerus Cosoryx Blastomeryx Palæomeryx The hornless Palæomeryx has given origin to the horned Boöidea ; on the one hand to the brachyodont (Blastomeryx, etc.), and on the other to the hypsodonts (Cosoryx, etc.). cornification of the integument in a fork horned Cosoryx produced Antilocapra, while the same process in a simple- horned Cosoryx, produced Ovis. The development of this type has undergone the three principal modifications indicated by the three genera which succeed upwards. In Sega an extra- 128 The American Naturalist. [ March. ordinary development of the muzzle takes place, which causes a change in the relations of the nasal bones. In Tetracerus another pair of horns is developed in front of the usual pair. Bos developes complications of the molar teeth in both jaws. Fic. 18. seni) horns, — natural size, showing burrs and repaired fracture. - Fi C. necatus Leidy. Figs. 3-4, C ramosus Cope. rom the wd Fork "Miccétie of New. Mexico. From Report U. S. G. G. Surv. w. of 100 mer On the brachyodont side the development of the dermal covering of the horns of Blastomeryx is arrested, and naked horned types follow. In the Sivatheriine group no further 1839. ] The Artiodactyla. 129 change follows except complication of the horns. In the Cervine group, on the contrary, the habit of shedding them becomes fixed, and a new family has its origin. No species certainly referable to Palaomeryx or Dicro- cerus have been as yet found in North America, but they may be detected at any time. Numerous species have been found in Europe. Cosoryx is abundant in North America, six species being known (fig. 18, C. zecatus and C. ramo- They vary in size from that ofa gazelle to that of a sus). FIG. 19—Blastomeryx borealis Cope, one-sixth nat. size. From Ticholeptus bed of Montana; original. fallow-deer. Although they did not shed their horns, some individuals developed a burr near the base of the beam, and burrs are found on the branches followed by broken down bone (Figs. 18, 2). In other cases broken points ofantlers have become reattached, showing the presence of an integument to retain them. I have suggested that the development.of the burr was due to the stripping or laceration of this integu- 130 The American Naturalist. [March. ment to and at the base of the beam, producing an engorge- ment of the vessels and deposit of calcic phosphate; and that the stripping of the horns when complete resulted in their death and subsequent sloughing, thus originating the periodical shedding of the horns characteristic of the deer. This periodicity would depend on the periodicity of the sea- son of reproduction, when the horns are especially used in conflicts between the males (Fig. 17). Two species of Blastomeryx are known, a smaller, and a larger (B. borealis, Fig. 19), which was about the size of the Virginia deer. It is common in the beds of the Ticholeptus epoch. At the base of the horn on each side, a wing-like expansion extends outwards posterior to the orbit, giving a peculiar appearance to the anterior view. The extinct species belonging to the Sivatheriinz are only known from ,the upper Cenozoic beds of India, and they are among the most remarkable of the Artiodactyla. Several of them were of gigantic size, and their horns were of curious and formidable shapes. In the .Szvazherium giganteum Cautl. Falc., the fore legs were longer than the hind legs ; the forehead was concave, and furnished with a supraorbital horn on each side. The posterior horns were broadly palm- ate, and the muzzle is supposed to have been produced and convex above, as in the moose (Fig. 20). The smaller Bovide are called Antelopes. Extinct spe- cies are numerous in the upper Cænozoic formations of Europe. and Asia, but they are want- ing from corre- sponding beds in North America. The European species are re- lated only sub- generically to those now exist- ingincentraland south Africa. All Fic. 20—Sivatherium giganteum C, F. cranium from 2 front, much reduced. From Falconer. Miocene, India, SOTtS of grada (*1914n7) woaz) sninvj sog HA ALV Id 1889. | The Artiodactyla. 131 tions leading to the true genus Bos are found, especially in India, where many species of large size and various de- velopment of horns have been found. It appears that Bos is a polyphyletic genus, the divisions known as Bison, Bubalus and Bos, having arisen from as many types of Antelopes, which resemble them in the positions of the horns. In North America the division Bison only has been found, and this in Plistocene beds. Such are the species Bos alleni Marsh, and B. latifrons of Harlan. The latter species was of large size, the horn-cores of some specimens being as thick as a man’s leg. It is evident that the line of the Boóidea was not continuous in North America, but that its later representatives were derived from the old wor Thefollowing series may approximate a correct representa- tion of the phylogeny of the genus Bos, expressed in genera. Bos ) Ovis (sens. lat.) l Hasia Cosoryx : Paleomeryx | Dremotherium Moschide. Amphitragulus ) Gelocus Tragulidz. Leptomeryx Ri name tao Anthracotheriide. Cove chee Pantolestes Pantolestide. Of the Cervidz or the Boóidea which shed their horns, the genus Cervus is one of the earliest with which weare acquain- ted. Undoubted species of the genus occur in the Pliocene, and Upper Miocene species are also referred toit. As species from the Lower Pliocene (C. matheroni Gerv.) are referred to Capreolus, those of the Miocene may not be true Cervi. Their structure is not sufficiently known to determine this point. The arrangement of the genera is as follows. The three primary divisions were established by Brooke. I Lateral metapodials complete only distally, and sapporting dewclaws (Telemetcarpi). a. Nasal passages posteriorly two, separated by vomer (Cariaci). 132 The American Naturalist. [March. Hua SADIE SPIKES aa ona quil o ques h meo aE gi eatur Coassus Gray R o a A Ea a EA O E aoe N A De os Cariacus Gray.. A AOI E L nv ow AA S R misa iia E EA A V vw ea wir Rangifer H. Smith. aa. Nasal passage posteriorly one, not divided (Capreoli). a Ea T E P E E E S E RR Hydropotes Swinh. Stoves Peena no nostanile®., ai a a dee gue d Capreolus Gray: Homs palhnaie s no HOSTANUEL. iss sosi eek sara dnse nib adu que Alces H. Smith. Horas pasa: X POAN oca seon sacat nnancu pénal ana Cervalces Scott. II. Lateral Most represented by proximal splints only ; nasal passage not divided (Plesiometacarpi). (Cervi). Frontal cutaneous glands; horns furcate................... ...... Cervulus Blv. No frontal glands; horns simple è Elaphodus M. Edw NO MOMA Sra Doro FOTO a aa Geek sald voce pees Sucks ava vo WR Cervus Linn. No frontal glands; horns palmate Dama H. Smith. Horns furcate; brow antler greatly exceeding beam, (Gill)... Elaphurus M. Edw. The phylogeny of these genera cannot be fully known until the skeletons of the extinct genera and species have been ob- tained. It is, however, certain that the short series of genera included in each of the three divisions (II a and aa, III) are genetic series; and also that division Iis ancestral to both 11 and III, although perhaps by an extinct genus differ- ing in some respects from Moschus. These relations can be thus expresse Capreoli Cervi Cariaci Cosorycinz | Moschinz or thus : Rangifer Cervalces. Alces "^ . Dama Pu Cariacus Capreolus Cervus Cervulus Coassus Hydropotes Elaphodus Moschus Blastomeryx ium * 1889. ] The Artiodactyla. 133 Each of the genetic series commences with a genus with no or with very simple horns. The next genus or stage presents branched horns, sometimes of great complexity. The last term in each is the palmate horn, where a greater or less number of the tines unite to form a plate. These series, asis well known, correspond with the history of the growth of the horns in successive years of the life of each species.( Fig. 21.) None of the genera of this family are extinct except Cer- valces Scott. The true Cervidz form a family of very recent origin, and only distinguished at the period when forms like Cosoryx and Dicrocerus began to shed their horns. Dicrocerus is repre- Fic, 21. Horns of Cervus elaphus from the second to the sixth years inclusive. From Cuvier, sented by several species in the middle Miocene of Europe, and their horns are mostly bifurcate as in the third year’s horn ofa true deer. In the middle Miocene and part of the Plio- cene the horns have three antlers asin the fourth year of Cervus, andas is permanent in the genus or section Rusa of tropical Asia. The many branched horns appear inthe Pliocene and Plisto- . cene in Europe, in numerous species. In America extinct Cervide are more abundant than Bovide. Several species occur in the Pliocene beds of Buenos Ayres, and of Washing- ton. The latter are related to the Moose (Aces brevitrabalis Cope) and American deer, (Cariacus ensifer Cope.) A very 134 The American Naturalist. [ March. remarkable species occurs in the Plistocene beds of the east- ern region, the Cervalces americanus Harlan, Its affinities. are with the Moose, with which it agrees nearly in size ; but it differs in possessing a posterior branch to the horn, which forms a broad, curved plate extending outwards above and behind the orbit, which resembles somewhat a hearing trumpet. ADDENDUM. In the first part of this article in the NATURALIST for De- cember, 1888, p. 1088, I have given the characters of the sub- family, Dicotylinze, of the family Hippopotamidz, and of the two included genera, Dicotyles and Platygonus. Some amendment of these definitions is necessary, as follows: That of the sub-family “ Digits three" should be supple- mented by the words,—on the anterior foot, and four on the posterior. The genera are both stated to have premolar teeth similar to the true molars. This statement must be qualified as regards the species now referred to Dicotyles, and must be contradicted as regards Platygonus. In the latter genus the deciduous premolars only resemble the true mo- lars (fig. 6, p. 1093), and they have the peculiarity of remain- ing in the jaw until the last true molar is nearly protruded. In Dicotyles, the deciduous teeth have disappeared before the last true molar is protruded. The permanent premolars are, as Leidy has described them, generally simpler than the true molars, consisting of two external, and one internal tubercle. But the species differ so much in the characters of their pre- molars that they can be referred to three subdivisions, which may be at some future time regarded as genera. These are as follows : I. Premolars all different from molars (Motophorus Gray); D. tajassus. IL Last premolar only, like the molars (Dicotyles Cuv.) ; D. labiatus Cuv. ; D. serus Cope; D. angulatus Cope.’ III. Second premolar (from front) like true molars (Mylo- yus Cope); D. nasutus Leidy. It is uncertain whether the complex premolar of D. nasutus 1 AMERICAN NATURALIST, Feb. 1889. 1889. ] The Artiodactyla. 135 is the penultimate or the last premolar. Ifit is the last, the genus Mylohyus will be distinguished by the presence of only two premolars. An examination of the crania of Dicotyles tajassus in the U.S. National Museum from Costa Rica, shows that they display characters intermediate between the Brazilian typical form, and the D. angulatus of Texas. The last premolar teeth are sometimes premolariform, and less frequently ap- proach the molariform structure. The facial angle is con- tinued to the position of the canine aveolus, and the ridge of the maxillary bone is only separated from its border by a groove, not a fossa. The nasal bones are not tectiform. In general the characters agree with the D. ¢ajassus, but the lateral facial angle is as in D. angulatus, and occasionally the last premolar resembles that of the same species. It appears then that the latter must be regarded as a subspecies rather than a species. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE III. Agriocher s guyotianus Cope, skull, natural size ; from . Side, and one-half from below. From the John Day Bed of Oregon. Original from unpublished plate in Report of U.S. Geol. Survey Terrs. PLATE IV. The elbow joint of Mammalia, separated, and seen from above and posteriorly. A, Crocuta maculata. B, Simia nigra. C, Rhinolophus sp. D, Eucrotaphus pacificus. E, Cervus elaphus. All four-fifths natural size. PLATE V. Vertebra of Artiodactyla, two-thirds natural size. Fig. I Antilocapra americana; 2, Dicotyles angulatus; 3, Capr x hircus. Prz prezygapoplysis ; Poz postzygapoplysis; E.S. Episphen. 136 The American Naturalist. | March. PLATE VI. Hypertragulus calcaratus Cope, skull, natural size ; from the lower Miocene. Fig. 1, lower jaw from above, of specimen from White River bed of Colorado. Fig. 2, skull from John Day series of Oregon ; a, side, 0, from above, c, from below. FLATE VIE Bos taurus, dentition, two-thirds natural size ; from Cuvier. EDITOR'S TABLE. EDITORS E. D. COPE, AND J. S. KINGSLEY. The position of the Post- Darwinians is clearly set forth in an abstract of a lecture delivered by Prof. E. Ray Lankester, at the London Institution, which appears in Mature of February, 28th. Prof. Lankester declares that the error of Lamarck (and consequently of the Neolamarckians,) consists in the assump- tion that acquired characters can be inherited. He says, '" Congenital variation is an admitted and demonstrable fact ; transmission of congenital variations isalso an admitted and demonstrable fact. Change ofstructure acquired during life— as stated by Lamarck—is also a fact, though very limited. But the transmission of these latter changes to offspring is not proved experimentally ; all experiment tends to prove that they cannot be transmitted." Two inferences may be de- rived from these statements. First;the author of them does not believe that the so-called congenital variations can be or have been acquired ; second; that he has no hypothesis to offer in explanation of the origin of congenital variations. These positions exclude another inference which nevertheless may be derived from other propositions embraced in the abstract of the lecture. He says, with Lamarck, that '' change of structure acquired during life is also a fact,” and also that “all plants and animals produce offspring which resemble their parents on the 1889. ] Editors Table. 137 whole.” But in spite of these statements we are to believe that if a plant or animal acquires a useful addition to or mort- ification of its structure during life, this is the particular varia- tion which will zo? be transmitted. Since the modifications. acquired by use during life are necessarily useful, it seems that according to the Post-Darwinians, the only way of acquiring useful variations known to us, is excluded from the process of Organic evolution. To say the least of it, the doctrine of probabilities is severely taxed by such a position as this. But we say further, with Professor Cunningham, that were this hypothesis true, there should have been no evolution. If acquisition during life-time, is to rendera character non trans- missible, the continued growth of a single character by accre- tions during successive generations through geological ages could not and ought not to occur. Each generation should begin where its ancestors began in the matter of useful charac- ters, or those acquired by use, so that there could be no accu- mulation or development of such characters. The influence of the environment, as well as that of the energies of the living being, would be incompetent to develop more in a given gener- ation than that generation could acquire in its single life-time. How then can evolution account for the law so beautifully dis- displayed by paleontology, of the gradual modification of parts through long geological ages, towards given ideals of mechan- ical perfection? How can we account for the gradual per- fecting of the articulations of the internal and external skele- tons of forms which possess them? Not only is no explana- tion offered the Post-Darwinian school, but such progress is under their hypothesis, impossible. It is an explanation of obscurus per obscurius. But we are still of the opinion, in spite of Weissman’s theory to the contrary, that so long as the germ plasma is subject to nutrition, it is subject to influences occur- ing during the adult life of an animal, and it would be an ex- ception to all the other tissues were it not so.— £. D. C. A graceful tribute to the memory of Priestly, was recently paid by the first Unitarian Church of Philadelphia. A tablet 138 The American Naturalist. [ March, surmounted by a bust was placed on the interior wall of the church, and services in honor of the philospher, in which sev- eral scientific men took part, were beld at the time of the un- veiling. Priestly was not only one of the fathers of modern chemistry ; it was also as a philosopher and theologian, and as one of the founders of the first Unitarian Church of Philadelphia, that he was honored on this occasion. Though this act of appreciation has come too late for him to enjoy, it will encourage others to contribute theirshare to the progress of mankind. RECENT LITERATURE, LANG’S COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.'—This is the beginning of an entirely new edition of Schmidt’s Comparative Anatomy, and so far as one may judge from a single part, it is tobe ranked among the best of the recent text books. On every page there is a freshness both in treatment and illustration which is pleasing, while the text reads almost like a story. There is one noticeable feature in the work; it is logical in its arrange- ment. Thus we have as an introduction a couple of pages of an account of the cell followed by twenty on the Protozoa ; next the student is introduced to the egg and spermatozoan, cell complexes and tissues, a few words concerning the Met- azoa, and with this preparation we are lead to the Ccelenterates and thence to the higher forms. Several features, which though not exactly new, we do not recall in any text book, are introduced into the classification, and are usually to be regarded as improvements. Thus the division of the Cnidaria (—Ce- lenterata s. str) into Hydozoa, Scyphozoa and Ctenophora and the limitation of the first two of these by the character of the cesophagus (ento, or ectodermal) is a valuable feature, though itdisarranges our preexisting ideas and transfers the Craspedota from the Hydrozoa to the neighborhood of the sea anemones and corals. So too the separation of the Plathelmintha from the Vermes is certainlyto be warranted on morphological grounds. The present part of the work considers only the Protozoa, Ceelenterata, Plathelmintha, and Vermes, but if 1 Lehrbuch du vergleichenden Anatomie, von Dr. Arnold Lang. Erste abthei- lung, June, 1888, pp. 290. 1889. ] Recent Literature. 139 the succeeding parts treat the other groups as well, the whole will certainly prove a success. BIRDS OF IoWA.—In the proceedings of the Davenport Academy Natural Sciences for 1888, there appears a catalogue of the birds of Iowa, with notes. It is published only as a preliminary list and so escapes most of the criticism that might be offered, were it simply presented as a complete summary of extended observations. Although it is offered only as preliminary, yet it is the most complete and reliable list that has so far appeared. It shows the authors to be familiar with the habits and habitats of all the common birds of the state and also that they have a good knowledge of many that are rare. The authors enumerate 255 species as coming under their personal observation. Among this number are many species which have not been heretofore recorded as having been observed in Iowa, although from their known geographical distribution it was naturally supposed that they were to be ound here. The maximum number of species probably found in the state including summer and winter visitors and Sea- birds migrating north by way of the Mississippi river,—is not much above 350. Taking into account the fact that the collections and obser- vations, upon which this list is based, were made chiefly in the vicinities of Charles City, Des Moines, and Iowa City, all sit- uated in the interior of the state, and thus notaffording a good opportunity for the study of many of the water birds, the work shows itself to be the result of much time and study. _For the reason just stated the list is most deficient in water birds. It is especially complete in Passerine species, when we consider the number of summer and winter, as well as West- ern visitors this order affords. That the comparative completeness of the list may be readily seen the following list is appended. The first column gives the number of species which are probably to be found in the state as compiledfrom the known geographical distribution. The second column contains the number given in the catalogue of Messrs. Keyes and Williams. Pygopodes...... deal IO 4 Lonpipenies a 00 ee a s Steganopodes sess. 2 P OTP TE E von voy E T ETA eee eee řacavocooooo 43 26 v preliminary circulated catalogue of the birds of Iowa, by Charles R. Keyes and H. S. Williams M.D. Prof. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci. Vol. V. 140 The American Naturalist. [March, DEO oe das ons SA aa AUS San eee r i 13 8 PRIOUICONES Ciuc Qua*ascéteesv mn oris cone equ melo II 8 imi * 37 21 Gallin 6 5 OTT RAE PARASE Ea T O N A N TA FEA 2 2 Raptores 34 25 Psittaci s-ra- I I occyges 3 3 Doth Ses won eet I MEDI ete US IO 7 MOBIL OU ee da Fails Ade QUEE ciun dee pe Se 4 4 CL a Sn dean kaka an as VENIA E SES SUN E Cae sane 153 136 The work is especially valuable for the following things: Dates of arrival and departure of summer residents. Dates of arrival and time of stay of migratory birds breed- ing farther North. Dates of arrival and departure of winter visitors. Breeding season and nesting habits F. M. Fultz, Burlington, Ta. RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. Bergens Se nes for 1887. Bergen 1888. From the Muse Campbell, Fein P.—Biology and its ne in a liberal education. Athens, Ga. 1888. From the author Cornell eo e In eic Station, Bulletin III. From the Sta eum s es —Microscopial Tube Fanghi tiinas of Cover-glass. m and size of the Blood Corpuscles of the Lamprey—Mor- vitem of Muscular fibres in Minute Animals. Ext. The Mi- croscope. 1887-8. From the Author. Jenkins, O. P., and Everman, B. W.—Description of M Gus new species € fishes from the gulf of California. Ext. Proc. U. S. N 1888- From the Authors Korschelt, pes — Ueber die Geschlechtliche E M der Ein- zelligen und besonders der Infusorien t. Kosmos 1886.— Funktion und Lage des Zellkerns bei P Paasen. Ext. Biol. Centralblatt viii. From the author Lewis, T. H.—Effigy Mounds in luum Illinois. Ext. Science. 1888. From the Author esa Oscar C.—The Tribe of Ishmael, a study in social degrada- tion. 1888. From the Author 1889.] Geography and Travel. I4I Minot, C, S.--Second Report on Experimental Psychology upon the diagram tests. . Proc. Am. Socy. Psy. Research. 1888. From the Author. Parker, G. H.—The eye of the Lobster. Ext. Proc. Am. Acad. 1888. From the Author. Plateau, Fehx— Rechérches Expérimentales sur la vision chez les Arthropodes; 4e partie. Bruxelles. 1888. From the Author. Plateau, Felix—Rechérches Expérimentales sur la vision chez les Ar- thropodes Vme partie. Bruxelles. 1888. From the Author. Rice, Wm. N.—Science-Teaching in the Schools. Ext. Am. Nat. 1888. From the Author. Weismann und Ischikawa.—Weitere Untersuchungen zum Zahlen- gesetz der Richtungskórper. Ext. Zool. Jahrbuch. 1888. From the Authors. GENERAL NOTES GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. . THE STATE OF MICHOACAN.—Michoacan is one of the richest and most fertile of the states of Mexico, rich in woods, in mines, and in capacity of cultivation. Along with part of Guanajuato, it formed the ancient kingdom of Mechocean. Its extent is 55,693 sq. kilometres, its population about 800,000. The entire state is mountainous, and a considerable portion is occupied by lakes, among the principal of which is that of Patgcucero. The coast line is 163 kilometres long and con- tains the ports of SanTelmo, Bucerico and Marauta. Among the principal peaks of the state are Tarcitaro (3,860 m.), Patambon (3,750 m.), Quinceo (3,324), Tarimangacho (3,104), Zirate(3,340), and San Andres (3,282). BoLivia.—According to an interesting article in the last issue of the Spanish Geographical Society, the area of Upper Peru, now known as Bolivia, is 2,115,329 kilometres, or rather more than four times that of Spain. Its population, according to a census taken in some departments, and calculations made in others, is only 1,182,270, a figure considerably below pre- vious calculations. The engineer Minchi gives the altitude of La Paz as 3,641 m., that of Lake Titicaca at 3,824 m., and 142 The American Naturalist. [March, that of the peak of the Illimani as 6,488 m. This height agrees well with the average given by other surveyors. Sor- ata is thirty or forty metres higher. Among other elevated peaks are Chachacomani (6,203), Hauina (6,184), Murudata, (5,120) Sunchulli (5,546), and Tres Cruces (5,504). All of these as well as Sorata and Illimani are in the department of La Paz. In that of Oraro are Sajama (6,546), Parinacocha (6,376), Pomerape (6,260), Azanagues (5,136) and Guanani (3,968). In Pobors are the peaks of Charague (5,603), Po- tosi (5,830), Nuevo Mando (5,949), Lipez (5,982), Taguegua (5,704), Guadalupe (5,754), Esmeraca (5,406), Tazna (5,105), and Ubina (5,203), and in Cochabamba that of Tunare (4,726). The most elevated inhabited places are: Tolapalca (4,290), Potosi (4,166), in its highest part, Catamarca (4,141), and Oruro (3,792). The great tableland between the two ranges of the Andes has an average elevation of 3,800 metres. The mountainous part of Bolivia may be divided into four regions: (1.) that between the sea and the high plateau, poor in vegetation but rich in minerals and salts; (2.) the plateau itself, also poor in its flora, but rich in mines of every class; (3.) the region of the valleys formed by the lateral chains of the interior of Royal Andes, the chains which unite the two main ranges, and the buttresses of the interior range—this is a most fertile country with exuberant vegetation; and (4.) the eastern plains, a land of virgin woods and wilds. Among the valleys of the third region may be mentioned those of Beni, Santa Cruz, and Cinti, the last famous for its wines. e yungas are deep valleys, whose temperature never descends below 21? and rises to 45 C. ! In the E. and N. are the great flats of Beni, Santa Cruz, Chiquisaca, and Tarija. The river Beni and its tributaries inundate these flats in the flood season, leaving large lagoons, and giving rise to insalubrious conditions. More to the E. the Paraguay also inundates the flats of Manzo and Gran Chaco, forming the Tarayas lakes. Between the Paraguay and Pilco- mayo are great salt lakes, the most notable of which is Izozo. Some sierras arise in the eastern part, on the confines of Brazil, the most easterly that of San Simon The greater part of the rivers of Bolivia are affluents of the Amazons or the La Plata, and are navigable. Only one river, the Loce, reaches the Pacific, all others are lost in the Ata- cama desert. About a third of the population is white, the rest for the most part Indian or Mestizo. Among the higher classes of the 1889. ] Geography and Travel. 143 whites, French customs prevail, but the Chulos or Mestizos still wear the dresses they wore when they were Spanish subjects. EUROPE.—GEOLOGICAL WORK IN SPAIN.—The two first volumes of the Commission of the Geological map of Spain treat of the geology and mineralogy of the province of Huelva, and will be followed by two other volumes treating of the petrography of the same province. The same Commmission has also published the fourteenth vol- ume of its bulletin, which is almost exclusively occupied by a description of the lower cretaceous formation of, by Sr. L. Mallado, forming part of a Paleontological Synopsis of Spain, which commenced with the ninth issue of the same bulletin. The general geological map of Spain, consisting of thirteen sheets, is also almost complete. The Commission of Mining Statistics has also published a map of the peninsula showing the areas conceded in each province for the exploita- tion of various minerals. The Hydrographical Commission has not only published the plans of various parts of the Medi- terranean coast, but is at work upon those of the Philippines. ENGINEERING WORKS IN EuROPE.—Among engineering works of geographical importance now being carried on in Europe, are the canal across Schleswig from the North Sea to the Baltic, commenced in June, 1887, and likely to be fin- ished next year; and the construction of a railway from Bel- grade to Salonica. In Italy a project is on foot to convert Rome into a sea-port by forming a canal from the south-east part of the city to the coast. As the Tiber, at the highest point of the canal, is but twelve metres above the level of the sea, the project does not involve any very great difficulty. _A new port for the city of Bilboa is also projected. Bel- gium is commencing a series of fortifications upon the river Meuse to protect the territory in case of a new Franco-Ger- man war. © SARDINIA.—From the fourteenth to the sixteenth century, during the time that Sardinia belonged to Aragon, the official language of the island was that of Catalonia, but this was superseded by the Castilian tongue after the union of Aragon and Castile. Nevertheless the Catalan language is still spoken at the northern end of the island, where, at the foot of Nurra, the Catalan Sr. Toda, found himself perfectly 144 The American Naturalist. [ March, understood. In Alguer, an ancient walled city of 12000 inhab- itants, the names of the streets are Catalan as are also the ‘speech of the populace and the songs of the children. Since the Peace of Utrecht in 1720, the Castilian tongue has given way to the Italian, yet even within its capital, Cagliari, the Spanish tongue is still used in the nunnery of Santa Clara. THE MOUNTAIN RANGES OF SPAIN.—The highest peaks of the Pyrenees, according to the recently issued, '' Reseña Geographica y Estadistica de Espana, are Nethon, 3404 metres ; Pico de Posets, or Landana, 3,367 m.; Maladetta or Montes Malditos, 3,354 m.; and Tres Sorores or Mont Perdu, 3,351 m. The northern range of the Iberian peninsula is by D. J. Bisco considered as composed of two sections, the one east, the other west, of the northern end of the Iberian range, which is that which forms the western border of the Ebro valley, and which prolongs itself southward sufficiently to form a base from which rise the ranges running east and west between the various rivers of Castille and Andalucia. The highest peaks of the Vasco-Cantabrian or eastern portion of the northern cordillera are: Pefia de Cerreda, 2678 m.; Pefia Vieja, 2639 m.; Pefia Prieta, 2520 m.; and Contes 2373. The two highest peaks of the western or Galicio-Asturian part of the northern range are: Espiguete 2453 m.; and Peña- Ubina, 2300. The Iberian, or north and south system, the highest portion of which is known as theMountains of Burgos, has no peaks comparable to those of the Pyrenees, its three highest summits being Moncayo 2315 m,; San Lorenzo, 2303 m.; and the Picos de Ebibron, which rise to 2246 metres. The city of Burgos stands at a height of 856 metres. The ranges which run westward from the Iberian are the Central, between the basins of the Duero and Tajo (Tagus); the Toledo Mountains, between the Tajo and the Guardiana, the Sierra Morena, and the Sierra Nevada. The highest sum- mits of the Central system are: Plaza del Moro Almansor 2,650 metres; Calvitero 2,401 m.; Pefialara 2,400 m.; and Hierro 2,383. The city of Avila stands at a height of 1,126 metres, Segovia at 1,000, and the Observatory of Madrid is 655 metres above sea level. None of the Toledo Mountains attain great elevations, the loftiest being Corocho de Roci- galgo 1,448 metres and Vicente 1,429 m. Still more insignifi- cant is the elevation of the Sierra Morena, which rising but slightly above the plains of Castile, may be regarded as little more than a huge step from those plains, to the valley of the 1889. ] Geography and Travel. 145 Guadalquiver. The highest points are, Estrella 1,299 m., and Rebollera 1,160 m. South of the Guadalquiver, the Penibetic system culmina- ting in the Sierra Nevada, though less continuous and exten- sive than the Pyrenees, attains in some points elevations second only to the Alps. The two loftiest peaks, Mulhacen 3,481 m., and Veleta 3,470 m., are both near Granada. Next in height come the Cerro’ de la Alcazaba 3,314 m., and the Cerro de la Caldera 3,289 metres. AFRICA.—THE MUNI QUESTION.—According to a paper read by Sr. F. Coello, before the Geographical Society of Madrid, (Jan 9, 1889) the rights of Spain in the Gulf of Gui- nea date from a treaty made with Portugal in 1777, by which the island of Santa Catalina and the Spanish colony of Sacra- mento (in Brazil) were ceded to Portugal in exchange for the islands Ferndéo do Poo and Anno Bon, together with the right to treat with the natives in all the neighboring coasts, from Cape Formozo at the mouth of the Niger, to Cape Lopo Gon- £alves, or Lopez, S. of the Gaddo. (The Portuguese orthogra- phy is here given). Portugal had the right to dispose of these coasts, not only from having discovered them, but from having occupied the Cameroons, the Gaboon (where some relics of the Portuguese dominion have been found), and some points in the interior. In 1778 this treaty was ratified, and a Spanish expedition took possession of Fernando Po and Anno Bon. In 1827 the English occupied the former island, but afterwards surrendered it, and proposed to purchase it for 1,500,000 francs. This proposal was refused, and in 1843 an expedition took possession of both the above islands and of Corisco. The king of Corisco and of the Vengas tribes, who inhabit the neighboring coasts and the banks of the Muni, also acknowl- edged the sovereignity of Spain. No nation but France has disputed the rights of Spain upon the Muni, nor did France dispute them until many years later. In June, 1843, the French took possession of a blockhouse at the mouth of the Gaboon, the site of the present Libreville, but all annexations since made by France have been to the southward. Various treaties, letters of nationality, etc., have since bound the natives of various parts of this territory to Spain. The first claim of France dates from May, 1860, and pro- ceeded from the governor of the Gaboon. In 1883 the French openly claimed the territory, not only as far as the river Campo, (the northern boundary of the Spanish possessions) 146 The American Naturalist. [ March, but even to and beyond the Cameroons. The Germans, who later on commenced to treat with the natives of this part of the coast, recognized in 1885 the rights of Spain as far north as the river Campi. In various expeditions under Dr. Ossario, Ivadier, and the governor Sr. Montes de Oca, the basins of the Campo, Benoto or Eyo, and Muni, were explored, and as many as 370 chiefs recognized the rule of Spain. The terri- tory thus embraced covers about 50,000 sq. kilometres, and if the strip is carried inwards between the same degrees of lati- tude to the Ubangi, parallel to the French possessions, would contain at least 180.000 k. It is, moreover, a fertile and thor- oughly well-watered country, well-wooded and capable of great production. THE CITY OF WAZAN.—It is alana agris and almost unexampled, says Don T. de Cuevas, in recent issue of the Boletin of the Madrid Geographical ete to meet among the most remote folds of the Masamoda mountains a city of at least 11,500 inhabitants, a centre of mercantile ac- tivity and of traffic among semi-independent kabyles, the seat of a religious power that at the commencement of this century made the monarchs of the Magreb tremble on their throne, and the residence of Xarifes who descend from kings and even from a higher stock, since in their veins runs the blood of Mo- hammed. Uazzan has various d uegmphion the French know it as Ouezzan, the English as Waz When at the destruction of sce 979-84 A.D. the Edri- site power was overthrown, part of the Edrisites took refuge in the Uad Droa, and established themselves in Axyen, a town of Arjona, at the beginning of the XVI. century, a little after the Xerifes Saadies had acquired the throne of Morocco. From Axyen, the emir Muley Abdallah changed his residence to Wazan. The consent of this Xerif is necessary in order to make the election of the Sultan legal. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.—The Hungarian, M. Dechy has ascended Elbourz and has reconnoitred the glaciers which sur- round that peak ; and M. Trillo has explored the right bank of the Volga and has discovered the ruins of an ancient city, in which, from the marbles, aqueducts, and Arab, Persian, and Tartar coins met with, a high civilization must have existed. Two small sections of railway have at last been opened in Persia, one from Teheran to Xahzade-Abdulazin, the other from the coast of the Caspian to Amal, the capital of the 1889. ] Geography and Travel. 147 province of Mazanderan. A line uniting the Persian gulf and the Caspian sea is also spoken of. The Germans accuse the English of delaying the rectifica- tion of the bounderies between the possessions of the two countries in the Niger region, until they had made sure of their claims over the Upper and Central Binue by means of treaties with the native chiefs. France and England dispute the protectorate of the Egba territory, situated to the north of Porto Novo and Lagos. The English claim that the natural route to Abeokuta, the Egba capital, is by the river Ogun, which disembogues at Lagos, while the French claim that it can be reached as readily by the French river Addopero. The truth is that the Frenchman M. Viard has got ahead of the English in treating with the Egba king. The expenses of the Congo Free State during 1887, have amounted to 1,891,190 francs, spent in political and judicial administration, transport and mails, constructions, geographical explorations, etc. The receipts are not given, but they must be small, since at present ivory is the only article of commerce. The treaty by which the Sultan of Zanzibar conceded the greater part of the coast of Zanguebar to Germany, came into force the 15th of August last, but the rebellion of the natives of Pangani has spread along the coast and makes German do- mination difficult. It is said that at the present time the Ger- mans have abandoned the only two points they had occupied viz: Bagamoyo and Dar-es Salam. Turkey has sought to reclaim the port of Zeila, in the gulf of Aden, asserting that it was yielded to Egypt on condition of an increased tribute; but England asserts that the said port is in the Egyptian dominion. Inthe meantime Zeila remains in the hands of England. _ Among the boundary disputes which are common in Amer- ica, there has now risen one which is also a question of money. ` Rich gold fields have apparently been discovered in Dutch Guiana, between the rivers Lava and Papanaom ; but the French call to mind that both these rivers are affluents of the Mar- ouine, which forms the boundary between the two colonies, and therefore doubt the right of the Dutch to the territory. , According to a provisional treaty concluded between Bo- livia and the Argentine Republic, the boundary between the two countries follows the parellel of 22? S. from the Paraguay to the Pilcomayo, thus leaving the two coasts of the navigable part of the latter river in the possession of the last named country. 148 The American Naturalist. [ March, Last March the French took possession of the Society islands, it is said, at the invitation of the inhabitants, but some of the natives of the island Raiatea attacked a French detach- ment. England has taken possession of the Fanning islands, south of the Sandwich group. England has also acquired the island of Rarotonga, which is advantageously placed between Panama and Australia, and which France considered as a nat- ural connection between Tahiti and New Caledonia. Germany has declared the neighboring Tonga group, which England intended to take possession of, to be neutral in accord- ance with the agreement signed by both powers April 6, 1886. GEOLOGY AND PAL/EONTOLOGY. CREDNER ON PAL/EOHATTERIA. The seventh part of Dr. H. Credner's account of the Stegocephali and Saurians found in the ** Plauens'ch Grounds," near Dresden, is devoted to the above-named interesting genus of Reptilia. A single species is embraced in the genus, P. longicaudata Credner. This animal was of about the size of the Sphenodon punctatum of New Zealand, and presents so many points of affinity, that Dr. Credner places it in the same order, the Rhynchocephalia, and even in the same family, the Sphenodontidz. An examination of Professor Credner's description and the figures with which it is abundantly illustrated, shows that its describer has not overrated the importance to biology of its discovery. But its nearest ally is not, as Professor Credner supposes, the Sphenodon punctatum of New Zealand, but the fossil Szereosternum tumidum from the probable carboniferous formation of Brazil. It differs widely from Sphenodon in the character of the pelvis, agreeing in this with Stereosternum, and with the Pelycosauria. It differs from the Pelycosauria in its two postorbital cranial arches, and in its single-headed ribs, agreeing in the latter point with both Stereosternum and Sphe- nodon; and probably in the former point also, but the charac- ter of the cranial arches in Stereosternum remains unknown. It agrees also with the Brazilian genus in the characters of the tarsus, and differs more from the Pelycosauria and less from the Sphenodon. The humerus is also like that of Stereos- ternum. 188c,] Geology and Paleontology. 149 The conclusion is that Palzohatteria is one of the Progan- osauria, and that it is probably a member of the family of the Stereosternida. The division Proganosauria differs from the Rhynchocephalia by the structure of the pelvis. Since the above was written, a review of Professor Credner's paper, by Dr. G. Baur, appeared in the February number of the Americau Journal of Science and Arts. His conclusions are similar to those reached by myself. —E. D. COPE. BROGNIART AN D DóDERLEIN ON XENACANTHINA. Thanks to these authors we are now wellacquainted with the structure of this important type of palaozoic fish. M. Brogniart' has described the structure of the skeleton, and Professor Dóder- lein? gives us that of the skull. The former bases his observa- tions on numerous specimens from Commentry, and the latter on material from the coal formation of Alsace. He shows that it is nearly allied to Didymodus from the North American Per- mian, and represents the same ancestral type of fishes. The spines are present, the former supporting short ribs. The dor- sal fin is especially interesting, as displaying one of the primi- tive stages of development of this organ. It is distinguished by the enormous size of its basiosts, which, as in Lepidosiren, are articulated with the axinosts. The fin radii also articulate with the baseosts, thus differing from the Lepidosirenide, and agreeing with Pheneropleuron. And all these support with the neural spines, confirming the view which I have taken of the original relation of the fins to the vertebral column. ; Dr. Dóderlein agrees very nearly with the position assigned this division (the Ichthyotomi) by the present writer, except that he thinks that it should be separated from the Elasmo- 1 Etudes sur le Terrain Houillier de Commentry, par C. Brogniart et E. Sauv- age. - 2 Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1889, March 4th. 150 The American Naturalist. [ March, branchii and maintained as a distinct class like the Dipnoi. He employs Lütken's name, Xenacthini for it, but this must be clearly retained for the subdivision of the Ichthyotomi to which Xenacanthus properly belongs. If for instance, it should be discovered that Acanthodes belongs to the Ichthyotomi, (AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1887, p. 1016) the Xenacanthini and Acanthodini would be two of its primary divisions. It is to be regretted that M. Brongniart was not better ac- quainted with the work done in America on this group, as he would have been thus spared the necessity of making some new names.—E. D. COPE. CROLL ON MISCONCEPTIONS REGARDING THE EVIDENCE OF FORMER GLACIAL PERIODS. Ina paper read before the Geological Society of London, January 23, 1889, Dr. James Croll made the following statement :— The imperfection of the geological record is greater than is usually believed. Not only are the records of ancient glacial conditions imperfect, but this follows from the principles of geology. The evidence of glaciation is to be found chiefly on land-surfaces, and the ancient land-surfaces have not, as a rule, been preserved. Practically, the several formations consist of old sea-bottoms, formed out of material derived from the de- gradation of old land-surfaces. The exceptions are trifling, such as the underlayer of coal-seams and dirt-beds, like those of Portland. The transformation of an old land-surface into a sea-bottom will probably obliterate every trace of glaciation; even the stones would be deprived of their ice. markings; the preservation of boulder-clay, as such, would be exceptional. The absence of large, erratic blocks, in the stratified beds, may indicate a period of extreme glaciation, or one absolutely free from ice. The more complete the glaciation the less probabil- ity of the ice-sheet containing any blocks, since the rocks would be covered up. Because there are no large boulders in the strata of Greenland or Spitzbergen, Nordenskiold maintains that there were no glacial conditions there down to the termi- nation of the Miocene period. The author maintained that glaciation is the normal condition of polar regions, and if these at any time were free from ice, it could only arise from excep- tional circumstances, such as a peculiar distribution of land and water. It was extremely improbable that such a state of things could have prevailed during the whole of the long period from the Silurian to the close of the Tertiary. A million years hence, it would be difficult to find any trace 1889. ] Geology and Paleontology. I5I of what we now call the glacial epoch; though if the stratified rocks of the earth's crust consisted of old land-surfaces, instead of old sea-bottoms, traces of many glacial periods might be de- tected. The present land-surface will be entirely destroyed, in order to form the future sea-bottom. It is only those ob- jects which lie in existing sea-bottoms which will remain as monuments of the post-tertiary glacial epoch. It is then probable that the geologist of the future will find in the rocks formed out of the non-existing sea-bottom more evidence of a glacial epoch during post-tertiary times than we now do of one, say, during the Miocene, Eocene, or Permian period. Palzntology can afford but little reliable information as to the existence of former glacial periods. THE VERTEBRATA OF THE SWIFT CURRENT RIVER,II. In the NATURALIST for 1885, p. 163, the writer gave a brief ac- count of the vertebrata of the above locality obtained by the Geological Survey of the Dominion of Canada. Explorations set on foot by the Director of the Survey, Dr. A RC. Ser- wyn, during the year 1888, resulted in the obtaining of a num- ber of additional species, some of which are of considerable interest. In describing these, I will enumerate those already known from that locality. The specimens are generally in a fragmentary condition, owing to the conglomeritic nature of the deposit. The new material was obtained by Mr. T. C. Weston, of the Survey. The total number of species is seven- teen. PISCES. Amia sp., numerous vertebrz. REPTILIA. Trionyx sp., Ann. Report, G. N. H. Survey, Canada, 1885, € B, 79. Stylemys sp. loc. cit. MAMMALIA. : Rodentia. Paleolagus turgidus Cope, loc. cit. Bunotheria. Hemiopsaldon grandis Cope, loc. cit, and American Nat- uralist, 1885, p. 163. Ancylopoda. - Chalicotherium bilobatum sp. nov. 152 The American Naturalist. {March, Founded ona mandibular symphysis and part of the left ramus of an adult animal, which contains the alveoli of the an- terior four molars, and part of that of the fifth. All the pre- molars are two-rooted, showing that they are but three in number. Canines and incisors wanting, the anterior alveolar margin thin and little prominent, and bilobed, with a median emargination. Symphysis coóssified, with an angulate inferior margin, posteriorly with a fossa on each side of the median line, sloping regularly upwards to the alveolar margin, and concave above behind the margin. Minute traces of alveoli of a canine and two incisors on each side, which were probably present in the foetus. Length of symphysis above, 120 mm.; depth posteriorly, 48 mm. Length of symphysis in front of p. m. iii. Length of premolar series, 75 mm. Length of m. i., Although this is the first announcement of the discovery of the genus Chalicotherium in America, it is not the first discov- ery. Professor Scott showed me a series of superior molars from the Loup Fork formation of Kansas, from the Agassiz Museum, which he identified as belonging to this genus. The present species is of larger size than the Kansas form, and is apparently equal to the C. goldfussit of the Upper Mio- cene of Europe. The occurrence of this form in the Lower Miocene (White River), as well as the Upper Miocene (Loup Fork), of this country, is a noteworthy fact, but is parallel to its history in Europe. Described from the upper Miocene by Kaup, it was afterwards found in the middle Miocene (C. grande) by Lartet, and in the Upper Eocene (C. modicum), by Gaudry. The remarkable character of this genus, as discovered by Filhol, has been already mentioned in the NATURALIST.’ It has little relation to the family of Perissodactyla, to which it has given the name, and which it so resembles in molar denti- tion. It must form a family by itself, and the genera with which it has been associated must form a family to which the name Lambdotheriida may be applied. The anterior ungual phalanges of Chalicotherium are of prehensile character and not ungulate, but rather unguiculate. The phalanges resem- ble those of the Edentata, but the carpus and tarsus are, according to Filhol, diplarthrous in structure, while the Eden- tata are taxeopodous. We have in the Chalicotheriide the antithesis of the Condylarthra. While the latter is ungulate with an unguiculate carpus and tarsus, the former is unguicu- late with an ungulate (diplarthrous) carpus and tarsus. Thus ! Osborn on Chalicotherium, 1888, p. 728. 1889. ] Geology and Paleontology. 153 the Chalicotheriidze must be referred to a distinct order of unguiculate Mammalia, which I propose to call the Ancylo- poda, with the above definition. Two genera belong to the single family, the Chalicotheriide; viz., Chalicotherium Kaup, and Ancylotherium Gaudry. In the former, the pha- langes are distinct; in the latter the first and second are coos- sified (Lydekker) Marsh has not yet shown how his genus Moropus differs from Ancylotherium. The species described by Marsh under this name are from the Loup Fork bed of Kansas. Perissodactyla. Haplacodon augustigenis, Cope, gen. nov. Menodus angus- "genis, Cope, Annual Report, G. N. H. Survey, Canada, 1885. C, p. 81. Char. gen. Additional specimens of the species described, as above cited, show that it cannot be referred to the genus Menodus, but that it belongs to the family Lambdotheriide (Chalicotheriidze olim) as at present defined. It differs from all the genera of the Menodontidz in the presence of but a single internal cusp of the first (posterior) superior premolar, a fact which renders it highly probable that the premolars which precede it in the maxillary bone, were similarly constituted. It differs from all other genera of Lambdotheriidz and also from Diplacodon, to which it is allied, in the presence of but two inferior incisors on each side. It is not certain whether it pos- sesses horns or not. Menodus sp. Cope, Ann. Report, I. c. p. 83. . This species is allied to the M. giganteus Leidy, but whether identical or not can not be yet ascertained. Anchitherium westoni sp. nov. This species is represented by a single superior molar, and two inferior molars, the latter in place in a part of the mandi- ble. The teeth are smaller than those of the A. bairdii, from which they also differ in their greater transverse as compared with their anteroposterior diameters. The intermediate tuber- cle of the posterior crosscrest is more distinct than that of the anterior, and the posterior intermediate cingular cusp, SO prominent in the A. bairdii, is here wanting. The posterior cingulum: continues round the internal base of the posterior internal cusp. Diameters of superior molar; transverse, 13.5 mm.; anteroposterior, ro mm. Diameters of inferior molar ; transverse, 8 mm.; anteroposterior, 10.5 mm. This species, interesting for its primitive character in the absence of the 154 The American Naturalist. [March, posterior cingular cusp, is dedicated to Mr. T. C. Weston, the explorer of the region from which these fossils were obtained. Aceratherium mite Cope, |. c Aceratherium pumilum Cipe Le. Artiodactyla. Hypertragulus transversus sp. nov. Indicated by two superior molar teeth of old individuals. They are of nearly twice the linear dimensions of the only known species, H. calcaratus Cope. The external cusps are subconical, and the external rib which separates them in Lep- tomeryx is wanting here. Anterior cingular cusp small. The anterior bone of the posterior internal crescent enters the notch between the external cusps but does not fuse with either of them. Slight cingula on the anterior and posterior sides of the internal lobes which do not pass round their internal sides. No external cingulum. Diameters, anteroposterior, 12 mm. ; transverse (at base) 15 mm. Crown very brachyodont. Leptomeryx esulcatus sp. nov A single superior molar indicates this species, which is of about the dimensions of the Z. evazszz. It differs distinctly from this Tragulid, in the greater convexity of the external face of the external cusps, and the absence of the sulci which define an external median rib of that surface in the L. evansii. The rib which bounds the external faces of the cusps from each other is present. Anterior external cingular cusp small, continuous with anterior cingulum. No internal nor external cingulum. Diameters of crown; anteroposterior, 6.5 mm., transverse, 7.5 mm. Leptomeryx epu t Cope, Report, G. N. H. Survey, Canada, 1885, C p. Four superior nuk add to the characters already derived from mandibular teeth as above cited. The median and an- terior external cingular cusps are large and obtusely subconi- cal. The anterior external cusp has avery strong median external rib, while the posterior has a very weak one. The anterior horns of the internal crescents are much produced; the posterior but little. The cingula are slight, and are not con- tinued round the internal base. Diameters of rus: molar; anteroposterior, II mm. esiti II.5 mm Leptomeryx semicinctus s sp. A large species possessing boe the linear dimensions of the L. evansii in the superior molar teeth, is represented by three 1889, ] Mineralogy and Petrography. 155 of the teeth designated. In these the external crescents are more compressed and less conical than the two species above described, resembling more nearly those of the ZL. evamnsit. The posterior has a weak vertical rib; the anterior a strong one, The external cingular cusps are thoroughly fused with the external crescents, forming their anterior horns. The an- terior horns of the internal crescents are a little more produced than the posterior. No external or posterior cingulum ; a much interrupted anterior cingulum, which is continued round the internal base of the anterior crescent, which is further con- tinued on the anterior side of the internal base of the posterior crescent. Enamel finely wrinkled. Diameters; anteroposter- ior I4 mm.; transverse, at base, 15 mm. Oreodontide, an inferior first premolar. Elotherium mortoni Leidy; 1. c. Remarks. The continued scarcity of Oreodontide is matter of surprise. Their place is supplied so far, by an increased number of Tragulide (four species). The presence of a genus of Lamb- dotheriidz, Haplacodon, increases the impression of anti- quity of the fauna produced by the presence of a Creodont (Hemipsalodon.) MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY. PETROGRAPHICAL NEWs.—lInterbedded with the Tertiary Schists ot the western Cordilleras in Peru and Bolivia, are andesites, which are divided by Rudolph? into a western area of Pyroxene-andesites, an eastern area of horn blende-andesites and a middle area ofa variety intermediate between these two. The structure of each class varies from those types in which there is a devitrified glassy groundmass, to those in which the groundmassis microcrystalline. The plagioclase is andesin that has suffered alteration in the center because of the more basic with a cleavage parallel to »Pz and a parting parallel to oP. Edited by Dr. W, S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Maine. * Miner. u, Petrog. Mitth. ix. p. 269. 156 The American Naturalist. [March, pyroxene variety passes over into the typical hornblende- andesite through stages in which hornblende and pyroxene are both present, the amount of the one increasing with dim- inution in the amount of the other. The hornblende is often Western, Central, Eastern and Coast Cordilleras. The struc- ture and the rocks of the Central and Eastern ranges have recently been studied by Hettner and Linck.’ In the former granite, gneiss, crystalline schists, diabase, dacites, andesites and clay slates occur. The crystalline schists and the slates are regarded as Archaean, In the Eastern range none of the younger rocks were found, except a tuff composed of andesite material. Among the older rocks found in this area may be mentioned a quartzite and a felsophyre.—In a beauti- fully illustrated paper on the rocks between the Province of Minas Garaes and Sao Paulo, in Brazil, Machado? describes the ! Zeits. d. deutsch. geol. Gesell. xr. 1888. p. 205. ? Miner. n. Perog. Mitth. 1X. p. 318. 1889]. Mineralogy and Petrography. 157 grained varieties of the rock often appear as if included in lighter colored coarser grained kinds, the color of the two rocks depending upon the percentages of augite in them. The dense varietiesoften show a fluidal structure in the arrangement of little microlites of augite, and sometimes possess these in dendritic groups. Rutile is noted as an alteration product of sphene, and several unknown minerals are briefly described.—Inan Eng- lish summary at the end of his book! Reusch gives a description of the remarkable geological region of Norway where erup- tive, sedimentary, vein and dyke rocks have had developed in them by the action of great pressure, a schistisity which was attended by chemical change in the original coastituents of he rock masses. Through processes carefully described the author shows that granite may originate from clastic rocks and afterwards be intruded as an eruptive into other eruptive and clastic rocks in the form of dykes. Gneiss veins are said to be common in the region, and schistose gabbro, diabases and other basic rocks occur in great quantity. The book contains three colored maps and two hundred-and-five wood-cuts of geological sections and sketches of thin section of rocks. From is observations, Reusch draws some important conclusions which will probably explain many of the difficulties met with in solving the problems of the origin of crystalline schists, —A hornblende-peridotite® from a hill at the south foot of Kilimandjaro in E. Africa is an allotriomorphic granu- lar aggregate of grass-green hornblende, salmon colored hyper- sthene and colorless olivine. The hornblende and olivine include rows of opaque rod-like bodies. The hypersthene is pleochroic as follows: a=salmon-red; ġ = pale yellow; c = sea- green. Pleonast and magnetite are among the other constitu- ents.—A few small isolated patches of a green rock occurring Just north of Aberdaron in North Wales, and colored as Serpentine on the survey maps of Wales are regarded by Elsden? as serpentinized diabases. Unaltered diabases, horn- blende-gabbros, and porphyrites from the same region are also briefly described by the author. —Mr, Wethered* has discovered well outlined quartz crystals in the insoluble residues of the Carboniferous limestones at Clifton, England, that have result- ed by the enlargement of fragmental quartz grains by the deposition of silica derived from organic sources.—In the * Bommeloen og Karmoen med. omgivelser geologisk beskrevne. Kristiania. ; Hatch ; Geol. Magazine, May, 1888. p. 257. : Geol. Magazine, 1888. P- 303 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. May, 1888. p. 186. E 158 The American Naturalist. [ March, course of a paper on the Huronian rocks from Sudbury, Canada, Bonney’ describes altered feldspar fragments in a conglomerate, that have given rise to flakes of mica and interlocking grains of quartz. He points out that the same change on a larger scale might produce a gneiss—a result which has already been indicated by Van Hise.2—A_ rock composed entirely of a mosaic of hornblende and biotite is mentioned by Horton? as having been collected at Dosky Sound, New Zealand.—]ade has been found by Von Fellen- berg* on the contact between limestone and serpentine on the Pizzo Lunghino, near the Maloja Pass in the Alps. MINERALOGICAL NEws.—In a Bulletin of the New York State Museum’ F. L. Nason describes some fine crystals of brown Zourmaline from Newcomb, Essex Co., N. Y. of pyroxene from Ticonderoga in the same county, and of some calcites col- lected by the late Prof. E. Emmons at Rossie, St. Lawrence Co. The brown Zowrmalznes occur in Laurentian limestone, and present in general the features of the well-known Gouver- neur mineral. They are associated with graphite, apatite, sphene, wernerite, quartz, zircon, muscovite, albite, tremolite, pyroxene and pyrite. Some of the crystals are of large size and others are so flawless as to have yielded fine gem material. A characteristic grouping is that in which a number of paral- lel growths are terminated at one end by a form common to the entire group, while at the other end each individual has an independent termination. Some of the sphenes exhale a feted odor when struck, and many of them include rutile needles with a distinct crystalline form. Dipyr crystals of large size are glassy or transparent and enclose crystals of sphene and opaque acicular inclusions arranged with their long axis paral- lel to the c axis of the dipyr. The calcite crystals from Rossie are remarkable for the fact that they are all twins. The most common twinning plane is?P. Twins parallel to oo P are also quite frequent. Often trillings occur in which two of the crys- tals are twinned according to one law, and are twinned with reference to the third crystal in accordance with the second law. One set of rhombohedral faces is smooth and glistening while the second set is rough. The pyroxenes are from a vein lib. Feb. 1888. p. 32. 2 Amer. Jour. Sci. xxxi. p. 453. AMERICAN NATURALIST, Aug. 1886. p. 723+ : Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Nov. 1888. p. 745. 4 Neues Jahrbk für. Min., etc., 1889. I. p. 103. 5 No. 4. Aug. 1888. Albany. 1889. ] Mineralogy and Petrography. 159 of calcite in gneiss, which vein has been worked for graphite. These pyroxenes are sometimes eighteen inches in length and thirty-six inches in circumference, and exhibit a parting paral- lel to oP. The pyroxenes are thought to be older than the calcite but younger than the quartz with which they are associ- ated.—Interesting parallel growths of andalusite and sillimanite are described and figured by Lacroix’ from Ceylon and from a metamorphic rock from Morlaix, Finistére, France. In the former instance the two minerals are intergrown with their c axes parallel, and in addition two other series of sillimanite crystals cross the principal one at angles of 90° and 45°. The same author finds that damlite, monrolite, bucholzite, xenolite and würthite are either merely peculiar forms of sillimanite or im- pure varieties of this mineral.—Two barium feldspars from the manganese mines of Sójgrufran, Grythyttan, Sweden have been analyzed by Iglestróm.?* The first is a red mineral and the second is white and transparent. Both are insoluble in acids. Their analyses yielded: SiO, Al,O, FeO MnOBaO MgO CaO Na,O K.O Red feldspar 61.90 15.80 5.00 9.58 1.30 .40 6.02 White feldspar 54.15 209.60 n26 AES: 1.60, 42:47 According to Des Cloizeaux the white mineral has the op- tical properties of albite.— The same mineralogist records the analysis of a clear straw yellow pyrrhoarsenite’ from the same mine. Its composition corresponds to the formula 10 (Ca. Mg. Mn.), (AsO,), + Ca, Sb,O,, and is: AO,O, Sb.O, CaO Mno MgO 53.23 6.54 20.21 10.82 9.20 . Gonnard' mentions the rare mineral sorbernite as occurring in quartz veins cutting granite in the neighborhood of Char- bonniéres les Varennes, Puy-de-Dóme, France. Here are found also fine pseudomorphs of quartz after calcite, the forma- tion of which is explained as having taken place in three stages. 1), by the coating of the calcite crystals by silica; 2), by solution of the calcite, and 3), the filling of the molds left with silicious material mixed with a little clay. Druses of smoky quartz crystals found in the same veins are thought to owe their color to bituminous matter which floated on the surface of the silice- ous waters that yielded the quartz and colored those last formed (the druse crystals). *Bull d. 1. Soc, Franc. d. Min. 1888. XI. p. 150. p. 26. "Ib. XI. "Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc. 1889. I, p. 48. *Bul. d. 1. Soc. Franç. d. Min. 1888. xi. p. 265. 160 The American Naturalist. [ March, Rare Minerals.—The interesting zeolite beaumontite which has heretofore been known only at Baltimore has lately been discovered by Schmidt! in the vacuoles of a pitchstone from Sweden (Mien See.) The mineral has the same habit as the Baltimore crystals. Its double refraction is weak and its opti- cal angle large. The plane of its optical axes is normal to co Poo and parallel to the edge which this plane makes with oP. Schmidt can see no reason for regarding the mineral as any- thing more than a variety of heulandite.—Mr. Hanks? has given us an account of the occurrence of the rare mineral Hanksite from the vicinity of Borax Lake, San Bernardino Co., Cal. The best crystals have been obtained from a stratum of clay and sand underlying a two foot thick surface-layer of salt and thenardite, and from a second stratum of the same materials at seventy feet below the surface. These crystals are bounded by the planes oP, œ P, P, and 2P. When the basal plane is largely developed the crystals become hexagonal plates or col- umns, They vary in size from half an inch or less to three inches in diameter. Hanksite is known to occur also in the borax fields of Death Valley, Inyo Co., Cal., and at several lo- calities in Nevada.—Recent investigations on the dertrandite from a pegmatite vein at Pisek, Bohemia, yield Scharizer’ re- sults differing slightly from those of Bertrand and Des Cloi- zeaux, who thought the mineral orthorhombic. Scharizer’s measurements show it to be monoclinic with B=90° 287 34°’ and a: 6: c=1.7793: I: 1.07505. NEW Books.—In the “ FIRST REPORT OF PROGRESS OF THE GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL SURVEY OF TEXAS,"* State Geologist Dumble gives a resumé of the rocks and minerals of economic importance existing within the boundaries of the State. Natural gas, petroleum, salt and coal are known to occur in large quantity within the boundaries of Texas, but the limits of the formations containing them have not yet been carefully mapped.—*'* A COURSE OF MINERAL- OGY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE," is a little pamphlet of sixteen pages which accompanies a collection of twenty-five common minerals. It is intended to aid young people in the determi- nation of the most common minerals by teaching them to ob- serve for themselves their most prominent characteristics. The 1Zeits. f. Kryst. xv. p. 2Amer. Jour. Sci. 1889. gi p. 63. 3Zeits. f. Kryst. xiv. p. 17. *Austin. State Printing Office. 1889. 5By G. Guttenberg, Erie, Pa. 1889. ] Botany. 161 book and the collection comprise the first portion of a course in mineralogy which has been arranged for the use of the Agassiz associations throughout the country. The price of the pamphlet and the twenty-five minerals which it describes is one dollar.—The principal formal and optical characteristics of the more important rock-forming minerals have been arranged by Rosenbusch' in sets of tables covering about twenty-five pages. The tables are of great convenience to students who are far enough advanced in the study of petro- graphy to understand the significance of the terms used in them. BOTANY.’ NOTES ON NEBRASKA LICHENS.—Our knowledge of the Lichen Flora of Nebraska is as yet very meager being con- fined principally to the work of Hayden and Hall during the Government Geological Surveys. Our knowledge, such as it is however, shows that our Lichen Flora has many interesting as well as instructive characteristics. There isa general dearth of the large eastern forms throughout the greater part of the state. There are, however, along the Missouri river and its tributaries, many forms that are found in the eastern states. The Flora of this region serves as a connecting link between the timber forms of the East and the prairie forms of the West. The prairie region has an abundance of earth forms such as Endocarpon, and many Buellias and Biatoras. Many semi-mountain and mountain forms occur in the western and northwestern parts of the state. Beginning with the eastern border of the state and going west a gradual tran- sition from timber forms to earth forms, is observable ; and from these to the forms usually found in higher altitudes as Umbilicaria, Omphalaria, and similar forms.— 7. A. Williams. the author of the combination, was cited, there was, at least, uniformity and hence some certainty. But the later method ! Hülfstabellen zur Mikroskopischen Mineralbestimmung in Gesteinen. Stutt- gart, 1888. ? This department edited by Dr. C. E. Bessey, Lincoln, Neb. 162 The American Naturalist. [March, of citing the author of the specific name and especially the introduction of the parenthesis has resulted in a confusion which is certainly ‘‘ enough to throw a strong man into blue convulsions.” The advantage of the old method is its simplic- ity. The common objection to it is that it does not give any credit to the author of the specific name. But credit and glory are not the objects in citing authorities ; surely it is not the only office of the parenthesis to serve asa sarcophagus in preserving the names of botanists who might otherwise be forgotten. The true purpose is accuracy in determining the species meant. Plants are continually being described under names already occupied, and unless the name of the author is given it is impossible to know what species is meant. Now if one of two plants bearing the same name is put in another genus how, unless the authority iscited,is one to know whether it is a new species or one of the original two, and if so which ? On this account it is a great convenience to have the name of the author of the specific name given also. There are several. ways of doing this. Some cite the author of the specific name even after the genus has been changed, as if he were the author » of the combination, e. g. “ Hypoxylon colliculosum Schw "— No worse method could be thought of. According to this » without investigation to know that all these are the same ? Another very peculiar method has recently broken out which it is to be hoped will not get abroad ; that is, to put the name of the author of the combination in a parenthesis after that of the author of the specific name thus : ** Hicoria alba L. (Britt.). Bull. of Washb. Coll. Vol. II, No. 9. This of course if it gains any foothold will give rise to all manner of false citations. There are only two methods which can be used without making endless trouble and confusion. If but one authority is to be cited, give the author of the combination. Consider accuracy and convenience rather than glory and justice so- 1889. ] Botany. 163 called. If two are to be given, place the name of the author of the specific name in a parenthesis, and that of the author of the combination following, and outside. If, in this case, it seem strange to cite a botanist as an authority for a name he did not know, stillitisin many cases the best way. For exam- ple, in the case of Lactarius plumbeus Fr. ; if this is written L. plumbeus (Bull.) Fr., one knows that it is Agaricus plumbeus ul plumbeus Schaeff, nor Mycena plumbea Fr. Again, Uropyxis petalostemonis De Ton. scarcely seems familiar. But any one can recognize in U. petalostemonis (Farl) D. Ton., Puccinia petalostemonis Farlow. It may also be objected to this method, that in many cases it merely perpetuates worn out synonymy. But it is the only one which causes no confusion and indicates exactly the species meant. —ARoscoe Pound. A QUESTION REGARDING THE APPLICATION OF THE LAW à many Ph echinata (Muhl) and Larix laricina (D. R.). The author of these combinations gives Specularia speculum D. C., as a precedent, and Arctostaphylos uva ursi (L) is almost another. Among the Fungi there is Fomes fomentarius. o and without particular application, to apply the law of priority OF GENERIC AND SPECIFIC NAMES TOO NEARLY ALIKE. —Saccardo (in a note in Syl. Fung. V. p. 474) in commenting upon Winter's change of Cercospora pulvinulata Sacc. & Wint.. to C. missouriensis Wint. on account of C. pulvinulus C & E. : reproaches him with admitting Nitzchia and Nitschkia. — Saccardo changes the latter to Ccelosphewria on account of - 164 The American Naturalist. [March, its similarity to the former—a genus of Algæ. This led me to investigate some of the names which Saccardo himself admits. He allows without hesitation Libertella Desm. and Libertiella Speg and Roum ; Licea Schrad., and Lisea Sacc. ; Dichaena Fr. and Dichlaena D. and M.: Pleospora Rabh. and Phleospora Wallr.; Entoloma Fr. and Entyloma D. B.; Riessia Fres. and Reessia Fisch. and Eriosphaera Reich. an Eriospharia Sacc. Whether or not these are too nearly alike depends upon the taste and pr iation of those who use them. To one using the English pronunciation, Licea and Lisea are indistinguishable. Besides these he admits many which are very much alike, but more defensible, as Arthrobo- tryum and Arthrobotrys, Urospora and Urosporium. He re- tains Antennaria Lk. in spite of Antennaria Gertn., and even gives under the genus Marasmius the sections Collybia and Mycena, although there are the genera Collybia and Mycena in the same family. As regards specific names: he necessarily admits many which are very similar as pulvinula and pulvinulata, flavus and flavidus, etc. Ina large genus, new specific names are rather hard to get and one ought not to be too sensitive. But are not the following too nearly alike: Puccinia penstem onum, Lev. and P. pentstemonis Pk ; P. schileana Speg. and P. scheliana Thuem; P. scleroteoides Mont. and P. sclerotioidea ‘Cooke? The following in Vols. III. and IV. are certainly in- defensible : Phoma pini C. and Hark. and P. pini Sacc.; Phyl- losticta viticola Thuem and P. viticola Sacc. and Speg. Zygo- desmus ochraceus Corda and Z. ochraceus Sacc., Cladotrichum fuscum Poeuss and C. fuscum (Grev) Sacc.; Cercospora fumosa Pewz. and C. fumosa Speg. These and some others in the two volumes mentioned have been corrected, but in such out of the way places that very few would notice them. Those in Vol. III. are corrected in a note at the close of the index ; those in Vol IV. ina similar note mixed in with corrections of typo- graphical errors. For this reason I have given them. The following from Vols. V. and VI. have not, as far as I can find, een corrected : Polystictus stereoides Fr., and P. stereoides Berk., Fomes calignosus Ces., and F. calignosus Berk., Clava- ria cervina B. & C., and C. cervina Sm., Polystictus cinerescens Schw. and P. cinerescens Lev., Stereum concolor Jungh., and S. concolor Berk., Clavaria coronata Schw. and C. coronata Zipp., Cyphella ravenelii B. & C. and C. ravenelii Sacc. This last he substitutes for C. fulva B. & C. to avoid C. fulva B.and Br. But the worstof allis in the genus Polyporus where there is, No. 303, Polyporus armeniacus Berk. Engl. Flor. V. 147. and also No. 215, P. armeniacus Berk. Hook. Journ. 197.—Roscoe Pound. 1889. ] Botany. 165 SOME EXPERIMENT STATION BOTANY.—A dozen or so of the bulletins issued by the Agricultural Experiment Stations contain matter more or less botanical in nature. From these the following notes have been rather summarily made. In Dakota the growth of planted trees during the two years 1886 and 7 was watched and noted.—In Missouri forty *'varie- ties" of grasses were grownand their deportment noted under certain local conditions.—In Kansas the observations upon grasses and clovers extending through fourteen years have been summarized and recorded in Bulletin No.2.—In Florida, the grasses have been grown and watched in like manner.— In Indiana, Professor J. C. Arthur (in Bulletin 15 ) describes popularly, but accurately, the structure ofthe gotato tuber. The treatment of the subject is admirable and aside from its horticultural value the paper is of value and interest to bot- anists.—In Minnesota the Bulletin for July, contained a pop- ular account of theorgans offertilization in plants with es- pecial reference to the artificial pollination of cultivated plants.—The August bulletin of the Iowa station contained an interesting paper on corn tassels and silks, and a popular discussion of grasses and other forage plants. Mr. Crozier's notes upon the wild grasses of Northwestern Iowa are valua- ble, although some of the English names used by him are misleading and confusing. ''Blue Stem” for Agropyrum glaucum and ** Buffalo Grass” for Bouteloua oligostachya ought not to be tolerated.—In Texas, Bulletin 3 is devoted to popu- lar notes on native and introduced grasses and other forage plants.—Bulletin 4, of the Minnesota station, devotes sixteen pages to ‘‘ Fungi which kill insects," by Otto Lugger. The Professor Kellerman makes a preliminary Report on Sorg- hum Blight ( Bacillus sorghi Burrill) in the December bulletin 166 The American Naturalist. [March, of the Kansas station.—Otto Lugger in the January Bulletin of the Minnesota station,publishes a paper on “Frosted and Rusted Wheat," apparently being for the most part a com- pilation from various sources.—The Spotting of Peaches and Cucumbers is treated by Professor Arthur in the January Bulletin from the Indiana station. The disease on peaches is caused by Cladosporium car pophilum Thuem, and that on Cu- cumbers by Cladosporium cucumerinum E. & A. Figures are given of various stages of the fungi. BACTERIOLOGY! THE BACTERIA OF SNOW.—In many countries,during sev- eral months, snow forms the natural covering ofthe earth. Accordingto the author of this paper, at the time of his writ- ing, there was little or no literature concerning the bacteri- ology ofsnow. A number ofinvestigators too, had worke on ice, but no where could he find any reports of examinations ofsnow. It remained uncertain whether its long stay on the earth changes the number or the character of the bacteria contained in it. In the bacteriological examination of snow, it is obviously offirst importance to secure it pure and free from accidental impurities, as it is often found, for example, on a large clear expanse. Asit was evident that there would probably be a difference between snow which had lain long on the earth and freshly-fallen snow, the author made investigations of both kinds. Offresh snow, some was caught, while falling, during ! This Department is edited by Prof. Wm. T. Sedgwick, of the Mass. Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass., to whom brief communications, books for review, etc., should be sent. ; 2 «Ueber den Bakteriengehalt des Schnees," von Th. Janowski. Centralblatt für Bakteriologie IV, 547. 1889. ] Bacteriology. 167 a snow storm, ina sterilized tube. The snow so taken was melted in a water bath at 30? C. and.5C.C. of this melted snow mixed with nutrient-gelatin. From this, plates were prepared in the usual way. Other samples of the same snow were also planted, and an average of these showed pretty well how many bacteria were ordinarily contained in such snow. Toinsure as exact results as possible, two samples of snow were always taken from different places, and as free from contaminating matters as possible. From fresh, falling snow, the following results were ob- tained :— Feb, 2, 1888. Average temperature, — 7.2° C. 1n the first sample 34 bacteria to 1 c.c. of melted snow. In the second, 38. Feb., 21, 1888. Average temperature — 11.1°C In the first portion, 203. In the second, 384. Feb., 28, 1888. Average temperature — 12.2 In the first portion, 140. In the second, 165. Although these figures differ widely they nevertheless teach us something of the bacteriology of snow, and do not show wider differences than different examinations ofice, made by Frankel, Pruddenand others. A part of the bacteria found in snow arecontained in the vapor when it crystallizes. Another, and the larger part, are filtered from the air by the cottony snow-flakes in falling. Consequently, the number of bacteria in the air must be much diminished, aftera snow fall,anda true cleansing of the atmosphere appears to be accomplished, such as takes place during arain. Itisalsoclear that the cottony or wooly structure of the snow-crystalaids in producing this effect, in no small degree. Large differences sometimes noticed in like portions, might be due to the fact that during à snow storm, the snow may sometimes become mixed with impurities gathered from buildings in the vicinity, etc at Kiew, where his investigations were made. By means of asterilized plate of glass he then removed the top of the snow, half a centimetre deep, on top of which the dust from the air rested. From the layer thus uncovered he took his samples and prepared plates as before. 168 The American Naturalist. (March, Feb., 11. No snow since the morning before. Temperature during that time ranging from —8° to — 14° 1st, in I c.c. snow water 2. 2nd, et Vs m m: 4. Feb., 15. No snow for four days. Temperature from —1 to —8*. Ist, portion 8 bacteria. d sé “6 2nd, Feb., 24. Three days with no snow. Temperature between —11 and —21. Heavy frost. Ist portion 228 bacteria. These figures seem to indicate that snow lying on the ground some time and exposed to low temperatures, always contains a considerable number of bacteria, and that the low temperature in winter exercises no considerable effect on the bacteria contained. A number of different kinds of bacteria are contained in snow. Janowski found both those which liquefy gelatine, and those that do not, the former in larger numbers than the latter. He states that one point in particular interested him considerably, namely that he always foundin plates from newly fallen snow, asin river water, many colonies which liquefy very rapidly while snow that has been long exposed to extreme cold contains few or none of these. He concludes that this kind, at least, is affected unfavorably by low tem- perature.—( M. E. Dodd.) THE CHEMICAL ACTION OF CERTAIN BACTERIA.— À arington finds that ‘‘the property of effecting the hydro- lysis of urea is apparently but rarely met with among micro- organisms ; in the present case, out of twenty-four organisms tried, only two could certainly be shown to possess it." Of the action on milk he says: ‘‘ The whole of the organ- isms which failto gelatinise milk are organisms that do not liquefygelatin. . . . On the other hand the whole of the organisms which act on milk as ferments liquefy gelatin. We may venture therefore to predict that every liquefy- 1889. | Bacteriology. 169 ing organism will be found capable of gelatinising the casein of milk.” As regards the reduction of nitrates, Warington states that out of twenty-five organisms seven were entirely with- out reducing power, one produced a mere trace of nitrite, and one only a very small quantity: the remaining sixteen re- duced nitrates in broth, with considerable vigor. With the possible exception of one culture, the reduction to nitrites would appear to have occurred without the production of ni- trogen, oxides of nitrogen, or ammonia. The many investigations of the past few years on the rela- tion of micro-organisms to the process of nitrification have met with little success so far as regards the isolation of a specific bacterium of nitrification. Warington's researches in this direction seem to have been little more fruitful than those of his predecessors. His experiments gave mostly negative results, and he concludes his paper with the observation : ** An organism which nitrifies as soil nitrifies. has yet to be iso- lated.” —(E. O. ¥ordan.) The Bacterial micro-organisms are those which are too small to be successfully studied individually and are best investigated in masses by special “ cultures.” They include the bacteria together with, perhaps, the yeasts and certain moulds. The Microscopical micro-organisms are those which can be successfully studied by the microscope, individually, and with- out special “ cultures.” They include all animal micro-or- 170 The American Naturalist. [March, ganisms, and all vegetal, excepting those just mentioned under the Bacterial division. The term microbe may be left where it is now oftenest found,—in the newspapers The justification for such a classification as the above, is convenience, only. As a matter of fact quantitative ; esti- mates of the numbers of micro- -organisms in any given sample of water, air, ice or snow, are of fundamental importance. t present the bacteria are estimated by cultures, and the other micro-organisms in ways entirely different. ZOOLOGY. THE PHALANGES OF BATRACHIA SALIENTIA.—Professor Howes and Mr. Davies read a paper before the Zoological Society of London, Dec. 4, 1888, on the distribution and mor- phology of the supenumerary phalanges i in the Anurous Batra- chians. Theauthors described for the first time the primary mode of development of a supernumerary phalanx. They concluded that the same isin the Anura identical with the interphalangeal syndesmoses, and that the syndemoses and phalanges are derivatives of a common blastema. In its fully differentiated condition the structure in question was shown to be functional in receiving the direct thrust under the weight of the falling body in saltation; all the variations in structure being readily intelligible on that view. The authors discussed the bearings of the facts upon classi- fication and upon the broader question of the morphology of supernumerary phalanges in general. They showed that the facts of development indicated a probable intercalary origin of the latter from the interarticular syndesmoses; and that the numerical increase of the phalanges in the Cetacea may have been associated with the loss of ungues, somewhat similiarly to the way in which the multiplication of segments of the cartil- aginous rays in the paired fins of the Batoidei would appear to have been connected with the disappearance of horny fin-rays. The authors also showed that the Discoglosside alone among the Anura retained for life the undifferentiated syndemoses, 1**A new method for the microscopial Examination of water.” See Science, Feb., 15, 1889. + 1889. ] Embryology. 171 and that this feature testified more forcibly than anything else to their low affinities. They also described a community of structure between the modified syndemoses in certain Anura and the apparatus of the knee-joint in Mammals, and urged that the facts were such as to necessitate a reconsideration of the morphological.value of the latter. EMBRYOLOGY. NEW STUDIES OF THE HUMAN EMBRYO.—M. C. Phisalix* gives a very complete account of a human embryo of one cen- timetre (two-fifths of an inch) long. The method of plastic reconstruction from a continuous series of sections is carried out for the entire embryo. The organs which receive special attention and reconstruction are the cranial nerves and nervous system, the disposition of the valves and septa of the cavities of the heart, the origin of the pancreas, and Wolffian bodies. Many points dealt with by His have been more fully elaborated or corrected by Phisalix. The reconstructions seem to have been carried out with great care and accuracy, that represent- ing the relations of the cranial and spinal nerves from the side is very interesting; the same may be said of the reconstruc- tions representing the alimentary canal and its appendages. The origin of the pancreas from two distinct diverticula will be noted by specialists as a matter of interest The great length relatively of the bronchi at this stage and the acute flexure of the branchial region are very strikingly shown, while the crowding together of the branchial clefts and the diverticula from them which give rise to the thymus gland are admirably shown in their relation to adjacent parts. But as the memoir is hard to understand without the figures which accompany it, the reader is referred to the original for fuller anatomical details. A curious fact is mentioned by the author in regard to the embryo described by him, viz., its want of perfect symmetry, though believed to be perfectly normal. The left side, espe- cially the region of the cerebral vesicles, was found to be larger PaL UN is edited by Joun A. RYDER, University of Pennsylvania, . "Etude d'un. Embryo humain de Yo millimetres. Arch. de. Zool, Expr. 2 me vui vi. 1888. Nos. 2 et 3. pp. 280-350, planches xiii-xviii and figs. A.-F. in 172 The American Naturalist. [March, than the right. The author asks, is this embryonic asym- metry peculiar to man? And also, does it bear any relation to the functional predominance of the right side over the left in the adult. This memoir is a valuable one, as it supplies a thorough study of one very important stage of the human em- bryo, and is a very creditable continuation of the work of His and Fol in the same direction. ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND FIRST TRACES OF THE AN- TERIOR ROOTS OF THE SPINAL NERVES IN SELACHIANS.'— This last of Prof. Dohrn’s studies forms chapter xiv. of the Studien zur Urgeschichte des Wirbelthierkorpers ; it is most suggestive as is all of his work. The problem of the origin of the anterior or motor roots of the spinal nerves has given rise to a great deal of speculation and discussion. It has been the good fortune of Dohrn to find in embryos of Mustelus and Pristiurus 3 mill. 5.5 mill. and r0 mill. long, conditions of the development of the anterior or motor roots which are of great importance. 1. The motor roots grow out at the lower angles of the med- ullary tube before the appearance of the white matter of the cord as conical or more or less produced extensions of the plasma of that tube. At firstthese roots contain absolutely no nuclei, but are simply homogeneous pseudopod-like processes. 2. Mesodermal cells next approach and sink into these plas- mic processes. These probably have something to do with the development of the primitive sheaths of the future nerve fibres. 3. These plasmatic ventral processes from the medullary tube now blend over the extent of their outer surfaces with the still undifferentiated plasma of the adjacent cells of the proto- vertebra or somites. Junction of the motor portion of the nervous mechanism with the tissue still to be converted into muscle is thus found to have taken place before even the for- mation of true nerve fibres or of muscular fibrillæ. 4. The next step in the differentiation of the motor roots is the migration of medullary cells into the above mentioned plasmatic processes from within the walls of the medullary tube. This seems to be conclusively established by the fact that the nuclei of medullary cells were seen in process of division at or within the bases of these processes. It seems to be thus conclusively established that of the prim- 1Ueber die erste Anlage und Entwickelung der motorischen Rückenmarks nerven bei den Selachiern. Mitth. aus d Zool. Stat. zu Neapel. viii. 1888. pp- 441—461. Taf. 22. 1889. | Phystology. 173 itive constitution of motor nerves, neither fibres nor sheaths forma part. Neither are axis cylinders or medullary substance developed. End-organs or terminal branching ramifications of the nerve fibres do not as yet exist, but the capacity for their development is probably inherent in the simple structures and relations above described. The relations described by Dohrn are strongly opposed to the theory of the ad initio continuity of nerve and muscle by impalpably fine fibres, and if fully es- tablished fatal to Hensen's doctrine. Itis needlessto add that, while these new results are not wholly in accord with those of Balfour, they will probably serve to complete the true doctrine of the development of the spinal and cranial nerves, the founda- tions of which were first laid down by that remarkable investi- gator. THE MATURATION AND FERTILIZATION OF THE EGG OF PETROMYZON PLANERI. A. A. Böhm in this extended mem- oir gives a very complete resumé of the work of his predeces- sors upon the early history of the eggs of the lamprey. The formation of the polar globules is described, and the peculiar manner of union of the segments of the female and male pro- nuclei are illustrated. It seems that the chromatin substance of the head of the spermatozoon in this process always first breaks up into about four rounded segments or spermatomerites as Böhm calls them, which remain for some time lying close to- gether in a straight or curved row. PHYSIOLOGY.’ INHIBITION IN MAMMALIAN HEART.—Professor McWilliam continues’ his work on cardiac physiology by a study of the phenomena of inhibition in the mammalian heart.‘ The results are given in considerable detail, and can be discussed here very briefly only. The effects of the stimulation of the vagus nerve on theauricles and on the ventricles are in general similar,consisting ‘Weber Reifung und Befruchtung aes Eies von Petromyzon planeri, Arch. f. mik. Anat., xxxii. 4 Hft. 1888. pp. 613—670. Tat. xxiv—xxv. 2This department is edited by Dr. Frederic S. Lee, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa. *See AMERICAN NATURALIST, Jan. 1889. ‘Journal of Physiology, vol. 9., p. 345+ 174 The American Naturalist. [March, of a slowing ofthe rhythm, and a depression of both the contrac- tion force and the conduction power of the muscle; but the funct- ional relation of the vagus to the ventricle is not nearly so close and intimate as to the auricle. The condition and working of the auricular muscle are much more readily and more pro- foundly altered than are those of the ventricular muscle. Aug- mentation, following the depression, as has been pointed out for the cold-blooded animals, is slight and inconstant, which would seem to be in opposition to Gaskell's idea of the vagus being an anabolic nerve. Section of the vagus causes in addi- tion to the acknowledged acceleration of beat a marked aug mentation in the contraction force of both auricles and ventri- cles. As has been pointed out in cold-blooded animals, the author finds a local inhibitory area to exist in the mammalian heart, z. e., a limited area, stimulation of which affects the ven- tricle in exactly the same way as stimulation of the vagus does. In the cat and dog this region overlies the auricular septum on the dorsal aspect of the auricles. The vagus fibres pass through or near it, but it evidently contains structures differing from the vagus in regard to excitability, relations to curari and certain other influences. While normally stimula- tion of the venous terminations or of the auricles causes an acceleration of beat, under certain abnormal conditions, e. g., in a dying heart, such stimulation results in inhibition, thus indicating under such conditions a reversion to a physiological type normally obtaining in hearts of certain lower vertebrates. MEETING OF AMERICAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—The American Physiological Society held its annual meeting in Philadelphia, December 29 and 31, 1888. The laboratories of the Jefferson Medical College and the University of Pennsyl- vania were inspected, and laboratory methods were informally discussed. The following papers were presented: 1. E. T. Reichert.—‘ The Excitability of the Different Col- umns of the Spinal Cord." 2. E. T. Reichert.—'' The Rate of Transmission of Nerve Impulses." 3. E. T. Reichert.—'' A New Calorimeter.” 4. J. W. Warren.—'' On Sensory Reinforcements of the Knee-Jerk." 5. H. H. Donaldson.—'' On the Changes in Ganglion Cells Due to Stimulation." 6. H. N. Martin.—'' The Lethal Temperatures of the Cat's Heart." 1889.] Physiology. 175 7. H. N. Martin.—"'' The Influence of Light on the CO, Excretion of Frogs Deprived of their Cerebral Hemi- spheres." The Council for 1888-9 consists of S. W. Mitchell, President; H. N. Martin, Secretary and Treasurer; H. P. Bowditch, J. G. Curtis, H. C. Wood. Dr. S. Weir Mitchell placed at the disposal of the Society the sum of two hundred dollars to be offered as a prize for re- searches on the rate of transmission of nerve impulses in man, such researches to be completed at the end of two years. PHYSIOLOGICAL PRIZE.—In accordance with the offer of Dr. S. Weir Mitchell to the American Physiological Society, the latter Society now formally offers to residents of North America the prize of two hundred dollars for researches bear- ing on “the rate of transmission of nerve impulses—afferent and efferent—and the duration of reflex and reaction time in the higher animals, especially man; also the conditions—nor- mal and pathological—which alter such rates and times." The work must be done between Jan. r, 1889 and Oct. r, 1890. Further information may be obtained of Prof. H. Newell Martin, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University. PROPOSED INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF PHYSIOLOGISTS IN 1889.—In accordance with the circular issued by the Eng- lish Physiological Society, a meeting was held in Berne, Swit- zerland, in September, 1888, to consider the advisability of holding, during the present year, an international congress of physiologists. England, France, Germany, Italy and Swit- zerland were represented. It was decided to hold such a congress at Basle, beginning September 10, 1889. The sub- jects to be brought before the meetings include Anatomy, His- tology, Physics, Chemistry, Experimental Pathology, and Pharmacology, in so far asthey bear directly upon Physiology. All communications are to be as little formal and as fully de- monstrative and experimental as possible. Professor Miescher and the Department of Education of the City of Basle have cordially approved the project. The committee of the English Physiological Society has been continued with executive powers to organize the Congress, and through a circular requests in- formation concerning probable attendance, titles of intended - communications, and details of apparatus required for demon- strations. American physiologists intending to be present may notify Dr. H. P. Bowditch (till July Ist), Harvard Medi- cal School, Boston, Mass ; (subsequently) care of Knautt, Na- chod & Kühne, Leipzig, Germany. 176 The American Naturalist. [ March, MICRO-ORGANISMS AND DIGESTION.—The extensive re- searches which are now being carried on in regard to the rela- tions of bacteria to disease increase our interest in any addi- tion to our knowledge of their connection with the normal. ac- tivities of the body. Drs. Harris and Tooth, of St. Bartholemew’s Hospital, have undertaken a series of experiments to investi- gate the relations of micro-organisms to digestion, and have published a preliminary communication on the subject." They find it easy to prove that proteids can be digested by pepsin independently of micro-organisms, but have not succeeded in establishing the converse proposition, namely, that micro-or- ganisms can of themselves convert proteids into peptone. In experimenting with trypsin it was found necessary to employ antiseptics in order to make sterile experiments. With mer- curic chloride, I to 2 per cent. neither peptone nor bacteria appeared, with carbolic acid, I to 2 per cent. peptone was abun- dant but bacteria absent; while iodine interfered neither with the digestion nor the development of bacteria. It was thus proved that the pancreatic ferment, like the gastric, can digest pro- teids without the aid of micro-organisms. It was found that the formation of leucin and tyrosin is probably due at least in part to the action of bacteria, and that the formation of indol seems to be entirely dependent upon it. The results of experiments indicate that there are special indol- forming organisms, in the absence of which this substance does not appear. These conclusions are in substantial accord with views which have been previously entertained, though hitherto they have been accepted without adequate experimental proof.— M. A. Johnson. PSYCHOLOGY. OBSERVATIONS ON PUTORIUS VISON.—On July 6, 1887, while engaged in geological work on the Cedar River, near Osage, Iowa, my attention was attracted by the peculiar act- ions of a Mink (Putorius vison.) By careful maneuvering, we were enabled to approach to within a short distance of where it was engaged, and there watch its behaviour unobserved. It was an old mother Mink engaged in fishing, for her young. 1Journal of Physiology, vol. 9, No. 4. 1889. ] Psychology. 177 On the ripples in the center of the stream, where the water was not more than two feet in depth, was a flat Drift Bowlder rising a fewinches above the surface. On this rock the mother Mink would take her position, and here watch for small fish to approach, when she would dive into the water, be gone for a moment, and then reappear on the opposite side of the rock, usually with a fishin her mouth, which she would deposit in the center of the stone, and its struggles instantly stop by a quick sharp bite back of the head, which caused immediate death. This process was repeated without intermission, ex- cept to stop for an instant to shake the water from her furry coat, until seven fish varying from four to seven inches in length, were deposited on the rock. Then, without stopping to rest, taking one of the fish in her mouth, she plunged into the stream and swam to the shore, climbed the steep bank and ran hastily to her young, in a burrow under an old stump on the bank of the stream, fifty yards away. In a moment she was seen returning, plunged into the stream and swam to the rock, took a second fish in her mouth, entered the river once more, and returned to her young as at first. This was repeated until all the fish had been carried away. A few moments after having removed the last fish, she re- turned and began her work once more. This time, however, turbed, it is difficult to say. But itis true that a degree of parental love and affection, (if we may so term it,) was evinced by the mother Mink for her young, in thus so indefat- igably laboring, under a scorching July sun, to procure them food, as it is but rarely witnessed.—C. L. Webster. - 178 The American Naturalist. [March, A PECULIAR HABIT OF THE BLACK Bass.—I once ob- served a singular race between a Black Bass ( Micropterus dolomieu,) and a soft shelled Turtle ( Aspidonectes spinifer ) and her young. The first noticed was the old Turtle and her young swimming steadily up stream, turning neither to the right hand or to the left, (an unusual occurrence, so far as my observations extend,) and closely followed by a large Black Bass. Both the mother Turtle and her young appeared very much exhausted, and would very often come to the surface for air. The young Turtle, if not disturbed would swim close be- hind its mother, but the Bass, who was always hovering over or following a foot or so in the rear, would often make a lunge for the young one, and apparently bite it, which would cause it to instantly dart under its parent, and swim in this position un- til compelled to come to the surface to breathe. The young one finally became so exhausted and worried by the Bass, that at three different times it was observed to lay hold of the edge of its parent's shell with its mouth, and thus compel her to take it in tow. Not the slightest attention was paid to the young one by its parent. Several times two or three Red Horse ?(Moxostoma macrole- pidotum,) attempted to join in the chase, but was each time immediately driven away by the Bass. This performance was watched some time by me, and when the trio was last seen, the “play” was still going on. . We have at other times and in other places, observed this Turtle to be followed by Black Bass. This has also been ob- served by Dr. Kirtland, ( Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. IV, Zoology and Botany, P. P. 668—669.) Whether the Black Bass is a natural enemy of this species of Turtle, or what its real intention may be in so often following it, we are at pres- ent unable to say.—C. L. Webster. ARCHAOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY." ANTHROPOMETRY.—Anthropology in its literal sense is Man Science. It deals with the structure, history and devel- opment of men. The complexity of man in nature gives birth to many sciences. Some of these are old and some are new. I. This ug pes is edited by Thomas Wilson Esq., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. f 1889. ] Archeology and Anthropology. 179 By their aggregation or consideration there was born a new science absorbing all the others, forming a harmonious whole, the substance of which is the natural history of man, and the name, Anthropology. Notice the complexity of the subject and when the science comes to be divided into its distinctive parts, each of which is large enough to form (and in times past some of these have formed) a science in itself and given ample scope to the student for a lifetime. . Antiquity of man. Origin of man, Man’s place in nature. The races of mankind. Language Development of Civilization. Anatomy and Physiology of man. Anthropometry or the measurement of human attributes whether physical or mental. 9. Psychology and Biology. In former times, Archzology, classic, or otherwise, assumed control over much that has now been absorbed in Anthropology. The distinction between the two sciences is at present well de- fined, and they are now represented by different organizations. Folklore and numismatics are powerful aids to Anthrop- ology, insomuch that the student of one involuntarily be- comes interested in the others. I predict their final absorbtion by the larger and more comprehensive science. Numbers 1, 2, 3 and 8 in the foregoing list are new sciences. Their names may not be new, but they have, within the past few years, outgrown their former surroundings—burst their shell, so to speak, and now have assumed a position as part of the great science of Anthropology. The novelty of the antiquity and origin of man will always render this study attractive. They will always find their students and devotees. They deal with, that which to us are the great mysteries of the universe ; the Whence, the How, and possibly the Whither, of the Human Species. But number 8 is in danger of neglect at the hands of scientists. It is not attractive. It requires the utmost pre- cision and care. Its results must be recorded, with all their errors. These may be detected in future investigations, and thus return to torment their originator. The work consists largely of dreary wastes of figures carried out to fractions of thousands, registered in a (to us) foreign system—the metric; and what- OM ASS Sh = 180 The American Naturalist, [ March, ever of interest it may have, that of comparison, either with its own race or with others, does not commence until the future. So it has come to be neglected; but its importance to a study of Anthropology, which shall be at once scientific and valuable, cannot be overestimated. To the doubter of this proposition I propound the following question: How can you determine the different races of mankind except you consider the differ- ence of size, color, form and capacity. And how can this be done without Anthropometry ? The number of divisions into which it has been proposed, at different times, and by different scientists, to separate mankind has ranged from two to sixty. The five great divisions which we were taught as children have been broken up and the later scientists have proposed but three, to which they have given Greek names signifying the particular attributes assigned to each group, instead of the geographical terms formerly em- ployed. Leucochroi—represented by the Europeans. Mesochroi—by the Mongolian and American Indian VUE Uie or RIOT (Dallas)—by the Negro and Austral sd basis o on ef which this classification has been made is as poe Stade and comparative height of different parts " the boy: . Color of skin. Color of hair and eyes. Index, Cephalic. . Index, nasal. . Cross section of hair. . Shape of nose, and in certain cases (to be determined after death), of the pelvis. rom these facts given in figures with the necessary precis- ion, aided by a study of his language, the scientist determines to ‘what division of mankind the individual who is under examination belongs. But I ask how can these facts be gathered except by use of Anthropometry ? his new science of Anthropometry has grown so that what was before unthought of, and perhaps supposed to be unattain- able, is now within the commonest demands. The time was when the stature and weight of the human body, the diameter and cubic capacity of the human skull, and the weight of the brain, were about all expected from Anthropometry. But an extended consideration shows that there is little in the Science Te SIRE 1889. ] Archeology and Anthropology. | 181 of Ethnology, in the study of physical difference between the races of mankind or the individuals thereof, which Anthropo- metry may not aid in clearing or defining. Think of the physical differences in the various races of mankind in the present day—take the Western Hemisphere, and beginning at tne north, compare the physical differences susceptible of accurate measurement between the Eskimos, Aleuts, Innuits, the North American Indian, the Aztec, the Peruvian, the Patagonian. A moment's consideration will carry conviction that accurate measurement would go far in establishing the dividing line between these races. As to the like benefit among our present Indians, in deciding between different tribes, I offer no opinion, but in obtaining by Anthro- pometry their status as a race, for comparison with other races, and so fixing their relative position as an Ethnologic group, I have no doubt as to the benefit, and that the work if done would receive the approval of the scientific world. Especially is this true since the combination of the American Indian in the same grand division with the Mongolian. I know of no method, except by Anthropometry, that the comparison be- tween these two peoples can be made with precision; or by which they can with certainty be assigned to the same grand division. This comparison cannot be made by the measure- ment of a few isolated cases in either continent. The mea- worth the doing, it should be done by us. We should here apply the Monroe doctrine of politics. If not done, it should not be because it was neglected, or forgotten; but because we decide it not to be worth the labor and expense, and in this we must justify ourselves in the eyes of the world. I.venture with diffidence the suggestion that the present tried corps of Ethnologic explorers among our Indians might add to their present field duties that of Anthropometry. The corps is already organized and the labor, trouble or expense would be but slight compared with what it would be if a new corps had to be organized. The expense would only be for instruments and tables. The men could receive instructions in the needed manipulations from competent professors before starting. With small practice they could soon master the art, 182 The American Naturalist. [March, and learn to measure the human body with celerity and pre- cision, and to record the results with certainty. Of course, the collating these results would be done after their return home by others. The proper professors would afterwards determine the conclusion established by this aggregation of facts. So important has this science of Anthropometry been con- sidered in Europe that one of the most studious, learned and enthusiastic professors of Anthropology in the world—he who probably stood nearest its head—Paul Broca, devoted himself principally to the study and practice of Anthropometry; he developed the system which bears his name, and his fame stands principally upon his services inthis branch. The Societé d’Anthropologie at Paris endorsed his system, pub- lished his instructions as its own, and now the world has almost entirely adopted it as the basis of Anthropometry. The necessity of uniformity is so apparent that each country, one after the other, has finally adopted the metric system of measurements, England, I believe the last. This Societé established, many years ago, a permanent course of lectures upon this subject; one eách week during the scholastic year. Broca was the lecturer during his lifetime. This course is still continued and is now in the hands of Broca's successor, Dr. Manouvrier. Anthropometry is thus assigned a place equal in dignity with any other of the branches of the science. Dr. Paul Topinard is now devoting himself to a work with a duration of many years, of making a chart of all France according to the color of the hair and eyes of the inhabitants. Mr. Francis Galton of London, has been engaged for years upon the work of ‘‘ Heriditary Stature.” He established an Anthro- pometric Laboratory at the Health Exhibition in London, 1883, where each individual could be measured, weighed and tested in all his parts, the record being furnished him andaduplicate being kept for scientific use, all for 3d. 10,000 people were measured. This system has been continued during subsequent exhibitions —the Fisheries, Colonies, Inventories, &c., and the South Kensington Museum has adopted it permanently. Mr. Galton reports that demands have been made from many places throughout the world for lots of machinery. I listened with much satisfaction to his address on this subject as President of the Anthropological Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Aberdeen in 1885. He then stated the problem which he sought to elucidate; given a - group of men, or a single man of any certain and known 1889. ] Archeology and Anthropology. 183 stature, and ignoring every other fact, what may be the prob- able average height of the brothers, sons, nephews and grand- children respectively, and what proportion of these will probably range between any two specified heights? He found the average height of man in Great Britain, at what he calls the “level of mediocrity” to be 5 feet 81% inches. He was able to transmute female to male heights by multiplying by 1.08, or as he says, to state it roughly, add one inch to each foot He established the ratio of height between brothers, between father and son, uncles and nephews, between grand- fathers and grandchildren, and calculated the probability for the future. He proved that with all the certainty of diver- gence in height in individual cases, there was a law which tend- ed to bring the whole people towards their mean level—that the progeny of tall men grow shorter and that of short men taller. And he adds the important fact derived from his study of “ Here- ditary Genius,” that the peculiarities of mankind, say of Genius, follow the same rule. This rule seems reasonable and wise, otherwise while the children of the good people would become “very, very good,” yet those of the evil people would become even worse than “ horrid,” and as the evil are numerical by greater, the world, but for this rule, would soon be given over entirely to evil. The Societé d'Anthropologie at Paris has issued a full set of instructions adapted to nearly all parts of the world. eneral instructions are printed with particular instructions for France, for Australia, Algeria, Peru, Senegal, Mexico, Chili, Sicily, the Red Sea, Cambodia, Central Asia, Maylasia, Madagascar, each separate, but together forming a volume of not less than a thousand pages. Travelers to any of these countries are recommended to provide themselves with these instructions and the necessary instruments, and take obser- vations to be reported back to the Societé. The same general course has been pursued by the principal societies in Europe. I will not attempt to give even a list of the reports made in ac- cordance with these recommendations, such would be so in- complete that it would mislead rather than inform the reader. Butit may be summarized by saying that about all we know with certainty in figures of the physical characteristics of the various peoples of the world we know from these sources. I give a sample of the information thus received, a resumé of the report made by Surgeon H. B. Guppy of his visit to the Solomon Islands. He operated upon 72 natives and gives the tables of measurements in every part of the body. His resumé 184 The American Naturalist. (March, of the physical characteristics of the average Solomon Islander is as follows: (Anthrop. Institute, Vol. XV, p. 281.) “Such a man would have a well proportioned physique, a good carriage and well-rounded limbs. His height would be about 5 feet, 4 inches; his chest girth between 34 and 35 inches and his weight between 125 and 130 pounds. The color of his skin would be a deep brown, corresponding with number 35 of the color- types of M. Broca. * * * The form of his skull would be Mesocephalic. The proportion of the length of the span of the extended arms to the height of the body, taking the latter as 100. would be represented by the index 106.7. The length of the upper limb would be exactly the one-third the height of the body, and the tip of his middle finger would reach down to a point about 377 inches above the patella. The length of the lower limb would be slightly under one-half 49-100 of the height of the body, and the relations of the lengths of the upper and lower limbs to each other, would be represented by the intermembral index 68. I grant at once that there are other branches of Anthropol- ogy in the United States which have pressing needs for study. The Indian issaid to bein progress of extinction like the buffalo, and unless he can be studied soon, in his language, art and industry, it will be toolate. This argument for immediate action is all powerful, and should move the United States to all possible exertion. But I submit that it applies with equal force to Anthropometry. If not now, or soon, measured in their groups of tribes, it will be toolate. Extinction or mix- ture of blood between different tribes or with whites would be equally fatal to Anthropometry. Some of those who have studied the subject most, believe in an identity of race between the North American Indian and the mound-builders of prehistoric times. Anthropometry would be a powerful assistantin proving the fact. I should much like to see Anthropometry practised upon our native tribes, whether Eskimo, Innuit or Indian, now while we have such splendid opportunities, by means of numerous examples and continued tests so extended and applied to groups of sufficient numbers, as that the physical peculiarities and attributes of each race or tribe might be established upon a scientific basis with mathematical accuracy, and which would be so complete as to be accepted by all the world. For this great subject the United States possesses peculiar facilities. hese would furnish means of comparison between them and all other tribes, races and peoples, whether modern, 1889. ] Archeology and Anthropology. 185 ancient orprehistoric. I have wondered often that this most feasible and certain evidence has never been sought by the believer in identity of the North American Indian with the lost tribes of Israel. The prehistoric race of men in Europe and America belong- ing to the paleolithic age—the river drift man and the cave dweller—were of much greater antiquity that the mound- builders of the United States, and the savants of Europe seem now to be of the mind that he passed, whether by land or sea is immaterial, to America, and that the Western Hemisphere is peopled from this stock. They think they can trace similar- ities of implement, art and industry in the present race of Es- kimos. How muchit would add to the solution of the ques- tion to have the physical status of each and all these tribes settled by Anthropometry. The scientific value of anthropometry is for comparison be- tween different individuals, or tribes, or races of people. In order to accomplish this comparison the measurement must be accurate and done by the same system among allnations. If different systems be employed, the comparison cannot be made with certainty. The tendency of the American mind to invent new systems should be here repressed and we should adopt as universal the metric system of measurement. ANCIENT MOUNDS AT FLOYD, Iowa.—On the west side of the Cedar River, one half mile east from Floyd, Iowa, are lo- cated a group of three ancient mounds. These mounds, instead of being located on the highest eminence in the region, as is most usually the case, are arranged in a slightly curved line, ona high but level space, fifty feet above, and two hundred and twenty yards back from the stream, and midway between two points (from fifty to sixty rods from each) which face the river, and rise from twenty-five to fifty feet above this level space. The ground, between the mounds and the Cedar, has a rather gently sloping surface. At this point the stream makes a bend to the east, and the mounds thus occupy a position on the south side. The north side of the stream is occupied by a steep, and somewhat broken, wooded bank, which affords a limited though beautiful bit of scenery to this place. This area, as wellas the surface of the mounds themselves, was originally possessed by a heavy growth of timber, but which was cleared away more than twenty years ago and the soil kept under the plow eversince. These mounds are low and circular, and twenty feet distant from each other. The 186 The American Naturalist. | March, east, or largest mound, is thirty feet in diameter, and was orig- inally two feet high (so reported by Mr. Sharkey, who first cleared, and still owns the tract) although owing to degradation by the plow now rises only one and one half feet above the surface of the ground surrounding the mound. The two re- maining mounds are smaller and lower than the first one. The third mound—there may be some slight doubt expressed re- garding its origin, for the reason that in the south portion of it there is imbedded a drift bowlder, weighing some seven or eight hundred pounds. This, however, may have been placed here by human hands in the long ago, or the mound may have been an intrusion upon the stone. A partial exploration of the two smaller mounds was made, but without discovering anything. In making a thorough exploration of the larger mound, however, the remains of five human bodies were found, the bones, even those of the fingers, toes, etc., being, for the most part, in a good state of preservation. First, a saucer or bowl- shaped excavation had been made, extending down three and three-fourths feet below the surface of the ground around the mound, and the bottom of this macadamized with gravel and fragments of limestone. In the centre of this floor, five bodies . were placed in a sitting posture, with the feet drawn under them, and apparently facing the north. First above the bodies was a thin layer of earth; next above this was nine inches of earth and ashes, among which was found two or three small pieces of fine-grained charcoal. Nearly all the remaining four feet of earth had been changed to a red color by the long continued action of fire. All the material of the mound, above and around the bodies, had been made so hard that it was with great difficulty that an excavation could be made even with the best of tools. The soil around the bodies had been deeply stained by the decom- position of the flesh. The first (west) body was that of an averaged sized woman in middle life. Six inches to the east of this was the skeleton of a babe. To the north, and in close proximity to the babe, were the remains of a large, aged, in- dividual, apparently that of a man. To the east and south of the babe were the bodies of two young, though adult persons. The bones of the woman, in their detail of structure, indicated a person of low grade, the evidence of unusual muscular devel- . opment being strongly marked. The skull of this person- age was a wonder to behold, it equaling, if not rivaling in some respects, in inferiority of grade, the famous ‘‘ Neanderthal paonpa: qonur yog 'eumg ouiJo mary 30014 “Zz Dij — "ieppmg punojy Jo IMAS Jo Mar, [ww] y 71 “Big *e "DIU vI Og '"HIA ALV Td 1889. ] Archeology and Anthropology. 187 Skull" The forehead (if forehead it could be called) is very low, lower and more animal like than in the “Neanderthal” specimen. The two following cuts will illustrate this descrip- tion. This skull is quite small for an adult individual. The inner portions of the brow ridges are slightly prominent. The distance from the lower portion of the nasal bone to the upper margin of the eye cavities is only four centimeters. A slight portion of this bone has, however, apparently been broken away. The distance between the eye sockets at a point midway between the upper margin of the eye cavities and the lower portion of the nasal bone is two and three-fourths centimeters. Only that portion of the skull figured was found intact, the other portions being too much crushedby the weight of the earth from above to allow of a reconstruction of its parts. One of the jaws, containing well preserved teeth, was found. This was rather strong, but the teeth only moderately so. We were at first inclined to consider the strange form of this skull as due to artificial pressure while living, buta critical examination of it revealed the fact that it was normal, Z.e., not having been ar- tificially deformed. The teeth of the babe were very small, and the skull thick, even for an adult person. The next skeleton was that of a man nearly six feet in : height. The crowns of all the teeth had been very much worn = ^ down, some of them even down to the bone of the jaw. =œ . 5*5 before stated, the remaining bodies were those of young luli persons the skull of one of which was small for a full- dividual. ^c relies of any description were found with ; üu his mound. This burial appeared to be CAD es FITS RII t 24d 3 e excavation bein; | f not all decomposed. In other mounds op^ned’ on the same stream, at Charles City, six miles below, fragments of the same limestone was not infrequently found, but in no case was decomposition visible, except as a thin outer crust, although the human bones, which were usually more or less abundant, were in no case very well preserved, but on the contrary, often nearly or entirely decomposed. The fine preservation of the remains in the 1 These mounds are thirty-one in number, an ex loration of nearly all of which w ates by us in a paper on ** Ancient Mounds in Johnson County, Io o — which 188 The American Naturalist. {March, mound at Floyd was due to the method of burial. This being evidenced by the fact that over a small portion of one of the bodies the earth had not been so thoroughly packed, and as a consequence the bones were almost entirely decomposed away, while the other portion of the body over which the soil had been very firmly packed was well preserved. Judging from all facts gathered, it seems not improbable to suppose that this represented a family burial. The question has been raised, ‘‘ How was it that these five persons were all buried here at the same time, their bodies. being still in the flesh?" As we have no reason to suppose that these ancient people possessed any means for preserving, for any length of time, in the flesh, the bodies of their dead; it seems plausible to suppose that these individuals were all swept off at about the same time by some pestilence, or else, upon the death of some dignitary of the tribe or people (per- haps represented by the remains of the old man) the other members of the family were sacrificed, similar to the custom which has prevailed among some ancient tribes or races of his- toric times. On the same stream, a short distance below this mound, several other mounds occur which promise to yield interesting results, and which we purpose to explore as opportunity offers. —CLEMENT L. WEBSTER, Charles City, Towa. MICROSCOPY. THE EGGS OF PETROMYZON.*—1. Artificially fertilized eggs were treated with Flemming’s fluid, containing a larger admixture of osmic acid than is prescribed in the original for- mula. 2. After 30 minutes the eggs were washed in distilled water, passed through 30% and 70% alcohol (3 hours in each), an preserved in 90%. The eggs were cut in paraffine, the sections fixed to the slide with albumen, stained with safranine, and mounted in xylol balsam. 1 Edited by C. O. Whitman, Director of the Lake Laboratory, Milwaukee. 2 A, A. Bohm, Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xxxii. pp. 634-5. 1889. ] Microscopy. 189 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM OF LuUMBRICUS,’—If the earthworm is to be sectioned in toto, it is necessary to remove the sand from the alimentary canal. For this purpose, place the worm in a glass cylinder partly filled with fine bits of wet filter-paper. As the paper is swallowed the sand is expelled, and at the end of about two days the alimentary tract is cleansed. In the study of the ventral cord, Friedlander employed the following methods: Place the worm in water, to which alittle chloroform has been added, and it soon becomes stupefied in an outstretched con- dition. Then cut open the body-wall along the median dorsal line, and pin the edges down in a dish covered with paraffine or wax. After removing the alimentary canal, the specimen may be treated with a preservative fluid. I. Osmic acid 1%. After an exposure of about half an hour, the worm is sufficiently stiffened to allow the pins to be removed, and it may then be cut into pieces of any desired length. The pieces are then left twenty-four hours in the same solution, then washed, and passed through the usual grades of alcohol. Preparatory to embedding in paraffine, the pieces are saturated with chloroform or toluol. This method is excellent for the study of the neuroglia-like elements, and is the best for the brain. 2. Preparations treated thirty minutes with osmic acid (1%) are transferred to a dilute solution of pyroligneous acid (1 part to three parts water), which reduces the osmic acid very quick- ly. This is followed by alcohol as before. The ganglion cells are well preserved. 3. The preparation is first treated with weak alcohol, then with stronger grades. After half an hour in 70% alcohol, it is stiff enough for removing the pins, and for cutting into smallpieces. Nerve fibres are somewhat contracted by this method, and are thus more easily distinguished from the sur- rounding connective tissue. ; 4. Corrosive sublimate (aqueous sol) and 50% alcohol in €qual parts (thirty minutes) gave good preparations of the nerves and the neural tubes. For preparations according to No. 3, the beststain isa mod- ified form of Mayer's alcohol carmine, absolute alcohol being substituted for 80%. — Sublimate preparations are successfully . stained with Grenacher's hematoxylin. After half an hour in this staining fluid, the preparations are transferred to acidu- * Benedict Friedlander, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoologie, XLVII, 1, 1888, p. 48. 190 The American Naturalist. [ March. lated alcohol (50%, with a little hydrochloric acid) % min- ute, then placed in alcohol containing a few drops of ammonia. Connective tissue and nerves are unstained, while ganglion cells are stained deep blue. The last two methods of staining may be followed by picric acid, which stains the uncolored elements yellow. The process is as follows: After the sections have been fixed to the slide with collodion and the paraffine dissolved with turpentine or zylol, the slide . is placed in turpentine containing a few drops of a solution of picric acid in absolute alcohol. Ina few seconds, nerve-fibres, connective tissue, and muscles are stained yellow. The slide is next to be placed in turpentine containing a few drops of al- cohol, to wash away the excess of picric acid, then in pure turpentine ar xylol preparatory to mounting in balsam. ZYLOL DAMMAR.—M. Martinotti advocates the use of dammar dissolved in zylol as a mounting medium, to be pre- ferred to balsam in certain cases. He prepares his solution in the following way: Forty grams of dammar and forty grains of zylol are mixed together in a stoppered bottle and allowed to stand for three or four days at the ordinary temperature; the solution is then filtered. The filtrate, which will amount to about 70 grams, is then evaporated in a water-bath down to about 45 grams. The object of this concentration is to obtain a solution of the resin in the smallest quantity of zylol possible, just enough in fact to merely dissolve the resin. This concentrated solution becomes yellow, but retains its limpidity. The next step is to dilute this solution with oil of turpentine, by which means the yellowish color is made to almost disappear. 1 Journal Roy. Micr, Soc., Feb. 1888, p. 153. ERRATUM. page 208, should read “1/7. 7 natural size” in place of ELATE VI eA ; / Hypertragulus calcaratus Cope. 1. (The pterygoid region injured). THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vor. XXIII. | APRIL, 1889. 268. THE PROBOSCIDIA. BY E. D. COPE. D Ege Proboscidia are Ungulata in which the second row of carpal bones has not moved inwards so as to alternate with the first, and in which the second row of tarsal bones alternates with the first by the navicular extending over part of the proximal face of the cuboid. The teeth are modifica- tions of the quadritubercular type, and canines are absent. B pe LP jode of "is of Elephas much reduced. A, manus of Æ. africanus. 192 The American Naturalist. [April, To these general characters are added numerous subordinate peculiarities in the known genera and species, which make them among the most remarkable of living beings. These peculiarities are the result of a long period of development. It is one of the most curious facts of paleontology that the order does not make its appearance until the middle of the Miocene system, and the greater number of forms do not appear until the upper Miocene. That it existed earlier cannot be doubted, and that it originated from some Eocene condylar- thran is evident ; but the intermediate forms are entirely lost to us as yet, and the phylogeny of the order is absolutely unknown. This is the more extraordinary since the earliest known genus (Dinotherium) embraces only species of colossal size, and its immediate ancestors could not have been insig- nificant. We may regard Phenacodus as the first form we know of earlier than Dinotherium, but what a hiatus is ex- pressed in this statement! It is to be anticipated that the gap will be filled by discoveries in Asia, or the Southern Hemisphere. South America may be probably excluded from this prospect, since the extensive researches made there by Burmeister, Ameghino, and Moreno, have not resulted in the discovery of any Proboscidia earlier than the Pliocene. Asi- atic investigations have revealed nothing, as the proper formations have not been found, and the same is true o Africa. So we shall have to wait until the paleontology of the present home of the order is exposed to view, before we shall know of the steps which lead from Phenacodus to these mighty monarchs of the animal kingdom. The absence of primitive Proboscidia from North and South America and Europe, impels us to believe that the representatives of the . order known to us from those regions, are the descendants of immigrants from Asia and Africa. But two families of Proboscidia are known. They are de- fined as follows: Adult dentition embracing premolars and molars; no su- POTION WACISOMR cco. eere eere rc pates ns cae Dinotherida. Adult dentition embracing one or two true molars only ; SUDEHOE INTISOTS i sots ce oc ie sacs iae adis Elephantida. The family of the Dinotheriidae embraces one genus and 1889. ] The Proboscidia. 193 four species, though a fifth species, D. sindiense Lyd., from In- dia, may belong, according to Lydekker, to another genus. The Dinotherium indicum Falc.is known from a few teeth, which exceed in size those of the other species. The ganteum Kaup is found in several Miocene deposits of d. It was one of the largest of Mammalia, its femur exceeding in dimensions that of any other land mammal. The inferior incisors were robust and cylindric in form. With the sym- physis of the lower jaw they are decurved so as to form a most effective instrument for the tearing up of trees by the roots, or the pulling down of their branches The temporal fossa is lateral, and the top of the head flat. The premaxillary region though toothless, is prominent, and the nasal bones do not project. There is supposed to have been a short trunk. The skull measures three feet eight inches in length. (Plate Fig. 2. Dinotherium giganteum Cuv. pris ea neal molars, one fourth nat. size, From ihe Miocene of France, From Gau Two smaller species are known, the D. davaricum from Euro- pean, and D. pentapotamie from Indian Miocene beds. In Dinotherium all the molars and premolars have two transverse crests excepting the first (posterior) premolar, and its deciduous predecessor, which have three cross-crests. The genera of the Elephantidz are the following : I. Inferior incisors and pares present. Superior incisors with enamel-band................... ....-. Tetrabelodon Cope. emolars, but ca no inferior inciso Intrusa molars isomerous ; superior incisors with yik band. elodon Cope. Disb, Intermediate molars isomerous superior incisors without enamel-band. Mastodon Cuv. 194 The American Naturalist. [April, Intermediate molars heteromerous ; superior incisors without enamel-band. Emmenodon Cope. IlI. No premolars, nor inferior incisors Intermediate molars heteromerous. Superior idi without enamel-band. Elephas Linn. The characters assigned to the above genera are sufficient to separate them, but they have not come into general use for two reasons. One is the difficulty of verifying some of them, especially the presence of premolars, owing to the difficulty of obtaining specimens of young individuals. The other isthe indisposition of naturalists to abandon the system of Falconer. As is well-known, this able paleontologist distinguished the genera by the number and depth of the transverse crests of the molar teeth, and the extent to which their interspaces are filled with cementum. This arrangement is insufficient, since it neglects the equally important characters above G. 3. Longitudinal sections of the vem pn of Proboscidia, much reduced, "iia Gaudry. — c cementum; d dentine ; e prom: nferior molar of Dinotherium giganteum Cuv. , superior molar o on americanus Cuv. C, bit a bee d Pope 9 es CF. Bd Elephasi tae C. F. E, do. of F, do. of MM Vs o C. F. G, do. of Ele- phas AAT 1Gen. nov. ee Elephas cliftii Falc. Cautl., Mastodon elephantoides Clift. PLATE IX, — 2: —— — ——— — — Mrs, Tetrabelodon campester Cope. 1889. ] The Proboscidia. 195 mentioned ; and as observed by Lydekker’ it fails to furnish clear definitions. He remarks, under the head of the genus Elephas, ‘‘ There is no character by which the present genus can be distinguished from Mastodon; and the division can be therefore only regarded as a matter of convenience.” The characters presented in the above table are on the other hand very distinctive, and can be applied in all cases where we have the necessary information. This has not yet been ob- tained as regards all the species, and I have placed some of- them in their respective genera provisionally. Such species are marked with an z when the condition of the incisors is un- known, and with a p when the same is true of the premolars. cds species of the family described thus far, are as follows: ATENO Fifi Cope sp. nov. N. America ;. 7. censis Schinz. Europe. pino Cuv. Europe. kh * — paleindicus Lyd. India. st * — proavus Cope. N. America. emos Cope. N. America, ? Mexico. xe uhypodon Cope. N. America 2 "i fioi siu Falc. Cautl. India. rope. sh ? serridens Cope. Texas ?Mexico ?Florida.5 7. 7. Dibelodon shepardi Leidy. California, Mexico. 7. " cordillerarum" Desm. South America. tropicus Cope. South Medos and Mexico. 2. T humboldtii Cuv. S. Am Mastodon americanus Cuv.” N. hai gis es borsoni Hays. p. Europe. " Jalconeri Lydd. India. 2. “sé 1Catalogue of fossil Mammalia i in the British Museum Pt. IV. p. 79. ?In RENE this list I have been greatly aided by the Memoirs oi of PS dee in the Palzontologia Indica, ve in the Catalogue of the British Mus 34M. proavus Cope 1884 no 4 Mises to Lydekker no guns have been seen in this species. M. floridanus Leidy. 5M. andium Cuv. According to the recent deua of Burmeister, E species does not possess ere an! tusks. (Sitzungsb. Kón. Preuss. d. Wis lin 1888 p. 717.) Hence the specime M" from Mexico with such tusks kapari ted Falconer, must be Malned elsewher "This pow Z — by Lydekker sit to possess premolars. _ vee! Report U. S. Geol. sadi - PL, figures a tooth as a premolar, , and similar specimens are not uncommon. 196 The American Naturalist. [April, Mastodon mirificus Leidy. N. America. 7. p. hs sivalensis' Cautley. India. P. £f arvernensisC. & J. Europe. ds ?punjabiensis Lydd. India. 7. ‘ latidens Clift i Emmenodon elephantoides? Clift. India to Japan. Y plani lc. Cautl. India. Elephas bombifrons Falc. Cautl. India, ? China. ganesa Falc. Cautl. India ds insignis Falc. Cautl. India to Japan. + meridionalis Nesti. Middle and S. Europe, and N. Africa. v hysudricus Fale, Cautl. India 5 antiquus Falc. Europe ? W. Aino 5 mnaidriensis Leith-Adams. Malta. s melitensis Falc. Malta. s: namadicus Falc. Cautl. ng to Japa * primigenius columbi Falc. PAA, Mexico. oe " rimigenius hl N. Hemisphere. “a - americanus DeKay. E. N. America. To these we must add the two existing species, Elephas africanus and E. indicus. Several species are not sufficiently known for reference to their proper genus. Such are Masto- don perimensis Falc.Cautl. India; M. atticus Wagn. S. Eu- rope; M. serridens Cope, Texas; M. cautleyt, Lydd. India, and M. obscurus Leidy, N. America. In these the characters of both the incisor and premolar teeth are unknown. In some Fig. 4. Mastodon latidens Clift left sup: molar 3 from ? Pliocene of Borneo: two-thirds natural size. From Lydekker Mice to Lydekker, premolars have not been observed. astodon Clift; Stegodon Falconer; Elephas Lydekker. 1889. ] The Proboscidia. 197 of the species referred above to Mastodon, mandibular tusks are present in the young, and occasionally one is retained to maturity, as sometimes seen in M. americanus. But such in- dividuals are exceptional among their species. In some other species while the males possess them, they are wanting to the females. The specific character is in this case derived from the male. The molar dentition in this family possesses a number of peculiarities which have been worked out mainly by Falconer, Owen, and Lydekker. There are probably deciduous molars in all the species, and they are generally three in number, The posterior of these has the same number of cross-crests as the posterior premolar, which immediately succeeds it. The number of crests diminishes to the first of the series, There are two or three premolarsin most forms of the family, but in the genus Elephas they have disappeared. In all the species they are shed early in life in order to make way for the true molars. As the latter teeth are very large, and the fore and aft extent of the jaws is small, there is only space for one or two of them at a time. In most of the species the last molar so much exceeds the others in size, that it occupies the entire jaw, and the other molars are shed in order to accom- modate it. In the genera Tetrabelodon, Dibelodon, and Mastodon, the last premolar, and the first and second true mo- lars are isomerous, 7. e. have the same number of cross-crests. In Emmenodon and Elephas they are heteromerous ; that is, the number of cross-crests successively increases from front torear. 'Thus in the three genera named the ridge formula is; P. M. 2—2—3; M. 3—3—4, and P. M. ?—? 4; M. 4—4— 5 or 4—5—6. In Emmenodon the ridge formula is, P. M. j—1—)— 5; M. 6-7—6—7-8; and P. M. ?—6-7; M. 7—8- 9—10-12. In Elephas the formula extends from M . 6—6- 7—8-9, to M. 9-15—14-16—18-27. Each genus then has a certain range of variation in the number of molar crests, extending from a smaller to a larger number. This succes- sive increase in complexity has been regarded by Falconer as the index to the successive evolution of the species, and rightly so. As already remarked, however, other measures of the same succession cannot be overlooked, especially as 198 The American Naturalist. [April, the ridge formula changes in so gradual a manner as to render it unavailable as a basis of exact divisions, as has been re- marked already by Lydekker. It is evident that the primi- tive Proboscidia had incisor teeth in both jaws, and that these had more or less of the usual enamel investment. The grad- ual modification of these features is therefore another indica- tion of the line of descent of these animals. The primitive Proboscidia had likewise four premolars, as is now seen in Dinotherium. The successive loss of these teeth is no less an index of the evolution of the modern types of the order, than the other modifications referred to. In general, then, the phylogeny of the order may be represented thus: Elephas Emmenodon Mastodon Dibelodon Tetrabelodon Dinotherium Primitive Proboscidia. Within each genus certain parallel modifications of the composition of the crowns of the molar teeth may be ob- served. The cross-crests may be single, or they may be di- vided up into tubercles. The valleys between them may be open (1) or they may be blocked by (2) a system of single in- termediate tubercles; (3) by numerous intermediate tubercles ; or (4) by the thickening ofthe primary tubercles. I arrange the species according to these characters. Tetrabelodon. Dibelodon. Mastodon. I T. ? brevidens. M. americanus. T. turicensis. M. borsoni. M. latidens 2 T. angustidens. D. shepardi. M. ? cautleyt. T. productus. D. cordillerarum. AM. falconeri. T. serridens. D. tropicus. »* -7 - - Tut z ———— —€— ae £ a -— i. 1889.] The Proboscidia. 199 T. euhypodon. M. arvernensis. T. longirostris. 3 T. campester. D. humboldtii. M. sivalensis. T. pandionis. M. punjabiensis. 4 M. mirificus. ? M. atticus.: Parallels between the species of Emmenodon and Elephas also exist. As but two species of the former genus are known, we must look for future discoveries to increase the number of correspondences. The species of both genera which approach nearest to Mastodon have a smaller number of cross-crests, which are of lesser elevation, and whose in- tervening valleys are occupied by but a shallow deposit of cementum(fig. 3, C. D.) Theseare the Stegodons of Falconer; (1). In the other group, (2) the crests are numerous and ele- vated, and their interspaces are filled with cementum. (Fig. 3 E RJ Emmenodon. Elephas. I E. elephantoides. E. bombifrons. E. ganesa E. insignis. 2 E. planifrons. E. meridionalis. E. antiquus. etc. It is observable that each type of molar teeth of the three genera first compared, has representatives in the regions where their species occur; North America, Europe and ndia. The North American species of this family are distin- guished by the following characters of the molar teeth.' I. Intermediate molars with not more than three crests ; (trilophodont). G. Crests acute, transverse. B. Valleys uninterrupted. Last superior molar with three crests and a heel; crests low, not serrate. ; T. brevidens. Last superior molar with four crests and a heel; crests elevated, not serrate. ; M. americanus, 88. Valleys interrupted. 1From the AMERICAN NATURALIST. 1884. p. 524. 200 The American Naturalist. [ April, pong OF CrbGt MUDETCHIOtES oss i. Sc ere Day Wed ae See Geese T. serridens. aa. Crests transverse, composed of conic lobes. B. Valleys little uninterrupted. Last inferior molar narrow, with four crests; an accessory tubercle in each valley; D, shepardi. B. Valleys interrupted. Last inferior molar with four crests and a heel; symphysis short, M. 150; smaller SE lul cil. 0. P WC SE E ES o 4 p ee T. euhypodon. Last inferior molar with four crests and a ae A ; symphysis cs M. .280; Et NBI. iCLLuusos Sees qa TRES bwin ns eae ER RI E dU Mr RR T. pr T Last inferior molar with five crests and a heel; symphysis very long, M. .450; gelo iius il. lox eika un decken eu asians **aaa. Crests broken into conic | abes s: "ne eb pedis sides alternating. Last inferior molar narrow, supporting four crests and a heel....... T. obscurus." II. Intermediate molars with four transverse crests; (tetralophodont). Along symphysis; crests well separated, tubercular, with accessory lobes inter- pti ALPES ITA T. campester. Symphysis very short; crests thick, closing valid er contact; no accessory cusps; LT oes TS M. mirificus. III. Intermediate molars with 9-16 crests. B. Valleys filled with cementum. Last molar with 18-27 cross-crests; ...................... Elephas primigenius. The stratigraphic position of these species is as follows: Pleistocene. astodon americanus. Elephas primigenius (less abundant). Pliocene. Elephas primigenius (more abundant). T: ese serridens (horizon probable). Dibelodon Upper erus dios Fork). Tetrabelodon euhypodon. ee uctus. " ustidens xi camipester. astodon mirificus. Siena bed. Tetrabelodon brevidens. The horizons from which were obtained the Zzzrabelodon où- scurus Leidy and the Dzbelodon shepardi Leidy, are not suf- ficiently well-known. In the valley of Mexico, the D. skep- ardi is from the Pliocene. No species of the order has been found below the Ticholeptus beds ; a horizon about parallel 188¢,] The Proboscidia. 201 with that in which the order first appears in Europe. The statement of Marsh that the genus has been obtained in the lower White River beds is an error. (King, Survey 4oth par- allel, I p. 412.) The TZetrabelodon brevidens Cope is the oldest North American species, and presents a very simple type of molar. The last superior has but three cross-crests and a heel, a smaller number than exists in any other species of the genus. The tooth is wide, and the crests are low. They are well ‘divided in the middle by a fissure. Their edges are entire, but obtuse, and the first and second internal have a thicken- ing at the base next the me- dian fissure, which wears in- to atrefoil. These thicken- ings close the valleys at their base, but soon thirdcrest. The valleys are bounded on the inner side by a well defined ledge, which is represented by FIG. 5. Tetrabelodon brevidens Cope; last superior — & rudiment on nrolar ; from Ticholeptus bed of Montana. Four-ninths the external natural size. Original. i side. Enamel thick and smooth. Length of molar, 157 mm.; width at second crest, 98 mm.; elevation of second crest, 54 mm. This tooth resembles that of the Mastodon americanus more nearly than that of any other North American species, and is still more like that of the M. borsoni of Europe. The re- duced number of its crests indicates it as the most primitive 202 The American Naturalist. [ April,. of the elephants, and as its horizon is the oldest, I have sus- pected that it had well developed incisor teeth in the lower jaw, and have, therefore, placed it provisionally in the genus: Tetrabelodon. It is probably ancestral to the M. ameri- canus, but, perhaps, not through American forms, since none with the same type of molar have been yet found in the for- mations which intervene between those in which the two species occur. Such forms occur in Europe, as the Zetradel- odon turicensts and the Mastodon borsoni. Unless some spe- cies of synchronous age with these is found in North Amer- ica, we may suppose that the Mastodon americanus derived its immediate descent from Asiatic and European forms. With the Zetrabelodon angustidens Cuv. we commence the series in which the transverse crests of the molars have the appearance of being composed of distinct but appressed conic tubercles. In most of them, the valleys are more or less. interrupted by tubercles. This is one of the most abundant. Fic. 6. Zetrabelodon angustidens proavus Cope; typical s speci- "we from the Loup Fork bed of Colorado, two-thirds natural size. igin as well as the most widely distributed species of the family,. extending its range from India to Central North America, through Europe. I have seen specimens from the Loup Fork beds of Kansas, Nebraska, and Dakota. Their size exceeds: those of the typical European form, and the second (and probably third) true molars have a narrow fourth cross- crest. It is possible that it may become necessary, with more complete information, to distinguish this form as a species: » d t ‘adop snavoid uopo[eqvuio T, a <= IX. GLY Id 1889. ] The Proboscidia. 203 ‘ under thename of Zzzrabelodon proavus. Probably, the same species has been recorded by Whitfield, from the phosphate beds of South Carolina, and compared with M. obscurus. The skeleton of the European form is represented in Plate II. In a lower jaw in my possession, the left ramus: meas- ures m. 1.080 in length, of which .420 is symphysis. The Zeztraóelodon euhypodon Cope was founded on a nearly perfect left mandibular ramus with last molar tooth and tusk, G. Tetrabelodon euhypodon Cope; Loup Fork bed of Kansas. Palate with superior molars and superior een. of individual repre- sentetl in Plate XIII; one-seventh natural siz This species was originally represented by a pidas milk molar, with two cross-crests, and ef ents e a pietam last premolar. The former is erts the size of that of e A idens, but is more n rta quadrangular, is composed of but Hes tabercles, degree T in pairs. (Fig. 6. 204 The American Naturalist. [April, with entire palate with both last molar teeth and tusks. The superior tusks are compressed distally, and the inferior tusks are large and have an enamel band; they are cylindric. The jaws indicate a smaller species, but the molar teeth are as large as those of the larger American form of M. angustidens, and as long as that of M. americanus, but narrower. Its symphysis is not prolonged, and the ramus islow and not com- pressed. Length of ramus posterior to symphysis, M. .500; of last lower molar, .182 ; width of do., 75. The mental tusk is much larger than that of M. productus or M. angustidens. Diameter of its alveolus, .068. There are several marked peculiarities in this species. The symphysis is remarkably short, when we consider the large size of the inferior tusks. The superior tusks are remarkably compressed for a consider- able part of their length distally, having a vertically oval section. From the Loup Fork bed of Kansas. Tetrabelodon productus Cope is abundant in the Loup Fork beds of New Mexico. It is a species of about the dimensions of the 7. angustidens Cuv., but the symphysis is not so pro- duced, and the ramus of the lower jaw is not compressed and elevated. It is the only species in which three superior pre- molars have been demonstrated; other species having gener- ally two. The second and third true molars are in use at one time. Tetrabelodon campester Cope is a rather large species, with a very long symphysis of the lower jaw, and a low ramus. The teeth are tetralophodont, and the sixth molar has six cross rows of tubercles and a heel. It is in some measure allied to the T. longirostris of Europe, but the symphysis is longer, and the teeth are more complex. The tusks are cylindric and nearly straight, and have a wide band of enamel. The known specimens are from the Loup Fork beds of Kansas and Nebraska. (Plates IX, X.) The Dibelodon shepardi Leidy was founded on an inferior sixth molar tooth from California. I subsequently' described specimens of the same from the Pliocene bed of the valley of Mexico, where it was abundant. The molar teeth are rather ! ** Proceed. Amer. Philosoph. Society," 1884, p. 5. 1889. ] The Proboscidia. | 205 simple in construction, and resemble those of the D. cordille- rarum Desm., but the species has a short, elephant-like symphysis The EI INS serridens Cope was founded on a first or Fic. 8. | 7Zetrabelodon arent repe ?first molar. Typical em E from ? Pliocene of Texa Four-ninths natural size. rigina second true molar from Texas. It is peculiar among Ameri- can species in its acute elevated, entire crests, with tuber- culo-serrate edges. It thus resembles the M. turicenszs, but differs in well-developed longitudinal crests at the inner end of the external half of the crests, which consist of two tuber- cles on the posterior side of a crest, and one on the anterior side of the next succeeding crest. Strong anterior and pos- terior cingula; edge of each cross-crest with six or seven tubercles. Length of crown, M. .130; width, .080 ; elevation, O61 Length of M. americanus, but narrower. Remains of a large Tetrabelodon fromi Florida have been described by Leidy under the name of 7. floridanus. Its molars present 206 The American Naturalist. [April, the tuberculated crests of the 7. serrzdens, and no important characters appear to separate it from the latter. The Mastodon mirificus Leidy is known from a left ramus of a lower jaw, which supports the last molar. The interme- diate molars are probably four-crested (tetralophodont), and the last molar has six crests, and is a large tooth, occupying the entire dentary portion of the lower jaw. In this respect it differs from the Zezrabelodons campester and longirostris, | where the fifth and sixth molars are in simultaneous use. The crests are divided on the middle line, and each half is so expanded as to close the intervening valleys very early in wear. Its symphysis is short and acute. Its nearest ally is the M. atticus Wagner, from the Upper Miocene beds of Pentelicus, Greece. Mastodon americanus Cuv. is the best known and latest in time of the American elephants. It is one of the largest species, and, after T. brevidens, possesses the simplest molar dentition. The symphysis of the lower jaw is short and decurved. The skull is wider and less elevated than that of the mammoth, and the tusks are shorter and less recurved. It was very abundant during the Plistocene age throughout North America, from ocean to ocean, and as far south as Mexico; but it has not been found in the latter country. Its remains are usually found in swamps, in company with recent species of Mammalia, and with Eguus fraternus and Bos lat- ifrons. The carbonaceous remains of its vegetable food have been found between its ribs, showing that, like the mammoth, it lived on the twigs and leaves of trees. It is at first sight curious that this, the simplest of the fam- ily of elephants in the characters of its molar teeth, appears latest in time on this continent. But it must be regarded as an immigrant from the Old World, where an appropriate genealogy may be traced. Its nearest ally, Mastodon borsonit, existed just anterior to it, during the Middle and Upper Pliocene, and this species was preceded in turn in the Middle and Upper Miocene by the T. turicensis, which pos- esses the same simplicity of the molar teeth. In its mandib- ular tusks the latter possesses another primitive character, which was nearly lost by its North American descendant. . ‘Kapney uoijq *ang suapysn3nv uopojaqeno j, TIX ALV Td 1889. ] The Proboscidia. 207 An ingeniously constructed fraud, consisting of parts of molar teeth of this species fastened together by cement, which was treated with wax, so as to resemble enamel, was described by me as representing a distinct species of this order, under the name of Caenobasileus tremontigerus) The specimen was manufactured in southwestern Texas. Elephas primigenius Blumenbach, the mammoth, was at one time distributed throughout North America, as far south as the valley of Mexico, inclusive. Its remains are found in the Upper Pliocene of Oregon, and inthe Pliocene of Mexico, unaccompanied by the Mastodon americanus, which had not appeared by that time. In the Eastern States its remains occur with those of the Mastodon americanus at the Big Bone Lick, in Kentucky. It was not found in the Port Ken- nedy, Pennsylvania, Bone-fissure, although the Mastodon was there. This absence may have been accidental. Says Leidy’: “ The animal (Elephas primigenius americanus) was probably of earlier origin, and became earlier extinct than the latter,” an opinion which my own observations confirm. Since no earlier. species of elephant proper is known from North or South America, we must regard this one as an immigrant from Asia, where, indeed, its remains abound. It remained longer in Siberia than in North America, since whole car- casses have been discovered imprisoned in the ice, near the mouth of the Lena River. These specimens had a covering of long hair, with an under hair of close wool. Leidy and Falconer have observed that the teeth of the elephants from Eastern North America can be easily dis- tinguished from those of the Mammoth by the greater atten- uation of the enamel plates. Leidy also observes that the lower jaw is more acuminate in the former. He proposed, therefore, to distinguish it as a species, using Dekay's name, E. americanus. Teeth from Escholtz Bay, Alaska, he regards as belonging to the true Æ. primigenius. Falconer regarded the true elephant of Texas as a distinct species, which he named Æ. columéi. He distinguished it by the coarse plates of the enamel, and by the wide lower jaw, 1 ** Proceedings American Philos. Society," 1877, P- 584. * “ Extinct Mammalia of Dakota and Nebraska," p. 398. 208 The American Naturalist. (April, with curved rami, and short symphysis. So far as the denti- tion goes, I have specimens of this type from Colorado and from Oregon. The Oregon specimen presents the same type of lower jaw as does one from Texas, in my possession. Spe- cimens from the valley of Mexico are abundant in the muse- ums of the City of Mexico, and their characters do not differ Fic.g. Elephas primigenius columbi Falc., from Texas. Natural size. Original. Profile of skull represented in Plate XIV. from those from Texas. I havein my museum an entire skull, lacking the lower jaw, (Plate XIV.), from the** orange sand " of the city of Dallas, in Northeastern Texas, which only differs in form from that of the E. primigenius, as figured by Blumen- bach and Cuvier, in the shorter and wider premaxillary region. This is one-half wider than long (from the molar alveolus) 1889. ] The Proboscidia. 209 while in the Ilford Mammoth in the British Museum, figured by Leith Adams,’ the length of this region equals the width. The skull agrees with those of the E. primigenius, and differs from those of the E. indicus in the narrower proportions of the posterior part of the cranium. The teeth are of the coarse-plated E. co/umói type. The individual is not very large, though old. The diameter of the tusks at the alveolus is 110mm. In a fragment of a huge specimen from South- western Texas, the diameter of the tusk at the base is 210 mm. Asaresult,it is not clear that the two American forms can be distinguished as yet from the Elephas primigenius or from each other, except as probable subspecies, Æ. 7. colum, and E. p. americanus. But more perfect material than we now possess may yet enable us to distinguish one or both of these more satisfactorily. No American species of the family exceeded this one in general dimensions, especially the form E. p. colum. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE IX. Tetrabelodon campester Cope. Palate with teeth from below, one-fourth natural size; from Loup Fork bed of Kansas. Original. PLATE X. Side view of jaws of individual of Zzzrabelodon campester represented in Plate IX., one-eighth natural size. PLATE Xl Tetrabelodon angustidens proavus Cope, mandibular ramus and symphysis from above and in profile, one-sixth natural size. Fig. A, first true inferior molar of a young animal, one- - third natural size. Fig. B, last superior premolar of young, perhaps of this species, two-fifths natural size. - * “t Memoirs of the the Palzontographical Society,” 1879, p. 69. Monograph of the British Fossil Elephants Pl. VI., Vir. 210 The American Naturalist. [April, PLATE XH. Tetrabelodon angustidens Cuv. Entire skeleton 1-26 natural size, restored by Gaudry. From the Miocene of France. From Gaudry “ Enchainements du Régne Animal.” PLATE XIII. Tetrabelodon euhypodon Cope, mandibular ramus from above and in profile, one-eighth natural size. From the Loup Fork bed of Kansas. Original. PLATE XIV. Elephas primigenius columbi Falc. Cranium. From Plisto- cene of Texas, 1-7.7 natural size. Original in Mus. E. D. Cope. The white spaces are light-colored bone, except at ends of premaxillaries, which are plaster. PLATE XV. Outlines of crania of Proboscidia, much reduced; from Falconer ; front views. Fig. 1, Dinotherium giganteum. Fig. 2, Mastodon ameri- canus. Fig. 3, Dibelodon cordillerarum. Fig. 4, Mastodon per- imensis. Fig. 5, Mastodon sivalensis. Fig. 6, Elephas bombi- frons. Fig. 7, Elephas ganesa. Fig. 8, Elephas insignis, in- cluding aand å, very young. Fig. 9, Emmenodon planifrons. Fig. 10, Elephas africanus. Fig. 11, Elephas meridionalis. Fig. 12, Elephas hysudricus. Fig. 13, Elephas namadicus. Fig. 14, Elephas indicus, including a, var. mukna, and å, young. Fig. 15, Elephas primigenius, after Fischer. PLATE XVI. Outlines of crania of Proboscidia, much reduced; from Falconer; profiles. Fig. 1, Dinotherium giganteum, from Kaup. Fig. 2, Masto- don americanus. Fig. 3, Tetrabelodon angustidens, after De Blainville. Fig. 4, Dibelodon cordillerarum, Fig. 5, Mastodon perimensis. Fig. 6, Mastodon sivalensis. Fig. 7, Mastodon arvernensis, from Nesti. Fig. 8, Tetrabelodon longirostris, PLATE XIII. Tetrabelodon euhypodon Cope. 1889. ] Across the Santa Barbara Channel. 211 after Kaup. Fig. 9, Mastodon latidens. Fig. 10, Emmenodon elephantotdes, Fig. 11, Elephas bombifrons. Fig. 12, Elephas ganesa. Fig. 13, Elephas insignis. Fig. 14, Emmenodon planifrons. Fig. 15, Elephas africanus. Fig. 16, Elephas meridionalis. Fig. 17, Elephas hysudricus. Fig. 18, Elephas namadicus. Fig. 19, Elephas indicus. Fig. 20, Elephas prim- zgenius. ACROSS THE SANTA BARBARA CHANNEL. BY J. WALTER FEWKES. HE island of Santa Cruz, from the Mission Church of Santa Barbara, looks not unlike Capri, from the City of Naples. The same blue sky arches over it, the same Medi- terranean haze envelops it, its outlines are softened by its distance, and its cliffs rise equally precipitantly from the sea. In my tarry at Santa Barbara, in the spring of 1887, I had re- peatedly turned my eyes seaward, across the channel, longing for the opportunity, which at last came, to cross the inter- vening waters, and set foot on this island. My trip across the channel was productive of both pleasure and profit, and may not be without interest to my readers. Although a comparatively narrow channel separates the Santa Barbara islands from the mainland, the means of com- munication are not always at hand. The enterprising fisher- man, Larco, often crosses it in his Italian sailboat, the '" Genova," but his accommodations for passengers are more or less limited. The vessel owned by the proprietors of the island was not at my disposal, and the only thing left was to charter a craft for my own use. Fortunately, it was possible to find such a vessel, and I was able to visit the nearest of the Santa Barbara islands, long ago discovered by Cabrillo, upon which, according to some authorities, he was buried.’ 1 Other historians say this intrepid discoverer found his grave at a neighboring island of San Miguel. Certain it is that he was the first European to sail up the Santa Barbara Channel, and that he lost his life on this voyage. His grave, wher- ever it may be, is not yet marked b 212 The American Naturalist. [April, The “Angel Dolly," which is at anchor off the wharf at Santa Barbara, was found to be admirably suited for my trip, and after a few preparations, I embarked on her, and hoisting her sails, we turned her southward to the rocky cliffs of the island of the Holy Cross. The ,‘‘ Angel Dolly” is a small schooner of about twenty tons burden, with a cabin, which the passengers share with the captain, a forecastle for the crew, and a capacious hold. The crew consisted of a captain, one man before the mast, anda cook. The cabin I found well suited for my scientific work, and I transformed it into a lab- oratory, the mess table serving well for microscopic work when the vessel was on an even keel. My dredge, ropes, and nets were well stored in the hold, and at noon, in the middle of March, we hove anchor, set her sail, and went to sea. It had been my intention to visit the island of San Miguel, but the wind was solight that we shaped our course directly to Santa Cruz. The weather, when we left Santa Barbara, was foggy, and after getting outside the zone of giant kelp,’ we were be- calmed. Asa result we drifted back and forth all the after- noon, and finally found ourselves down the coast towards Carpenteria, the storehouse and wharf of which place we saw a few miles away, at nightfall. Although the distance across the channel is about twenty-eight miles, we made little pro- gress that night,and drifted aboutin thefog until Sunday morn- ing. After many calms, puffs of air, and baffling winds, we sighted, Sunday morning at ten o'clock, the lofty peak of Punta del Diablo, the most lofty headland on the island of Santa Cruz. We ran in toward the land, through the fog, to the neighborhood of the shore, and anchored in a small fiord at the base of Monte Diablo. This fiord, which we will call Star Cañon, is enclosed by lofty cliffs many hundred feet high. As we sailed into it, I saw, for the first time on the Pacific ocean, a large Salpa, which rivals the Salpa maxima of the Mediterranean, a floating Ascidian, the “solitary ' This zone forms a curious belt, skirting the shore at Santa Barbara. It is composed of the floating fronds of a giant alga (Nereocystes), and is situated about three hundred yards from the shore. This zone imparts a highly characteristic appearance to the coast of many parts of Southern California. 1889.] Across.the Santa Barbara Channel. 213 form” of which is as large as a man’s hand, and the ‘‘chain form” is many yards in length. Looking into the cañon’ from our anchorage, we notice that the high cliffs of the brow, which appears an unbroken peak from Santa Barbara, have a cleft form with jagged edges, as if they had been broken asunder by volcanic forces. This effect is thought to be due to the recent elevation of the island, and to tell the same story as the raised terraces on the eastern and western ends of the island. In the chart, by the Coast Survey, a mountain called Ragged Mountain occu- pies the position of this break. The mode of formation of this cañon and fiord' is not wholly clear to me. That water has played an important part in its formation is doubtless true, but, at the same time, the sharp break indicates some other and more violent geologic agency. The perpendicular walls of the cañon are certainly from 600 to goo feet high. The canon makes up through the mountains, and in the present season a good stream of fresh water flows out of it past the shingly beach to the cove. On the mountain side we noticed little vegetation, but here and there a clump of prickly pears, and small bushes with yellow poppy flowers. The rock is a coarse conglomerate, the embedded boulders of black asphaltic color, and the matrix red. The matrix is in many places very much eroded, and the hard, embedded, angular rocks stand out in relief, sometimes clinging to the cliff by a single edge. The embedded rocks are angular, and little water- worn, except where they are exposed to wave action. 1 This fiord is almost directly opposite Santa Barbara, under the high peak, which appears from this city to be the apex, or highest point of the island. Its name is not given on the excellent chart of the island, which I made use of on my From my work with the dredge I am led to believe that these chasms in the islands which are called cafions extend for some distance under the water. I have found records that the officers of the Coast Survey have made similar observations. If such a submarine continuation of these cafions occur, it is difficult to explain them as wholly the result of erosion, or if of aerial erosion, the islands may have sunk subsequent to this action. The evidence on the west end of the island points to elevation, or in this way the elevated Ming were interpreted. Some of the neighboring islands like Anacapa, show similar elevation, wi enormous denudation. The form of this island from the sea is highly suggestive, but I was unable to land upon it. 214 The American Naturalist. [April, The fiord in which the * Angel Dolly" rides at anchor is well protected from the prevalent gales, and the water, al- though deep, is easily sounded by our anchor. We anchored near the shore, not far from the beach, at the end of the cañon. After all had been made snug aboard, we rowed to the shore, and took a stroll up the cañon, following the bed of the brook. The canon is well wooded with many kinds of trees, and with ferns and mosses, with here and there, wild flowers. As we landed on the shore we started up two small, wild foxes, Urocyon littoralis, so abundant on the island, and came within easy gunshot of them. On each side of the cafion the cliffs rise precipitantly, almost perpendicularly, so that it is impossible to climb them, and it is with great difficulty that we made our way along their.base. Many large boulders lie strewn along the bed of the stream, and there are many deep basins of pure, fresh water, fed by the sparkling mountain stream from the canon. In one or two places the bed of the stream is dry, the water having made a channel for itself through passages under the rock or soil. At certain places these dry sections of the bed of the stream are coated with a white deposit. There were many cottonwood trees as far up the cañon as we were able to penetrate. Near the beach we noticed the remains of an old camp-fire, and the skins of two sheep, which told the story of a former camping party, probably of fishermen, visit- ors to this lonely and picturesque place. There are also many abalone shells (Haliotis), the animals of which had also, no doubt. formed part of the meal of these visitors. The level deposit of soil at the mouth of the cañon must have been a favorite camping place for the Indians who once lived in great numbers on this and neighboring islands, for on the side hill there isa high shell heap where they had thrown the debris of their camp. This shell heap was formed in great part of the shells of a large Balanus, Haliotis, and Mussels. On the sides of the rocks above it many Indian inscriptions were cut in the hard rocks of the conglomerate. These in- scriptions were made with some care and consist of parallel grooves in the rock across which, at right angles, were other grooves all of undoubted Indian origin. We returned to the ted Se o o Owen cb Beinn TP[UUU[UO Serre ‘AIX ALV I Li soq 1 1889.] Across the Santa Barbara Channel. 215 * Angel Dolly" and transported our cooking utensils on shore preparatory to a camp there under the brow of the cliffs of the canon In the afternoon I took a sailor and one of the seal boats of the schooner and rowed down the shore to the westward under Punta del Diablo to the ** Seal Rookery.” This boat ride was the most wonderful trip which I have ever taken on the coast of California. The cliffs to the west of Star Canon rise perpendicularly to the height of many hundred feet, so that itis impossible to climb them except in the small fiords or cafions which extend into the mountains. Immediately after rounding the high headland to the west of Star Canon we come to the first canon, which is well wooded and surrounded by mountains which are grandly picturesque. We did not land in this fiord but continued to the second, which was even more rugged and abrupt than the first. This canon presented to us a landing place, and we rowed through the heavy surf, landing on a small beach. The canon is well wooded but closed a short distance from the beach by a high boulder, Which has fallen into it, so that the canon is almost blocked up. The boulders, which stop up several of the cafions, are thought to have been eroded from the cliff in the position they at present occupy, and not to have been transported from higher up the cañon by water or ice.’ e made our way back of the boulder through a crevice between it and the cliff and continued up the canon a few hundred yards, but the way gets more difficult, the loose 'Something analogous to this is to be seen in the boulders of red sandstone which are strewn along on the mesa at the foot of the Santa Inez mountains back of Santa Barbara. These rocks are sometimes of great size and, according to Whitney, reach enormous proportions. I was unable to find glacial strize on the sides of the Santa Y eury range although I repeatedly looked for them. One of the most famous of these large erratic rocks is that near Montecito which bears the Indian inscription done in red paint. Beyond the Mission Church they “are very numerous in some places blocking up the cafions as in the island of Santa Cruz. In some places they are so numerous that they almost form boulder rivers. Just back of the Spanish part of Santa Barbara between the city and the mesa there -are many eroded valleys and as we pass over the mesa to the foot of the Santa Yeury range the erratic rocks increase in size and number. 216 The American Naturalist. [Apr 1, rocks more numerous and the walls of the cañon more and more precipitant. The same conglomerate is present here as at Star Canon, near which our schooner is anchored. I made a sketch of the place and took again to boat pass- ing under the brow of Punta del Diablo, one of the grandest - points of the island. Under the base of Diablo opens “ Devil's Canon" or * Devil's Cove," a most picturesque, wild and rugged combination of land and sea. In this part of Santa Cruz there are no beaches and no zone of kelp, but the water sinks to a great depth hard by the shore, and dredging was impossible with the im- plements at my disposal. At the base of Punta del Diablo there are two conical elevations rising as islands out of the sea. These elevations when approached from the east appear perfectly symmetrical, the more distant from the point being capped by an eagle's high nest. The hills are green to their summits. ; Near these conical islands we rowed into a grotto of won- derful beauty. It extends deep under the mountain and as our boat made its way in, we saw many seals and sea-lions on the ledges of the rock. As we rowed in, these huge ani- mals dove into the sea with hoarse barking and swam into the depths of the cave. We fired at them with our rifles and the reverberation was something deafening. In the cave, which extended many feet beyond, a tremendous sea was rushing at every incoming wave. The whole grotto reminded me of the famous grotto of Capri in the Bay of Naples. Beyond Punta del Diablo the cliffs take the form of a gi- gantic saw, the top of the precipices being worn out into val- leys which are symmetrical one after another. Beneath these saw-like valleys the rock shows much erosion especially near the level of the sea At one place a perfectly formed human figure which appears to be in the act of stepping into the sea, can be made out. A tremendous surf breaks on the base of the cliffs and here and there where there are partially sub- marine grottos or caves the escaping air throws the water to great heights with a loud noise.’ Behind us the monster 1These spouts of water thrown into the air by the resistance of the air compressed in a half submarine grotto by an incoming wave are among the most interesting. 1889. ] Across the Santa Barbara Channel. 217 cliff of Punta del Diablo extends almost perpendicularly out of the water. The view of the coast looking both east and west is perfectly grand. Away to the west we sight the conical rocks and islands which form the eastern side of the '' Seal Rookery." As we row along we see here and there on the sides of the cations a few sheep and one or two wild hogs. The east side of the Seal Rookery is bounded by islands with natural arches and lofty cliffs. Off theseislands a short distance there is a small island with a flat top, and near it are two beautiful natural arches. The flat rock is white with guano, and the natural arches are high enough to allow a boat to pass under them. ` There is no landing place of any size at the Rookery, but vast numbers of seal are seen basking in the sun. Here we see much kelp, and for the most part the coast everywhere is bold and rugged. At the Seal Rookery we turn back towards Star Cañon and after a hard pull we came at last to the smooth water in which the schooner is at anchor. One of the most beautiful of all the cafions which we passed was Lady's Cajion,a most picturesque place with smooth water and cliffs rising on all sides. The scenery here is very grand. Floating kelp was found at several places and one or two gigantic floats of the ‘‘ Sea-Onion " were found, but as a gen- eral thing the coast is bare and no zone of kelp like that of Santa Barbara was seen. phenomena of the coast. Their height is often very considerable and the noise with which the water is forced out is often very great. The surf upon the base of the cliffs is often very heavy after the sudden winds which often arise without a mo- ment's warning. The sudden and local character of the gusts of wind is in some cases due to the cañon configuration of the coast. A most marked instance illustrative of this ex- planation was experienced in my approach a few weeks later to the harbor of Port Harford the port of San Luis Obispo. We had steamed along the whole aiternoon over atranquil sea without a ripple when suddenly on our approach to this port there came down a violent gust of wind out of the cañon such thatthe agonia seemed to pass immediately into a raging tempest which as suddenly ceased w we drew up at the wharf. ( To be continued. ) 218 The American Naturalist. [April, THE POLAR DIFFERENTIATION OF VOLVOX, AND THE SPECIALIZATION OF POSSIBLE ANTERIOR SENSE-ORGANS. BY JOHN A. RYDER. [N a recent communication upon this subject which the writer made to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the fact was pointed out that in Volvox minor there are very distinctly differentiated anterior and posterior poles or hemi- spheres. The anterior or empty pole is so named here because it is the one which is always directed forwards when the animal is in motion. The posterior pole is so named because it is always in a posterior position when the organism is moving freely and normally, and it is further distinguished from the anterior in that it is in this hemisphere, in V. minor at least, in which the germs are produced which give rise to young Volvoces. Roughly speaking the nearly spherical cenobium or colony of Volvox may be divided into an anterior and a posterior hemisphere. Through the centres of these hemi- spheres there passes an imaginary axis around which the colony rotates in either a sinistral or dextral direction, but progressive locomotion is always in the direction of the anterior empty pole ofthe cenobium. This differentiation of the poles of the colonies of Volvoxappears to have been known to Ehrenberg, who figures them but makes no farther mention of the fact. Hicks is reported in the Midland Naturalist, 1880, to have observed that the young leave the parent cenobium by breaking through the wall of the hinder or spore-bearing hemisphere, a fact which I can confirm. While these facts have been partially recorded by previous observers, there is another group of facts which I have noticed which are far more important and remarkable and serve to establish beyond question the polar differentiation of Volvox, and also raise the suspicion that this animal or plant, which- ever it is, is endowed with a very primitive sensory apparatus which is developed to an importance anteriorly, eight or ten times as great as at the posterior pole. It is well known that 1889. ] Polar Differentiation. 219 each one of the biflagellate cells of Volvox contain superficially embedded a reddish lenticular refringent body known since Ehrenberg’s time as “eyes” or “eye spots.” One of these “eye spots" lies not very far from the base of one of the flagella in each cell, and produces a slight rounded projection of the thin layer of clear protoplasm immediately overlying and surround- ingit. In optic section these reddish bodies are seen to be lenti- cular or nearly so, the outer face being less convex than the inner. This is best seen in the “eye-spots” of the anterior pole. These “eye-spots” strange to say, bear a constant and definite relation to both the imaginary axis around which the colony revolves and the flagella of its cells. They are placed not quite on the extreme outer periphery of the cells as reck- oned from the centre of the globular colony, but nearly so. The anterior ones at the anterior pole consequently look for- ward, while the others of the rest of the cells look in all other directions, the hindmost ones looking directly backward. Now comes the most singular and interesting fact which I have observed, viz: that the “ eye-spots” of the cells of the anterior pole are eight to ten times as large as those of the hinder pole. The passage from the large “ eye-spots " of the anterior pole to the smaller ones of the posterior pole is very gradual, as can be readily observed with a moderately high power. These “ eye-spots ” diminish so much in size on passing to the cells of the posterior pole as to be finally visible only as a minute refringent reddish globule pushing out the protoplasm of the cell slightly in the same way as the larger anterior **eye- spots" push out the superficial plasma of the cells of the - anterior pole. ` It is therefore plain that.if these organs are visual or sensi- tive to light or any other natural agent, they are best developed in just the position in which they are of the most service to the organism, viz., at its anterior pole. These facts raise the query whether Ehrenberg was not after all justified in regarding the reddish spot in each cellof the colony as eyes. While these .€yes are obvious to any observer it is remarkable that no one has hitherto called attention to their very unequal development at 220 The American Naturalist. (April, the anterior and posterior poles of Volvox. It is equally re- markable that none of the extant figures of Volvox correctly represent the definite relation of position of the “ eye-spots " to the axis of rotation of the whole cenobium or colony and the flagella of the cells. The facts which are here dobei: in regard to Volvox serve rather to strengthen the claims of zoologists to this singular organism, which is actually found to combine features of the vegetable and animal world in its physiological activities. While its respiration, chlorophyl, and modes of reproduction seem to affiliate it with the plant kingdom, the obvious differ- entiation of a system of anterior organs, which refuse any other identification than that of sensiferous structures give it claims upon the animal kingdom. If we look upon Volvox as a form which has permanently not passed beyond the ideal blastula stage and which lies near the point of divergence of Metaphyta from the Metazoa we shall probably assign it to nearly its true position. It has many interesting features, one of which is its blastula-like form; its cells embedded in cellu- lose and united by protoplasmic bonds into a sort of syncy- tium; its differentiation of a directive anterior empty pole apparently provided with a more specialized sensory apparatus, as pointed out above, and of a posterior reproductive pole or hemisphere, in the cells of which the supposed sensory appar- atus is so reduced in importance as to have been nearly suppressed. Carrying our reflections farther, we may be per- mitted to suppose that conditions of organization may and do exist, as evidenced in Volvox as here described, in which structures and functions may be manifested, which we must regard as sensiferous, yet in so low and generalized a form in a blastula-like type, that we find the organs developed in every cell, the only evidence of differentiation or specialization obtain- able being that which occurs at that pole of the blastula which is habitually brought into the most important or dangerous rela- tion to the environment. The end result being that a type com- parable to the hollow blastula has the sensiferous apparatuses of the cells at its constant anterior pole better developed than in 1889. ] Polar Differentiation. 221 those around its equator and still better than in those at its constant posterior pole. The diffusion or extension of the primordial visual apparatus of the protozoan grade such as is seen in Euglena, is a result merely, in Volvox, of the perma- nent attainment of the colonial grade of development which has ended in a sort of blastula-like form, each cell of which is provided with a sense organ. [n other words we have in Vol- vox a blastula-like type with a sensory apparatus apparently developed at its anterior pole, while at its posterior pole this sensory apparatus is so little developed as to be nearly absent, possibly owing to disuse. The degree of development of this supposed sensiferous apparatus at opposite poles in Volvox stands in an obvious relation to the respective importance of such a contrivance at those poles in relation to the welfare of the organism. It is probable that, if what I have here des- cribed is really a visual or other sensory apparatus, it is the most primitive and unspecialized compound sensiferous organ yet detected in the living world. At any rate it is probably to be regarded as a compound organ in the same sense that the retina and ommatidia of other and higher forms are to be regarded as compound organs in that they are cellular aggre- gates. The further study of these remarkable structures and relations in Volvox is desirable, and as the organism is acces- sible to many students it is to be hoped that such study may not be long delayed, and that not only a more careful study ofthe minute structure of the ‘‘eye-spots” may be carried out, but also that figures will be produced which will give adequate prominence to the most important of the facts which I have here attempted to put upon record. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORIES OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE. I^ 1822, the Abbé Haüy’ declared that since all crystals of the same substance, whatever their external form, may be 1 Abstracted by. W. S. Bayley from an article by H. A. Miers in Mature of January 17, 1889 ? e Traité de Cristallographie." (Paris, 1822.) 222 The American Naturalist. [April, reduced by cleavage to the same solid figure, this cleavage solid has the form of the ultimate particles into which any crystal may, in, imagination, be separated by repeated subdivision, and that this is, therefore, the form of the structural unit, al- though not necessarily that of the chemical molecule. Hence a crystal is to be regarded as constructed of polyhedral parti- cles, having the form of the cleavage fragment, placed beside one another in parallel positions. A crystal of salt, for exam- ple, which naturally cleaves parallel to the faces of the cube, is constructed of cubic particles. Upon the relative dimensions of the structural unit depends the form assumed by the crystals of a given substance. This theory not only accounts for the existence of cleavage, but further defines the faces which may occur upon crystals of a substance having a given cleavage figure; for, if once it is assumed that a crystal-face is formed by a series of the parti- cles whose centres lie in a plane, it follows that all such planes obey the well-known law which governs the relative positions of crystal-faces. A natural advance was made from the theory of Haüy, with- out detracting from its generality, by supposing each polyhe- dral particle in Haüy's system to be condensed into a point at its centre of mass, so that the positions of the molecules, and therefore of the crystalline planes, remain the same as before ; but the space occupied by a crystal is now filled, not by a con- tinuous structure resembling brickwork, but by a system of separate points. In such a system of points, if the straight line joining any pair be produced indefinately in both directions, it will carry particles of the system at equal intervals along its entire length; in other words, all the structural molecules ofa crystal must lie at equal distances from each other along straight lines. The interval between particles along one straight line will, in gen- eral, be different from those along another, but the molecular intervals along parallel straight lines will always be the same. Bravais,' following in the steps of Delafosse and Franken- 1 ** Etudes cristallographiques." ; (Paris, 1866.) 3 PLATE XV. 1889. ] Theories of Crystal Structure. 223 heim, investigated the possible ways in which a system of points may be arranged in space so as to lie at equal distances along straight lines—in other words, so as to constitute what may be called a solid network (assemblage, Raumgitter). The geometrical nature of a network may be best realized as follows: Take any pair (O Cı) of points in space, draw a straight line through them, and place points at equal distances along its entire length (Cs, Cs, ...); such a line may be called a thread of points (rangée). Parallel to this line, and at any distance from it, place a second thread of points (A, æ), identi- cal with the first in all respects ; in the plane containing these two threads place a series of similar equidistant parallel threads (A:4,, &c.) in such positions that the points in successive threads lie at equal intervals upon straight lines whose direction (O A) is determined by the points upon the first twothreads. Sucha system of points lying in one plane may be called a web (réseau). Now, parallel to this plane, and at any distance from it, place a second web (B, 4,), identical with the first. Finally, parallel with these, place a series of similar equidistant webs in such positions that the points in successive planes lie at equal intervals tpon straight lines whose direction (O B,) is deter- mined by the points in the first two webs. ; In this way a network of points is constructed, in which the line joining any two points is a thread, and the plane through any three points is a wed, The space inclosed by six adjacent planes of the system, having no other points of the network between them is a par- allelopiped (o A, B, Cı), from which the whole system may be constructed by repetition, and which may be taken to repre- sent the structural element (molécule soustractive) of Haüy. The complete investigation of all possible solid networks led Bravais to the conclusion that these, if classified by the char- acter of their symmetry, fall into groups, which correspond exactly to the systems into which crystals are grouped in accordance with their symmetry. It follows that two (not, however, independent) features of crystals are fully accounted for by a parallelopipedal arrange- 224 The American Naturalist. . [April ment of points in space—namely, the symmetry of the crystal- lographic systems and the law which governs the inclinations of the faces (law of rational indices). ttt Enn Aer dew dias. SE BS GS, UOY There are, however, subdivisions of the various systems consisting of the merohedral or partially symmetrical crystals belonging to them, which are not explained by the geometry of a network; these consequently were referred by Bravais, not merely to the arrangement of the molecules in space, but also to the internal symmetry of the molecule itself. Hence the theory of Bravais, while able to a certain extent to explain the form of crystals, requires an auxiliary hypoth- esis if it is to explain those modifications which are partially symmetrical or merohedral. Sohncke,' treating the problem in a different manner, and reasoning from the fact that the properties of a crystal are the same at any one point within its mass as at any other, but dif- ferent along different directions, inquired in how many ways 4 system of points may be arranged in space so that the config- uration of the system round any one point is precisely similar to that round any other. Such a configuration may be called a Sohncke system of points in space (regelmdssiges Punktsys- tem). From his analysis of this problem, it appears that there are 1 **Entwickelung einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur." (Leipzig, 1879). 1889.] n Theories of Crystal Structure. 225 sixty-five possible Sohncke systems of points,and that these may be grouped according to theirsymmetry into six classes,corres- ponding to the six crystallographic systems; and further that there are within each class minor subdivisions, characterized by a partial symmetry corresponding to the hemihedral and tetartohedral forms of crystallographers. The theory of Sohncke contains within itself the essential features of a Bravais network of structural molecules, and also the auxiliary hypothesis regarding the arrangement of parts within the molecules which is required to account for merohe- drism. On close examination the arrangement of Sohncke proves to be a simple extension of that of Bravais. : Each of Sohncke's arrangements may be regarded as de- rived from one of the parallelopipedal networks of Bravais if for every point of the latter be substituted a group of symmet- rically arranged satellites. It is not necessary that any particle uA group of these satellites should actually coincide with the point of the Bravais network from which the group is derived ; and the points of the Sohncke system do not themselves form a network; it is only when all the points in each group of satellites are condensed into one centre that a Sohncke system coincides with a Bravais network. To any particle of one of the satellite groups corresponds in every other group a particle similarly situated with regard to the point from which the group has been derived. Every such point may be said to be homologous with the first. Each complete set of homologous points is itself a Bravais network in space, and consequently a Sohncke system may be regarded as a certain number of congruent networks interpen- etrating one another: the number of such networks, in general, being equal to the number of points which constitute each group of satellites. The relation of a Sohncke system to the network from which it is de- rived may be illustrated by a bees'- cell distribution of points in one 226 The American Naturalist. [ April, plane, z. e., by points which occupy the angles of a series of regular hexagons. Thus, in the adjoining figure the dots form a Sohncke system in one plane, since the configuration of the system round any one point is similar to that round any other; but they do not form a Bravais web, since the points do not lie at equal distances along straight lines. If, however, points, represented in the figure by the circles O, be placed at the centres of the hexagons, they will by them- selves constitute a web, and the hexagonal system may be de- rived from this web by replacing each of its points by a group of two satellites, A and B. Or, from the second point of view, the arrangement may be regarded as a triangular web, con- taining the points A, completely interpenetrated by a similar web, containing the points B. It is a remarkable feature of the Sohncke systems that some among them are characterized by a spiral disposition of the particles along the threads of a right- or left-handed screw: now this spiral character, which does not belong to any of the Bravais networks, supplies a geometrical basis for the right- or left-handed nature of some merohedral crystals which pos- sess the property of right- or left-handed rotary polarization. The theory of Sohncke, as sketched above, appeared to be expressed in the most general form possible, and to include all conceivable varieties of crystalline symmetry. It has, however, recently been pointed out by Wulff that the partial symmetry of certain crystals belonging to the rhombohedral system—that, namely, of the minerals phenacite and dioptase—is not represented among the sixty-five arrange- ments of Sohncke. Other systems of points in space have also been studied by Haag* and Wulff, which do not exactly possess the properties of a Sohncke system, and yet might reasonably be adopted as the basis of crystalline structure, since they lead to known crystalline forms.’ These, however, and all other systems of | Zeitschr. f. Kryst. xiii. (1887) p. 503. ? ** Die regulären Krystallkorper." (Rottweil, 1887.) * Cf, W. Barlow, Nature, xxix. (1884) pp. 186, 205. 1889. ] Theortes of Crystal Structure. 227 points which have been proposed to account for the geometri- cal and physical properties of crystals, may be included in the theory of Sohncke after this has received the simple extension which is now added by its author. In Bravais's network all the particles or structural elements were supposed to be identical, and in Sohncke's theory also there is nothing in their geometrical character to distinguish one particle from another. In Fig.2, the hexagonal series of dots may, as was said above, be regarded as composed of a pair of triangular webs, A and B; now these, although identical in other respects, are not parallel, for the distribution of the system round any point of A is not the same as that round any point of B until it has been rotated through an angle of 60°. It is possible, however, to conceive similar interpenetrating networks which differ not only in their orientation but even in the character of their particles. The centre of each hexagon, for example, may be occupied by a particle of different nature from A and B to form a new web, 0. Thethree webs are pre- cisely similar in one respect, since their meshes are equal equi- lateral triangles; moreover, if the position of the points alone be taken into account, the whole system would form a Bravais web, Z. e., if the particles of O were identical with those of A and B. If, however, as is here supposed, the set O consists of par- ticles different in character from A and B, the distribution round any point of O is totally distinct from that round any point ofAorB. The points O are geometrically different from the Points A B. The web A is interchangeable with B, but O is in- terchangeable with neither The interpenetrating networks are no longer to be regarded as consisting necessarily of identical particles, if an explanation is to be given of all the geometri- cal forms existing in nature. The above figure represents a Sohncke system, A B, of par- ticles of one sort interpenetrated by a Bravais web, O, of another sort; but there is no reason why two or more different. Sohncke systems, no one of which is identical with a Bravais network, may not interpenetrate to form a crystal structure. 228 The American Naturalist. (April, In its most general form, then, the theory may now be ex- pressed— A crystal consists of a finite number of interpenetrating Sohncke systems which are derived from the same Bravais net- work. The constituent Sohncke systems are in general not interchangeable, and the structural elements of one are not necessarily the same as those of another. Or, since each Sohncke system consists itself of a set of in- terpenetrating networks, the theory may be thus expressed— A crystal consists of a finite number of parallel interpenetra- ting congruent networks: the particles of any one network are parallel and interchangeable; these networks group themselves intoa number of Sohncke systems in each of which the parti- cles are interchangeable but not necessarily parallel. The number of kinds of particles which constitute the crys- tal may therefore be equal to the number of Sohncke systems involved in its construction. The structural units are no longer, as they were in the theory of Bravais, necessarily identical, but may represent at- omatic groups of different nature. The system in Fig. 2 consists of two sets of particles, A P and 0; and, if a large enough number of these be taken, any portion of the system (7. e. any crystal constructed in this man- ner) consists of the particles united in the proportion of two of the first group to one of the second. Such an arrangement, then, may represent the structure of a compound, O A, “ When, for example, a salt in crystallizing takes up so- called water of crystallization which is only retained so long a5 the crystalline state endures, the chemical molecule salt + water cannot be said to exist except in the imagination, for the presence of such a molecule cannot be proved. To obtain an easily intelligible example, without, however, pronouncing any opinion as to whether it may be realized, imagine the centred hexagons in the figure to be constructed in such a way that each corner consists of the triple molecule 3 H,O, and each centre consists of the molecule R. The chemical formula would then be R + 6H,O, and yet a molecule of this constitution 1889. ] Description of the Devonian Rocks of Lowa. 229 would not really exist; on the contrary, the structural elements in the crystallized salt would be of two sorts—namely, R and 3H,0."" Hence it is geometrically possible that the structural ele- ments of a crystal may be different atomic groups which are held in a position of stable equilibrium by virtue of being in- terpenetrating networks. A GENERAL PRELIMINARY DESCRIPTION OF THE DEVONIAN ROCKS OF IOWA; WHICH CONSTITUTE A TYPICAL SECTION OF THE DEVONIAN FORMATION OF THE INTERIOR CONTINENTAL AREA OF NORTH AMERICA. BY CLEMENT L. WEBSTER. The area of the Devonian rocks in North America presents at least four distinct types of stratigraphy in their sections, in differ- ent parts of the continent. The four types blend, more or less, at their borders, but in their central area are quite distinct. The four areas may be called,— (1) “The Eastern Border Area,” including the outcrops of Gaspé, New Brunswick, Maine, and other places in Northern New England. (2) “The Eastern Continental Area,” including the New York and Appalachian tracts as far South as West Virginia, and extending Northwestward into Canada West and Michigan. (3) “ The Interior Continental Area," typically seen in Iowa, and extending into Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and probably Northward toward the valley of the Mackenzie River, and— (4) “The Western Continental Area,” best known throu gh _ Hague and Walcott's studies of the Eureka, Nevada, sections.” Each of these four types presents sections of the Devonian, which 1 Sohncke, Zeitsch. f. Kryst. xiv. p. 443- ? This classification of (in part) Professor H. S. Williams (American Geologist, Special Number, October, 1888, p. 228) we here adopt, provisionally. 230 The American Naturalist. [ April, in most of the details of stratigraphical, lithological and palaeon- tological composition, differs greatly from the others; although all at the same time, by various links of evidence, demonstrate that they represent the same geological age, and usually show, more or less distinctly, a similar order of sequence. In this report it is our aim to deal, more particularly, with the typical section (Iowa) of the Interior Continental Area. 'The area of surface occupied by the rocks of Devonian age in Iowa comprises a wide strip of country, the general trend of which is Northwestward and Southeastward. It is about two hundred miles in length and fifty miles in width; the general details of its outlines may be seen upon the geological map of the State ; which, however, demands some important modi- fications. The rocks of this age, in Iowa, have been referred by geologists to different epochs ; for instance, the shales and sandstone, which occupy the upper portion of the Devonian stratum near the mouth of Pine Creek, and at other points on the Mississippi, to the Che- mung group ; and the limestone and shales, occupying a “lower ”? horizon, at Davenport, Iowa City, Independence, &c., and the shales at Rockford and Hackberry, to the Hamilton Group (Hall’s Geol- ogy of Iowa, Vor. I. PART 1 and 2, 1850). The rocks also at Cedar Falls, have been referred by Professor A. H. Worthen, to the Chemung group (Zoe. cit.) Some years later, in 1873, a reéxamination of some of the rocks of this age was made by Hall and Whitfield, and the limestone at Waterloo, and the shales at Rockford, were declared to be the equivalents of the New York Corniferous and Chemung Groups, respectively (23d Report on State Cabinet of New York, pp.,223-226) Again, Prof. H. S. Williams, in 1883 (American Journal of Science, February, 1883), referred the shales at the top of the Devonian, at Rockford and Hackberry, to the base of the Chemung of the New York Geologists, and, more recently, to the upper part of the Hamilton of the New York Section (American Geologist, Special Number, 1888, pp, 240, 242, &c.). On the other hand, Dr. C. A. White (Geology of Iowa, 1870, VOL. I., p. 178) is of opinion that a// the Devonian strata of Iowa, belong to a single epoch, the Hamilton. By various other writers, the rocks of this age have been referred to each of the several divisions of the New York section. © 1889.) Description of the Devonian Rocks of Iowa. 231 The thickness of the Devonian rocks of Iowa, have been various- ly estimated by different writers on the subject, at from 150 feet to 200 feet.’ This formation is quite conformable both with the Niagara rocks below, and the Carboniferous rocks above, through- out nearly, or quite their entire extent in the State. These rocks, as they occur in this State, are separable into /Zree general, more or less well marked lithological and palaeontological divisions, and whose order of sequence can be made out. The lowest division of this section, which, in its general lithological character, as observed in its Eastern extension at different points along the Mississippi, at, and adjacent to Davenport, is a rather hard, gray, brown, and buff limestone; at times somewhat arena- ceous and argillaceous, with slight intercalated beds of shale, and gray and brown brecciated limestone, sometimes attaining a thick- ness of eight feet. A portion at least, of the rocks of this division, are here separated from the underlying Niagara limestoné by a fault, the space being filled by coal measure deposits.” This formation carries, at different horizons, a rich and varied fauna ; while at other horizons, the strata are devoid of organic re- mains. These rocks contain a fauna which represents both the Cornifer- ous, Hamilton, and Chemung faunas, as well as a few forms char- acteristic of the Trenton and Niagara rocks below. Of the very large numbers of species of fossils (more than two hundred) collec- ted from these rocks, over three-fourths are found to be characteris- tic of the Corniferous epoch. Of those forms representing the fauna of other epochs, their ratio of occurrence is, as in the following order : Hamilton, Niagara, Chemung and Trenton. Or in other words, the larger number are peculiar to the Hamil- ton group, the second largest number are peculiar to the Niagara group, the third Chemung, and the fourth Trenton. The following enumeration is that of some of the species charac- teristic of this division: Arcophyllum oneidense Cladopora fisheri Callonema bellatulum Cystiphyllum impositum Callonema lateradum Cystiphyllum vadum * Hall's Geology of Iowa, Vor. I., Part I, 1858 ; C. A. White, Geology of Iowa, 1870; J. D. Dana, Manual of Geology, p 267; H. S. Williams, American ‘Geologist, Special Number, October, 1888, p 233. * A. S. Tiffany, Geology of Scott County, Iowa, and Rock Island County, Illinois, &c.. p. 13. ` The American Naturalist. Diphyphyllum simcoense Orhoceras faculum Strophodonta nacrea Syringopora perelegans Syringostroma densum Zaphrentis nitida Acrophyllum oneidaense Alveolites subramosus Atrypa hystrix Aulacophyllum convergens Aulacophyllum princeps Blothrophyllum promissum Centronella hecate Chonophyllum vandum Cladopora pinguis Cladopora robusta Clisiophyllum ohioense Callonema imitator Cyathophyllum clintonensis Cyathophyllum cornicula Cyathophyllum impositum Cystiphyllum ohioense Favosites canadensis Favosites limitaris Orthis iowensis Platyceras carinatum Pleurotomaria hebe Phillipsastrea gigas Spirifera fimbriata Spirifera gregaria Spirifera varicosa Strophodonta hemispherica Terebratula elia Zaphrentis compressa Zaphrentis exigua Zaphrentis prolifica Zaphrentis wortheni' | Davenport, Iowa, Leperdita cayuga Productella subaculeata Syringopora nobilis Syringostroma columnare Zaphrentis exigua Zaphrentis"subconstricta Alveolites squamosus Atrypa aspera Atrypa reticularis. Aulacoplyllum reflexum Bellerophon pelops Centronella glansfagea Chonetes lineata . Cladopora labiosa Cladopora pulchra ! Clisiophyllum convergens Crania bordeni Cyathophyllum arctifossum Cyathophyllum coalitum Cyathophyllum conigerum Cyathophyllum houghtonii Cyathophyllum davidsonii Favosites basalticus Favosites emmonsii Naticopsis humilis Paracyclas lirata Pleurotomaria aplata Pleurotomaria rotalia Proetus canaliculatus Spirifera mucronata Spirifera euruteines Strophodonta concava trophodonta patersonii Zaphrentis cruciforme Zaphrentis conigera Zaphrentis gigantea Zaphrentis ungula [April, 1 For a portion of this list of species we are indebted to Mr. A. S. Tiffany, of 1889. ] Description of the Devonian Rocks of Towa. 233 No well-marked lithological or biological sub-division of these rocks has been observed. ? In the eastern extension of the Corniferous rocks, in Iowa, they are seen to be succeeded upward by gray, brown and buff, calcare- ous and argillaceous shales, limestone, and coarse and fine-grained sandstones of the Hamilton group. While at some localities the two divisions are sharply defined, both lithologically and biologically, still at other points these charac- ters of the two formations so gradually blend as to make it a mat- ter of great difficulty, if not an impossibility, to designate just where the line of separation between the two groups should be drawn. As might be naturally expected, throughout the area occupied by these divisions, the mingling of their faunas is much more strongly marked at their junction with each other. u^ In their interior area, the line of division between the two groups is nowhere distinctly shown, either by lithological or biological evi- dence. According to the record of the boring of the artesian well at Davenport, kindly furnished me by Mr. A. S. Tiffany, and which may be considered as approximate, the thickness of the Cornifer- ous rocks, in that vicinity, is shown to be one hundred and eighty feet. ; At one locality, Independence, the Corniferous limestones are succeeded upward by a blue shale, which here forms the base of the Hamilton, and which, from its order of sequence, we would con- sider to be the equivalent of the ** Marcellus Shales” of eastern sec- tions, although differing in some respects, in its lithological and bi- ological characters, from them. The beds of this serial are somewhat variable, lithologically, con- sisting of thin bands of concretionary limestone, and dark blue, argillaceous, fine-grained shales, which are highly charged with bi- tuminous matter, and interlaminated by seams of coal, from one- eighth to one-fourth of an inch in thickness. This shale weathers, on exposure, to a light blue clay, and contains an abundance of fossil shells, a few species of corals and cerinoid remains ; while some of the beds hold numerous remains of land plants (Lepidodendron and Srez//aria). * This Division has been referred, by Rev. Dr. Barris, to the Upper Helderberg, and its thickness estimated at nearly one hundred feet, (“Local Geology of Daven- port and Vicinity.”) Proceedings of Davenport Academy of Science, Vor. II, 1880. This formation has also been referred to the Corniferous, by Mr. A. S Tiffany, (Geology of Scott County, Iowa, and Rock Island County, Illinois, etc., 1885.) 234 The American Naturalist. [ April, This division represents an old shore deposit, and carries, in its fauna and flora, evidence both of its terrestial and marine origin ; and marks, as well, the dawn and culmination of terrestial vegeta- tion of the old Devonian time, in Iowa. The thickness of this division is probably thirty feet or more, although only about twenty-five feet have actually been observed. These shales, which represent only a Zeca/ sub-division of the Hamilton, were first recognized by Mr. D. S. Deering, of Indepen- dence; and subsequently described by Prof. S. Calvin, as “Some Dark Shales Below the Devonian Limestone at Independence, Iowa" (Bulletin of U. S. Geological Survey, Vor. IV., No. 3, 1878.) In this publication, the statement was made (p.726) “ That the shale in question is not a mere local deposit, but is distributed all along the outcrop of the Devonian Rocks of Iowa." An extended study of all the Devonian rocks of this State, and the record of numerous borings along its Eastern outcrop, and at other points, has failed to adduce any evidence of the existence of this formation at other localities. One of the highest members of the Hamilton, in its Eastern ex- tension, is a soft, friable, brownish-yellow sandstone, which is well shown as it out-crops on Pine Creek, some distance above “ Pine Creek Mill.” This stratum of sandstone here forms a bold escarp- ment or cliff, about forty feet in height, is obliquely and discor- dantly stratified throughout, dips rapidly in a southerly direction, and is, so far as observed, devoid of fossils. At Independence, the blue shales (equal Marcellus Shales) are succeeded upward by heavy bedded, sometimes indistinctly strati- fied dove-colored and buff limestone, and intrusive beds of shale, with a thickness of twenty-one feet. The lower portion of the lime- stone here is indistinctly stratified, but is often crossed diagonally and irregularly by seams which cause it to split into uaeven slabs and fragments. As we recede to the West and Northwest from the attenuated Eastern outcrop of the Hamilton, the rocks overlying the blue shales are seen to rapidly increase in thickness, until, on the Wapsipine- can River, only one and one-half miles from the exposure of blue shales they are seen to attain an estimated thickness of sixty-five feet ; while on the same stream at Littleton, ten miles to the North- west, the same rocks are observed to attain a slightly greater thick- ness. 1889. ] Description of the Devonian Rocks of Towa. 235 The following is a partial list of the species occurring at this hor- izon : The rocks of the lower portion of the Hamilton are generally heavier bedded, more compact, and uniform in texture, and usually a more pure limestone than those of the upper portion The pre- vailing color of the strata of this horizon, is blue, and bluish-gray. In the northern portion of Johnson County, (for instance, at the “State Quarry,” Robert's Ferry, Solon, etc.,) occurs a bed of peculiar grayish-white limestone, nothing like it being known to exist in other portions of the State. This bed has a thickness of from six inches to six feet, or more, is very crystalline throughout, and is made up, to a considerable ex- tent, of broken shells of different species of Brachiopoda, some of Which are not known to occur elsewhere in Iowa. For convenience in subsequent allusion, this bed is here designa- ted the Shell Bed. Underlying this shell bed is a stratum of very hard, fine-grained, blue brecciated limestone. This limestone is observed at various localities in this portion of the State, and is known to extend as far North as Raymond Station, in Black Hawk County. The upper portion of this division is made up, for the most part, of thin bedded magnesian and common limestone, and soft, impure, calcareous, argillaceous and silicious, shales and sandstones, of a prevailing grayish-buff color. In thé Eastern portion of Floyd County, some beds of shale, oc- cupying a considerable area, are extensively sun-cracked ; this indi- cating an elevation of the sea-bottom here, and the exposing of it for some time to etheral conditions and the burning rays of the sun. The extreme upper portion of this division is almost everywhere, a hard, fine-grained, and brittle, grayish or dove-colored limestone, and singularly devoid of organic remains. Immediately succeeding the limestone, in portions of Fluyd, Cerro Gordo and Worth Counties, and constituting the highest member of the Hamilton group in the State, is a stratum of stiff blue clay, varying from twenty to twenty-five feet in thickness. This formation, which is entirely devoid of organic remains, may be best seen as it outcrops on Lime Creek and Willow Creek, in Floyd and Cerro Gordo Counties, particularly at Rockford, Hack- ^ 236 The American Naturalist. [April, berry, and a locality three miles west from Mason City, on Willow Creek. This serial, judging from its lithological character and order of sequence, appears to be the equivalent of the “ Genesee Shales” of the New York section, and to which division we would here refer it. ' As we have before intimated, the base of the Hamilton, represent- ed by the blue Shales at Independence, carries a rich Fauna, and evidence, also, of the former existence of a rich, and perhaps varied, flora, which was restricted to this zone. Of the fossil species occurring in this serial, the following may be enumerated : Strophodonta arcuata Strophodonta variabilis Strophodonta calvini Strophodonta canace Strophodonta reversa Orthis infera Atrypa reticularis Atrypa hystrix Spirifera subumbonata Rhynchonella ambigua Gypidula munda Productus dissimilis Lepidodendron and Sigillaria Also several other undetermined species of Brachiopoda, and corals, and one or two species of crinoids. Of the above list of species, only two, Atrypa reticularis, and A. Ays- trix, are known to occur in the Corniferous limestones below, while only three or four forms are at present known to extend upward into the middle Hamilton, (the shales, limestone, etc., lying above the blue shale and below the blue clay). The two species Atrypa reticularis and A. hystrix, as they occur in the overlying rocks, assume a form so altered as to be as readily dis- tinguished as if they were distinct species. The number of blue shale species which occur in the shales at Rockford, is greater than those of all the other divisions combined. A peculiar feature of this blue Shale Fauna, is the depauperation of most of its spe- cies. As to the flora of this division, it is, as we have before stated, in- digenous to it ; none of the other serials containing any evidence of the former existence of either terrestial or marine plant life. The rocks of the middle Hamilton carry a rich and varied fauna, more particularly in its lower and central portions. 4880. | Athyris vittata Atrypa hystrix Aulopora serpens Aviculopecten pecteniformis Calceocrinus clarus Cladopora lichenoides Cladopora fisherii Platyceras rectum Platyceras auriculatum Crania bordeni Cryptonella planirostra Cyathophyllum davidsonii Cystiphyllum americanum Phacops bufo Discina media Stromatopora alternata Gomphoceras lunatum Megistocrinus latus Meristella haskensii Monticulipora monticula Orthis iowensis Orthis livia Paracyclas ohioensis Pentamerella dubia Favosites hamiltonensis Platyceras ammon Platyceras argo Platyceras bucculentum Platyceras cymbium Spirifera aspera Spirifera ziczac Spirifera raricosta Spirifera subvaricosa Spirifera subattenuata Spirifera fimbriata Spirifera mucronata (rare) Spirifera formosa Description of the Devonian Rocks of lowa. Atrypa reticularis Aulopora conferta Aviculopecten parilis Chonetes pusilla Chonophyllum ponderosum Cladopora romerii Platyceras symmetricum Platyceras cymbium Platyceras bucculentum Crania hamiltonensis Cryptonella rectirostra Cyathophyllum scyphus Heliophyllum halli Discina doria Discina seneca Stromatopora incrustans Leiorhynchus alta Megistocrinus farnsworthi Meristella meta Euomphalus cyclostomus Orthis vanuxemi Paracyclas lirata Pentamerus comis Philipsastrea gigas Favosites niaulus Platyceras tetis Platyceras conicum Platyceras carinatum Platyceras erectum Spirifera raricosta Spirifera tullia Spirifera varicosa Spirifera subumbonata Spirifera pinnata Spirifera parryana Spirifera mannii Spirifera euruteines Streptorhynchus chemungensis Terebratula romingeri Strophodonta demissa Zaphrentis exigua St gras incrustans 237 238 The American Naturalist. [April, In places these rocks contain a rich fish fauna, as well as numer- ous new and described species of shells, corals, etc., which are not at present known to occur in the rocks of any other area. The mingling of the lower and upper (Chemung) Devonian faunas is here greater than in any of the other divisions of the rocks of this age in the State. The grouping of Fossils of the middle Hamilton, differs consider- ably at different localities ; although not to such an extent as has been heretofore generally supposed. The lithological character of the beds of the middle Hamilton, are usually very variable, so variable, indeed, as to make it a matter of great difficulty, and often an impossibility, to trace any particular bed for any consid- erable distance by this character. Some portions of the strata of this horizon, as at Charles City and Independence, are traversed by more or less regular wave-like undulations. The thickness of the Corniferous and Hamilton rocks vary some- what in different portions of their area. According to the record of the boring of the artesian well at Ce- dar Rapids, the thickness of the Corniferous and Hamilton strata is, at that place, shown to be 380 feet. Adding to this thirty feet, Tor the blue shales at Independence, and fifty feet (estimated thickness) for the Hamilton rocks (includ- ing the blue clay at Rockford etc.) lying above the highest beds of the Cedar Rapids section, we have an aggregate thickness, of the rocks of the Corniferous and Hamilton groups in Iowa, of 430 feet. Succeeding the Hamilton, in the northwest portion of its area, is the highest division of the rocks of this age in the State. This serial, which is plainly a sequent of the Hamilton, is known to attain a thickness of forty-five feet, and is made up, for the greater part, of a yellowish brown argillaceous, and sometimes slightly arenaceous, shaley limestone, which weathers to a stiff yellow, sometimes light buff, clay ; and in places contains consider- able numbers of ferruginous concretions. These shales are sharp- ly defined, both serially, lithologically, and palaeontologically, and are a vast repository of beautifully preserved fossil remains; 2 large majority of which are peculiar to them. ! We are under obligations to C. J. Fox, Esq., superintendent of the Cedar Rapids Water Co., fora record of this boring, together with samples of the rocks (2225 feet) passed through. PLATE XVI. Crania of Proboscidia. ——————————— 1889.] Description of the Devonian Rocks of lowa. 239 This formation carries zwo faunas ; one at the base, and another occupying the remainder of the division. The fauna at the base is represented by considerable numbers of very minute, and finely preserved Brachiopoda, Gastropoda, Crus- taceans, Foraminifers and Corals, a large number of which are as yet undescribed. Not more than one or two of the forms, occurring at the base of the shales, are known to occur outside this formation. Of the described species of this fauna, the following may be enu- merated. Athyris minutissima. C. L. Webster. Platystoma mirum. Webster. ervetum. Webster. Naticopsis rarus. Webster. Turbo strigillata. Webster. * incerta. Webster. Holopea tenuicarinata. Webster. Cyclonema brevilineatum. Webster. subcrenulatum. Webster. For a more detailed description of this fauna etc., reference may be made to a paper on * Description of New Species of Fossils From the Rockford Shales of Iowa," which appeared in the No- vember number of this Journal for 1888. Of some of the described species which constitute the fauna of the higher horizon, and which are mostly typical of it, the follow- ing may be given. Rhynchonella subacuminata, Webster Paracyclas sabini. White. " validalinea. Webster. Atrypa reticularis. * hystrix. | = A. var planosulcata. "Webster. T nu var elongata. Webster. Spirifera whitneyi : _ hungerfordii. H strigosus. Meek, (S. orestes, H. and W). us substrigosus. Webster. 1j norwoodii. Meek, (S. cyrzinaeformis, H. and W). hr fimbriata. ad macbridei. 240 The American Naturalist. Smithia fohnanni. * multiradiata. Stromatopora incrustans. expansa. px solidula. Caunopora planulata. Fistulipora occidens. Alveolites rockfordensis. Aulopora iowensis. * . saxivadum. Zaphrentis solida. Campophyllum nanum. Chonophyllum ellipticum. Cystiphyllum mundulum. Spirorbis arkonensis. omphalodes. Acervularia inequalis. Callonema lichas. Stromatopora alternata. Crania famelica. Sttopliodoua arcuata. reversa " demissa se canæ “ variabilis. Productus dissimilis. Streptorhynchus chemungensis.. Orthis iowensis. Leiorhynchus iris. Terebratula navicella. ‘Cryptonella salvini. Naticopsis giganteum. Loxonema pexatum. crassum. Webster. iowense. Webster. " giganteum. Webster. Pachyphyllum woodmanii. €4 <é crassicostatum. Webster. di e ordinatum. Webster. Pachyphyllum crassum. Webster. [April, 1889. ] Description of the Devonian Rocks of Towa. 241 Platystoma lineatum. Ambocoelia umbonata. Productella truncata. Aside from the foregoing enumeration, we have in our cabinet, large numbers of undescribed forms. Two-thirds or more, of the species which constitute the fauna of this horizon, are not known, at present, to occur outside of it. When species, common to the shales, occur in any of the rocks below, and when fossils, peculiar to the lower groups, extend up- ward into the shales, they usually appear under a form, so altered that specimens from the different formations may be distinguished as readily as if they were distinct species. About one-third of the species of the upper shale fauna occur in other divisions of the Devonian of this area, as well as most other areas of North America; and very closely allied forms also occur in the European strata of this age (see description and figures of fossils in the geology of Russia and the Ural mountains etc.; also Walcott's Monograph, Palaeontology of the Eureka District, U. S. Geological Survey, 1884, and U. S. Geological Survey of Fortieth Parallel, Vol. IV ; as well asa paper by H. S. Williams, “On a re- markable Fauna at the base of the Chemung group of New York," American Journal of Science, February, 1883). For a more detailed description of this formation, and its fau- nas, reference may be made to the following preliminary reports, which appear in various numbers of this Journal for 1888. “Notes on the Rockford Shales,” and * Description of new species of Fossils from the Rockford Shales of Iowa," also “Contributions to the knowledge of the Genus Pachyphyllum,” and “ Description of new and imperfectly known species of Brachiopoda from the Devonian rocks of Iowa;” as well as toa paper on “ A description of the Rockford Shales of Iowa." which is accompanied by a map of the area occupied by the shales, that appears in Vol. V. of the Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Science. From the description of this formation here, and in previous pre- liminary reports, it will be seen in reality, to constitute a new and distinct group of strata, carrying two rich and varied faunas ; but which has not heretofore been recognized as such, and which is not developed in any other area in North America, or Europe ; al- though a// contain links of evidence which demonstrate its Devonian age. 242 The American Naturalist. [April, For this group of strata, heretofore provisionally designated by us as the “ Rockford Shales,” we would propose the name Hackberry Group, from Hackberry, in Cerro Gordo county, Iowa, where the most extensive and typical exposure of this formation isobserved. In our forthcoming Monograph on the Devonian formation of Iowa, alluded to in a former paper (“ Description of new species of Fossils from the Rockford Shales of Iowa,” this Journal for No- vember, 1888) a detailed description of the rocks of its several di- | visions, together with a list of all the Fossil species known to occur in them, will be given. | CONCLUSIONS. It is thus shown, rst, that the type section (Iowa) of the central continental area, differs materially from the type sections of other areas of North America. 2d. That there were nearly or quite as striking alterations of con- ditions during the successive deposition of strata in Iowa, as are in- dicated at the east, and that the rocks of this section are separa- . ble into well-marked natural divisions and subdivisions, not here- tofore generally recognized as such. 3d. That the Devonian rocks of Iowa, instead of attaining a . thickness of only one hundred and fifty feet to two hundred feet, as given by previous writers, are now known to attain an aggre- gate thickness of four hundred and seventy five-feet. 4th. That the Corniferous limestone is developed in Iowa toa thickness varying from one hundred and eighty feet to two hun- dred feet, and carries a fauna which is, to a great degree, pecul- iar to this stage. : 5th. That the Corniferous limestone is succeeded upward by shales, limestones, clays, and sandstone of the Hamilton group. 6th. That the base of the Hamilton is marked, locally, by a thirty foot stratum of Blue Shales, carrying a peculiar fauna and flora which represents the “Marcellus Shales” of eastern areas, but which has not been heretofore so recognized. 7th. That what has been designated, by most writers on the sub- ject, as Corniferous, Hamilton, and Chemung, limestone, sand- stone, and Shales, does in reality represent the Middle Hamilton. 8th. That the upper portion of the Hamilton, in the northwest portion of its area, is represented by a stratum of blue clay from twenty to twenty-five feet in thickness, which, though devoid of Fossil remains, yet represents, in its order of sequence, the *Gez- 1889. | Editors Table. 243 esee Shales” of eastern sections ; and the present writer is the first to recognize it as such. gth. That in the Iowa section is represented (so far as is at pres- ent known) the extreme western, attenuated, representatives of the eastern “ Marcellus Shales” and “ Genesee Shales.” roth, That the upper Hamilton (blue clay) is succeeded upward by a stratum of Argillaceous Shales, which everywhere occupy the highest position in the Devonian series in the State, and has an observed thickness of forty-five feet ; although known to have at- tained a greater thickness prior to the glacial period, during which time they were more or less extensively eroded. 11th. That these Shales, which have been designated (provision- ally) by the writer, in all his preliminary reports, as the “ Rock- ford Shales," constitute, lithologically, stratigraphically, and biolog- ically, a mew and heretofore unrecognized (as such) group of Strata, and which is not developed in any other area in North America, or Europe; although ač% contain links of evidence which demonstrate its Devonian age, and for which the writer has in this report proposed the name Hackberry Group. EDITOR'S TABLE. EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. The Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences has recently attacked the problem of original research in a practical manner. For many years the activity of the institution was restricted to the publication of work produced by scientific specialists on material contained in their own collections, and in the muse- ums of other institutions. To this function it subsequently added that of giving instruction to classes in the natural Sciences, We have often pointed out that the former line of activity is not enough for an institution which at one time was the only academy of original research in this country; and we have also expressed the opinion that the teaching of the natural sciences to classes of beginners, is not one of its Proper uses. We have schools for teaching elsewhere, but 244 The American Naturalist. (April, academies of original research are too few for any one of them to be diverted from its proper object. Recently the management of the Academy has undertaken some explorations in the Bermuda Islands, and the results are coming into print. Large collections of Invertebrata were made, and reports on these by Professor Heilprin are being published in the Proceedings. These embrace much matter of interest, and illustrate what can be done with a moderate out- lay in regions not remote. The recent appropriation by the State of Pennsylvania of $50,000 to the institution comes at a favorable period for advancing this excellent work. There are various ways in which this can be done. Our own belief has been and still is, that the best possible use for money at the present time is the endowment of some of the professorships which are as yet unoccupied. The most important agency in original research is men of ability and energy. They can be relied upon to obtain material more cheaply and effectively than persons not familiar with specialties. And these men should be members of the governing body of the Academy, ex-officio. In case the Academy should adopt such measures the wealthy citizens of Philadelphia cannot better advance the general intelligence as well as the reputation of their commu- nity, than by sustaining them by material aid. A new wing should be added to the present building, with improved facili- ties for work and better light in some of its departments than the present building affords. The new wing should be erected for a smaller sum than the old one cost. At its April meeting the United States National Academy of Sciences elected officers for six years; elected five new members, and some foreign correspondents; and conferred the Watson and Draper medals. Most of the old officers were re- elected, a new Vice-President (Prof. S. P. Langley), and a new member of the council being exceptions. In reelecting the incumbent of the office of President, the Academy made a mis- take which it cannot afford. This is to be regretted, as the 1889.] Recent Literature. 245 Academy is not as well known in the country as it should ‘be, and of course it is important that when and where it is known, nothing should detract from the respect with which its acts should be regarded. No organization allied to the Govern- ment can expect to escape the pressure of interests involved, but it is an omen of evil when the interests of persons over- ride the interests of science and of the Academy. The major- ity of the Academy has not in this instance the excuse of ignorance, and one is lead to fear that not a few of their num- ber deliberately approve of methods that bring science into dis- repute, and justify reflections on that country and on that society where they are not only tolerated, but rewarded. The American Society of Psychical Research has made an appeal for money with which to carry on its work. We hope that this appeal will meet with a prompt and abundant re- sponse. The society has done a great deal of excellent work, and the field before it is an immense one. The subject of its researches is of the greatest interest, both scientific and popu- lar, and its importance cannot be overrated. The manner in which its work has been done is worthy of the highest praise, and the country cannot afford to let it languish for want of the necessary assistance. When we consider the comparatively small outlay necessary to the production of its results, we think the endowment of the society one of the most worthy objects that can attract the attention of the liberal. ; RECENT LITERATURE. PLOWRIGHT'S UREDINE& AND USTILAGINEJE. —Students ofthe fungi may well rejoice that at last we have a book in the English language which discusses with some fulness the : structure, biology and classification of the Rusts and Smuts. 14 monograph of the British Uredinee and Ustilaginez, with an account of their Biology including the methods of observing the germination of their spores and of ir experimental culture, by Charles B, Plowright, F. L. S., M. R. C. S. [ete.] Illustrated with woodcuts and eight plates. London. Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., I Paternoster Square. 1889. Svo. x. PP: 246 The American Naturalist. [ April; In this volume, the author, who has long been favorably known as a student of the Rusts more particularly, takes up the vari- ous parts of his subject in the following order. viz, Biology of the Uredinee; Mycelium of the Uredinee ; Spermogonia and the so-called Spermatia; Z/Ecidiospores; Uredospores ; Teleutospores; Hetercecism; Mycelium of the Ustilaginez; Formation of the Teleutospores of the Ustilaginez ; Germina- tion of the Teleutospores of the Ustilaginez ; Infection of the Host-plants by the Ustilaginez ; Spore-Culture; The Arti- ficial Infection of Plants. After this follow the systematic portions including nearly two hundred pages of generic and specific descriptions. Descriptions, synonymy and references to literature and ex- siccati are well worked out. All measurements (which are very generally given) are in micromillimetres. Many biological notes are given after the descriptions, thus adding much to the value of the work. The genus Uromyces is subdivided as follows into artificial subgenera: I. Eudronijces : A. Auteuuromyces represented by II species. B 4 44 Heteruromyces it, pnt eh bg sf o gi III. Hemiuromyces, 5 6 d I Urenbysepils, re 3 et V. Micruromyces, " 4 e VI. Lepturomyces, A" o n" Making a total of 28 species. The genus Puccinia is similarly subdivided : I. Eupuccinia: A. Auteupuccinia represented by 23 species. Heteropuccinia e 20 " II. Brachypuccinia, " 5 T III. Hemipuccinia, s I4 xk IV. Pucciniopsis, di 3 xk V. Micropuccinia, " I9 id VI. Leptopuccinia, " 12 ris Making a total of 96 species The remaining smaller genera are represented as follows: Triphragmidium—2 species; Phragmidium—9 species ; Xenodochus—2 species; Endophyllum—2 species ; Gymnos- porangium—4 species ; Melampsora—17 species; Coleospo- rium—4 species; Chrysomyxa—2 species, and Cronartium—! species. In addition rag are descriptions of imperfect forms as follows: Uredo—11; Ceoma—6; /Ecidium—21:. There nos thus descriptions of 167 genuine species, and 38 imperfect orms. : 1889.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 247 In the Ustilaginee the genera are represented by species as follows: Ustilago—21 ; Sphacelotheca—I ; Tilletia—3; Uro- cystis—9; Entyloma—7; Melanotenium— 1; Tubercinia—2; Doassansia—2; Thecaphosa—2; Sorosporium—1. The al- lied and associated species, viz., Graphiola—1; Entorrhiza—I ; Tuberculina—1, and Protomyces—5, are added asa supple- ment, bringing the total of Ustilagineze up to 57 species. The whole number of descriptions in the book is two hundred and -sixty-two.— Charles E. Bessey. RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. Baxter, Sylvester—The Old New World—Salem, 1888. From the Hemingway Archzological Expedition. Blytt, A.—The Probable Cause of the Displacement of Beach-lines. From the author. ; Branner, John C.—The Cretaceous and Tertiary Geology of the Sergipe-Alagóas Basin of Brazil. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. xvi, 1889. From the author. Broom, R.—On a Monstrosity of the Common Earth-worm, Lumbricus terrestris L. Transactions Natural History Society, Glasgow. From the author. Brongniart, Charles—The Fossil Insects of the Primary Group of "Rocks. Read before the Manchester Geological Society, Oct. 6, 1885. From the author. Ellis, Havelock—Women and Marriage, or Evolution in Sex. From Fewkes, J. W.—On the emission of a colored fluid as a possible means of protection resorted to by Meduse. Extract Micro- scopist. From the author — On the serial relationship of the ambulacral and adambu- lacral plates in the Star Fishes. Extract Proceedings Boston Society Natural History. From the author. Hitchcock, C. H.—Recent Progress in Ichnology. Proceedings of oston Society Natural History, Vol. xxiv. From the author. Lewis, T. H.—The “Old Fort” Earthworks of Greenup County, Kentucky. Reprint from American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. iii, Nos. 3 and 4. From the author. Lewis, T. H.—Stone Monuments in Southern Dakota. Extract from the American Anthropologist, April, 1889. From the author. 248 The American Naturalist. [April,. Loomis, Elias—Relation of Rain-areas to Areas of High and Low American Journal of Science, Vol. xxxvii, April, 1889.. From the author. McGee, W. J.— Classification of Geographic Forms by Genesis. Re- print from National Geographic Magazine, Vol. i, No. 1. -From the author. Moreno, P. Francisco—Informe preliminar de los Progresos del Museo la Plata, durante el primer semestre de 1888. Presentado £ señor Ministro de Obras Publicas de la Provincia de Buen Aires. Mourlon, M.—Sur la découvert, a Ixelles (prés-Bruxelles), d'un Ossu- aire de Mammifères, antérieur au diluvium. Extrait de Bull. de- l'Acad. roy. de Belgique, 3d série, tome xvii, No. 3, pp. 131 and. 134, 1889. From the author. Newton, E. T.—Vertebrata of the Forest-Bed. Extract from Geo- logical Magazine, April, 1889. From the author Pelseneer, Paul—Sur la valeur morphologique des bras et la compo- sition systems nerveux central des Céphalopodes. Extract pent Biol, 1888. From the author. Penrose, R. A. F—The nature and origin of deposits of Phosphate of Lime. Bull. U. S. Geological Survey, No. 46. From the author. —€— R. W.—Osteology of Circus hudsonius. Extract Journal Comp. Medicine and Surgery, 1889. From the author. Walcott, C. D.—The Taconic System of Emmons, Extract American Journal Science. From the author. Welling, James C.—The Law of Malthus. Extract from the American Anthropologist, January, 1888. From the author. Williston, S. W.—The Sternalis Muscle. Proceedings of the Phila- delphia Academy of Natural Sciences. From the author Winslow, Arthur—The Construction of roposrephts Maps by Recon- noissance Methods. From the author Wolterstorf, W.—Die Amphibien Westpreussens. Separat Abdruck aus den Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Dantzig, N. F. vii Bd. 2 Heft. 1889. From the author. 1889. ] Geography and Travel. 249 GENERAL NOTES. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. AFRICA; BORELLI’S TRAVELS IN GALLA-LAND.—Sr. Borelli has surveyed portions of the country to the south of Abyssinia. Mount Harro (3,150 metres) and the Dendi- grons of which it forms a part, form the watershed between Hawash, the Abai (Nile) and the Omo or Ghibie. The explorer went to Kiffan in the Kingdom of Gomma, and accompanied the king to Giren the capital, and to the summit of Mount Maiguddó (3,300 m.) whence the mountains of Culld, Centab, Aruzulla, etc., were seen and their positions ascertained. He then went to the Peak of Ali, to the market Cornbi, and to the cascade of the Ghibie, 40 metres high. Then traversing the desert between Gimma and Giangeró, he attempted to visit Mount Borguda where it is said that human sacrifices are offered on the first of every month but was attacked by the lancemen of Giangeró, and compelled to fly. Afterwards he visited the river Omo with the idea of passing south of the town of Vallamo to Cuccia, but was hindered by the king of Gimma. Another attempt toreach Borguda wasdefeated by the Giangeró, so, traversing the country of Abalti, he entered that of the Daddalé, and then returned to Antoto, whence he started for Zeila on the 9th October last. The Giangeró are neither Musselmen nor Christians, yet adore a single spiritual indefinable god, to whom they sacrifice with knives at the first moon of every month 47 males who always belong to two honored families. All the Giangeró, by an operation performed when young, have but one testicle, and cut their hair that they may not appear women. The river Omo does not turn to the east, as shown on all maps, but at 5° N. lat, bends westward and then turning southward falls into a lake or rather extensive marsh, known as Sciambara. This information was derived by Sir Borelli, from the testimony of more than 100 merchants in the habit of traversing the country in caravans. These merchants also asserted that the Omo leaves Lake Sciambara at its southern extremity, and ends by sinking under ground near a very large lake, which Borelli believes to be the Victoria. Thus the Omo may be the true source of the White Nile. ! This department is edited by W. N. Lockington, Philadelphia. 250 The American Naturalist. [April, EUROPE; THE KOPIAS SEE.—HERR SUPAN (Petermann's Mitteilungen III. 1889.)—gives an account of the Kopias See, in the Beotian mountains of Greece, and of the works under- taken since 1883 by the engineer Pochet for its reclamation In the above mentioned mountains are three basins, the Kopias, Likeri and Paralimni, all of which are permanenly or periodi- cally filled by lakes which drain into the sea through the earth. The largest of these is the Kopias See which extends north- ward in two bays and westward iscontinuous with the wide valley of the Kephissos. Near the edge of this lake and not above twenty metres above its level, lie the ruins of Thebes and Livadia. The Kephissos and many other streams fall into these basins, and as the rainfall of the region varies greatly at different seasons and in different years, so does the level of the waters of the lake, thus banishing cultivation from any spot within several metres in height of the lowest level. In 1852 and 1864 even the ruins of Livadia were covered. Yet in the oldest period of Grecian history the kingdom of Minyas with its capital Orchomenos, occupied the sight of the Kopias, and in three spots traces of the canals and other works made to control the waters may be seen. The modern works consist of a ring-canal and an inner canal. These canals unite in the eastern bay of the lake, and the united canalis carried by a succession of cuttings and tunnels through the Likeri and Paralimini lakes into the sea. GEOGRAPHICAL NEWs.—The greatest known depths of the various oceans are thus given by Dr. Supan (Petermann's Mitteilungen, III. 1889). North Pacific Ocean 449 55' N. lat. 152° 26' W. long. 8513 metres. South Pacific ** A" 17» A 13699 0 W, “ BOr ~ North Atlantic Ocean 19° 39 N: S 660 26 W. “ "Hr South Atlantic — ** O db UI 180 15^ W. * tv ee Indian Ocean 9» 18 SC 105° 23’ E. = shia (7 THE archives of Savona, a city not far to the west of Genoa, Italy, prove that the family of Christopher Columbus lived at that city about 1470. AT the coming Paris Exhibition there is a globe 40 metres in circumference, that is, upon a one- millionth scale. All the regions will thus be represented with their correct curvature. This globe will not be so large as that of Mr. Wyld, which for a long time disfigured Leicester Square, London, but will have 1889. ] Geography and Travel. 251 the advantage in truthfulness, since Mr. Wyld's globe showed the various countries upon the interior surface, and therefore with a concave instead of a convex curvature. OUT of the total population of 46,855,704 of the German Empire on Dec. 1, 1885, 22,933,664 were males and 23,922,040 females. As regards religion 29,369,847 were returned as evangelicals, 16,785,734 as Catholics, 563,172 as Israelites, and 125,673 as of other Christian creeds. THE population of Bulgaria and Roumelia on January 1, 1888 was found to be 3,154,375, including the Russians, Servians, Germans, French, etc., sojourning in the country. The Bulgarian race includes 2,336,250 individuals. The Turks in the two countries number 904,000, with a curious predominance of the feminine sex, which counts 607,000. The same preponderance of females is observable in the Greeks, who number 56,000 females against 28,000 males. Among the Bulgarians and other races the male sex is in excess. . SOUNDINGS recently taken from the English ship Rambler in the Chushan archipelago near the Chinese coast, have proved the existence of submarine rocks which rise to a metre or even half a metre of the surface. - These lie between 30?-3'-25" and 30?-21' N. lat, and 122?-12" and 122?-25'25" E. longitude. BRITISH NEW GUINEA is divided into three sections, a western, from the Dutch boundary to the river Aixd, a central extending from the Aixd to the island of London in about 144*-15' E. long. and an eastern which includes all the Lyon- isiades to Rossel. A recent report of Sir John Douglas gives an account of all recent explorations. | IN his account of his ascent of Mount Kibo (Kilimanjaro) Otto E. Ehlers states that the tracks of an elephant were vis- ible in the snow ata height of 5,000 metres together with tracks of buffaloes and antelopes. The last traces of vegetation werealso found at the same elevation, (Petermann’s Mitteilungen, III. 1889). ASIA.—THE PRESENT FLORA OF KRAKATOA.—M. Treub, who arrived at Krakatoa, June 19, 1886, gathered near the 252 The American Naturalist. [April, coast the seeds or fruits of sixteen species of plants, and upon the mountain, eight species of flowering plants, and eleven of ferns. Four of the phanerogams were composites. When it is remembered that all plants previously existing upon the island perished in consequence of the heat of the eruption, and that the whole island was at that date covered with a thick layer of scoria, the existence of a new flora is surprising proof of the part played in plant-colonization by currents, wind, and birds. All the species found upon the coast, except Gymnothrix ele- gans, a grass which is very common in Java, are identical with thosecolonizing species which are found in recent coral islands. Only two of the mountain species were identical with those of the coast. As regards the number of individuals, M. Treub says, ‘‘three years after the eruption, the new flora of Kraka- toa is composed almost entirely of ferns. The phanerogams occur insolated here and there." Yet the soil is notat all favorable in its composition for the growth of ferns, which have been preceded by two species of mosses and six of alge, the decay of which has furnished aliment to the ferns which in their turn prepare the ground for the phanerogams. : THE ISLAND REUNION.—According to M. A. Blonde (Bull. d. l. Sociéte dé Géographie) the island of Bourbon, or, as it is now called Reunion, discovered in 1545 by the Portuguese Mascarenhas, and taken possession of by France in 1649, is of elliptical form, its greater axis running N.W. and S.E., and its greatest length and width being 71 and 57 kilometres respectively. The island is entirely volcanic, and seems to have been formed by a volcano originally situated at the N.W extremity, but which was displaced southward untilit finally reached the S.E. extremity, where it is stillin activity. The route of this volcano is marked by extinct craters ranged symmetrically on both sides of the axis, the principal those of Mufate, Ciloss, and Salazie. From these great circles spring the three great torrents of the island, the rivers Galets, St. Etienna, and Midi. These are separated by high mountains, among which are Grand-Beirard, 2,970 metres, Cimandef 2,250, Pitore de les Neiges, 3,069, and Salago, 2,150 m. NEW GUINEA.—According to Prince Roland Bonaparte the share of Holland in New Guinea has an area of 382,000 sq. kilometres, that of England 230,000, and that of Germany 232,000. The last includes 52,000 sq. kil. of smaller islands, 1889. ] Geology and Paleontology. 253 which are now known as the Bismarck archipelago, while the German portion of the mainland has received the title of Kai- ser Wilhelm-Land. Another brochure of the same writer gives maps of the Gulf of Huen (New Guinea), according to Fleu- riece, D'Entrecasteax, and Mosely, also a corrected map from the recent explorations of Finsch and Von Schweinitz. CAPT. BINGER’S JOURNEY.—Capt. Binger, who, two years ago, undertook a journey of exploration from Bamaka towards the Gold Coast, has been heard from, his last letter being dated Salagha, Dec. 11, 1888. M. Binger encountered great diffi- culty in leaving the territory of Lamery. It was his proposi- tion to study carefully the mountains whence the Joliba takes its source, and it wasarranged that so soon as he gave notice of his arrival at Kong, a victualling party should march along the Akka from Grand-Bassam to relieve him. In March, 1888, M. Binger reached Kong. From Kong, M. Binger pro- posed to make an excursion to Xendi, returning to Kong by the Gottogo. The French residents of the Slave Coast, having heard of the arrival of a white man at Salagha, sent a messen- ger to him, who brought back an answer in which M. Binger stated that, leaving Salagha the next day and, repassing Kong, he trusted to reach Grand-Bassam in April, 1889. The ease with which the communication was sent from the Slave Coast, (Grand Popo and Agoue) shows that Kong is more accessible from this part than from the Gold Coast. GEOLOGY AND PAL/EONTOLOGY. AN INTERMEDIATE PLIOCENE FAUNA.—Mr. Geo. C. Dun- can sent me a collection of remains of Mammalia from a lake deposit in Oregon which has an interesting character. The list of species is short, and but few of them are determinable. It is as follows : Canis sp. Elephas or Mastodon. Holomeniscus or Auchenia. Aphelops sp. Hippotherium relictum sp. nov. Equus sp. 254 The American Naturalist. [April,. These bones do not resemble in color those from near Sil- ver Lake, Oregon, which are black, They are yellowish brown or light brown, like those from the locality in Whitman Co., which were recorded in the last number of the NATURALIST. The interest of the list consists in the fact, that it represents. the first time a fauna which contains at the same time the large true horses and lamas, and the three-toed horses and Aphelops rhinoceros. The latter forms belong to the Loup Fork horizon, and the former to the Pliocene, and they have not been found hitherto in association in the Rocky Mountain Region. The fauna described from Florida, by Leidy, is probably of Loup Fork or Upper Miocene age, and the mam- malia are similar to or identical with those of the same horizon in Kansas and Nebraska. This fauna represents an older period than the Upper Plio- cene of Silver Lake, and may be, very probably, the contem- porary of that of the Pliocene lake of Idaho, from which I have described numerous species of fresh-water fishes. The de- posits containing them I called the Idaho beds (Proceedings Academy Philadelphia, 1883 p. 153), and they may be re- garded as representing the middle or lower Pliocene. The new Hippotherium is characterized as follows: Represented by two superior and three inferior molar teeth. The grinding surface is nearly square, and the crown is short, and moderately curved. The section of the internal style is a wide oval, and it presents no angle or point of approximation to the protoconic crescent, and conversely none to the poste- rior column. The latter has the usual connection with the hypoconic crescent, but projects as far inwards as the anterior area, and is well defined. The enamel-boundaries are quite simple. The usual loop of the posterior inner border of the anterior lake is rudimental in an anterior true molar, and in the last molar it is small and subround. No isolatedloop. A single short process of the border towards the internal column. Cementum abundant. Dimensions of superior molars, No. 1; diameters of grind- face; transverse, 19 mm.; anteroposterior, 16 mm. No. 2; transverse, I9 mm. ; anteroposterior, 18 mm.—Z£. D. Cope. STORMS ON THE ADHESIVE DISK OF ECHENEIS.—In à paper published in the Annals and Magazine of Natural His- tory for July, 1883, Mr. Storms endeavors to solve the different questions pertaining to the structure and morphological inter- 1889. ] Geology and Paleontology. 255 \ ' pretation of the adhesive disk of Echeneis, and closes with the following remarks suggested by Echenets glaronensis : "I. As to the position in classification of the genus Eche- “2. As to the general form of the body of Lchenezs &laronensis as compared with that of living species. "I. Authors have classed this genus in various families of Acanthopterygians. Joh. Müller makes of it a group of the Gobiidae; L. Agassiz and, after him, most authors class them with the Scombride. “ Certainly none of the characters of Echenets glaronensis point toward the Gobiidze; on the contrary, in the shape of the head, the structure of the ventrals, the size of the pectorals, the shape ofthe caudal fin, etc., it differs more from the Gobiidz than the living forms do. On the other hand, by all these characters and others, Echeneis glaronesis ought to be classed among the Cotto-Scombriform Acanthopterygians. But here the difficulty begins. If we adhere strictly to the charactérs of the families given by Dr Günther, Echeneis &laronensis, on account of the number of its vertebrz (104-13 according to Dr. Wettstein,) should be classed among the Carangidz, whilst all the living forms having more than 104-14 vertebrae ought to be put with the Scombride. The other characters of Echeneis glaronensis do not determine in which of the two families it ought to be placed. "2. A careful comparison of the proportions of all the parts of the skeleton of the fossil Echeneis with those of the living forms, such as Echeneis naucrates or Echeneis remora, shows that the fossil differs nearly equally from both, and that it was a more normally shaped fish than either of these forms. The head was narrower and less flattened, the preoperculum wider, its two jaws had nearly the same léngth. The ribs, as also the neural and haemal spines, were longer, the tail more forked, and the soft dorsal fin much longer. In fact it was a more compressed type, probably a far better swimmer than its living congeners, as might be expected, if the smallness of the adhesive disk is taken into account." 256 The American Naturalist. [April, SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF SPAIN.—The Reseña Geogra- phica y Estadistica of Spain, issued during the past year, con- tains an introductory article upon the geology of the peninsula by D. Juan Bisso. During the Cambrian age the surface of Spain presented a multitude of isles and islets, composed in great portion ofigneous rocks, but containing also stratified crystalline strata. The principal island, already quite extensive, occupied the greater part of Galicia, the north of Portugal and small portions of the present provinces of Caceres, Salamanca, and Zamora. Another isle occupied the eastern portion of the present Castilian provinces of Avila, Segovia, and Toledo. A great number of islets were strewn in what is now the southern part of Portugal, Estremadura, and north-western Andalucia. 'Toward the North arose some points in the line which event- ually became the northern Cordillera. Later on, at the close of the Cambrian, the important slate deposits of the Pyrenees arose above sea-level, together with portions of Estremadura, and of the southern Andalucian mountains. Throughout the Silurian and Devonian periods the main island increased considerably, so that at the commencement of the Carboniferous, it occupied all Galicia, the west of Asturias, and the provinces of Leon and Zamora, its southern line run- ning by Ledesma, Salamanca, Sepulveda, and Siguenza, and then turning south in an irregular curve so as to embrace, in the same mass, the sites of Madrid, Toledo, Cuidad Real and Alcarez. Its most southerly extension reached the Sierra Morena, and its western coast extended to Oporto. At the same period a great part of the Pyrenees had emerged, as well as many islands, in Catalonia, between Burgos and Soria, in western Aragon and eastern Castile. In the south parts of the Sierra Nevada and the extreme south-east of the peninsula had appeared. Permian strata have not been, with certainty, met with in Spain. In the Triassic period the principal mass already extended much to the southeast, and in Portugal and Huelva had almost reached its present limits, comprehending Seville and Cordova in its southern extension. In the northeastern it occupied all of Oviedo and Leon, Zamora and Salamanca, great part of the provinces of Valencia and Santander. The Pyrenees formed a zone as now ; almost all the southeastern islands united forming a tract occupying great part of the present provinces of Murcia, Almeria, Granada and Malaga. The Jurassic seas must have occupied but a small extent, since at the conclusion of the Triassic, the greater part © 1889. ] Geology and Paleontology. 257 the present peninsula had emerged, including part of the Basque provinces, eastern Castile and northern Andalucia, while the remainder of Andalucia was occupied by many islands. Subsequent submergence made the Cretaceous seas larger,the eastern coast of the principal mass receding to the line of San- tander, Reinosa, Burgos and Segovia, while a gulf extended in the north from Santander almost to Oviedo, and the Pyrenees were partly submerged: Yet in the same period the islands of Aragon and the eastern part of Castile became united into a peninsula, joined to the mainland by a narrow Isthmus at Avilar. This peninsula extended southward to the Sierra Albarracin. At the same time the islands between Burgos and Calatayud became united into one, those along the coast from Gerona to Fortora also joined, and those of Murcia became united to the great southeastern island. At the end of the Cretaceous period the peninsula was com- pleted almost as it now stands, except that the sea covered the entire basin of the Ebro, penetrating between the islands of the coast from Gerona to Murcia (again partially submerged) and through passes opened in the Pyrenees. There was also a narrow lake in the center of Galicia. During this period immense nummulitic deposits accumulated in the Ebro basin, until the sea finally shallowed into a series of lakes, which in Eocene times filled up with a different series of de- posits. In Miocene times, the sea penetrated only between the Murcian and Andalucian islands, into the basin of the Guadal- quivir, in the north at some points in Galacia, and along a narrow zone on the eastern coast. Lakes still existed in the basin of the Ebro, and also through most of the provinces of the Castilles and Leon. In Portugal a number of smaller lakes Occupied much of the area about Leiria, Lisboa, Evora and Castro- Verde. In the Pliocene age the sea still penetrated by various Points, especially into the valley bed of the Guadalquiver. Many small deposits occur in the valleys. All that the Post- Pliocene has done has been to fill up various depressions with extensive diluvial and alluvial deposits. 258 The American Naturalist. [April, MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY. PETROGRAPHICAL NEWs.—The serpentine of Montville, N. J., occurs in veins and as isolated nodules in crystalline dolomite, and also asa thin coating on irregularly rounded masses of a gray crystalline pyroxene, with the chemical and optical properties of diopside, The examination of thin sec- tions across the contact between the enclosing serpentine and its nucleus of pyroxene shows conclusively that the former 1s the direct product of alteration of the latter. In almost all cases the resulting serpentine isfound to be slickensided and grooved as if it had been shoved along against some hard sub- stance, and had thereby suffered planing. The origin of the pressure producing this shoving is thought by Mr. Merrill? to be the increase in volume which the pyroxene undergoes 1n its change to serpentine. Even when the alteration is complete and no trace of the original pyroxene remains, the origin of the serpentine through the hydration of some magnesium mineral is shown by the crowding of the calcite grains associated with the serpentine into broad fan-shaped masses. Analyses of the pyroxene core and serpentine surrounding it substantiate the conclusions reached by the microscopic study of thin sections. SiO,. MgO CaO. AÑO, FeO, FeO Ign. Pyroxene $4.22 190.82 2421. 3o 40. o. 9 Serpentine 42.38 — 42.14 i7. 197 .17 14.12 From the fact that no veins of quartz are to be found in the serpentine, it is thought that sufficient magnesium was fur- nished by the dolomite to change all of the silica of the py- roxene into serpentine.— The ophiolite from Thurman, Warren Co., N. Y., is observed by the same author? to have originated in the same manner as the serpentine from Montville. In this case, however, the original pyroxene occurs in little grains and concretionary masses scattered through calcite.—The rocks to the north of Lake Bolsena in Italy consist principally of trach- ytes, according to Klein,' and those to the south of a leucite bearing series, The former include olivinitic and non-olivinitic varieties in different members which the amount of plagio- clase varies largely. The leucite rocks embrace tephrites, basanites and leucitophyres. The first two contain porphy- ! Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Maine. 2 Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum. 1888. p. 105. 3 Amer. Jour. Sci. March. 1889. p. 189. * Neue Jahrb f. Min, etc., B. B. vi p. 1. 1889 ] Mineralogy and Petrography. 259 ritic crystals of leucite, augite, plagioclase, sanidinc, magne- tite, apatite, hauyne, nepheline and more or less olivine in a groundmass composed of microlites of leucite, augite and pla- gioclase, and a very little glass. According to the predomi- nance of one or the other of the constituents they are divided into basaltic, doleritic and tephritic varieties, and these are fur- ther subdivided into olivinitic and non-olivinitic sub-varieties. To the northeast of the Lake there is an augite-andesite with a zonal plagioclase in which the different zones possess very different extinction angles. The paper in which these rocks are described contains a fine series of analyses.—An interesting occurrence of basic concretions in the granite of Mullaghderg, County Donegal, Ireland, is described by Hatch.’ The rock is a dark, coarse-grained, sphene-bearing, hornblende-granitite containing microcline, orthoclase and oligoclase. Sections of orthoclase nearly parallel to the orthopinacoid are traversed by two sets of strongly refracting markings parallel to the cleavage lines. The markings are due to the deposition of a mineral with an extinction of 14° in the formerly existing cleavage cracks. In this granite are flattened spheroids of three or four inches in diameter, which consist of a reddish granite nucleus and a zonally and radially developed periphery composed of plagioclase, magnetite anda little brown mica. A resumé ofthe literature of spheroidal granites is given and a classification of the spheroids is attempted.—4A second’ paper on the dyke rocks of Anglesey is occupied with a description of the diabases and diabase porphyrites of the islands of Anglesey and Holyhead, England. A hornblende-diabase from a large dyke running along the east side of Holyhead Mountain contains a large amount of apatite, and augite crys- tals that have been enlarged by the addition of original horn- blende material. —Dr. Bonney' regards the isolated masses of green sandstone occurring in the sand pits near Ightham in Kent, England, as having originated zz situ by concretionary action. The individual grains are connected together by chal- cedony and quartz, the latter forming a fringe around each one of the grains and the latter filling in the remaining inter- stices.—Dr. Hatch’ records the analysis of a microgranitic ker- atophyre from near Rathdrum, County Wicklow, Ireland. , Cf. AMERICAN NATURALIST, Harker: Geol. Magazine, 1888. p. 2 * Geol. Magazine, 1888. p. 297. * Geol. Magazine, Feb. 1889. p. 70. ; 2 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. 1888. p. 548. z ; 18st i ig 260 The American Naturalist. [ April, The rock consists almost exclusively of a microcrystalline groundmass of quartz and albite in which are a few porphy- ritic crystals of thelatter mineral. These are sometimes broken up into patches divided by narrow seams of feldspathic sub- stance with an extinction different from that of the albite. The analysis yielded: SiO,” ALO, FeO,” CAU Mao KO Ne um 77.29 14.62 tr .38 16 a, 60 57 —Gonnard* mentions pyrite, oligoclase, emerald, garnet, beryl, calcite, chlorophyllite, apatite and tourmaline as acces- sory constituents of the gneiss occurring along the banks of the Saône near Lyons, France.—Kloos* has examined the thin sections of rocks that have been subjected to great artificial pressure, and finds in them no signs of mineral crushing. He advises care in ascribing to pressure the crushed appearance of minerals in rocks. He is inclined to regard the phenomenon as due to increase in volume under chemical change.—4A typ- ical picrite occurring in boulders near St. Germans in the Lis- - keard District in Cornwall, England, is mentioned by Bonney' as containing augite which has been changed successively into brown and green hornblende, and colorless needles of the same mineral, while the original form of the augite has remained. —Glaucophane has been discovered by the same author" as a secondary product of augite in a diabase occurring in a block in the Val Chisone, Cottian Alps.—Aggregates of topaz, a little feldspar, kaolin and mica have been found by Salomon* in a granular quartz rock (one variety of the greisen) resulting from the silicification of the granite at Geyer in Saxony. —The green-sand from just above the chalk beds in Kent, England, is composed" of grains of quartz, flint, feldspar, glauconite, mag- netite, spinel, zircon, rutile, tourmaline and occasional grains of garnet, actinolite, epidote and chalcedony.—An eclogite from near Frankenstein in Silesia consists essentially’ of om- phacite and a calcium garnet. The omphacite contains inclu- sions of smaragdite, and portions of the garnet have passed over into zoisite through the loss of calcium and the assumption of water. 1 Bull. Soc. Franç. d. Min. XII , , Zeits. d. deutsch. geol. Gesell, XL. 1888. p. 612. , Min Magazine, Erud 1888. p. 108. s * Min. Magazine, 1887. p ue Zeits. d. deutsch. zd Gesell. X L. p. 570. * Miss. Gardiner: Quart. Jour. eet Soc. € m Ey 755. 1 Traube : Neues Jahrb. f. Miner., etc, 1889. I a 1889. ] Mineralogy and Petrography. 261 MINERALOGICAL NEWS.—New Minerals—Dahllite’ occurs as a yellowish white incrustation on red apatite from the Ode- garden mine at Bamle, Norway. It is found in little fibres . With a density of 3.053 and a composition as follows : 620. FeO NaO BO PRO CQ. RÀ $300 . .79 .89 Ki BAA 20 42 corresponding to 4 (Ca, Fe, Na, K.) , (PO), + 2 Ca CO, + HO. Before the blowpipe the mineral decrepitates without fusing. It is uniaxial and negative.—Eudidymite’ is founa in tabular crystals in the elaeolite syenite of Langesundfiord at Aro, Norway. It isa white mineral with an easy basal cleavage, a hardness of 6, and specific gravity of 2.553. It is minoclinic WHR g: 0: ¢ == 1.9107: ¥: 2.1071 and p= 86° 14^ 277 The plane of its optical axis is the clinopinacoid. The acute bisectrix is inclined 5824? to c in the acute angle 8. 2Va = . 29? 55’ for yellow light, and the dispersion is inclined with ¢>v Its analysis yielded: S:0, BeO Na,O H,O 72.19 II.I5 12.66 3.84, corresponding to Na. H. Be. Si, O. —Lansfordite is a white mineral resembling calcite. It is de- scribed by Genth' as forming stalactites 20 mm. in length in an anthracite coal mine at Lansford, Schuylkill Co., Pa. Its composition is MgO — 23.18 per cent, CO, — 18.90 per cent, H,O — 57.79 percent, — 3 MgCO, 4- Mg (OH), + 2 H,O. Its hardness is 2.5, and specific gravity 1.692.—Rare Minerals.— Messrs. Diller‘ and Whitfield have identified the blue mineral present in fibres penetrating the quartz and plagioclase of the pegmatoid portion of a biotite gneiss at Harlem, N. Y., as de- mortiertte. In thin section the mineral is seen to have a cleav- age parallel to oo Pæ and a second parallel to some prismatic plane. It contains long tubular cavities parallel to the vertical axis and is frequently polysynthetically twinned parallel to some plane in the prismatic zone. It has a hardness of 7, an specific gravity of 3.265. The analysis of a specimen of the mineral obtained from a rock composed principally of dumor- tierite and quartz, from Clip, Arizona, yielded : Per a and Bäckström: Oefv. af. Kongl, Vetenskaps Akad. Fórh. Stockholm. J O. Pr : Brogger: Nyt. Magazin for Naturv. XXX. II. p. 196. 55 | 262 The American Naturalist. [April, SiO, Al,O; MgO B,O, RO; H,O 27.99 64.49 tr. 4.95 .20 I.72 equivalent to 3 Al, Si,O,, + Al (BO;), + 2 H,O. Damour,’ who first analysed the mineral regarded it as a simple silicate of aluminuium ofthe formula Al, Si, O,,— Additional observations upon Zer£randite increase materially our knowledge of this rare mineral. Investigations by Urba upon the crystals coating the faces of feldspar from Pisek, Bohemia, and the walls of cavities in this mineral yield results analogous to those obtained ' by Penfield’? in the case of the n Antero crystals. Accord- ing to Urbaa: 6: c —7191: 1: 4206. In addition to the cleavage parallel to 3Po» Urba finds also a very perfect one parallel to oP. The new plane-5 P% is also discovered. piste. of the Pisek mineral gave : SiO,—=49.90, BeO= 42.62, H.0=7.94. The Mt. Antero crystals‘ are bounded by the three pinacoids. Of the two basal planes one is flat and the other rounded in consequence of an oscillatory combination with a brachydome. The distribution of the electrical proper- ties of the crystals show them to be hemimorphic, as indicated by the oscillatory combination on one only of the basal planes. The mineral has recently been discovered at Stoneham, Maine. Mr. Penfield' has examined crystals from this locality and has identified on them the planes oP, 17 P&®,3P%, %œP%, and co P3. The crystals are double wedge- shaped, are hemimorphic in the direction of their vertical axis, and are elongated parallel to the brachy-axis. One twin with oP as the twinning plane was esti A calculation of the axial ratio gave a: ð: —.5973: I : .5688.—Pisani® has “nd See cupro-descloizite from - Zach, Mexico and has found in it VAG As,O, PbO CunO ZnO H,O 17:40 4.78 53.90 8.80 II.40 3.20 The mineral has a brown color on a fresh fracture, and a spe- cific gravity of 6.06.—A new analysis of the very remarkable mineral melanophlogite has been made by Pisani! The min- eral was found in iittle colorless cubes associated with calcite, sulphur and celestite in a limestone geode from near Girgenti, Sicily. After purifying as carefully as possible it yielded: , Bull. Soc. Min. = France. IV. p. 6. * Zeits. f. Kryst. a VOR AMERICAN Natukaer 1888. 023. h Ages A r. Jour. Sci., Mch. 1855. ra 210. * Tb. p. 2 * Bull Boe. Franç. d. Min. XII. La Bull. Soc. Franç. d. Min. Dec. 1 XI. p 298. 1889.] Botany. 263 En > “SO, Fe,O, Al,O, Loss. QI.12 5.30 43 uo —Króhnkite (Cu So, + Na, So, + 2 H,o) from Chili, is monoclin- ic, according to Darapsky' witha: 6: c—1: 2.112: 0.649. ° 8’. Its hardness is 2.5, and specific gravity, 1.98. BOTANY: THE TREATMENT OF EXSICCATI IN THE HERBARIUM.— Whether exsiccati should be kept as they are published, or cut up and distributed in the Herbarium, is a question of suffi- cient importance, it seems to me, to warrant a brief consider- ation. Exsiccati are generally arranged arbitrarily, and unless well indexed, are often labyrinths to those who are unfamiliar with them. Those which have a separate index to each fasci- culus are bad enough, but, unfortunately, many of the largest and best sets have no index at all, and those whose indexes are published separately are continually outgrowing them. 1f distributed in the herbarium, the specimens are always at hand, and a student does not need to examine indexes to see Specimens made useful which otherwise would be of but little value for reference. T The common objection to cutting up and distributing exsic- Cati is that it destroys their identity. But in most exsiccati the name, etc., is printed on the label of each specimen, an if not, these labels can easily be stamped. References to €xsiccati are, as a rule, by number, but if distributed, the the specimens referred to. Besides, if distributed, they can be found by many who have not noticed these references. - Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc. 1889. 1. p. 192. d s ? This department is edited by Prom Charles E. Bessey, Lincoln, Neb. 264 The American Naturalist. (April, A strong objection, however, to cutting up exsiccati is found in cases where species are described in them, and the exact dates of the descriptions are wanted. These dates are gener- ally given on the covers of the fasciculi, and are, of course, lost if the set is cut up and the specimens distributed. This. can be partially remedied by pone these covers, as the number of each specimen will indicate to which one it be- longs ; and this one objection is certainly overcome by the manifest advantages of wider usefulness, greater convenience of reference, and saving of time otherwise spent in determin- ing synonomy.—ARoscoe Pound. ANEMONE CYLINDRICA Ge WITH INVOLUCELS.—Last year, in Be J over some Nebraska plants from Lincoln, peculiar feature to be of quite common occurrence. e leaves of the involucels are similar to those of the involucre. Authors, in Spee teeming this species, describe the pedun- cles as naked; it is remarkable, then, that this peculiarity should occur so comm nly. It may be a hybrid with A. dichotoma L., which is prove with an involucel, and occurs here commonly. —H. y. Webber POLYGONUM INCARNATUM ELL. WITH FOUR-PARTED PERIANTH.—A form of Polygonum incarnatum Ell. is found commonly in the vicinity of Lincoln, Neb., having the peri- anth four-parted instead of five- -parted as always described. On most heads, however, a few flowers may be found having the normal five sepals. P. incarnatum belongs to the section Persicaria Tourn., characterized as having a five-parted peri- anth. P. virginianum L., belonging to the section Tovaria same vicinity. It i ig Pire only other four-sepaled species occur- ring.—H. Y. Web INFECTION OF THE BARBERRY ; HOW PERFORMED.—Let us suppose that we wish to perform the classical infection of the barberry with Puccinia graminis. In the autumn, six young barberries, small enough to be covered with a bell- glass, having been planted, as soon as their leaves are fully developed in the E they may be infected in the follow- ing manner: A quantity of Puccinia graminis having also been provided in the i and kept during the winter in 1889. ] Botany. 265 ply the germinating spores with acamel-hair pencil. As the promycelial spores easily become diffused in the water in the Ww LI * course of eight or ten days the yellow spots, on which the spermogonia are produced will appear, and in two or three weeks the perfect zcidiospores will be developed. It will then be seen that only those barberries to which the spores were applied have the zcidiospores on them, while the alter- nate plants remain free. If an attempt be made to infect a plant in the daytime, when the sun's rays are full upon it, it will be found that the water all runs off the leaves ; but operating in the evening, in the manner directed, the leaves are bedewed with a thin layer of moisture, and no difficulty will be found in applying the spore-charged water.—C. B. Plowright, in Monograph of Uredinee and Ustilaginee. A TRUE FIELD MANUAL OF BOTANY.—The publishers announce that they will bring out an edition of the new revi- sion of ** Gray's Manual,” with narrow margins, and with limp cover binding, for field use. As this will bring the book Bundles of straw containing teleutospores are to be collected in the autumn, and kept out of doors during the winter, so that they may be subjected to the same vicissitudes of temperature and moisture as would happen to them in a state of nature, ; 266 The American Naturalist. [April, down toa pocket size, every teacher ought to insist upon this edition for use in his botanizing classes. It is understood that the revision will include the plants of the prairies, and of the great plains up to the eastern limits of the region cov- ered by * Coulter's Manual,” z. e., about the rooth meridian. —C harles E. Bessey. DISTRIBUTION OF KANSAS FUNGI.—Dr. W. A. Kellerman and Mr. W. T. Swingle, well known mycological students of Manhattan, Kansas, have undertaken to make a distribution of Kansas fungi. The first fascicle consists of twenty-five spe- cies very neatly put up, with printed labels. The species represented are the following: Aecidium aesculi E. & K. Aecidium dicentrae Trelease. Ceratophorum uncinatum (Clinton) Sacc. Cercospora cucurbi- tae E, & E. Cercospora desmanthi E. &. K. Cercospora later- itia El. & Halsted. Cercospora seminalis E. & E. Gloeosport- um apocryptum E. & E. Gloeosporium decipiens E. & E. Melasmia gleditschiae E. & E. Microsphaera quercina (Schw.) Burrill. Peronospora arthuri Farlow. Peronospora corydalis DeBary. Phragmidium speciosum Fr. Puccinia emaculata Schw. Puccinia schedonnardi Kell. & Sw. Puccinia (Lepto- puccinia xanthii) Schw. Ramularia virgaureae Thuem. Roes- telia pyrata (Schw.) Thaxter. Scolecotrichum maculicola E. & . Septoria argophylla E. & K. Septoria speculariae B. &. C. Sphaerotheca phytoptophila Kell & Sw. Uredo quercus Brondeau. Ustilago zeae mays (DC.) Winter. ZOOLOGY. THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS OF ANNELIDS AND VERTE- BRATES.—Mr. John Beard analyzes in a recent number of Nature the Annelidan features found in the development of the Vertebrate nervous system, and adds some points of his own. He claims that the spinal ganglia arise not from the neural ridges but from the adjacent ectoderm, and in such a manner as to justify their comparison with the parapodial gan- glia described by Kleinenberg in Lepadorhynchus. Again, the two halves of the neural plate are separated at an early stage by a median groove of ciliated epithelium, and therefore the nervous system is ontogenetically paired. This ciliated groove ultimately furnishes the epithelial lining of the neural 1889. ] Zoology. 267 canal, and except the fact that in the annelids the ciliated groove is not invaginated, the resemblance is thus rendered very close, THE ORIGIN OF THE VERTEBRATE PELVIS.'— Professor Weidersheim presents the following hypothesis of the origin of the Vertebrate pelvis. The inscriptiones tendinee of the ventral myocommata which are immediately below the pos- terior limbs, develop cartilage, and unite on the middle line, forming the simple median pubis of the Lepidosirenida and of the Urodele Batrachia. In the Ceratodontidz this pubis has a short lateral process which is directed upwards and back- wards. In Lepidosirenidz this process is much more elongate, and is derived from a metamorphosis of the tissue of the my- ocomma. At its distal (superior) end it passes into fibrous connective tissue. This is the cartilaginous beginning of the ilium, which in most Batrachia and in higher Vertebrata reaches the vertebral column. A Boy WITH A TarL.—The Naturaliste gives a figure (from a photograph) and a description of a boy who lives near Saigon, who has a tail about eight inches long. It originates at the usual point, but contains no vertebra. The extremity is bent outwards, like the horizontal part of a crank. The boy has also a mammiform enlargement on each buttock. He is about twelve years of age. ZOOLOGICAL NEWS.—ECHINODERMS.—L. Cuénot (Arch. Zool. Exp. et Gen., 1888) details the anatomy of several brittle stars. While many of his statements do not wel admit of abstract, it may be noticed that he finds, not hæ- moglobin as has been reported, but a colored ferment, which converts peptones into albuminoids. Ludwig (Zeitsch. wiss. Zool., xlvii, 1888) describes Ophiop- teron elegans, a brittle star which apparently has the power of swimming ; while in the same number Brock has a revision. of the Ophiurids of the Indian Archipelago. WOoRMs.—Vóltzkow (Semper's Aréreten viii.), investigates Aspidogaster conchicola, which is familiar as a type of the trematodes in Huxley's “ Invertebrata." The egg undergoes total segmentation and is enclosed by a cellular membrane, asin'other Trematoda. The penis, vulva, receptaculum vitelli, ! Bericht. d. Natu-forsch. Gess. Freiburg, i. e., Bd. IV., Heft. 3. ? No, 48, March, 1889. 268 The American Naturalist. | April, etc. are ectodermic, but the internal generative organs are of mesodermic origin. The young forms pass into the stom- ach of the mussel, from which it works its way into the peri- cardium and kidneys of the host. The details of the adult structure are given. At the meeting of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, Nov. 28, 1888, Mr. J. J. Fletcher described twenty new spe- cies of Australian earthworms, twelve belonging to the genus Cryptodrilus. MOLLUSCA.—The land-shell, Sudulina octona Chem., hith- erto regarded as peculiar to the West Indies, has been found in a coffee plantation in New Caledonia. Its introduction is as yet unexplained. ENTOMOLOGY. AN ÍNsECT TRAP TO BE USED WITH THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. —Some experience in collecting insects at the electric lights last summer led me to the conclusion that a simple piece of apparatus, which could take the collector's place, when he was forced to go home to steal a few hours for sleep, would be a boon to the insect-hunter. Having once gained the idea I at | once endeavored to realize it, with the following result : I obtained a three-quart tin pail, represented by a in the ac- companying drawing, about six and one-half inches long by five and a half in diameter, and had a tinner cut out of the bottom a three-inch circle. Then taking a funnel six inches and a half in diameter at its widest part my tinsmith cut off the smaller end so as to leave an opening at this end of, two and a quarter inches in diameter. This frustrum of a hollow cone, 4 in the drawing, is then soldered fast to the bottom of the pail a, the flaring end being outward and the smaller end projecting within the pail a half inch or more. A flat, hexagonal piece of tin, c, was next made to fit the funnel, 6, and, after being carefully adjusted so as to stand vertically across the center of the mouth of the funnel, was firmly soldered in this position. Two pieces, dd, of steel spring, No. 8 wire, were then fastened to opposite sides of the funnel. These wires when pressed to- gether at the top will pass into the small opening in the bottom of the globe of the U. S. Electric Light Co.'s lamp, and when released from pressure will spring back to their normal po- 1889. ] Entomology. 269 sition and the projecting ends will rest upon the inner surface of the globe, and thus furnish a means of support for the appar- atus. The lid of the pail, e, which forms the bottom of the trap, has soldered to its inner . face a cylindrical tube of two inches or a little less in length; between this tube and the rim of the lid is put first a layer of crystals of potassium cyanide and over this a half-inch layer of plaster of Paris, which should be carefully smoothed down and then moistened with sufficient water to form a hardened crust over the top a quarter of an inch or a little more in thickness. The lid will have to be supported in the mouth of the pail in some way similar to that illustrated Z by the working drawing. = Finally, a cylindrical tube, g, four and one-half inches long is made just large enough to fit snugly over the tube, f, anda hollow cone, Z, with a diameter + of three anda height of two and one-half inches is fastened to its top. Ifitis thought desirable a disk, 7, about four inches in diameter, with a collar, 7, may be made to slide up and down the tube g. The whole inside of this trap, except the lower face of the hollow cone, 4, should be painted black to allow the prey as little light as possible to aid them in making their escape ; and the cone, c, should be thickly pierced with small holes one inch from the top. It is also well to varnish both sides of the ver- tical plate, c, the inside of the funnel, 4, and the upper surface of the hollow cone, h, to make “ Facilis desensus Averni" I have substituted glass for tin in the plate, c, as this material is Probably entirely invisible to insects, they are more likely to heedlessly dash against it, while they may flutter about the bright tin. But it is much more difficult to fasten to the fun- In 270 The American Naturalist. [April, nel than tin, is easily broken, and I have not been able to see that it is, in practice, superior to tin. Although the action of the trap seems simple enough it may not be amiss to add a few words on this point. The insects that cluster about the elec- tric lights will dash against the vertical plate, c, and being un- able to obtain a foot-hold easily either upon its surface or that of the funnel, they will be likely to find their way into the in- side of the trap, where they are pretty certain to remain, be- ing prevented from escaping by the deadly fumes of the potas- sium cyanide and the cone, c, whose polished lower surface lighted up by the holes mentioned above will attract them away from the single opening, The disk, z, merely serves to keep a portion of the insects separate from the others while they are engaged in their des- perate death struggles; it may, however, be farther utilized as a support for a coarse wire screen, which is not represented in the drawing. This screen will serve a useful purpose in allow- ing beetles and other small insects to escape through it to the bottom of the trap ; in this way only can moths be preserved „in a fit state for museum specimens, The tube, g, can be raised or lowered so as to more or less completely close the opening in the bottom of the funnel and thus shut out all insects larger than a certain size. My limited experience last summer with this trap convinced me that it was of little use for collecting Lepidoptera, as they were usually ruined by the Coleoptera, which are much less easily overcome by the poison used. I have not tried the wire screen mentioned above, however, and this modification may preserve a considerable number very well. It answers the desired end very well indeed, however, for all the other orders, and it is especially useful in collecting small Hemiptera, — Diptera and Hymenoptera. have frequently found a pint or more of insects in the trap when I came to examine it in the morning after exposure for a whole night. Many of the forms will of course occur in unwelcome abun- dance, and the task of looking over the whole mass carefully is no slight one but it pays. I have in a single night taken a few more than a hundred species, and in three consecutive nights as many as a hundred and fifty species, but I have no doubt but that this record can be easily broken if some of my experiment-loving brother or sister entomologists will follow the suggestions offered in this paper.—Jerome McNeill. 1889. | Embryology. 271 EMBRYOLOGY.’ THE QUADRATE PLACENTA OF SCIURUS HUDSONIUS; OR, THE COMMON RED SQUIRREL.—In 1887, the present writer called attention to the existence of certain vestigiary placental structures developed during the early stages of the mouse, rat and field-mouse, which indicated that the discoida] placental disk of the late stages of foetal life of these forms had been de- rived from one, the placenta of which was zonary or girdle- like in form, as in the cat, dog, hyrax, elephant, etc. All of the forms of rodents mentioned, however, possess at a late stage a very distinctly discoidal placenta, the development of which seems to be associated with the so-called inversion of the germ layers, which is so marked a feature of their ontogeny, and one also which renders its processes amongst the most specialized and complex known to embryologists. The notice published in September, 1887, as to the persistence of a girdle- like vestige of the decidua continuous with opposite sides of the placental disk, afforded only tentative evidence of the derivation of the discoidal placental from thezonary form. Re- cently some remarkably conclusive evidence, favoring such a view, has fallen under my observation in fcetuses of the com- mon red squirrel. Mr. J. P. Moore, one of the pupils in the biological laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania, during the latter part of March, brought in a gravid female red squirrel in which two foetuses were found, zz utero, which are the basis of the following account. ese foetuses measured 16 mm. in length from the vertex of the head to the end of the body. The two cerebral vesicels had just appeared as a pair of smooth saccular diverticula from the sides of the anterior end of the neural tube. "The spinal cord filled out the vertebral canalentirely, and the two enlarge- ments, brachial and lumbar, were distinctly visible through the integument of the dorsal median line. The limbs were so far developed as to show the digits distinctly differentiated. The Stage, in fact, represents one which is very nearly equivalent to that of the human embryo at three months. _ The peculiarity of the most importance in the present case, in relation to the question of the origin of the discoidal pla- centa in other forms, is the unusual shape presented by that organ, which is quadrate in Sciurus hudsonius. Both foetuses ' This department is edited by Professor JoHN A. RYDER, University of Pennsyl- vania, Philadelphia. 272 The American Naturalist. [April, were found in one horn. They formed ovoidal swellings of the uterine cornu separated from each other by a slight interval. They were nearly an inch long and not quite three-fourths of an inch in diameter. Upon carefully inserting the point of a scissors through the uterine wall ventrally, and opening it so as to expose the embryo in its membranes, it was found that the latter were not adherent to the mucosa, except over à small quadrate area on the mesometric side. After the pla- centa was forcibly detached with part of its decidua, the scar left on the uterine wall measured 9 mm. in length over its short diameter which coincides with the direction of the passage in the cornu. Its diameter the other way or transversely to the uterine cornu was 12 mm. The edges of the scar forming its short diameter were slightly elevated so as to form a pair of slight folds projecting above the non-placental area above and © below the embryo. These folds represent a very rudimentary decidua reflexa, traces of which are also present in forms with a zonary placentation. The edges of the scar forming the margins of its long diameter pass gradually into the mucous membrane of the uterine walls, and there is no such well- marked fold representing a reflexa as appears on the other sides. The peculiar quadrate form of the placenta was equally manifest in its foetal part, or that to which the umbilical cord and membranes are attached. The area of the placenta in millimetres is, in round numbers, 9x12 — 108 sq. mm. Over all the remaining portions the foetal membranes were not at- tached to the uterine mucosa. There wasa strongly developed decidua vera over the placental area. If we now compare this peculiar quadrate placenta with the ordinary zonary type the homologies of its parts will become clear, anda think it affords demonstrative evidence of the direct derivation of this quadrate form from one which was zonary. If, for example, we select the zonary type, as seen in the cat of the third or fourth week of intra-uterine life, and mark off a quadrate portion of the placental girdle which will be as 9 is to 12,9 being the width of the girdle and 12 the proportional length of a segment of it measured along its curve, we shall have a placenta which is the morphological equivalent of that seen in the red squirrel, i In the rabbit's uterus of the eighth day of gestation there is a proliferation or thickening of the dorsal or mesometric side of the uterine wall, which betrays distinct traces ofa squarish figure. As this represents the site of the future placenta in the rabbit it is plain that the squirrel has retained in a far more 1889. ] Embryology. 273 pronounced manner traces of the primitive girdle-like placenta. t seems, in fact, as if that portion of the placental girdle directed away from the blood supply had been suppressed, leaving, as in the case of the red squirrel, only a segment of the original zonary placenta on the mesometric side. This diversity in the form of the placenta, even in types where the uterus is divided into a pair of tubular cornua, is associated with the mode of vascular supply of the uterine walls, In the cat, mouse and rabbit there is present a rich plexus of vessels all round the uterine tube interposed between the outer and inner muscular coats. The mouse has very few uterine glands, the rabbit and cat on the other hand have them very numerously imbedded in the wall of the mucosa. The area where active proliferation of the uterine wall goes on to- gether with hypertrophy of the uterine gland differs greatly in form in different types. In the mouse the hypertrophy is at first mainly confined to the connective tissues of the uterus; in the rabbit, cat and squirrel it is at first mainly associated with changes in the size, form and thickness of the walls of the tubu- lar glands. All of these phenomena in turn are associated with the manner in which the blood supply for the maternal placenta is distributed. If the blood-vascular supply is devel- oped mainly onthe mesometric side, there appears to be a ten- dency to develop a discoidal placenta from the dorsal segment of the uterine mucosa which is in contact with the embryo and its membranes. If the blood-vascular supply of the uterine walls persists around the whole circumference of the tubular horn of the uterus there will be a tendency to develop a gir- dle-like placenta, as in the cat. If the muscular supply of the uterus opposite the mesometric side is, on the other hand, Suppressed to any great degree, the continuation of the pla- centa fails to be formed on that side, and the quadrate seg- ment of the girdle leading finally to the discoidal form is de- veloped, As I have shown in a former note, that the mode of contact of the tubular uterine wall with the spherical ovum had something to do with the evolution of a zonary type of placen- tation, it may be well to indicate in this connection that there is also a physiological factor to be considered in the blood sup- ply of the uterus during gestation and the way in which such supply is modified. The factors at work in the differentiation of the placenta in the mammalia may be said to be mechano- physiological in character. The method of the establishment of formal relations between the surfaces of the embryo and parent during fcetal development are purely mechanical These 274 The American Naturalist. [April primary conditioning factors are further modified by changes in the physiological processes incident to gestation. While these points just insisted upon must be borne in mind in work- ing outa final interpretation of the method of evolution of the various forms of the placenta, the quadrate placenta of the red squirrel appears to be of great significance, as bridging the gap between the discoidal and zonary forms; it plainly shows how the passage from the one to the other was effected. This is all the more interesting from the circumstance that both square and round forms are met with in one and the same order, but in different suborders. Recently my views as to the origin of the amnion and pla- centa have been criticized by Minot in the Journal of Morphol- ogy, ii., pp. 432-434. In reply, it may be said that my theory of the amnion has little in common with that of Van Beneden and Julin, which is the reason I did not cite them. My theory of the origin of the amnion, despite my critic, remains the only one which is tenable. In the same way, my theory of the gen- esis of the girdle-like placenta is equally safe from annihilation at the hands of morphologists. As I entertain a great respect for a vast mass of data which might be cited in proof of my position, I should be doing less than my duty not to insist upon standing by the latter.—4J. A. Ryder. PHYSIOLOGY. EFFECTS OF STIMULATING NERVE CELLS.—The fact that activity of a gland cell produces in the cell protoplasm changes, which may be recognized by the microscope, has long been known. Not only is the morphological appearance altered, but also the behavior of the cell toward staining reagents. The highly interesting fact that analogous changes accompany the activity of nerve-cells has been discovered by Donaldson and Hodge’ in the case of the cells of the poste- rior root ganglia. Korybutt-Daszkiewicz? of the Warschau Pathological Laboratory endeavors to advance the subject one step further by showing that the activity of the cells of t This department is edited by Dr. Frederic S. Lee, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn ada Eee - The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. i, p. 479, 1888. * Archiv f. mik. Anatomie, Vol. xxxiii, p. 51, 1889. i 1889. ] Physiology. 275 the spinal cord affects the staining qualities of the cells. In the frog the sciatic plexuses are laid bare, the nerves are cut, and the central end of the eighth nerve is stimulated at regu- lar intervals for one hour, each stimulation of three minutes being followed by a rest of two minutes. The spinal cord is then removed, hardened, sectioned, and double-stained with hematoxylin and safranin. For a control experiment the spinal cord of another frog is, in each case, prepared in ex- actly the same manner, with the exception of the nerve stimulation. An active and a resting cord are thus obtained for comparison. The nuclei of the cells of the grey matter are colored—some red and some blue-violet. Enumerations give in the control (resting) cord to t red, 8.97 blue nuclei ; in the stimulated cord to 1 red, 2.71 blue; in the active corc the relative number of red is 3.31 times greater than in the resting one ; in parts of the cord lying immediately adjacent to the entrance of the stimulated nerve, the red nuclei are relatively even more abundant. The chemical condition of the nuclei is evidently altered so as to make them more sus- ceptible to the safranin than to the hematoxylin. [It is to be regretted that the author apparently enumerates all the cells] even those of the supporting tissue, with the nerve cells. GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN THE LuNGS.—Professor Bohr, of ! Centralblatt f. Physiologie, 1887, p. 293, and 1888, p. 437. 276 The American Naturalist. [April, is inexplicable on the hypothesis of diffusion. The author as- cribes to the lung tissue a distinct secretory power for both O and — a quality which is possessed by the swim-bladder of fishes Dr. H. P. BowpiTcu’s ‘ Hints for Teachers of Physiol- ogy"' is an admirable little book, intended for the use of teachers in grammar schools and upward. It contains nu- merous suggestions of methods by which text-book instruc- tion may be supplemented by ‘‘simple observations and ex- periments on living bodies or on organic material, thus im- parting to pupils a knowledge of the foundation on which physiology rests, and, at the same time, bringing the impress- ions made on the senses to aid the memory in retaining the facts communicated in a purely didactic way.” Digestion, circulation, motion, voice, animal heat, respiration, vision, and hearing are treated, ut by no means ‘exhaustively, for the author does not attempt a complete treatise on physiology. The hints are so excellent that it is a pity that the work is not more full. PSYCHOLOGY. MINOT’S REPORT ON DIAGRAM TESTS.—During the past year a large number of postal cards were distributed, each bearing the printed request: '' Please draw ten diagrams on this card, without receiving any suggestion from any other person, and add your name and address The committee has received for examination sor postal cards, with diagrams upon them.. A few of the cards had more than ten diagrams upon them, and of such cards only the first ten diagrams on us were counted. A few cards had less than ten diagram The cards were c divided into three sets; I, men ; 2, wom- en; 3, without names. Each set of cards was numbered, and and separation. The similarity is so great that the same vis- ual i asd arise in many of us with approximately the same readine Wec bii here to a domain of psychology which has been but little and inadequately studied, namely, the frequency 889, ** Guides for Science Teaching,” No. 14, pp. 58, Boston, D. C. Heath & Co., 1 1889. | Microscopy. 297 and the readiness with which ideas recur. Ina previous re- port in the Proceedings (anze, pp. 86) I have shown that even in so indifferent a matter as the ten digits, there are uncon- scious preferences of the mind, or, in other words, that the notions or images of certain digits come forward oftener and more readily than of others ; and I have also shown ante, pp. 90-91, that the order of relative frequency is similar for differ- ent persons. It is probable that all ideas possess each its special degree of readiness of appearing in consciousness, and that the degree of readiness is approximately the same for a great many persons. This similarity probably also prevails in regard to the majority of ideas. This aspect of our mental processes puts the problem of thought-transference in a somewhat different light from that in which we have been asked to view it. It is evident that if two people are requested to think of some one thing as a class, such as a letter of the alphabet, a playing card, a baptismal name, there is by no means an equal chance of their selecting any one ; on the contrary, there is not only the probability that they will think of a special one first, but there is a chance of their both thinking of the same one, for the relative fre- quency or preponderance of one idea orimage out of a set has been shown to be similar for a number of people. In order to prove the reality of thought-transference, it must be demon- strated that the observed coincidence of thoughts can zo£ be explained by the law of relative frequency.—rom Proceed- ings of the Society of Psychical Research. MICROSCOPY.’ On these upright pieces as supports are placed three others, ! Edited by C. O. Whitman, Director of the Lake Laboratory, Milwaukee. * E. Maupas. La Multiplication des Infusoires ciliés. Arch, de Zool. Exper. et Gen. xvi., no. 2, 1888, p. 179. 278 The American Naturalist. [April, slides bearing the infusoria. The whole is covered by a glass plate, fitted as hermetically as possible to the edge of the dish. The dish being filled with rain water up to the hori- zontal strips, the air space is reduced to a layer of 4 or 5 mm. in thickness. This layer of air is always saturated with moist- ure, and the preparations suffer only an extremely feeble evaporation. For sorting and transporting infusoria, glass pipettes, about 10 cm. long, are used. The tapering end should be thin, and its opening not over I mm. in diameter. The infusoria are first placed ez masse in a large drop of water upon a slide, and examined with a low magnifying power. The inside of the pipette is wet by filling it once with water. An infusorian aving been selected under the microscope, the mouth of the pipette is placed near that side of the drop of water where the infusorian is found. As soon as the pipette touches the drop, a portion of it is drawn in by capillary attraction, carrying with it the specimen sought, together with, perhaps, others not wanted. The contents of the pipette are expelled upon a second slide. If the drop contain several infusoria, a drop of rain water is added, and the manceuvre with the pipette repeated. In this way the isolation of an infusorian may be surely and rapidly accomplished. After each operation with the pipette, it should be washed with care, by forcing fresh water through it several times. Someinfusoria have a strong adhesive power, and it often happens that they are left ad- hering to the internal surface of the tube; hence the impor- tance of washing after each experiment. The isolated individual is covered with an ordinary cover- slip, preferably one 18 mm. square. The cover-slip may be supported by small pieces of bristles from a tooth-brush. As these pieces have a mean thickness of about .3 mm., it follows that the space inclosed represents a volume of about 100 cu. mm., and will hold ro cg. of water,or about 5 drops. The entire space should be filled with water. It is very important in such work to use pipettes, slides, and slips that are perfect- ly clean. The least trace of a reagent left on the cover-slip may be enough to render the whole preparation valueless. Infusoria thus inclosed and protected may live indefinately under perfectly healthful conditions. Supplied with proper food, they will develop and multiply with all the energy of their highest power of reproduction. : Supply of food. In order to supply carnivorous species easily with food, it is necessary to find among the more com- 1889. } Microscopy. 279 mon infusoria a species of small size, that can be readily cul- tivated. Cryptochilum nigricans answers perfectly these conditions. It is herbivorous, and occurs everywhere in abundance. In not to introduce other species at the same time. The vessel containing the infusion should always be covered with a close- ly-fitted plate of glass. The Cryptochila, finding abundance of food in the Schizomycetes, thrive and multiply by myriads. hen the culture begins to decline—as it always will in reg- ular course—it can be revived two or three times by adding crumbs of bread in small quantity. Too much bread causes acid fermentation which destroys the infusoria. Instead of hay, pepper might be employed for these infusions, but it would be necessary to determine by experiment the quantity that could be safely mixed with a given volume of water. oo large quantities have been found to give infusions that checked the development of the infusoria. Having thus obtained a well stocked infusion, the mode of serving the Cryptochila to the carnivorous species isolated in the manner above described, is as follows :—Place a drop of the infusion on a slide, and cover it with a cover-slip. It will then be seen that the Cryptochila collect round the edge of the cover, and in this position they are easily drawn into a pipette, and then delivered over to the carnivorous species. This mode of feeding enables one to make sure that , no foreign species is introduced into the culture. Other spe- cies would undoubtedly serve the purpose of food as well as Cryptochilum, for example, Colpidium colpoda. 280 The American Naturalist. [ April, PROCEEDINGS. OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. UNITED STATES NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.— The annual stated session of the National Academy of Sciences was held in Washington, D. C., beginning Tuesday, April 16, 1889, at t1 A. M. é | The following officers were elected to serve for six years: President, O. C. Marsh; Vice-President, S. P. Langley ; Home Secretary, Asaph Hall. Six members of the council of the academy were also chosen, those elected being Gen. F. A. Walker, Boston Mass., for- merly Commissioner of the Census Bureau; Gen. M. C. Meigs and Prof. Simon Newcomb, of Washington; Prof. Ira Rem- sen, of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. ; Prof. G. J. Brush, New Haven, Conn., and Dr. B. A. Gould, Cambridge, Mass. New members of the academy were elected as follows: Prof. Sereno Watson, botanist, Cambridge, Mass.; Prof. Lewis Boss, director Dudley Observatory, Albany, N. Y.; Prof C. S. Hastings, physics, Sheffield Scientific School, New Haven, Conn.; Prof Arthur Michael, chemist, College Hill, Mass., Dr. C. A. White, United States Geological Survey. i The following papers were read: On Composite Coronagraphy,’ D. P. Todd, introduced by S. Newcomb; Notice onthe Method and Results of a System- atic Study of the Action of Definitely Related Chemical Com- pounds upon Animals,’ Wolcott Gibbs and Hobart Hare; On Sensations of Color,’ C. S. Pierce; Determinations of Gravity, C. S. Pierce; On the Pliocene Vertebrate Fauna of Western North America,’ E. D. Cope; On the North American Prob- oscidia,? E. D. Cope; On the Mass of Saturn,’ A. Hall, Jr., introduced by G. J. Brush ; On the Rate of Reduction of Nitro- ' compounds,' Ira Remsen; On Some Connection Between Taste and Chemical Composition,’ Ira Remsen; Recent Researches in Atmospheric Electricity, T. C. Mendenhall; Measurement by Light Waves,’ A, A. Michelson; On the Feasibility of the Establishment of a Light-wave as the Ultimate Standard of Length,’ A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley; On the Gener- al Laws pertaining to Stellar Variation,’ S. C. Chandler; Re- view of the Trivial Names in Piazzi's Star Catalogue,' C. H. 1. Read April 16. * Read April 17. 3 Read April 18. * Read April 19. 1889. ] Proceedings of Scientific Soctettes. 281 F. Peters; On Cretaceous Flora of North America, J. S. Newberry; Spectrum Photography in the Ultra- Violet,’ Romyn Hitchcock, introduced by A. Hall; The Plane of Demarcation between the Cambrian and Precambrian Rocks,' C. D. Wal cott, introduced by R. Pumpelly; Report of the American Eclipse Expedition to Japan, 1887,' D. P. Todd, presented by S. Newcomb. BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY, Jan. 2, 1889.— Rev. John J. Gulick of Japan read a paper on “Lessons in the Theory of Divergent Evolution, Drawn from the Distribu- tion of the Land Shells of the Sandwich Islands." Dr. Gulick illustrated his talk with specimens of shells from the island of Oahu, and drew several conclusions therefrom. He showed varieties to be but incipient species, and species but special varieties, and stated that divergent evolution does not neces- sarily depend upon environment. He Also stated that areas of distribution vary directly as the power of migration, and in closely allied groups the degree of divergence is measured by the geographical separation. At the close of this paper, Dr. Gulick's ideas were discussed by the members of the society, Professor Hyatt speaking at some length. Dr. D. F. Lincoln then described the “ Surface Geology of the Middlesex Fells,” illustrating his talk with map drawings and specimens of rocks from the region, after which Mr. J. Walter Fewkes spoke shortly of the significance of the so-called “ Fossil Palms " and similar rock formations of the Bermuda Islands. Feb. 21, 1889.—Last November, in connection with work on the Bos- ton, Revere Beach & Lynn railroad, some Indian graves were discovered near Winthrop Centre, and Prof. F. W. Putnam gave the results of his discoveries in the place. He showed lantern views of seven skeletons which were unearthed, together With pictures of weapons, pottery, and shell beads found in the graves. All of the skeletons were found within a small area, and all of them buried in the same positions, their faces toward the east. In all the graves many shells were present. r. H. G. Woodward gave a general description of the geology of Brighton, and the surrounding vicinity, and showed specimens of rocks illustrating the geological peculiarities of the place, * Read April r9. 282 The American Naturalist. April, SCIENTIFIC NEWS. From 1885 to 1888 the regretted Professor Cienkowsky prac- tised (in Russia) 20,310 vaccinations against charben in sheep. The average loss was 0.87 per 100. Ina flock of 11,000 sheep, the ordinary mortality among which was 8.5 to 10:6, the mor- tality after inoculation fell to 0.13 per 100. In another case, thirteen months after the preventive inoculation, 18 sheep out of 20 resisted the action of virulent charbon. At the international exhibition of geographical, commercial, and industrial botany, which will be held at Antwerp, in 1890, the third centenary of the invention of the microscope will be celebrated. The exposition will illustrate the past history of the microscope and its present state by means of microscopes and microscopical appurtenances of past and present times, as well as by photo-electrical microscopical exhibitions showing structure, and adulterations of food, etc., etc. These exhibi- tions will continue during the entire period of the Exposition. The next meeting of the British Association for the Ad- vancement of the Sciences will be held at Newcastle, (England), from September 11th to 18th. A Congress of Zoólogists will be held in Paris during the Exposition, in the month of August. Among the patrons as announced, appear the names of men of all nations. On the shores of Lake Issik- Kul in Central Asia a monu- ment is to be erected to the explorer Prjevalsky, after a design by Bilderling, his comrade. According to the /nvalide Russe “the monument represents a picturesque rock 28 feet high, on the top of which is perched a large eagle, emblem of strength, intrepidity, and intelligence. The eagle grasps in its talons a map of Central Asia, the arena of the scientific exploits of the deceased, and in its beak an olive branch, symbol of the peace- ful scientific conquests which Russia owes to Prjevalsky. On one side of the rock is a large bronze cross, between which is the inscription, * Nicholas Mikhailovitch Prjevalsky, born 29th of March, 1839, died 20th of October, 1888.' In the interior of the rock is cut a spiral staircase crowned with an enlarged copy of the medal struck by the Academy of Sciences in 1887 in honor of Prjevalsky, and showing the original inscription : ‘To the first explorer of Nature in Central Asia.’” AMERICAN NATURALIST. Vor. XXIII. MAY, 1889. 269. ARBOREAL TADPOLES. BY W. J. HOLLAND. ' Em the 20th of July, while engaged at Nikko in collecting entomological specimens, I entered a small field enclosed by a low stone wall near the banks of the Daiya-gawa in the lower part of Iri-machi, not far from the famous red bridge. The field had evidently once been used for growing tea, but had lain neglected for several years, and was partly overgrown by weeds and tangled bushes, among which were a good many willows some of them already twenty or more feet in height. While beating this growth for beetles I observed, pendant from the branches of a thrifty clump of willows, several objects Which at first reminded me of hornets' nests save that they were of a light reddish color. They hung over a pool of stag- nant water about twenty feet in diameter situated upon what l took to have formerly been the site of a house. A nearer inspection of these objects convinced me that they were not infested by aculeate insects and that in attempting to get at them I would not run any painful risk save that of being mired in the stagnant pool. I observed that one of the objects seemed to be in an apparently decomposing condition, saturated with moisture, and dropping to pieces. Long filaments of slimy froth-like matter were hanging from it, and clinging in Streamers from the twigs of the trees just below. I also ob- à "Naturalist of the U. S, Eclipse Expedition to Japan, 1887. Extract from the “port of the Expedition made by Prof. D. P. Todd and presented by Prof. Simon Newcomb, at the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, April 19, 1889. 384 The American Naturalist. [May, served a great many black ants traveling out upon the willow twigs, and a few of them apparently entangled upon the sur- face of the mass which was falling to pieces. With some diffi- culty and with the help of a coolie, I succeeded in drawing the most perfect of these objects within reach, and by cutting the willow branches getting it entire to the ground. I was quite confident that it was of insect origin and my curiosity to ascertain its nature and structure was great. I asked the coolie what it was. His reply was the usual “ Wak- arimasen," Anglice “don’t know." The outer surface was dry and had the appearance of very thin brown wafer. At the places where the willow twigs passed in and out of the mass there were projecting points and at the apices of these in several instances there was an exudation of glairy mat- ter, which had the.appearance of very fine soap suds. All over the exterior were the bodies and wings of small insects which had evidently been entrapped in the mass when it had been soft. A few ants and flies were struggling in the bubbly, vesicular scum, which was freshest near one or two of the branches at their insertion into the mass, as I have described. Taking my pocket knife I opened the curious structure and found its interior to be composed of a mass of tough, glairy, froth, resembling the white of an egg that has been well beaten, but of a dirty, yellowish brown color. What, however, was my amazement to find scattered through it, and wriggling about hither and thither, a colony of tadpoles, of which I counted twenty-two. They were black in color with white bellies, exceedingly lively, and apparently, very much at home. Here and there in the mass were the remains of insects, principally legs and wings and the chitinous outer coverings of the abdom- inal and thoracic segments of black ants. Having no means of preserving the tadpoles with me, as I had hastily gone to Nikko with Professor Todd, leaving my alcohol behind me at Tokio, I resolved to let the best of the remaining two nests remain until the morning of the 22d, when I resolved to secure it, and if possible take it with me to Tokio. I however took down the largest of the two remain- 1889. ] Arboreal Tadpoles. 385 ing nests, which was already beginning to drop to pieces. In this were also a few tadpoles. A diligent search of the pool failed to reveal any tadpoles in its shallow, miry depths. The next day I revisited the spot. The nest I had designated for myself still remained undisturbed upon the branches, but was drenched with the passing showers. It rains at Nikko in July every day beginning about noon. I madea rough sketch of the object. The following day I repaired to the spot to get the nest, and also armed with a large jar kindly provided by Dr. Whitney, into which to put the tadpoles, and scum should it come to pieces. Unfortunately during the night the elements had made partial wreck of the coveted prize. It was broken in places and hanging down in wet streamers. I took a number of these with the enclosed tad- poles and put them into the jar. But soon they dried up. All that I had left to me was a mass of partly desiccated scum, with some dead tadpoles in it. I allowing this to dry out hard and in this state brought it home to America. Upon examination I find that the tadpoles have been pre- served in the mass in a highly desiccated condition. When alive they were about three quarters of an inch in length. In their dried form they are, it is needless to say, much smaller. By immersing in a mixture of glycerine and water, I have suc- ceeded in partially restoring the form to one or two of them. These with the bulk of the dried froth I have sent to Prof. Edw. D. Cope, of Philadelphia, who assures me that the phenomenon I have observed is one of much novelty.’ Chiromantis guineénsis is said to deposit its eggs upon the branches of trees on the margin of streams in Western Trop- ical Africa, surrounding them by a frothy, viscous mass of ‘Since writing the above I have received a letter from Professor Cope, from which I make the following extract : “The larvee are different from those of terrestrial Batrachia in possessing a scriben in the Genus Alytes. Large yolks are reported in certain tree-frogs, and a few others, and it becomes interesting to know the type of frog which has laid these arboreal eggs. Professor J. A. Ryder to whom I submitted the dried eggs, Says that the intercellular corpuscles have the truncate form usual in Batrachia.” 386 The American Naturalist. | May, matter, which is dissolved by the moisture in the rainy sea- son when they become detached and drop into the water where they are hatched. A similar phenomenon has been observed in the case of one of the Hylida which has its hab- itat in Southern Brazil; but in neither case has it been ob- served that the eggs hatch while attached to the trees. In the case of the Japanese Batrachian it is plain that the hatch- ing takes place upon the trees and the larva possibly under- goes some of its transformations in the nidus suspended among the branches. Whether the glairy mass is due to the swell- ing, under the action of the semi-tropical rains, of material deposited by the female at the time of oviposition I cannot tell As against this view is the fact that the dried scum after prolonged soaking in water fails to regain its old vesicu- lar, bubbly form. It may be that the froth is secreted by the bodies of the tadpoles themselves, or that both the tadpoles and the parent batrachian are concerned in its production The large quantity of the mass favors the latter view. The nests were fully a foot in diameter. The presence of dead in- sects in large numbers in the midst of the masses as well as adhering to its outside suggests that the tadpoles feed upon these. I looked diligently for the adult batrachian in the vicinity, but failed to discover any frogs in the trees near by or in the pool Later in the season the trees and bushes are fully alive in places with Hylide. I trust some observer with better opportunities than I nad in my brief and hurried visit to Nikko will solve the mysteries of the life history of these arboreal tadpoles. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII. Fig. 1. Section of nest one-third natural size, representing internal structure and position of tadpoles in the mass. ig. 2. Sketch presenting a view of the position of the tadpoles amidst the vesicles. (Enlarged.) 1889. ] Across the Santa Barbara Channel. 387 ACROSS THE SANTA BARBARA CHANNEL. BY J. WALTER FEWKES. (Concluded from the April Number.) N our return to the “ Angel Dolly" we found that our cook had prepared a most delicious dinner on shore. We had roast leg of mutton, cooked on a spit, abalones fried and stewed, and coffee. The abalones we collected everywhere on the shore. The animal was cut out of its shell, pounded until tender in an Indian mortar, and then fried in batter. The taste of these animals, after our row in the open air, was fine, but it is doubtful whether we would have eaten the abalones with the same zest under any other circumstances. We ate our dinner underan overhanging roof of rock in a partially formed cave, the floor of which was the shingle of the beach of the cañon. I was reminded of the times when wild men did the same, prob- ably in the same cave, as the abundant shell heaps and inscrip- tions show that they undoubtedly did. On the roof of the cave there was noticed a curious product of the erosion of the rock, such as I have never seen before. In the mass of conglom- erate there is a pocket of grayish rock projecting from the sur- face and worn into cells, the edges of which stand out in sharp relief. These cells, not unlike honeycomb in form, are rounded, smooth, and several inches in diameter. The edges of the cells are sharp and snfooth. The mode of formation of this curious pocket is not clear to me. It is a mass of rock several feet in width, and was formed on the roof of the overhanging conglomerate under which we ate our dinner. In the afternoon we tried collecting on the black reef, which: partially breaks the sea from Star Cañon on the east. I found the sea very high on the reef, but on the lee side a few good things were found. We noticed that the rocks on the seaward Side were covered with mussels, among which were a few sea- urchins and beautiful starfishes. The bottoms of the pools in the reef were covered with Zoophytes which, when fully €xpanded, made them look like flower beds. Among them 388 The American Naturalist. [May, were several large Anemones of the genus Bunodes, and many Serpula. Many of the Actinians were over a foot in diameter when fully expanded. The rock which composes the reef is a black asphaltic formation, similar to the embedded rock of the conglomerate on the shore. We returned to the “ Angel Dolly,” and found the cook had caught two large fishes known as Garibaldis, which with ‘‘craw- fish," Panulirus, were served for our supper on board the schooner. The mainland of Santa Barbara looked dim in the distance as I walked the deck after supper, but the sky above us was clear, and I watched the evening star, Venus, sink below the top of Monte Diablo. It was a very beautiful sight. The air was calm, and there was but aslight swell on the surface of the Channel, which had an almost glassy calm. I was, however, tired out by my experiences, had a good night’s rest prepara- tory to new exploration on the morrow. On the next morning we concluded to take the ‘‘ Angel Dolly" up to Prisoner's Harbor, several miles to the eastward of Star Cañon. I thought the best way for me to study the cliffs was to follow in a boat, letting the schooner work up under sail. This seemed more expedient, since the Harbor was exactly to the windward, and there seemed indications that the winds would be light. and perhaps it would be impos- sible to sail near the coast. The wind, however, freshened ` considerably after we started, and the** Angel Dolly " worked far ahead, standing out into the Channel. There was a heavy swell throwing high breakers on the cliffs. Wherever we landed in our trip we were obliged to beach the boat through the breakers, and we were often plunged to our waists in water in landing. Just to the east of Star Cañon, after rounding the black ledge which was my col- lecting ground the day before, we coasted along past the * Indian Cemetery," from which many Indian remains have already been gathered, and in which many more are still bur- ied. There seemed to be two separate regions of shell heaps, although the whole coast in this vicinity is white with the 1889. ] Across the Santa Barbara Channel. 389 shells and debris of the camps of bygone times. In these bur- ial grounds the individual graves were formerly indicated by the ribs or lower jawbones of whales set in the earth above them. None of these now exist, and these shell-heaps have long ago been dug into by eastern collectors. The shell-heaps were not wooded, but here and there are large patches of the - prickly pear or “ Tunis," and flocks of sheep now graze over the graves of the former lords of the island. We continued our row past the Indian Cemetery to a nat- ural archway, eroded by the sea, formed by a projecting cliff, on each side of which there is a deep cafion with precipitant cliffs on either side. The cliffs of these canons are possibly 200 feet high, and so abrupt thatthey seem almost perpendic- ular. These natural archways rival in size the famous Arco Naturale of Capri, and are among the most instructive in- stances of erosion on the Californian coast. Of two fiords separated by the cliff of conglomerate, one which we may call Southeast Cañon has a long, narrow entrance, and is stopped up at its entrance by large boulders, which prevent access to the cañon. There is, however, a small, gravelly beach at the mouth of this cañon, upon which we landed. On the right, as we entered, there is a picturesque natural archway, with an old Indian fireplace perched upon it. There are a few pines and wild flowers growing from the crevices in the cliff. A buttress which divides the two fiords from each other is composed of con- glomerate. On the right and leftare slates in stratified masses, and red colored rocks, the conglomerate above the slates. From these two caüons we made our way to Prisoner's Harbor, and after some difficulty boarded far * Angel Dolly,” which came up soon after. Without anchoring, for a considerable sea had arisen, we continued to the eastward of Prisoner's Harbor to a point op- site Chinese Harbor, and cast our anchor in smooth water near shore. The rocks at this place differ greatly fom those at Star Canon. Here we find variegated formations forming white, chalk-like cliff much eroded, and very different from the black, asphaltic rocks of the region to the west of Prisoner's Harbor. 390 The American Naturalist. [May, The hills about Chinese Harbor are white and red, and show marked terraces of elevation. At their base there is a contin- uous beach, made up of small stones and shingle. On the side of the cliff are many bushes, but no trees. The collecting on the beach gave me many mussels, abalones, and a few starfishes. The sea near the beach is turbid with sand, reminding me of the white water of the Florida Reefs. The hills about Prisoner’s Harbor were clothed with ver- dure. There isa good wharf, and near it the warehouse and a cluster of buildings belonging to the company which owns the island. The hills near the landing place are not as high as those at Star Cañon, and resemble those to the eastward. It is this formation which is mentioned in the meagre accounts which we have of the geology of the island of Santa Cruz. At Prisoner’s Harbor I collected many interesting animals, among which might be mentioned a huge Nudibranch, Chiorea, allied to Aplysia, many starfishes, sea-urchins, and molluscs. Here also I found the interesting Helix,’ said to be peculiar to the island. One of the most interesting genera of Annelids col- lected on the rocks near the half-tide mark is the well known Sabellaria. Sabellaria on the Pacific coast builds a thick mass of sandy tubes cemented together, forming on the rocks an in- crustation of great thickness. At Punta del Castillo near the end of the beach at Santa Barbara great masses of these col- onial worm tubes can be seen, forming a honeycomb structure on the rocks left by every retreating tide. Each worm tube when left out of water is closed by a circular operculum which effec- tually blocks up the entrance, forming a kind of door to pre- vent possibly the egress of water. By this simple arrange- ment the animal can live for a long time out of the water. A most interesting method of casting off the excrementa is also illustrated in this worm. The operculum is situated at the cephalic extremity of the animal, and as the masses of tubes are crowded together, the posterior extremity of the animal is * This species is rapidly being exterminated by the sheep, and in no short time will probably be extinct except in inaccessible cafions. Mr. Gulick records à like fate for certain Achatinellas peculiar to the Sandwich Islands. 1889. ] Across the Santa Barbara Channel. 391 brought to the blind ends of the tubes. There is, however, appended to this extremity a long tube, which, bending back- ward, opens near the open end of the case of sand. The vent of the animal is situated at the extremity of this tube and is thus brought to the surrounding water. Encrusting the rocks in several places we also found a moist deposit of sand of one or two inches in thickness, also closely connected with an interesting habit of another and different group of marine animals. Bunodes, a common Actinian of the southern Californian coast covers itself with a coating of sand, and when the tide falls the animal contracts its tentacles, and nothing is to be seen but this sandy deposit, concealing ` the body of the Actinian. In this way the genus lives between successive rise and fall of the sea, shielded under its coating of sand for hours, enduring great changes of temperature and the lack of the pure sea water. Colonies of these Bunodes were found many feet above the low-water mark. They also are common on the rocks of the well known headland, Punta del Castillo, and can without difficulty be observed by anyone who will visit this locality at low or half tide. The island of Santa Cruz, as pointed out by Mr. Greene, hasa peculiar flora which has many species not found on the neighboring continent, and genera which are only found in lands widely distant from it. It has also a peculiar species cf Helix. In a word, although a continental island in its fauna and flora it re- minds one of an oceanic island. Shall we interpret these facts by regarding it as a remnant of a continent or large body of land contiguous to California now submerged, or are other explana- tions to be sought? There is certainly not much to indicate an Oceanic character tothe Santa Barbara islands. Theirpeculiarity of flora can readily be explained by considering a change which has taken place in the climate of the mainland without affect- ing that of the islands, A change in the amount of moisture may have driven out the less hardy genera from the mainland, but left them still to survive on the islands. Moreover, a glacial period in California may have driven more hardy plants southward into a struggle with the less strong, in which 392 The American Naturalist. [May, the latter have succumbed. In a desiccation of the country the progress of the change would be less rapid on the island. It seems to me that there is evidence that the island of Santa Cruz has lately been elevated out of the sea. This is the story of Ragged Mountain with its cleft summit, and of the elevated terraces to the west of Chinese Harbor. The deep canons, however, show a much larger rainfall in the past when they were made than at present, and the enclosed asphaltic boulders standing out in the conglomerate are good indications of great erosion. The huge rocks blocking up the entrance to the cafions do not seem to have been brought there from the hilltops, but eroded by a mountain torrent on either side have simply dropped into the position which they now occupy. In most of these caüons the torrents which caused them have dwin- dled in size, although stilllarge in the rainy season, whilein many their beds are now dry during part of the year. If there ever was a glacial period on this island the tracks of it at present have been obliterated, or were not discovered in my superficial ex- amination. There has been great erosion, but the boulders clinging to the worn side of the rock by one angle would seem to indicate that that erosion was by water rather than ice. - As we left Santa Cruz on our return trip we sailed through multitudes of a beautiful Velella, common in the channel at certain seasons of the year. These little blue sail-boats are often thrown up on the beach at Santa Barbara, and are com- mon as far north as Monterey and San Francisco. Its north- ern limit is many miles north even of the limits of the state. A curious little physophore, Athorybia californica’ was also seen in the channel near Santa Cruz. This beautiful animal has never before been recorded from the Pacific waters of our west coast, although a similar genus has been described by the author from Key West and the Florida Keys. The largest and most attractive of the Meduse seen in my trip back wasa mammoth Pelagia with mouth tentacles four feet long, and of a beautiful pink color. A lovely Hydromedusa, An account of the anatomy of this physophore is given in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 1889. ] Across the Santa Barbora Channel. 393 polyorchis, is one of the most common jellyfishes in these waters. Perhaps the most interesting of all the Medusan denizens of the fiords of Santa Cruz is a small Hydromedusa, not larger than a small pea, which has this remarkable character. In place of clusters of tentacles about the margin of the bell it has but a single tentacle placed at the point of junction of the radi- al tube and the circular vessel. This single tentacle is a short, stiff appendage, exactly similar to one of the four tentacles of Dipurena, a genus found at Newport, Rhode Island. It is, in fact, as if we had a Dipurena with three of the tentacles miss- ing anda single one remaining. In this Californian genus, however, there is but one of these curious, club-shaped, stiff appendages. A similar genus has never been recorded; to this Species I have given the name Microcampana conica. The most Peculiar structural character is found in the number of radial vessels in this jellyfish. All similar Hydromeduse have but four, eight, or more radial tubes. There are some which have six, which however are not related to Microcampana, This genus has six radial tubes. Moreover, there exists on the apex of the bell, as in our Stomatoca, a prominent prolongation or Projection never seen in Dipurena, its nearest ally. There are many other Hydromeduse in these waters, a notice of which would prolong this account beyond its limits. A huge Sphaeronectes, with a bell a quarter of an inch in diameter, a genus never seen before on this or on the Atlantic coast of the United States, a beautiful Physophore, Diphyes, and a host of others' were found. On the return trip to Santa Barbara we sailed through a most €Xtraordinary region of the channel in which there is a sub- marine petroleum well. The surface for a considerable dis- tance is covered with oil, which oozes up from sources below the water, and its odor is very marked. The oil probably comes from the upturned asphaltic strata deep below the sea. Near the oil well we sent down our dredge and brought up à most interesting Polyzoan, an account of which I have al- * À full description of these animals with figures will soon be published by me. 394 The American Naturalist. [May, ready published in the January number of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. This animal has a jointed stem and an oval zocecium. When it first came on board I thought I had discovered a living Cystoid or Blastoid, as its shape was almost the same as that of some genera belonging to these types so familiar to the geologist, but now long extinct. In this, however, I was disappointed, although abundantly re- warded in finding a new genus of Polyozoa, Astrorhiza. The dredge also brought up great masses of a Retepora, which is called coral by the sailors in this locality, and are sometimes larger than a man's head. Innumerable other lower animals people these depths. A fair but light wind brought us back to the wharf of Santa Barbara early in the evening of the day we left Prisoner's Harbor. We heard the sound of the evening bells of the Mission Church come down the side of the mesa, and as we threw our anchor the bright electric light of the city welcomed us home. The next morning a haze covered the base of the island of the Holy Cross, out of which rose the peak of Ragged Mountain like a monster from the sea. As the day wore on the fog lifted, and the soft African haze which gives the great charm to Santa Barbara ocean scenery took its place and the form of the beautiful island came out in all its extent, its out- lines softened by the distance, and its dark canons alternating with projecting headlands indistinguishable over the stretch of water which separates it from the mainland. The same island stands out clear in the beautiful light, unchanged since Cabrillo sailed up the channel for the first time fifty years after Colum- bus discovered the New World. THE VEGETATION OF HOT SPRINGS. BY WALTER HARVEY WEED. | THE vegetation of hot waters, though lowly organized and composed of obscure forms, is of considerable interest to all students of Nature, since the plants occur in very highly heated and mineralized waters under conditions that are fatal 1889, ] The Vegetation of Hot Springs. 395 to all other forms of life. The ability possessed by the vege- tation found in such waters to withstand such extreme and adverse conditions of environment shows the possible exist- ence of this form of life during the early history of our globe, when the crust of the earth is supposed to have been cov- ered with hot and highly mineralized waters. Such plants may thus represent the earliest links in the chain of evolu- tion. While the mosses Hypnum and Sphagnum have been found in warm waters (9o?-100? Fahr.), the vegetable life of hot water consists wholly of fresh water alga. Such plants are usually less striking in appearance than the sea-weeds, but assume most curious and interesting forms when subjected to the peculiar conditions that prevail in hot springs. It has long been known that algz occur in hot waters, and the descriptions of hot springs given by travelers often con- tain allusions to the presence of bright green “ conferve ” living in the hot pools and streams. Algæ are common also in the hot waste waters flowing from many mills, the brilliant green growths lining the conduits. Where the plants present in thermal waters are of this color, their vegetable nature seems to have been readily recognized; but there is good reason to believe that the existence of algae of other colors, particularly the pink, yellow and red, forms so common in the Yellowstone waters, have been overlooked or mistaken for de- posits of purely mineral matter. That such is the case is not at all surprising, for the plants often surround themselves with a hyaline gelatinous envelope, or are encrusted and hidden by mineral matter extracted from, or deposited by, the hot Waters, and sometimes obscuring the plant growth so com- pletely that the organic nature of the substance is scarcely recognizable even by an algologist. Thus the Beggiatoe, the Characteristic vegetation of sulphur springs, were long con- sidered a lifeless organic slime. Their silky threads are often completely hidden by grains of sulphur, or entombed beneath a deposit of gypsum. The vegetable life of hot calcareous waters is very often 396 The American Naturalist. [May, shrouded in carbonate of lime, the growing tips alone project- ing out of the stony mass. In ferruginous and in siliceous waters the mineral matter of the waters obscures and hides the vegetable filaments. Unfortunately, those who have studied the flora of hot springs have rarely published sufficient detail concerning the habitat of the species described to enable one to follow up this interesting feature of the subject, while the alge have been studied rather from a systematic than a broad biological standpoint. In reviewing the literature bearing upon the subject, I have found that vegetable life is a common accompaniment of thermal springs, and as widely distributed as the springs themselves. At the noted warm springs of Carlsbad, where the algous life has been studied by several botanists, there is a great variety of species, but the limiting temperature appears to be 130? Fahr.’ Sir William Hooker’? and Baring Gould’ both mention the occurrence of crimson alge in the hot geyser waters of Ice- land, and Hochstetter* and other writers’ describe slimy con- fervoid plants lining the bottoms of hot pools and streams in New Zealand, the highest temperature at which such growths have been observed being 153° Fahr. In the hot springs of the Azores, Mosely found alge grow- ing in water whose temperature was between 149° Fahr. and 156° Fahr., and on areas splashed by almost boiling water. At the volcano of Camiguin no vegetation was found until the water had cooled down to 113.5? Fahr. In the Himalayan hot springs Dr. Hooker found a luxuriant growth of Lepto- thrix at 168°Fahr. and below.’ Several other references were ' Abhandl. Schles. Gesell. 1862. Heft II. 2 Journal of a Tour in Iceland. Vol. 1., p. 160. * Iceland: Its Scenes and Sagas. * Reise der Oe Frigate Novara. 5 Skey. Trans. N. Z. Inst. Vol. X., p. 433. Spencer. Trans. N. Z. Inst. Vol. XV., p. 302. $ Journ. Linn. Soc. (Botany.) Vol. XIV., p. 328. * Himalayan Travels. Jos. Dalton Hooker. Vol. I., pp. 27, 379- 1889. ] The Vegetation of Hot Springs. 397 found proving the abundance of algz in waters of 150° Fahr. orbelow. The highest temperature at which these growths have been found is that observed by Professor Brewer at Pluton Creek, California, where alge were found at 200° Fahr.' In the hot springs of Ischia no life was observed above 185? Fahr.,' and this appears to be the limiting temperature in the hot waters of the Yellowstone National Park. A comparison of the species found in hot springs shows that they are limited to a few groups. Although the true Confer- voidez and the Protococcoidez are represented in gather- ings from hot waters, the Oscillatorie form the most charac- teristic vegetation of hot springs, species of Oscillaria and Hypheothrix being very common. Aypheothrix laminosa (a species variously known under a number of synonyms) has been found in New Zealand, Java, St. Paul, Camiguin, Ice- land (?) and the Yellowstone Park, being very common at the last locality. Desmids have been found in the hot waters of the Azores, three species of Pediastrum being described, and Corda figures and describes Desmids from the Carlsbad hot springs. The Diatomacez do not appear to be very abundant in hot waters. Dr. Jas. Blake found a number of species at 140? Fahr. in the hot springs of Nevada, and nine species were found by Berkeley : inthe gatherings from Thibet. They are comparatively rare in the Yellowstone gatherings from hot water, but very abun- dant in the cooled waters from the springs. The examinations made by Mr. W. Archer of the gatherings of alge from the hot springs of the Azores show that certain species were identical with forms common in cold surface waters in Great Britain. Prof. W. G. Farlow, of Harvard, who is studying a series of specimens collected by the writer from the hot waters of the Yellowstone Park, informs me that here also cold water forms are found, but modified by their condi- tions of environment. It is hoped the material in Professor , * Amer. Journ. Sci. (k^ XEVL, p: 35 t Sachs, in Flora. 1864. 398 The American Naturalist. [May, Farlow’s hands will yield important information concerning the morphology of the species. In a study of the hot springs and the geyser phenomena of the Yellowstone National Park, carried on in connection with my geological work in that region, I was surprised to find an abundant algous vegetation in the hot springs even at very high temperatures. It has been found by an examination of the hot springs of the region, of which nearly 3,500 have been individually and carefully noted, that alge are almost univer- sally present either in the springs themselves or in the streams flowing from them. The only exceptions to this are the mud bowls, and even here alge are often found on the borders where kept moist by steam. This widespread occurrence im- plies that algæ can exist under a very great diversity of con- ditions. The springs examined differ greatly in the chemical composition of their waters, and include carbonated, calcare- ous and siliceous alkaline waters, and also those acid with hydrochloric or with sulphuric acids. The alge also occur under equally diverse thermometric and hygrometric condi- tions; they have been found at all temperatures up to 185° Fahr., though from 160° to 185° they have thus far been ob- served only in running streams. It is difficult to give a general description of the vegetable life of hot springs which shall be brief, and yet convey any idea of the beauty and the varied forms of these growths. The vegetation of the acid waters (with free HCl or H,SO,) is seldom a conspicuous feature of the springs. But in the alka- line waters that characterize the geyser basins, and in the carbonated, calcareous waters of the mammoth hot springs, the case is otherwise, and the red and yellow tints of the alga combine with the weird whiteness of the sinter and the varied blue and green of the hot water to form ascene that is, without doubt, one of the most beautiful as well as one of the strangest sights in the world. Those who have been so fortunate as tO have seen the hot water fountains of the Yellowstone will be sure to remember the delicate and charming tints that char- acterize the basins about Old Faithful and many other geysers * 1889.] The Vegetation of Hot Springs. 399 of the upper basin, as well as the bright reds and yellows of Specimen Lake and the Orange Pool. Early in the study which was made of these springs, it was noticed that the color of the vegetation was, in a degree, de- pendent upon, or related to, the temperature of the water. This is well illustrated by the occurrence of Hypheothrix laminosa, whose delicate filaments wave in the stream draining the Black Sand, where the following relation of color to tem- perature was observed : White—185°. Flesh pink—181?, becoming browner as the temperature alls. Pale yellow—164°. Yellow green—155°. Emerald green—1359—140?. | Dark green—130?. These colors merging, of course, into one another, but being very prominent at the temperature given. Other growths are: Orange—125°, Red—1102. Cedar brown—9o?. An examination of the growths forming the first series by Professor Farlow proves that the flesh-colored and white Srowth, occurring at 180°-185°, shows but traces of alge filaments in amorphous matter. At 164° the structure was more decidedly filamentary and the color light yellow. The bright green forms at 1 55° were in a better condition for study, and the dark green filaments at 130? were in good con- dition. Hypheothrix laminosa probably attains its ae and most perfect development in these waters between 130° and 155° Fahr. : In those clear bowls of hot but never boiling water called laugs, the alge often form a leathery sheet lining the sides and bottom of the pools. Each sheet consists of a great number of thin, membranous layers aggregating one-fourth to one-half inch in thickness; the under layers are a rich tomato red, and the surface covered with a thin, incoherent 400. The American Naturalist. [May, fuzz of green, through which the red tint beneath shows and produces an olive tone. The alge tinting the hotter /augs, with temperatures of 140° to 160? Fahr., are bright yellow, and form a loose, vel- vety nap on the soft, siliceous sediment. Where the overflow from a spring is constant in volume the channels are rapidly filled, choked and dammed back by masses of red and green algous jelly from one-half to five inches thick. This form of growth and the process of sinter formation has been already described elsewhere.! The channels carrying off the periodic discharge of the geysers are also brilliantly tinted by alge, but modified by the deposit of silica. The channels of Old Faithful are a brilliant gamboge yellow near the geyser, merging into orange, which changes abruptly into brown, while farther away the growth is cedar red. : In these cases the plants form a thin, slippery coating upon the siliceous sinter, and is much encrusted by silica. Where from any cause the alge growing in these channels are de- prived of their supply of water, the siliceous jelly enveloping the growth is rapidly dried, and becomes hard, white and opaque, effectually concealing the alga. Where channels are lined with a membranous growth, this shrivels up into curious convoluted forms, or into papyrus-like rolls, In fact, what- ever the nature of the alge present in the siliceous waters, all appearance of vegetable life is soon lost on drying, owing to the hardening of the silica. In calcareous waters the change is none the less complete, and the green or red growth rapidly bleaches out and becomes all but invisible to the casual ob- server in the deposit. The filaments may, however, be freed from the lime by the aid of acid. * Amer, Journ. Sci, May, 1889. PLATE AVHE Fig. r. Shell Bead. Fig. 2. Bone Harpoon. Fig. 3. Bear's Tooth. Fig. 4. Arrow-head. CAYUGA INDIAN RELICS. 1889. ] Cayuga Indian Relics. 401 CAYUGA INDIAN RELICS. BY W. M. BEAUCHAMP,’ HAVE been much indebted to Mr. W. W. Adams, of Maple- ton, Cayuga County, for valuable information regarding New York Iroquois sites, and for the opportunity of examining and figuring many fine and remarkable relics. Like some other parts of the Iroquois territory, the occupation of the country about Cayuga Lake, by settled inhabitants, seems very recent. There area few old sites, but by far the larger part are of historic times. There are half a dozen early earthworks in the county, but most of them are distant from the lake. As in the country of the early Senecas, there is little earthenware, and that of a coarse kind, contrasting strongly with the abun- dant supply of the territory of the Onondagas and Mohawks.. From history, traditions and remains, as well as language, it seems probable that the Cayugas and Senecas branched off from the parent stock at Lake Erie, perhaps on both sides; | while the three eastern nations led the van on the north of | Lake Ontario to the St. Lawrence, and thence passed south- ward to their later homes. Archzeologists certainly have good reasons for such a belief. There were travelers and early hunters and fishermen along Cayuga Lake, some of whom had small villages there for a time. A few left mica in graves, and lost some fine articles in the camps or by the wayside. Long shell beads were used by Some, and as these have been found in recent graves as well, they form a link with the past. The wearers were probably the first true Cayugas. These long beads were formed from the columelle of sea shells, and one is six and three-quarter inches long, while a number are but little less. Out of one ! Rev. W. M. Beauchamp has long been noted for his investigation of Indian archzeology in Western New York. He is an indefatigable laborer, and his in- vestigations have been of great benefit to the science. He is more disposed to observe and record facts than to develop theories. His last remark in the above Paper is worthy of consideration. It has come to be a maxim in some parts of the world that prehistoric objects are to be found, not in number as they exist, but ac- cording to the number and diligence of their seekers.—T. W. 402 The American Naturalist. (May, grave Mr. Adams took four which aggregated twenty-two inches, and six more formed a line of the same length. Fig. I is of the exact size of one of six taken from a grave last year. This grave contained a most curious assortment of articles, of which I will speak particularly before concluding. While smaller beads of this kind occur on historic sites, and very rarely on prehistoric villages, I know of none so large else- where in New York. The chiefs who wore them in their first splendor must have been'proud of their ornaments. While prehistoric shell beads of any kind are so rare through the old Iroquois territory of New York, the small council wampum, of course, is found only on later sites. The Five Nations had none of this before the coming of the Dutch. ‘This is a fact now clearly established. There are other late beads of bone, stone, porcelain, glass, and discoid and oval shell beads. Sometimes mere shells of Melampus and Mar- ginella have been strung, but never any fresh water univalves, as far as I know. The Venetian glass beads are often of many colors and intricate patterns, and sometimes of singular beauty. Some plainer glass beads are quite attractive also. Ornaments of perforated red slate and pipestone belong also to the later sites, but most of those gathered by Mr. Adams now grace the cabinet of Mr. A. G. Richmond, of Canajoharie. A pretty little mask of Catlinite, smaller than a finger nail, came from a recent Cayuga grave. I have seen but one other as small, and that from an Onondaga site of A.D. 1700. Shell and bone ornaments include the familiar Iroquois forms of disks, crescents, fishes, and those to which we can hardly give a name. Combs came with the white man, but the Indian soon made for himself those of bone or horn, the top generally symmetrically arranged, as two men, two serpents, two birds. Fine examples of these have come from Cayuga sites—indeed, the best I have seen. The bone harpoon, Fig. 2, is from a recent Cayuga grave, and mostlarge harpoons that I have known are not old, say two hundred and fifty years or less. I have figured them from historic sites of the Onondagas and Mohawks besides. 1889. ] Cayuga Indian Relics. 403 This one is stained red, a rare feature, and it presents other peculiarities. A smaller slender and delicate harpoon was found near the lake shore, and I have seen none prettier. It has six barbs on either side, and seems much older than the one represented. The same form, but less delicate, occurs on the Seneca River. Both copper and iron fish-hooks are met with, and some- times the corroded metal has preserved the cord. None of bone or horn have appeared near Cayuga Lake, though sev- eral have been found in Onondaga and Jefferson Counties. Three or four prehistoric specimens, with barbs, have come to my notice. Among other Cayuga fishing implements are in- numerable flat sinkers and perhaps the ovoid grooved stones. The former are of more general distribution than the latter. Bears’ teeth occur, as in other places. Fig. 3 is one of six- teen from the same grave. They were used much earlier, and often perforated for suspension. Human teeth I have found. thus perforated. While examining an old Cayuga burial place, Mr. S. L. Frey, of Palatine Bridge, found an arrow made of a fossil shark’s tooth, only altered by cutting slits to bind it to the shaft. A single glass bead, found at the same time, makes its age doubtful. Stone arrow and spear-heads are in moderate numbers; Scrapers and drills very rare, owing to the small number of early Cayuga sites, these being early implements. Some of the triangular arrows, made of sheet copper or brass, occur, generally with one or two perforations for binding the arrow, but sometimes with none. Fig. 4 shows one with part of the shaft remaining attached. They are of the same pattern as those found with the Fall River skeleton. Mr. Adams has also belts with copper tubes, suggesting those encircling the Skeleton mentioned. Such arrows in Onondaga belong to the latter half of the seventeenth century. The copper age of the Five Nations lasted nearly a century, when they adopted silver for ornaments. During the earlier period of European contact they used copper wire bracelets, brooches and ear-rings, bronze rings, copper beads, and other articles. Of these Cayuga 404 The American Naturalist. [May, affords good examples, as well as the other cantons. Iron is found on all recent sites. Good clay pipes have proved abundant near Cups Lake, and the ridge along the sides of the stems of many is an un- usualfeature. They present the common variety in form and ornament. Fig. 5 is called a wolf-totem pipe by Mr. Adams, who took it froma grave last spring. It is of thetype common two hundred years ago. A little later the Indians reversed the arrangement of the head or ornament. A curious de- tached terra cotta Cayuga ornament represents a man's head with a pointed helmet. These detached ornaments are found in other parts of the Iroquois territory. Slender pewter and iron pipes are, rarer, but the former have quite a range. Stone pipes were little used by the Cayugas or their prede- .