ee? THE 4 AMERICAN NATURALIST An Jllustrated WMagazine OF NATURAL HISTORY. EDITED BY EDWARD D. COPE anp J. S. KINGSLEY, ASSISTED BY W. S. BAYLEY, CHARLES E. BESSEY, F. S. LEE, T. H. MORGAN, CLARENCE M. WEED, THOMAS WILSON, C. O. WHITMAN. i ! VOLUME XXV. Mo. Bot. Garden, Jar I FERRIS BROS., PUBLISHERS, COR. SEVENTH AND FILBERT STS., 1891. CONTENTS. PAGE. Some Recent Papers on Earthworms, J. S. KINGSLEY. . ......... The TERR jizen of Structure in Poef pods. (Tllustrated.) ROBERT Sexual Immobility sa a s of the Development of the Sporophyte. Y: MACMIEMANS 6 o n o e A a a 22 A aema ferni i ) E. A. Anprews, Po.D., ..... 25 Siege Bercy ae of the Vertebrate Head. H. W. Norris. .... elves 95 Some e Causes and Results of Poya among the Pinnipedia. C.C. Bieta ie ene, ee a a a ale a A N N eae 103 On the Genesis a the Chromatophores in Fishes. (Jilustrated.) Cart H. ee er ig ee ee ee ake ae oP Pa ae ee ae 112 An Indian ae in Western New York. A. L.Benepict,M.D...... 119 Are Acquired Variations Inherited? H.F.Osporn.. .....2.... 191 On the Origin of the Galapagos Islands. G. BAUR. ........., 217 The Biological Work of American Experiment Stations.. C. M. Weep. . 230 The Evolution of the Circulatory Organs. (JI/lustrated.) W.C. Cana . 237 A i ids. Mrs. P. re RS le ae ase a E e we 48 Record of American eg A DoD. PAROMLET. o ee eee 252, 343, 548 pty re Customs of the Navajo India hiaten, IOR W Taigis is 303 On Origin of the e Galapagos Isl saro "(Cone neluded.) G. Baur 307 airen of the Progress of American Invertebrate Paleontology for the year 1890. CHA g sa ei a Ce ae en ae 327 Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Beak AW we 334 Too Cells in Animal rae rk ary ratla i: 53 ‘Ss. op a cue bU nt Lava Flow in New Mex De a = = wa 524 The Origin of the Avifauna of the Bake Oa Stars ee 528 On the Genus Chlamydophorus. strated. ) `D. D. oe mee 540 A Review of the Discovery of the Creta s Mammalia. (Jilustrated.) HENRY Famerp OURORN ee a a a ee 575 Notes on Mesozoic Mammalia. O. C. Manso. ...........-. , 611 T B AVINOR o a ee et ee 17 ere Amateur Ph t to Sci (Illustrated. ) cW OODE: We a ee ee ee 6 On the Relations of ae preted (illustrated.) G. Baur... 631 Ene tatopterns. © (Flustrated.) E. D. Core, . -> Oe Miss Physiognomy of the erican Tert rtiary Hemiptera, Scup, 1020. Scutigera, Anatomy of, 280. Screw-worm, 927. Sey phostonia, riag serg of, 588. pel s Join gi nsects, 586 Seal, Foetal Period of, 836. Sabastodes gillii, 154 Secular odrana denges of Rocks, 363. Segregation, 570. ae of the Vertebrate Head, Selenacodn brevis, 602, 603. , 602, 604. A oy of. the Quaternary Period of Chancelade e, 767. Serial Sections, eon Serpentine, Serpula, Siructre of, 1131. Serranus atrarius, 1 Sexual Inomaobilit ity as “a Cause of th velopment of the reia ee Basij in n Spiders, 293. Shasta Grou Sheelites, 378. Shufeldt, R. W., Fossil Birds from the Equus B anc : the Equus Beds of xxii — Amateur Photographers ca a a, ance to Science, 626. sla Sipuculu a, SBI. nudus, 832. Sibon nnulatum, 742. Psa Madre Expedition, 273. 5 alates 869, 370. Silicates, 830. Sillimanite, 142. Slade, D. = A the Genus Chlamydo- phorus, 540. tee Prof.. gh the vai ee 1140. nakes in Banana Bushes, 742. Son p Society of tarkok Societe TEREE at Paris, 73, Spawning Season of San Diego Fishes, Species Among Bacteria, T. Smith, 89. ipermophilus sonoriensis, 158. 663 Sunde í -on dentata, 1081. 661. h EE Development of, 283. Stagodon nitor, 607, 7 Starr, Frederick, THe. Star-fish Larva, 664. Stedman, Steere, J. B, A A Visit to the Philippine Islands of Masbate and Marin- d ae The I: sland of Mindoro, 1041. Stegocephalian Skull from the Kilken- Stitlingta sie he Stirpiculture, 9: Ston clas from Table Mountain, Strepsodus brockbankia, 1127. g 2. , The yti of Gar- den Ve egetables, 694, 80 Studies on Amphiox In Microse MEAE Petro hy, H. Hensoldt, 594. aar & Of the Snow-Plant, 50. Stylemys nebrascensis Leidy, 47. Submarine Channels of the Pacific r Coast, 483. The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXV., sulak Gorge, 1121. mrana" 1008. nG 54. jarfa ce Geology of Alaska, 570. chnodymite, 660. ynageli ee ra 293 yu aptidae e, Anatomy of, 664. Syrnium nebulos sum, 849. n Tt TR TR TR TR TP ABLE Showing the Relative Distribu- hag tober of Certain baroi Boreal Genera of North American Spermophytes, C. Macmillan, Talbott, S. O., Utility of Physical Study of Child- life, 934. n, 1041. si ovbiaularé, 397. Tariff Taxation on Scientific Books, 990. , R. 5., A recent Lava Flow in New _ Mexico 524. Teleostomi, non- mean Ped 479. Arens ‘schley , 742. T and Number of Vertebrae Tertiary ] Insects, k H. Scudder, 586. ation of Western Texas, 49. Testuda. prac -281 Tetrad < 1006. Tetraprion. jordani, 1020. n, S. V. Clevenger, 617. , 1063. Thenardite, 831. Theory of en Mesoderm, 166. Thesbesian ee Thryothorus eden us, 851 “ecco carnifex Owes; 1117. Tiger Salamander, 628 Tin Ore, 830. Tmet jacera ocellana, 927. Toad-fish, 1020. Tomato, 801. Topaz, mira Ei 745. Tou ortalam ath, 503. To What Extent do Archeologic or Eth- . ong Prehistorie Peo- = POOP arn scriptus, 266. Traps < the 4 aani System in New rsey, 910. Tran iterate of Colsepterk, 1 764. Treadwell, , On the Development of the ie Copulatory Organs in Snakes, 490. Bacteria ‘Gestting Milk During Thunder Storms, 1010. 1891.] Trees and Shrubs of the Basin of the River of the North, W. Up- Trianea secs itini; 876. Triassic wA Massachusetts, 910. m New Mexico, 278. Triphyllite 1008. Triple Fertilization in Egg of Domestic Fowl, 1080. Tripriodon caperatus, 603. coelatus, 602, 604. Triton cristatus, 1098. Fraasii, 605. Trochophore Annelid, 1137. Tub oweri, 861. (/NDERWOODIA columnaris, 51. oviensis, Upson’s Gold-Staining Method for Axis, Cylinders and Nerve-Cells, 847. Uraninite. Uranotherite 1008. tella, Reproduction of, 380. Uredele Tail, 668. Urogenital System of the Crocodile and Turtle, 287. Urosalpinx cinerea, 919. Ursus horribilis, 997. spelaeus, 997. Utility of Physical Study of Child-Life, S. O. Talbott, 984. VACCINIUM macrocarpum, 852. cow oe Paleontologie = Ar- eologic p- plied to the Plistocene ne Period, 502 _ Vampire Vasale’s , 847. Vasomotor Nerves of the Portal Vein, 290 Vergularia ju > » 76. Modification of. ” Weigert’s Index. xxiii Viburnum dentalum, 51. Vivisection, F. Gaertner, 864. Volcanic Eruption in the West Indies, Vogt, C., and the Naturalists, 558. AGNER, Franz Von, 853. Waldheimia perforata, 1127. Wandering Cells in Animal Bodies, J L. Kell Rodents Was it Hallucination? Water-Marks on Paleozoic Rocks, 482, Weak-fish, we Weed, C. M The Bialogical Work of American i i 280. Curculio Literat Webster, C. L. Peis Notes on the Arc rehwology of Rael airh w Mexico, 7 Weissenberg Gneiss, 574. White An Lag Wax Inse Wer Spe PAR “On the Quantity an Dynam amics of Animal adron 72. Williston, S. W., Skull and Hind Ex- ydra, 413. Winchell, Alexander, 188, Wom en’s Waist aists, 71 7. Ww A. S., Fossil Fishes, 646. Wood’s Holl, Mass Worship of Ashtaroth i in Palestine, 593. XYLEBORUS dispar, 927. Zeolites, 142. Zine Sulphide, 373. Zirco Zovlogical Ge Geography, 899. Notes, Zoology, , 380, 58, 153, 279. 487, 577, 664, 740, 831, 1015, 1131. THE AMERICAN ATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE, 4 a. a JANUARY, 189r. ONTENTS. PAGE RECENT Papers ON EARTHWORMS, FEA = I Botanist of New York—How to Know eir Leaves; nn s fee HANICAL ORIGIN OF STRUCTURE IN Look — ia Ecyrops [Illustrated], Robert ieee Jackson, 11 Gaevle of Spiders—insects r r s IMMOBILITY AS A CAUSE OF THE DE- Studies on = OF THE PNE Conway Macmillan, 22 | — SAL SEES [Mustrated], E A, Andrews, PhD., 25 36 39 42 pirm ' nvestigators. - One of the greatest needs of American science | t the present time is a convenient medium in which — | rief preliminary notices of the results of investigation — n be published. A considerable length of time of i cessity —— between the Duete of series i pensia Horstord’s Acid Phosphate In dyspepsia the stomach fails to assimilate the food. The Acid Phosphate assists the weakened tomach, making the process of digestion natural and easy. Dr. R. S. McComs, Philadelphia, says h “Used it in nervous dyspepsia, wit success.” Dr. W. S. LEONARD, Hinsdale, N. H., ! prs: E “The best medy = orep that has come under my _ Dr.T. H. 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A study of the formation, growth eg fee of worlds, from their earliest existence as nebulous masses diffused through space to e: development in sun and world systems, and their final dissolution. By ALEXANDER WINCHELL, LL.D., 1 vol., illustrated — cloth. Regular price, $2.50; with the GroLocist for 1891, Sparks from a Geologist’s Hammer. series of geological B . ogical essays. ig ALEXANDER ope agg LL. D. Second edition, illustrated, 12m we] price, $2.00; with the GEOLOGIST for 1891, -00. Leibnitz ew Essays Concerning g the Human Understanding A critical realy By Pror. Joun Dewey, Px. D. 16mo, 2 pp. Regu- price, $1.25; with the GEOLOGIST ‘tor 1891, $3.75. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST VoL. XXV. JANUARY, 1891. 289. SOME RECENT PAPERS ON EARTHWORMS. BY J. S. KINGSLEY, Ls Oligochztous worms were long neglected, but within recent years the literature relating to them has extended to very considerable dimensions. It is the intention to present here an abstract of some of the work lately done on the group. The two papers’ by Dr. Wilson on the embryology of these forms may be considered together. The forms studied are called Lumbricus terrestris, L. communis, and L. Jætidus. The segmentation is unequal, but varies in its details in indi- vidual eggs of the same species. It results in the formation of a blastula, in which, at intervals, the blastoccel is in communication with the exterior by a cleavage pore. Some points of difference are shown between the species studied and that which formed the basis of Kleinenberg’s classic paper. Like Kleinenberg, Dr. Wilson finds that the “ primary meso- blasts” are differentiated before gastrulation as two large cells lying side by side, at first on the surface but later sinking into the blastoccel. Before this insinking they begin to bud off the mesoderm in the shape of two parallel rows of cells. During this process gastrulation takes place. The egg becomes flattened, and a differentiation of the cells of the two sides occurs, the upper 1 Wilson, Edmund B. The Germ-Bands of Lumbricus. Journal of Morphology, 1., p. 183, I pl., 1887. : — The Embryology of the Earthworm ; Z. c., III., p. 387, 7 pls., 1889 [1890]. 2 The American Naturalist. [January, (ectodermal) becoming flattened, while the entodermal are larger and more columnar. Next the sides of this placula-like structure are bent downwards, the approaching edges forming the slit-like blastopore, which closes behind, leaving the anterior end open as the mouth. In this operation the primary mesoblasts lie side by side at the posterior lip of the blastopore, the bands extending forward and eventually uniting in front of the mouth. During this process the ectoderm becomes thickened immediately over each band, but retains its character of a layer a single cell in thickness. At the same time, although the blastopore never closes, the inpushing of a stomodzum occurs. The next feature of interest is the formation of the middle layer of the germ-bands, the existence of which was first distinctly recognized in the Oligochætes by Dr. Wilson. According to his account, this first appears as a linear arrangement of the ectoderm’ cells, terminating behind in a larger cell. These terminal cells (which, like the primary mesoblasts, are called teloblasts) sink, together with the corresponding cell-rows, into a position be- tween the ectoderm and the germ-band proceeding from the meso- blast.. There may be either three or four of these rows on either side. The one towards the median line gives rise to the nervous system, the next two (nephric rows) to the nephridia and to the | inner series of setigerous glands, while the outer (not constant) has a problematical fate. The corresponding teloblasts are called neuroblast, nephroblast, and lateral teloblast. With the gradual elongation of the embryo these teloblasts con- tinue to bud off new cells, which add to the corresponding row, — which derive nothing from any other source. Behind, the rows a are but a cell in width, but anteriorly they are wider, the two nephric rows becoming fused. Later the teloblasts disappear, and the bands of the opposite sides unite from before backwards. Certain cells budded from the rows wander between ectoderm and entoderm and form “ migratory mesoderm,” while the remainder, in a which the ccelomic cavities appear, is the “ trunk mesoderm.” former is mesenchymal in character, and gives rise to larval muscles, - ) which are later replaced by true mesothelial muscles. The * See below for Bergh’s account, which differs considerably. 1891.] Some Recent Papers on Earthworms. 3 coelomic cavities are schizoccelia, and are formed in the mesodermal bands behind the point of concrescence; the most anterior pair lie at the sides of the stomodzum, while a head cavity, which is always unpaired, occurs in front of the mouth. The first blood vessel to appear is the subintestinal. It is at first without proper walls, and is apparently a remnant of the cleavage cavity. The dorsal vessel is at first double. The two halves concresce from in front backwards. Concerning the alimentary canal little need be said in this ab- stract. The stomodzum pushes inward as far as the sixth seg- ment, and in one species its lips are at one time armed witha peculiar structure which may be either sensory or may serve as a larval digestive organ. As soon as the stomodzum is formed the larva begins to swallow the albumen with which it is surrounded and the particles of this are apparently swallowed amceba-like by the entoderm cells. The cesophagus with its calciferous glands is entodermal. The proctodzeum is long delayed, and when it appears it is formed in the region where the primary mesoblasts break up; but our author was not able to decide whether in front or behind them, t.e., within or without the limits of the blastopore. The nervous system arises from the neural rows budded from the neuroblasts. The two most important statements made are: that the brain arises from these rows, and that it has a primitively paired condition and does not arise from a scheitelplatte. Dr. Wilson was unable to find any mittelstrang in the ventral cord. With growth the brain is carried backward from an extreme anterior position to the third somite, while by the same process the ganglia of the two anterior pest-oral somites are pushed back upon that of the third to form the infracesophageal ganglion. The giant fibres are apparently specially modified nerve fibres,—a view in conflict with Vejdovsky’s account. The origin of the excretory system as described by Wilson is quite different from the accounts of Bergh summarized farther on. First in the history comes the larval excretory organs or “ schluck- zellen,” which are at first large ectoderm cells forming the anterior lip of the blastopore, and connected with a delicate system of 3 Thie enonditioan 3} ca ta ae “7. D, => + 4. Y it 55S Y FCM. 4 The American Naturalist. [January, ciliated canals lying between ectoderm andentoderm. They soon disappear. These were not carefully studied, nor were the pro- nephridia or head-kidneys. The permanent nephridia are regarded by Wilson as arising partly from the nephric rows, which are, as we have seen above, ectodermal in origin, and comparable in every early ontogenetic feature with the neural rows; the funnel is regarded as derived from the mesoderm proper. According to the account and figures, the nephric rows send upgrowths into every somite; these join a large cell on the anterior wall of each dissepiment. The large cell develops the funnel, while the cells of the nephric upgrowth becomes perforated to form the tubular portion of the nephridium. From each nephridial anlage a process is developed which becomes hollow, and the sete of the inner row are developed in the cavities thus formed. The speculations with which Wilson concludes his paper are of extreme interest, but as they deal with problems of general morphology they may be omitted here. R.S. Bergh has also studied the development of the earthworm, with especial reference to the nervous system and Wilson’s germ- bands. His account‘ differs in so many particulars that we can- not consider the fate of the germ-bands as settled. Bergh paid no attention to the segmentation and gastrulation, but begins his account with the formation of the germ-bands. As his account of the fate of the different portions differs from Wil- son’s interpretation, he has applied different names to different portions, as is seen by this schedule: : WILSON. BERGH. Primary mesoblast = Posterior myoblast. Neuroblast = Neuroblast. Nephroblasts | ae Licking t Anterior myoblasts. In the earliest stage studied by Bergh there is present on either side the posterior myoblast, the neuroblast, and a single * Bergh, R. S. Neue Beiträge zur Embryologie der Anneliden, I. Zur Entwicklung und des Keimstreifenssvon Lumbricus, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoologie, Bd. L., p. 469, 3 pls., 1890. o 1891.] Some Recent Papers on Earthworms. 5 one of the anterior myoblasts, each budding off its corresponding row. In next stage observed there were present two anterior myoblasts. The connection between these was not made out, but Bergh thinks from certain features that the new one was budded from the earlier one, and that the first to appear corresponds to Wilson’s inner nephroblast, the second to his lateral teloblast. A later stage showed the budding off from the inner myoblast of the middle myoblast, and still later this was seen to form a row which becomes insinuated between the other rows. All of these cells are as yet ectodermal, and the neuroblasts and the neural rows are the first to become covered by the ectoderm. Appar- ently the bands are solely derived from the teloblasts, and the ectoderm contributes nothing further to this growth. Bergh describes a new element in the nervous system as a plexus of nerve cells and nerve fibres, which develop along the middle of the ventral surface between the neural rows. In the ectoderm of this region, just beneath the ciliated line, are certain uni- and bipolar cells, the processes of which run lengthwise of the animal, and form a temporary nervous system before the permanent nervous system has begun the development of nerve fibres. These cells are re- garded as arising independently of the neuroblasts from the ecto- derm, the fact that they extend behind the neuroblasts being strong- ly confirmative of this view. Later this plexus is included in the permanent nervous system, while the ciliated cells are resorbed, and, contrary to Kleinenberg’s view, do not form part of the regu- lar ectoderm. Bergh suggests that the ventral median multipolar elements described by Friedlander may originate from this plexus, Hatschek’s median invagination does not exist in Lumbricus. The three remaining germ-bands, says Bergh, have nothing to do with the formation of the nephridia, and at no place do they project inwards, as described by Wilson, into the inner muscle plate. They rather spread out between ectoderm and the product of the hinder myoblast, and give rise to the circular muscles of the adultworm. These muscles are first formed ventrally, and later reach the dorsal surface. The nephridia are, on the other hand, derived wholly from the inner mesoderm, the first portion to be distinguished being the 6 The American Naturalist. [January, large funnel cells, which are recognizable before the formation of the coelomic cavities. With the formation of the ccelom a row of cells buds off from the hinder surface of each dissepiment, just behind the funnel cell, to give origin to the tubular portion of the nephridium. The anterior myoblasts contribute nothing towards the formation of the nephridia, and these organs from the first have no structure uniting the successive somites. Bergh thinks that Wilson has misinterpreted his sections, and has missed some of the stages. The bristle sacs which Wilson thinks are derived from the germ-bands are, according to Bergh, formed as ingrowths from the ectoderm. With such differences of interpretation it, is diffi- cult to say which is right. The work is in each case apparently thoroughly done, anda comparison of plates does not serve to reconcile the two accounts. Benham’s recent paper on the genera and species of earth- worms’ will prove of great value to students of the group, and an abstract is given here in the hope that it may aid American students of the group. The forms occurring in the United States are scarcely known. The Oligochztes are divided into: NAIDOMORPHA. Small worms of relatively few somites; blood uncolored; male genital pores in, or in front of, somite vil.; asexual and — sexual reproduction; eye spots frequently present; embraces the — families Aphanoneura, Naide, Chetogastride, and the genus Ctenodrilus, LuMBRICOMORPHA. Male genital pores behind somite vir.; reproduction only by sexual process ; somites behind the peristomium all similar; no eye spots. The characters separating the two divisions are not constant, | except that which refers to the network of blood-vessels on the — nephridia. © é Benham, W. B. An Attempt to Classify Earthworms. (Quarterly Jour. ete Sois XXXI., p. 201, 1890. ESETE Sra! Aap Sia OS 5 aa SS EE E ee ee ee Vee = 1891.) Some Recent Papers on Earthworms. 7 MıcropriLI (Water Worms). No capillary network of blood-vessels on nephridia ; small size, thin, transparent body wall; setz always in four groups per somite ; prostomium not separated from peristomium by a groove. Contains families Discodrilide, Enchytreide, Phre- oryctidz, and Lumbriculide. MEGADRILI (Earth Worms). Large forms from one inch to six feet in length. Body wall thick and opaque; prostomium (when present) separated from peristomium by a groove; capillary network of blood- vessels on the nephridia; clitellum always occupying more than two somites. These are divided into PLECTONEPHRICA, with the nephridia in the form of delicate tubules in each somite, uniting to form a network, with more or less numerous external apertures; and MEGANEPHRICA, with the ex- cretory network absent, replaced by a pair (rarely two pairs) of large nephridia in each somite. The members of each division are given below, the genera known to occur in the United States being given in italics . PLECTONEPHRICA. Family TYPHÆIDÆ ; genera Typhzus, Megascolides, Crypto- drilus, Didymogaster, Perissogaster, Dichogaster, Digaster. Family ACANTHODRILIDZ; genera Acanthodrilus, Trigaster, Dinodrilus, Neodrilus, Diplocardia. Family PERICHÆTIDÆ ; genus Pericheta (including Mega- scolex). MEGANEPHRICA. Family MoNILIGASTRIDÆ ; genus Moniligaster. Family EUDRILIDÆ ; genera Eudrilus, Teleudrilus, Pontodrilus, Photodrilus, iici Rhododrilus, Plutellus, Stuhlmannia, Hyperiodrilus. Family PERIONYCHIDÆ ; genus Perionyx. Family GEoscoLECIDÆ ; genera Geoscolex, Urochzta, Dia- Cheta.” > . 8 The American Naturalist. LJanuary, 4 Family RHINODRILIDÆ; genera Rhinodrilus, Microcheta, — Urobenus, Hormogaster, Brachydrilus. Family LUMBRICIDÆ ; genera Lumbricus, Allolobophora, Crio- drilus, Allurus. Besides the above, Benham includes four genera of uncertain position, viz., Helodrilus, Echinodrilus, Antæus, and Eisenia. The genera of Megadrili recognized by Benham may be sepa- rated by the following key, modified only in method of arrange- ment from that given by him : A, Setæ 16 to 80, or more, in a ring. a, Male pores far apart; small tufts of ne- phridia ; Pericheta. aa, Male pores very close together; large nephridia ; Pertonyx. AA, Twelve sete on somite; clitellum on somites 14-16; Dinodrilus. AAA, Eight sete on somite. a, Sete alternate in consecutive somites throughout body; male pore on somite 22; Diacheta. _ aa, Sete alternate only posteriorly; male pore 20-21;° clitellum on somites 14-22 ; Urocheta. aaa, Setz in rows, not alternating. 8, Male pores 10-11, or 11-12; Moniligaster. — PP, Male pores on somite 13; Ailurus. — 888, Male pores on somite 15. y, Prostomium dovetailed completely into peristomium ; Lumbricus. — rr, Dovetailed incompletely ; Allolobophora. 777, Not dovetailed ; Criodrilus. — ABBR, Male pores 15-16; Hormogaster. — 88888, Male pores on somite 17. 7, Clitellum on somites 14-17, ð, Sete separate ; Rhododrilus. — 00, Setz in couples. © Between somites 20 and 2r. E€, One pair of sperm sacs; Typhaeus. 1891.] Some Recent Papers on Earthworms. 9 ee, Two pairs of sperm sacs; Digaster. yy, Clitellum on somites 14-18; sete in couples ; Eudrilus. 777, Clitellum on somites 13-17 ; lobed prostates, one pair ; Microscolex. m7, Clitellum on somites 13-20; prostates tubular, two pairs; Dichogaster. PPBBPR, Male pores on somite 18. y, Two pairs of prostates on somites 17-109. : ò, Male pores in a deep fossa ; Trigaster. ð, Male pores notin a fossa; Acanthodrilus. yy, One pair of prostates on somite 18. 6, Clitellum on somites 13-17. €, Prostomium dovetailed. č, Prostate convolu- ed; Pontodrilus. fC, Prostate lobate; Cryptodrilus. ee, Prostomium not dove- tailed ; * Photodrilus. 60, Clitellum on somites (13) 14—17; prostomium dove- tailed; setæ separate ; Plutellus. 066, Clitellum on somites 14-18. e, Setz equidistant ; Didymogaster. ee, Setæ in couples; Perissogaster. 6000, Clitellum on somites d 13—21 or more ; Megascolides. rrr, No prostates; clitellum on somites 16-21 ; Brachydrilus. PBBRBABB, Male pores 18-19. y, Prostomium broad ; sete simple; clitellum 15-23. Geoscolex, 77, Prostomium elongate ; sete or- namented ; clitellum 15-25 ; Rhinodrilus. BBBBBBBS, Male pores on somite 19. y, Clitellum 10-25 ; Microcheta. 10 The American Naturalist. (January, yy, Clitellum 14-17 ; Teleudrilus, 999999998, Male pores on somite 20; clitellum 14-25 ; Urobenus. In explanation of the above key it may be said that the peris- tomium is regarded as the first segment. The prostomium is ~ sometimes separated from the first somite by a transverse groove; but frequently grooves start on the prostomium and extend back into the first somite, so that the prostomium appears “ dovetailed” with the peristomium. If the grooves stop after traversing the first somite for a short distance, the prostomium is partially dove- tailed. The external openings of the sperm ducts are the male pores. The term sperm sacs is applied to the vesciculz semi- nales, the testes of the older authors; the prostates are diverticula of the sperm ducts near their satel opening. There are several genera which are not included in the abawa summary. Thus Garman has described’ a genus Diplocardia, from Illinois, which belongs to the family Acanthodrilide, but differs from Acanthodrilus in having the dorsal vessel paired throughout its entire length, and in the absence of a subneural — blood-vessel. It agrees with Dinodrilus in the double dorsal | vessel, but differs in having but eight seta. Garman also men- tions the existence of Pericheta in Champaign, Ill. A species, — apparently of the same genus, occurs in Lafayette, Indiana, where — it caused the students no little trouble to make it fit the description | of Lumbricus given in Brooks’s Zoology. A paper by Michaelsen ê has not been seen. It describes sev- eral African forms of the family Eudrilide, among them a genus Stuhlmannia. Allied to is another African genus lately described by F. E. Beddard? It is called Hyperiodrilus, and presents many interesting peculiarities of reproductive organs’ 1 Garman, H. On the Anatomy and Histology of a New Earthworm (Diplocardia com- munis). Bulletin Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, III., pp. 47, 5 plates. 8 Jahrbuch der Hamburg wissinsch. Anstalten, Bd. VII. * Beddard, F. E. Preliminary Note on a New Earthwo rm Belonging to the Family Eudrilidæ. Zool. Anzeiger, XIL., 1890. ie | 1891] Mechanical Origin of Structure in Pelecypods. II The genus Deodrilus ® proposed by Mr. Beddard has its sole representative in Ceylon. It seems to combine the character of several of Benham’s families, and its exact position is uncertain. Beddard regards it as nearest Typhzeus and the Geoscolicide, with some affinities with Pontodrilus and many Eudrilide. Beddard announces a forthcoming classification of the earth- worms. In the same paper he describes a connection of the nephridia with the terminal region of the intestine as occurring in the New Zealand species Acanthodrilus multiporus. These nephridia are connected with the general nephridial network found in the Plec- tonephrica. Whether the portion of the intestine with which they are connected is proctodeal or entodermic is unsettled. Bed- dard makes some interesting comparisons with the respiratory trees of the Gephyrea chetifera, and also with the malpighian tubes of the Hexapods. THE MECHANICAL ORIGIN OF STRUCTURE IN PELECY PODS. BY ROBERT TRACY JACKSON. jie is desired in this paper on Pelecypods to call attention to some cases recently studied in which the structure of the animal seems to be the direct consequence of the physiological reaction induced by the mechanical requirements of the environment; or ` to cases of “mechanical genesis,” as they have been termed.’ Several of our examples are cases in which similar forms are built up on similar lines of development, but in widely separated or totally distinct groups of animals. They therefore afford evidence 10 Cn the Structure of a New Genus of Oligochzta (Deodrilus); and On the Presence ot Anal Nephridia in Acanthodrilus. Quart. Jour. Mic. Sci., XXXI., p. 467, 2 pls., 1890. 1 This paper is taken largely from a recently published memoir, to which the reader is referred for a fuller discussion of many facts presented. See Phylogeny of the Pelecyp- oda, the Aviculidz and Their Allies; by Robert Tracy Jackson. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. IV., No. 8, July, 1890, pp. 277-400, pls. XXIII.-XXX. 12 The American Naturalist. [January, in favor of definite lines of variation, and in so far support the view that acquired characters are inherited. r Mr. Wm. H. Dall, in a recent highly interesting paper on — Pelecypods, explains the form and progressive development of the — ligament, cartilage pit, and teeth of that group as the result of the mechanical strains and stresses to which the parts ar exposed? — In the development of Pelecypods we find in a late embryonic — | stage (the phylembryonic) that the shell has a straight hinge line. This is characteristic of Ostrea (Fig. 1), Cardium, Anodonta, and so — many widely separated genera that it apparently represents a — primitive ancestral condition common to the whole class. Em- a bryolagy shows that the bivalve shell doubtless arose from the — splitting on the median line of a primitive univalvular ancestor, If that ancestor had a saddle-shaped* or a cup-shaped ‘ shell, as _ | is probable, the first result of the introduction of a hinge in the — , median line would have been to straighten the shell on the hinge — line. This isa simple problem in mechanics, for if one tries to — break by flexion a piece of metal which is saddle-shaped or cup- — shaped, it will tend to form a straight line on the axis of flexion. A parallel case is seen in the development of a bivalve shell in 4 ancient crustaceans. The ancient Ostracoda: Leperditia, Aristozoe, — etc., have a straight hinge line and subcircular valves, which are united ay by a ligament. The resulting form of the early — condition of the bivalvular shell in these two distinct classes is so strik- ingly similar, it lends weight to our supposition that the form is induced by the mechanical conditions of the case. I think that the adductor muscles Wh. which close the valves may also be Fic. 1.—Ostrea edulis, embryo; demonstrated to be the necessary con- Sad anterior Zenon — ; sequence of the bivalvular condition. | hinge of shell; (after Huxley). ' In the phylembryo stage (Fig. 1) the valves are closed by a single adductor muscle, which is the sim- a Hinge of iniga Its Development, with an Attempt Toward a Better bdivision of the Group; by Wm, H. Dall. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXVIIL, Decu 1891.] Mechanical Origin of Structure in Pelecypods. 13 plest condition mechanically possible to effect the desired end.’ This muscle does not seem to be homologous with any muscle in other classes of molluscs, and is probably developed from the mantle muscles as a consequence of the conditions of the case. In support of this view bivalvular crustaceans may again be cited. They have an analogous adductor muscle, developed of course on an entirely different line of descent, but under closely similar mechanical conditions. At the completed prodissoconch stage in all Pelecypods, as far as known, there are two adductor mus- cles,a second one having developed in the posterior portion of the body. In later life the anterior, the posterior, or both ad- ductors may be retained, reduced, or lost, according as the per- sistence or changes in correlated anatomical features retain in use or bring into disuse the muscles in question. e ao —Mya arenaria. FIG a E eare Peata: FIG. 4.—Ostrea eiepinient: ip ax, antero-posterior eo hinge axis; aad, anterior, and # ad, posterior WLA muscle ; m, mouth ; %2, Bni a, anus ; g, gills; gd, pedal musc J. yssus ; #, Let us look at examples of the retention or loss of the adduc- tors. In typical dimyarian Pelecypods, as Mya (Fig. 2) or Venus, the adductors lie toward either end of the longer axis of the shell. As the hinge occupies a position on the borders of the shell about midway between the adductors, both muscles are nearly or quite in a position to be bio functional in closing the valves. As vane in areata See pp. pre Trans. pA Free Institute, Vol. III., Aug., 1890. 3 Characteristic of young Dentalium., * Characteristic of the extreme young of cephalous molluscs, 5 This early adductor appears in the same position in many genera, and is apparently charact of the class. vialen e TE O a in later stages; but it may be retained or lost in the adul . 14 The American Naturalist. [January, a result, both muscles are of about the same size. “The condition described is that existent in the completed prodissoconch stage in all Pelecypods, as far as known. In Tater life, however, a revolution of the axes of the soft parts may take place, so that the antero-posterior axis (represented by a line drawn through the — mouth and middle of the posterior adductor muscle), instead of © being parallel to the hinge axis (the axis of motion of the valves) _ as in dimyarians, may present a greater or less degree of divergence from the parallel. In progressive series, as in Modiola (Fig. 3), i Perna, etc., as the anterior adductor is brought nearer and nearer to the hinge line, where its mechanical action is less and less — effectual in closing the valves, we find that it is more and more — reduced until it finally disappears from disuse and atrophy, as in Ostrea (Fig. 4), and Pecten. Conversely, the posterior adductor in : the same series in the revolution of the axes is pushed farther and x farther from the hinge line and nearer to the central plane of the 1 valves, where. its mechanical action is most effectual in closing the 3 valves. With its increase in functional activity the muscle = increases in size. The revolved position of the axes, and the con- a sequent reduction or loss of the anterior adductor and increase of — the posterior adductor, is found in many widely separated genera 4 of Pelecypods, as Ostrea, Mulleria and Tridacna; thus proving the development of the same features on different lines of descent? In Aspergillum the two valves have concresced so as to forma ‘ truly univalvular, tubular shell, so that the adductors would — evidently be functionless if existent. The posterior adductor has — disappeared and the anterior is reduced to a few disconnected shreds (Fischer), though evidently existent in the young, as attested by the form of the shell in the nepionic stage. The condition of the foot in Pelecypods depends largely upon its use or disuse. In free-crawling or burrowing forms the foot is highly developed, and is sometimes of a peculiar form which — could doubtless be traced to special functional uses. In Pecten, — in the nepionic period, the foot is highly developed, and actively ê Dr. B. Sharp and I published almost simultaneously closely similar views on the a the relative size of the adductors. See Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., : 1988, p. 122, and Proc, Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXIII., 1888, p. 538. paar ie 1891.] Mechanical Origin of Structure in Pelecypods. 15 employed in crawling. In later stages the animal adopts the habit of byssal fixation, and then of free swimming. The foot becomes highly reduced, and in the adult is probably a functionless organ. In shells which are permanently attached by calcareous fixation the foot is highly reduced or absent, as in Chama, Spondylus, and Ostrea (Fig. 4). In Ostrea the shell becomes permanently attached at the close of the free-swimming veliger stage; therefore the foot is unnecessary before fixation and useless afterwards, and it has almost entirely disappeared from even embryonic stages of ` growth. In Anomia glabra the foot is active and well developed in nepionic stages ; but later, as the animal becomes permanently attached, it is reduced, and in the adult is highly atrophied. Ordinarily there are two posterior retractor muscles of the foot in Pelecypods, one situated on either side. In adult Pecten either the left retractor alone exists, or both retractors are wanting (the left doubtless always exists in the young). In studies of young Pecten irradians I found that the animal always crawled while lying on the right side, with the foot extended through the notch in the lower valve and pressed against the surface of sup- port. It is evident that while crawling in this position the left retractor is in the plane of traction, and it is retained; on the other hand, the right retractor would not be in the plane of trac- tion, and it has disappeared through disuse and atrophy.’ A sim- ilar disappearance of the right retractors of the foot is seen in Anomia glabra, and is explained on similar bases of argument. The action of the foot in its effect on the form of the shell in some Cases presents interesting mechanical features. In dimyarian Pelecypods which crawl freely the foot protrudes from an area on the free border of the valves, nearly opposite to and comparatively far removed from the hinge line. In such cases, by a slight gaping of the valves, a considerable opening is made, through which the foot extends without (ordinarily) the aid of any special notch. On the other hand, in monomyarian Pelecypods, where the revolved position of the axes brings the foot close up to the hinge line, a special notch is required for the extrusion of the foot, as the valves would have to gape very widely to permit of its T Both tors probably exist in t h stage of Pecten and allies. F 16 The American Naturalist. [January, 4 passage at that area. Such a notch we find in Tridacna, Pecten, and many allies. Young Pecten irradians crawls while lying on its right valve by extending the foot over the edge of the valve. The constant extension of the foot would necessarily cause a local retraction of the right mantle lobe at that area; therefore shell growth would proceed less rapidly, and a notch would consequently be formed. By this action no pressure is exerted on the left mantle lobe, and no notch is formed on that side of the shell In later life the crawling habit is abandoned, the foot atrophied, and the notch nearly or quite disappears, as I have © observed in several species of Pecten. The presence of a byssus at such an area may induce a notch, as well as the crawling habit, as may be observed in Avicula and Meleagrina. Young Hinnites and Spondylus are pecteniform and have a deep byssal notch, as I have shown;* but as soon as they become attached by cementa- tion to a foreign object the use of the foot is of course abandoned, and the notch is not perpetuated in succeeding shell growth. In the development of Anomia we find that the right valve surrounds the byssus completely, enclosing it at an early stage. In later — growth the byssus and calcareous byssal plug become greatly — enlarged, the walls of the enclosing foramen receding to give — space for the enlargement of the organ. This enlargement of the foramen is apparently to be explained on the physiological principle that constant pressure causes a resorption of tissue. In free-crawling or superficially burrowing Pelecypods the foot is extended from an area nearly opposite the hinge line, that being the most effectual position for crawling while the valves are in an upright position. In deep-burrowing forms, as Solen, on the other hand, the foot is extended at an area nearer the hinge line and in the plane of the longer axis of the shell. It is evident that in this position it is more effectual in producing a hole, it is in a better position to drag the shell after it, and it offers the least | -resistance to the surrounding medium. In deep burrowers, as Mya arenaria, and especially Ensatella (Solen) americana, it is to Eh INE S EAE eS ee SE CLASARE EE E n, gn Soma illustrating this stage see this journal, December number, page 1138 ` ® Phylogeny of the Pelecypoda. 1891.] Mechanical Origin of Structure in Pelecypods. 17 be observed that the borders of the shell gape at either end. This is evidently caused by the constant extension of the foot and siphons, which, pressing on the mantle border, thus keep it back at those areas and modify the direction of shell deposition. Another active cause for the gaping of the valves is doubtless the loss of the habit of withdrawing the organs and closing the valves as a source of protection. Such forms as we are considering are protected in a measure by the surrounding sand or other medium, and in time of danger seek safety by burrowing deeply. In Mya arenaria we find a highly elongated siphon. In the young the siphon hardly extends beyond the borders of the valves, and then the animal lives at or close to the surface. In pro- gressive growth, as the animal burrows deeper, the siphon elon- gates, until it attains a length many times the total length of the valves. The ontogeny of the individual and the paleontology of the family both show that Mya came from a form with a very abbreviated siphon, and it seems evident that the long siphon of this genus was brought about by the effort to reach the surface, induced by the habit of deep burial. In the structure of Pecten irradians we find the most complete adaptation to the mechanical requirements of the act of swim- ming. Pecten swims by the rapid opening and closing of the valves, with the resultant violent expulsion of water; but the details of the method are somewhat intricate. In swimming, as well as when at rest, the left valve is always uppermost, and the plane of the edges of the valves is inclined to the surface of the water at an angle of about 45°. The mantle folds are built up in perpendicular walls on the periphery, and these walls perform an important function in swimming. Lying on the bottom, the Pecten suddenly closes its valves by the quick action of the adductor muscle. The first water expelled is driven out posteri- orly in the direction of the arrow a, Fig. 5, and if this were the only or the main direction in which a current is expelled, the animal would by impact of water be driven in the opposite direc- tion, or anteriorly, which is not the case. When the valves have closed to a slight extent, the borders of the two thick perpendic- ular mantle walls come in contact, and then no more water is 18 7 The American Naturalist. (January, driven out posteriorly; but instead, during further closure of the valves it is ejected from the lower border of one ear, where the mantle wall is low and thin, in the direction of the arrow å. The water expelled at this area is the most forcible current, and is probably of the greatest volume, as by its means the animal is impelled in the opposite direction, as indicated by the: arrow c. The valves open quickly and clap } again. The second time as before the first water is driven out posteriorly; but when the mantle walls $ come in contact the direction of the excurrent is | again changed and it is forced out from the lower border of one ear in the direction of the arrow d. Being the strongest current, it impels the animal in the direction of the arrow e. At successive claps the water is driven out from alternate ears, as shown in the figure. The resultant action of the sev- eral currents and successive claps is to drive the animal in the direction of the free borders of the valves, or posteriorly. It is due to the alternate expulsion of water from either ear, as shown in the figure, that the animal pre- sents a series of zigzag jerks in swimming. The action of the first current expelled posteriorly, before the mantle walls come in contact, gives the animal an upward jerk, and it is in virtue of this jerk, combined with the momentum in a posterior direction, — that it maintains its position on the surface of the water, and also the high angle to the surface which it presents in swimming. This current is so powerful that by its action water may be | squirted by adults to the height of five inches or more from the — surface. In the shell a correlated feature of the swimming habit — is seen in the incomplete closure of the valves at the eared areas. 4 Water may therefore pass out when the free borders of the a valves are in immediate contact, as they are at each clap, as indi- cated by the sharp clicking noise made in swimming. The tendency to equalize the form by growth in a horizontal plane in relation to the force of gravity acting in a perpendicular plane, or the geomalic tendency of Professor Hyatt,” is seen mark 10 Trans A4 ations of Planorbis at Steinheim, with Remarks on the Effects of Gravity — upon the Forms of Shells and Animals. Proc. Am. Ass, Adv. Sci., Vol. XXIX., 1880. eee PIET x891.) Mechanical Origin of Structure in Pelecypods. 19 edly in Pelecypods. In forms which crawl on the free borders of the valves the right and left growth in relation to the perpendicu- lar is obvious, and agrees with the right and left sides of the ani- ` mal. In Pecten the animal at rest lies on the right valve, and swims with the right valve lowermost. Here equalization to the right and left of the perpendicular line passing through the centre of gravity is noticeable (especially in the Vola division of the group); but the induced right and left aspect corresponds to the dorsal and ventral sides of the animal,—not the right and left sides, as in the former case. Lima, a near ally of Pecten, appar- ently swims with the edges of the valves perpendicular. In this case the geomalic growth corresponds to the right and left sides of the animal. The oyster has a deep or spoon-shaped attached valve and a flat or flatter free valve. This form, or a modification of it, we find to be characteristic of all Pelecypods which are attached to a foreign object of support by the cementation of one valve. All are highly modified, and are strikingly different from the normal form seen in locomotive types of the group. The oyster may be taken as the type of the form adopted by attached Pelecypods. The two valves are unequal, the attached valve being concave, the free valve flat; but they are not only unequal, they are often very dissimilar,—as different as if they belonged to distinct species in what would be considered typical forms. This is remarkable as a case of inherited or acquired characteristics finding very dif- ferent expression in the two valves of a group belonging to a class typically equivalvular. The attached valve is the most highly modified, and the free valve is least modified, retaining more fully ancestral characters. Therefore it is to the free young before fixation takes place, and to the free, least-modified valve, that we must turn in tracing genetic relations of attached groups. Another characteristic of attached Pelecypods is camerated struc- ture, which is most frequent and extensive in the thick attached valve. The form as above described is characteristic of the Os- treidz, Hinnites, Spondylus, and Plicatula, Dimya, Pernostrea, Etheria, and Mulleria, Chama and its near allies. These vari- ous genera, though ostreiform in the adult, are equivalvular and 20 The American Naturalist. (January, of totally distinct form in the free young. The several types. cited are from widely separate families of Pelecypods, yet all under the same given conditions, adopt a closely similar form, which “is strong proof that common forces acting on all alike have induced the resulting form. What the forces are that have induced this form it is not easy to see from the study of this form alone; but the ostrean form is the base of a series, from the summit of which we get a clearer view. As I stated in an earlier paper," the fullest modification in the ostrean line of variation is the production of a shell in which the attached valve is cup-shaped, conical, or subcylindrical, as seen markedly in species of the Chamide and Rudiste. In this group as a whole, and in progressive stages of growth of its extremest members, all steps may be followed between a simple ostreiform or exogyriform shell and the most highly modified conical type. The Ostrea form is the first step in this line of modification, the Exogyra form is the second step, and the conical form is the last step. What are the mechanical causes which bring about this resultant form? I suggest as an hypoth- esis the following: The Rudiste are conical or cup-shaped Pelecypods, with a superficially marked radial symmetry. So striking is the radial feature that they have been classed with the corals or Cirripeds, and the term radial is combined frequently in generic and specific names of the group. Barretia monolifera, as described by Woodward, is highly radial, and the infoldings of its thin walls closely resemble the radial septa of corals. In other animals which are permanently attached by calcareous fixa- tion, as corals, some worms and Brachiopods, Cirripeds, and others, we find closely comparable forms which are subcylindrical or subconical, with a very marked degree of radial symmetry. Finding so many similar forms built up on different lines of descent affords strong evidence that common forces acting on all alike have induced the resulting form. The equal impact of mov- ing water on all sides of an attached, growing organism, it seems, would cause an equal effort of resistance on all sides, and there- fore induce an equal growth on all sides, thus producing a form 11 Studies of Pelecypoda, AMER. NAT., Dec. 1890, p. 1135. a AE ES Ey AA E acer CW che oda oe Wis Se belonging to anthropology, and left the decision and l thereof to the society. Regulations were adopted govana the sl Petition. Any one could compete except the m of the ous 2357) ee 2 members, who were to be elected four months in se The man ie script should belong to the society, and in case no prize was awarded § any competition, the sum should be added to the next. another prize of 1,500 francs, to recompense the author of memoir on human anatomy, or that branch of physiology 1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 77 related to anthropology. The rules governing this are much the same as those of the Godard prize. In 1883 Monsieur Adolphe Bertillon, called Bertillon pére to recog- nize him from his distinguished sons, also instituted a prize, which should be given for the best memoir concerning anthropology, and notably for demography. This prize was a value of 500 francs, and is given under much the same rules as the foregoing. These prizes are all distributed under the direction of the society, and the days of competition are made gala days. Laboratory of Anthropology.—After the establishment of the Society of Anthropology, which served as a common ground on which the various scientists could meet, read papers, argue, discuss, and elaborate and make known their theories, it was found that the needs of this great science required a laboratory or workshop, in which experiments could be instituted and methods practiced necessary for proper scien- tific investigations. Broca was the first to discover this, and he insti- tuted such a one in his private apartment and for his own use; but it soon outgrew its environment. In 1876 he procured quarters in the Convent of the Cordeliers, which he maintained at his private expense. In 1868 Broca was gratified by receiving the recognition of his laboratory as one of those belonging to the Ecole des Hautes tudes. The state from that moment paid a portion of the expense, and gave small subsidies to Broca by which he was enabled to carry on his work. This was continued until the year 1876, when the School of Anthropology and the Laboratory were recognized by the government as a public utility, and received a place in the governmental budget. Broca directed the laboratory until his death. His various assistants were MM. le Docteurs Topinard, Manouvrier. At his death, Mathias Duval was appointed as director., The laboratory is organized so as to carry on the study of cranio- metry, anthropometry, comparative anatomy of the human race, and the primates. It has its halls for dissection, making casts or moulds for drawings and for study. Dr. Manouvrier is at present, and has been for several years, the principal officer in charge. There are also to be seen here, and used, the instruments of anthropometry which were largely invented by Broca, and also a collection of all the French and European instruments for a like purpose. The extent to which this laboratory is employed shows in the num- ber of students and the amount of work performed, which can be approximately understood by a list that might be given at great length, oe E e 78 The American Naturalist. [January, The students who have occupied the laboratory, and profited by its existence to follow their various branches in the science of anthro- pology, aggregated from 1881 to 1888 a total of 293. This does not include the visitors nor those who did sporadic work, but only those who devoted themselves seriously to the study of some branch of anthropology. The following gentlemen have performed work in the laboratory and library, more as professors than as students, the princi- pal results of which have been recorded in memoirs, some of which have been read before the society, and all have been published in the scientific journals, principally in those related to the Societe d’Anthro- pologie, to wit: the bulletins, memoirs, and Revue. The best of such published memoirs are as follows: Broca (died in 1880), 8; Mathias Duval, 90; Manouvrier, 59) Topinard, 41 ; Chudzinski, 39; G. Hervé, 22; Deniker, 19; Gold- - stein, 7; Mahoudeau and Zuborowski, each 5 ; Kuff, Tenkate, Mere- schowski, Bordier, and Mondeires, each 3; Blanchard, Real, Toroch, and Fére, each 2. The following gentlemen each produeed one: Drs. Dally, Rey, Renard Calmette, Ujfalvy, Pasteau, Bouvier, MM. Girarde, Rialle, Golstein, Drs. Weisgerber, Ducatte, Ribe, Deblemé, Marcano, Bajenoff, Felix Regnault, Orchansky, Baron d’Hercoutt, Danillo, Carriere, Neis, Chambellan, and Cauvin ; making a total of — 345 memoirs, theses, or notes, published as aforesaid. M. Chudzinski is one of the most successful artists in Europe for the — : reproduction in plaster of objects belonging to anthropology. He has made, and they are now to be seen in the museum, 157 pieces of this work. re: It would not be practicable to give any complete list of the publica- a tions of these gentlemen in connection with the Laboratory of Anthro- ae pology. I may, as a sample, and because he is a personal friend, pr a list of the publications of Dr. Manouvrier, together with the J S of publication. ee 1. Measurements and Record of 1,500 Skulls from the Catacombs z Paris. In the Public Register of the Laboratory of Anthropology, 188 2. On the Cubic Index of the Skull. Association Frangais® Rheims, 1880. ee ~ 3- Comparative Study of the Skull and the Skeleton. Congrès 7 d’Algier, 1881. 4. Weight of the Skull. Bull. Soc. d’ Anthropologie, 1881. 5- Craniology. Revue Scientific, 1881. 6. Torsion of the Humerus. Revue d ’ Anthropologie, 1881. 7- The Fuegians. Bull. Soc. d’ Anthropologie, 7 Nov., 188% 1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 79 8. Weight of the Brain. Acad. des Sciences, 6 Jan., 1882. 9. Height and Weight of Body and Brain. Ibid., 2 Feb., 1882. 10. The Brain and the Skeleton. Soc. Zool., 1882. 11. Force of Muscles and Weight of Brain. Ibid., August, 1882, 12. Grand Regions of the Skull in the Two Sexes. Ibid., 1882. 13. Relation between Intelligence and Weight of Brain. Revue Scientific, June, 1882. 14. The Galibis. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Oct., 1882. 15. Skulls of Some OT Ibid., seha 1883. 16. Plagiocephaly. Ibid., June 17. The Weight of the DAEL its ae the Bulb. Congrés de Rouen, 1883. 18. The Skull in Its Relation to Age and Height. Ibid. 19. The Cingalese and the Araucams. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1883. 20. The Relations between Domestic Animals. Bull. Soc. Zool., 1883. 21. Dynamometric Errors, Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1884. 22, A Comparative Study of the Sexes. Progress Française, Jan. 6th, 1884. 23. The Function of the Psycho-Motor. ev. Philosoph., 1884. 24. The Profile of the Brain Compared with the Cavity of the Skull. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Bordeaux, 1884. 25. Ethnology and Ethnography. Z’ Homme, March 25th, 1884. 26. Vitrified Fort of Puy de Gaudy. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1884. 27. Three Cases of Congenital Idiocy. Congrès Blois, 1884. 28. Idiots and Imbeciles of Hospital Blois. Ibid. 29. Character of the Skull and the Brain. Second paper. Interpre- tation of the Weight of the. Brain, Memoirs Soc. d’Anthrop, 1885. 30: The Indian Tribe of Omahas. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1885. 31. Graphic Display of Anthropological Series. Z’ Homme, Feb., 1885. 32. Prehistoric Trepanations. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1885. 33- Physio-Pyschologic Dynamometry. Soc. Biology, 1885. 34. Prehistoric Skulls of Grenoble. Conggren Grenoble, 1885. 35- The Skeleton of Members of Man and of the Anthropoid. Ibid. 36. Dolichocephaly. Soc. Anthrop., Lyons, 1885. 37- Capacity of the Skull of Sixty Assassins, 1885. 38. Skull of an Imbecile. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1885. 39- New Variety of the Wormian Bones. Ibid., 1886. 40. Five Skulls of Senegambiens. Ibid. 41. Craniology of Three Lunatics. Ibid. 80 The American Naturalist. [January, 42. Consecutive Movements of Mental Images. Rev. Philos., 1886. 43- Skulls of Executed Criminals. Archives of Anthrop., Crim- inal, 1886. 44. Importance of Craniology. 1886. 45. The Greek Profile. Congrès of Nancy, 1886. 46. A Micro-Cephalic Idiot. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1887. 47. Seance of Spiritism. Z’ Homme, 1887. 48. Neolithic Skull of Crecy-en-Brie. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1887. 49. The Brain of M. Bertillon. Ibid., 1887. 50. Prognathism and Its Measure. Congrés of Toulouse, 1887. 51. Platyenemy. Memoirs Soc. Anthrop., 1887. 52. Cerebral Comparisons. Rev. Phil, 1887. 53- Vitrified Forts, Walls, and Tumuli, 1887. 54. Studies of a Rickity Dwarf. Congrés of Oran, 1888. 55. The Temporal Convolution of a Deaf Person. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1888. ee 56. The Flattening of the Sous-trochanter. Ibid. 57. Frontal Circonvolutions, à masse du Corps. Ibid. 58. Heights of the Parisians. Ibid. School of Anthropology.—As I have already said, the School ot An- thropology, like the society and laboratory, was indebted to Broca for its establishment. From almost the beginning of his labors in behalt of this science, Broca was of the opinion that the people should b educated in it, He believed that, in addition to all other oppo! m ties, there should be provided that which is so popular in France,- courses of lectures for the public. In 1870 he obtained from the Dean of the Faculty of Medicine permission to deliver a course of lectt on anthropology in the public hall of the chemical school. In : nection therewith he carried on clinical conferences in the la ets wy “In a project for the reorganization of the Faculty of Sciences oo Presented to the National Assembly, Prof. Paul Bert propos® =- 1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 81 institute at the Sorbonne a chair of anthropology. This thought is excellent, and I hope that it will sooner or later be realized. It is still possible that other chairs of the same nature will be established at the College of France and in certain faculties of the provinces. But no matter how many of such single or isolated chairs of anthropology we may have, they will never respond to the needs of education. Good to instruct and to interest the public auditor, and consequently of great utility, they will never serve the needs of the student. If the course is to be accomplished in one or two years, it will be superficial. If it should last for five or six years, like that at the museum, it can be complete and excellent ; but then it will be necessary for students to consecrate to the study of anthropology more time than for law or for medicine. Anthropology is not yet a profession, it does not lead to any public or scientific career, it has no hopes for the future ; it will be rare to find scholars or students who are sufficiently impressed: with this science to persevere to the end. They must also be rich.in money, that they may maintain so long an initiation, It is necessary to form a school of anthropology where each of the principal branches can have a chair and a professor, to the end that the entire science can be taught each year in a simultaneous course, by men specially trained therefor.’’ This was a vast programme, and presented enormous difficulties, but they did not daunt Broca. His indomitable will, seconded by his ardent love for his science, caused him to push his endeavors until he arrived at a happy result. If it was necessary to obtain authorization from the government, he obtained it; subscribers, he gathered them ; money, he found it. Carried away by his convictions, he took as founders around him Bertillon, Chudzinski, Collineau, Mortillet, Top- inard, Manouvrier, Hamy, etc. The government of France, the De- _ partment of the Seine, and the city of Paris combined to furnish each a part of the money needed for the establishment of this School of Anthropology. A generous scientist, Dr. Jourdanet, himself provided the expense of one of these c On the 30th of October, be everything was completed, and the ministerial authorization received, The 15th of November following, the course of lectures and teaching commenced. Broca’s pride was Satisfied when he said, upon that occasion, ‘the foundation of a School. ar Anthropology at Paris enables us to state with pride that anthropol- ogy is a science altogether French.” Other countries might have established chairs of anthropology and aught it in their educational establishments before this, but this was anuary.—6 ` Am, Nat.—J 82 The American Naturalist. [January, the first successful attempt to establish a course of anthropology, with numerous lecturers and professors who should codperate and endeavor to teach the entire science in a single series. Broca, as director, charged himself with the course of anatomic anthropology, and delivered two lectures per. week. Dr. Dally was professor of ethnology, Hovelacque of language, G. de Mortillet of prehistoric anthropology, and Dr. Topinard of biologic anthropology: In 1877—78 Monsieur Bertillon took charge of the course of demog- raphy ; in 1878—’79 Monsieur Bordier commenced a course of medical geography, which chair had been established and paid for by Dr. Jourdanet. ; On the death of Broca, the gth of July, 1880, Monsieur Mathias Duval was designated to succeed him in the chair of anatomic anthro- pology ; and Monsieur Gavarret, a professor of the Faculty of Medi- cine and Inspector-General of Superior Education, was denominated director of the school. i At the death of M. Bertillon, the 28th of February, 1883, the chait of demography was suppressed. In 1884~’85 Monsieur Dally was taken sick, and Dr. Manouvrier supplied his place ; and the same year MM. Blanchard and Hervé were designated to make supplementary courses: In 1885~’86 the chair of the history of civilizations was created, Dr. Letourneau was designated as professor. The rst of January 1888, Monsieur Dally being dead, Monsieurs Hervé and Mani were called respectively to the chairs of zoologic anthropology u physiologic anthropology, and Monsieur Lefevre was charged to wi l plement Monsieur Hovelacque. Finally, in 1889, supplementary courses were added, of which MM. Chudzinski, Mahoudeau, 4 Adrien de Mortillet had charge. The programme of the lectures for the year 1888-89 will give an idea of the scope of the science of anthropology as thus taught. Lee ; follows : Anthropogeny and Comparative Embryology—The Fecundation © the Egg; The Laws of Heredity, Prof. Mathias Duval. Zoologic Anthropology—The Anatomy of Man Compared with ut : Vertebrates ; The Members. Prof. M. Georges Herve. Anthropology General—Parallel between the Characters of SUS! ' ority and Inferiority of the Human; Genealogy of those Chal" ” — in the Animal Kingdom. Prof. Dr. Topinard. Prehistoric Anthropology—Origin of Hunting, Fishing, and Agi” culture. Monsieur Gabriel de Mortillet. 1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 83 Physiologic Anthropology—The Evolution of Psychology ; Parallel between the General Doctrines of Metaphysics and the Doctrines of Science. Prof. Dr. Manouvrier. History of Civilizations—The Evolutions of Political Institutions in the Different Races of Human Kind,—Government, War, Justice. Prof. Dr. Letourneau. Medical Geography—Comparative Pathology; Parasitic Maladies ; These Among the Different Races. Prof. Dr. Bordier. Ethnography and Language—Their Relations to Mythology. Prof. M. Hovelacque, with M. Andre Lefevre as assistant. The supplementary course for the same year was: The Cerebral Convolution. M. Chudzinski. The Principal Phases of the Evolution of the Brain. M. Mahoudeau, Paris and its Environs in Prehistoric Times. M. Adrien de Mortillet. The programme of lectures before the School of Anthropology for the current year 1889—’90 is as follows Prehistoric Anthropology—The Origin, Development, and Consti- tution of the French People; Autochtones; Ligurians and Iberians ; Celts or Gaulois ; Bergundians and Franks; Divers Elements. Prof. Gabriel de Mortillet ; Monday and Wednesday, 4 o’clock. Anthropogeny and Comparative Embryology—The Blastoderm of the Vertebrates, and the Theory of the Gastrula. Prof. Dr. Mathias Duval; Monday, 5 o’clock. Ethnography and Language—The Myths and Gods of the Atmos- phere, of the Stars, and of the Heavens, from the Times of Antiquity Until the Present. Prof. Andre Lefevre ; Tuesday, 4 o’clock. Zoologic Anthropology—Anatomy of Man Compared with that of the Vertebrates ; The Members (continuation). Prof. Georges Hervé; Tuesday, 5 o’clock. Medical Geography—Action of the Environments; Transformism (Evolution) ; Effect of Climate on Man and upon Organized Beings. of. Dr. A. Bordier; Friday, 4 o’clock. Physiologic Anthropology—Human Anatomy in Its Relation to Psychology. Prof. Dr. L. Manouvrier ; Friday, 5 o’clock. History of Civilization—The Evolution of Jurisprudence in the Different Human Races, Prof. Dr. C. Letourneau; Saturday, 4 o'clock, Comparative Ethnography—The Industry of Modern Savages Com- pared with that of the Prehistoric e Poe. Prof. Adrien de Mortillet ; oy, 5 o'clock. 84 The American Naturalist. [January, Histologic Anthropology—Histology of the Nervous System and Its Principal Relation with other Systems of Organism. Prof. Dr. P. G. Mahoudeau ; Wednesday, 5 o’clock. Anatomic Demonstrations—Done at the Musée and Laboratory. Prof. Chudzinski ; Saturday, 3 o’clock. The card on which the foregoing announcements are made has this note at the foot: “A register for inscription is at the school for the auditors of the course who may desire a certificate of attendance.’’ Because of my greater interest in that branch of anthropology belonging to the prehistoric, the course of lectures which were given by Monsieur G. de Mortillet attracted me most. I give the divisions of his course during the two or three later years. The Origin of Man: Man during the Tertiary Geologic Pertod— A glance at the history of the theories of the origin of the earth and of man; geology, general notions; geologic revolutions and their causes; continued movements of the surfaces; theory of earthquakes; laws of paleontology ; succession of living (or created) beings; Prt cursor of man, fossil monkeys ; indication of the existence of an in- telligent being during the Tertiary period ; incised bones from Mount : Operto, Italy ; depot of Thenay (Loir and Cher), flints, burnt oF retouched ; depot of Puy-Courny (Cantal), split flints, fauna; depot 5 of Otta (Portugal), flints chipped, fauna and flora; human skua veras, California; skeletons of Brescia, Italy; jaw of Monin i Quignon ; subdivisions and climatology of the Quaternary period; Neanderthal skull and race ; skulls of Engis (Belgium), of Oo a (Italy), Laugerie-Basse and Cro Magnon (Dordogne) ; transf a and filiation of man ; date (approximate) of the appearance of ee y chronometers ; glaciers, a proof of the antiquity of man. ee Origin of the Arts, Agriculture, and Industry —Heat, fire, lighting: beaux arts—engraving, sculpture, painting, music, architecture; M=" cine, surgery, sculpture, and religion; arms—hatchets, a swords and poignards, bows and arrows, defensive arms ; instrumen®™ knives, Scrapers, razors, saws, etc., etc. ; hunting, fishing, navigation r agriculture, horticulture, domestication ; dress and omane a allurgy—gold and copper, bronze and tin, iron, silver, and | ; ceramics—pottery, glass, enamel, foo _This has lasted two years in the course, and will be published separate volume. es 1891.] Microscopy. 85 Some of these lectures were illustrated by means of lantern slides. Those of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archeology were as follows: Silex tertiare otta 2. e koeni E e OCC The powdered carmine is heated 2—4 hours in the acid, and the solution, after cooling, is then filtered. The time for staining is 24 — hours. Decoloration is effected in the same manner as before. The process, however, is more rapid than with hematoxylin, and hence it must be closely watched. Henneguy’s Methods with Pelagic Fish-Eggs.‘—The eggs _ may be killed in water strongly acidulated with acetic acid. In the course of a few minutes the embryo becomes quite distinct, and ue eggs are then transferred to chromic acid, one per cent. At the ene of three days they are placed in water, and the chorion removed. After 24 hours in water, they are placed in ninety per cent. alcohol, then in absolute alcohol. Such preparations are excellent for surface views, but difficult to section on account of the hardness of the yolk. — € isolation of the germ from the yolk may be accomplished in 6"? Ways : i . i 1. The egg is placed in osmic acid, one per cent., for a few est utes, until it has acquired a light brown color, then transferred to 7" _ler’s fluid, and the chorion cut open with sharp scissors. In this fuid $ Dr. J. Schaffer (Anat. Anz., V., 22, November ed Weigett® OE aaa » V., 22, 2x, 1890, p. 643) employe a ie A Si al fathia lihi SNR UPT Pea nd with perfect success : * Journ. d Anat, et de Physiol., 1888, pp. 416-7. 1891.] Microscopy. 87 the yolk dissolves, and the cortical layer with the germ can thus be easily isolated. After several days the preparation is to be carefully washed and passed through several grades of alcohol. This process does very well for the earlier stages, but not so well for the later ones, as the osmic acid does not penetrate the more advanced embryos sufficiently. : 2. The method that proved the best was as follows: The egg is im- mersed for ten minutes in Kleinenberg’s fluid, to which has been added one-tenth its volume of glacial acetic acid ; it is then opened in ten per cent, acetic acid, which dissolves the yolk, and thus enables one to isolate the germ. The germ is next placed in Kleinenberg’s fluid for several hours, then in alcohol. Bryozoa.’—In studying the process of budding in Pedicellina, Loxosoma, and other Bryozoa, Dr. Oswald Seeliger made use of cor- rosive sublimate (saturated solution in hot sea-water), usually in com- bination with one-fiftieth its volume of glacial acetic acid. This mixture was used cold, and allowed to act from five to eight minutes. The preparation was thoroughly washed and stained with borax-carmine. To this sublimate-acetic acid mixture was sometimes added chromic acid (one-tenth per cent.), with the result that the epithelial structure was well preserved but difficult to stain. Caryokinesis in Paramecium.'—In the study of Paramecium Prof. R. Hertwig made use of picro-acetic acid, chromic acid, and chrom-osmic acid as hardening reagents. Picro-acetic acid followed by borax-carmine was the principal method. The staining process was aided by the heat of an incubator, and decoloration was effected by alcohol acidulated with “hydrochloric acid. The preparation was mounted in glycerine or in clove oil. Clove oil is preferable to Isam, as it reveals more clearly the fibrous structure of the spindle, and allows of turning and pressing the object at any time. Clove oil causes the cytoplasm to become brittle, so that the body of the infusorian may be broken up by pressure or blows on the cover- glass, and thus the nuclear spindles be set completely free. In this isolated condition they can be studied to the best advantage, as they are not obscured by overlying cytoplasm. For the study of the achromatic figures clove oil is too strong a clarifying medium. Glycerine or water will serve better. Hertwig figures, washed in alcohol, and mounted in glycerine. He was thus able to study all parts of the figures under most favorable conditions. Š Zeitschrift f. wiss. Zoologie, XLIX., 1, 1889, pp- 168-9; and L., 4, 1890, p. 561. ëR. Hertwig. Conjugation d. Infusorien. Abhl. d. k. bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., II. Cl., 88 : The American Naturalist. [January, PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, Biological Society of Washington, D. C.—November 29, 1890.—Dr. T. H. Bean read a paper upon ‘‘ The Death of Salmon after Spawning.’ He called attention to the fact that the species of salmon upon the northwest coast belongs to a different genus from the salmon on the Atlantic coast, and one of the distinguishing features of the former was the dying of the fish after spawning. In the smallest species, known as the ‘little humpback,”’ the mortality is excessive, for every individual seems to die after spawning. It isa very abundant and widely spread species. It ascends the smaller streams and de- posits its spawn, often a rod or less, or even within ten feet, of salt water, and yet it does not live to reach it again. The reason for this - is unknown, but the fact is of great practical importance, for if the species spawns but once in its lifetime, if it is not to become extinct the mouths of the streams must be kept free from obstructions. This is not the case, so that if the fish cannot spawn naturally, it remains : only for the Fish Commission to take the matter in charge, and rear the fish artificially. - In the largest species on the coast, when the individuals ascend the é streams only about 75 miles, some return to the ocean ; but when, as 18 oe sometimes the case, they penetrate 500, 1,000, and even 1,500 miles in- land, the evidence all goes to show that none ever return to the ocean — the fish entered fresh water, and suggested it might be this structaral ality. 2 1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 89 Dr. Theobald Smith spoke of ‘‘Species among Bacteria.” He stated it to be possible to separate and study the various forms in a nutrient fluid. The species or forms can be separated by both morpho- logical and biological characters. Among the former were enumer- ated form, size, formation of spores, method of germination, flagella, and staining. The biological characters are the results of culture, both in liquid and upon solid media, The forms can be distinguished by habitat, by the formation of ferments which liquify gelatine, by fermentation, by affinity for oxygen, by coloring matter, and by their occurrence in disease. As examples of these differences the bacillus of anthrax and of hay were compared. They were long supposed to be closely related, and under the microscope both look alike, both grow in the same way, and both have spores of the same kind. But when the two are cultivated in a liquid the hay bacillus will form a scum upon the top of the liquid in a short time ; the liquid will then become cloudy throughout, and finally clear up. With the anthrax, on the contrary, the cloud makes its appearance at the bottom of the culture tube. In germination of the spores, the anthrax grows in the direction of the larger diameter, while the other grows at right angles to it. If the hay bacillus be placed under the skin of an animal, it is innocuous. But if the anthrax be injected, it will kill in twenty-four hours. gain, in the typhoid fever and the hog cholera bacillus there is great similarity in morphological characters ; but when cultivated they assume different colors. In the fermentation tube hog-cholera germ evolve gases, while the typhoid do not. One form of the comma ba- cillus cultivated on gelatine liquifies it; another similar form does not. In the discussion Mr. True thought the morphological characters were those which characterized higher groups than species ; they were rather family, perhaps ordinal, characters. Dr. Smith, in replying to this, stated that it was impossible to say what were family, what were generic, what were ordinal characters, but those he had mentioned were of use in distinguishing the various forms one from another. [In the course of the discussion the fact that the organisms under consideration were of vegetable rather than animal nature was lost sight of. While, therefore, the morphological characters of form, size, Spores, etc., referred to would not do to separate species of animals, they are exactly the characters used by botanists to separate species of plants, Dr. Smith, therefore, in stating that species could be separated go The American Naturalist. [January, upon the morphological characters of form, size, etc., gave characters which are of specific value in plants, though they may not be’so in ani- mals.—J. F. J.] Geological Society of America.—Second annual meeting, Washington, D. C., Dec. 29, 30, and 31, 1890.—The following papers were read: On the Geology of Quebec and its Environs; Henry M. Ami. Antiquities from under Tuolumne Table Mountain, California; On the Early Cretaceous of California and Oregon ; The Structure of a Portion of the Sierra Nevada of California; George F. Becker. The Nickel and Copper Deposits of Sudbury District, Canada; Robert Bell. The Chazy Formation in the Champlain Valley ; Ezra Brainerd. Re- marks on a Fallen Forest and Peat Layer Underlying Aqueous Deposits at Naaman’s Creek, Del. ; Hilborne T. Cresson. Mineral and Chemical Composition of Certain Igneous Rocks from the Mesozoic Area in Cul- pepper County, Virginia; H. D. Campbell and W. G. Brown. A Pro- posed System of Chronologic Cartography on a Physiographic Basis; T. C. Chamberlin. An Account of the Geology of the Washington Region ; On a Jointed Earth-Auger for Geological Exploration in Soft Deposits ; Nelson H. Darton. The Geological Date of the Origin of Certain Topographic Forms on the Atlantic Slope of the Eastern United States; W. M. Davis. Two Fossil-Bearing Belts in the Triassic Foris tion of Connecticut; W. M. Davis and S. W. Loper. Illustrations of the Structure of Glacial Sand-Plains; W. M. Davis and H. L. Rich. oe Note on the Geological Structure of the Selkirk Range, in the Vicinity of the Line of the Canadian Pacific Railway; George M. Dawson. - Note on the Carboniferous Flora of Newfoundland; Sir William 3 Dawson. The Triassic Sandstones in Massachusetts; B. K. Emerson. ae Glacial Grooves South of the Terminal Moraine ; F. Max Foshay and ne : Richard R.Hice. The Overthrust Faults of the Southern Appala Sn Beds of the Texas-Arkansas Region, Coastward of the Present Paleozoic W. L; E..V. D'Invilliers. The Structure of the Blue Ridge Næ graphical Microscopes; A. C. Lane. Notes on Variations i ie Tertiary and Cretaceous Strata of Alabama; Daniel W. Lang ae On Tertiary and Post-Tertiary Changes in Physical Geography ees 1891] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. gl Western as Compared with the Eastern Side of the American Continent ; A Note on the Mutual Relations of Land Elevation and Ice Accumulation During the Quaternary Period; Joseph LeConte. Geology of the Environs of Quebec; Jules Marcou. The Coal Fields of Alabama ; Henry McCalley. The Melting of the Northern Ice Sheet in North- eastern Iowa; W J McGee. Contribution to the Geology of Georgia ; P. H. Mell. The Post-Archean Age of the White Limestones of Sussex County, New Jersey; Frank L. Nason, Relations of Secular Rock Dis- integration to Certain Crystalline Schists ; Ralph Pumpelly. Glaciers of the St. Elias Region, Alaska; I. C. Russell. On the Geology of Little Falls, New York; N. S. Shaler and H. S. Williams. The Rail- roads and the Geology Classes in Alabama; Eugene A. Smith. Notes on Two Moraines in the Catskill Mountains, New York ; J.C. Smock. Post-Pliocene Continental Subsidence; J. W. Spencer. Geological Notes on Mount Diablo, California; H. W. Turner. Glacial Lakes in Canada; Warren Upham. The Cinnabar and Bozeman Coal Fields of Montana; Walter H. Weed. A Last Word with the Huronians ; Alex- ander Winchell. On the Structure and Petrography of the Piedmont Plateau in Maryland ; George H. Williams. Graphic Field Notes for Areal Geology ; Bailey Willis. On the Lower Cambrian Age of the Stockbridge Limestone at Rutland, Vermont ; J. E. Wolff. Observa- tions Upon the Lava Deposits of the Snake River Valley, Idaho; G. Frederick Wright. (To be continued.) Industrial and Scientific Society of Alabama.—The Alabama Industrial and Scientific Society was organized at the University of Alabama, Thursday, December 11th, 1890, with 70 members. Its objects are the promotion of the industries of the State, and the fur- therance of scientific investigations of the problems arising in civil and mining engineering, geology, smelting, and the manufacture of coke. The officers for 1891 are: President, C. Cadle, general manager, Cohaba Coal Mining Co., Biocton. Six vice presidents, viz., Thomas Sedcon, president Sloss Iron and Steel Co., Birmingham; C. P. Wil iamson, president Williamson Iron Co., Birmingham ; W. E. Rob- ertson, city engineer, Anniston; J. W. Burke, president, Tredegar Co., Jacksonville; M. C. Wilson, professor natural science, No School, Florence; Col. Horace Harding, U. S. engineer, Tuskaloosa ; Treasurer, Henry McCalley, Alabama Geological Survey, University Alabama; Secretary, Wm. B. Phillips, professor Chem. and Met. University Alabama. The annual fee is $5.00. The society will "meet three or four times a year at different places in the State for the 4 92 The American Naturalist. (January, reading and discussion of papers, which will afterwards be published. The next meeting will be held in Birmingham, January 28th, 1891. The American Morphological Society.—A_ well-attended meeting for the inauguration of an American Morphological Society was held in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, on December 29th and 3oth, 1890. Officers for the meeting were elected as follows: President, Professor E. B. Wilson ; Secretary and Treasurer, Dr. J. Playfair McMurrich ; Executive Committee: Professor E. L. Mar Dr. C.-S. Minot, and Dr. E. A. Andrews. After the details of meeting had been completed, the following papers were read and discussed: On the Development of the Scypho- medusee ; J. Playfair McMurrich. On the Intercalation of Vertebræ; G. Baur. The Heliotropism of Hydra: a Study in Natural Selection; E. B. Wilson. The Early Stages of the Development of the Lobster; H.C. Bumpus. Some Characteristics of the Primitive Vertebrate Brain; H. F. Osborn, The Development of Nereis and the Mesoblast Question ; E. B. Wilson. The Preoral Organ of Xiphidium; W. H. Wheeler. A Review of the Cretaceous Mammalia; H. F. Osborn. Spermatophores as a Means of Indirect Impregnation ; C. O. Whit man. The Phylogeny of the Actinozoa ; J. Playfair McMurrich. a The following are the officers of the society for the ensuing ree : President, C. O. Whitman; Vice President, Professor E. L. M ; E Secretary and Treasurer, Dr. J. Playfair McMurrich ; Executive Com < : mittee : The Officers of the Society, Professor E. B. Wilson, and Proe fessor H. F. Osborn | Third Annual Meeting of the Association of American : Anatomists.—Held at Boston, Mass., on December 2gth, 30th, and = 31st, 1890.—Monday, December 29th.—The Homology of the Cerebro: os Spinal Arachnoid with the other Serous Membranes; F. W. Langdon) . M.D., Cincinnati, Ohio. Something Additional About the pire . Sternum ; D. S. Lamb, Washington, D. C. The Merits and Defects Owen’s Account of the Cerebral Fissues ; Burt G. Wilder, M.D., Ithac® N. Y. On the Teeth of Cheiroptera; Harrison Allen, M.D., * delphia, Pa. Studies on the Spine; Thomas Dwight, M.D., F ton, Mass. Corrosive Preparations by Different Methods; > E Mixter, M.D., Boston, Mass. The Relations of the Olfactory to E Cerebral Portion of the Brain; Burt G. Wilder, Ithaca, N. Y- = Unusual Case of Platycnemy in the Negro; Frank Baker, M.D Washington, D. C, 1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. -93 Tuesday, December 30th.—Subfrontal Gyri and Problems Connected with the Cerebral Fissures; Burt G. Wilder, M.D., Ithaca, Nok Comparison of the Fibrine Filaments of Blood Lymph in Mammalia and Batrachia, with Methods of Preparation ; Simon H. Gage, M.D., Ithaca, N. Y. The Semilunar Bone; Francis J. Shepard, M.D., Mon- treal, Canada. On the Structure of Protoplasm and Mitosis (Demon- stration); Carl Heitzmann, M.D., New York City. A Specimen, George McClellan, M.D., Philadelphia. Corrections of the Article “Gross Anatomy of the Brain,’’ in Wood’s Reference Hand-Boo of the Medical Sciences ; Burt G. Wilder, M.D., Ithaca, Ni Yu The American Ornithologists’ Union.—The Eighth Congress of the American Ornithologists’ Union was held in the Lecture Hall of the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C., on No- vember 18th, roth, and 2oth, 1890, and was attended by a large num- ber of active and associate members from all parts of the country. The first day’s session was devoted to business. Dr. J. A. Allen, of New York, who has been president of the Union since its foundation, de- clined reélection, and Mr. D. G. Elliot was elected to succeed him in the presidency. The succeeding days were set apart for the reading of scientific papers, of which the following i; a list : November 19th.—1. The American Ornithologists’ Union: A Seven Years’ Retrospect ; J. A. Allen. An interesting review of the work done in American ornithology since the founding of the Union. 2. Seed-Planting by Birds ; Walter B. Barrows. A valuable contribution to economic ornithology based upon the system of stomach examina- tions now being conducted by the Department of Agriculture. 3. A Study of Bird Waves in the Delaware Valley during the Spring Migra- tion of 1890; Witmer Stone. This paper gave a brief review of the work done by the Delaware Valley Ornithological Club, of Philadelphia, in the investigation of bird migration, and illustrated by a system of a new method for the graphic arrangement of migration data’ 4. Our Present Knowledge of the Neotropical Avifauna ; Frank M. Chapman. An excellent review of the work that has been done on the birds of the western tropics, up to the present time. 5. “ie Present Status of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker; E. M. Hasbrouck. By carefully-prepared maps Mr. Hasbrouck contrasted the former ex- tensive distribution (nearly throughout the Austro-riparian fauna) of this elegant bird, and its present restricted range in Florida and the southernmost portions of some of the other Gulf States, and showed that in the near future this species will become a thing of the past. 6. Phalaropes at Swampscott, Mass; Wm. A. Jeffries—read by Mr. Chap- 94 The American Naturalist. [January, man. 7. The Spring Migration of the Red Phalarope ; Harry Gordon White—read by Dr. Allen. This paper gave the results of observations on this bird during a voyage from Massachusetts to the Gulf of St Lawrence, and indicated that the birds, in the spring of 1890, after following the southern coast of Nova Scotia, passed through the Gut of Canso, instead of rounding Cape Breton Island. 8. Some Observa- tions on the Breeding of Dendreca vigorsii at Raleigh, N. C.; C5. _Brinley—read by Mr. Chapman. November 20th.—9. The Trans-Appalachian Movement of Birds from the Interior to the South Atlantic States, Viewed Chiefly from the Standpoint of Chester Co., S. C.; Leverett M. Loomis. ro. The Birds of Andros Island, Bahamas ; John I. Northrop. An interesting account of the birds of this (ornithologically) little-known island, where Mr. Northrop was fortunate enough to discover a fine new species of Icterus (Z. northropi Allen.) Dr. Allen made some addi- tional remarks upon the birds collected by Mr. Northrop, exhibiting a number of specimens, 11. Some Bird Skeletons from Guadalupe Island ; Frederic A. Lucas, 12. On the Tongue of Humming-Birds; F. A. Lucas. 13. Remarks on the Primary Faunal Divisions of North America; C. Hart Merriam. In this able paper Dr. Merriam ex- plained his recently-published Faunal Map of North America, and gave his grounds for abolishing the generally-adopted system of dividing the continent into three great provinces,—Eastern, Central, and Western,—and for deriving the various faunal districts from tw? primary regions—Boreal and Sonoran. The paper was illustrated by & large series of maps showing all the faunal divisions of the No American continent that have hitherto been proposed by authors. After this paper, Mr. William Brewster exhibited a number of excel lent lantern slides from photographs of wild birds taken in the field. The following Papers were presented, but were not read for lack of time : An Experimental Trial of a New Method for the Study of Bird : Migration ; Harry Gordon White. The Case of Colaptes auratus and C cafer 7 J. A. Allen. Observations upon the Classification of the United States Accipetres—Based upon a Study of their Osteology ; R. d Shufeldt. Some Notes Concerning the Evening Grosbeak ; Amos ~: Butler, Owls of Illinois; W. S. Strode. Instinct, Intuition, and " p Sence; C. F. Amery. The Habits of the American Golde Plover in Massachusetts; Geo. H. Mackay. Correction to Revised the White-Faced Glossy Ibis in Kansas ; N. S. Goss.—W. S. ADVERTISEMENTS. Words; their Use and Abuse. By Wm. Matuews, LL.D. Twentieth edi ition n, ae cloth, 504 pp. Regular price, 92. 00; with the GEOL- OGIST for $4.00 Siar: nye ay Things. y Wm. Matuews, LL.D. Third edition, 1 12mo., 394 pp. painde price, $1. 50; with the GEOLOGIST for a. $3.75. Shall We Teach ehar! By ALEXANDER WINCHELL, LL.D. 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English & Co. 739and 741 Broadway, New Dealers Ta Minerali: 1512 Chestnut St., Philad - Hasdsomdy stamped cloth covers for use in binding — have been ae by the eae an FHE MERICAN ATURALIST. A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. FEBRUARY, 1891. GAIN EN TS PAGE I TES OF THE Erare HEAD, H. W. Norris, E ies AND agai OF POLYGAMY THE PINNIPEDIA, we ce E. Oy NS THE “sae OF THE _CitkomatorHones ustrated], . Carl H. Eigen ave IN Western New Yor » Hewes, M D., ae ecent Progress in the Study of the i oe sg Toe Phe Geolog : Teks Kohs = Algnin tS ae 95 103 SCIENTIFIC NEWS, — Botany — The Relative ‘ised of the Rocky ind is a alae gh pr Systems as Influencing the peer ok em P rie, m oe on Work n the Fun nate asistim dia PAA Zoology. —New California Fishes—The Epiglottis in Coane < pe ae rated] — Nores on the Class heer of t eons—Description of * New es of vde ts eons Me; sc T ie Love cond ylar Bridge in A i ee ” ERR ete] Tae Ea pores of See cise ss Entomology. = roses in jabe edie No b Ti of e me ‘Appie nara. Po 4 fea te Bhain n The Scie ris Bark aris [Contin ap a Certain € he Mouth A Amon g the American American Indians, —Methods fo SP ee OE VE hyenas ARES TEA OLEN Somme Sa Ae aes eae A Be ae + in RA EARN P oa AE T A O E E, eia a eee THE AMERICAN NATURALIST VoL. XAV. FEBRUARY, 1891. , 291. RECENT STUDIES OF THE VERTEBRATE HEAD. BY H. W. NORRIS. HE view that the vertebrate head is composed of several seg- ments, comparable to those of the trunk, has of late years formed the basis of almost innumerable essays; but the problems connected therewith cannot yet be regarded as solved. It is, indeed, universally admitted that the head is composed of seg- ments or metameres; but the number of segments and the limit of each segment are points upon which there is far from una- nimity of opinion. A study of the skull, as was first pointed out by Goethe, leads to one conclusion, while a study of the muscle- plates or myotomes of the embryo gives greatly different results. Then the brain itself in its early stages shows marked evidence of metamerism, while the nerves arising from the brain can be more or less clearly divided into segmental groups which can be com- pared to the undoubtedly segmental spinal nerves. In the following pages I have presented, in a very condensed form, the results of some recent studies in this direction. In these abstracts the nerves are referred to by Roman numerals, in accord- ance with the commonly received ideas of their sequence: I., olfactory; II., optic; III., oculomotor; IV., trochlearis ; V., tri- geminus; VI., abducens; VIL, facial; VIIL, auditory; IX., glossopharyngeal; X., vagus; XI., spinal accessory ; XII., hypo- glossal. In the lizard, according to Hoffmann ('88-'89), the myo- tomes of the head agree very closely with the same in the chick 96 The American Naturalist. [February, and Selachians. But the fourth seems to be wanting, and corres- ponding in position to the third myotome are two small cellular masses, not connected with each other, out of which are devel- oped the muscles externus rectus and retractor bulbi. Between the vagus nerve and the first cervical spinal nerve are four myo- tomes, the cephalic of which is rudimentary. The oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens nerves are not described in their earliest stages. The III. with a broad origin springs from the base of the midbrain, and innervates the muscles derived from the first head-cavity. The IV. arises as a large cellular outgrowth from the place where the roof of the midbrain passes into the hindbrain, and’ resembles in every respect the “ Anlagen” of the dorsal cranial nerves, sending an extension to the epidermis. The absence of a trochlear ganglion in the serpent, bird, and Selachians, and its presence in the lizard, gives rise to the query whether the trochlear nerve may not primarily have been the motor nerve of the protective organs of the parietal eye. The VI. springs by 10-12 fine fibres from the base of the medulla oblongata, and innervates the muscles derived from the two cellular masses that appear to belong to the third head-cavity. The V., VIJ—VIIL, [X.,and X. nerves take their origin from the neural ridge, ina manner similar to the dorsal roots of spinal nerves, and their respective ganglia unite with the epidermis above the branchial arches. Between the V. and VII—VIII. the neural ridge early aborts. The ophthalmic ganglion of the V., from its development on a dorsal root and its anastomosing with the III. nerve, # ventral root, is regarded as homologous to a dorsal ganglion ; The ganglion of the VII—VIII. nerve divides into two portions, the anterior part being the proper ganglion of the facial nerve, the other forming the auditory ganglion. The accessorio-vagus : nerve arises by a broad base extending from the IX. nerve to the second cervical spinal nerve. Later the neural ridge loses its connection with the brain, and becomes a commissure between the second cervical nerve and the caudal vagus root, so the X: -then arises by 5-6 roots. The hypoglossus originates by fo roots, the caudal root being a branch of the first cervical spinal n nerve. Anterior to the roots of the hypoglossus are two rudi- oe bad 1891.] Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. 97 mentary somites, to the caudal of which apparently belongs a nerve of transitory duration. Froriep had already discovered four somites in the occipital region of the chick, but it will be seen that in the lizard there are five somites in this region. The two cephalic roots of the hypoglossus possess neither ganglia nor dorsal roots; the condition of the third root in this respect has not been determined; the first cervical nerve has a transient gan- glion, and the second cervical a permanent ganglion. The hypo- glossus thus seems to represent a complex of true spinal nerves, whose ganglia and dorsal roots have partially or completely degenerated. According to Hoffmann (’89), on the hinder portion of the lizard’s brain appears an evident segmentation. Other authors had previously noticed this. Hoffmann finds in the hind- brain and medulla seven segments. From the caudal of these springs the X. nerve; from the next, or sixth, the IX.; opposite the fifth is the ear vescicle; from the fourth arises the VIL-VII. : from the third none; from the second the V.; from the cephalic border of the first segment the trochlear nerve primarily takes its origin, though later shifting over to the midbrain. Rabl (’89) considers the vertebrate head as consisting of two regions: a cephalic or Bo unsegmented, and a caudal or distal segmented region.! The ear vescicle forms the boundary between the two portions, but is to be reckoned with the prox- imal. The mesoderm of the proximal section may be divided into segments which neither in mode of origin nor in further de- velopment can be compared with protovertebre. The five distal somites arise exactly as the protovertebre. The first protoverte- bra to appear is the fifth head somite of Van Wijhe, or the first distal somite. The musculature and connective tissue of the dis- tal somites develop in the same portions as in the protovertebre of the body. Dorsal and ventral nerve roots occur in this region as in the body. In their origin the proximal somites show scarcely even a distant relationship with the structure of protovertebre. The proximal somites cannot be called primary, for they appear later than the Tans The muscles of the proximal re- l Kastschenko had d obse lin b r p sad did the meso- derm of the anterior portion of the head appear segmented 98 The American Naturalist. [February, gion arise almost entirely in portions where in the protovertebra connective tissue originates, and vice versa. There is no differ- entiation of myotomes and sclerotomes in the proximal somites. There are two primary nerves in the cephalic portion, the V. and VII—VIII., but these do not arise from a continuous neural ridge, The cephalic border of the neural ridge forms a delicate strand uniting with the triangular part of the trigeminus Anlage, which becomes the ciliary ganglion. In later stages, answering to the direction of this delicate strand, extend the oculomotor and troch- lear nerves. The oculomotor and trochlear nerves are thus to be considered as secondarily derived from the trigeminus, and the eye-muscles perhaps from the musculature of the first branchial arch innervated by the V. From researches on Selachians, birds, and mammals it is concluded that the III. and IV. nerves arise on the dorsal border of the midbrain. The primary nerves of the caudal region of the head are the IX., X., and hypoglossus, the latter consisting of the ventral roots of the region. The IX. ani X. arise from a continuous neural ridge in a series with the dorsal roots of the true spinal nerves. The opinion of Beard, that the “ Anlagen ” of the dorsal cranial and spinal roots develop prior to and independent of the neural tube, is erroneous. The homol- ogy of the spinal ganglia to the parapodial ganglia of Annelids cannot be established till it is proved that the spinal ganglia grow out of the ectoderm independent of the neural tube. Rabi bases — his observations on embryos of Torpedo ocellata. The unseg mented mesoderm of the head in the Craniota he compares with * the unsegmented forward extension of the first primitive segment in Amphioxus. In the head region of Amphioxus are two stout | nerves, which cannot be compared with spinal nerves. Rabi mee oe they may be homologous with the V, and VII.—-VIL of the Craniota. In reply to Rabl, Dohrn (90a) notes that the former repeats: the mistake of Balfour in deriving the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves from the neural ridge. In all Selachians the dorsal roo _ of the spinal nerves grow out of the ganglia into the neural tube. _ The sensory fibres of the cranial nerves (V., VIL-VIL, 1X. and) grow out from the ganglia into the brain, while the motor fibres spring from the cells of the lateral columns and enter the ganglia. r89r.] Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. 99 The neural ridge arises as a cell-growth from the closing portion of the neural tube, as Rabl says. Neither His’s “Zwischenstrang” nor Beard’s ectodermal ganglion-anlage theory is tenable. The cells of the neural ridge, that do not form ganglia, atrophy. The neural ridge may thus be regarded as merely the forerunner of the ganglia. The gaps between the Anlagen of the V., VII-VIII., and IX. nerves do not prove the absence of a continuous neural ridge in that region, but rather are points of atrophy. Rabl is correct in saying that a nerve-strand arises at the cephalic border of the neural ridge. The cell-mass from which this springs is anterior to the ciliary and gasserian ganglion Anlagen. In Torpedo a true ganglion is found derived from this cell-mass, but it later loses connection with the neural tube and neural ridge. After isolation nerve-fibres grow out from this ganglion, thus proving that sensory nerve-fibres and sensory root-fibres arise not from the neural tube, but from the cranial and spinal ganglia. The fibres of this isolated ganglion enter into such close relation with the trochlear nerve as to appear to belong to it. This ganglion and its outgrowth of fibres appear to represent the nerve ophthalmicus superficialis minor. The III. nerve arises by 3-7 roots from the base of the midbrain, and no medullary cells pass out with it. The ganglion, which seems to belong to this nerve, is really derived from the ciliary ganglion. The III. and IV. do not have their origin in the cephalic portion of the neural ridge. The VLE; as well as the III., spring from the anterior column of the medulla oblongata. It arises by 4—6 roots. The hypoglossus is in no way connected with the vagus. It is to be regarded as formed from the ventral roots of one or more spinal nerves, as Balfour thought. Van Wijhe found extending over the eighth and ninth myotomes an outgrowth of the neural ridge, interpreted by him as representing rudimentary ganglia of the second and third hypoglossal roots. Froriep first established the existence of rudimentary ganglia of the hypoglossus. Ostroumoff finds in Pristiurus two spinal ganglia answering to the last two roots of the hypoglossus. Dohrn states that the hypoglossus has as many ganglio Anlagen as there are ventral roots, the first being merely a thickening of the neural ridge. It is impossible to 100 The American Naturalist. [February classify the V. and VIL-VIII. nerves in contrast to the IX. and X. All four are connected with the organs of the lateral line, while the spinal nerves take no part in the latter structures. The motor roots of all four spring from the lateral column, and pass into the ganglia, while no motor fibres go into the spinal ganglia. In Selachians, at the time the sensory roots of the glossopharyn- geus and vagus enter thé medulla oblongata, there appears in this region a folding or furrowing of the walls of the neural tube, similar to that seen in the spinal cord. In this segmentation the roots of the IX. and X. nerves correspond in position to the : furrows separating the metameres, just as the furrows in the metamerism of the spinal cord answer to the sensory nerve-roots. The probability that the vagus is a polymere whose components were originally similar to spinal nerves, the similarity of the V. and VII—VIII. nerves to the IX. and X.in development and functional differentiation, and the fact that the neural ridge can be traced anteriorly into the VII.—-VIII. anlage, render Rabl’s hypothesis of unsegmented cranial mesoderm untenable. Dohrn’s recent contributions ('904) to our knowledge of primitive cranial segmentation must be regarded as epoch- making. In embryos of Torpedo marmorata, stage F of Bal- four, 12-15 myotomes are found anterior to the glossopharyn- geal region. Rabl refused to refer any segmentation to this region. Van Wijhe found four somites, These 12-15 myotome pass ventrally into the lateral plates, which “form the cranial cœlom, and out of which come the “head-cavities.” In stage G the myotomes are considerably coalesced, and the more te z development goes on the more the obliteration of myotome boundaries. Van Wijhe’s mandibular somite is made up of 3 eo myotomes, the hyoid of 3, and the fourth somite of pe 3 The segmentation recognized by Van Wijhe is thus appar- ently secondary. The myotomes of the head are throughout comparable to the myotomes of the body. The cranial motor nerves show a metamerism. The III. nerve arises by si separate fibres, and innervates the muscles of the premadi head-cavity, which is a multiple of myotomes. The KE originates also as a multiplex of fibres, and innervates "© 1891.] Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. IOI muscles of the third head-cavity, which is also composed of several myotomes. Both nerves spring from the anterior columns, and are homodynamous with motor spinal nerves. The IV. nerve emerges on the dorsal border of the brain, but whether it is homodynamous with the cranial ganglionic motor fibres, or with the motor spinal nerves, is uncertain. The gan- glionic motor fibres, viz., those of the V., VII—VIIL., IX., and X., arise from the lateral columns. These fibres greatly converge in passing to the ganglion-anlagen of the respective nerves, and it may be assumed that at one time the fibres arose as separate nerves, each belonging to its myotome. Marshall believes the olfactory nerve to be an outgrowth from the anterior portion of the neural ridge. Beard advances the same view. His found that in human embryos the olfactory ganglionic cells and nerve- fibres originated from the epithelium of the nasal vescicle. Dohrn confirms the same in Selachians. Rudimentary ganglia are found in the anterior part of the V. Anlage, in the anterior part of the VII. Anlage, and in the anterior part of the IX.and X. We see indications of a centralizing process which has resulted in the reduction in number of the primitive ganglia. Displace- ment and suppression has taken place in the visceral mesoderm of the head. The premandibular, mandibular, and hyoid head- cavities are to be considered as multiples of original head-cavi- ties, in which serial origin the lateral plates share. The fact that the embryonic vascular system is similar throughout would indicate that it originated at a time when the body was not yet differentiated into metameres. The difference in direction of the blood-currents in the aorta and the carotids can be explained by the hypothesis that the current in the latter has been reversed by the suppression of preoral arterial arches. By this hypothesis it may be assumed that at one time there was no separation be- tween aorta and carotids. In consequence, the existing mouth is derived from the coalescence of one or more pairs of gill-clefts, and there must have been a time when the present mouth did not exist. Thyroid and hypophysis must have.had a bilateral struc- ture, so that a median passage could be left for the conus arte- tiosus. The aorta shares in two segmentations: one that of the a =a Sees n fae ni af tegen 102 The American Naturalist. [February, branchial arches, the other that of the vertebral arteries ; the one of the branchiomeres, the other of the myotomes. The existing branchiomeres do not appear to be secondary to the myotomes, but secondary to primary hypothetical branchiomeres. In the hyoid and mandibular arches, and in the region of the head- cavity supplied with the III. nerve, are to be assumed a greater number of primitive branchial clefts. Hyoid and spiracular clefts are to be considered as multiples of branchial clefts. The irregu- larity seen in the posterior branchial arches is connected with the changes that have caused the coalescing of branchial arches. Thyroid, mouth, hypophysis, and nose are evidently related to the branchial system. Gegenbaur holds that the branchial skele- ton is secondarily derived from ribs. But the ribs are dorso- lateral structures, and the branchial arches ventral. If the latter are secondary articulations of the vertebral column, then traces of the apophyses should be found. But as this does not occut, the branchial skeleton is to be regarded as of independent origin. The hyoid and mandibular cartilages then represent multiples, and cartilaginous girdles, which have functioned as branchial arches, now enter into the composition of the skull. LITERATURE. goa. Dourn, A. Bemerkungen über den neuesten Versuch yor Lösung des Wirbeltierkopf-Problems. Amat. Anz., V., Nos. 2 and e adi ‘900. DOHRN, A. Studien zur Urgeschichte des Wirbelthierkörpers- XV. Neue Grundlage zur Beurteilung der Metamerie des Kopfs. Mittheil. Zool. Station, Neapel, IX., Heft 3, 1890. ER '89. HOFFMANN, C.K. Ueber die Metamerie des Nachhirns und Hinter hirns, und ihre Beziehung zu den segmentalen Kopfnerven bei Ree . HorrMann. In Bronn’$ Klassen und Ordnungen 2 = i Reichs. Bd. VI., Abth. IIL, pp. 1907-1914, 1938-2000, 1888-'89- bryos. Anat. Anz. IIl., p. 445, 1888. ’89. RABL, C. Theorie des Mesoderms. Morph. Jahrbuch, >r ar 2, 1889. 88. KASTSCHENKO, N. Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Selachierem — , . bei 89. VON OSTROUMOFF, A. Ueber die Froriep’schen ganglien Y Selachiern. Zool. Anz., No. 311, 1885. (To be continued.) 1891.] Polygamy Among the Pinnipedia. 103 SOME OF THE CAUSES AND RESULTS OF POLYG- AMY AMONG THE PINNIPEDIA’ BY..C.:C. NULTTING, oe geen years ago the writer was much struck by the great sexual differences met with among the Gallinæ, and had noted the fact that there was a relation between sexual disparity in size and polygamy. During the last summer an opportunity was afforded to care- fully observe one species of the Pinnipedia, and these observations led to a perusal of all the available literature for facts concerning the relation between sexual disparity and polygamy in this order. The results of this study had already been outlined for a paper to be read before the Iowa Academy of Sciences, when an article appeared in the November number of the Natura cist entitled “Probable Causes of Polygamy Among Birds,” by Samuel N. Rhoads. The above facts are mentioned to show that the conclusions as to the cause of polygamy among birds on the one hand, and Pin- nipedia on the other, were the result of independent investigations, and hence will serve to strengthen each other in some important particulars. _ True polygamy is something of a rarity among the Mammalia. It must not be confounded with mere promiscuous sexual inter- course, suchas is often met with among the Herbivora. The term polygamy, in its strict sense, can properly apply only to those species in which a single male habitually copulates with several females, and jealously and persistently defends them from the approach of other males. The most typical examples of this state of affairs are met with among the Pinnipedia, and ultra polygamy is exemplified by the northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus). Two striking facts at once arrest the attention of even the most cursory observer of this species : Ist, The astonishing extent to which polygamy is carried. 1 Paper read before the Iowa Academy of Sciences, Jan. rst, 1899. 104 The American Naturalist. [February, Mr. Elliott thinks “ that it will be nearly correct to assign to each male from twelve to fifteen females, occupying the stations nearest the water, and those back in the rear from five to nine. I have counted forty-five cows all under one bull.’” 2nd, The no less astonishing disparity in size between the sexes. The average length of the male is 7 14 feet, while that of the female is 4 feet.. The male weighs 450 lbs., while the female weighs only 85 lbs. It will thus be seen that the male weighs nearly six “mes as much as the female. Two questions arise in view of the above facts: Ist, Is there any relation between polygamy and sexual dis- parity in size? 2nd, If so, what is that relation? The Pinnipedia are fortunately sufficiently numerous in species and individuals to furnish an ample field for the study of both of the above questions. They are all eminently gregarious in habit, a condition favorable to polygamy. The order furnishes ex- amples of both monogamous andpolygamous species, and almost every degree of sexual disparity in size to be found in the Mam- malia. We can easily construct a series of species, ascending from those exhibiting the least sexual disparity to those exhibiting the greatest. We can then see what, if any, relation exists between sexual disparity and polygamy. We shall presently see that pug- nacity on the part of the males plays a not unimportant rôle. in our discussion, and for that reason the fighting proclivities of the males will also be noted. The following arrangement, then, illustrates what might be termed the ascending series of sexual disparity. The relation of the sexes (monogamy, promiscuity, or polygamy) and the relative pugnacity of the males in relation to other males of the same species will also be noted in each case. Odobenus rosmarus (Walrus). (2) Sexes nearly equal in size, the female not being notably smaller than the male. (2) Monogamous, according to the only ? Quoted from “ Monograph of North American Pinnipeds” (Allen). Nearly all Material used in the above article has been taken from that work. 1891.] Polygamy Among the Pinnipedia. 105 information at the disposal of the writer.’ (c) Disposition not at all quarrelsome, the animals of both sexes being singularly good-natured and peaceable, “ huddling together like so many swine,” although they will fight fiercely in defence of their young. Cystophora cristata (Hooded Seal). (a) Considerable sexual disparity. The male is eight feet long, and the female seven feet. Weight of male, 450 pounds; of female, 200 pounds. (4) Probably monogamous, although there is no direct evidence at hand. There is at least nothing to indicate that they are polygamous in the sense used in this paper. (c) The males fight fiercely for the possession of the females. Erignathus barbatus (Bearded Seal). (a) Considerable sexual disparity. Length of male, ten feet; length of females, seven feet four inches. Weight of males, two- and-one-half times that of females. (4) Strictly polygamous, according to the single authority found. (c) Males often have Severe battles, the strongest males driving away the younger. Macrorhinus angustirostris (Sea Elephant). (a) Great sexual disparity. The weight of the male is three- and-one-half times that of the female. (4) Polygamous.* Elliott Says that they “resemble the sea lions in their breeding habits.” (c) The males “fight desperately for the females.” Eumetopias stelleri (Steller’s Sea Lion).. (2) Great sexual disparity. Length of males, twelve feet; of females, eight-and-one-half feet. Weight of male, three times that of female. (6) Strictly polygamous. This species maintains a regular harem, but “does not maintain any such regular system in preparing for and attention to its harem as is illustrated on the breeding grounds of the fur seal” (Elliott). (c) “The bulls fight savagely among themselves, and turn off from the breed- ing ground all the younger and weak males.” y Monograph of North American Pinnipeds, p. 107. *“ The sea elephants appear to be exceptional among the Phocidæ in the great dis- Parity of size between the sexes, in which, as we// as in their breeding habits, they- Ty emble the Otaries.” Monograph of North American Pinnipeds (Allen), p. 755- j : ine. = 106 The American Naturalist. [February, Callorhinus ursinus (Northern Fur Seal). (a) Extreme sexual disparity. The males weigh three times as much as the females. (4) Ultra polygamous, the males main- taining a large harem, and guarding the females with the great- est vigilance and courage. In fact, this animal is the most polygamous of all the Mammalia. (c) Males fight with greatest desperation and persistence for females. A consideration of the above series will disclose the fact that there is a close and constant relation between polygamy and disparity in size among the Pinnipedia. It also indicates that this relation is a direct one, the disparity increasing part passu with the polygamy throughout the series. Another fact is ren- dered evident by this series, and that is that the combativeness of the males increases pari passu with sexual disparity and polygamy. These facts having been reasonably well established, it is pos- sible to construct a hypothetical history of events which will illustrate the successive stages by which a species might pass from a simply gregarious habit, in which monogamy, or at least promiscuity, prevails, to the extreme of polygamy practiced by the northern fur seal. Such a transition may be conceived to — take place by the following steps or gradations: Ist, An eminently gregarious species would offer more favor- able conditions for the introduction of polygamy than a non- gregarious species. Our point of departure in this part of the discussion would then be a gregarious, monogamous species. It the principles deduced from an examination of the series presented in the first part of this paper be correct, this species should also be one in which.there is little sexual disparity, and little or no fighting among the males for the possession of the females. All of the above conditions seem to be fulfilled in the case of the walrus (Odobenus rosmarus). This species will then stand for our point of departure. : 2nd, The gregarious habit of the walrus offers a constant opportunity for a departure from the path of monogamous recti- tude. This fact is well illustrated in human affairs by the great 6 Rikkase y 4. 4 a RA i 3 fight fifty or sixty battles during a single season., 1891.] Polygamy Among the Pinnipedia. 107 amount of social immorality found among the crowded tenements of our large cities. Constant opportunity offers the most power- ful temptation to gratify desire, and this is doubtless as true among Pinnipedia as among men. The result of this is a departure from strict monogamy in the direction of promiscuity. The harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) illustrates this stage in the process. So far as I can ascertain, this species is simply promiscuous in sexual affairs, but does not attain to polygamy in the sense used here. The sexual disparity is slight, the males being somewhat heavier, and but little, if any, longer than the females, 3d, The departure from monogamy in the direction of pro- miscuity results in constant rivalry on the part of the males to possess the most attractive, or the greatest number, of the females. Rivalry begets warfare, the world over. This purely individual and personal rivalry among the male Pinnipedia results in indi- vidual combats, in which courage, ferocity, and size are the con- trolling factors. We thus have instituted the most rigorous kind of sexual selection, by means of which the above desirable qualities are secured, propagated, and intensified on the part of the males. The females, on the contrary, seem to be practically passive. The writer has been unable to find any evidence that the female Pinnipedia exercise any choice in the matter of accepting or rejecting individual successful males. The sexual selection _ thus instituted is true sexual selection as defined by Darwin as follows: “This [sexual selection] depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex or species, in exclusive relation to reproduction.” ™ It differs, however, from a vast majority of instances of sexual selection in apparent absence of choice on the part of the female. This stage in the development of polygamy is illustrated by the hooded seal (Cystophora cristata), which appears to be pro- miscuous in sexual matters, and in which the males fight fiercely for the possession of the females. The divergence in sex has become considerable, as already indicated, the males being more than twice as heavy as the females. _ §This word, although questionable, is the only one known to the writer by which the meaning, indiscriminate intercourse, can be tersely exp 1 The Descent of Man, p. 248. The italics are mine. , 108 The American Naturalist. [February, 4th, The struggle for the possession of the females having become a fixed and intensified habit, and the sexual disparity continuing to grow more pronounced, the following results might be expected : (a) The larger and lustier males would have their desire greatly intensified and their sexual powers appreciably increased. (2) The smaller and weaker males would be crowded to the . wall, and, in many instances, entirely deprived of all conjugal rights, which would be usurped by the larger and stronger animals. As a result of these conditions, certain males would obtain possession of several females, and deprive all other males of — access to them. This would be polygamy in the sense used in this paper. The whiskered seal (Erignathus barbatus), in which the male weighs two-and-one-half times as much as the female, and polygamy prevails, would illustrate this stage in the process. 5th, Polygamy having become a fixed habit, all the conditions would tend to accelerate the divergence in size between the sexes. The selection by which the bulkiest and most pugnacious males would succeed in obtaining the females would be as rigorous as could well be conceived, and would result in very great sexual dis- parity. The males would become remarkably fierce and aggressive. The females, on the contrary, would become less and less disposed — to offer any resistance to the males, and hence a remarkable _ difference in temperament would eventually separate the sexes. The males would be intensely pugnacious, jealous, and aggressive, while the females would be gentle, indifferent, and passive.” Polygamy having become established, the causes or conditions 7 which aided in its establishment would tend to its intensification to such an extent that some males would have scores of | Id ne Z in their harems, while others, indeed the majority, wou entirely deprived of marital rights. Such, in brief, is the state of * Curiously enough, Darwin quotes Captain Bryant to the effect that the gemei a | ding her g piace. * 1891.] Polygamy Among the Pinnipedia. 109 affairs among the sea lions, of which the fur seal (Ca//orhinus ursinus) is the best example. The above hypothetical history of events will serve to convey the writer’s opinion as to what may have been the stages by which polygamy has arisen and become intensified among the Pinnipedia. For the sake of the non-scientific reader, it may be well to say that there is no intention to convey the idea that the fur seal was first a walrus, then a seal, and finally evolved into a sea lion or fur seal. Two other points deserve mention in connection with this highly interesting animal. ; The question naturally arises, Why do not the females in- ‘crease in size by inheriting the increased bulk of the male? There are few more interesting and perplexing laws than those of inheritance, and among these one of the most elusive is*the inheritance of certain characteristics by one sex alone. Darwin attempts to explain these facts by the hypothesis of pangenesis,— a theory which seems to have few, if any, supporters at present. Whatever may be the cause of the transmission of certain char- acters to one sex only, there are two facts that may help us to. understand the disparity between the sexes of the fur seals: Ist, The great size of the male is purely a secondary sexual character, and as such would not be expected to be inherited by the female, whatever may be the reason or an ultimately found to explain the fact. 2d, Small size is of direct advantage to the female in this case, and hence a watural selection? would tend to intensify this fea- ture, or what is practically the same thing, to keep the females from sharing in the increased size of the males. The advantage referred to arises from the manner in which the females are handled by the males upon the landing of the for- mer, which is described as follows by Elliott: “The little cows have a rough-and-tumble time of it when they ® The selection here spoken of can hardly be termed a sexual selection, as the advan- tage accrues directly to the mother, and does not have the direct and exclusive bearing upon the reproductive act which is the essence of sexual selection. It is, of course, true that one sex alone is affected; but this fact alone is not sufficient to stamp it as Sexual selection as set forth by Darwin. IIO The American Naturalist. [February, begin to arrive ; for no sooner is the pretty animal fairly estab- lished on the station of bull number one, when bull number two, seeing bull number one off his guard, reaches out with his long, strong neck and picks the unhappy but passive creature up by the scruff of hers, just as a cat does a kitten, and deposits her on his seraglio ground; then bulls numbers three, four, etc., in the vicinity, seeing this high-handed operation, all assail one another, and especially bull number two, and have a tremendous fight, per- haps for half a minute or so, and during this commotion the cow generally is moved or moves farther back from the water, two or three stations more, where, when all gets quiet, she usually re- mains in peace.” Allen also quotes Captain Bryant as follows: “ Frequently a struggle ensues between the two males for the possession of the same female, and, both seizing her at once, pull her in two or terribly lacerate her with their teeth.” It is evident that the more easily and quickly the females can be moved the better for them, as they are thus more likely to avoid being lacerated by the males, either in being stolen from one by another, or in being fought over as described in the last quotation. If this is true, the lighter females would be less likely to be injured by the savage males, and hence the heavier ones would be weeded out by a natural selection, which by its com stant action would go far toward accounting for the great sexual disparity exhibited by these animals. The remaining fact demanding explanation is the wonderful ability of the male sea lions to endure long-protracted fasts. On this point Mr. Elliott says that they “abstain entirely from food _ of any kind or water for three months at least, and a few of thet stay four months before going into the water for the first time — since hauling up in May.” a “ This alone is remarkable enough, but it is simply wonderful when we associate the condition with the increasing activity, reste lessness, and duty devolving upon the bulls as heads and father x of large families. They do not stagnate, like bears 1n jose ioe It seems highly probable that this astonishing ability to «n°™ 1891.] . Polygamy Among the Pinnipedia. III protracted fasts is one of the results of the ultra polygamy prac- ticed by these animals. A marked intensification of desire seems to be one of the immediate concomitants of polygamy among animals. A writer in a recent number of the NaTurAList™ says, in speaking of monogamous birds adopting a polygamous habit: “We may infer, therefore, that sexual power and high sexual characters go hand in hand, and that in proportion to the advance toward organic perfection virility increases.” The virility of the sea lion is probably more excessively developed than that of any other mammal, The sexual organi- zation is of the most highly specialized type, and differs in some important particulars (e.g., external scrotum) from most other Pinnipedia." This excessive virility might lead to the habit of abstaining from food in order to secure and then guard the females. This abstinence in its incipiency would not be of very great duration, but the period might be lengthened by almost imperceptible incre- ments throughout hundreds of generations, until the surprising results noted above would be reached. The animals live on their own blubber during their long fast, and it is reasonable to suppose that the male progenitors of the sea lions which were the strongest and lustiest and possessed the most blubber would be able to outstay their rivals, and hence obtain possession of a -greater number of females and beget a greater number of off- spring than those having less strength and blubber. Thus a process of selection would be instituted whereby animals would eventually be produced possessed of sufficient blubber and endurance to survive the effects of even such phenomenal fasts as are endured by the fur seal of the present day. In the preceding pages the writer has endeavored to account for the following peculiarities met with among the Pinnipedia : Ist, The relation between great sexual disparity in size and 10 AMERICAN NATURALIST, November, 1890, p. 1030. 1 For further interesting particulars, see Monograph of North American Pinnepeds, - Pp. 382-405. Am. Nat.—February.—2. 112 The American Naturalist. [February, 2d, The manner in which polygamy may have originated. 3d, The origin and effect of excessive pugnacity. 4th, The origin and advantage of great sexual disparity. 5th, The origin and advantage of the ability to endure long- protracted fasts. The sexual disparity, excessive pugnacity, and ability to en- dure*protracted fasts are all intimately related to polygamy, either as cause or effect. Up to a certain point pugnacity and disparity seem to have acted as causes of polygamy. Beyond that point they seem to be effects of polygamy, or at least are accelerated or intensified by it. The ability to endure long fasts would seem to be purely an effect of polygamy. ON THE GENESIS OF THE CHROMATOPHORES IN FISHES.’ BY CARL H. EIGENMANN. FoR several reasons pelagic eggs are more available for a study of the phenomena of color-formation than fixed eggs. Pigment is nearly always formed in pelagic eggs some time before hatching, and as the embryonic life is usually short and the eggs are trans- parent, the whole process from fertilization to hatching can be observed, without any great inconvenience, in the living egg- : In all pelagic ova with oil-globules observed by me pigment 1s deposited in certain cells before the time of hatching. In the eggs of three species of pelagic ova (Stolephorus) without oil- globules no pigment is formed several hours after hatching, while in Mierasfer dubius (?) without oil-globules, pigment is present the time of hatching. Only three colors have been observed in the eggs examined, vr black, a brownish-yellow, and bright yellow. In the vanont. species of Sebastodes (viviparous) only black pigment is formed, | ; while in Atherinopsis black pigment alone is observed until pase : 1 Notes from the San Diego Biological Laboratory, IV. 1891.] The Genesis of the Chromatophores in Fishes. 113 the time of hatching, when bright yellow pigment appears. In the pelagic ova observed, excepting Stolephorus, black pigment was always formed, but never in great quantity. In Serranus nebulifer (Fig. 34) only black pigment is formed before hatching, while in Serranus maculofasciatus, Sciena saturna, and Hypsopsetta guttulata the few black cells are almost obscured by the great number of brownish-yellow cells. In those cases in which both black and yellow cells appear the black cells soon collect on the lower surface of the oil-globule and on the lower surface or back of the embryo, while the yellow cells are aggregated on top of the oil-sphere and on the ventral surface of the embryo,—a fact already observed by others. Figs. 32 to 41 will give a fair idea of some of the various patterns the color-cells form in early stages. ‘Figs. 33 to 40 rep- resent nearly homologous stages of various embryos. The time required to reach thése stages differs, however, vary greatly in the various species. Figs. 33, 34, and 40 represent larve between two and three days old, while Figs. 35 to 39 represent larve as many, or more, weeks old. The conditions of development also vary greatly in the larve selected for illustration. Figs. 33, 34, and 40 are all hatched from pelagic ova ; Fig. 36 from ova which adhere together and are thus hatched in masses; Fig. 38 from ova with a mycropylar circlet of filaments; and Fig. 39 from ova with isolated filaments scattered over the entire zona; while Fig. 37 represents a viviparous fish just at the time of birth. Viviparity does not affect the chromatophores immediately. In the rock cod (Sebastodes), Fig. 37, color is as well formed at the time of parturition as in some related viviparous species. In the Holconotidz, on the other hand, color is not formed until quite late stages are reached, and the eyes are the first to be pigmented. . . In all cases observed the chromatoblasts originate in the meso- blast surrounding the embryo. This condition was considerably modified in Scigna saturna, in which they are formed along the entire margin of the embryonic ring ; but the difference is one of degree only. 112 The American Naturalist. [February, 2d, The manner in which polygamy may have originated. 3d, The origin and effect of excessive pugnacity. 4th, The origin and advantage of great sexual disparity. 5th, The origin and advantage of the ability to endure long- protracted fasts. The sexual disparity, excessive pugnacity, and ability to en- dure*protracted fasts are all intimately related to polygamy, either as cause or effect. Up to a certain point pugnacity and disparity seem to have acted as causes of polygamy. Beyond that point they seem to be effects of polygamy, or at least are accelerated or intensified by it. The ability to endure long fasts would seem to be purely an effect of polygamy. | a oet ON THE GENESIS OF THE CHROMATOPHORES IN FISHES: BY CARL H. EIGENMANN. FOR several reasons pelagic eggs are more available for a study of the phenomena of color-formation than fixed eggs. Pigment is nearly always formed in pelagic eggs some time before hatching, and as the embryonic life is usually short and the eggs are trans- parent, the whole process from fertilization to hatching can be observed, without any great inconvenience, in the living egg. ; In all pelagic ova with oil-globules observed by me pigment 1$ deposited in certain cells before the time of hatching. In the eggs of three species of pelagic ova (Stolephorus) without m globules no pigment is formed several hours after hatching, while in Fierasfer dubius (?) without oil-globules, pigment is present at the time of hatching. po Only three colors have been observed in the eggs examined, Vi2 black, a brownish-yellow, and bright yellow. In the various species of Sebastodes (viviparous) only black pigment is e s : while in Atherinopsis black pigment alone is observed until near 1 Notes from the San Diego Biological Laboratory, IV. 1891.] The Genests of the Chromatophores in Fishes. 113 the time of hatching, when bright yellow pigment appears. In the pelagic ova observed, excepting Stolephorus, black pigment was always formed, but never in great quantity. In Serranus nebulifer (Fig. 34) only black pigment is formed before hatching, while in Serranus maculofasciatus, Sctena saturna, and Hypsopsetta guttulata the few black cells are almost obscured by the great number of brownish-yellow cells. In those cases in which both black and yellow cells appear the black cells soon collect on the lower surface of the oil-globule and on the lower surface or back of the embryo, while the yellow cells are aggregated on top of the oil-sphere and on the ventral surface of the embryo,—a fact already observed by others. Figs. 32 to 41 will give a fair idea of some of the various patterns the color-cells form in early stages. - Figs. 33 to 40 rep- resent nearly homologous stages of various embryos. The time required to reach thése stages differs, however, vary greatly in the various species. Figs. 33, 34, and 40 represent larve between two and three days old, while Figs. 35 to 39 represent larvae as — ‘many, or more, weeks old. The conditions of development also vary greatly in the larvæ selected for illustration. Figs. 33, 34, and 40 are all hatched from pelagic ova; Fig. 36 from ova which adhere together and are thus hatched in masses; Fig. 38 from ova with a mycropylar circlet of filaments; and Fig. 39 from ova with isolated filaments scattered over the entire zona; while Fig. 37 represents a viviparous fish just at the time of birth. Viviparity does not affect the chromatophores immediately. In the rock cod (Sebastodes), Fig. 37, color is as well formed at - the time of parturition as in some related viviparous species. In the Holconotidæ, on the other hand, color is not formed until quite late stages are reached, and the = are the first to be pigmented. In all cases observed the P originate in the meso- blast surrounding the embryo. This condition was considerably modified in Sciæna saturna, in which they are formed along the entire margin of the embryonic ring; but the difference is one of sree only. 114 The American Naturalist. [Fete oe To follow the species observed separately : In Sciæna saturna (Figs. 1-7) the chromatoblasts are first noticed when the gastrula covers about one-third of the yolk; that is, they appear quite early. They are formed along the entire mar- gin of the embryonic ring. When first noticed they are slightly separated from the surrounding cells, and their outlines become well defined. They thus appear larger than the cells surrounding — 3 them, which are closely packed and whose outlines are not sharply defined. They either move toward the outer rim of the embry- . onic ring or remain stationary, while the embryonic ring moves cae over the yolk. At any rate, they soon come to lie entirely in the — a segmentation cavity, (see Figs. 1—7). At this time they are quite regular in outline, with probably one or two angular prolonga- tions. Their depth is usually equal to that of the segmentation cavity, and much greater than the epiblast below them or the ectoderm above them. As soon as they have reached the seg- ao mentation cavity they migrate in it, most of them being intended for the embryo, while many remain on the yolk, and others cover the oil-globule. Se ~ While the individual cells undergo amceboid changes, their locomotion is not necessarily caused, as some observers supposed, by their amoeboid changes. One cell, which was smaller than usual, was seen to move quite rapidly towards the oil-globule, with a motion not unlike that of ciliate Infusorians caught under a cover-glass; z.e., it moved quite rapidly, and then seemed to be momentarily arrested by some-invisible barrier, when it would again dartalong. When the cells are first freed from the embry- onic ring no color is seen in them ; but before long fine granules are observed, resembling in most respects the minute oil-globules : covering the yolk. Individually these are apparently colorless, but collectively they form yellow or black pigment. On the bs globule and embryo, and later over the yolk also, the cells hecam flattened, more densely pigmented, and at the same time gain w power of contracting the pigment to a dot (Fig. 15), or expanding _ it to the dendritic form of the cell itself (Fig. 17). ae I have not observed any other cells than the migratory ones if this species; if others exist, they were obscured by the i PLATE [IE ae cH) (7 4, =e Gann eg Oona es? 1891.] The Genesis of the Chromatophores in Fishes. 115 quantities of. migratory cells. I have not had an opportunity of reéxamining this species or Hypsopsetta since the species of Serra- nus were observed. In Hypsopsetta guttulata the color-cells appear much later and not nearly in such large quantities as in Sciæna. They are first noticed when the gastrula covers only one-half or two-thirds of the yolk, and the migratory ones are formed only at or near the union of the embryonic shield and the embryonic ring (Fig. 14). Numerous cells are soon after seen along the entire embryo. I am not certain whether they originate i» situ or whether they migrate to their position. Later, when the embryonic shield is contracted to form the embryo, these cells move toward it, and finally cover it. Later other cells again move out from the em- bryo to cover the yolk (see Figs. 15-17). The observations on Serranus nebulifer (Fig. 34) were not very complete. Only black cells are formed, and very few cells become free from the embryo, all of which migrate to the oil-sphere. In Serranus maculofasciatus (Figs. 18—28) the chromatoblasts were observed about sixteen hours after fertilization. There were at that time a few free ones on either side of the embryonic shields. In fifteen minutes the number of free ones on one side had increaséd from nine to fifteen (see Figs. 18-22). These cells moved rapidly away from their place of origin, and most of them finally, in about two hours and a half, were found on the oil- sphere. A few probably returned, and finally lodged in the region - of the head. Besides these migratory cells, there is a broad band - of mesoblastic cells along either side of the embryo in which color is soon formed. These cells never become nomadic in the seg- mentation cavity, but remain attached to the embryo, over which they are finally nearly evenly distributed. By far the greater portion are yellow cells, but a few being black. Before hatching these cells become collected into definite masses, and some time after : hatching they assume the remarkable condition observed in Fig. 33. So far as I am aware, nothing has been written concerning the origin of the color itself, As stated above, the color is not due to the color of the protoplasm of the chromatophores but to the aggregation of small granules, most probably oil-spherules. The Å b scientific libraries, After they had been prepared for the m . 116 The American Naturalist, [February, protoplasm is colorless. The color-granules are not. found in the nucleus of the cells. They are sometimes scattered through the whole of the remainder of the cell, but can be withdrawn from the pseudopods of the adult chromatophore and collected ina small spot. It is to the ability on the part of the chromatophores to thus distribute or collect the color-granules that the larva owes its power to rapidly change color. The individual spherule of the chromatophores does not pos- sess any definite color. It is only, as has been stated, whena humber of them are aggregated that color is evident. These granules are either a secretion of the cell itself, or they are formed otherwise and appropriated by the cell. The process of the forma- tion of the granules in the chromatophores would, of course, be dif- ficult to follow if they were secreted by the cell. On examining the medium surrounding the migratory cells for a possible explana- — tion of the color-spherules, it was found that the epiblast was full of granules or oil-spherules, similar in size and but slightly, if any, different in refractive index. Such spherules were especi i abundant in Sciæna, in which there is also an unusual number of color-cells. Especially towards the closing of the blastopore, a large number are seen over the entire portion of the yolk not covered by the gastrula, and it seems as though the advancing embryonic ring were heaping them up at the entodermic pole of ; : the egg. nae I have frequently observed individual chromatophores while ee the segmentation cavity, and have seen them put forth pseudopods : and withdraw them independently of their locomotion ; but I bat 1 never seen them in the act of appropriating -any of the spherules ioe of the epiblast. ie There is a difference between the spherules of the yellow a Z of the black cells. The granules of the black cells are sal = and less refringent. aia? When first freed from the embryonic ring the color-cells usually oe approach the typical cell in shape, but later they become ae and assume the dendritic form so characteristic in the larv®- all These observations were made while at a distance from © PLATE: -IV EMBRYOS OF FISHES. 1891.] The Genesis of the Chromatophores in Fishes. 117 ; Š I was enabled, through the courtesy of Dr. C. O. Whitman, to examine the records of previous observations during my stay at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl. Although I then found that many of my observations were but verifications of those of others, it has seemed best to publish my account because I have examined new material, have worked out the matter in greater detail in several species, and do not agree with the previous observers in all points. Aubert? Kupffer’ Agassiz and Whitman,‘ Wenkebach,’ and List ê all seem to agree in deriving the chromatophores from the mesoblast; as to when and where they arise these authors naturally vary with the different species examined. All the figures, excepting 37, were made from living eggs or larvæ, with a Zeiss microscope and Abbe camera. The letters A and D refer to the objectives, the 2 and 4 to the oculars, ot Ziess. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE I,.—Sciena saturna, Figs. 1-6, a portion of the embryonic ring, showing the chromatophores. In Fig. 1 they are all still contained in the embryonic ring. In Fig. 2 a few are seen entering the segmentation cavity. Figs. 3 and 4 show a portion only of the region covered by Figs. I and 2, with more cells in the segmentation cavity, Fig. 4 being drawn five minutes later than Fig.2. Figs. 5 and 7 show still later stages, in which a still larger number of cells have been freed; Zeiss, D and 4. Fig. 7, an optical section of the segmentation cavity (s. c.), near the embryonic ring, showing the large chromatophores, the thin ectoderm lying above them, and the parablast ` below them. Fig. 74, the same at some distance from the embryonic ring, the chromatophores being much less numerous. Fig. 8, a series of eight free chromatophores of Aypsopsetta guttulata; D and 4. Fig. 9, the same cells 134 minutes later. Fig. 10, a series of five chromatophores. Fig. 2? Beiträge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fische. Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Zool., VIIL, 1856, 8 Beobachtungen über die Entwickelung der Knochenfische. IV., 1868. * The Pelagic Stages of Young Fishes. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., pp. 7and 40, 1885. 5 Beiträge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Knochenfische. Arch. f. mikr. Anat., XXVIII., 1886, ê Zur elgg Ns der Knochenfischen (Labriden). Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Zool., XVL., x Arch f. mikr. Anat., 138. The American Naturalist. II, the same two minutes later. Fig. 12, the same three minutes later than S Fig 11. Fig. 13, a single chromatophore, more highly magnified after pig- _ L ment has begun to be formed. Fig. 14, outline of embryonic shield and ring, with chromatophores beginning to be freed; A and 4. Fig. 15,a larva just freed from the membrane, 1.4 mm.; the chromatophores contracted. A ae Ray tee ee ae ae Mee oe eget E aR PLATE II.—The same larva-(Fig. 15) twenty hours afterwards, I. 6 mm. Fig. 17, another more advanced larva, 1.7 mm. long. Serranus maculofasciatus.—The aim being to show the chromatophores, the details of the embryo were not as well attended to as they otherwise — would have been. Figs. 18-28 represent the successive positions of the free chromatophores from the time they become free till they have nearly a the ahaha The exact times when the drawings were made are indicated the figures. The egg figured was probably fertilized at about 5 P.M : the day preceding the stages represented. Figs. 19-22 and 24 show merely one side of the embryonic shield. In Fig. 25 the lateral cells have begun to be pigmented Figs. 18-26, Zeiss, A and 4; Figs. bes A and 2. PLATE III.—Fig. 29, slightly older egg than Fig. 28; A and 4. Fig. Ks the free chromatophores have reached the oil-sphere, the yellow cells lying on the upper surface, the black on the lower surface; the chromatophores of the body have become more densely pigmented ;'A and 4. Fig. 304, chromatophore (the nucleus is not seen), with the color-granules from the 01 sphere of Fig. 30; D and 4. Fig. 30%, another chromatophore, she nucleus, also from oil-sphere of Fig. 30; D and 4. Fig. 31,a l later stage, ‘the yellow cells having aggregated in large masses; A and 4. Fig. immediately after hatching, the yellow cells being large, the black 3 small, all the cells contracted; A and 4. Fig. 33, twelve hours after h ing, the cells expanded to their utmost and constantly changing: 4, 2.2 mm frase Vtg 34, a newly hatched larva of Serranus nebulifer ; 2.67 __ Fig. 34a, one of the chromatophores from the tail,«nore enlarged; Da Fig. 35, Oligocottus analis, twelve hours after hatching ; dorsal ae SG s somewhat older ee analis, two aay after hatching A ment ; x 68. Fig. 39, Atherinopsis californiensis, after the yolk sorbed; Jan 9, 1889; X12. Fig. 40, Stolephorus ringens, after hatching ; ; no color is formed in the latest stages observ Hemis rosæ, 12.5 mm. long, showing the distribution $ of the - m the cells of the posterior part of the body and of the PLATE, Kapa FY YY f Uk ` : s w EN AN os A Fo NWA D A / AO Ps Wa E a in See. Pa A en a CMO hal EMBRYOS OF FISHES. FLAIRE Vi TOAS 7 À S Bieanuas cu we ae A hoi = i Wudeuncnanadwadane a a EN Be << IPT LEE re —— oe PI ge sR an hee EMBRYOS OF FISHES. 1891.] An Indian Grave in Western New York. 119 AN INDIAN GRAVE IN WESTERN NEW YORK. BY A. L. BENEDICT, M.D. OUTH of Lake Ontario, between the Genesee River on the west and Canandaigua Lake and its outlet on the east, lies a fertile country, studded with knolls and hills from twenty to two- hundred-and-fifty feet in height. West of the Genesee River, as far as Buffalo and Lake Erie, the land is level, with only occa- sional elevations to relieve the monotony. East of Canandaigua Lake the hills enlarge into miniature mountain ranges, five to fif- teen miles long, four or five miles from valley to valley, and five or six hundred feet- in height. Nearly the whole of this region west of Seneca Lake was in- habited by the Seneca nation of the Iroquois, but only in the mid- dle portion was there much communication between the Europeans and the Indians untillate in the eighteenth century, when the usurpation of the land by the white settlers was accomplished in a comparatively short time. Hence, as a rule, the Indian village sites and burial places of the western and eastern portions of the Seneca territory yield relics of genuine aboriginal workmanship, whereas in the central portion, in which the Indian population held its own against foreign encroachment for more than a cen- tury, European influence is indicated by an abundance of iron axes and knives, glass beads, copper ornaments, brass kettles, and a variety of other articles found in connection with flint arrow- heads, stone tomahawks, wampum, and unglazed pottery. One of the largest and best-known sites of Indian occupancy in this region is on a large hill near the thriving village of Victor. Some idea of the importance of this Indian village may be derived from the following considerations: The hill is one of the most commanding localities in the whole middle territory, descending so abruptly on the west and north as to make it a vantage-point in case of war, sloping more gradually in other directions. At least ten acres of the hill-top were so densely populated that even at this late day, after half a century of cultivation and the visits of 120 The American Naturalist. [Februiy, two generations of relic-hunters, it still yields ample recompense in the form of beads, pipe-stems, pottery, and other implements to any one who will take the pains to search for them. On and near this village site so many iron tomahawks were found by the early settlers that they were of commercial value as old iron, and were by no means an insignificant source from which the black- smiths derived the material for horseshoes and other articles of farm use. The writer had made several visits to this place, and had gath- ered from the surface a considerable number of relics. In the spring of 1885 a young man of the locality exhumed a skeleton with which were buried two or three silver rings, and in Septem- ber following the writer opened a grave almost adjoining the first one, with such rich results that he has thought it worthy of a descriptive article. _ The graves were situated at the extreme western edge of the hill, four or five rods beyond the field in which the relics were s0 plenty, and a few feet before the slope, already begun, becameso steep that ascent was difficult. aot The writer, availing himself of the work of excavation which had been done in the spring, dug into the side of the grave, reaching, after a short time, a woodchuck hole, which for- tunately led him to another skeleton. This skeleton, whose. immature bones and teeth showed that it had belonged a a person between sixteen and twenty years old, was 1P ~ crouching attitude, with elbows at the sides and knees drawn T , to meet them, characteristic of Indian burial. Strange to $ay, n ; ever, the skeleton was turned head downwards, a circu which has never been duplicated in the writer’s experience. = One of the first. objects exhumed was a bone head-comb, ee a dently either of European manufacture, or an imitation by T Indians of some similar ornament which they had seen the tm women use. Several of the teeth of the comb had pee broken, but otherwise it was well preserved. At the top of ae : comb there is a rudely cut figure of a man standing and rest > * his hand on the shoulder of another person who is on hor ak Beside the skeleton was a partially overturned brass kettle, 1891.] An Indian Grave in Western New York. 121 taining a hard discoid stone, presumably used to heat water, for only a few years previous to the time when this village was destroyed the Indians used clay kettles, which could not stand the heat of a fire, and they therefore heated water in them by throw- ing in hot stones. In and just outside the kettle was a quantity of large, red glass beads, of smaller glass beads, white, blue, green, and yellow, some spherical, some cylindrical in shape, and which, when strung, measured thirty feet. There was also a flat, white shell ornament in the shape of an isosceles triangle, with a hole near the apex. At the bottom of the kettle was a mass of decayed organic matter, which showed faint traces of interlacing fibres, and which was probably the remains of a basket or mat. The bail of the kettle was of iron, much corroded, for that metal is not nearly so enduring as copper or brass. The spongy frag- ments of a wooden handle were also found. Seven slender bone or shell tubes were also found, some almost perfect, some worn and decayed so as to require the most careful handling. The longest of these measured four-and-one- eighth inches, the shortest unbroken one three-and-three-eighths inches. Nearer yet to the skeleton was genuine Indian wampum, both white and purple, showing in places, as it rolled out of the earth, the original arrangement into parallel rows of five or six beads. This when strung measured sixty feet, and when stitched -on to cloth, in imitation of its arrangement at the time of burial, it would reach from one shoulder to the opposite hip, or several times around the waist of a small person. Part of the upper rounded shell and most of the jointed under shell of a good-sized turtle were also exhumed. This turtle skel- eton may have been part of a rattle, or it may have been a pet of the Indian girl, or, again, it may have been the symbol of the clan to which she belonged, for running through the six nations of the Iroquois were clans or brotherhoods taking their names from animals, and one of these clans was named from the turtle. This grave was one of a number opened in the vicinity, and all, while differing in detail, agreed in presenting evidences of European civilization in conjunction with aboriginal customs. Buffalo, N. Y. a _ ink have been wasted over the attempts to reconcile two nothing very surprising in this. In the case of two sci lieve that the one has been pillaging from the other. In the case of the discovery of vaccination, no serious "ever arose, and Jenner stands out alone without challenge pute. The same can be said with regard to the z 122 The American Naturalist. EDITORIAL. EDITORS, E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. Now that the first excitement regarding the new remedy for tuberculosis has subsided, the time seems opportune to — glance back at the events of the past eighteen months, which | have proved rich in scientific research in relation to the tubercle — bacillus, and to place on record, not only for our own satis : tion, or even for those more immediately concerned, but espe for the benefit of succeeding generations, the announcements have been made public from time to time in regard to that crobe, and the means that have been discovered for combati its ; ravages on the animal economy. ; : The endless and often embittered controversies which f 9) stantly occupy the literary world almost invariably arise from fact that no plain contemporaneous record was made at the tir which would have placed the question beyond the range of argu- ment. To cite a case in point, the circumstances surroundin the sale by Oliver Goldsmith of the “ Vicar of Wakefield” have provee an inexhaustible field for conjecture and surmise, and gall ently conflicting accounts of that transaction. In almost all cases of discovery there are rival clai some instances, where the evidence seemed most coniiich has been afterwards proved beyond question that the same has come to two workers, hundreds of miles apart, at. ; identical moments. A little consideration will. show tha Me eis pursuing an investigation on similar lines and with x : goal in view, it is perfectly possible for them to hit upon ©” conclusion at nearly the same time, and for both of them 4. $ r 1891.] ` Editorial. 123 Pasteur; nor is there any doubt as to the claims of Professor Koch to the discovery of the tubercle bacillus. In the month of March, 1882, Dr. Koch announced to the medical world that he had discovered the existence of a microbe hitherto unknown, and to which was given the name of the tuber- cle bacillus. He described how he had subjected diseased or- gans of numbers of men and animals to microscopic examination, and found, in all cases, the tubercles infested with a minute, rod- shaped parasite, which, by means of a special staining process, he differentiated from the surrounding tissue. He says: “ It was in the highest degree impressive to observe in the center of the tubercle cell the minute organism which had created it.” Professor Klein differs from this view. He says: “I cannot agree with Koch, Watson Cheyne, and others, who maintain that each tubercle owes its origin to the immigration of the bacilli, for there is no difficulty in ascertaining that, in human tuberculosis, in tuberculosis of cattle, and in artificially induced tuberculosis of guinea-pigs and rabbits, there are met with tubercles in various stages, young and old, in which no trace of a bacillus is to be found, whereas in the same section caseous tubercle may be present containing numbers of tubercle bacilli.” Transferring directly by inoculation the tuberculous matter from diseased animals to healthy ones he in every instance re- produced the disease. To meet the objection that it was not the parasite itself, but some virus in which it was embedded, he cul- tivated his bacilli artificially for long periods of time and through many successive generations. This was confirmed by reliable investigations, and thus was established the existence of the tubercle bacillus and its discovery by him, and up to this time everything is plain sailing. From the date of this announcement (1882) by Professor Koch, up till October, 1889, nothing particularly new was heard on the subject, and as far as the literature on the tubercle bacillus goes, _ we have every reason to believe that the search for a toxic agent to combat the disease of tuberculosis and the ravages of the tubercle bacillus has been fruitless. Indeed, to all outside appear- ances, the tubercle bacillus, having been once discovered, was to d 124 The American Naturalist. [February, be left unmolested to pursue its ravages on helpless humanity, But in reality it was being followed up by tireless and relentless foes. On October 19th, 1889, was published in the Medical News, of Philadelphia, by Dr. Samuel G. Dixon, at that time Professor of Hygiene to the University of Pennsylvgnia, a monograph announcing his discovery of the hitherto-unknown forms of the tubercle bacillus. In the previous summer, whilst investigating different methods of technique and manipulation abroad, Dr. Dixon was led to believe that the bacillus could be cultivated so as to show lower forms of virulent life; and following this idea up by a series of experiments, he was in a short time able to produce the hitherto- unnoticed forms of the bacilli, some club-shaped, others curved, and others again branched. From the growths thus obtained he proceeded to make a series of tube inoculations, from which he grew bacilli corresponding ™ every respect to the ordinary rod-shaped tubercle bacillus. Having obtained these results, he propounded two hypotheses: Ist, That by a thorough filtering out of bacilli from tuberculous material a filtrate might be obtained and attenuated, so that ws systematic inoculations a change might be produced in living animal tissues that would enable them to resist virulent tubercle bacilli. 2d, To bring about a chemical change or physical change in living tissues that would resist tubercular phthisis, it is possible that inoculation with the bacillus would have to be made; ee before this could be done, the power of the virulent bacilli would , have to be diminished, otherwise the result would be most disas- trous. He added further that he had reduced the tubercle bacilli to a condition that, when inoculated into the animal economy caused a resistance to the disease. ae To use a military metaphor, this was the first note proclait 1 that an active campaign had been opened on the tubercle pee and specifying in terms as definite as possible the means se T the war was carried into the enemy’s country. = a The announcement of this discovery was widely circulated commented upon, and reprints of the article were fo sae 1891. Editorial, 125 Drs. Von Pettenkofer, Koch, Louder-Brunton, and other scientific investigators. The International Medical Congress was appointed to meet in Berlin in August, 1890, and more than usual interest attached to its meeting, as it was generally rumored that some important papers on the subject of the tubercle bacillus would be read on that occasion. | Nor was this rumor falsified, and the interest of the meeting may be said to have culminated as Professor Koch rose to ad- dress the assembled physicians, and when he stated that he had hit upon a substance which had the power of preventing the growth of the tubercle bacillus, it was greeted with loud applause. It was then stated that the bacillus of tuberculosis in man and chickens was very similar, and he inferred that the latter is a special species of the organic matter supposed to lie at the root of pulmonary consumption. He also announced that the direct action of solar light on the tubercle bacillus destroys in a cer- tain length of time, varying from a few minutes to several hours, the virulence of this microbe. It will be convenient to quote verbatim from that portion of the paper proclaiming his discovery of a toxic agent: “In spite of this failure—to effect any result on tuberculous animals with chemical substances—I have not allowed myself to be discouraged from prosecuting the search for growth-hindering remedies, and I have at last hit upon a substance which has the power of pre- venting. the growth of tubercle bacilli, not only in a test tube, but in the body of an animal. All experiments in tuberculosis are, as every one who has had experience of them has sufficiently dis- covered, of very long duration. My researches on this substance,. therefore, although they have already occupied me for nearly a year, are not yet completed, and I can only say this much about them, that guinea-pigs, which, as is well known, are extraordi- narily susceptible to tuberculosis, if exposed to the influence of this substance, cease to react to the inoculation of tuberculous virus, and that in guinea-pigs suffering from general tuberculosis,. even to a high degree, the morbid process can be brought com- pletely to a standstill without the body being in any way inju- 126 The American Naturatst. _riously affected. From these researches I in the meantime do not draw any further conclusions than that the possibility of ren- dering pathogenic bacteria in the living body harmless without injury to the latter, which has hitherto been justly doubted, has — . been thereby established.” (Address before the Medical Con- gress in Berlin, August, 1890.) It will be observed that Professor Koch in his paper makes two points: 1st, The action of solar light and a high degree of ; heat in destroying the virulence of the microbe; 2d, The fact that he had produced a substance the effect of which was to prevent the growth of the tubercle bacilli in the body of an animal, and that he produced a condition in that animal that was- immune to the virulent tubercle bacilli; also that he by the same process could overcome tuberculosis already established. [February, ; There are also two facts that cannot fail to strike the observer. : The first is, that a period of over seven years had elapsed from the date of his first publication on the tubercle bacillus and that _announcing his discovery of the toxic agen that his researches after the substance must t; and the second, have commenced about the period of Dr. Dixon's publication of October, 1889, of ; a which, however, no mention is made in his address. It dos not seem unfair to infer that Professor Koch had been mam this substance, therefore, although they have occupied me for nearly a yeah cessful during the preceding years in arriving at any sati results. His own words, “ My researches on ver, popos® etc., seems conclusive on this point. We do not, howe to do more than call attention to the coincidence of his r pgs after the toxic agent and the publication of Dr. Dixon’s, OC re 1880, the importance of which would be obvious to iy mE ologist, and the unfruitful nature of the former’s investigati previous to that date. : aa There was, perhaps, a feeling prevalent in the medical wT incompleteness in the terms of Professor Koch’s announce” and it seems as if he had only stimulated curiosity in order deny it satisfaction. Nor was this allayed when the ee l from Berlin that the scientist, having brought his researche point sufficiently advanced to justify the use of his E a, o 1891.] Editorial. 127 corpore vili, was prepared to inoculate the human subject. But the nature of his remedy and the method of its composition were to be kept a profound secret. The first inoculation into the human economy took place on September 22d, in a case of lupus, but it was not until the first week in November that it was given out that Professor Koch was ready to make inoculations on a general scale Itis not ger- mane, however, to our purpose to do more than refer in passing to these events, or the exodus to Berlin, which is fresh in the pub- lic mind. On November 15th Dr. Dixon, in the Philadelphia Zim? and Register (medical), clearly explained his position, as well as the result of his experiments up to that date. He wrote: “ The hypothesis advanced in my terse article in the Medical News of October, 1889, have given the most brilliant results; yet I have "never felt that the time had arrived for me to experiment on the human subject. Nor do I mean to be tempted to take any risks until the act would be purely an unselfish one. Even with the results that have been obtained in my laboratory, I would be sorry to have the general public stimulated with the idea that inoculation for tubercular phthisis had been perfected. “Owing to the rumored report that Professor Koch has been, and is, inoculating human beings, it behooves me to await his re- sults and understand his methods. If, however, it should appear that he is working on different lines, and that his plan is less dan- gerous than mý own, it will be welcomed and adopted by me.” On November 18th Dr. Dixon laid before the Academy of Natural Sciences a report summarizing in more detail his work of investigation on the tubercle bacillus. After alluding to the capability of the bacillus of changing from its commonly recog- nized rod-form to that of a more compound one, club-shaped, curved, or branched, which he believed to be either involution or degenerate forms, he went on to say: “ There would appear to be in this homogeneous mass something other than the bodies of the micro-organisms, This may be the residue of the pabulum remaining after the bacilli have selected what was necessary for their existence, or a digestive secretion, or again it may be an Nat.—February.—3. ; 128 The American Naturalist. (February, excretion of the live organism. Let this be as it may, I hoped to find a changed functional action in the organism, in secretion or its excretion, that would combat tuberculosis in animal life, either by stimulating the cells or by causing a chemical reaction in the tissues that were susceptible to the digestive secretion of the tubercle bacillus. An attempt to explain its probable action appears in an article I wrote for the Medical News of October 19th, 1889,and also in the Medical and Surgical Reporter and the Times and Register of this year. The views expressed are, however, purely hypothetical. When the mass that I have already spoken of as being found on the pabulum was subjected for a considerable length of time to various degrees of heat, and injected into the guinea-pig, the animal seemed to sicken, yet only for a short time. The anima so treated appear to resist injections of virulent bacilli, Whether — this would produce immunity for any length of time, provided we discontinue the administration of the remedy, I am not sure Some animals injected with the virulent matter after the treatment with the changed mass had been discontinued appear to be 1m- — mune, and experiments on animals suffering with tuberculosis - have resulted most satisfactorily. Goa: It is evident from this report that Dr. Dixon had pushed we ideas advanced on October 1gth, 1889, to a stage promising ef confirm in a remarkable degree the hypotheses laid down in : RS monograph, and that inoculation by the toxic agent had most satisfactory results. It cannot fail also to be remarked that there is a definiten Statement, as far as the circumstances will admit, in Dr. announcements which are lacking in those of his German league. to the profession was likely to defeat its own object. Ber fore published on January 15th, 1891, a statement disclosing nature of the remedy. l In this communication, after speaking of the ae curative effects of inoculating by living tubercle bacilli, z yielded ess of Dixons ; : a It soon became evident to Professor Koch that the attempt ee withhold the composition of his remedy after it had been SURF” . may ; preventive and bso Pe AS eS ee, af maT x na f g . 1891] Editorial. 120 “ This effect is not exclusively produced with living tubercular bacilli, but is also observed with the dead bacilli, the result being the same whether, as I discovered by experiments at the outset, the bacilli are killed by a somewhat prolonged application of a low temperature or boiling heat, or by means of certain chemicals, This peculiar fact I followed up in all directions, and this further result was obtained—that killed pure cultivations of tubercular bacilli, after rinsing in water, might be injected in great quantities under healthy guinea-pigs’ skin without anything occurring beyond local suppuration. If the injections are continued at intervals of from one to two days, the ulcerating inoculation wound becomes small- er and finally scars over, which otherwise it never does; the size of the swollen lymphatic glands is reduced, the body becomes better nourished, and the mortiid process ceases, unless it has gone too far, in which case the animal perishes from exhaustion. By this means the basis of a curative process against tuberculosis was established.” We have italicized these words in order to call the reader's attention in connection with their identical nature with the following statement by Dr. Dixon, published months before: “ That by sub- mitting a mass of growing bacilli to different degrees of heat, etc., and injecting the mass into animals, he not only prevented tuber- culosis, but also cured the same.” Compare this with Koch’s just-published claim, that by inject- ing tubercle bacilli that had been submitted to solar light, heat, etc., he had produced in guinea-pigs immunity, and also cure, and Moreover that by this the curative process against tuberculosis was established, and if there is any difference between the two, we have not been able to detect it. With this last utterance of Prof. Koch the literature on the Subject of the cure for tuberculosis for the present ceases. We have endeavored to lay before our readers a succinct and - Chronological account of the history of this great discovery. _ The important question as to whom belongs the credit for it, and to whom should be awarded the priority, may well be left to m. We venture to think that the material is present here 7 befor re them to enable them to form a correct judgment. 130 The American Naturalist. [February, That the use of the remedy has not yielded the results expected from it by Prof. Koch is very probable, and it is difficult to- avoid the reflection that a more conservative policy, such as that persistently advocated and followed by Dr. Dixon, would have been wiser, and moreover kinder to those whose hope of cure had been unduly raised. There is abundant work to be done yet in the laboratories before definite conclusions can be reached, and the inoculation into the human system is therefore to be deprecated as premature. That the main principle has been arrived at seems beyond doubt, but much yet remains before the discovery can become of permanent benefit to suffering humanity. —lIn these days of object teaching, science made easy, and German taught by the lightning method, it is not surprising to find that there are philanthropic men who will undertake to see a college graduate through commencement day—for a con- sideration, That this long felt want has been filled is due to the enterprise of two Ohio men. Their circular announces that “ the student of the present day finds that in doing justice to the physical man 5 has little time for literary work.” -There are those of us ya had a lingering fancy that colleges were endowed and professors engaged to stimulate young men to mental labor. We are g% to be corrected, and shall, after this, adopt the more advanced views upon the subject. ; These philanthropists admit “there may be students 10 eve? college who enjoy literary work,” but their sympathies g0 me “those who are obliged by a tyrannical college faculty to west , both mortal time and parental money in gorging a brain with : material that is as essentially foreign to that particular intelle as is sawdust to the human system.” With a coms” — born, perhaps, of experience, they agree to furnish to p K a sessors of these overworked brains already digested food, ae that in the end they may put to shame the tyrannical | ae who are such fossils that they think a man goes to college # o _. The price of show brains is quite reasonable. Orations, €853? S faculty — : 3 5 4 ; “a 3 me Y% 4 1891.] Editorial. 131 debates, eulogies, invectives, sermons, political speeches, and lectures range from $3 to $50,—a graduated scale of prices to suit the parental pocket,—and all written by “two of the most prolific writers of the age,” who will write anything and every- thing, on any and all subjects. These two men must belong to - that misguided, behind-the-age set who enjoyed literary work at college. However, the point of it all is just this, now that the public know there is learning in the land to be had at so much per foot or yard of foolscap, it will no longer submit to the imposition of stupid, prosy essays on commencement days. Do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles? Yea, verily, if they can pay for them. —Proressor J. W. Spencer has had the usual difficulty ex- perienced by all scientific men who hold political positions. The Treasurer of the State of Georgia forced a‘ geological ignoramus on him as a subordinate, who calls quartz magnetite, silicified wood as lignite, slabs of feldspar as quartz, etc. The assistant’s brother is a representative, and has been trying to groom the young man for State Geologist. He defeated the geological bill which abolished the political board. His testimonials were obtained under false pretences. But these are now exposed. The Governor is at Professor Spencer's back. What the Legislature will do in July is not yet known, but if it knows the true interest of the State it will permit Dr. Spencer to select his Own assistants. 132 The American Naturalist. ' . [February, RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. ALBRECHT, Dr.—Uber den Stammbaum der rieg ee der Phy- ` sikalisch-Gkonomischen Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, June, i m the author. ALLEN, J. A.—On Seasonal Variations in Color in SA budeoulah —A Review of Some of the North American Ground —, e the Genus Tamais. Exts, Bull- Am. Mus, Nat. Hist., Vol. III., sen From Annual Report of the Kan periment ae Skk Agri. College, 1888. . Atlas of Northern Ama Cond Field; Atlas to Reports HH and HHH. From the Penna. Geol. Survey. A A, M.—Informe sobre el Estado Actual del Volcan de Colima. From the author. BAUR, G.—Neue Beiträge zur Morphologie des ER e Säugetiere. Sonder- ; Abdruck aus Anzatomischer Anzeiger, IV. Jahrgang (18 ! —— Bemerkungen über den Carpus der ek ee sas: eo ye im All gemeinen. Separat-Abdruck aus Morpholog. f. Jahrbuch, XV. Bd., —Die Systematische Stellung von eee ae Blainv. Sone Abdruck austen Biologischen Centralblatt, } March, 1 : —— Ueber den Ursprung der A der ramte (8) Sera Vereins zu Metzingen in Wiirtemberg, April, 1887. From the author. BAXTER, S.—Berlin: A Study of em Government in Germany. Bull. Essex Institute, Apii, May, June, 1889. From the a ken BEAN 4 w Fishes Collected of op Coast of Alaska and the Adjacent pe ve sian Ba Peec U.S. Nat . Mus., Vol. XIII., pp. 37745: Frome aa ECKER, G. F.—The Washoe Rocks. Ext. Bull. No. 6, Cal. Acad. ‘Sei From : the author. BEECHER, C. E.—On the Development of the Shell in the Genus Tonoceras noceras Hyatt BOULENGER, G. A a n C., W. De Vis’s Recent — to the Her petology of.Australia. Ext. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Nov. Hist, the Varieties of ey ocellatus Forsk. Ext. ps ad Mag. Nat. J June, 1890. en ——An Account of the Batrachians pram in Burma by M. L. Fea, " the See Civic Museum. Ext. Annali del Museo Civico, 1887. and Mag. ——A Reply to M. De Betta’s Remarks on i Rida temporaria. Ext. Aan. Nat. Hist., March, 1886 _First ——Fourth ourth Contribution to the ee gees of the Solomon Islands — List of port on Additions to the Lizard Collection in the British Museum (Nat. ch the Reptiles, Batrachians, and a ai Fishes Collected by Prof. Moesch y Iversen in the District of Deli, Sumatra. Exts. Proc. London Zool. Soc., 189%: the author. Archean Areas of Northern New Jersey and Southeastern New Yor S., 1887. From the the aut thor. Bulletin ~ Z Penna. State College Agri. Station. Bulletin de l'Academie Sape des Sciences des Lettres et des Beaux gique, 18go CARLSSON, A.—Untersuschungen ueber Gle ligaman -Reste pei Schlangen: 1 Till K. Svenska Vet. Aked, Handlingar. Band II., No. 1 ; 1891.] : Recent Books and Pamphlets. 133 Cross, W., and L. G. peU —On Ptilolite, a New Mineral. Ext. Am. Jour Sci., Aug., 1886. From Whitman Cross. Dana, J. D.—Volcanic pet Ext. Am Jour. Sci., Feb., 1887.—A Dissected Vol- canic Mountain; Some of its Revelations. Ext. dm, Jour. Sci., Oct., 1886. . From the author. DAWSON, W. J., and G. J. HINDE.—New Species of Fossil Sponges. Ext. Canadian Record wy ome 1888. From the authors DoLLo, L.—Troisiéme Note sur les Dincensdenn de Bernissart. Extrait du Bulle du Musée Royal de Belgique, 1883. — Notes sur les Vertébrés Fossiles, Récemment Efferts au Musée de sa par M. Lemmonier. Extrait du Bull. de la Société Belge de Geol., 1889. Fro author. NN, C. H., and R. S. EPEE =A wee of the South American cena, or Cat-Fishes. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., July From the authors. EUDES-DESLONGCHAMPS, E.—Notes cane poset sur les Fossi Oxfordiens de la Collection Jarry. From the author F w, W. G.—The Task of American Bot airiai. Ext. Popular Sci., July, 1887. FRAZER, P.—The Horizon of the South Valley Hill Rocks in Pennsylvania. Read before the Am. Philos. Soc 15, 1882. ——The Philadelphia Maig of the International Congress of Geologists. Ext. Am. sc ap 1890. From the author. N, S.—Reptiles and Batrachians from the Caymans and from the Bahamas. Bull. Eset ost, oa o Dec., 1888. From the author. TE te , Endings, and Relations of Striated Muscular Fibres in the M tee of Minute shana (Mouse, oe Bat, and English Sparrow). Ext. from The Microscope, Aug., 1888. From the a GEINITZ, H. B.—Ueber die sin ph bunten Mergel der oberen Dyas bei Manchester. Ges. Isis in Dresden, 1889. From the author GILL, T.—On the Psychrolutidæ of Günther. Ext. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1888. From the author. - HALSTEAD, B. D.—Notes upon Stamens of Solanac Ext. Bot. Gaz., aws" 1890.—Rusts, Smuts, Ergots, and Rots. pees before N. J. Board of Agri Jan. 31, 1890. From the author. HANSTEIN, J.—Christian Gottfried peek ein Tagework, aui dern Felde der rschung te : HEILPRIN, A.—The Animal Life of Saas From J. a So & Co. HEINRICH, C. F.—Death from Electrical Currents. From the JaMEs, J. F.—A Cave in the Clinton Formation of Ohio. xi Jen Cin. Nat. Hist., May, I Soc. On the hanet Shales, and their Correlation with the Cincinnati Group of oo Ohio. Postscript to above Article. Exts. Am. Geol., 1890. From the Beka. J. S—The Development of Crangon vulgaris. Third Paper. Bull. Essex Institute, Jan., Feb., March, 1889. From the author. Lawson, A. C.—Note on the Pre-Palesoic Surface of the Archean Terranes of T LECHE, W.—Uber einige E stadien der Hypophysis cerebri. Ext. Proc. fos : TERSA EER on the Ohio. Ext. Am. Antiguary, May, 1889. 134 The American Naturalist. _ (February, -— Stone Monuments in Northwestern Iowa and Southwestern Minnesota, a i Am. Baie. July, 1890. From the author. me MARTIN, L. J.—Preliminary Analysis of the Leaves of Juglans nigra. sa x Jour. Phar., Oct., 1886. From the author. : MERRILL, G. P.—Notes ‘on the Composition of Certain ‘ Pliocene Sandstones ” from OO and Idaho. Ext. Am. Jour. Sci., Sep., I 1886. From the author. MONACO, ALBERT, PRINCE DE.—Sur n Appaieil Nouveau pour la R des Organismes Pelagiques a des Prolon pas Déterminées. Extrait des Comptes "e des Séances de la Société de Biologie, Juin, 1889. eum Catalogue of aanita Geological Survey. aa; LE MIS —Les Premières Populations de l' Europe. From the gg th Report of the Committee on the Metric System of Weights and Measures: 1884. 9. RICE, W. N.—Science-Teaching in the Schools. From the author. j RYDER, J. A—The Origin of Sex through Cumulative Integration, and the Rela- | tions of Sexuality to the Genesis of Species. Ext. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., May, 1890. From the author. : SPENCER, J. W.—Ancient fy Boulder Pavements, and High-Level Gravel Deposits in rigs ‘ge n of the Great Lakes. Ext. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I. 189. STERED, F. B.—A Summary of Holsti's Views on Anterio-Capillary Sclerosis. 4 ; 886. ——Arabic and Hebrew in Anatomy. Ext. Mew York Medical Ja July, 166 o Ta G ion poglossal Nerves in the Domestic Cat. Read before the Am. Philos. Soc., forse: 2, “ite. Sat ——The Soft Palate in the Domestic Cat. Ext, Proc. Am. Soc. Mic: Vol. X., 1888. From theauthor. — Transactions of the Boskim Pathological Society. Ped TROUESSART, E.— Revue de Paléontologie pour l'Année, 1887. Vertébres. From or. WATSON, J.—Caird’s Philosophy of Kant. Ext. The Week, m ness 1890. é WHITEAVES, J. F—On Some Fossils from the Hamilton Forma of Ouni The Fossils of the Triassic Rocks of British Columbia.—On some cael ie from British Columbia, the Northwest Territory, and Manitoba. Geol. an and Nat. : ‘Survey of Canada. From the author WIEDERSHEIM, R. VON. Weitere Mitteilungen iiber die Entwickl ey des Schulter und Beckengürtels. Sonder-Abdruck aus Anatomischer pe £ i a TOR No. pr From the author. Dar ER, B. G.—Address before the Section of Biology. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sete rs. ones ‘he seat on Pree INCHELL, A.—Conglomerates Enclosed in Gneissic Terranes.— Views the author. 5 Conditions.—Douglass Houghton.—Exts. Am Geol., ge prow, Gel ASOE A Ae age A. S.—On the Paleontology of Sturgeons. Ext. Proc. ro From the author. New Jersey: Et | WOOLMAN, L.—Geology of Artesian Wells at Atlantic City, Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., March, 1890. From the author. 1891.] Recent Literature. 135 RECENT LITERATURE, Justus Roth’s ‘‘ Allgemeine Geologie ’’ ' treats of the original crust of the earth and of the theory of metamorphism. In that part of the volume now before us the author maintains his position as one of the most indefatigable investigators of geological literature. As the result of his labors he has produced a book which at the same time is almost a complete index of the literature of metamorphism and a cyclopedia of the facts learned or surmised with respect to the phenomenon. To the plutonist it serves as a very welcome antidote to the great mass of neptunistic doctrine now penetrating the body of geological thought. In it is denied i _ oto the possibility of the alteration of a sediment into a crystalline-schist. The origin of those crystalline-schists that are not members of the original crust is ascribed in all cases to the dynamo-metamorphism of plutonic rocks. At the same time it is denied that pressure without attendant chemical action is able to produce such changes as are necessary in a rock to transform it from a granite or gabbro into a gneiss or a hornblende-schist. The necessary chemical action is thought to be sometimes the direct con- sequence of the pressure, and sometimes to be merely the ordinary processes of complicated weathering. No reliance is placed in the conclusion that the granulites of Saxony are regularly metamorphosed granites, or that the hornblende-schists are (as is supposed to be the case by Rosenbusch) ‘‘ metamorphic facies of gabbro.”” After discussing briefly the constitution of the original crust, of which the crystalline-schist formation is supposed to be the survival, the author plunges at once into the subject of metamorphism, which he takes up and treats with the same thoroughness as is evinced in the first two volumes of his work, The principal topic of the portion of the volume before us is the description of metamorphic phenomena, under which are described the action of lightning on rocks, the products of the action of coal burning underground (Erdbrande), and the changes produced in rocks by the intrusion through them of eruptives (contact-action). Under contact-action are treated the effect of igneous rocks upon coals, their effect upon inclusions caught up in them during their progress to the surface, and the result of their action upon eruptive and sedimentary rocks through which they break. 1 Allgemeine und Chemische Geologie. 3 B.1 Abt. Hertz (Besser’ sche Buchhand- ; lung), Berlin, 1890, 210 pp. 136 z The American Naturalist. The effects upon inclusions of various kinds are discussed kne oe son crystalline-schists, inclusions of younger eru inclusions of clastic rocks, of sandstone, of quartzite, of basalt- and of contact-rocks. Contact-action proper is treated under heads: first,the action upon intruded eruptives ; second,upon T schists; and third, upon sedimentaries. Endomorphous cont is next described, and the articles relative to it are briefly extra The action of pressure upon rocks is next taken up, and the discu of the changes produced in them by gaseous emanatious conclude portion of the volume under review. Practically all the results in 1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 137 eneral Notes. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. Discovery of Fish Remains in Ordovician Rocks.—At a meeting of the Biological Society of Washington on February 7th, 1891, Mr. Charles D. Walcott, of the U. S. Geological Survey, an- nounced the discovery of vertebrate life in the Lower Silurian (Ordo- vician) strata. He stated that ‘‘ the remains were found in a sandstone resting on the prepaleozoic rocks of the eastern front of the Rocky Mountains, near Cafion City, Colorado. They consist of an immense number of separate plates of placoganoid fishes and many fragments of the calcified covering of the notochord, of a form provisionally re- ferred to the Elasmobranchii. The accompanying invertebrate fauna has the facies of the Trenton fauna of New York and the Mississippi valley. It extends upward into the superjacent limestone, and at an horizon 180 feet above the fish beds. Seventeen out of thirty-three species that have been distinguished are identical with species occurring in the Trenton limestone of Wisconsin and New York. « Great interest centers about this discovery from the fact that we now have some of the ancestors‘of the great group of placoderm fishes which appear so suddenly at the close of the Upper Silurian and in the lower portion of the Devonian group. It also carries the vertebrate fauna far back into the Silurian, and indicates that the differentiation between the invertebrate and vertebrate types "probably occurred in Cambrian time.” of America, in August, 1891. 138 The American Naturalist. [February, MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.! Petrographical News.— Among the several brochures lately pub- lished explanatory of the new map of France, one by Lacroix? con- tains two articles. The first is descriptive of the metamorphic and eruptive rocks of Ariége, and the second is on the acid inclusions in the volcanic rocks of the Auvergne. In the former the marbles of Mercus and Arignac are carefully described. In them occur two varieties of- humite, brucite, amphibole, phlogopite, scapolite, spinel, corundum, sphene, rutile, zircon, and many other less common minerals. One variety of the humite occurs in rounded crystals of a clear yellow color, that becomie colorless in thin section. The other variety is light orange, becoming golden yellow in the section. Both possess the same optical properties, except that the orange crystals are pleochroic in pale yellow and light golden-yellow tints. They are classed by the, author with the clino-humites. Their alteration products are inter- esting. The most usual alteration is into brucite, found either in little plates, often several millimeters in length, or in fibres forming aureoles around unaltered cores of humite. Another alteration is into chryso- tile. ‘This is rare, and the change is usually incomplete. A third method of decomposition is into a granular mixture of secondary calcite, dolomite, and small grains of the original mineral. The = amphibole in the rocks is pargasite. Two varieties of spinel were ob- served, one a violet and often transparent variety, and the other ge pleonast. The violet spinel often accompanies the pargasite and . humite. Both spinels are almost always surrounded by a circle of col- orless chlorite in thin plates, and this in turn by a zone of secondary =. calcite and an outer rim of brucite. The rutile merits special a | tion, because what appears to be the ordinary black variety iS found in thin section to be sometimes this, and sometimes like the violet rutile of the amphibole and pyroxene gneisses of Norway. The ye and amphibole gneisses of this region and the wernerite gneisses present few peculiarities. The marbles, pyroxene gneisses, and gare lites of St. Barthélemy are all marked by interesting features: > accessory components of the marbles are almost exclusively graphite scapolite, pyroxene, and occasionally oligoclase, the last three forming rounded grains rarely surpassing a millimeter and a half in diameter: Edited ited by Dr. W, S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me. 2 Bull. des Serv. d. 1. Carte. gèol. d. France, No. 11, T. II. 1990] Mineralogy and Petrography. 139 The peridotite contains hypersthene and amphibole, Its olivine is perfectly fresh, and is in irregular grains imbedded in the amphiboloids. Some of the granulites contain corroded crystals of bright red andalu- site, and also black tourmaline, sphene, muscovite, and garnet dissemi- nated in a ground-mass of feldspar and quartz. Other granulites are very rich in cordierite, and these are in general less rich in quartz than are those bearing andalusite. Micaceous and quartzitic schists from the neighborhood of Ax embrace zircon, apatite, sphene, magnetite, and numerous other materials, thought to be due to the action of the ‘granulite on the schists. On the granulite side of the contact this rock is found to be charged with andalusite, and often with cordierite. Pyroxenites consist of a colorless diopside, zoisite, garnet, calcite, occasionally quartz, and frequently vesuvianite, of which latter it is possible to isolate beautiful amber-yellow crystals of the variety egeran. In the second article by the same author is a discussion of the changes effected in acid inclusions by the basaltic and acid rocks of Auvergne. Two classes of these inclusions are recognized, viz., those found in lava streams, and those occurring in volcanic necks. Both classes in- clude granites and gneisses rich in quartz, and frequently containing cordierite, sillimanite, garnet, corundum, diaspore, and zircon. The ges effected in them by the basic lavas varies in intensity, but not materially in kind. In extreme cases the inclusion has been entirely dissolved, with the exception of the insoluble substances, such as silli- Manite, zircon, and diaspore, which remain as grains in the volcanic glass. ‘The cleavages of the original feldspars have been accentuated, any liquid and gaseous inclosures have been developed in them, and the optical properties of the orthoclase have been changed. Quartz fragments in the altered forms have been surrounded by aureoles of | DA aa minerals developed in the surrounding rock by the i Ante = = Inclusion are spinel, hypersthene, and sometimes labra- : pee Sg forming holocrystalli. e aggregates, and at other aos : oe. as individual grains bathed in a vitreous paste. “In an ae case the minerals are met with only in the lava that has been : a oae tie components of the inclusions. They are not of the region are gneisses and kersantites. In most = i Sa the changes that have been produced in them are analogous to FER Produced by the basalts. Much new feldspar has been generated them a ii a: TER is usually optically continuous with the original feld- mo. is attached. ridymite is also an abundant new ae ‘ieee spinel and hypersthene. All these minerals are 140 The American Naturalist. [February, _ produced in the inclusion ; whereas in the case of the basaltic altera- — tion the last two are found in the metamorphosed rock. In a later article Lacroix 3 summarizes the results of his study of inclusions, with reference especially to those of the Haute-Loire. When the inclusions are of the same composition as the enclosing rock, the former have in general been{well preserved. If, on the contrary, the inclusion differs in its silica content from the surrounding rock, it is easily destroyed, merely traces of it remaining to mark its former presence.——Gray- wacke in contact with granite in the~Lausitz, Saxony, is changed to knotty (Knoten) graywackes, in which muscovite, biotite, quartz, feld- _ spar, and tourmaline occur as new products, and finally into a quartz- mica rock with cordierite, tourmaline, and some other new products. On the granitic side the rock has assumed a gneissic aspect, thought by Herrimann and Weber‘ to be the result of flowage. The micro structure of several calcareous odlites from Iowa, and of siliceous odlites from Pennsylvania, is represented by Messrs. Barbour and orrey® as concretionary in most cases, while in others the spherules | have a brecciated or mosaic appearance. Analyses of several kinds ot odlites are given in the paper. New Minerals.—Cassanite, biad with barite occurs on å copiapite specimen from Sierra Gordo, Chili, in the form of large, brown, prismatic crystals, without well-developed faces. According to Darapsky ê their streak is orange, hardness 3, and density 2. 18. They ; are but slightly soluble in water or in cold hee acid, but easily : dissolve in hot acid. Their composition (SO, = ; Fe,0, = H,O = 30.76; barite = 1.15) corresponds to Fe = (Fe0)(S0).+ 80. The crystallization is probably monoclinic, Manganopectolite 5 Beer associated with ozarkite and other decomposition products of eleolite- : oe syenite at Magnet Cove, Ark.” On a fresh fracture the mineral. is ; light gray and transparent. On its exterior it is covered with an- - Opaque coating of brown manganese oxide. The crystals are pounded ` by oP, Pæ, + 2P% and Po » and their axial ratio is @ ee 1.0731: 1: 4840. Their habit i is thick tabular. Cleavage is STE to oP and œ Pæ. Hardness = 5, and density 2.845- Compo- “ab, FeO, CaO MnO Na,O H,O cO, ! 53-03 .I0 30.28 4.25 8.99 2.43 è Bull. Soc. Franç. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p. 100. ee - * Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1890, II., p. 187. vee P. . Min., etc., 1890, II., p. 267. 7 Me F. Williams, ` Zeits, Í. Kent, XVIL, 1890, p. 386. ie ee ae optical methods. In order to show their relations to 1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 141 Correcting for the small amount of calcite present, the analysis cor- responds with the formula (48; Ca, 745 Mn), Na H (SiO,),—a pectolite with a tenth of its calcium replaced by manganese.- In its optical properties the new mineral agrees well with the view that it is closely allied to pectolite. Its axial plane is Po, With ò the acute bisectrix. The double refraction is positive, and the dispersion is strong s> p. Pinakiolite and trimerite are both new miner- als from the Manganese Mines in Sweden. The name of the first refers to its occurrence in small, tabular crystals. It was found by Flink ê in granular dolomite at Langbanshyttan, associated with haus- mannite. The density of the new mineral is 3.881, and its hardness is 6. It is soluble in strong hydrochloric acid with evolution of chlorine, and before the blowpipe it fuses with difficulty to a black bead. An analysis of the hydrochloric acid solution yielded : : BO, MgO Mn,O, - FeO,” CaO PbO SiO, H,O 15.65 28.58 49-39 2.07, 1.09. A0 1,28 +47 Correcting for silica and water, the formula becomes R,BMnQ,, or a manganese /udwigite. The black, lustrous crystals are usually ortho- rhombic, rectangular tables, in which the brachypinacoid is most developed. In addition to this there is present in the mineral only » P3. A definite termination of the ¢ axis is lacking, but since twins with a brachydome as a twinning plane are common, the axial ratio was calculated with this as the unit form, and the following result ob- tained: a: 6: c—=.83385: 1: -58807 Cleavage is parallel to »Po- The optical axial plane is oP, with å the negative acute bisec- trix. The absorption is B> 4> C, with B= ¢ = opaque ; A=b= reddish-brown, and C= a = reddish-yellow. 7) rimerite (tprp phs = three-fold) was found at the Harstigsgrube associated with friedelite etc. The density — 3.474, and hardness = 6-7. The pulverized mineral dissolves in hot hydrochloric acid, with the separation of gelatinous silica. Its composition : SiO, BO MnO FeO CaO MgO 39.77 17.08 26.86 3-87 12-44 61 corresponds to (MnBe)SiO,, a manganese phenacite. The tans parent bright red crystals have an hexagonal habit, due to twinning of triclinic individuals, whose triclinic nature is discoverable only by the Willemite ® Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIIL., 1890, p. 361. 142 The American Naturalist. group the author describes the crystals in terms of the hexagonal sys- tem with a: c — 1: .7233. They are thick, tabular forms, bounded by oP, ota oP, $ P2, $ P2 and 4 P 5, and other pyramids with com- plicated symbols. . Brégger finds that sections parallel to „P2 extin- guish at about 4° from c. 2V = 83° 29’, with a very slight dispersion. The angles a, 2 and y are all nearly go°, so that the combination is somewhat similar to the combination of orthorhombic aragonites to produce an apparently hexagonal form. The axial ratio on the assumption of triclinic symmetry becomes a: 6: ¢=.5744: Ti . 5425, end the forms OP Poo s co Fy co P PLP, Po als plz, 2 Pa * Mineral Syntheses.—Boracite has been produced by Gramont’ in the wet way. One part of borax and two of magnesium chloride were moistened with water and heated to 275°—280° in a sealed tube. Little crystals of the mineral thus obtained are bounded by tetrahe- drons, octahedrons, and other forms apparently belonging to the regular _ system. Each tetrahedral face, however, is observed, upon examina- tion, to be composed of small sectors, indicating a grouping of indi- viduals of lower symmetry to produce a pseudo-regular form. When the mixture was heated at a temperature below 265° (the temperature at which natural boracite becomes isotropic) no boracite was obtained, but in its stead there resulted elongated hexagonal crystals of somè = substance not yet investigated. One part of alumina and two of ue Silica, according to Vernadsky,” unite ata white heat to form a glass which, under the microscope, is seen to be filled with little needles of SS sillimanite, with the composition : SiO, = 37.3! ; Al,O, = 63-65- Pote: o. celaine consists essentially of the same substances, viz., a glass holding >? = acicular crystals of sillimanite. Many of the most important zeolites = have been manufactured by Doelter," who at the same time has solved i some of the problems as to their composition, His method of pr% . cedure was to dissolve suitable substances at moderately high fi tures under pressure, and allow them to cool gradually and crystallize. In this way he succeeded in making apophyllite, chabazit cue natrolite, and skolecite. The author next proceeded to investigate i composition of the minerals formed by heating some specimens to ae temperature beyond which they lose water, occasionally a them chemically and optically, and by fusing others and studying Ae decomposition products, At 260° apophyllite loses 19 P&T cenh 9 Bull. Soc. Franç. d. Min., XIIL, 1890, p. 252. w Tb., p. 256. ; u Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1., 1890, p. 118. 1801.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 143 water, and above this temperature is decomposed. Just below 260° the hydrate is biaxial, while above this temperature the anhydrous residue is uniaxial. Other zeolites yield similar results, These lead to the conclusion that they all consist of a nepheline, pyroxene, or feldspar-like silicate, combined with meta- or orthosilicic acid, and also an amount of water varying with the temperature. The crystal water may be driven off at high temperature, and taken up again at a lower one, and the various hydrates obtained by the successive steps may possess different crystallographic properties. After a certain amount of loss the minerals refuse to part with more water, which is regarded as chemically combined with silica in the silicic-acid portion of the combination. The author determines incidentally the solubility of several of the zeolites in different solvents, and concludes his paper with a table giving the supposed composition of the members of the group. Heulandite is represented as CaAl,Si,O,,+2H,SiO,+34q ; natrolite as Na,A1,Si,O,+H,SiO,, etc. Messrs. C. and G. Friedel,” by the action of lime on mica in the presence of calcium chloride, obtained small crystals of anorthite, and by the action of soda and sodium sulphate on the same mineral produced little prismatic crystals of a substance differing from nosean in the addition of two molecules of water. Physical Mineralogy.—The discussion as to the caùse of optical anomalies in uniaxial crystals has: received another addition in a late article contributed by Martin," in which the writer attempts to show that the Mallard theory with respect to these phenomena is faulty. Mallard believes that the crystals are pseudo-uniaxial ; that they consist of several twinned individuals, which by their combination build up a form possessing a geometrical symmetry of higher grade than that be- longing to its individual constituents. Martin has examined several organic compounds, and is thereby led to the conclusion that in these the anomalies are due to strain or pressure exerted on some parts of the crystal by the more rapid growth of other parts. It is well known that in many crystals a skeleton is formed first in the act of crystallization, and that this skeleton is subsequently filled in by the deposition of material within its arms. ‘The skeleton thus grows faster than the in- terstitial substance, and exerts in this latter a strain whose effect is exhibited in the anomalies. Other important thoughts are brought Out in the investigation, which appears to have been conducted in a _ ™ Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p- 233- 1 Ib., p. 238. : Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B.B. VIL., p-1. -—4. Am. Nat.—February x _ and that the conclusions reached by him comprehend no new notio the values of the optical constants, and the fifth contains a follows: The rapidity of solubility is equal along equivalent € 18 Miner. u, Petrog. Mitth., X1., 1890, P- 349 = 144 The American Naturalist. [Febr careful and conscientious manner. ‘W yrouboff,® in a reply to N tin’s article, states that the latter’s results differ but little from his ox The writer last referred to (W.) has recently 16 completed a series of experiments on circularly polarizing substances, by which he seems to have shown that the peculiar property of these bodies is due to their structure, which is described by Mallard as an irregular piling of very _ small biaxial plates. In this way a high grade of symmetry is imitated, while the plates are really of a low grade. He also adds a nineteenth substance to the list of rotatory polarizing bodies, viz., (NH,)LiS' which is apparently biaxial and positive. The effect.of tempe upon the optical and crystallographic constants of prismatic su has been thorougly investigated by Schrauf,” who records his results | an excellent paper of fifty-nine pages. The first part discusses the values of the interfacial angles at different temperatures. The is confined to refractive phenomena, such as the refractive index different wave lengths. The third and fourth contain calculati l of the relations existing between the refractive indices length of the transmitted light, temperature, and other facto concludes with remarks on the constancy of the refractive and d l ive power, and upon the crystal form of prismatic sulphur.——A paper by Becke ! on the etching of fluorite is a remarkable exhibit of caret! and painstaking work in this branch of physical mineralogy. The author has subjected both natural and prepared faces of crystals various localities to the action of acids and alkalies of various and at different temperatures, and has studied the results The symmetry of the figures obtained indicate a tetragonal for the mineral. Anomalous figures on some crystals, found oniy planes that show double refraction, are explained as due to the of growth. Many new ideas are gathered from the study, one ‘most important of which is embodied in a restatement of t symmetry of etched figures. ‘These possess the symmetry 0 on which they occur only when this is a natural one free from vicinal planes, etc. Experiments on the solubility of the! different directions lead to the expression of a law of s 3 Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p. 94- m Ib., p. 215. i ~- 11 Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIIL., 1890, p. 114. r891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 145 graphic directions, and different along unequivalent directions, Further, the author finds that elevations due to etching (aetzhiigel) occur on faces least capable of resisting solution, while depressions (aetzgriibchen) are produced in the least soluble faces. Etching zones, he defines as those containing the planes with the greatest capacity for resisting solution. Many more results of interest are contained in the paper, the character of which is sufficiently indicated by the conclusions above referred to. The natural etched figures on the topaz of San Louis Potosi, Mexico, correspond in symmetry with the faces on which they occur, with the exception of those on the brachypinacoid 2P%, which are unsymmetrical. According to Pelikan ™ they resemble the figures produced by Baumhauer upon treating the mineral with molten potassa. Dufet” obtains 1.54421 as the value of the refractive index of quartz, based on the examination of seventeen different specimens of the mineral. Miscellaneous.—The cosmic dust (kryokonite) collected by Nor- denskjéld in Greenland, in 1883, has been submitted to Wiilfing *! for investigation, by whom it has been found to consist in greater part of feldspar, quartz, mica, and hornblende. There are present in it also garnet, zircon, magnetite, augite, and sillimanite, and with them is mixed a nitrogenous organic substance. The most interesting con- stituents of the dust are little chondri of opaque, isotropic transpar- ent, and double refractive material. The larger part of the dust is thought to be a sediment from the air, and to have been obtained by ‘it from a region of crystalline schists. The chondri, on the other hand, are thought to be of cosmic origin, since they are similar to the chondri obtained in deep-sea soundings. If the amount of the dust time is 125 million kilograms, equivalent to a cube of thirty-one yards on a side. A new crystal refractometer has been devised by Czapski. Its construction and use is carefully described by 9 inventor in a recent paper in the Neues Jahrbuch ——That — relation exists between the habits of crystals of certain minerals and their mode of formation has long been recognized, but it has been left for Arzruni to undertake a systematic study of this relation. In a -= SIb, XE, 1890, p. 331. - 2 Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p- 271- 21 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B. B., VII., p. 152. 2 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B. B., VII., p. 175. B Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIIL., 1890, p. 44- 146 The American Naturalist. [Febrony, late paper this writer communicates the results of the examination of crystals of hematite produced by sublimation in smelting furnaces and those from San Sebastiano, Italy, that are supposed to have been formed in an analogous manner. In all of these the habit is the same, although different combinations of nearly related forms occur on them. Sublimed valentinite and senarmontite are likewise studied. Cuprite produced by slow oxidation at a low temperature has an octahedral or dodecahedral habit, while that produced at a high temperature is probably hexahedral. Struvite obtained from a solution of Koch's peptone differs materially from the natural mineral, but the differences have not yet been carefully enough studied to warrant any general conclusion being drawn from the observations. Further articles from Prof. Arzruni will be looked for with interest. BOTANY. The Relative Altitudes of the Rocky and Appalachian Mountain Systems as Influencing the Distribution of orthern Plants.—In the study of the geographical distribution of : North American plants certain difficulties have been apparent smo — the adoption of three ‘‘regions,’’ extending north and south, ny denominated respectively the eastern, central, and western. A per ee ba . » . . i 1 better division of the continent is that proposed by Britton, recognizes a northern region, including British America, the Sier: the Rockies, and the Alleghenies; and a southern region, DE the Atlantic coast, Mississippi valley, and a part of California. N only does such an arrangement of regions make it possible to gro more correctly the known facts of spermaphytic distribution, but, 1o i certain extent, it corresponds more exactly with the probable me" of original distribution of all plants over the continental area oF pean j America. Since the glacial period the great drift-covered gery been covered with vegetation, spreading slowly from Siberia and Uae dinavia on the north, and from Mexico and South Amei south. The flora of North America, then, exclusive of ef oe the south, T rE en the most part, a resultant of the greater or less comminglin two currents of vegetation, the one flowing constantly to ne Si other as constantly flowing northward. east _ 1 The General Distribution of North American Plants; by N. S. Britton- — of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1890. 18yr.] Botany. 147 That a group of plants developed most abundantly in high northern latitudes should extend southward along north and south mountain ranges is precisely what one would expect, for in Such localities con- ditions resembling the normal would be obtained. Consequently a large number of distinctively boreal plants may be found on the tops of high tropical mountains, With this well-known fact of distribution in mind, it will be plain that one should expect a high mountain range to bring south a greater number of northern plants than could be brought by a low mountain range. Such a hypothesis would find some support, at least, if one considers the distribution of Canadian spermaphytic genera in the southwestern United States, and then in the southeastern. Of the two great mountain systems of North America, the western is much higher and extends farther to the south, Throughout Colorado the elevation of Rocky Mountain peaks is some- what over 13,000 feet, while the highest peak of the Alleghenies is barely 8,000 feet, above sea-level. The Rocky Mountain range from Montana to New Mexico averages about twice the height of the Appalachian chain frbm New York to the Carolinas. The accompanying table is compiled to exhibit what seems to be the clearly preponderant massing of typically northern: plants southwest rather than southeast. In the compilation only the more compendious lists have been employed. These are those of Macoun, Watson, Coulter, Chapman, Gray, and Porter. The table shows the number of species and varieties of several distinctively northern and south- bound genera in Canada, in the southern Colorado-and New Mexico regions, and in the southern Appalachian regions, respectively. For the most part, genera which have their greatest North American devel- opment in British America are the ones which have been selected. In the majority of cases, too, the genera chosen are those of wide range, east and west, in the Canadian region. It is possible that the figures are not exactly accurate for many of the entries, since only a little critical work on the nomenclature has been attempted, and some synonyms may have crept into the totals. Again, especially in the southwestern region, some entries should doubtless be made from the smaller plant lists, not given by the larger lists, which alone were €m- i ployed. This source of erròr, as will be seen, would not at all tend _ to vitiate the general results. 148 The American Naturalist. [February, A TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE DISTRIBUTION SOUTHWESTWARD AND SOUTHEASTWARD OF CERTAIN DISTINCTIVELY BOREAL GENERA or NORTH AMERICAN SPERMAPHYTES: Po oe Ee o ae zp B FE gE p FES fe as B Se 88 : z5 F 3 zs 53 Anemone, fe co 3 Potentilla, 46. ee Ranunculus, oa: y i Rosa, I9 o See Caltha, 5 I I Saxifraga, 38 a Aquilegia, 5 7 I _ Mitella, 5 fai Delphinium, et ee Huchera, ye Nymphea L., 4 2 2 Parnassia, 5 Reece Cardamine, ~~ 5 3 Epilobium, 17 Draba, 26 14 E. Peucedanum, 9 r a Arabis, t5 8 6 Lonicera, 12 koe Lepidium, ay Eee Galium, 17: ee Sisymbrium, i 4 3} Valeriana, 6 Ae Nasturtium, & > i Campanula, ro Fa Viola, mo oG 16- Vaccinium, “apo Aa : Silene, ir. 6.6 Bryanthus, ee Sac Lychnis, II 3 o Kalmia, 4 te : Arenaria, w i 2 Ledum, 4 Pe Stellaria, D 8:3 Pyrola, 14 eee Cerastium, 12 4 4 Primula, gs Sagina, a yg Gentiana, 299 H Claytonia, 13 5 2 Veronica, 6. a : Geranium, 9 7 2 Castilleja, 6S - Oxalis, 4 3 3 Plantago, 17 6 45 i Lupinus, io Ti 3 Betula, E e 3 re Trifolium, 20 fto 6° Alnus, Me re a. Vicia, 5 4 Salix, 62:10 ae Spiræa, 8 3 2 Populus, Lo 4 = oe DalibardaL. 22 6 % Habenaria, no aao m, i o i Cypripedium, eee co Fragaria, - 4 3 I Unifolium, 7 oe a In glancing over this table it will be seen that such larger ¢ r and m widely distributed genera as Ranunculus, Draba, Stellaria, 17 Potentilla, Saxifraga, Epilobium, Pyrola, aT ang very clearly extended southwestward much mor abun 1891.] Botany. 149 southeastward. The same_is true, less noticeably, of the smaller genera. Marked exceptions, however, will be noted in the genera Viola, Vaccinium, and Kalmia. These are all northern genera, and their anomalous distribution demands explanation. Of Viola it might be said with reason that many of the species have entered from the east rather than from the west. It is a cosmopolitan genus at the present day, and may have entered the continent by other paths than the ordinary passage across Bering Strait. In Europe, according to Nyman,! there are fifty-six species of Viola, while in the Russian Em- pire, according to Ledebour? there are but forty. This would indicate an eastern expansion in North America, corresponding with the west- ward expansion in the old world. At any rate, the present diffused condition of Viola species makes the problem of the general distribu- tion much more complicated than it might at first appear. The genus Viola, then, although probably northern in point of origin, has been = fedistributed from southern stations, ‘it may be, and the position of = Species over continental areas is due to a more complicated interaction i of Causes than the present writer is able to explain. With reference to Vaccinium and Kalmia, however, no such argument can be employed. Of Vaccinium there are but ten species in the Russian Empire and but three in Europe. The genus is seen, therefore, to center in North America. Kalmia is a North American genus, one species ranging to Cuba, but none found native in the Eastern Hemisphere. Both of these genera, then, are somewhat differently situated from Pyrola, which, al- though centering in British America, has five species in Europe and fve in the Russian Empire. Kalmia and Vaccinium, being typically ye American, may have originated far eastward on the continent, and this would give an explanation of the greater distribution south- : —e than southwestward. It is a fact that even the Canadian n Dore these two genera are principally in the eastern provinces. i ‘Ba Y one species and one variety of Kalmia range west of Hudson Tal ad The American Naturalist. National Museum, publishes in the proceedings of that instit suggestive paper on the leaves of Liriodendron, being a stud leaf-forms observed on individual trees, Thirty-eight figures forms of fossil leaves may have little real foundation. Certainly tl are as marked differences between some of the leaf-forms fig Mr. Holm as there are between those often regardad ass paleobotanists——Two ‘‘garden scholarships” will be award the director of the Missouri Botanical Garden prior to the fi the well-known mycologist. Generale de Botanique, Henri Jumelle publishes an interesti on the influence of anesthetics on the transpiration of plants. ingenious apparatus plants were subjected to the fumes of ether, it was found that although assimilation was stopped, the transpit of water was greatly increased.—Part V. of Macoun’s Catal Canadian Plants has just come to hand. It is devoted to the Ac _and a long list of “‘ additions and corrections’’ to the precs ~ Thirteen species of Equisetum are enumerated, sixty-four ferns and adder-tongues, and twenty-two Lycopods and ee This | part completes volume II. of the catalogue. In part will begin a new volume, we are promised the Characee, “Hepaticee. —In a recent number (January, 1891) of t ceutische Rundschau Dr. Power and Mr. Cambier oe e their chemical examination of two “ Loco-Weeds,”’ viz ~ mollissimus Torrey, and Crotalaria sagittalis L. —A rec Ta m the rien cs Chronicle contains figures of the fungus - Jæticolor which causes the k ates on grapes in England. x 1891.} Zoology. 153 ZOOLOGY: New California Fishes.—PERKINSIA (genus nov.,) CLUPEIDÆ. Type: Perkinsia othonops:—Like Etrumeus, except that the pectoral and ventral fins are shielded, the scales of the breast adherent forming a ventral buckler, which covers the closed pectoral fins, leaving only the dorsal edge and the extreme tip of the fins visible. The closed ven- tral fins, likewise slip under a posterior buckler. The capillary scales are large, that of the pectoral extending very nearly to its tip, while the ventral axillary scale reaches slightly farther than its fin. Caudal deeply forked, the lateral scales extending continuously upon the cen- ter of the fin almost to margin of central rays. Adipose eyelid cover- ing the eye wholly, without a pupillary slit. Perkinsia othonops ; one specimen, 320 mm. long. The single speci- men known was caught November 2oth, 1890, off Point Loma, by fish- ermen taking mackerel. It belongs to the British Museum. Form of Clupea sagax, or of a mackerel with a stout tail. Head 4 (44); depth 5 (6); D. 17; A. 10; P. 15; V. 8. ; Scales 50. - Head compressed forward, eye longer than snout, 3 in head. Inter- orbital a little less than snout, 434 in head, the frontals narrowing for- ward. Occiput with ridges forming a W, the top of the head with a long, lanceolate depressed area anteriorly, with a median ridge, and a triangular area between anterior part of the W.. This region filled with adipose tissue in life. Maxillary 3 in head, not reaching the pupil, the supplemental bone very narrow, the maxillary sublinear, deeply ground. Cheeks opercle, preopercle, lateral portions of occi- put and an enlarged humeral scale with multifurcate mucous canals, which, especially upon the cheeks, form conspicuous dendritic markings, the canals being unpigmented against closely dotted interspaces. Isthmus triangular, the gill covers not emarginate below. Scales large, deciduous. Teeth as in Etrumeus. Pseudobranchia large, ex- posed. Gill rakers long and slender. Form of dorsal fin similar to that of Clupea sagax. The insertion of the fin equidistant between ‘tip of snout and end of the anal.- Anal small. Caudal with minute scales. Ventrals entirely posterior to the dorsal fin, short, 334 in the head. Pectoral fins placed very low, 13 in head. Silvery below, steel-blue above, checks golden. Dorsal and caudal fins dusky. Ventral fins with a median blackisk blotch gnterion'y- ~ Inner surface of pectoral fins chiefly black, the ends of the posterior 4 preopercular conical, directed backward, the other 2 flat, tiag with black, X hich extend upon the membrane of soft dorsal a per > ~” the first dorsal. Series of confluent bronze spots form aa streaks a bands on sides of head ; one extends from 154 | The American Naturalist. [Febeuary, rays hyaline. Adipose eyelid transparent in life, preorbital regions 5 translucent ; the adipose tissue becoming opaque in apin: . SEBASTODES GILLII, sp. nov. : Types: Two specimens, 555 and 580 mm. long, taken off Point Loma, November 19th, 1890. Collection of = British Masenm, Related to S. cos, chlorostictus, and rhodoch Head, 3 (3% to lip of caudal) ; depth, 3 ie ; ~” XIIL, ie he | HI., 734. Lateral line (pores), 44-45 k Lower jaw projecting and entering the. profile without eymplgih ob. Profile nearly straight to origin of dorsal fin, not steep, Snout very broad, blunt. Maxillary reaching posterior edge of pupil, 2 in the head. Mouth very oblique, the premaxillary on a level with superior edge of the pupil. Orbit 1 in snout, 414-434, in head, a little greater than interorbital. Interorbital concave.» Pre-, supra-, and postocular, occipital, and nuchal spines san the first four very short and broad, the supraocular spiné about 234 the interorbital. Occipital spines very high and stout; the n spines almost continuous with the occipital. 5 Opercular and preopercular spines long and strong, the 3 B downward and backward. - Preorbital with a sharp, anterior spine, and terminating posteriorly in a similar but larger 7 xillary with a few scales superiorly on its median third. S either naked or with a few scattered patches of scales. Mandible: 7 Spinous dorsal low, the highest spine 23-2 ee in heat deeply notched, the highest ray about equal to highest spine. - Caudal truncate. Second anal stouter and about as long 4 ™® Buccal and opercular cavities and peritoneum white, e 1 1891.) Zoology. 155 tinued upon the shoulder as a conspicuous blotch, one to lower angle of opercle, one downward and slightly backward across cheeks ; lower lip and anterior pgrt of maxillary dusky. A few conspicuous spots on base of pectoral. All the dark markings becoming blackish and persisting in spirits, the radiating streaks of the head especially conspicuous in the alcoholic specimen. A light spot under last dorsal spine; one on opercular flap. spinous dorsal fin blackish. ‘Teast so. A dark-blue axillary spot. S. cos. Mandible, maxillary, and snout, except a median triangular spot, scaly. Preorbital with a single, flat, downward-directed spoe at its posterior angle. Interorbital deeply concave, grooved medially. cond preopercular spine di- rected downward. Second anal spine 224 in head. Color-markings having a washed or faded appearance. A prominent symphyseal knob. Intermaxillary band of teeth very deep in front, 3 in orbit, projecting beyond the mandible. es of head strongly ciliate, with upturned edges, the breast scales similar. Palatine band of teeth long, 14 in orbit. GERRES CINEREUS, Var, NOV. —One specimen, Probably taken in the bay. — specimen collected for us by Mr. Medina, at San Diego, California, summer of 1890. S. gilli. Mandible entirely naked ; max- illary with a few scales medially. Preorbital with an anterior and a posterior spine. Interorbital nearly evenly con- cave, the median groove shallow. Upper three preopercular spines directed backward. Second anal spine 334 in head. Peritoneum nearly white. Color-markings conspicuous, No symphyseal knob, Intermaxillary band of teeth shallow in mre? 5 in orbit, the lower jaw projecting. Scales of ea slightly ciliate, depressed. Palatine band of teeth short, 4 in orbit. 185 mm. San Diego, The single is interme- diate between G. californiensis and G. cinereus. . The caudal fin is slightly longer than the head, while the second Ventral fins 134 in head. cept on the ventral surface. anal spine is short, about 334 in the head. Dark seem No dark lateral bars. All the fins finely punctate, the pectorals everywhere, €X- pper portion of 156 The American Naturalist. — [February, Head, 32 ; depth, 225 ; scales 6-45-10. Eye equal to interorbital space, 5 in head. Maxillary just reaching front of eye. Predorsal distance 234 in the lengthy - SCOMBRESOX BREVIROSTRIS Peters.—One specimen of this rare species was also collected for us by Mr. Medina in the vicinity of San Diego. ALOPIAS VULPES (Gmel.).—This shark is also to be added to the fauna of San Diego.—R. S. EIGENMANN, San Francisco, Cal., Jan. 8th, 1891. ; ea The Epiglottis in Colubrine Snakes.—In the AMERICAN : Naturatist for January, 1884 (p. 19), Dr. Chas. A. White describes the epiglottis of the pine-snakes (Pitydphis), and figures it as it appears in the P. sayi bellona B. and G. He shows that instead of having the horizontal form found in the higher Vertebrata, it is a | vertical lamina standing erect in front of the rima glottidis. He states Po a s l AN AAN “o ne - A ; i G, (Pi EE Pityophis sayi bellona, B and G, natural size; a, sheath of tongue; b, epee a c, glottis. From Dr. Shufelot. ip ae ; | - that he has found it in all of the species of Pityophis, bit Hi i: wanting in all other serpents which he has examined. Dt does not specify which these species are, I have made an d of many genera found in all parts of the world, with the na ascertaining its presence in any of them other than in Pityophis: The result of my examinations is that it is either distinctly preset In a few 10- 1891.] Zoology. 157 (Bulletin U. S. Nat. Museum, 32, 1887, P. 72). It is, however, wanting in Spilotes proper, and curiously enough in the Rhinechis elegans, which is otherwise a good deal like Pityophis. It is not present in any other American snakes, harmless or venomous. It appears to me to bea character of generic importance, so I propose to separate the two Mexican snakes referred to from Spilotes on account of its presence under the name of Epiglottophis, with Æ. deppei as the type. Among old-world snakes it is wanting in all types, both venomous and harmless, The rudiment in the form of a small tubercle is present in the Sprlotes helenae, S. melanurus and S. samarensis ; also in the Rhinechis scalaris.—E. D. COPE. Notes on the Classification of the Pigeons.—Quite recently the writer has very thoroughly compared the characters presented on the part of the skeletons of specimens of nearly all the genera of the United States Columbide. There appears to bea difference of opinion as to how these birds should be classified. Coues, in his “ Key” (second edition), states it as his opinion that ‘‘ the order Columba: may be separated into three groups or suborders: Didi, Pterocletes, and Peristerze,—the first two certainly, the last probably, of a single family. The Peristerze alone are American. These he divides in the following way: Subfamilies. Suborder. . Family. 1. Columbine. PERISTERZ. Columbide. 2. Zenaidine. > ; 3. Starnænadinæ. In the Columbinæ he includes the genera Columba and Ectopistes ; in the Zenaidine, the genera Engyptila, Zenaidura, Zenaida, Melo- pelia, Columbigallina, Scardafella, and Geotrygon ; and finally, in the tarncenadinz, the genus Starnoenas. The American Ornithologists’ “Union, in its official check-list, pre- sents the order Columbz to contain the family Columbidz, and cre- ates no subfamilies for the genera just named above. Mr. Ridgway, in his “ Manual,” adopts the same scheme of classi- fication, Coues primarily bases his division of the Columbide into sub-, families upon the following characters : Tarsi scutellate, feathered ....:- Columbine. Tarsi scutellate, naked . .. +--+: -> Zenaidine. Tarsi reticulate, naked . .-.- - . . Starncenadine. ‘The remaining characters, in so far as we have any knowledge of them at present, except in the case of the Starncenadinz, do not go to * 158 The American Naturalist. support this division, and it breaks down utterly when we come to take into consideration the osteology of the various species. ao The skeleton of Geotrygon has not been examined by me; but I am of the opinion that it will not militate against the classification sug- gested below, judging as I do from its external anatomy. ee My studies of the osteology of the group convince me that our “United States pigeons naturally make a very good suborder, containing | the family Columbide. Now, if we take the characters presented on the part of the skeleton of such a species as Lctopistes migratorius, We find that they are essentially repeated by all the other genera save Starncenas. When we come to osteologically compare Starncenas wè find that it differs very materially and in a number of points, as in the general pattern of its sternum, the number and arrangement of its vertebree and ribs, some of its cranial characters, and in the characters” of its pelvic limbs. os From osteological premises, then, our family Columbide divides naturally into two subfamilies: the Columbine, containing the genera Columba, Ectopistes, Engyptila, Zenaidura, Zenaida, peli Columbigallina, Scardafella, and Geotrygon ; and the subfamily Star- nænadinæ, containing the genus Starncenas. | ae In another connection it is my intention to present these. osteolo cal characters of the Columbide in detail.—R. W. SHUFELDT, + sonian Institution, January 22d, 1891. fz Description of Two New Species of Rodents from Mexico. —While recently classifying and arranging the collections of naa belonging to the Natural History Section of the Comision Exploradora of Mexico, I found two species apparently nê characters I now give : a S , Sp. nov——Apparently quite similar gil Merriam’s recently described S. cryptospilotus, which 1 T i from the description. Above, head and body fawn color, with : indications of spots. Individual hairs with extreme bases lack, lowed by a narrow ring of straw-yellow, subterminally oadl Lag, with walnut-brown (which color occupies more than co covered by the two preceding colors), and tipped with cre Something like one per cent. of the hairs have the walnut-DrO™ placed by black ; but these are so relatively few in number ~ sensibly affect the general tone, Color gradually shading _ sides, where it meets, in a sharp line, the white of under parts: _ of decidedly lighter fawn color, 3 mm. in width, comm 1891.] ‘ Zoology. 159 back of the nose, passes between the darker shade of the crown and a superorbital white area, terminating at the ear. The upper border of the white of under parts is defined by a line drawn from the nostrils, passing over the eyes and through centers of ear openings, across shoulders and along sides of body to the groins. The white area also includes the inner surfaces of legs and dorsal sur- faces of hind feet, which latter are slightly washed with rufous, Hairs of under parts entirely white, but so thin in the specimen before me that the color of the skin shows through, giving a plumbeous cast to most of this surface. Outer surface of fore limb, from elbow to bases of toes, white, more or less washed with rufous. Outer surfaces of hind legs concolor with dorsum. First third of upper surface of tail the same as back; thence the center is fawn color, bordered bya black zone that, in turn, is bordered by a wĦitish rufous. On its under surface the black line is. scarcely ` perceptible, the whole of this surface being pale rufous. Ears, in dried skin, a mere rim, Lower surfaces of pes densely haired ; of manus, Claws medium sized, black, with white R Upe; s oE Homb. as well de- veloped as in S. mextcanus. Mystacial hairs mostly black ; a few white ones interspersed. Measurements of dried skin, in millimeters: Total length, 220; head and body, 155; tail vertebra, 65; hairs beyond vertebre, 20; hind foot, 33; fore foot, 21; longest mystacial hairs, 32. Measurements of skull: Length from point of nasals to upper edge of foramen mgnum, 38; greatest width at auditory bullæ, 18; least interorbital width, 9 ; length of molar series, 8.5 ; transverse diameter of first premolar, 1.25 ; the same of second, 2; of first molar, 2.5. The zygomz and hinder edge of palate are broken, so as to allow of no measurements being taken from them. The only noticeable differences between this skull and that of .S. cryptospilotus (vide North American Fauna, No. 3, Pl. 1x., Figs. 1, 2, and 3) is that in this the hamular processes of the pterygoids abut against the auditory bullæ posterior to the suture of the basisphenoidum with the basioccipitale, instead of in front of it, as in cryptospilotus ; and in that the transverse diameter of the first premolar is fully equal to its longitudinal diameter. _ _ Type: No. 517 8ad., Museum of the Comision Geografica-Explora- dora de México. Taken by Zenon Cordova, at Hermosillo, Sonora, November, 188 87. Am. Nat.—February.—5. ~ 160 The American Naturalist. [ February, This species belongs to the Spilosoma group, and in all probability finds its closest affinity in S. cryptospilotus, from which it appears separable by some slight differences in size, color, and the cranial characters noted. NEOTOMA TORQUATA, sp. nov.—Above, head and body light Van- dyke-brown, washed with black; more intensely in the mesaldorsal line, insensibly becoming entirely obliterated before reaching the white of lower parts. Hairs of all parts, except ears, feet, tail, and a small patch on chin, slate-gray for the greater part of their length. Above ringed for about 3 mm. with Vandyke-brown, followed by a slight tipping of black. In the dorsal line are interspersed longer hairs nearly or completely lacking the rufous ringing, whose place being occupied by the greater extension of the black tips, gives to this part its darker tone, which may be described as hair-brown. Belly nearly pure white, slightly tinged with yellow, and in parts soiled by the slate- gray of roots showing through the white tips of hairs. Breast occupied by a well-defined collar, 20 mm. in width, of same color as sides of body. Under surface of neck grayish-white, gradually shading for- ward to slate-gray to form an ill-defined band, about 4 mm. in wi ! that covers the upper lips, excepting a narrow line of white encircling the mouth parts. A small, circular area on chin of pure white, includ- ing roots of hairs. Upper third of circumference of tail clove-brown, sharply separated from the dirty white of its sides and under parts. The tail is closely covered with short, stiffish hairs, through which only i upon very close scrutiny can the annyli be seen on sides and beneath. a Feet white, slightly washed with drab a trifle below carpus and ure : 7 Outer surfaces of legs and arms shading from Vandyke-brown above ee to drab below. Inner surfaces as belly. Ears seal-brown, nearly naked oat on posterior external surfaces, rather scantily covered with short seal- ` brown hairs on internal and anterior external surfaces. ' ystacial hen & black for half or two-thirds of their length, terminating in white; “o longest being 65 mm. Soles of fore feet entirely naked, ©" z warts ; of hind feet, well covered with hair for posterior half, having six warts. Eyes blue-black, very large and exserted. Their diame in the dried skin is about 8 mm. oa ee Measurements, taken in flesh: Length from tip of nose ' cae tail vertebrae, 338 mm. (13.33”); tail vertebre, 160 (6.37')3 ig tee 16 (.69”) ; pes, 35 (1-41”); ear, 21 (.84"). e The skull shows no peculiarities of note. Length, 45> 3 width of zygomæ, 23; length of both upper and lower yee” á 9; length of inferior mandibula from arthral bead to simi i — Zoology. 161 alveola of incisor, 25. The skull and teeth are nearly precisely as figured by Baird for Veotoma mexicana (U. S. Mex. Boundary Survey, Mammals, Pl. xxiv., Figs. 1 4 to g-) Type specimen : No. 380, Museum of Comision Geografica-Explora- dora; adult female, taken between Tetela del Volcan and Zacualpan Amilpas, State of Morelos, Oct. 26, 1890. Collector, H. L, Ward. Found in dark tunnel of an abandoned mine. According to Coues (Mon. N, A. Rod.), Neotoma is a genus in which cranial and dental characters count for little or nothing (!), but in which color appears to be quite constant. We will therefore disregard the almost exact conformity of the skull and teeth of this species with those figured by Prof. Baird for mexicana, and will call attention only to external characters. ÆW. sorquata is at once distinguished from all known species of Neotoma by its collar ; also from floridana by the more rufous color of upper parts, and by roots of hairs of belly being gray instead of white; from fuscipes and ferruginea by this latter dis- tinction and the tail being bicolor, instead of unicolor ; from cinerea in general coloration and in not having the tail bushily haired. —Henry L. Warp, Zacubaya, D. F. Mex., Jan. 22, 1892. The Entepicondylar Bridge in Man.—M. S. Nicholas, has observed and recorded (Revue Biologique du Nord de la, France, 1891, p. 121), six cases of the presence of a rudiment of the superior part of the entepicondylar bridge of the humerus in man. They all occurred in insane persons who died in the Asylum of Maréville. This anomaly is interesting as constituting a lemuroid reversion. Struthers has observed this anomaly in 2 p. c. of skeletons he has examined, and Gruber in 2.7 p. c. Testut gives 1 p. c. as the proportion of cases, which Nicholas thinks is the most probably correct figure. ‘ss The American Naturalist. ri [February, EMBRYOLOGY.! Development of Mammals.—In so thoroughly worked over and so narrowly bounded a field as vertebrate embryology we should hope to find a singleness of plan running through the series, accompanied by an agreement amongst workers and theorists as to the interpretation of : the known phenomena. In fact, however, the greatest possible divergence is found. This is especially marked in the recent attempts of embryologists to explain the process of gastrulation in the groups of vertebrates. Of course the problem of the mesoblast is here, as every- where, a challenge for battle ; but this is not all, for even the origin of endoderm and ectoderm have their various interpreters. fee An illustration of this is furnished by the three (and more) hypotheses which are advanced to account for the early stages of development of — the mammals. Two of these may be taken here as an example, and a third will be mentioned below in a review of Hubrecht’s recent papet. The two which we shall now consider are those of Haddon * and ` Minot.3 These two theories, advanced about the same time, are said ee by Haddon to be ‘‘somewhat similar hypotheses,’’ and Minot says that his own is ‘‘ the most satisfactory, and preferable to the similar explanation advanced. . . by Haddon.” To an outsider the two 7 k theories seem to contradict each other in all that is essential and pE to each. Balfour prophesied that the ancestral mammal had a large | ovum filled with yolk, and this, by Caldwell’s discovery of the eggs of M tremes, has been practically demonstrated. Both Haddon and Minot accept this as their starting point, but immediately diverge in ee directions in their ‘somewhat similar explanations.’ The two accompanying diagrams have been cop views : ie Diagram A gives Haddon’s idea of the meaning of the : layers of the mammalian embryo. The central cavity (y-5- -sac of the ancestral vertebrate, which has been covered over A cociously by ectoderm (e.c.); ancestrally this was accomplished by ee bole. At the upper pole the blastoderm, owing to the pepe has fallen into the yolk-cavity, leaving a small’ opening (3! n, 1 Edited by T. H. Morgan, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore: 2 Elements of Embryology 3 AMERICAN Nan aiios April, 1889. = ied to illustrate t g 1891.) _ Embryology. 163 surface, which Van Beneden mistook for the blastopore. . The blasto- derm proper consists of ectoderm, several cells in thickness, and below scattered endoderm cells. The mesoderm is formed later between the FIG. 1.—(Diagram A.) - Fic. 2.—(Diagram B.) two. The strong point of this explanation is that it seems to refer the germ-layers back to a condition found in the reptilian embryo, and the weak point, it seems to me, is that it does not clearly illustrate the method by which the yolk has been lost, and what cells originally contained it. Minot gives the following hypothetical stage to explain the homolo- gies of the mammalian germ-layers (see Diagram B). The uei central cavity, which he calls the segmentation cavity (the yolk-cavity of Haddon), is surrounded by endodermal cells, which formerly con- tained yolk. (Hence they do not represent epibolic ectoderm, T believed by Haddon.) The walled blastoderm (embryonic knob) at the upper pole of the figure is composed probably entirely of ectoderm cells. (Again a contradiction to Haddon’s view.) The endoderm which later appears under the blastoderm comes from the sides where the endoderm cells around the segmentation cavity pass into the ecto- dermal blastoderm, Here, it seems to me, is the weakest part of the hypothesis, and Dr. Minot seems to have expected to find the oy formation of endoderm as in the teleost. This is flatly contradicted by well-supported statements. (See Hubrecht below.) The author has jumped from the frog’s gastrula to that of the mammal, not giving, I believe, due weight to the intermediate reptilian stage, assuming that With the loss. of yolk in the ancestral mammal there was a return to the more primitive condition of the amphibian stage ; but it seems this is hardly a fair assumption as a basis for further hypotheses. ; Prof. Hubrecht gives a second paper‘ in his studies Z wee embryology, entitled “ The Development of the ss cp t Ouar., Jour. Micro. Science, 164 The American Naturalist. (February, i Sorex vulgaris.’ The paper is a detailed description of the origin of the germ-layers. The earliest stage obtained had a single layer of flattened cells (ectoderm) lying beneath the zona and bounding a cen- tral cavity filled with fluid. These ectodermal cells he calls the tropho- blast. At one point in the periphery there is an accumulation of cells —the embryonic knob—which contains the material for the embryonic | Se ae ee y ~ ectoderm and endoderm. The cavity in the center surrounded by the trophoblast and filled with fluid is the segmentation cavity. The em- bryonic knob gives rise to the early endoderm cells from its more cen- tral part, and some of these then migrate around the periphery of the central cavity and apply themselves to the inner side of the trophoblast (ectoderm). See Diagram C. This contradicts part of Minot’s hypothesis given above.) The trophoblast cells seem to grow over the | embryonic knob, causing an “‘ inversion ” of the embryo. After the differentiation of the endoderm from the embryonic knob the remain- ing ectoderm is spoken of as the embryonic shield (emd.sh.) The endoderm first forms part of the notochord and mesoblastic plates. Thus under the anterior end of the embryonic shield the endoderm — is spoken of as the protochordal plate (mo,ch’.) The rest of the noto- chord differentiates later and in a different way. The mesoderm has not yet appeared, but is now inaugurated by the appearance of the primitive streak. - The mesoderm originates from three different points: 1st, from the sides of the protochordal plate (see above) ; 2nd, from the primitive streak, from which it advances forward between ecto- and endoderm ; and 3d, from an annular zone of endoderm lyiag around and under the periphery of the embryonic shield. The details aS a of this process are shown in a large number of figures. pee A We may now pass to the theoretical considerations of the gastrula- soa tion of mammals, (The process of inversion, or the sinking of the oe embryo into the cavity of the vesicle, may be left out of account, ai produces no important changes in the germ-layers of the embryo, pe ie may in a general way be compared with the later formation of " amnion.) We have seen in the early differentiation of the endoderm = from the embryonic knob that part of the endoderm is formed TA the actual process of gastrulation has set in,—that is, before the ap i ance of the primitive streak. This the author calls precocious #6 gation, and is an ontogenetic phênomenon. Later, when the p pat streak is formed (the coalescing of the lips of the blastopore), S endoderm arises in this region and is added to that already pe gees and this latter is the phylogenetic endoderm, and alone 1$ om pared to the Sauropsidan type. The remaining part of the 2o 1891.] Embryology. 165 (also the lateral wings of the mesoderm) is formed from the phylo- genetic endoderm, and may be compared to the formation of noto- chord’and mesoblast of Batrachia. We have sufficient evidence to believe that between the Batrachia and the Mammalia a ‘‘ phylogenetic link has once existed, in which the actual food-yolk formed a very considerable addition to the early blastocyst. The case of the Ornithodelphia is most important in this ‘respect.. . . When the nutritive contents of the yolk-sac were no longer of primary importance, . . . a reduction in size of the blasto- cyst was not effectuated because another factor came into play, The vascular area which heredity called forth on the surface of the yolk-sac . . . must have rendered eminent service for the establishment of a different mode of nutrition, as soon as the embryo underwent a con- siderable part of its development inside the maternal generative .”’ Hence the large size of the blastocyst of the mammal has been retained not because it once contained yolk, but because it was an essential function to perform in the nutrition of the embryo. The accompanying diagram (Fig. 3) represents (somewhat modified) the author’s figure to show the relationship to each other of the : mammalian germ-layers. The greater part of the central (fluid) cavity is surrounded by two layers,—the outer of ectoderm, the tropho- blast, and within the ontogentic endoderm. The upper part of the ` figure shows the embryonic layers. The endoderm passes under the ectodermal embryonic shield (black). The posterior part of the lat- ter (with white streaks) shows the area of the primitive streak, and from this runs forward under the embryonic shield a prolongation (no.ch., black with white dots), forming the posterior part of the reset chord, and laterally, though not shown in the figure, the wings of mesoblast, In front of this is seen a thickened part of the onto- genetic endoderm, which forms precociously the anterior end of the notochord (o.ch.) and to the sides some of the mesoderm. For further details see the author’s excellent figures. : The essential difference between this hypothesis and that of — is at once seen. What the latter speaks of as endoderm cells are sa EMCR NOCH H H $ ; A Fic. 3.—(Diagram C.) 166 The American Naturalist. [February, trophoblast cells of Hubrecht, which are ectodermal. Hubrecht shows conclusively that the endoderm originates from the embryonic knob, and not at its sides as is demanded by Minot’s recent hypothesis. Hubrecht is more in accordance with Haddon, both as to the origin * of the endodern from the under side of the embryonic shield, and in the ectodermal covering of the the early blastocyst.—T. H. M. The Embryology, of Gecko.—Dr. Ludwig Will gives, in the - Biologisches Centralblatt, November 15, 1890, a short paper on the method of gastrulation of this lizard. ‘At the posterior end of the embryonic shield is a mass of cells, called the primitive plate. The cells at this point are several rows deep, while over the embryonic shield the ectoderm is composed of a single layer of columnar cells, but witha few yolk-cells scattered beneath it. At a later stage the an- terior end of the primitive plate forms a distinct invagination, the walls formed of a single row of cells. This sac pushes forward under the embryonic shield, between the ectoderm and the yolk-cells, The in- vagination cells spread out into a broad sac. There follows next an irregular fusion and absorbtion between the invaginated endoderm and the yolk-cells (endoderm also), so that the general cavity above the yolk, in which the yolk-cells were scattered, communicates with the in- vagination cavity, and hence with the outer world by means of the proximal end of the latter cavity, or blastopore. The upper walls of the invaginated cells go to form the notochord, and the rest of them go to form the mesoderm at the sides of the latter, The author believes that the Gecko furnishes grounds for comparing the reptilian with the am- phibian gastrulation. The blastopore—or the open mouth of the in- vagination—extends backwards, and the two lips coming in contact fuse to form a primitive streak, so that what was previously only a theory —namely, that the primitive streak was formed by the fusion of the lips of the blastopore in Sauropsida, and whose opening in these was only represented by the neurenteric canal—is now shown to be a fact from the development of the Gecko. Theory of the Mesoderm.’—Prof. C. Rabl has a long paper on the origin of the mesoderm of vertebrates. The paper is largely de- voted to theoretical discussions, although based upon observations on the germ-layers of Selachians, birds, and mammals. The first part of the paper deals with the formation of the mesoderm in the above types, the second with the later differentiations of the mesoderm. It is un- necessary to give a full review of the paper here,? and we may confine 5 Morphologisches Jahrbuch, No. 15, 1889. See Journ. Royal. Micro. Soc., Feb., 1890. » _ of the blastopore in the Amniota gastrula as 1891.] Embryology. 167 our attention to that part of it dealing with the gastrulation of the vertebrates. The Selachian gastrulation arose by the accumulation of yolk in the cyclostome egg, while the Amniote (reptiles, birds, mam- mals) gastrula arose from accumulated yolk to the amphibian egg. The resulting gastrulee of Selachians and Amniota, the author attempts to show, are therefore fundamentally different. The Selachian (and Teleost) gastrulz resulted from the addition of yolk to the endoderm cells of the cyclostome before the ectoderm had grown over the endoderm, and since the epibolic endoderm does not cover in the yolk, the blasto- pore in this group is represented by the whole margin of the embryonic shield. The blastopore mouth then is very large, and the (morpholog- ical) posterior end of the blastopore lies just in front of the embryonic shield, and the anterior or upper end of the blastopore lies at its usual position at the posterior end of the shield. This is, of course, the general conception. But for the Amniota the author believes the gastrula to be different in that it is not here represented by the whole border of the embryonic shield, but has a more limited extent. Rabl believes that the accumulation of yolk in the amphibian egg has been also in the endoderm cells, but, so far as he explains it, this must have, taken place after (ancestrally) the epiblast had covered the (endoderm) yolk-mass so that the gastrula becomes reduced to the region of the primitive streak alone. Therefore it follows that one end of the primitive groove (just behind the embryonic shield) represents the anterior (upper) end of the amphibian blastopore, and the other end of the groove the posterior (lower of the amphibian). The anterior end of the primitive shield would not seem here to represent anything in particular! Rabl supports his conclusion by arguments drawn from the formation of the mesoderm. The author does not account for- the large exposure of yolk outside we find it in the bird and lizard ; unless indeed he supposed it to. have actually broken through the ectoderm covering. Further, that the author’s view is probably erroneous is shown in the occasional presence of a lengthened primi- tive streak running posteriorly through the area opaca, as — figured by Whitman. It has also, I believe, been seen since by others. 168 The American Naturalist. [February, ENTOMOLOGY.! Insects in Iowa.—Bulletin No. 11 (issued November, 1890) of the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station contains four articles by r. C. P. Gillette, of considerable entomological interest. The first discusses the injuries .and life-history of the Potato Stalk Weevil ( Zrichobaris trinotata Say), which has been unusually destructive in Iowa the past season. Mr. Gillette thinks that “half a million of dollars would fall far short of making good the loss that it has occa- sioned the state this year. In gardens where potatoes have grown year after year I have seldom found less than seventy-five per cent. of the stalks infested, and from this to ninety-three per cent. In field patches at a distance from where potatoes were grown last year I have found as few as twenty per cent. of the stalks infested, but in no case have I found the injuries less abundant than this.” The next article discusses the Apple Curculio (Anthonomus jiddrigibins Say), and contains the first extended description of the method of oviposition of this insect. The two remaining articles discuss the currant-stem boring habits of Hyperplatys aspersus Say, commonly known as the Cottonwood Borer, and kerosene emulsion as a sheep dip and destroyer of parasites upon domestic animals. The experiments reported under this last heading are of great practical value. The author concludes with this paragraph : “I must say that after repeated experiments with kerosene emulsion, along with other substances commonly recommended for the destruction of vermin upon domestic animals, I feel certain that it is far ahead ot anything I have tried when cheapness, effectiveness, ease of application, and freedom from possible bad effects are taken into account.”’ Indiana Insect Notes.—Bulletin No. 33 of the Purdue Univer- sity Agricultural Experiment Station contains ten pages of entomo- _ logical notes by Mr. F. M. Webster. The sub-titles are as follows: Experiments with the Plum Curculio; Notes on Strawberry Insects (Zyloderma fragrarie, Haltica ignita, and the Field Cricket); Some Hitherto Unrecorded Enemies of Raspberries and Blackberries (So/enop- - sts fugax, Limonus auripilis, Carpophilus brachypterus, Tulus impressus, and Cosmopepla carnifex). Most of these notes are republished from Tnsect Life. The Plum Curculio experiments were made chiefly to de- ` termine to what extent the insect develops in native varieties of plums, _ and they showed that the insects do breed freely in them. The eco- 1 Edited by Dr. C. M. Weed, Columbus, Ohio. * i walked away without turning about to inspect the 1891.] Entomology. 169 nomic points are summarized as follows: ‘‘ (1) The variety of plum or apple whose blooming season covers the greatest period of time will best withstand the work of the curculio; (2) the planting of plum trees in the apple orchard will not protect the latter, and vice versa ; (3) if anything is to be gained by using another fruit to draw off the curculio and protect the plum, the nectarine will probably serve as well as the apple ; (4) adult curculio beetles eat the pulp of apples ; (5) cur- culios will deposit their eggs in fruit hanging over the water ; (6) the indications are that the Strawberry Crown Borer lays its eggs during March and April in the plants near the surface of the ground ; (7) burning strawberry"plants after fruit-picking may destroy the Crown Borer ; (8) the common field cricket will eat strawberries.’’ Oviposition of the Apple Curculio.—Mr. C. P. Gillette has lately described the process by which the eggs of Anthonomus quadrigib- are deposited. The description was originally read before the lowa Academy of Science, September, 1890, and has since been published in Bulletin No. 11 of the Iowa Experiment Station (pp. 492-493)- Mr, Gillette says : «I am not aware that any one has published actual Fic. i, æ, apple infested by the Apple Curculio; 4, egg-cavity, natural size; c, egg very much enlarged. Redrawn from Gillette. observations on the method of oviposition of this insect. On the 13th of last June I was fortunate enough to see a female perform the entire operation, which was done as follows: First, a cavity (Fig. 1, 5) was eaten in the apple as deep as the beak was long, the bottom being much enlarged and subtriangular in outline. The walls of the cavity converge to the opening, which is only large enough to admit the slen- der beak. When first noticed the beetle had begun her work and it was 30 minutes before the egg-cavity was completed. The beetle, r most immediately after withdrawing her beak, turned about an applied the tip of her abdomen to the small opening into the egg- : Pi inutes she cavity. After remaining in this position for about five minu S work she had done. I 70 The American Naturalist. (February, I at once plucked the apple, and examined closely the identical spot where the beetle had been at work, and was surprised to find that there was no puncture to be seen in the skin of the apple, but only a minute brown speck, I found that the beetle had plugged the little opening with what appeared to be a bit of pomace, probably excrement, and she had done the work so nicely that I think no one would have sus- pected that this little speck marked the place of oviposition of this insect, unless he had seen such specks before, and knew what they signify. With a sharp knife a section was made through this egg-chamber, which I have endeavored to represent natural size, at F ig. 1, 5, with the egg at the bottom. ; Although it is almost impossible to distinguish newly stung fruit from external appearances, it becomes very easy after a few days when the infested apples become gnarly and ill:shapen, as shown in Fig. 1, a. PSYCHOLOGY. Professor Moll on Hypnotism.!—This work is a general résumé of what is known of hypnotism. The exposition by Prof. Moll covers most of the ground in an adequate manner, and is therefore well adapted for the instruction of the general reader. The author holds that suggestion is the efficient cause of the phenomena, and therefore regards the subject primarily as a’ branch of psychology, rather than of Physiology. He states that most persons of healthy mental organiza- tion can be hypnotized, and that susceptibility, except in extreme cases, 1s not a mark of mental weakness. Persons of the nervous tempera- ment are most susceptible, and idiots and insane persons can be hypnotized in a small proportion of cases only. Susceptibility is not confined to any race or nation, so far as known. The statements of the numerous investigators are subjected to rigid and rational criticism, and nothing is accepted or rejected without adequate evidence. The ‘author pursues a judicial course in this respect, and refuses his assent to whole- Sale and uncritical scepticism, as well as to excessive credulity. Phy- siological explanations are frequently held in reserve as not proven, whatever degree of probability may attach to them. The abundance of well-established facts now recorded in the litera- _ ture of hypnotism has placed the subject within the domain of exact ___ Hypnotism; by Albert Moll. The Contemporary Science Series, London : Walter . Seott, New York: Scribner and Welford. 8vo. Edited by Havelock Ellis, 1890. 1891] l Psychology. 171 psychology, and its practical value to both mental and bodily thera- peutics is admitted. Less attention is given to its importance to psy- chological science, and hence to philosophy. No support is given to the rather uncritical assertions frequently made as to the evidence offered by hypnotism for the existence of double or multiple personality of a single human individual. Not much space is given to the remark- able structural changes seen in the formation of red or necrobiotic figures on the skin, as the result of suggestion, although the reality of the phenomena is not challenged. The experiments of Jendrassik and Krafft-Ebing seem to place the facts beyond doubt. . Suggestibility is regarded as the principal characteristic of hypnosis as distinguished from somnambulism ; hence most of the book is occu- pied with an elucidation of its mental and physical implications. Post- hypnotic suggestion receives a large share of attention. As an expert the author does not occupy so much space with the detailed accounts of experiments as with explanations of them in relation to other and normal mental states. The work is well adapted to enlighten the reader as to the essential significance of hypnotism. The citation of authorities is very full.—C. Was it Hallucination ?—I had a strange experience about nine o'clock this morning, which I hasten to put on record while all its details are fresh in my mind. My wife being quite seriously ill, I went for our family physician, about three blocks distant. I met him in an apothecary’s shop, and asked him to come to our residence. He had one call to make near by, but promised to be with us very soon. I returned in a few minutes, coming into our cross-street at the east end of the block. As I came across a vacant lot just east of our house I happened to look out to the westward, when I saw our doctor just leaving the cross-walk and turning in as if to come straight to our place. It occurred to me that he was a little ahead of the time I ex- pected him; but I hurried on to apprise my, wife of his coming. I then went out to meet him. But mo one was in sight; and at the moment I believed I saw him he was actually in a distant part of the town, at least several blocks away. He was detained, and did not reach us for a couple of hours, and was much surprised “ my ster ment of having seen him. He said it was some sort of pore tion, ’—whatever that might be! He asked: “ Was I not apek about him?’’ Possibly I was, but with no idea of seeing him t ia _ and then, As to the man, I could not be mistaken. His dress, . long, flowing, almost white beard—every detail of his personal appear {72 The American Naturalist. [February, ance—were just as clear to my vision as when he really called, a little later. It was clear daylight ; I was as wide awake as I am now while writing this item. Fifty years ago I listened to just such a story, and the narrator declared she “‘ had seen a ghost.” I am not in the least superstitious, and even had this been a “ ghost,’’ and I had known it, I should have felt no alarm, for I never knew those intangible folk to harm a living mortal,—even in the days when ghosts were so generally “believed in.” Thinking the matter over immediately afterwards, I tried to recall any feature of this “‘second sight’ which was in any sense abnormal, The only fact I could remember was that the doctor seemed to walk rather faster than usual, but I thought he only wished to overtake me before I entered the house. I thought he kept his eye on me, and continued to look at me ina very interested manner. I only wish I had kept my gaze upon him, and noted the spot and how he so completely vanished. I was never more thoroughly taken aback than when I went out to meet him, not more than thirty seconds after I saw him, and no one was in sight /—CHARLES ALDRICH, Webster City, Lowa, December 15th, 1890. ARCHAOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. The Societe d’Anthropologie at Paris.—4 Sketch of Its Or- ganization and Work.\—The theory of evolution, and so the origin of species, which has been credited by many people to Charles Darwin, is in France credited, or attempted to be credited, to the naturalist La- marck, and there was organized in 1884, under the protection, or at least the shadow, of the Society of Anthropology, an organization called the “ Réunion Lamarck.”’ Born of the same idea as was the School of Anthropology, the Society of Anthropology, on the proposition of Monsieur Mathias Duval, in- augurated a course of lectures, which, under the name of ‘‘ Conferences Transformiste,”” were intended to popularize the doctrine of evolution and the mutability of species, and so the origin of man. In this course have been delivered the following lectures : . “The Development of the Eye,” by Monsieur Mathias Duval, 1883. “ The Evolution of Morality,” by M. Letourneau, 1884. “ Evolution of Language,” by Monsieur Hovelacque, 1885. “ The Paleontologic Evolution of Animals,” by M. G. de Mortil- let, 1886. | 1 Continued from Page 8s. 1891] Archeology. and Ethnology. 173 “ ee . ot Tos than One Hundred = editorial gaged upon i oo $300 e ded in its preparation fi A before reyes ve poe at hap poe other Dictionary is invited. GET T THE A G. & C. MERRIAM e Springfield, Mass. U. s. A. Sold by all Booksellers. Ill 12 ADVERTISEMENTS. The Microscope An Illustrated Monthly Magazine for the Student of Nature’s Little Things. TS to the needs of all that use the EN e interested in its revelation Edited by DR. ALFRED C. STOKES, Author of *“ Microscopy for Beginners.” Subscription, $1.00. Sample Copy, 10 Cts. Tue Microscope Pustisuine Co., TRENTON, N. J. 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of the Great Lakes— eological News : General 275 nvestigators. One of the greatest needs of American science _ at the present time is a convenient medium in which _ _ brief preliminary notices of the results of investig tion can be published. A considerable length of time of necessity elapses between the conclusion of any series of observations and their appearance in print, and it — is of great advantage to the observer, and still more to his fellow-workers, to ae the results made dowi as THE AMERICAN NATURALIST VOL. XXY. MARCH; 1891. 291. ARE ACQUIRED VARIATIONS INHERITED? BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN. Opening of a Discussion upon the Lamarckian Principle in Evolution; American Society of Naturalists, Boston, December 31st, 18gr. RE acquired characteristics inherited? We admit that indi- viduals inherit a certain constitution, and that definite varia- tions from this constitution are acquired during life-time, accord- ing to well-known laws. The question is: Are these definite acquired variations in any degree transmitted, or are the congenital variations in the constitution of the offspring independent of those which have been acquired by the parents ? PRESENT STATE OF THE QUESTION. Before opening this discussion let us draw up a balance sheet in biological philosophy for 1890, and determine exactly where we Stand in point of knowledge of natural causation. Fortunately Professor Huxley balanced the Evolution account in 1871" in his usual accurate and candid manner, enabling us to institute a comparison : “If I affirm that ‘ species have been evolved by vatiation! (a natural process, the laws of which are for the most part unknown), aided by the subordinate action of natural selection,’ it seems to me that I enunciate a ee which constitutes the Ais pith * Critiques and Addresses,” p. 299. Contemporary Review, 1871. - is practically a résumé of the arlene “ Mr. Darwin's Critics,” is ck Kosta a Including i a r under y tr Scientific [nvestigators. One of the greatest needs of American science at the present time is a convenient medium in which : brief preliminary notices of the results of investigation ! can be published. A considerable length of time of _ necessity elapses between the conclusion of any series _ of observations and their appearance in print, and tc ‘is of great advantage to the observer, and still more to _ is fellow-workers, to have the results made known as oon as possible, thus insuring priority of discovery = G one, and allowing the others to keep more perfectly _ with what is going on in the scientific e o as possible. — This the NATURAL to. os and invites the a of all i THE AMERICAN NATURALIST VoL. XXV. MARCH; 1891. 291. ARE ACQUIRED VARIATIONS INHERITED? BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN. Opening of a Discussion upon the Lamarckian Principle in Evolution; American Society of Naturalists, Boston, December 31st, 1891. AFE acquired characteristics inherited? We admit that indi- viduals inherit a certain constitution, and that definite varia- tions from this constitution are acquired during life-time, accord- ing to well-known laws. The question is: Are these definite acquired variations in any degree transmitted, or are the congenital variations in the constitution of the offspring independent of those which have been acquired by the parents ? PRESENT STATE OF THE QUESTION. Before opening this discussion let us draw up a balance sheet in biological philosophy for 1890, and determine exactly where we Stand in point of knowledge of natural causation. Fortunately Professor Huxley balanced the Evolution account in 1871' in his usual accurate and candid manner, enabling us to institute a comparison : “If I affirm that ‘ species have been evolved by variation® (a natural process, the laws of which are for the most part unknown), aided by the subordinate action of natural selection,’ it seems to me that I enunciate a proposition which constitutes the very pith 3 * Critiques and Addresses,” p. Contemporary Review, 1871. This passage. ‘s Practically a résumé of the the articlelentited * Mr. Darwin's Critics,” in which it occurs + Hatading under this head hereditary transmission. E 192 The American Naturalist. [March, and marrow of the first edition of the ‘Origin of Species.’ And what the evolutionist stands in need of just now is not an itera- tion of the fundamental principles of Darwinism, but some light upon the questions, What are the limits of variation? and, If a variety has arisen, can that variety be perpetuated, or even intensi- fied, when selective conditions are indifferent, or perhaps unfavor- able, to its existence? ” 3 Thus, twenty years ago, Huxley declared Evolution well estab- lished, with the Law of Natural Selection as one of its well- determined factors, while he found that we were merely upon the threshold of knowledge of the laws of Variation. Some sanguine biologists of to-day believe we have crossed this threshold in the patient researches of the two intervening decades; but others are represented by Professor Lankester, who has now taken the rank of leading English critic, and has recently summed up our knowledge in an article‘ presumably written with the greatest care and deliberation, as follows: “ Their causes (7. e., the causes of variations) are extremely diffi- cult to trace in detail, but it appears that they are largely due to a “shaking up” of the living matter which constitutes the fertilized germ or embryo-cell, by the process of mixture in it of the sub- stance of two cells—the germ-cell and the sperm-cell—derived from two different individuals. Other mechanical disturbances may assist in this production of congenital variation. Whatever its causes, Darwin showed that it is all-important. . Hence there is no necessity for an assumption of the papai of direct adaptations.’ The selection of the fortuitously (fortui- tously, that is to say, so far as the conditions of survival are con- cerned) produced varieties is sufficient, since it is ascertained that they will tend to transmit those characters with which they them- selves were born, although it is of ascertained that they could» transmit characters acquired on the way through life.” * He then observes that Mr. Darwin formerly inclined to answer these questions in the rere but latterly in the affirmative. “ The History and Scope of Zoology.” Enc. Brit. Vol. XXIV. Also “ Advancement me Science,” pp. 372-73. 53. e., of acquired characters. 1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 193 The emphasis here is upon the contrast between our knowledge of the fact of variation (op. cit. p. 373) and our indefinite knowledge . of the causes of variation.’ In other words, we have been accumu- lating facts, and our present induction from them is that the varia- tions which have formed the main basis of evolution are fortuitous ; there may be, indeed, definite causes, but the effects are largely indefinite. Now if all, or even the great majority, of naturalists were in agreement with Lankester, we might claim to have madea distinct advance since 1870, even in having reached such a negative conclusion—that is, on the principle that we progress when we recognize that no further progress is possible. But fortunately, or otherwise, this is not the case, for in oppo- sition to those who share Lankester’s opinions are an equally large number who would balance the account differently, and claim that the distinctive feature of the past twenty years of study is that we have reached some of the fundamental principles of variation which Huxley presented as the goal of research. * But this difference in the accounts does not stop here. We biologists are obliged to frankly confess to our fellow-scientists in chemistry and physics, and tothe world generally, that after studying Evolution for a century we are in a perfect chaos of ae as to ” factors. Thereisactually no to the pow selection principle, none as to the laws of ER none as to the influences of environment! In the very heart ofthis disturbance is the problem we have come together to discuss. It is the medium Sy Ee, ona one Ce + thefact f i LU UE We may continue to accumulate facts, but no actual advance can be made in the study of natural causation until this problem is abso- lutely settled one way or the other. This being the case, Weismann has done a monumental service in forcing this question to an issue. It is true a very large number of naturalists consider the question no longer sub judice ; but as half this number hold one opinion, and the < other half an opinion directly opposed, we are forced to the criti- cism that neither side can at present offer such a clear and full z of the views of all authors tere quoted, and arm aware that a single passage fin misleading., On he present subject compare other recent essays and reviews of Prof. Lankester, principally those in Nature, 194 The American Naturalist. [ March, demonstration of how evolution works upon their basis as to be conclusive; nor will either side admit the value of the evidence furnished by the other. Contrast two of our most vigorous writers on this point :? “ This is all the more necessary, in that this author (Weismann) and his followers repudiate the evidence upon which the claim is made that acquired characters, taken in the widest Lamarckian sense, can be transmitted. During a period extending over fifteen years, the present writer has devoted himself to a study of the genesis of adaptations, and with the lapse of time the conviction has grown only the clearer that these authors are laboring undera delusion. The way in which they have placed themselves upon record shows that they have not reckoned with the consequences of their reckless speculations.” A few segue later Tes echoing Weismann, * writes to Nature : “ Naturalists are at ect interested in the attempt to decide _ whether Lamarck was justified in his statement that acquired characters are transmitted from the parents so changed to their off spring. Many of us hold that he was not; since, however plausi- ble his laws above quoted may appear, it has not been possible to bring forward a single case in which the acquisition of a character as described by Lamarck and its subsequent transmission to off spring have been conclusively observed. We consider that, until such cases can be adduced, it is not legitimate to assume the truth of Lamarck’s second law.” Nature of the Discussion—Before taking up the question of evidence as to this factor in evolution, let us clearly understand what we are not discussing at the present time. First, the law of natural selection is well established and no longer-under discus- sion; it furnishes, by far the best, in fact the only, explanation which can be offered for many adaptations,—the question before us "Ryder. “A Physiological Hypothesis of Heredity and Variation.” AM. NATUR- ALIST, Jan., 1890, p. 85. : 3" There are no observations which prove the transmission of functional atrophy % hy, and it is hardly to be expected that we shall obtain proofs in the _ 1891] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 195 is only as to the extent of its action. Second, we need not discuss the inheritance of mutilations, for mutilations are not part of the regular order of nature, and while they might have strong positive, they have little negative, value; the elaborate arguments which have been recently directed against them, remind us, therefore, of Don Quixote’s excursions against the windmills, as if Lamarckism mainly depended upon such evidence. Nor is it in dispute whether the effects of general atrophy or hypertrophy of the body are transmitted, for it is self-evident that an ill-fed organism will not bear as perfect offspring as a well-fed organism. As to pathological atrophy or hypertrophy, it is, I believe, admitted on both sides that in cases where it arises from certain bacilli it is possible that it may be transmitted with the bacilli. What we are discussing is whether the special and local variations in function and structure induced by environment and habit in the life of the parent tend in any degree to reappear in the offspring. © This is the modern or modified form of Lamarck’s law. His followers admit that he overestimated the rate of inheritance of the effects of use and disuse in stating that ač that is acquired is trans- mitted.” The element of rate or time is a secondary one, as it is with the law of Selection; the main point is whether such effects are transmitted at all. Of course there are Lamarckians of all degrees of fervor. The following statement probably reflects the average opinion : I. In the life of the individual, adaptation is increased by local and general metatrophic changes, of necessity correlated, which take place most rapidly in the regions of least perfect adaptation, since here the reactions are greatest. 2. The main trend of varia- tion is determined not by the transmission of the full adaptive Modifications themselves, as Lamarck supposed, but of the dispo- sition to adaptive atrophy or hypertrophy at certain points." “10 Quatritme loi: Tout ce qui a été a. tracé ou changé, dans l’organization wni individus, , pendent le cours de leur vie, est c la génération et — cage éprouvé ces changemen’ = Osborn, -Tbe Paleontological Evidence for the Transmission of Acquired Char- Adv. acters.” Brit. Assoc. Reports ; : Science; 1889. Dr. W. H. Dall has nE Bist A castally considered statement in his paper on“ Drask Influences in Evolution,” May 8th, 1 196 The American Naturalist. [March, At all events, this involves the Lamarckian principle, with all its necessary bearings upon our opinions as to Environment, Variation, Selection, and Inheritance. If we adopt it,we must accept its full con- sequences. Taking Spencer’s definition of Life as the continuous ad- justment of internal relations to external relations, we must regard the race as in part the summation of these individual adjustments, in part as the summation, by Selection, of favorable fortuitous varia- tions. Environment must act directly in producing variations in the organism as a whole; directly also it must produce special variations wherever it induces changes of function. As these variations are in a degree transmitted, we will discover some of the laws of variation in the study of individual adaptation; varia- tions of this kind will be found in definite lines; indefinite varia- tions will also arise from the fortuitous combination of individual characters; the proximate causes of variation must be changing environment as well as the combination of diverse individual characters. Selection, so far as it is here involved, will be found to act mainly upon the ensemble of characters which have their origin in individual variation by the extinction of unadapted individuals and races, but its action upon fortuitous variations will be concomitant. Inheritance must bear the burden not only of ancestral and race characters, but must accumulate the modifi- cations of these characters which occur in individuals. Let us associate the opposite principle, that special individual variations are not transmitted, with the name of Weismann, for at a time when Lamarck’s principle was rising in favor’ he boldly opposed it zz toto. His doctrine of the continuity of the germ- plasma, and especially of the isolation of the germ-cells from influences which are exerted upon the body-cells, is a perfect and necessary complement ‘of the doctrine that Evolution has ad- vanced by pure Natural Selection; he carries these twin doctrines out to their legitimate conclusions. Recalling Spencer's definition and applying Weismann’s principle, we must regard the race not as the summation of individual adjustments, but as the summa- tion of the best adjusted germ-plasmata. Environment may act 12 In 1883, when Weismann published his first essay on Heredity, the only English oF American it it woke ES r af the Lamarckian prin- ciple was Alfred Wallace, 1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 197 directly in causing the organism to vary as a whole, but none of the special individual variations which it also produces indirectly and directly can be inherited ; its influences upon the germ-plasma are gradual and indefinite. The lines of variation are definite so far as they are limited by the specific nature of the organism; within these limits variations must be indefinite and numerous ;¥ the proximate cause of variation is the combination of the diverse individual characters of the parents. Selection must accumulate minute existing variations in the required direction, and thus create new characters ;* it must act upon minute variations in single characters, as well as upon the ensemble of characters. Inherit- ance is the unbroken transmission of race and ancestral characters by subdivision of the germ-plasma; only changes which affect the body as a whole can be added to the characteristics of the germ-plasma. This is a mere abstract of the diverse positions upon every problem to which these principles of Lamarck and Weismann lead us. No half-way ground is tenable; the result of this in- quiry will be a complete rout to one side or the other. By the former we diminish the powers of Natural Selection, and increase the powers of Environment; at the same time we greatly simplify: the problem of Variation, and render far more complex the prob- lem of Inheritance. By the latter we throw the entire burden of Evolution upon Natural Selection, and eliminate the direct action of Environment; we admit definite laws or causes of general Variability, but no definite laws governing the variations of single characters ; we greatly simplify the problem of Inheritance. In short, the vulnerable point with the Lamarckians is in solving the problem of Heredity, while their opponents are weakest in solv- ing the problem of variation. From the purely theoretical stand- point both sides can offer a good working explanation of the process of Evolution, provided we grant all their premises ; our duty as professed scientific men should be, therefore, to dispassion- 13 Biological Memoirs, p. 288. " It is the specific nature of an organism which causes it to respond to external influences along certain definite lines, although these may be very numerous.” 1 Biological Memoirs, p. 275. 198 The American Naturalist. [Marca ately examine how far these premises accord with a// the phe- nomena which we can actually observe in Nature, and then espouse the side which is most favored by probabilities. Now I have no hesitation in saying that neither side is showing the disposition to test their premises by all the observed phenomena, and this is one of the most hopeless features of the present situation. Variation, Repetition, Regression —A\ll the factors of Evolution interact. Variation and Repetition” in inheritance are in con- stant relation with every other factor. Thus we can accumulate facts as to variations fer se, but if our observation and induction enable us to formulate certain laws, these will always involve at least two factors, —'i. e., Variation as related to Environment, Vari- ation as related to the life-history of individual organisms, Vari- ation as related to Inheritance, Variation as related to Natural Selection. Variability is, of course, exhibited in organisms as a whole, and in groups of characters as well as in single characters. All would be diversely affected by the two diverse principles of inheritance under discussion, but we are to examine the variable tendency as exhibited in single characters. Repetition is the conservative or static condition wherein a character in the new individual most closely resembles the average development presented by the fra- ternity,® co-fraternity, race, variety, and species to which it belongs; let us adopt Galton’s term “ mediocrity ” for this state of average development. . Variation is the unstable or fluctuating condition in which a character deviates to either side of mediocrity, either in the plus or minus direction,—z. e., to greater or less develop- ment. Regression is the tendency” to revert to “ mediocrity”; and according to Galton’s statistics we can imagine this law of regression as acting like gravitation upon the pendulum of vari- ation : when the pendulum swings in one direction it may repre- 15 Weismann, or his translators, uses the terms Variability and Heredity, as tendencies equivalent to ae But it seems to me clearer to use Heredity in the 1 sense, So as to includeVariation = the act of Varying, and Repetition = the act of repeating, ancestral ers. Variability = ™ tendency to we 16 Galton. “ Natural Inheritance,” P- 94. e offsrpring of the same mid-parne (= male and female) form a a aii All a seia of a Aiari of mid-parentt a co- ity. 1 Op. cit., p. 95. Se 1891. ] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 199 sent a plus-variation, in the other direction a minus-variation ; mediocrity is the state of rest or balance. When we examine any species in course of evolution in time and space we find, how- ever, that a mediocre character is a shifting quantity. An organ, for example, which is rapidly degenerating presents a certain “ mediocrity ” at one time and locality, and another “ mediocrity ” at a later time or another locality. There is, therefore, a clear dis- tinction between the above terms and the more general terms “ degeneration,” “balance,” and “ development,” which apply to characters which are either continuously static or in a downward or upward direction, not only in individuals but in whole species and larger divisions. Of course where regression ceases to exert its full gravitating force upon plus- or minus-variations, througha series of generations, development or degeneration respectively set in. Another source of confusion, which is inevitable in observation but not in theory, is the difficulty of distinguishing between “congenital” and “individual variations.” Weismann has marked the distinction by the useful terms “ blastogenic ” and “ somatogenic.” * Theoretically these congenital and acquired variations are quite distinct; but as some blastogenic variations do not manifest themselves until advanced life, it is extremely difficult in many cases to decide how far certain variations are really blastogenic and how far somatogenic in origin ; in other words, how far they are due to inherited predispositions and how far due to life habits.” , A war of words has recently been waging as to the meaning to be attached to such adjectives as “fortuitous,” “ chance,” “kaleidoscopic,” or “indefinite.” My understanding of these ‘terms is that when we see characters fluctuating from mediocrity, in either the plus or minus direction, according to the ordinary laws of chance, we may describe them as in a state of indefinite variability; whereas, when they exhibit a tendency to fluctuate principally in one direction, we describe them as ina state of 18 j. e., as arising from the germ-plasma and body respectively. 1 In his review of Wallace's ‘‘ Darwinism” Lankester has pointed out this defect im some of Wallace's observations. Nature, 1889, p. 567. 200 The American Naturalist. [March, -definite variability. This is the only sense in which the terms “ definite variations ” and “indefinite variations ” can be fairly used in this discussion. In two of his most recent essays Yaon says : “My theory might be disproved in two seke e by actually proving that acquired characters are transmitted, or by showing that certain classes of phenomena admit of absolutely no explanation unless such characters can be transmitted. Only if it could be shown that we cannot now or ever dispense with the Lamarckian principle would we be justified in accept- mob We may gather evidence from the data of Embryogeny, or of Ontogeny and Phylogeny. Itis neither possible nor desirable to separate these data; but as previous writers have dealt extensively upon the evidence of embryogeny, I will emphasize the ontological and paleontological evidence, with which I am, in fact, much more familiar. I shall endeavor principally to concentrate attention upon the phenomena to which future observation must be espe- cially directed. We already have. a number of valuable essays and criticisms in this line,” but none, so far as I have seen, examine the question in view of all the difficulties which the adoption of either principle involves us. I believe we are far from understanding all the phenomena of variation, and put the question, therefore, in the following form: Does our present knowledge of variation in living and fossil forms lend greater support to Lamarck’s or to Weismann’s principle? 1. What is the Origin of Variability ?—According to Weis- mann, the ultimate or primordial origin of variability is somato- genic, *—that is, we must trace variability back to the unicellular organisms in which the environment acts pay upon the whole 20 Biol. Mem., p. 388. 21 Nature, Feb. 6th, 1890, p. 322. 22 Especially those of Ryder, Cope, Eimer, and iter A very valuable review of the whole ag is found in C. V. T paper, “ On the Causes of Variation in Organic Forms.” Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sc 23 Biol, iaoi p. 277. “ The origin of cae individual variability cannot be found in the pa — but it must be sought for in the lowest,—the unicellular organisms. uch organisms reproduce by division, individual acquired characters will be se oa wo the offspring.” 1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? - 201 organism; in the multicellular organisms the source of variability becomes restricted to the germ-cells, and the proximate or secondary origin of variations is in the union of the diverse characteristics contained in the germ-plasms of the two sexes. This view as to the primordial origin of variations does not seem to me to enter directly into the problem we are discussing, although it is one of the legitimate conclusions from his premises. But I would like to call attention to one important point, viz., that it involves the operation of Lamarck’s principle of the transmis- sion of adaptive reactions to environment ™ in the unicellular, and therefore to some degree in the lower multicellular, organisms. I think it can be shown that Lamarck’s principle would be highly advantageous to every organism by transmitting direct adaptations (see Query 4); if this be the case, every step in the gradual loss of this principle by the isolation of the germ- plasma would have been disadvantageous. Therefore, if Selec- tion was constantly acting, as Weismann supposes, it would have preserved this very principle. This is, of course, in the nature of pure speculation ; but turning this supposed enormous power of Selection to the service of Lamarckism, we can conceive how the extremely complex correlation between functional changes in the somatic and germ-cells, which is an essential part of the La- marckian theory, may have had its beginnings in these transi- tional organisms. The question of the present or proximate origin of variations does, however, bear directly upon these diverse principles : (a) All observers must agree that sexual reproduction is one of the endless sources of indefinite variations.” Weismann’s theory offers a beautiful idea of the modus operandi, and accords thoroughly with Galton’s researches. Such variations originate in the germ-cells; there is no reason why we should trace them to the somatic cells. fully elaborated in Spencer's z Principles 24 Thisis, of course, no newidea. It was most P former is by simple cell division; the of Biology.” The mode of transmission in the . „principle of the continuity of original and acquired characters 1S the same. sé ts ae Eok 1 tation isi st important, but not the fi -o -nine Metaphyta and Metazoa in a state of variability. Nature, Feb, only factor which phy 6th, 1890, p. 322. (In answer to Prof. Vines.) 202 The American Naturalist. [ March, (2) Some plus- or minus-variations must also originate from the union of germ-cells. If the same character is strongly developed in both parents, it may appear still more strongly developed in the offspring; the same rule applies conversely to weakly developed characters. But this simply puts the question one stage back, for variations which are indifferently plus, minus, or mediocre are certainly not definite, although the union of two similar variations produces a definite result. Before considering the possible origin of definite variations we must consider whether there are such variations. 2. What Variations are Definite and What Indefinite ? *—This is really the most important and central question. Its solution has a vital bearing upon Weismann’s principle as well as La- marck’s. Following Huxley,” Geddes * has most clearly stated these bearings : “In the absence of any theory of definite and progressive change,” -and in the presence of multitudinous variations under domestication and in nature which we can neither analyze, ration- alize, nor hardly even classify, we are not only justified but logically compelled to regard variation as spontaneous or indefi- nite,—7. e., practically indeterminate in direction, and ‘therefore unimportant, except as the groundwork for Selection to act on.’ Conversely, variation must be indefinite, else the paramount im- portance of natural selection must be proportionally impaired as this becomes definite. . . . It would exchange its former supremacy as the supposed determinant among the indefinite possibilities of structure and function for that of simply accelerat- ing, retarding, or terminating the process of otherwise determined change.” We cannot emphasise too strongly these cardinal factors of indefinite Variation (so far as adaptation is concerned) and paramount Selection as two of the foundation stones of Weis- Scag Selection trusts to the chapter of accidents in the matter of variation.” 7 Article '‘ Evolution,” Enc. Brit., Vol. VIII, % Article ‘ Variation,” Enc. Brit., Vol. XXIV. *9 Such as has been postulated ee ren Mivart, or based upon the La- _marckian principle by Spencer, Cope, and others. 1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 203 mann’s theory of Evolution. This must be kept in mind in analyzing every argument advanced by his school. (The idea is that variations are definite only so far as they are limited by the specific nature of the organism, by special phenomena of nutrition, or in some cases by environment acting directly upon the germ- cells? See Query 3. They are indefinite so far as they arise from the fortuitous union of diverse germ-plasmata.) * I have made it clear in the introduction that this is no longer a matter of ignorance, as it was professedly with Darwin: “I have hitherto sometimes spoken as if the variations, so common and multiform with organic beings under domestication, and in a lesser degree with those under nature, were due to chance. This, of course, is a wholly incorrect expression, but it serves to acknowledge plainly our ignorance of the cause of each particular variation.” I have already quoted Lankester upon this principle, and refer below to a passage in which he reiterates it and carefully defines the sense in which “indefinite” is employed by him. Prof. Thiselton Dyer, a leading English botanist, has supported this position : * “If with Prof. Lankester we say that the combinations are kaleidoscopic, I do not see that we go beyond the hits -e area of fortuity is narrowed down to the variable constitution of the ovum. . . . And this is quite in accord with the remark of Weismann that variation is not something independent of, and in some way added to, the organism, but is a mere expression for the fluctuations in its type.” 30 See Biol. Mem., p. 410. itely more than 31 See Biol. Mem., p. 275. “ Natural Selection must b ble to do infin eh: > << a ag | 1 $ t isti Jiffe es (aris ing by these fortuitous combinations) in the required direction.” 32 “ Origin of Species,” 6th edition, p. 106. 83 The latest is in Nature, March 6th, 1890. ‘‘ This disturbance of the parental body (I d it to the shaking f a kaleidoscope), and with it of the germs which it carries, resulting in “ sporting ” or “ variation ” in the offspring, is, it should hardly be needful to state, a totally different thing to the definite acquirement of a structural character bya parent, . k and the transmission to offspring of that particular acquired structural character.” 3 See Osborn. “Paleontol. Evidence,” etc. 204 The American Naturalist. [March, One reason why I have endeavered to emphasize the unanimity of opinion upon this point among those who deny Lamarck’s principle in this: If there are definite lines in blastogenic variation which cannot be explained by Selection, or by Environment acting upon germ-cells, we must find some other causes or laws governing them. Therefore the Lamarckians must first establish their claim that there are definite lines of variation; second, that these lines have not been directed by Selection (see Query 6). The opinions of Lamarckians on this point is that “there are variations which follow from their incipient stages a certain definite direction towards adaptation, independent of Selection in their origin.” * This, it will be observed, does not exclude the existence of variations of the class accounted for by Weismann, but it constitutes substantially a distinct class of variations which Weismann, Lankester, and others do not account for, because, upon their hypothesis, we have no evidence that there is such a class” 3 This opinion has frequently been asserted without adequate support from observation, otherwise we should not find such can- did writers as those quoted above dismissing it so summarily. The fact is, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to prove that there are definite lines of variation (which cannot be explained by Selection) from the examination of zoological and botanical collections, for we are, from the nature of the material, princi- pally examining variations by divergence in space. In such complete fossil series as are now available paleontologists enjoy the distinct advantage of following divergence both in space and time. They are thus in a better position to study lines of varia- tion than ever before, because they are in at the birth, so to speak, of many useful and adaptive characters, and can follow the gradual rise from the minute infinitesimal stages to the advanced condition in which are constituted what we call specific and generic char- acters. Not only so, but it is possible to observe pedigrees, since the condition of surrounding parts prior to their appearance is known The history of the teeth of the Mammalia affords the most * That is, no class of variations which conform to direct individual adaptations. 1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 205 direct evidence, since these structures pers not only the most in- teresting correlations and also the successive addition of new elements (qualitative variation). I believe the unanimous opinion of all those who have examined such series is that such variations follow definite lines from their incipient stages. This is a positive form of evidence, unless the observers are at fault, but cannot be considered as proof if it can be shown that these infinitesimal stages arise indefinitely, for if the advanced condition is useful the incipient condition must. possess some degree of utility, and would ex hypothesi be sélected. This objection is met, however, by the additional fact that the first ap- pearance of such structures is also not indefinite,—~. e., at definite adaptive points. In other words, the birth is as definite as the growth.” To sum up, the opinions of the two sides as to the nature of blastogenic variations are as follows: Both will admit.: I. That there are general fortuitous variations, which may be best explained as due to the spontaneous variability of the germ- cells, especially seen in their union. II. That there is also a class of variations, also springing from the germ-cells, which are in one sense definite, —?. e., in certain directions,—but not necessarily adaptive. One side denies, the other affirms : III. That there is also a large class of blastogenic variations which follow definite lines of adaptation. i What are the relations of these three classes of variations to + me Y -d var iation), but ravronment ? . What are the Direct and Indirect Relations EER Environ- ment and Variability >—How far does ct the germ cells directly, and how far through changes in the somatic cells ? It is well known that a change of environment, especially to more favorable conditions, as in domestication, increases Varia- See cea the enormous mass of material available may be gained from the on that the teeth of all the Mammalia have sprung from a similar type allt aad aK dies ge. See the papers of Cope, Wortman, and the writer. 206. - The American Naturalist, [March, bility,?”"—~. e., variations of Class I. In the analysis of such effects effects we should carefully examine: (a) Whether this variability in all the characters of the organ- _ ism is an éffect of the action of Environment directly upon the germ-cells, through the general channels of increased or diminished nutrition; or, whether the environment produces a general dis- turbance of the functions of the organism, and this acquired dis- position to altered functions is transmitted to the germ-cells.* (6) Whether changed environment produces variability in any special characters or in all characters alike? Here again the question as to the mediate action of the somatic cells comes up, and is not only much more pertinent than in (a), but probably more capable of solution. On these points Weismann holds that luxuriance of growth results from the better nutrition of the germ-cells during develop- ment,” while poverty of growth, or general degeneration, con- versely results from deficient nutrition of the germ-cells, as in the case of Falkland ponies.” The effects of these influences he thinks may be more specialized; they may act only upon certain parts of the germ-plasma.** Weismann discusses such cases as. follows (p. 433). Observe that the modifications referred to are not necessarily adaptive: “The wild pansy does not change at once when planted in gar- den soil ; at first it remains apparently unchanged, but sooner or later in the course of generations, variations, chiefly in the color and size of the flowers, begin to appear; these are propagated by 31 This we can attribute to the greater molecular activity of the cells. Darwin believed (a) that says to new conditions must be long continued to set up any new variation. (6) Excess of food increases variability. (c) Chan conditions may affect the whole organism, or saath parts alone, or merely the reproductive system. (d) Indefinite varia- bility is the commonest result of changed conditions. 38 The point raised by Mivart (Nature, Nov, — 1889, p. sep is not fairly taken. Of course nutrition must pass through some somatic cells of th digestive system on its way to the germ-oelis; this is a different matter from its first passing to to the peripheral e ‘ haoi 1 > rae aA 3 Biol. Mem.,p. 98. > Op. cit., p. 99. 4. Op. cit., p. 104. Oras discussed upon p. 408, in the criticism of Hoffman's experi- ments upon flowers, 1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 307 seed, and are therefore the consequences of variations in the germ. The fact that such variations zever occur in the first generation proves that they must be prepared for by a gradual transforma- tion of the germ-plasm. . . It is therefore possible that the modifying effects of external influences upon the germ-plasm may be gradual, and may increase in the course of generations so that visible changes in the body (soma) are not reached until the effects have reached a certain intensity.” The best-attested instances of the action of Environment in producing special characters are those seen in its action upon the reproductive organs. A slight change of conditions sometimes produces sterility, as seen in the cases of “isolation” and “ diver- gence” advanced by Gulick ,and Romanes. , Here the best explanation seems to be that the environment has acted directly upon the germ-cells. This could only be proved, however, by experiments in artificial impregnation, for it is possible that the cause of sterility might lie in some of the somatic functions accessory to impregnation or intercourse. A second instance of this kind is the effect of nutrition in the determination of sex, as proved by the experiments of Yung and Giron,” and employed as- one of the main principles in the two theories of Heredity advanced respectively by Ryder and Geddes. It is not necessary to enumerate the many well-known cases of rapid response to new environment by modifications, which we must analyze somewhat differently. Among the best recorded are those of Saturnia (imported to Switzerland from Texas),® and Artemia“ Now it is a very important fact that the modifications observed in such cases are in the main adaptive,—that is, in course of a very few generations not only are the organisms thoroughly acclimated, but they develop substantially new adaptive characters. We can readily understand how the germ-plasm might respond i les by high nutrition from 56 pt ie Oe sa man ce or ot when poorly fed, only 40 per cent. See Geddes and Thompson, “ Evolution of Sex, Chap. LV. x 208 The American Naturalist. [March, directly to new environment by general variability, and even by + such special variations as above cited by Weismann ; but, keeping in mind the fortuitous principle, why do we also discover varia- tions, not merely in size and efflorescence,” but in the nature of direct adaptations? This point has recently been raised by Mivart, with his usual acuteness in destructive criticism. I do not consider that it has been demonstrated that Environ- ment does act directly upon the germ-cells. In the case of animals we certainly cannot determine how far the nervous and other somatic cells are mediate, besides the somatic cells of the. nutritive system. Yet in the acceleration of variability, and in the direct production of variations of Class II., we have examples of such rapid response to changed environment that the presumption is somewhat in favor of Weismann’s view. . In either case, such mediate action of certain somatic cells angat be advanced in support of Lamarck’s principle that the effects of environment on special groups of somatic cells make themselves felt in, or trans- mitted to the germ-cells in such a manner as to reappear in some degree in the same special groups of somatic cells in the new individual. Let us therefore concentrate our attention upon the evidence as to the possible modes of origin and transmission of variations in definite adaptive lines (Class III.). Three explana- tions are open to us: 1. That these adaptations have been selected from a number of variations of the fortuitous class; 2- That the germ-cells respond to environment by adaptive varia- tions ; 3. That the variations originate in adaptive reactions of the sini cells, under environment, which have been transmitted to the te -cells. Let us first consider the question of individual 4: ia Jaod Variations adaption ?—I should hardly have thought it necessary to consider this question but for the fact that a recent writer, who claims the sanction of Mr. Romanes and Mr. Poulton, has advanced the proposition that the inheritance of ‘Huxley has as analyzed — on the pure Selection hypothesis 1E direction, but favors and pinsi = tendency in that direction which already exists. . Conditions are not actively pro- ductive, but passively permissive.” ‘‘ Critiques aint Addresses,” p. 309- » < 1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 209 individual variations would be an actual evil.” This is tantamount to saying that adults are less adapted to their environment than young individuals, and that the most perfect individual adapta- tion will be secured by inertia. This would, as Mr. Ball maintains, be a severe blow to the Lamarckian principle, but it would be a still more severe bléw to the Natural Selection principle, for, to give a single instance, it can be shown conclusively that the skeleton of the limbs of all the Mammalia has mainly been evolved upon the broad lines of use and disuse, and Selection would thus be eliminated entirely. To express this idea of the utility of the greater part of individual variation, Semper applies the term “adaptations,” and his work” abundantly illustrates and demon- strates this law. It is based, of course, upon the general physio- logical principle that the tissues react and their structure diversifies proportionally with their functions.“ Life is the continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations, in which the general adaptation of the organism to its surroundings is, upon the whole, steadily increasing up to the period of general decline. This principle of individual adaptation is strikingly illustrated in recent studies upon the feet of the Mammalia, in connection with instantaneous photographs of animal motion.” These studies show, for example, in the extremely complex readjust- ments of the carpal bones, necessitated by the simultaneous reduction of one of the bones of the fore-arm and of the lateral toes, that the very redistribution of the lines of pressure is con- stantly tending to perfect the adaptation by the natural reactions of growth in the bone tissue. Some of these adaptations are in the nature of plus- or minus-variations from the original constitu- 46 W. P. Ball. “ Are the Effects of Use and Disuse Inherited?" Nature Series, 1890, Pp. 128. : 47 Animal Life,” 1877. still new parts, but the only ridicul Every vertebrate is literally made up a developed by the voluntary efforts of the animal to obtain its food, etc. 49 See the papers of Cope and Ryder, and the writer's “ Evolution of the Ungulate Foot.” Memoir upon the Uinta Mammalia. 210 The American Naturalist. [March, tion of the limb; other elements remain zz statu quo, orin a state of balance where their adjustments are perfect. There is also a large class of adaptive, characters, both in animals and plants, upon which the law of individual adaptive vari- ation operates very obscurely if at all,—e. g., protective coloration How Far Does Race Variation Follow Individual Variation ? —The study of individual variations led Spencer to the conclusion that all higher forms (of vertebrates) have arisen by the super- posing of adaptations upon adaptations.” The students of verte- brate paleontology observe that race adaptations conform so closely to the laws of progressive individual variation that they are impelled to seek the explanation of the origin of various structures in the reactions occurring in individuals. Here are the definite lines of variations spoken of above. But if they jump to the conclusion that individual variations are the cause of these race variations, may they not fall into the old fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc? For every genetic line will be found to exhibit variations in definite lines of adaptation and many of these lines of variation occur in characters in which no individual adaptation can be observed.” Now there is no theoretical difficulty in supposing that the three classes of variations have different modes of origin, byt in order to demonstrate the ‘probability of a causal relation between individual and race varia- tions of Class III. it is further necessary to show: 1. That in this © special class of characters, in which obvious mechanical or dynamical principles are operative, race variations invariably con- form to individual variations; for if some of these characters do not conform, other principles must be in operation. That is, -if we once invoke the Lamarckian principle, we must apply it consistently to every case. 2. That no definite lines of variation arise in characters of this class without the antecedent operation of these individual reactions. These first tests of invariable ante- .cedence.and consequence would lend a high degree of probability 3° A beautiful example of the effects of use in producing joints in the tail fins of fishes “has been given by Ryder. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Nov. 21, 1889. oe As quoted by Ryder from ‘British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, Oct., 53 Such as are seen in the adaptations of ‘mimicry and protective coloration, 1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 211 to the existence of causal relationship ; this probability would be increased if it could be shown that no other explanation of this class of variations will stand the same test. First, as to sequence. The overwhelming majority of variations as observed in the fossil series” occur along the lines of use and disuse. Weismann has urged that all variations in this class are substantially quantitative, that where an organ becomes stronger by exercise it must possess a certain degree of importance, and when this is the case it becomes subject to improvement by natural selection. It follows from embryological development and the laws of growth by cell division that all new characters are in one sense quantitative, but in tooth evolution we have examples of the rise of structures which are qualitative,—v.¢., essentially new, and not simple modifications of ` preéxisting forms. I refer to the successive addition of new cusps. As already observed, there is absolutely no evidence for indefinite variation in these characters. The new cusps do not rise spon- taneously at random points and then disappear, to be replaced by the gradual development of those which happen to rise at adap- tive points.* One of the most surprising recent discoveries is that one after another these successive cusps are added to the simple conical crown at the point of maximum wear ; that is, the most-worn points in an earlier series of generations are those at which the new cusps appear in the later series. Paleontologists cannot, however, claim that this sequence is universal. Among the rare exceptions there are, first, some sec- ondary cusps® which arise from the base of the crown,—~. £., entirely out of the region of use and disuse and pursue the same steady development until they reach a stage in which they are obviously useful and subserve attrition. Second, upon the principle that the action and reaction of two opposing surfaces must be equal, it is difficult to explain some cases in which we observe a the ee studies of Kowalevsky, Cope, and Ryder among the vertebrates, and of Hyatt, Dall, and others among the invertebrates. 54 Biol. Memoirs, p- 84. 85 See “ The Evolution of Mammalian Molars to and from the Tritubercular Type,” AMERICAN NATURALIST, December, 1888. 86 Such as appear in some molars of the later Tertiary ungulates. . 212 The American Naturalist. [March, cusp in one jaw developing, while the cusp in the other jaw, opposing it and presumably stimulating its development, is degen- erating.” The force of these exceptions will weigh seriously against the Lamarckian principle, unless they also can be proved by subsequent research to conform to the laws of individual adaptation. I consider that the strongest line of attack which can in futute be taken against Lamarckism will be in showing that certain characters (such as the above), in which it is supposed to operate, could not be produced on principles of direct adaptation. But if we reject the Lamarckian principles we must assign Selection as the cause of these definite lines in variation, for no one would urge the third alternative. 6. What is the Relation between Variation and Selection ?— The question of Utility is the first which arises when we attempt to explain the origin of such variations as we are here consider- ing by the selection principle. In the recent animated discussion which has taken place between Romanes," Mivart, and others on the one side, and Wallace® and Dyer on the other, great difference of opinion has been shown as to Utility, So far as the question bears upon the substitution of pure natural selection for Lamarck’s principle, we may, in this argument, avoid the broader question by admitting that all characters possess, or have once possessed, some degree of utility, or the reverse. This is as necessary for Lamarck’s as for Weismann’s principle. The essential question here is whether the plus- or minus-variations in advanced stages, or the variations in initial stages, or still more the variations which constitute the initial stages themselves, are of such importance as to weigh sufficiently in the scale of survival, to accumulate defi- nite lines of adaptive variations.” Let us assume that they can be, what further assumptions are necessary ? We start with the proposition that all these variations have their origin under the laws which we have seen govern variations of Classes I. and II., for upon Weismann’s principle we cannot admit 51 I refer to the paraconid and cage 58" The majority of specific inutile (non-adaptive).”” Nature, '89, P- 8. r Ta y PORRE £ eh 59‘ There is no p t ific ch fi 1 j aatas: e 6 Darwin distinctly dindoun the utility priit t in ite case of Saturnia. See letter to Moritz Wagner, “ Life and Letters,” Vol. HI. * 1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 213; any other modes of origin. They must start, therefore, indefi- nitely, but secure a definite difection by the selection of those in favorable, and elimination of those in unfavorable, directions. This direction must be continuously plus where the characters are developed by direct Selection,” or neutralized where the char- acters are under the. sustaining power of Selection, or minus where the characters are degenerating under the influence of Panmixia (free intercrossing), or even of reversed Selection.” Every union of new individuals, according to Galton’s law of regression, however, will tend to draw back all the plus- and minus- variations to mediocrity, even where both parents show a tendency in the same direction. This regressive tendency to mediocrity, seen in the union of a single pair, will be further hastened by Panmixia.* We have assumed the continuous operation of Selection and abundant favorable variations to draw from, but we have seen, under Query 3, that variability is generally greatest when external conditions are most favorable; at the same time Selection must be least active, for the struggle for existence is ` least severe,—that is, Selection is least rapid when its materials are most abundant. So much for the probabilities of the produc- tion of definite lines of variation in single characters of this class. Evolution is not, however, a “log-rolling” process, in which some parts lag behind while others are improved by selection; in the fossil series, as all parts of the skeletal organism are observed in course of evolution at the same time, we must assume indefinite variability in every part, and admit the probability that, especially in uncorrelated parts, the sum of favorable variations, will be equal to the sum of unfavorable variations, and thus neu- tralize each other, so far as Selection is concerned. We must, therefore, add the assumption that these definite lines will be selected in correlation with those observed to occur in all the sur- rounding parts, and granting that groups’ of correlated parts may 61 See Biol. Memoirs, pp. 264, 85, Tor, 275. 6& Romanes has endeavored to show that where a character becomes detrimental Selection will tend actively to eliminate it. 63 Galton has shown that in the union of two individuals showing exceptional charac- teristics only a few of the offspring would be likely to differ from mediocrity so widely as - the mid-parent. “ Natural Inheritance," p. 106. 214 The American Naturalist. [March, vary simultaneously“ (e. g., fore and hind limbs, or a series of vertebrz), we have still further to assume that these variations are selected with codrdinate variations in parts which are not in the remotest degree correlated, viz., the teeth.” We must still fur- ther assume that Selection acts at the same rate to produce simul- taneously exactly parallel lines of adaptive variations in related species over widely distributed areas, as in the American and European species leading to the horse series. If it is maintained that this parallelism has been sustained by interbreeding, then the arguments based upon Divergence and Isolation lose their force. If it be said that combinations of favorable variations occur in nature, not only in correlated but in uncorrelated parts, and Selec- tion acts upon these combinations, then those who support Weis- mann’s principle must further assume that there are definite lines of blastogenic variation. This argumentum in circulo would bring us back to the original question, What is the cause of defi- nite lines of variation ? Can Acquired Variations be Inherited ?—It must be admitted by every one that, as the germ-cells are usually differentiated and set apart from the somatic cells at an early age, it is very difficult to conceive how definite changes in certain peripheral somatic cells occurring in the higher adult Metazoa can produce such changes in the germ-cells as to be reproduced in the offspring, even if we allow a very long time for the process. If, however, such a process does take place, it rests with the embryologists to work out a theory for it, so we are not concerned with the process, but the evidence. All the evidence above considered belongs properly to Evolution; we must now consider the bearings of some of the classes of evidence from Inheritance. _. The evidence from mutilations is somewhat conflicting. It has been fully discussed recently by Weismann, Eimer, and others. It involves two elements which are not observed in the ordinary course of evolution: 1. Immediate transmission of the full charac- ters. 2. Transmission of characters impressed upon the organism, * The fact that they do so may be used as an indirect argument for the Lamarck- ® Or adaptive characters for protection, mimicry, sexual ornamentation, etc. ae ee eee eee r891.] Are Acquired Variatious Inherited ? 215 and not self-acquired. I believe that no indisputable evidence for the inheritance of acquired characters has been produced under this head. . Another class of evidence consists in what are believed to be cases of the inheritance of maternal influences upon offspring 7 utero. It is an axiom among breeders that an ill-bred sire may affect all future strains. One of the most striking cases is that of Lord Morton’s Arabian mare, which was sired by a Quagga, and later by a pure Arab, the foal of the latter showing zebra-like markings. Professor Turner says of this case: “I believe that the mother had acquired during her long gestation with the hybrid the power of transmitting quagga-like markings. The ova must have been modified while still in the ovary.” I refer to papers of Vines ” and Turner ® as bearing especially upon the supposed isolation of the germ-cells, and showing that in the lower Metazoa and some of the higher Metaphyta the germ-plasm is diffused through’the organism, and thus related to the soma. We should find in these transitional organisms, as I have suggested under Query I, that the relation between the somatic and germ-cells was established, if it exists. It is a necessary deduction from Weismann’s theory that if this relation was advan- tageous it must have been preserved by Selection. If Selection can bear the burden of Evolution, it certainly can account for the origin of the Lamarckian principle in inheritance. Conclusions—The conclusions we reach in this discussion must finally turn upon the existence of definite lines of blasto- genic variation. If there are no such lines, the Lamarckian principle falls ipso facto; if there are, we have still to estimate the probabilities between Weismann’s and Lamarck’s- principles as affording the most adequate explanation for them, keeping in mind the problem of Inheritance as affecting these probabilities. The Weismann principle depends upon Selection as the source See Nature, 1889, p. 532. e1 “ An Examination of Some Points in Prof. Weismann’s Theory of Heredity.” Nature, October 24th, 1889, p. 62. 68“ The Cell Theory, Past and Present.” Nature. November 6th and 13th, 1890. 216 The American Naturalist. [March, of definite lines of Variation. What evidence has been advanced for the initial but all essential assumption that, for example, a tiny adaptive cusp is a factor in survival, while its tiny inadaptive fellow is a factor in extinction? not to mention the succeeding assump- tions which overwhelm us when we seek to derive definite adapta- tion from indefinite variations. The Lamarckian principle furnishes us with an explanation of the observed phenomena of simultaneous progressive adaptation in most of those parts which it affects, including Correlation and Parallelism. It cannot bé said at present to explain a// the phe- nomena within its sphere; we must explain these phenomena, or abandon the principle. It follows as an unprejudiced conclusion from our present evidence that upon Weismann’s principle we can explain Inheri- tance, but not Evolution, while with Lamarck’s principle and Darwin’s Selection principle we can explain Evolution, but not, at present, Inheritance. Disprové Lamarck’s principle, and we must assume that there is some third factor in Evolution of which we are now ignorant. 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 217 ON THE ORIGIN OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS. BY G. BAUR. An islands can be divided into two principal groups. 1. Is- lands developed from continents or larger bodies of land through isolation or subsidence : continental islands. 2. Islands not developed from continents, but from submarine portions of the earth : oceanic islands. The flora and fauna of the first group will be more or less Aarmonic,—that is to say, the islands will be like satellites of the continent from which they developed, and the whole group comparable to a planetary system. The flora and fauna of the second group will be disharmonic,—that is to say, it will be composed of a mixture of forms which have been intro- duced accidentally from other places. It is evident that the first group of islands will be affected in the same way ; there will be immigrants from other localities besides the original inhabitants. Continental islands, therefore, may be composed of two floral and faunal elements : first, an original (endogenous) one ; and second a secondary (exogenous) one. Oceanic islands, however, will only contain a secondary (or exogenous) floral and faunal element. We will now proceed to examine whether the Galapagos belong to the first or second group of islands ; whether they are detached portions of a continent, or of new origin emerged from the sea. These islands, better than any other group, afford a splen- did opportunity for the examination of this question. They had never been inhabited before their discovery by the Spaniards in - the sixteenth century. Buccaneers and whalers made the islands a place of frequent resort ; but it was not before 1832 that a small colony was established on Charles Island, which, however, was soon abandoned again. To-day a small settlement is found on’ Chatham Island only, under the management of Sefior Manuel Cobos. The only animals which seem to have been seriously affected by these intruders are the tortoises, which had once been so very numerous on all the islands. On some of them at least— Charles Island, for instance—they are extirpated; but it is 218 The American Naturalist. [ March, probable that a few specimens still exist on some other islands on which they are now considered to be exterminated. All the islands, with the probable exception of Charles and Chatham, show with little doubt nearly the original condition. The Galapagos are situated on the equator, about 600 miles west from the coast of Ecuador, to which state they politically belong. They are placed between the 89th and g2d degree west of Greenwich, covering about three degrees of longitude, and extending on each side of the equator one-and-a-half degrees north and south. (The best map published is No. 1375 of the British Admiralty, based principally on the researches of Captain Fitzroy, of the historical “ Beagle.”) There are five principal islands, eleven smaller ones, and a great number of islets and rocks. The five principal ones are situated between the equator and the 1° south. They are Narborough, Albemarle, James» Indefatigable, Chatham. Of the eleven smaller islands three are in the same region, Jervis, Duncan, Barrington; three are between the 1° and 2° south, Brattle, Charles, Hood; and five north between the equator and the 2° north, Tower, Bindloe, Abing- don, Wenman, Culpepper. Hood is the most southern, 1° 27’ South; Culpepper the most northern and also the most western island, 1° 39’ north, 92° west; Chatham is the most eastern, 89° 17’ west. Albemarle is by far the largest; it is the only one cut by the equator, and is about 140 km. long. Then follow Inde- fatigable, Narborough, James, Chatham, Charles, Bindloe, Abing- don, Barrington, Tower, Duncan, Jervis, Brattle; the last only about 134 km. long and 1 km. broad. As is well known, the _ whole group is volcanic. The highest mountain, on the south- west end of Albemarle, is 1570 m. high. The elevation of the other islands varies from 70 m. (Tower) to 1270 m. (Narborough). Albemarle, and especially Narborough, the most western island of the larger ones, have frequently been in a state of eruption. Delano speaks of one on Albemarle in 1 797 and 1800, Porter in _ 1813, and Morrell witnessed a most terrific outbreak on Narbor- ough in 1825. Fitzroy saw smoke on a southeastern volcano on e in 1835. Since that time these volcanoes seem to have been in a state of inactivity. Wolf, who visited the islands in 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 219 1875, states that Narborough still has an active central crater of enormous size. Most ofthe islands consist of basaltic rocks and masses of scoriz and lava, but besides we find, according to Wolf, remains of an older volcanic formation on Charles Island and the small islands Gardner, Caldwell, and Enderby, which surround it. Dr. Th. Wolf, the state geologist of Ecuador, visited the islands twice, according to a letter received from him. He spent in all six months on the group,—more time than any other visitor, Dr. Habel excepted. He published a small pamphlet about the islands in 1879 (Ein Besuch der Galapagos-Inseln. Heidelberg, 1879, 44 pp., 3 maps). The following account about the climate is taken principally from him and from “The South American Pilot.” . ; The climate, considering that these islands are directly on the equator, is far from being excessively hot, a circumstance which is chiefly owing to the singularly low temperature of.the surround- ing sea, which is 23° C. On Charles Island at an elevation of 140 m. the thermometer was 19-21° (about 68° F.), and at about 300m. 18-19°. Darwin observed a heat of 34° C. (93° F.) in his tent when the thermometer stood at 29° C. in the wind and sun, but which, when plunged in the soil, rose at once to 58° C., and would probably have risen higher had the tube been longer. The rainy season is between February and June, but is very irregular, generally very short, and often it stops entirely for one or two years. ‘In the higher portions of the islands, about 270 m., there is often rain all the year, but very little. In August and Oc- tober Wolf observed such squalls, so-called “garruas,” very often. They repeated each other often five or six times in a day, but never lasted more than half an hour. They are confined to the high plateau. The whole broad lower zone up to 170 m. is nearly without any rain; therefore the upper region remains always green, the lower one arid and barren. On the southeastern parts of the islands, on the side of the southern trade-winds, the damp region ‘extends nearly 70m. more down than on'the northern side. It is evident that the conditions of the vegetation are dependent upon this different distribution of humidity. Near the border of the sea -we find different maritime plants ; in-some of the bays mangrové& 220 The American Naturalist. [March, and avicenias. In ascending the hills from the shore the whole ground in all directions is covered with apparently withered brushes; but on a closer examination it is found that these plants are mostly in bloom. The most common brush in this region is a Lantana, one of the Verbenacez, and members of the Euphorbiacez, Croton for instance. This brushwood grows up to a height of 5 feet or 6 feet, rarely 10 feet, and here and there are found Algoraba trees about 20 feet high, and also sporadic Palo Santos (Guaiacum). The latter is the largest tree in the lower region; it reaches a height of 30 feet, and 3 feet in circum- ference. On places which do not allow the growth of any other plant, the grotesque, tree-like Opuntias and gigantic Cereus are found. The Cereus is generally seen in the most barren spots. These forms give a very characteristic appearance to this region. The Opuntia reaches a height of 20 feet, and a thickness of two feet ; the Cereus the same proportions. Besides these characteristic plants are found Gramineze, Cyperacee, Euphorbiacez, Labiate, Compositz, and so on (about fifty to sixty species according to Wolf). There are only a few Cryptogamia, the most important of which is the Orchilla (Rocella tinctoria), which is found not higher than 100m. This is the condition of the vegetation up to 200 m. Now other shrubbery, especially Composite, appears; the Algo- raba and Palo Santo are of stronger growth; the Lantanas and Cactacez disappear. The ground is still more covered with brush- wood of the withered aspect. A white Usnea, which hangs in long strings from the trees, alone indicates a little more humidity. This plant is characteristic of a zone between 200 m. to 270 m., sepa- rating the dry and humid region. It is easily distinguished from a far distance by its white color. When the high plateau between 270 m. to 300 m. is reached, the whole scenery changes. A refreshing, moist breeze comes from the coast; the traveler is surrounded by green woods and stands on meadows. These woods are principally composed of about thirty-feet-high trees, of the Sanguisorbacee and Composite, of an Andean type. Herr Wolf remarks: Everybody who knows fhe flora of Ecuador must be reminded of the mountains of the 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 221 Andes, and he appears to be on an elevation of jabout 3,000 m.; but in fact he is only 300m. high. Wolf found great resemblance with the small Paramo forests of the Andes, not only in the hab- itus of the trees, but also in the small plants which cover the ground and in the mosses and lichens which cover the trees. The woods are free, without creeping plants, making a passage easy. They are interrupted by small meadows, consisting nearly entirely of small Graminez and Cyperacee. Above this woody region another one could be distinguished, which is free from trees, and only covered with short grass. The description of these different zones is based on the condi- tion found on Charles Island; but it is the same, according to Wolf, on the others of high elevation. From this it is evident that different islands which do not reach to the humid region, like Hood, Barrington, Tower, and so on, show only the arid state. After this description of the climatological condition of the islands, I have to make some remarks on the topography of the whole group. The deepest sounding on record is 671 fathoms, between Tower and Indefatigable Islands; between the median islands the greatest deptli does not surpass 300 fathoms ; but a complete series of soundings between the different islands may bring to light quite different results. There is little doubt, however, that all the islands, Culpepper and Wenman perhaps excepted, are placed within the 1000-fathoms line. Northeast of Chatham, 0° 24’ south, 80° 6’ west, 812 fathoms are recorded by the “ Alba- tross.” Itis probable that an elevation of 300 fathoms or 550 m. would bring all the central islands together.’ I give now the approximate distances between some of the islands: Hood to Culpepper, 430 km.; Chatham to Narborough, 262 km.; Hood to Chatham, 50km.; Hood to Charles, 64 km. ; to Indefatigable, 65 km.; Albemarle to Abingdon, 77 km.; Abingdon to Bindloe, 23 kaks Bindloe to Tower, 50 km. ; 5 Abingdon to Weaman, 141 km.; Wenman to Culpepper, The soundings of the “ Albatross” have shown that the Galapagos are connected antago and "Malpelo Islands with Central America by the 4ooo-m. line, This is an important fact; all the older maps showed the Galapagos separated from Central America. k 222 The American Naturalist. [March, 36 km. ; Duncan to Indefatigable, 10 km. ; Jervis to James, 8 km. ; Barrington to Indefatigable, 18 km.; Indefatigable to James, 19 km.; James to Albemarle, 18 km.; Charles to Indefatigable, 50 km. Currents —From the “ South American Pilot” I record: “ The currents about these islands are remarkable, for, in addition to their velocity, which is from one to two-and-a-half miles an hour, and usually towards the west and northwest, there is a surprising difference in temperature of the bodies of water moving within a few miles from each other. These striking differences are owing to the cool current coming from the southward along the coasts of Chili and Peru, which at the Galapagos encounters a far warmer body of water coming from the Bay of Panama. Heavy rollers occasionally break upon the northern shores during the rainy season, though no wind of any consequence accompanies them. They are probably caused by the northers from Tehuan- tepec, and the Papagayos or northeast winds, which are so well known on the coast between Panama and Acapulco.” In the vicinity of the islands calms prevail from January to April; from the middle of April to the end of December the trade-wind blows with regularity, and gales are unknown. After these necessary remarks we can proceed to examine the fauna and flora. 1. Lhe Fauna—lI shall restrict myself to the higher vertebrates, of which I shall give what is known. The only mammals which have been recorded are a mouse, two species of seals, and bats. The mouse is of the American genus Hesperomys. Darwin. found it on Chatham, and Wolf saw a skin of it on Barrington Island. Further researches must decide whether this form is introduced or not. The fact that Wolf found it on the deserted Barrington speaks for its being indigenous. The seals found on ‘the islands are Otaria jubata and Arctocephalus australis. They are still numerous, but in former times must have been exceedingly abundant, as I conclude from the work of Morrell. These two seals belong to Antarctic forms, and show in the Galapagos their ‘most northern extension. It is quite probable that:they represent species distinct from the more southern forms. So far as I know, 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 223 only the skeletons have been studied (Allen, “ Pinnipedia”). Bats have been seen by Habel, and are also mentioned by Wolf; but no specimens have been collected so far. Before speaking about the birds, I shall treat the reptiles, which are represented by tortoises, lizards, and snakes. The gigantic land tortoises always have attracted attention. The Spaniards gave the name Galapagos to these islands, which means tortoise. I may mention here that the etymology of the word Galapago is not known; the regular Spanish word for tortoise is tortuga, as in the Portuguese. The Portuguese also have the word cacado, which is of South American origin. It is probable that the word Galapago is of Central or South American origin also. I have treated on the tortoises in a paper published lately in the AMERICAN NATURALIST, and I shall give my results here in brief. i It was David Porter, the well-known American commodore of the “ Essex,” who pointed out for the first time the important fact that the different islands contain different races of the tortoise. Darwin has fully supported this view. He states that the inhabi- tants of Charles Island could tell from the aspect of the tortoise from which particular island it came. Tortoises have been recorded from Hood, Charles, Chatham, Indefatigable, Duncan, James, Albemarle, Abingdon. Nothing is known in this regard about Barrington, Brattle, Jervis, Bindloe, Tower, and the others. So far we know, there are six races of land tortoises from these islands: 1. 7. elephantopus Harlan = T. vicina, Guenther; from South Albemarle. 2. T. galapagoénsis Baur = T. elephantopus Jackson; from Charles Island. The only complete specimen is in the Museum of the Boston Society of Natural History. 3. T. abingdoni Guenther = T. ephippium Guenther; Abingdon Island. 4. T. microphyes Guenth.; North Albemarle. 5. Z: guentheri Baur = a elephan- topus Guenther ; locality unknown. 6. T. nigrita Dum. and Bib. ; locality unknown. It is impossible yet to determine to which island the two last tortoises belong; but the important fact remains that the seaievicied are different on the different islands. The species from Abingdon Island, for instance, is not found on any other one ; the Charles Island form is only found there, and so on. Am. Nat.—March.—3. 224 The American Naturalist. (March, The genus Tropidurus of the Iguanidz shows better than any other form the peculiar specialization on the different islands. I have already in a former paper spoken about the variation of this. lizard. I reached the following result : 1. Each island has only a single variety or species of Tropidurus. 2. Nearly every island has a peculiar variety or species of Ti ropidurus. These results were based on 128 specimens of Tropidurus collect- ed by the “ Albatross” on eight islands, namely : Chatham, Hood, Gardner (a little islet northeast of Hood), North Albemarle (Tagus Cove), James, Duncan, Indefatigable, Abingdon. The first species of Tropidurus described from the Galapagos was T. grayii Bell, the type specimens of*which had been collect- ed by Darwin on Charles and Chatham Islands. I have taken the form from Charles Island, of which the “ Albatross” did not get any specimens as the type of Tropidurus grayii, because Chatham Island is inhabited by a distinct form, which has been described as T. lemniscatus by Prof. Cope. Specimens from Indefatigable and James Islands are very much alike, and probably different from the specimens from Charles Island. I named these T. indefatigabilis. The peculiar form from Duncan Island was called 7. duncanensis ; that from Hood and Gardner Islands T. delanonis ; the Albemarle form T. albemarlensis ; that from Abingdon T. abingdonii; the Bindloe forms were considered as typical for T. pacificus Steind. No conclusion could be reached in regard to T. bivittatus Peters and T. pacificus (var. habeli) Steind., the localities of these forms not being known. ` The following table shows the number of scales round the mid- dle of the body in the different forms: „Tropidurus indefatigabilis Baur, 55-59; Tropidurus lemniscatus Cope, 55-61 ; Tropidurus albemarlensis Baur, 57—63 ; Tropidurus grayii Bell, 55-65; T yopi- durus duncanensis Baur, 72-79; Tropidurus delanonis Baur, -82-85 ; Tropidurus pacificus Steind., 85-90 ; Tropidurus abingdonit Baur, 95-101. The specimens from Jervis figured by Steindachner as T. grayi are probably identical or closely related to 7. indefatigabilis. No- thing is known of these lizards from Brattle, Barrington, Tower, Wenman, Culpepper, Narborough. . I do not doubt that on most — ee E See 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 225 of these islands we will find other species of Tropidurus. It would be of special interest to know whether any of them are found on Narborough, since we have to suppose that probably every organism was killed by that great eruption mentioned by Morrell. No other animal or plant shows the specialization of a single genus in the different islands so well as Tropidurus. On every or nearly every island it has developed into a different race or species. Let us now, for instance, compare the forms from Gardner and Duncan Islands with those from the nearest islands. On Gardner Island we find the same species as on Hood Island. Gardner is only one kilometer distant from Hood. The water between the two is not deep, not exceeding five fathoms. Between these islands are placed four smaller islets and the Magicienne- Rock (Brit. Adm. Chart, 1376). The species from Duncan Island is totally different from that of Indefatigable. The islands are only ten km. distant from each other. The deepest sounding taken between the two is, however, 60 fathoms. No specimen of T. duncanensis occurs on the very near Indefatigable, and none of T. indefatigabilis on Duncan. The races from the distant Abingdon and Bindloe and the low Hood Islands are more different from the central forms than those among each other. Besides the genus Tropidurus, which is only found in South America, we have two other genera of Iguanide which are pecu- liar to the islands: the land and sea guanas, as called since the times of Dampier : Conolophus and Amblyrhynchus, the latter reaching a length of nearly four feet. Amblyrhynchus is the. only “ oceanic” form of the Iguanidz. It lives upon sea-weeds, and to get them it goes out to the sea, but never far from the shore. It is probably found on all islands. The “ Albatross” collected specimens on Abingdon, Duncan, Hood, Gardner, James, Chatham, and it has been recorded from other islands, Charles, Barrington, Jervis, Albemarle, by Darwin, Steindachner, Wolf, and others. The individuals of the different islands have never been studied carefully; but I do not doubt that even here we find modifications according to islands. a the thirteen specimens brought back by the “ Albatross” could 226 The American Naturalist. [March, give some light when closely examined. Darwin already mentions differences. According to Steindachner, only small specimens are found on Jervis Island. Wolf found the specimens from Barrington different from those from Charles; they were all- smaller and the dorsal spines were not so much developed. There is, therefore, evidence that even these semi-aquatic animals show some modification on the different islands. Conolophus.—This large land form, no specimens of which were collected by the “ Albatross,” is so far only recorded from Albe- marle, Indefatigable, Barrington, and James. Porter already states that it is absent from Charles. Nothing is known about the vari- ation of this lizard, few specimens only having been collected. The Geckonidz are represented by the genus Phyllodactylus. Charles Island contains a peculiar form, P4. galapagoénsis Peters, of which the “ Albatross” got one specimen. Two other species are recorded by Prof. Cope from Chatham, Ph. tuberculosus Wiegm., and Phyllodactylus leet Cope. Ph. tuberculosus would represent the only lizard not peculiar to the group, and Chatham would be the only island containing two species of the same genus. These specimens need reéxamination. Snakes —Snakes are much more widely spread over the islands than is generally believed. They were first mentioned by Dampier. Delano found snakes on Hood; Porter saw “a few small snakes much resembling the common American striped snake” on James, and “a small gray snake” on Albemarle ; Steindachner, who distinguishes two varieties, Dromecus cham- issonis dorsalis, and D. habeli records snakes from Indefatigable, Hood, Charles, and Jervis. The “Albatross” collected two snakes, one on James and one on Gardner Island. According to Dr. Habel, snakes are absent from Bindloe and Abingdon. We have, therefore, not less than seven islands on which snake#* ave been seen. How far the variation in the different islands goes is not yet known. The Birds—With the birds we are somewhat better acquainted, due to the collections of Dr. Habel and the “ Albatross.” The first collection forms the material of Mr. Salvin’s extensive memoir on the Avifauna of the Galapagos. The material brought 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands, 227 together by the “ Albatross” has been very thoroughly worked up by Mr. Robert Ridgway. Collections have been made by Darwin, Kinberg, Dr. Habel, and the “ Albatross.” A few speci- mens have also been collected by Dr. W. H. Jones, Kellett and Wood, Dr. Neboux, Cookson and Markham. I give a list of islands with the names of the collectors : Chatham: Darwin, Kinberg, Jones, Kellett and Wood, “ Al- batross.” Charles: Darwin, Neboux, Kinberg, Jones, Cookson, Markham, “ Albatross.” Indefatigable: Darwin, Kinberg, Habel. “ Albatross.” James: Darwin, Kinberg, “ Albatross.” Bindloe: Habel. Albemarle: Darwin, Cookson, “ Albatross.” Abingdon: Habel, “Albatross.” Duncan: “ Albatross.” Hood: “Albatross.” We have, therefore, collections from nine islands. So far 69 species of birds have been described, besides the albatross, which is recorded by Delano and Wolf from Hood Island, Thirty-two are found on Indefatigable, 28 on Chatham, 27 on James, 23 on Charles, 18 on Abingdon, 14 on Bindloe, 12 on Hood, 5 on Duncan, and 4 on Albemarle. The great number of Indefatigable is due to the collection of Dr. Habel, who brought not less than 267 skins from this island. Albemarle has hardly been touched. Darwin collected one bird. The “ Albatross” remained only five hours at Tagus Cove, and collected four species. There can be no doubt whatever that a very much greater number of birds exist on Albemarle. We know from Wolf that some parts of Albemarle, especially the southern ones, have a well-developed flora (fifty to sixty species of Phanerogams in the lower regions) and there must be also birds. No collections have been made on Brattle, Barrington, Narbor- ough, Jervis, Tower, Wenman, and Culpepper. The number of genera collected is 40; of these 6 are peculiar to the islands, 8 are found in continental America, and 27 have a wide distribution. Of the 69 species 49 are peculiar to the islands, or 71 per cent. The six peculiar genera are Nesomimus, Certhidea, Geospiza, Cac- tornis, Camarhynchus, and Creagrus. Nesomimus belongs to the Mimidae; Certhidea to the Coerebide or Honey Creepers; Crea- grus to the Laride; and the three others to the Fringillide or 228 ' The American Naturalist. [ March, Creagrus contains a single species, and all the specimens the history of which is absolutely known were taken on Dalrymple Rock, near Chatham Island, a rock 65 feet high,—a most peculiar example of distribution of a single genus. The genus Nesomimus is represented by five species; one is peculiar to Charles, one to Hood, one to Albemarle, and one to Abingdon; the fifth, V. melanotis, is found on the central islands, Charles, Chatham, James, Indefatigable. Certhidea contains three species ; one is peculiar to Hood, one to Abingdon and Bindloe, and the third is again found in the central islands, Chatham, James, Indefatigable. Geospiza is represented by eleven species, two of which, G. dubia and nebulosa, are doubtful. Hood has a peculiar species, G. controstis Rigw. G. magnirostis has been found on Charles and Chatham; G. media, based on a single specimen, comes from Hood; G. strenua has been found on the central and northern islands; G. fortis, also G. fulginosa, are typical for the central islands; G. parvula and dentirostris seem to be the original inhabitants of Abingdon and Bindloe. Cactornis shows five species; C. drevirostis is only found on Chatham; C. assimilis is typical for Bindloe; C. abingdonii for Aiaia; C scandens and pallida spread over the central islands; no form has so far been found on Hood Island. Camarhynchus is represented by six species; none is known from Hood; two, C. prosthemelas and C. habeli, are characteristic of the northern Abingdon and Bindloe; C. townsendi has only been found on Charles; the other species occur on the central islands. As a whole we find in the birds the same distribution as in the reptiles, notwithstanding flight could enable them to reach the different islands. The northern islands, Abingdon and Albemarle, show different forms from the central islands. The same is the case with Hood, so far as it has been examined. Some species of the genus Geospiza, which contains the greatest members, have per- haps only lately spread over a greater number of islands than the others. This genus needs further examination. It seems that in the time when Darwin visited the islands the birds were more 4891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands, 229 restricted in distribution. I think it possible to trace the “ original ” locality of each species of this genus. If we now compare the results we have reached about the dis- tribution and variation of birds and reptiles, we must admit that we have found absolute harmony. We find exactly the same in regard to the flora, but unfortu- nately only five islands of the central group have been examined, and that but little——-Chatham, Charles, James, Indefatigable, and Albemarle. All that we know of the flora of Indefatigable, for instance, was collected in a few hours by Andersson. All these islands reach into the humid region. Great results doubtless will be found when the northern and southern islands have been studied, and also the lower ones of the central group, like Barring- ton and Duncan, for instance. The peculiar genera found in the Galapagos are representcd by peculiar species on the different islands ; and the same is true for the non-endemic genera. (To be continued.) 2 30 ® The American Naturalist. [March, THE BIOLOGICAL WORK OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENT STATIONS: BY CLARENCE M. WEED. A was to be expected, nearly all of the published work of the ~ > biological departments of American experiment stations (and for the present purpose I mean, by these, the departments of zool- ogy and botany, including entomology, ornithology, and mycol- ogy), up to the present time, has been of a purely practical nature, usually having an immediate application to agricultural procedure. This is perfectly right and exactly what has been needed. There has been, and is yet, a great demand for this sort of work, and it must be satisfied so far as possible if the enterprise is to continue to receive encouragement and support. The problems of spraying, of remedies for the great crop pests, whether insect or fungous in nature, of the effects of rotation and fertilization upon the increase of insects and fungi, and many similar subjécts, furnish opportu- nities for a vast amount of useful work, which must on no account be neglected. But, nevertheless, is there not a tendency to confine ourselves too strictly to these purely practical problems, when ` very often a somewhat wider study would not only shed light upon the case in hand, but add much useful knowledge besides? Should not our work be organized and conducted on so broad and comprehensive .a basis that our results will be cumulative, in the years to come aid in the formulation of general biological laws ? We are so used to hearing about economic entomology, eco- ‘nomic botany, and economic ornithology, that I fear even some of us have an idea that the main field of entomology, or botany, or ornithology, is not economic, but belongs to that department of pure science possessing, in the words recently quoted by Dr. ‘ This paper, in substantially its present form, was prepared for the Entomological Sec- tion of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations at its o Int á 3 EAE E ST TURT ohare R ests a 3891.) Biological Work of American Experimeut Stations. 231 Mendenhall, “the inestimable value of being of no practical utility whatever.” But surely this is an error. I believe that every addition to our knowledge of the biology, classification, or distribution of an animal or plant will sooner or later be found useful. The organisms about us are so intimately related to each other and to their environment that we cannot say to one or a few of them: “Thou art of practical account; thee alone will we study.” For when we come to investigate even the smallest insect thoroughly, we find that it is simply a part of a vast and complex organism, and that it is vitally related to other creatures `- in a thousand ways. It is preyed upon by “the fowl of the air and the fish of the sea”; frogs are ever ready to lick it up with their viscid tongues, and toads are lying in wait to send it in search of the mystic jewel within their bodies ; quadrupeds in great variety esteem it a delicate morsel, and other insects devour it bodily’, or suck out its life-blood, or gnaw away its vitals ; bac- terial germs are ever ready to destroy it, and the spores of Cor- dyceps and Empusa are but waiting an opportunity to develop within its body; its alimentary canal may contain a rich and varied fauna and flora, revealed only by the microscope, and the plant upon which it feeds is subject to a thousand agencies that make for its weal or woe. In short, it is engaged in an intense struggle ‘for existence, and an adequate knowledge of the insect itself necessarily involves a consideration of the forces engaged in the struggle. In the same way, if we would learn the economic status of a bird, we must study its food, its habits, its enemies. To do this properly involves an acquaintance with a large portion of the flora and fauna where the bird occurs,—not a mere knowledge of species, but an acquaintance with their habits and histories. And an adequate knowledge of a plant involves a study of a vast num- ber of organisms,—a study of the insects that attack its roots; - those that burrow in its stems; that feed upon its leaves, within or without; that visit its blossoms ; that mine its fruit; of those that find in its foliage or flowers concealment from prey or pro- tection from enemies ; of the birds that devour its fruit and scatter its seed ; of the quadrupeds that browse upon its foliage or Baw" (232 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, its bark ; and of numerous other agencies to which it sustains vital relations. In view of this intimate relation between the organisms with which we have to deal, it seems to me that one of the first needs of our work is the organization of biological surveys of our re- spective states ; and to this point I invite your special attention. In that masterly essay published just ten years ago this month, entitled “On Some Interactions of Organisms,” Dr. S. A. Forbes stated that “ the principal general problem of economical biology is that of the discovery of the laws of oscillation in plants and animals, and of the methods of nature for its prevention and con- trol.” This is as true to-day as it was then, and so also is this paragraph that immediately follows it: “For all this, evidently, the first, indispensable requisite is a thorough knowledge of the natural order—an intelligently con- ducted natural history survey. Without the general kriowledge which such a survey would give us all our measures must be empirical, temporary, uncertain, and often dangerous. ” At various times in the history of many of the United States provision has been made for more or less complete natural history surveys. Asa rule they have been combined with geological sur- veys, but this has been by no means universal. In Illinois the work has very appropriately been given to the State Labora- tory of Natural History, the first of the series of final reports— an elaborate monograph of Illinois birds by Robert Ridgway— having lately been issued. In Kansas such a survey has been undertaken by the scientific staff of Washburn College, and in other western states scientific associations are at work upon it. It must be confessed that the results of these surveys on the whole are incomplete and unsatisfactory. In no state can there be found a series of volumes containing an adequate account ot its flora and fauna. The reason is not far m seek. The provision made fi for their fficient ; to one man has been given Dee. work of ten, and ne has often also haca compelled to compass in a single season investigations requiring a decade for their proper completion. Asa rulethe work has also been of a transient nature, and very rarely has it rested on a fairly permanent 1891.) Biological Work of American Experiment Stations. 23 3 basis. A knowledge of the flora and fauna of a state is not to be gained in a day nora year, nor even, under ordinary circumstances, in adecade. It requires the codperation of several specialists, with facilities for field and laboratory investigations, rooms for the storage of large numbers of duplicate specimens, a library of American and foreign natural history literature, extensive reference collections, means of producing illustrations, and. opportunities for the publication of results—in short, the methods and equipment of a permanent institution of investigation. So far as I am aware, Illinois is the only state, unless perhaps we except New York, that has supplied these conditions in a fairly respectable manner. For fifteen years it has maintained a State Laboratory of Natural History, one of the main objects of which has been to make a systematic natural history survey of the state. The work of this laboratory, as published in its series of bulletins, has obtained the most gratifying recognition from the scientific world; and the initial volume of the final reports gives promise of a series of great value and importance. The director is now engaged upon the second volume concerning birds, treat- ing of the food habits and economic relations of the various spe- cies, for the Illinois survey is not to be a mere catalogue of forms, but is to include the investigation and discussion of the relations of the organisms to each other and to agriculture. It is scarcely probable that, for the present, at least, other states will follow to any great extent the example thus set by Illinois. Even there, where the work of Kennicott, Walsh, LeBaron, ` Riley, Ridgway, Thomas, French, and Forbes has given natural history a prominence and popularity enjoyed by no other wen- ern state, it has often been difficult to get the meagre appropria- tions furnished for the work. But it seems to me that the organ- ization of an experiment station in each state furnishes an oppor- tunity for the conducting of such surveys upon a permanent and well-established basis. Nearly all of them include departments of botany and entomology, with specialists in charge, and in many the college biological departments are closely connected. = knowledge of the flora and fauna sof the states would furni exactly the foundation needed for the prosecution of the distinc- 234 The American Naturalist. [March, tively economic work; and the two lines of investigation could very well be carried on together. To illustrate this point let me again quote from a recent report by Professor Forbes, in which the relations of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History to the Illinois Station are discussed. He says: “The recent organization, at the university, of the State Agri- cultural Experiment Station has raised the question of the rela- ‘tions of the work thus instituted to that of the Natural History Laboratory and the State Entomologist’s Office, with the effect to bring about an adjustment of the two at their points of contact in crytogamic botany and economic entomology. The purpose of the State Laboratory being essentially scientific and educa- tional, its results are only incidentally economic; while the pur- poses of the Experiment Station are essentially economic, and its scientific work must naturally be regulated with close reference to practical results. In cryptogamic botany, for example, the Lab- oratory is engaged in a general survey of the state, intended to give us the species, the classification, and the life-history of all our flowerless plants, whether economically important or not, and the relations of these to agriculture will come in as a purely sec- ondary matter ; while in Experiment Station work, on the other hand, little attention will probably be paid to any species except those having economic relations. Ad practical botanists are agreed, however, that the economic species and those of no economic importance are so intimately related in classification, habit, and life- history, that a full and exhaustive knowledge of the whole subject ts very helpful, and often indispensable, for the solution of merely eco- nomical problems. The more, in short, the State Laboratory 1s able to do in technical and biological botany, the easier and more fruitful will be the economic work of the botanical department of the Station. The former should, in fact, supply a broad and strong foundation on which the latter may build elaborately. “ As much of the work in the two directions requires substan- tially the same facilities, methods, skill, and knowledge, the two may be easily combined in a way to economize labor and expense and to increase results, the only requisite being a common scheme of subdivision and adjustment of proper subjects of research, and 1891.) Biological Work of American Experiment Stations. 235 a proper arrangement with respect to assistance, separate and conjoint, in the two departments. Substantially the same may be said of the entomological work.” The Illinois station is fortunate, indeed, to have available the results of the long years of exhaustive work of the laboratory force, but for most of us there is no such reserve fund of knowl- edge upon which to draw, and if the foundation is obtained we must build it ourselves. There are other advantages to accrue from such an undertak- ing besides those to be gained in the direct prosecution of the economic work. One of the greatest of these will be found in the stimulus given to natural history studies. A well-known bot- anist recently stated that nothing so stimulates the study of a group of plants as a good monograph. In the same way mono- graphs or descriptive catalogues of the organisms of a ‘locality or state are a great help to local naturalists; and there can be no doubt that the existence of volumes similar in plan to that of Ridg- way’s Illinois birds, treating of the mammals, birds, shells, insects, and plants, would greatly increase the number of students of nat- ural history. We can all remember how eagerly, in our boyhood days, we attempted to get help from books in determining the spe- cies, as well as the habits and histories, of the organisms about us. A large proportion of farmers’ boys are born naturalists, and it is only because they receive no encouragement and help that so many of them grow away from their early love. It is needless to say that by so increasing the number of nature students the sta- tions would be doing a great service, not only to the agricultural community, but also to themselves,—to the former by adding to the enjoyment of rural life, to the intelligence of the farming com- munity, to the mastery of the farmer’s profession ; and to the latter by increasing the number of trained observers, to whom experi- ments and observations may safely be trusted. Of the methods to be employed in such surveys little need be said at this time. They will necessarily vary with the circum- stances and the organizing skill: of the individual in charge. But an indispensable requisite in all cases will be that a system of record and arrangement be adopted that is permanent, expansible, 236 The American Naturalist. [March, and easily applied, and by means of which the data obtained will be readily available at any time. Much aid also can nearly always be obtained by the judicious use of student assistants and local naturalists, both in making collections and working out results. I am well aware that this idea will not meet with favor in the eyes of many critics of station work, especially those who are crying for a deluge of immediate practical results, and who often can see nothing “practical” in any result which does not carry with it as a passport the odor of the barnyard, the aroma of the onion bed, or the subtle flavor of insecticides like whale-oil soap. But criticisms from such sources should not prevent the under- taking of the work. The history of all the sciences related to agriculture shows that the investigations of greatest value have been those having to do with the discovery of general laws, and on the surface such investigations have often seemed of the most theoretical and impractical nature. 1891 ] The. Evolution of the Circulatory Organs. 237 w THE EVOLUTION OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS, BY W. C. CAHALL. I” the March (1890) number of the AMERICAN NATURALIST I attempted to marshal the evidences furnished by the teeth in support of the hypothesis of evolution. Any other organ or group of organs could have been selected and found equally rich in evidences of a similar import. But none, perhaps, approach quite so nearly to a demonstration, as the beautiful series of cardiac organs met with by the comparative anatomist in his study of zoology. Origin. of Circulatory Organs—In the lower forms of life, the Protozoa, where no differentiation of structure has yet taken place, the organs of circulation, like those of. digestion, are not needed, for every part of the organism performs its own act of digestion and absorption of nutriment. Where a digestive tube is formed, as in the Hydra, the digested food passes by direct absorption into the tissues of the body. In the same group with the Hydra, the Ccelenterata, there are species where from the digestive tube radiate numerous canals which distribute the chyme to every part of the body. In other species of the same group we see slight but signifi- cant and progressive changes in these canals. This “ gastro- vascular system,” as it has been called, is the first approach to circulation we meet with in ascending the animal scale. It is for all practical purposes an efficient circulatory system, yet it is, structurally, nothing more than an amplification of the digestive tract. 7 The first approach to independence of the organs of circulation from those of digestion is within the Vermes or worms. They have walls and are blood-vessels indeed, since they have a regu- lar circulation of a blood-fluid. A simpler kind is that of some Nemertina, where the main trunks are three long canals con- nected by transverse shorter ones (Fig. 1). In Fig. 2 is represented a more complicated system as found 238 The American Naturalist. [March, in a higher class of the Vermes, which are furnished with both dorsal and ventral vessels, with pairs connecting them at regular intervals. One or more of these transverse vessels may be 3 S, al me ge Midi P BANS Coa ae € 5 y , * FIG. 1.—Diagram of the vascular a of Nemer- tina : Pr dorsal longitudinal trunk ; 7, lateral Seng The arrows indicate the direction of the stream of blood. After Gegenbaur. —Vascular system of Senuris variegata : rsal vessel ; v, ventral vessel; c, heart-iike en- large ment of a transverse. The e arrows indicate the direction of the current of blood. After Gegenbaur. enlarged and pulsatile. While at other times the dorsal vessel itself acts as a heart. In this last we are to trace the origin of the heart of both an- thropods and vertebrates. In the one great group, the Mollusca, there are four types whose sevefal hearts furnish as clear a demonstration of the evo- lution of an organ as could well be desired. Some reader, unacquain- ted with comparative anatomy, may even imagine the sketch (Fig. 3) an ideal one by some over-zealous evolutionist, made to confirm his theory; but myriads of these hearts are throbb- ing to-day as living con- tradiction to this sus- picion. A represents a dorsal vessel and trans- verse trunks of the worm, such as we have already s.enin Figs. 1 and 2. 2. Here we have the single, straight, pulsating ven- tricles (v) with the branching auricles (a), as found in the Nautilus. In C we have a similar organ of the Loligo, with the auricles — 1891.] The Evolution of the Circulatory Organs. 239 reduced to two. D is a diagram of the heart of the Octopus, where for the first time we meet with the organ bent upon itself E represents the heart of ventricle and single auricle of the Gas- tropod, the extreme of development in one direction. The heart of the fishes likewise consists of two cavities, one auricle and one ventricle, but this is not to be homologised with the two cavities of the molluscan heart. In the Mollusca the auricle receives aérated blood from the respiratory organs, and passes it to the ventricle, which propels the oxygenated blood throughout the body, thus forming a systemic circula- tion. The Mollusca have no capillaries save in the respiratory organs, so that the blood, after leaving the arteries, flows through canals or lacune within the substance of the body. In the fishes, on the contrary, the two cavities convey only venous blood, thus performing the same function as the right side of the heart of mammals. The deoxygenated blood is gathered up from all parts of the body, and conveyed by the veins to the auricle, thence to the ventricle, which organ forces it through the truncus arteriosus into the capillaries of the gills, where he blood is oxygenated by the free oxygen held by the water. The now aérated blood is gathered up by the radices aorte, - and the dorsal aorta disttributes it throughout the body (Fig. 4.) This figure should be compared with Fig. 2, when it will at once be seen, after making allowances for the inverted position of the worm, that the heart of the fish corresponds with the dorsal ves- sel of that figure, the gill circulation to the transverse vessels of the worm, and the ventral vessel of the one to the dorsal aorte of the other. The resemblances to the Mollusc are largely those of analogy ; those to the Annelid, those of true homology. In the reptiles we see a further development of this central engine of life. Here we have two auricles with one ventricle. The auricle of the fish has had a septum placed down its middle, forming two cavities. In some lower forms this septum is incomplete, but in typical reptiles it is complete. The ventricle also has the rudi- ments of a septum. Indeed, in some of the higher reptiles, the crocodile for instance, the separation is almost perfect, thus approaching the normal condition of the bird and mammalian Am, Nat.—March.—4. 240 The American Naturalist. [March, heart. The impure blood which has passed through the system is conveyed to the right auricle, while the left auricle receives the oxygenated blood from the lungs. Thus pure and impure blood become mixed in the ventricle. There are two aortic arches arising from the ventricle, one from the right side and the other from the left. The blood coming through the right aortic arch, now become the pulmonary artery, flows through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, while that entering the left aortic ar is car- ried throughout the system (Fig. 5). >, ae eA. A R D FIG. 3.—CIRCULATORY CENTERS OF MOLLUS CA.—A, dorsal and transverse trunks worm; B, heart and auricles of Nautilus; C, heart and ‘auricles of Loligo; D, heart sea auricles of Ay je E, heart and piopi R of Gastr ropod; v, ventricle; a, auricle; s ieg y ran Ga 2 — abdoeni nalis. The arrows show the direction of the current The heart of the bird and of mammals consists of two auricles and two ventricles. The venous blood is gathered up from all — parts of the body and emptied into the right auricle, whence it flows through the tricuspid valves into the right ventricle, which by its forcible contraction drives the blood through the pulmo- nary artery into the lungs. Here the aérated blood is returned to - the heart again through the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, thence through the mitral valves to the left ventricle, which sends it bounding throughout the system. There are in the bird and mammal, then, two distinct hearts; the right half, like the heart of the fishes, carrying only venous blood, and the left side, like the | heart of the Mollusca, carrying only arterial or aérated blood, while the heart of the reptile is an intermediate organ between the simple apparatus of the fishes and the compound heart of the Mammalia (Fig. V1.). ` 1891.] The Evolution of the Circulatory Organs. 241 - Thus we have traced, by easy and gradual steps, the complete evolution of the simple pulsating vessel of the Annelid unto the marvelously perfect organ of man, We have seen how the one pulsating tube has divided into two by a partial and then a perfect septum, into an auricle and a ventricle, and then have seen these cavities, by a partition more and more complete, separated into four distinct cavities. Yet all this is done with but slight alterations of preéxisting struc- ture, and without a link in the chain missing This is an argu-* ment approaching a demonstra- tion, and must appeal to all candid minds. To those who might object that even the slight changes could not be made with- out the destruction of the animal or species, I would instance the transformation of every tadpole into a frog. Surely no one will assume that tadpoles are changed now into a frog by any power save that residing in natural laws. Yet the changes are profound. The heart of a tadpole is practi- cally that of a fish, having one h heart e ie ian di Bnp auricle and one ventricle, and the “u7cl* in nin fhe gla d, he Brida f sid animal breathes by gills; yeta "89 P FTE frog has two auricles and a ventricle, and breathes by lungs. Here we see changes equivalent to the transformation of a fish into a reptile. And among reptiles we meet with hearts with everyjdegree of partition, until in the crocodile the heart is partitioned off very nearly the same as in birds and mammals. In the development of the heart in embryos of birds and mammals we find the organ passing through the conditions found permanently in lower forms. A distinguished comparative anatomist thus outlines the develop- ment of the embryo chick: “The first rudiments of the heart ‘appear about the 27th hour, and is a mass of cells, of which the a 242 The American Naturalist. [March, innermost soon break down, so as to form a tubular cavity; for some time it is simple and undivided, extending, however, through nearly the whole length of the embryo. No motion of fluid is, seen in the héart or vessels until the 38th or 40th hour. When the heart, which may be considered analogous at this period to the dorsal vessel of the Annelida, first begins. to pulsate, it con- tains only colorless fluid mixed with a few globules. Between the 40th and s5oth hours a separation in its parts may be FIG. 5.—CIRCULATION IN REPTILES.—z2, eyes hs se in pericardium ; ff, right and left auricles Pk — ventricle; a, aorta; v, cava; c, smaller circulation; 4, er circulat FIG. 6.—CIRCULATION IN MA AMMALS AND BIRDs.—A, heart; v, right ventricle; v, ro ventricle; c, right auricle; c’, left auricle; a, aorta ;* d, vena cava; é, greater r cir- on; f, pulmonary artery; g, pulmonary veins observed, which is effected by a constriction round the middle of the tube; and the dilation of the posterior portion becomes an auricular sac, and that of the anterior a ventricular cavity. Between the 5oth and 6oth hours the tube of the heart becomes more and more bent together until it is doubled, so that this organ becomes much shorter relatively to the dimensions of the body, and is more confined to the portion of the trunk to which it is subsequently restricted. About the same time the texture of the auricle differs 1891.] The Evolution of the Circulatory Organs. 243 considerably from that of the ventricle; the auricle retaining the thin and membranous walls which it at first possessed, while the ventricle has become stronger and thicker, both its exterior and interior surfaces being marked by the interlacement of ‘muscular fibres, as in the higher Mollusca. About the 65th hour the grade of development of the heart may be regarded as corresponding with that of the fish, the auricle and ventricle being perfectly dis- tinct ; but their cavities are as yet quite single. During the fourth day the cavities of the heart begin to be divided, for the separa- tion of the right and left auricles and ventricles. About the 80th hour the commencement of the division of the auricle is indicated, externally, by the appearance of a dark line on the upper part ot its wall; and this, after a few hours, is perceived to be due to a contraction, which, increasing downwards across the cavity, divides it into two nearly spherical sacs. The division of the ventricle commences some time before that of the auricle, and is effected by a sort of duplicature of its walls. At last, however, the division is complete, and the interventricular septum becomes continuous with the interauricular, so that the heart may be regarded as com- pletely a double organ. The progressive stages presented in the development of this septum are evidently analogous to its per- manent comann in ee various t peier s IE In the heart of mammals (embr e place, but more slowly. Soon after the TRR of the ventsiciés bai to be formed in the interior, a corresponding notch appears on the exterior, which, as it gradually deepens, renders the apex of the heart double. “ This notch between the right and left ventricles continues to become deeper until about the eighth week in the human embryo, when the two ventricles are quite separated from one another, except at their bases ; this fact is very interesting from its rela- tion with the similar permanent form preaented by the heart of Dugong. “ At this period the internal septum is still imperfect, so that the ventricular cavities communicate with each other, as in the chick, on the fourth day. After the eighth week, however, the septum is complete, so that the cavities are entirely insulated; whilst at the same time their external walls become more connected towards 244 The American Naturalist. [March, their base, and the notch between them is diminished; and at the end of the third month the ventricles are very little separated from one another, though the place where the notch previously existed is still strongly marked. “In the state of the circulatory system in the early embryo, where the heart is as yet but a pulsating enlargement of one of the principal trunks, and the walls of the vessels are far from being complete, we have the representation of its condition in the higher Radiata, and in the lower Articulata and Mollusca. In the sub- sequent division of the cardiac cavity into an auricle and ventri- cle an advance is made, corresponding to that which we encounter in passing from the Truncata to the higher Mollusca. And when the branchial arches are formed, which enclose the pharynx and meet in the aorta, the type of the fish is obviously attained, and at a subsequent period the condition of the heart and great vessels presents a strong general resemblance to that of the typical reptiles.” Even at birth the true mammal heart is still incomplete, for there is an opening in the septum between the right and left auricles called the foramen ovale, which does not entirely close until after birth, and not in all cases then, leaving the child so formed in a condition almost certain to lead to early death. Does not this opening, which is of no use to fœtus or child, seem more likely to be the result of a general evolution, gather than of a special creation of a useless and oftentimes a harmful accident ? There is also, in the fcetal circulation, a connecting vessel be- tween the pulmonary artery as it emerges from the right ventricle and the aorta as it leaves the left ventricle. This ductus arteri- osus soon becomes obliterated after birth, so that man has only temporarily what is persistent through life in the reptile. The peculiar relation of the valves of the veins to the vessels they occupy in man has furnished Dr. S. V. Clevenger, of Chicago, the material for a striking argument for the evolutionary origin of man. (See American Naturatist, Vol. XVIII.) The veins which return the blood to the heart against gravity, as in the legs and arms, are supplied with valves which allow the r891.] The Evolution of the Circulatory Organs. 245 blood to flow upward, yet close and hold the column of blood upon any tendency to regurgitate. Now this writer claims that the valves of the veins have not yet become accommodated to the upright position of man, for there are several instances in man where the persistence of the valves in certain veins are not only useless.for their original purpose, but by their position are actually obstructive to the return of the blood to the heart. He asks, What earthly use has a man for valves in the intercostal veins which carry blood almost horizontally back- ward to the azygos veins? When recumbent they are actually a detriment to the free flow of blood. The inferior thyroid veins, which drop their blood into the innominate, are obstructed by valves at their junction. Two pairs of valves are situated in the external jugular and another pair in the internal jugular, but in recognition of this uselessness they do not prevent regurgitation of blood nor liquids from passing upwards. Where apparently most needed, such as venz cave, spinal, iliac, hemorrhoidal, and portal, there are none. The azygos veins have imperféct valves ; their rudimentary con- dition suggests that they may be of recent origin. Now place man on “all fours,” and these anomalies disappear. The veins which in man erect do not need valves will be seen to need them against gravity when on “all fours,” and as they are found in all four-footed animals; and where, in man erect, those veins which need valves but have them not, when on “all fours” will not need them. Valves in hemorrhoidal veins in quadrupeds would be out of place, yet their absence in man sacrifices many lives and produces untold suffering. It is difficult to escape from the consequences of Dr. Clevenger’s logic. Malformations—Cyanosis results from the foramen ovale, which establishes a communication between the auricles, remain- ing open after pulmonary respiration had been established, a ` condition permanent in the crocodile. An arrest of development at an earlier period may cause still greater imperfections in the formation of the heart. Thus, the septum of the ventricles is sometimes found incomplete, the communication between the cavities usually occurring in the part which is last formed, and 246 The American Naturalist. [March, which in most reptiles remains open. A still greater degradation in its character has been occasionally evinced, for several cases are now on record in which the heart has preserved but two cavities, an auricle and a ventricle, thus corresponding with that of the fish; and in one of these instances the child has lived for seven days, and its functions had been apparently but little disturbed. The bifed character of the apex, which presents itself at an early period of the development of the mammalian heart, and is permanent in the Dugong, sometimes occurs as a malformation in the adult subject, evidently resulting, like the others which have been mentioned, from an arrest of development. The Blood-—The form-elements of the blood itself indicate a parallel evolution with that of the heart and vessels: In the Vermes, where the vascular system is first separated from the digestive tract, the liquid contents known as the blood are generally colorless, occasionally green or reddish in color, and the form- elements are of but slightly different cells. The blood of the. Echinoderma (sea-stars and sea-urchins) is of clear or slightly opalescent color, and the form-elements are simple cells. The blood of the Arthropoda is generally colorless; only in a few insects is it greenish or reddish; even then the color is due to the plasma and not to the cells, which are colorless and of variable size and form, and absent entirely in some of the lower forms, ás. the Crustacea. The blood of the Mollusca is generally colorless, sometimes bluish, violet, or green ; only in one species is the blood red, and then from the plasma, for the blood-cells are simple, undifferentiated, and always colorless. The blood of crabs and other Crustacea has been proved by M. Fredericq to contain the same saline elements and the same strong and bitter taste as the waters they inhabit. But the blood of sea- fishes is very different. It has not the same constitution as that of the crabs, and shows a marked superiority over them. In fact, the character of the blood-fluid of the invertebrates is strikingly similar to the lymph of the higher vertebrates where the lymphatic and vascular systems are separated. In both, the cells are simple and undifferentiated, colorless, opalescent, or pink. 1891.] The Evolution of the Circulatory Organs. 247 Even after we enter into an examination of the vertebrates we will meet with a species, and, as we should be led to expect from an evolutionary standpoint, it happens to be of the very lowest class of the vertebrates, the Amphioxus, where the blood-fluid is colorless, and its form-elements are very small, indifferent cells. It is also significant that here also the lymphatic system is not entirely distinct from the vascular system. But in all other vertebrates, after we leave this lowest class, we shall find the two systems separate, and the blood color sed. While the blood is uniformly red, the form-elements of each of the great families of the vertebrates are distinctive and charac- teristic. The color of the blood now depends upon the coloring matter contained in the blood-cells, and not, as in the few instances of colored blood of the invertebrates, upon the colored plasma, , The blood-cells of all vertebrates are highly differentiated, and all contain a nucleus, save the red corpuscles of the highest, the mammals, and even here the nucleus is present in the foetal stages. The cells are generally flattened. In fishes, Batrachia, reptiles, and birds they are. oval and biconvex, while in mammals they are biconcave. The relative quantity of blood in the higher classes of the vertebrates remains the same, yet the relative cell, surface varies decidedly. The red blood-cells are essential to respiration and as carriers of oxygen to the tissues. Fishes consume very little oxygen, and so the red blood-cells are not relatively numerous, and they are called cold-blooded animals, having a temperature but little above that of the surrounding medium. The Batrachia are similarly constituted, but the reptiles have some higher qualites, but still inferior to birds and mammals, which are classed as warm-blooded. The physiological data contained herein are not the teachings of any special school of science, but the well-digested and gener- ally accepted conclusions of the principal modern authorities on comparative anatomy,—as may be seen more in detail in such works as Carpenter's “ Comparative Anatomy,” Cope’s “ Origin of the Fittest,” Gegenbaur’s “ Elements of Comparative Anatomy,” Huxley’s “ Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals,” and Owen's “ Com- parative Anatomy and Physiology.” 248 The American Naturalist. [March, A FEW NATIVE ORCHIDS. BY MRS. PRESTON LOVELL. HOEVER reads that much-berated production, “ The Mod- ern English Novel,” remembers the gorgeous young man who disports himself in its pages. However else his attire may vary, in one particular it is invariable: “an orchid in his button- hole” always adds to it the last touch of elegance. This gorgeous creature may seem a trifle remote from our every-day American civilization, but in this point we may emulate his mag- nificence. We may, if we will, deck ourselves with the flower - which is usually considered beyond the reach of those who can- not build an orchid-house, or seek this latest of fashion’s floral favorites in Amazonian forests or the islands of the sea. If you are fearless of bogs and quagmires; if you are ready to tramp through swampy underbrush, disputing territory with snakes and mosquitoes; and if, in addition, you are endowed with what Thoreau named “ the instinctive second sight of a flower-hunter,” —then let us seek out a few of our wild orchids. In mid-June, on the low, boggy shores of some lake, we shall find the first-comer, the dainty Arethusa. The flowers of rose purple, borne singly on a short stem, have a curious expectant air, as if a breath of wind would send them fluttering away on their rosy, outspread wings. The closely allied Calopogon differs from the Arethusa in its taller growth and brighter colors. But no orchid is without marked individuality, and we accord” ingly find the flowers of the Calopogon borne in an apparently _ inverted position on the stem. It also affords an excellent oppor- tunity to study the strange methods of fertilization peculiar to this order. Few orchids are capable of self-fertilization, depend- ing in most cases upon insect help ; and I have often watched the bees coming and going about these flowers, intent only on honey- gathering, but unconsciously working out thereby the fertilization of the Calopogon. 1891.] A Few Native Orchids. 249 To the sensitive student of plant life every order or family possesses characteristics and peculiarities of its own. I do not here refer to those obvious differences and resemblances upon which classification is based, but something much more intangi- ble, which I do not know how to characterize, otherwise than as difference of temperament. In this sense the orchids are a con- servative, stay-at-home class, possessed not at all by the spirit of adventure. Other plants may roam far or near in the track of man or beast, but they are impatient of new conditions, and stay firmly rooted in their original haunts. They are a law unto themselves, and usually a law past finding out. Why, for instance, did the quaint Ladies’ Tresses (Spiranthes cernua) bloom year after year on the edge of the old brick-kiln, and nowhere else by bog or lakeside in the whole vicinity? Indeed, so tena- ciously did it cling to this spot, that when years of disuse had dried the kiln I have found the short stems, with their spiral rows of tiny white flowers, among the meadow-grasses, which had usurped the place of the rushes and sedges. And why, of all the lakes scattered throughout the neighborhood, is Clear Lake the only one where the Fringed Purple Orchis (Platanthera bigelovit) deigns to rear her splendid spike of rose-red flowers? And this, too, in open defiance of the dictum of the botanist,—‘ com- mon in wet meadows”! Her sister, the lovely Yellow Fringed Orchis (P. ciliaris) does not thus overstep the bounds marked out for her. “Verf rare” she is indeed! Only twice have I found the slender stem, crowned by two or three delicate orange flowers, looking like nothing so much as some marvelous insect poised for flight. Once it was the sufficient reward of a long tramp under an August sun to the low-lying meadows which border the Battle Creek ; and again, years after, it was the sole trophy of a trip to Hawkin’s swamp for huckleberries. This family trait is also well illustrated by the White Prairie Orchis (P. /eucophea). Climax is one of the prairies of small extent scattered throughout Southern Michigan ; but small as it is, this characteristic prairie flower has found it out, and blooms there in profusion. Yet a short distance away, under seemingly similar conditions, except the prairie soil, you may search for it 250 The American Naturalist. [March, in vain. Just where Climax prairie begins to lose itself in the Jordan marshes you may find the foot-high stem, with its raceme of greenish-white flowers, of the characteristic shape of the Pla- tantheras. In this variety the long, curved, deflexed spur gives to the raceme of flowers a curious, ragged, unkempt appearance. With the Cypripediums, or Lady’s Slippers, few are entirely unfamiliar. “ Moccasin flower” the Indians named it, far more appropriately, for its shape is very suggestive of the rounded, soleless moccasin. How vivid is the memory of our childish excursions to Markham’s woods! How we searched the dry knolls and oak-crowded uplands for Trilliums, Phlox, Lupines (“ Quaker bonnets” we called these), and Painted Cups, but still unsatisfied till we found the Yellow Lady Slipper. This was the supreme reward of our long tramp. In very different environ- ment did we find her dainty cousin, the Pink Lady Slipper. Down in the “ bottom-lands,” where the sluggish Oonadaga drags through bogs and morasses, where all is shadow and rank growth, there she lifts her delicate cups of pink and white, preaching nature’s unending sermon of beauty, purity, and sweet- ness from filth, decay, and corruption. Rarer than these, but still occasionally to be found by diligent search in swamp or marsh, is the Tall White Lady Slipper. The time-honored maxim, “ All things come round to him who waits,” may, for the flower-hunter, be fitly paraphrased, “All things come round to him who ¢vamps.’” For sooner or later, by lonely lake or grassy meadow, on mountain-top or busy side, the flower of his quest will shine before him. So I found the Tiny White Lady Slipper. I had heard of it now and then,—not often, for it is one of the shyest of its shy kind. I had sought for it, in coolness and damp, where it seemed as if it must be growing, and once a friend sent me one or two speci- mens. But at last an early morning walk brought me to the brow of a hill, from whose base a bit of lowland meadow stretched to the banks of Battle Creek. This interval was thickly dotted with the flower of my long search. They stood in patches, in the thick, lush grass, as if a band of fairies had danced the night away on the level greensward, and, fleeing away at my 1891.] A Few Native Orchids. 251 - approach, had left behind their dainty footgear. And dainty indeed must be the feet for such slippers! Into the largest one could scarcely insert the tip of a baby’s finger. Pure white, with the gleam of the golden stamens within the tiny sac, the whole plant scarce five inches high, I know of no flower more instinct with mystery and grace. I have mentioned in this sketch only those orchids with which I am personally familiar. A friend tells me of finding the Rattlesnake Plantain, whose leaves are curiously netted and banded with white, as if its ugly namesake had dragged over them his loathsome length. I think it very probable that this list may be extended, and I am rarely in swamp or marsh that I do not find myself peering curiously"around for some strange freak of growth in petal or calyx which shall announce “a new orchid.” 252 The American Naturalist. [March, RECORD OF AMERICAN ZOOLOGY. BY J. S. KINGSLEY. (Continued from Vol. XXIV., page 1169.) GENERAL. Fewxes. J. W.—A zoological reconnoissance in Grand Manan. Am. Nar XXIV., p. 423, 1890. Merriam, C. H.—Results of a biological survey of the San Francisco Mountain region and Desert of the Little Colorado, Arizona. North American Fauna, No. 3, 1890.—Contains, be- sides special papers on vertebrates, general discussion of biologi- eal regions of North America. Hacen, H. A.—Do animals count? ature, XL., p. 299. * Beur, H. H.—Changes in the fauna and flora of California. Proc. Cal. Acad., II., p. 94. * CocKERELL, T. D. A.—Contributions towards a list of the fauna and flora of West Mountain Valley, Colorado. West Am. Scientist, V1., p- 103, 1889. Corus, D. E., Bean, T. H., AND RATHBUN, R.—Results of investigations by the schooner “Grampus” on the southern mackerel grounds in the spring of 1887. Bull. U. S. Fish Com., VIL, p. 217, 1889.—Narrative ; notes on fishes, invertebrates, etc. Seat, W. P.—The a quarium: A brief exposition of its prin- ciples and management. Bull, U. S. Fish Com., VI., p. 274, 1889. * Leipy, J.—Remarks on the nature of organic species. Trans. Wagner Free Inst., II., p. 51. Ossorn, H. L.—A preservative. Nature, XLI., p. 199—Ten per cent. brine. * Cope, E. D.—An outline of the philosophy of evolution. Proc. Am. Phil. Socy., XXVL, p. 495, 1890. Guuick, J. T.—Divergent evolution and the Darwinian theory. Am. Jour. Sci., IIL., xxxix., 21, 1890. RYDER, J. A.—Proofs of the effects of habitual use in the modi- — fication of animal organisms. Proc. Am. Phil. Socy., XXVI, 541, 1890. , 1891.] Record of American Zoology. 253 * FLowER, W. H., Morris, D., CARRUTHERS, SCLATER, THISEL- TON-DYER, SHARP, GODMAN, AND NeEwToN.—Second report of the committee appointed for the purpose of reporting on the present state of our knowledge of the zoology and botany of the West India Islands. Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., LIX., p. 93. ` * HEILPRIN, A.—The Bermuda Islands. 8vo., Philadelphia, 1890. * Garman, S. W.—Cave animals from Southwestern Missouri. Bull. M. C. Z., XVII; No. 6, p. 225. Warase, S.—Karyokinesis and the cleavage of the ovum. Johns Hopkins ,Circ., IX., 53, 1890. Harkness, H. W.—The nomenclature of organic life. Zoe, i., p. I, 1890. : Beur, H. H.—Economy of nature as exemplified by parasites. Zoe, t, p. 33, 74, 1890. 5 Mıxor, C.-S.—Morphology of blood corpuscles. Am. NAT., XXIV., 1020, 1890. Curricr, C.—The animal parasites of sheep. Washington, 1890, Dept. Agr., Bureau of An. Industry, pp. 222, pls. 36. PROTOZOA. Kituicort, D. S—Observations sur des Infuisores d’eau donce. Jour. Micographie, XIII., p. 560, 1889.—From American Socy. of Microscopists. Describes Exchyhodon pellucidus (Michigan), £. farctus (Buffalo) Balantidium gyrans, (Niagara) Pyridium hebesu (L. c.), Vorticella rubistigma (Shi River), Zoothamnium arbuscula, Opercularia niagare@, Stichotricha ampulla (Ontario, Mich.) Sroxes, A. C—How to collect Hydra and Vorticella. Mi- croscope, X., p. 69, 1890. : : Wituiston, S. W.—Uroglena volvox Ehr. Microscope, X., p- 81, 1890.—Wants information as to habits, etc. Carvin, S—Notes on some gigantic specimens of Actinos- phærium eichhornii. Am. Nat., XXIV., 964, 1890. | | SPONGES. * Ports, Epw.—Report upon some fresh-water sponges collected in Florida by Joseph Wilcox. Trans. Wagner Free Institute of Science, Vol. IL.)p. 5. 2A o The American Naturalist. [March, Fresh-water sponges—what hapi are not. ‘Microscope, X., p. 140, 1890. Fresh-water sponges—what they are; 7 c., p. 161, 193, 2. Ruce, J. G—The sponge fisheries of Florida. Bull. U. S. F. Ci VIL, p- 22; 1889: | * Denpy, A.—Observations on the West Indian chalinine sponges, with description of new species. Trans. Zool. Socy. London, XII., 349, 1890. CGELENTERATA. AcassiZ, L.—The anatomy of dstrangia dane. Smithsonian Inst., 1889.—Six plates 4° by Sonrel, with explanation by J. W. Fewkes. Haskins, B. W.—Explanation of Mr. H. E. Valentine’s obser- vations of the Hydra. Microscope, X., p. 52, 1890.—Nothing new’ Stokes, A. C.—To collect Hydra and Vorticella. Microscope, X., p. 69, 1890. HEILPRIN, A.—The corals and coral reefs of the western waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890, p. 303.—List of species and description of reefs at Vera Crus: BiceLow, R. P.—Notes on the physiology of T max- ima. J. H. U. Circ., IX., 61, 1890.—Feeding, etc., of “ Physalia.” The marginal sense organs in the Pelagiidæ. J. H. U. Circ., IX., P. 933, 1890. Dana, J. D.—Coral and coral islands, III. edit., N. Y., 1890. —Vide Am. Nart., XXIV., p. 933, 1890. McMorricu, J. P.—Contributions on the morphology of the Actinozoa. I. The structure of Cerianthus americanus. Jour. Morphol., IV. 131, 1890. ECHINODERMATA. Cracin, F. W.—Sea-urchin excavations at Guaymas, Mexico. Am. Nat., XXIV., p. 478, 1890. Ives, J. E—Echinoderms from the northern coast of Yucatan and the harbar of Vera Cruz. Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890. p: 317- 1891.) ` Record of American Zoology. 255 —New species are Holothuria heilprinu, H. silamensis, H. nitada. Thyraster, nor. gem. for Echinaster serpentarius (Val.). * Acassiz, ALEx.—Liber einen neurn Tiefser-Crinoidm aus der Familie der Apioeriniden. Neu. Jahrb. Min. Geol. u., Paleont, 1890, p. 94. PLATHELMINTHES. Lerpy, J.—Parasites of Mola rotunda. Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890, p.281. Tristomum rudolphianun, Distomum pedoestyle, and Acanthocephalus elongatus. Curticg, C.—The animal parasites of sheep. Washington, 1890.— Taenia marginata, T. coenurus, T. echinococcus, T. tenelia, T. fimbriata, T. expansa. Distoma hepaticum, D. lanceolatum. MEMATHELMINTHES. * ATKINSON, G. F.—Nematode root aa Jour. Elisha Mit- chell Sci. Soc’y., VI, pt. 2, 1890. A a aS report on the life-history and nutamorpho- ses or a root-gall nematode, Heterodera radicola (Graeff) Mill. Bull., No. 9. Alabama Agric. Exp. Sjation. NEAL, J. C—The root-knot disease of the peach, orange, and other plants in Florida, due to Anguillula. Bull. Divis. Entom, U. S. Dept. Agric, No. 20, 1889. Curticr, C.—The animal paratites of sheep. Strongylus con- tortor, S. filicollis, S. ventricosus, S. ovis pulmonalis, S. filaria. Dochmus cernuus, Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichocephalus affinis, Sclerostomum hypostomum, CEsoptagostoma columbianum. ANNELIDA. Forges, S. A—Note on an American species of Phreoryctus. Am. NAT., XXIV. p. 477, 1890. An American terrestrial leech. Am. Nat., XXIV., p. 646, 1890. Fewkes, J. W.—A new marine larva and its affinities. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., VI: p. 177, 1889. ——Curious larva found in Bay of Fundy, with Brachiopod, Chætopod, and Polyzoan affinities. Am. Nat.—March.—5. 256 The American Naturalist. [March, Witson, E. B—The embryology of the earthworm in the system. Jour. Morph., III., p. 387, 1889 [1890]. BEDDARD, F. E—On the structure of a species of earthworm belonging to the genus Diachæta. Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci., XXXI, p. 159, 1890.—Structure of Diacheta windlet, from the Bermudas. Benuam, W. B.—An attempt to classify earthworms. Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci., XXXI., p. 201, 1890.—An extended paper upon anatomy and classification, giving family and generic char- acters and a list of all known species. Forses, S. A—On an American earthworm of the family Phreoryctide. Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist., III., p. 107, 1890.— Detailed description of species described in Am. Nat., XXIV., P- 477- ——An American terrestrial leech. Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist., III., p. 119, 1890—Vide Am. Nart., XXIV., p. 646, 1890. Semiscolex terrestris. Wutson, E. B.—The origin of the mesoblast bands in Annelids. Jour. Morph., IV., p. 205, 1890. PROSOPYGII, Anprews, E. A——On a new American species of the remark- able animal Phoronis. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., June, 1890, p. 445.—Ph. architecta, from Beaufort, N.C. Vide Am. NAT., XXIV., p. 1083, 1890. Suiptey, A. E—On Phymosoma varians. Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci, XXXL., p. 1, 1890.—Extended study of the anatomy, based upon material fom the Bahamas. AxprEws, E. A.—Notes on the body-cavity liquid of Sipun- culus gouldii Pourtales. J. H. U. Circ., IX., 65, 1890. —Notes on character and chromatology. ROTATORIA, PELL, Arr.—Three new rotifers. Microscope, X., p. 143; 1890. —Mastigocerca bicuspis, Cathypna stokesii, Copeus americanus. No localities. 1891.] Record of American Zoology. 257 MOLLUSCA. SurFacE, H. A.—A descriptive catalogue of the shells of Franklin county, Ohio. Pt. I, Land Shells. Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta. Tech. Series I., p. 121, 2 pls., 1890—Analytical keys separ- ating genera and species. * Darl, W. H.—Report on the Mollusca [collected by the “Blake” in 1877-1880]. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XVIII. * Binney, W. G.—Third supplement to the five volumes of the terrestrial air-breathing Molluscs of the United States and adjacent territories. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XIX., p. 183, 1890. Pirssry, H. A—Manual of Conchology (Tryon’s). Pt. 45, pp. 64, pls. 15, Vol. XII., 1890—Contains Stomatellide and Scis- surellidz. Coorrr, J. G—Fresh-water Mollusca of San Francisco county [California]. Zoe, I., p. 196, 1890.—Nominal list. Dati, W. H.—Description of a new species of land shell from Cuba, Vertigo cubana. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIII., p. 1, 1890. Corns, J. W.—Notes on the use of squid for food in the United States. Bull. U.S. Fish Com., VII., p. 127, 1889.—Increas- ing use in New York city; sell for three to six cents apound. * Martens, E. von.—Eine ausgestorbene Landschnecke von den Bermuda Inseln. Stz. Ges. Nat. Fr. Berlin, 1889, No. 10, p. 201.— Helix nelsoni Bland. Jackson, R. T.—Phylogeny of the Pelecypoda—tThe Aviculi- dz and their allies. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., IV., p. 277, 1890.— Vide Am. Nat., XXIV., Dec., 1890. SuarpP, B.—Variations in Bulimus exilis. Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890, p. 148.—From Guadeloupe and Dominica. Pirssry, H. A—On Helix albolabris var. maritima. Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890, p. 282.—New var. from New Jersey. New and little-known American Molluscs. No. 3. Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890, p. 296.—The following are new: Pupa syn- genes (Ariz.), Vaginulus schivelye (Bermuda), Goniobasis crandalli k.) (Ar 7 i ARTHROPODA. WATASE, S.—On the morphology of the compound eyes of Arthropods. Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci, XXXI., p. 143, 1890.— General part of article in Johns Hopkins Studies, IV. 258 The American Naturalist. [March, Patten, W. H.—Is the Ammatidium a hair-bearing sense-bud? Anat. Anzeiger, V., p. 353, 1890.— Vide Am. Nart., XXIV, p. 1084, 1890. -= Watase, $.—On the migration of the retinal area, and its rela- tion to the morphology of the simple ocelli and the compound eyes of Arthropods. J. H. U. Circ., IX., 63, 1890. CRUSTACEA. PARKER, G. H.—The histology and development of the eye in the lobster. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XX., p. 1, 1890. GARMAN, H.—A new fresh-water crustacean. Bull. Essex Inst., XXII., p. 28, 1890.—Mancasellus macrurus, from Ky. Faxon, WALTER.—Notes on North American crayfishes— family Astacidæ. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XII., p. 619, 1889 [1890].—Additional localities for many species. Cambarus ever- manni, C. hylas are new. Harerrt, C. W.—Some habits of the crayfish. Am. Mo. Micros. Jour, X1., p. 111, 1890. Herrick, F. H.—The development of the American lobster (Homarus americanus). J. H. Circ., IX., p. 67, 1890. LEIDY, J.—Parasites of Mola rotunda. Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890, p. 281.—Penella filosa, Conchoderma virgata. Cicrpos latreillei, Lemargus muricatus. - ARACHINDA. MICHAEL, A. D.—On a collection of Acarina formed in Algieria. Proc. Zool. Socy. London, 1890, p. 414.—Describes as new Notaspis burrowsii, from specimens collected in Algiers, and from “ the district of Lake Winnipeg, Canada.” LEIDY, JoszEPpH.—Remarks on ticks. Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890, p. 278.—Habits of tick referred to Amblyomma americanum. * Simon, E.—Arachnides recueilles au Greenland, en 1888, par M. Ch. Rabot. Bull. Soc. Zool., France, XIV., p. 289—Four species, one new. Morean, T. H.—Preliminary note on the embryology of the Pycnogonids. J. H. U. Circ, IX, p. 59, 1890. * PECKMAN, ELIZABETH G.—Protective resemblances in spiders. Oc. papers Wisc. Nat. Hist. Soc., I., p. 61, 1890. * Peckman, G. W. and E. G.—Sexual selection in Attida ; 44, Ey py 3 TS 1891.] Record of American Zoology. 259 Riey, C. V., anp Martatt, C. L—The clover-mite (Bryobia pratensis). Insect Life, III., p. 45, 1890. Pocock, R. I.—A revision of the genera of scorpions of the family Buthidze [etc]. Proc. Zool. Soc, London, 1890, p. 114. —American genera are Isometrus, Centrurus, Barzan, L.—Revisione dei Pseudoscorpioni del bacino dei fiume Parana e Paraguay nell’America meridionale. Ann. Mus. Civ. Gens., 1890, p. 55, 5 pls. Marx, GEORGE.—Catalogue of the described Aranez of tem- perate North America. Proc, U. S. Nat. Mus., XI., p. 497, 1889 [1890]. KincGstey, J. S.—The ontogeny of Limulus. Zool. Ans., XIII., p. 536, 1890.— Vide Am. Nat., XXIV., p. 678. * Simon, Euc.—Arachnides recueilles au Greenland, en 1888. Bull. Soc. Zool., France, XIV., p. 289.—Describes one new species. WEED, C. M.—A new harvest spider. Am. Nart., XXIII., p. 1102, 1889 [1890]. Patren, Wm.—On the origin of vertebrates from Arachnids. Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci, XXXI., p. 317, 1890.—Contains many facts relating to embryology of Limulus and Scorpion. Vide Am. Nart., XXIV., p. 1084, 1890. Wezep, C. M.—The long-legged harvest spider. Am. NAT., XXIV., p. 866, 1890. ; McCook, H. C.—La force des araignées et de leurs toiles. Rev. Scient., XIV., p. 787. Weep, C. M.—A partial bibliography of the Phalangiine of North America. Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist., III., p. 99, 1890. A descriptive catalogue of the Phalangiine of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist., III., p. 79, 1889—Enumerates eight species Liobunum, one of Oligolophus, and one of Phalangium. L. elegans, L. politus are new. The harvest spiders of North America. Am. Nart., XXIV., P. 914, 1890. CurticrE, C.—The animal parasites of sheep. Washington, D. C—Linguatula tænioides, Chorioptes communis, Psoroptes communis, Scarcoptis seabet var. ovis, 260 The American Naturalist. [March, RECENT LITERATURE. Sir Samuel Baker on Wild Beasts and Their Ways.'—This book will be found very interesting to the general reader, and also instructive to the naturalist. The author restricts his descriptions to what he has actually observed himself, and they therefore have an especial value. As he has hunted in all the continents excepting South America and Australia, his observations cover much ground; in fact, probably no sportsman has lived who can record such a varied experi- ence of wild animals. His observations have also the value which is to be derived from long familiarity with most of the species which he describes. This record is the more useful as many of the species which he has hunted have been already much restricted in numbers and distribution since the author began his career, and some of them are probably doomed to extinction. His accounts of the mental peculiarities and habits of the animals which have come under his observation in a state of nature are very valuable, as such opportunities are rarely enjoyed by persons competent to record them accurately. His book affords, therefore, a mine of information to the student of animal psychology. Sir Samuel Baker is a true sportsman ; that is, he observes such methods as will preserve from extinction the species which he pursues, bearing in mind what is remembered too little by the average man with a gun, that if he desires sport in the future he must not destroy females and young, and must protect game sufficiently to ensure its continuance. is observations cover the larger Mammalia, and include one rep- tile, the Crocodilus vulgaris of Africa. His descriptions of the haunts of these animals will be attractive to all lovers of scenery. They are so exact in detail as to enable the reader to realize it much better than if clothed in more eloquent and enthusiastic language. Incidentally the peculiarities of the people with whom his travels brought him in contact are referred to. Such are the shikaris of India, the hunters of the Hamram Arabs of Abyssinia, and the skin-hunters of the wilds of Western North America. His description of the habits and manners of the Indian honey-beat (Melursus labiatus) are curious. He goes into greatest detail in the history of his experience with the Indian elephant, with whose charac- 1 Wild Beasts and Their Ways: Reminiscences of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. By Sir Samuel W. Baker, F.R.S., ete. London, MacMillan & Co., 8vo., PP. 455- Illustrated, . 1891.] Recent Literature. 261 ter he makes his readers fully familiar. We make the following extract, which narrates the behavior of this noble animal when engaged in hunting tigers: ‘The foregoing chapter is sufficient to explain the ferocity of the male elephant at certain seasons which periodically affect the nervous system. It would be easy to multiply examples of this cerebral excite- ment, but such repetitions are unnecessary. The fact remains that the sexes differ materially in character, and that for general purposes the female is preferred in a domesticated state, although the male tusker is far more powerful, and when thoroughly trustworthy is capable of self- defence against attacks, and of energy in work, that would render it superior to the gentler but inferior female. “ It may be inferred that a grand specimen of a male elephant is of rare occurrence. A creature that combines perfection of form with a firm but amiable disposition, and is free from the timidity which un- fortunately distinguishes the race, may be quite invaluable to any resi- dent in India, The actual monetary value of an elephant must of necessity be impossible to decide, as it must depend upon the require- ments of the purchaser and the depth of his pocket. Elephants differ in price as much as horses, and the princes of India exhibit profuse liberality in paying large sums for animals that approach their standard of perfection. ‘« The handsomest animal I have ever seen in India belongs to the Rajah of Nandgaon, in the district bordering upon Reipore. I saw this splendid specimen among twenty others at the durbar of the chief commissioner of the central provinces in December, 1887, and it completely eclipsed all others, both in size and perfection of points. The word points is inappropriate when applied to the distinguishing features of an elephant, as anything approaching the angular would be considered a blemish. An Indian elephant, to be perfect, should be should be majestic in general character, as large as possible,—especially broad across the forehead, and well rounded. The boss or prominence above the trunk should be solid and decided, mottled with flesh-colored spots ; these ought to continue upon the cheeks, and for about three feet down the trunk. This should be immensely massive, and when the elephant stands at ease the trunk ought to touch the ground when the tip is slightly curled. The skin of the face should be soft to the touch, and there must be no indentations or bony hollows, which are generally the sign of age. The ears should be large, the edges free from inequalities or rents, and above all they ought to be smooth, as 262 The American Naturalist. [March, though they had been carefully ironed. When an elephant is old the top of the ear curls, and this symptom increases with advancing years, The eyes should be large and clear, the favorite color a bright hazel. The tusks ought to be as thick as possible, free from cracks, gracefully ` curved very slightly to the right and left, and projecting not less than three feet from the lips. The body should be well rounded, without a sign of any rib, The shoulders must be massive, with projecting mus- cular development; the back very slightly arched, and not “sloping too suddenly towards the tail, which should be set up tolerably high. This ought to be thick and long, the end well furnished with a double fringe of very long, thick hairs, or whalebone-looking bristles. The legs should be short in proportion to the height of the animal, but im- mensely thick, and the upper portion above the knee ought to exhibit enormous muscle. The knees should be well rounded, and the feet be exactly equal to half the perpendicular height of the elephant when measured upon them whilst standing, The skin generally ought to be soft and pliable, by no means tight or strained, but lying easily upon the limbs and body. An elephant which possesses this physical development should be equal in the points of character that are neces- sary to a highly trained animal. ‘When ordered to kneel, it should obey instantly, and remain patiently upon the ground until permitted to rise from this uneasy posture. In reality the elephant does not actually kneel upon its fore knees, but only upon those of its hind legs, while it pushes its fore legs forward and rests its tusks upon the ground. This is a most unnatural position, and is exceedingly irksome. Some elephants are very impa- tient, and they will rise suddenly without orders while the ladder is placed against their side for mounting. Upon one occasion a badly trained animal jumped up so suddenly that Lady Baker, who had already mounted, was thrown off on one side, while I, who was just on top of the ladder, was thrown down violently upon the other. A badly tutored elephant is exceedingly dangerous, as such vagaries are upon so large a scale that a fall is serious, especially should the ground be stony. ‘« A calm and placid nature, free from all timidity, is essential. Ele- phants are apt to take sudden fright at peculiar sounds and sights. In traveling through a jungle path it is impossible to foretell what animals may be encountered on the route. Some elephants will turn suddenly round and bolt, upon the unexpected crash of a wild animal startled in the forest. The scent, or still worse the roar, of a bear within fifty yards of the road will scare some elephants to an extent that will PLATE VI. ELEPHANTS, DEFYING TIGER 1891.] Recent Literature. 263 make them most difficult of control. The danger may be imagined should an elephant absolutely run away with his rider in a dense forest ; if the unfortunate person should be in a howdah, he would probably be swept off and killed by the intervening branches, or torn to shreds by the tangled thorns, many of which are armed with steel-like hooks. ‘* It is impossible to train all elephants alike, and very few can be rendered thoroughly trustworthy ; the character must be born in them if they are to approach perfection. ‘t Our present perfect example should be quite impassive, and should take no apparent notice of anything, but obey his mahout with the regularity of a machine. No noise should disturb the nerves, no sight terrify, no attack for one moment shake the courage ; even the crack- ling of fire should be unheeded, although the sound of high grass blazing and exploding before the advancing line of fire tries the nerves of elephants more than any other danger. ‘“ An elephant should march with an easy swinging pace at the rate of five miles an hour, or even six miles within that time upon a good flat road. As a rule, the females have an easier pace than the large males. When the order to stop is given, instead of hesitating, the ele- phant should instantly obey, remaining rigidly still without swinging the head or flapping the ears, which is its annoying and inveterate habit. The well-trained animal should then move backward or for- ward, either one or several paces, at a sign from the mahout, and then at once become as rigid as a rock. : “Should the elephant be near a tiger, it will generally know the posi- tion of the enemy by its keen sense of smell. If the tiger should sud- denly charge from some dense covert with the usual short loud but roar, the elephant ought to remain absolutely still to receive the onset, and to permit a steady aim from the person in the howdah. This is a very rare qualification, but most necessary in a good shikar elephant. Some tuskers will attack the tiger, which is nearly as bad a fault as running in the opposite direction ; but the generality, even if tolerably steady, will swing suddenly upon one side, and thus interrupt the steadiness of the aim. : “ The elephant should never exercise its own will, but ought to wait in all cases for the instructions of the mahout, and then obey imme- described might be worth in India about £ 1 but there may be some great native sportsmen that amount for such an example of perfection,—which would combine 264 The American Naturalist. [March, the beauty required for a state elephant with the high character of a shikar animal.’’ The character of the tiger (Uncia tigris) is illustrated in following extract : “I had a practical ERS of this shortly after the departure of Suchi Khan, when I pushed on to Rohumari and met Mr. G. P. San- derson, April 1st, 1885. He had brought with him the entire force of elephants from the Garo Hills, the season for capturing wild elephants having just expired. Many of his men were suffering from fever, and he himself evidently had the poison of malaria in his system. “ A bullock had been tied up the preceding: evening within three- quarters of a mile from our camp, and on the morning of April rst this was reported to have been killed. We accordingly sallied out, and in a few minutes we found the remains, above which the vultures were soaring in large numbers. The high grass had been partially burnt, and large patches remained at irregular distances where the fire had not penetrated or where the herbage had been too green to ignite; however, all was as dry as tinder at this season, and having formed the elephants in line, I took up a position with my elephant about three hundred yards ahead. “ The elephants came on in excellent formation, as Mr. Sanderson was himself with them in command. Presently I saw a long tail thrown up from among the yellow grass, and quickly after I distinguished a leopard moving rapidly along in my direction. For a few minutes I lost sight of it, but I felt sure it had not turned to the right or left, and, as a clump of more than ordinary thick grass stood before me, I concluded that the animal had probably sought concealment in such impervious covert. “ When the elephants at length approached, I begged that half a dozen might just march through the patch within a few yards of my position. I was riding an elephant called Rosamund, which was cer- tainly an improvement upon my former mount. ‘Hardly had the line entered the patch of grass when, with a short, angry roar, a leopard sprang forward, and passed me at full speed within twenty-five yards, and immediately turned a somersault like a rabbit, with a charge of 16 S. S. G, from the No. 12 fired into its shoulders. “ This was very rapidly accomplished, as our camp was within view, certainly not more than a mile distant. ‘“ We placed the leopard upon a pad elephant, and sent it home ; while we once more extended the line, and as usual I took up a poms 1891.] Recent Literature. 265 tion some hundred yards in advance, in a spot that was tolerably clear from high i « Almost the same circumstance was repeated. Isaw another leopard advancing before the line, and pushing my elephant forward to a point that I considered would intercept it, I distinctly saw it enter a tangled mass of herbage hardly large enough to shelter a calf; there it disap- peared from view. “ The line of elephants arrived, and no one was aware that another leopard had been moved. I pointed out the small clump of grass, and ordered an elephant to walk through it. In an instant a leopard bolted, and immediately rolled over like its comrade ; but as I had to wait until it cleared the line of elephants before I fired, it was about thirty-five yards distant, and although it fell to the shot, it partially recovered, and limped slowly forward with one broken leg, being ter- ribly wounded in other places. It only went about forty paces, and then lay down to die. One of the mahouts dismounted from his ele- phant, and struck it with an axe upon the head. The leopard was dis- patched to camp, and we proceeded to beat fresh ground, as no tiger had been here, but evidently the two leopards had killed the bullock oa preceding night, and nothing more remained. ‘* Rosamund had stood very steadily, but she was very rough to ride, and the howdah swung about like a boat in a choppy sea. ** A couple of hours were passed in marching through every place that seemed likely to invite a tiger ; but we moved nothing but a great number of wild pigs. A few of these I shot for the Garo natives who accompanied us. At length we observed in the distance the waving, green, feathery appearance of tamarisk, and as the sun was intensely hot, we considered that a tiger would assuredly select such cool shade in preference to the glaring yellow of withered grass. At all times during the hot season a dense bed of young tamarisk is a certain find for a tiger, should such an animal exist in the neighborhood. The density of the foliage keeps the ground cool, as the sun’s rays never penetrate, The tiger, being a nocturnal animal, dislikes extreme heat ; therefore it invariably seeks the densest shade, and is especially fond, during the hottest weather, of lying upon ground that has previously been wet, and is still slightly damp. It is in such places that the tamarisk grows most luxuriantly. “We were now marching through a long strip of this character, which had at one time formed a channel. On either side the tamarisk strip was enormously high and dense grass. Suddenly an elephant sounded the kettle-drum note. This was quickly followed by several 266 The American Naturalist. [March, others, and a rush in the tamarisk frightened the line, as several ain- mals had evidently broken back. We could see nothing but the waving of the bush as the creatures dashed madly past. These were no doubt large pigs; but I felt certain, from the general demeanor of the elephants, that some more important game was not far distant. ‘‘ The advance continued slowly and steadily. Presently I saw the tamarisk’s feathery tops moving gently about fifteen paces ahead of the line. The elephants again trumpeted, and evinced great excite- ment. This continued at intervals, until we at length emerged from the tamarisk upon a flat space, where the tall grass had been burned while yet unripe, and, although killed by the fire and rendered trans- parent, it was a mass of black-and-yellow that would match well with a tiger’s color. We now extended the line in more open order,—to occupy the entire space of about two hundred yards front. Sanderson kept this position in the center of the line, while I took my stand in an open space about one hundred and fifty yards in advance, where an animal would of necessity cross should it be driven forward by the heat. The line advanced in good order, but the elephants were much dis- turbed, for they evidently scented danger. ‘“ They had not marched more than fifty or sixty yards before a tremendous succession of roars scattered them for a few moments, as a large tiger charged along the line, making splendid bounds, and showing his entire length, as he made demonstrations of attack upon several elephants in.quick rotation. It was a magnificent sight to see this grand animal, in the fullest strength and vigor, defy the line of advancing monsters, every one of which quailed before the energy of his attack, and the threatening power of his awe-inspiring roars. The sharp crack of two shots from Sanderson, whose elephant was thus challenged by the tiger, hardly interrupted the stirring scene; ut as the enemy rushed down the line, receiving the fire from Sander- son’s howdah, he did not appear to acknowledge the affront, and having effected his purpose of paralyzing the advance, he suddenly disappeared from view. “I was in hopes that he would break across the open which I com- manded, but there was no sign of movement in the high grass. The line of elephants again advanced slowly and cautiously. Suddenly, at a signal, they halted, and I observed Sanderson, whose elephant was a few yards in advance of the line, halt, and, standing up, take a deliberate aim in the grass in front. He fired. A tremendous roar was the response, and the tiger, bounding forward, appeared as though he would assuredly cross my path. Instead of this, after a rush of PLATE VIII. S. ~ SS S [5s had 2 P ~~ = Ss = RI Sa ~ R ? 1891.] Recent Literature. 267 about fifty or sixty yards, I saw the tall grass only gently moving, as the animal reduced its pace to the usual stealthy walk. The grass ceased moving in a spot within thirty paces, and exactly opposite my position. I marked a bush upon which were a few green shoots that had sprouted since the fire had scorched the grass. I was certain that the tiger had halted exactly beneath that mark. My mahout drove the elephant slowly and carefully forward, and I was standing ready for the expected shot, keeping my eyes well open for an expected charge. Sanderson was closing in upon the same point from his position, Presently, when within a few feet of the green bush, I distinguished a portion of the tiger ; but I could not determine whether it. was the shoulder or the hind-quarter. Driving the elephant steadily forward, with the rifle to my shoulder, I at length obtained a complete view. The tiger was lying dead ! ‘« Sanderson’s last shot had hit it exactly behind the shoulder ; but the first right and left had missed when the tiger charged down the line, exemplifying the difficulty of shooting accurately with an elephant moving in high excitement. ‘¢ We now loaded an elephant with this grand beast, and started it off to camp, where Lady Baker had already received two leopards. We had done pretty well for the first of April; but after this last shot our luck for the day was ended.”’ The black African rhinoceros (Aselodus bicornis) receives consider- able attention, and Sir Samuel’s testimony as to its blind ferocity is confirmatory of all that previous authors. have told us about it. Of the white rhinoceros (A‘e/odus simus) an interesting account is given. From this we extract the history of the adventure of Oswell, taken from the writings of that African hunter of a previous generation : Mr. Oswell was one of the early Nimrods in South Africa, at the same time that the renowned Roualeyn Gordon Cumming was paving the way for fresh adventures. There never was a better sportsman or more active follower of the chase than Oswell. He had gone to Africa for the love of hunting and adventure, at a time when. the greater portion was unbroken ground. He was the first. to bring Livingstone into notice when he was an unknown missionary, and Oswell and Murray took him with them when they discovered the Lake N’gamé. He had a favorite double-barreled gun made by Purdy. This was a smooth-bore, No. 1o, specially constructed for ball. Al- though a. smooth-bore, it was sighted like a rifle, with back-sights. The gun weighed. ten pounds. The owner most. kindly lent me this useful weapon when I first went to Africa in 1861, therefore I can 268 The American Naturalist. [March, attest its value, and the hard work that it had accomplished. A portion of the walnut stock had been completely worn away to s depth of an inch by the tearing friction of the wait-a-bit tho when carrying the gun across the saddle in chase at full speed pee the hooked-thorn bushes. The stock had the appearance of having been gnawed by rats, « At the time of Oswell’s visit the country was alive with wild ani- mals, all of which have long since disappeared before the advance of colonial enterprise and the sporting energy of settlers. There was 4 particular locality that was so infested with rhinoceroses that Oswell had grown tired of killing them, and he passed them unnoticed, unless he met some specimen with an exceptional horn. He was riding a favorite horse, which had been his constant companion in countless shooting incidents, and he happened to remark a large white rhinoceros standing in open ground alone. This animal possessed a horn of unusual length, which made the owner worthy of attention. «‘ Oswell immediately rode towards it. The animal took no notice of his approach until he arrived within about one hundred yards. The Rinoceros simus (white species) is not considered dangerous, there- fore he had approached without the slightest caution or hesitation. I forget whether he fired; but I well remember that the beast calmly confronted the horse, and slowly but determinedly, with measured space, advanced directly towards the rider. Like an object in a disturbed dream, this huge creature came on, step by step, leisurely but surely, never hesitating or halting, but with eyes fixed upon the attacking party. Firing at the forehead being useless, Oswell endeavored to move either to the left or right, to obtain a shoulder shot ; but the horse, that was accustomed to a hundred contests with wild animals, was suddenly mesmerized and petrified with horror. The quiet and spectre-like advance of the rhinoceros had paralyzed and rooted it to e ground. Trembling all over, its limbs refused to move. The spur and whip were unavailing. The horse. felt that it was doomed. This horrible position endured until the rhinoceros was within only 4 few paces. It then made a dash forward. ‘ Oswell describes his first sensations, upon returning consciousness, nearly as follows: He found himself upon a horse. The reins were not in his hands. A man was walking in front, leading the animal by the reins, which had been pulled over its head. There were natives upon either side, apparently holding him upon the saddle. A dreamy feeling, and a misty, indistinct view of the situation, was sufficient to assure him that something must have happened. He felt certain that 1891.] Recent Literature. 269 he must be hurt; but he had no pain. He began to feel himself with his hands, and he felt something wet and soft upon one thigh. ‘ The fact was, that the long horn of the rhinoceros had passed through his thigh. It not only had passed through his thigh, but through the saddle flap, then completely through the horse, and was stopped by the flap upon the other side. The horse and rider to- gether were thrown into the air, and the inversion was so complete that one of Oswell’s wounds—a cut upon the head—was occasioned by as stirrup-iron, which proved the inverted position. e horse was, of course, killed upon the spot, and the Caffres came to their master’s assistance, and placed him upon his spare horse, upon which they held him until they reached the camp. This wound kept the great hunter prostrate for months. It is many years since Oswell told me this story, but I think I have narrated it exactly. “It must be remembered that this rhinoceros belonged to the so- called harmless species. This incident is sufficient to exhibit the utter fallacy of a belief that any kind of an animal is ‘ invariably harmless.’ We find that many beasts which are accredited with bad characters conduct themselves occasionally as though abject cowards. In the same manner, those which are considered timid may, when least expected, exhibit great ferocity.” The chapter on wild-boar hunting is interesting, and that on the cape buffalo (Bos caffer) is especially full of adventure. The habits of the Sambur deer (Cervus aristotelis) of India are described with much vividness. Our own hunters will read with interest the adventures of the author in the Big Horn Mountains shooting wapiti (Cervus cana- densis) and bison (Bos americanus). Altogether we have not had for a long time such a treat as the reading of this book. We give two of the twenty-nine plates with which the book is illustrated. The Tenth Annual Report of the State Mineralogist of California! is a well-illustrated volume, containing a number of general articles descriptive of geological phenomena observed in California during the past year, as well as detailed accounts of the geology of the fifty-three counties into which the state is divided, special reports upon the geology of various mining districts, and upon methods of treating ores. Asis to be expected, a large portion of the report is occupied with a discussion of gold mining in its various phases. There is, how- 1 California State Mining Bureau, William Ireland, Jr., State Mineralogist; Tenth Annual Report of State Mineralogist for year ending December 1, 1890; Sacramento State Office, 1890. Pp. 983, 42 Figs., 7 Pls. and Maps. 270 The American Naturalist. [March, ever, in it also much of interest to the general geologist, especially in the essays upon the individual counties, although even in these the greatest emphasis is placed on the geological features of the mines situated within their borders. To the geologist the most valuable portions of the book are the few handsome maps of counties and of mining districts accompanying it, and the mineralogical and geologi- cal map of the state, on a scale of twelve inches to the mile. It is proposed in the near future to issue this map by counties on a larger scale. It is unfortunate that California has no geological survey to cooperate with its mineralogical survey in making known to the scien- tific world the interesting features of its geology hinted at in the report. The state mineralogist feels the need of such a survey, and makes known his desire for it in the opening pages of the volume before us. If a geological survey is instituted, it is to be hoped that its work will be as successful as that of the mineralogical survey.— Mexicology ! in our country is a province of archzologic research ot but very recent birth. It was inaugurated about 1875 by Raming, and since cultivated, with more or less success, by specialists like Brinton, Bandelier, Thomas, and Valentini. In the person of r. Ed. Seler a new ally and collaborating force appears to have joined the ranks of the students enumerated. He comes well prepared for his task. He has traveled extensively in Mexico, and commands the Spanish, Nahuatl, and Maya languages to a high degree. He is in intimate connection with the museums of both America and Europe, and has taken wise care in working only in sight and with the aid of complete literary material,—a luxury which each true scholar longs for, but is rarely able to indulge in. Besides, Dr. Seler possesses that ‘‘sense of form’’ which is so necessary to the true recognition of all the objects drawn, painted, or sculptured, with and which the student of this special branch preéminently has to deal. It was owing to the lack of this artistic sense that some of his prede- cessors have been lured into the grotesque belief that the ancient Mexi- 2 Dr. Ed. Seler (Berlin, Kaiser Wilhelm-Strasse, No. 3): (1) “ Das Tonalamatl der Aubin’ schen Samm und die verwandten Kalenderbucher ; " 217 pages, with 173 printed illustrations, in Compts Rendus du Congrès International des Américanistes, ze session, Berlin, 1888. (2) Id., “ Alt-mexicanische die Wurfbretter ; 12 pages, wi 1 colored and 32 printed illustrations ; in Internationales Archiv fur Ethnographie, Band II., Berlin. 1890. (3) Id.,"' Alt-Mexikanische Studien.” (a) “ Ein Kapite! ans dem gun.” i bei W, Speeman, Sane Same MaRS Ceti (Ae oa hE E ERROR gy Boi oe oR NE a 1891.] Recent Literature. 271 can and Maya records were susceptible of phonetic interpretation. Although, when undertaking to give a full description of Aubin’s Tonalamatl (the ritual calendar of the pre-Mexicans), it was not Dr. Seler’s object to uproot the aforesaid erroneous theory, yet he did so incidentally. It is a pleasure to see how, under his sagacious guidance, all those curious forms and objects which, influenced by Egyptology, certain students believed to represent letters, syllables, words, and sentences, more or less dissolve, and group together into such objects and paraphernalia as those dress-loving people, men and women, liked to don, to wear, to carry, when going to war or to the temple, or which were in use in their humble households as well as in the sump- tuously decorated chambers of their gods and goddesses. We hail the appearance of Dr. Seler’s Tonalamatl as a sign and promise of still more work in this direction. Landa’s Alphabet at last has become a dead letter. It has not shown from its first publication any trustworthy elements for interpretation, nor had it any claims to be advertised as a new Rosetta Stone No. 2, ‘* Alt-mexicanische Wurfbretter’’ treats of the Mexican ‘*amiento,’’ a sliding apparatus, from which darts and javelins were hurled. This instrument was known to the Eskimos, the Polynesians, and various African tribes, but has been discarded by these peoples, as it had at the time of the Conquest by the Mexicans, according to Dr. Seler’s opinion, at least for the purposes of war. In this mono- graph the author again gives proof of his singular power of identifica- tion, finding the picture for the ‘‘amiento”’ in the illustrations embodied in the so-called Mexican Codices, which picture hitherto ‘had been left unrecognized. From thirty diagrams, represented and discussed on the pages of the pamphlet, we learn its various shapes and contrivances, and what is still more interesting, how these various specimens were grasped for action, and held with hand and varying position of the fingers. The correctness of Dr. Seler’s recognition is warranted by comparison of the pictured specimens with six real ones recently found in Mexico, and of which three colored illustrations are given. It may here be in place to mention that Christopher Columbus seems to have been the first European to become acquainted with the ‘‘ amiento,’’ on his fourth voyage on the eastern shores of Chiriqui. He calls it ‘‘ ballista.”’ From the ‘‘ amiento,’’ undoubtedly, by the later addition of the bow, the cross-bow has been evolved. In No. 3 a chapter of a still unpublished -work from the pen of Father Sahagua (1570) has been extracted in its original Nahuatl lan- guage, with the corresponding Spanish text and illustrations, and an Am. Nat.—March.—6. ” 272 The American Naturalist. | [March, < : additional ample discussion of it by Dr. Seler. Fragments only of the padre’s great historical work have been known until now, these fragments, however, being so full of valuable, suggestive material to every student of Mexican antiquities that the apparent loss of the whole bulk of the work was universally deplored. It was known from the preserved preface that the padre had taken care to gather from the mouths of competent natives all that was still alive in their mem- ory of the traditional history of their ancestors, of their former social, hierarchic, and political institutions, and that the text of this collec- ; tive work had been written in the best language of their own, so as to preserve not only the material itself, but this to be also in the clothing of their technical vocabulary and syntactic phraseology. This work has recently been discovered, and in three different copies. One of these is preserved in the Biblioteca Laurentiana of Florence, patie: the combined Aztec-Spanish text; the two others in the Bi teca del Palario and the Biblioteca de la Academia de la ie toria, both of them in Madrid, give only the Aztec text. As it appears the printing of the Laurentiana copy has been undertaken at the expense of the Mexican government, it is to be feared that it will be long ere the whole work, embracing twelve volumes, will be in the hands of the students. To quote Dr, Seler’s own words: ‘‘ The pub- lication of Father Sahagua’s work would not only be an immense gain to linguistics and Mexican archeology proper, but also to the still unwritten history of the development of this race, of its degree of intellect, and its peculiar notions and conceptions.” ‘The paragraphs 5-32, edited and commented by Dr. Seler, are only a ‘‘ minimal frag- : ment’’ of the whole, and were selected on account of the richness a of the costumes and attributes exhibited in the illustrations of the sev- vi eral deities in discussion. a In an appendix to the previous pamphlet (pages 183-188) a discus- | sion is given on twenty-three Zapotecan figure-vessels, with cuts. In following up the detailed analysis of the characteristic and sumptuous head-dresses that adorn the figure-heads of the aforesaid vessels, we cannot help noticing that what is said of them does not always quite up to that which we are taught to see. Apart from some splendia identifications which the author’s trained eye reveals, and which the student will readily accept, he will miss a comprehensive statement of each of the single components, of their material, their interlacing, their gradual growth, and the final outcome of that enor- mous ‘ toupée,’”’ of which nothing like it is found in the whole ancient and modern history of dress and costume. We are fully aware $ s E 1891.] Geography and Travels. ` 273 it is a problem of no little difficulty for both the ‘‘ perruquier ” and the antiquary. But, on the other hand, if it is to be approached at all, we do not see that its solution will be successfully attained by a refuge to or an introduction of such similies as are taken from Aztec paintings, The two nations differ essentially in their mode of delinea- tion, and still more in that of moulding, carving, and sculpturing. Therefore, in our conception, the true similes for the interpretation of the Zapotecan head-dresses ought to be sought by Dr. Seler in the cognati tablets, katanes or steles of Palenque and Copan,— General Notes. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. The Sierra Madre Expedition.—News has been received from the scientific expedition which Dr. Carl I.umholtz is now conducting in the wilds of the Sierra Madre and Northern Mexico. The expedition started from Bisbee, Arizona, in the early part of September, and, entering Mexico, traveled southward through the State of Sonora, with the intention of crossing the Sierra in the direc- tion of Yanos and Casas Grandes, Before entering the mountain region, however, the explorers separated for a time, and whilst Dr. Lumbholtz, with the main body, pursued his intended route, a detach- ment under Dr. Libbey, of Princeton, made an excursion in a more westerly direction, covering some 300 miles of territory. From Granados the ascent began, and continued steadily until, on December 2d, the western slopes of the Sierra Madre were reached at Nacory, when a northeasterly direction was taken, Three mountain ranges had to be scaled, the highest some 9,000 feet _in height, and the magnificence of the scenery made a strong impres- sion upon the minds of the travelers, who took hundreds of photo- graphs. _ The weather was very cold. There was snow on the mountain tops, and men and beasts suffered severely in many ways. One man, a guide, whose health was already impaired, succumbed under the strain, and his death was a serious loss to the explorers, as he knew of ruined pueblos to which he had pledged himself to lead them. Several 274 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, beasts also perished. After a month of severe exertion the party reached the eastern slope of the Sierra, near Pacheco, and there took a well-earned rest. The journey had proved a most interesting one from a scientific standpoint. Many specimens of birds and plants were collected, as well as some important fossils. Cave and cliff dwellings were also met with, some of these in perfect condition and showing signs of having been inhabited by men who had reached a comparatively high stage of culture. In one stairs were found. In the largest of these caves remains of a whole village were discovered, and in front of it stood a huge ‘‘olla’’ (z e., Mexican water jar), made of clay mixed with straw and very solid, the pottery being eight inches thick. This olla was twelve feet in height and twelve feet in diameter, and when first caught sight of presented the appearance of a huge balloon. In one of the cliff dwellings were found some human remains—a complete skeleton, which had under- gone some process of mummification. The plateau on which the party was encamped when last heard from is near Pacheco, a few days’ march from Casas Grandes. The neigh- boring country is dotted over with many large mounds, some of which it was the intention of Dr. Lumholtz to open. Altogether, the expe dition promises well, and there is no doubt that Dr. Lumholtz will bring back much valuable information and make many important additions to our knowledge of the archaeology and the natural history of Northern Mexico, past and present. iter Geology and Paleontology. 275 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. The Cuyahoga Shales.—C. L. Herrick has published a paper in which he summarizes his studies of the Cuyahoga shale and the Ohio Waverly as follows: 1. The Berea grit is the natural floor of the series, the Bedford shale having its faunal relations decidedly with the shales of the Devo- nian below. ža ihe Bediord forms a striking exemplification of the doctrine of colonies, and that portion lying to the sogthwest, beyond the western limits of the Erie, retained a fauna derive from the Hamilton long after this fauna had perished to the eastward. 3. The Cuyahoga shales (including the whole series above the Berea so far as present in the Cuyahoga valley) is divisible into three minor sections, the uppermost of which is characterized by a vast abundance of fossils, which are specially well preserved in calcareous or ferruginous concretions, and is a constant and almost unvarying horizon, extending from Lake Erie to the Ohio River. The Cuyahoga proper is never more than 200 feet thick, and forms a transition zone, with a ‘prevailing Devonian habitus. 4. The upper portion of the Waverly is quite distinct from what precedes in fauna, and contains an undoubtedly Lower Carboniferous assemblage. 5- None of the larger divisions of the Carboniferous of the west, are entirely unrepresented in Ohio. 6. The transition is nevertheless so gradual that we have an instruc- tive illustration of the evolution of one age from the preceding, with neither catastrophy nor annihilation. 7- There is an opportunity to trace the ERPE variations in a species as distributed over a great area, and to obsẹrve the evolution of new types therefrom. 8. The entire thickness of the Waverly is not far from 700 feet, though the highest consecutive section measures only 670 feet. 9. The Cuyahoga fauna bears an unmistakable resemblance to the so-called Subcarboniferous of Belgium, especially that ot Etage I., the limestone of Fornari The Pilot Knob of Texas.—Robt. T. Hill has made a study of Pilot Knob in the vicinity of Austin, Texas, and has reached the fol- lowing conclusions; “From its structure it is shown that Pilot Knob is the neck of an 276 _ The American Naturalist. [March, ancient volcano which rose out of and deposited its débris in the deep water of the Upper Cretaceous sea (probably Niobrara sub-epoch), From its isolated position, remote from any contemporaneous shore- line, it must have been an island eruption. Pilot Knob probably belongs to a great chain of igneous localities, eruptive and basaltic, extending from the mountains of Northern Mexico to the Ouachita system of Arkansas, both of which regions abound in related features, The great Balcones system of N. 20° E. faults of Central Texas are later than Upper Cretaceous. In late Cretaceous and Tertiary times Pilot Knob was either totally submerged or greatly denuded.” (Am. Geol., Nov., 1890. $ The Sierra Nevada of Central California.—During the past season G. F. Becker has studied the structure of the Sierra Nevada _ Mts. in the neighborhood of the Stanislaus and Truckee Rivers, with the following results : i The whole area in this region has been glaciated up to the sum- mits of passes. There are six systems of fissures. The fissures are fault planes. The disturbances which caused the fissures happened since the close of the Miocene. The faults rarely exceed three inches, A careful study of the vertical fissures leads to the hypothesis of a horizontal thrust acting on a south-southwest to north-northeast line. r. Becker advances arguments to show that no important tilting of this portion of the Sierra has taken place at or since the post-Miocene disturbances. The paper closes with the assertion that the theory that the earth is a solid highly viscous mass, is in all respects compatible with the observations, fully explaining every one of the six fissure systems, the faults observed, and the enormous resistance to tilting which the range has displayed. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IL., pp- 49-74). The Origin of the Great Lakes.—In discussing the origin of the basins of the great lakes of America, J. W. Spencer concludes that the valleys of Lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan are the result of erosion of the land surfaces by the ancient St. Lawrence River and its tributaries during a long period of. continental elevation, and that meteoric agencies had broadened the valleys. This condition was at its maximum just before the Plistocene period. The closing of portions of the old Laurentian valley into water-basins occurred during and at the close of the Plistocene period, owing, in part, to Drift filling some portions of the original valley, but more especially to different warpings of the earth’s crust. (Quart. Geol, Soc., Nov., 1890.) = 1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 277 Age of the Glacial Period.—In discussing the cause of the Glacial period, Mr, Warren Upham discards the astronomic theory, since it seems wholly untenable in view of the geologic evidences that not many thousand of years have passed since the departure of the _ ice-sheets. The measurements of the gorge and Falls of St. Anthony, the surveys of Niagara Falls, the rates of wave-cutting along the sides of Lake Michigan, the rates of filling of kettle-holes, and the rate of deposition in the Connecticut valley at Northampton, Mass., all indicate that the time since the Glacial period cannot exceed 10,000 years. Mr, Upham cites evidence in proof of the theory that the cause of the Glacial period was great’ uplifts of the glaciated areas, probably in conjunction with important changes in the course and volume of the warm ocean currents. (Am. Geol., December, 1890. ) Geological News.—General.—In a recent paper Mr. E. W. Claypole replies to the four leading arguments for the permanence of the ocean abysses and the continental masses. While he does not advo- cate the extreme views of Forbes, he gives many good reasons for not adopting the permanerce theory in its entirety (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., : Vol. II., p. 10). Contrary to the general belief that coral reefs are not formed in the western waters of the Gulf of Mexico, Prof. Heilprin and Frank C. Bahn found thirteen species of corals in the neighborhood of Vera Cruz. There are a number of reefs consisting of detached islands extending eastward from the coast rearly six miles. In some cases the greatest development of coral growth is on the lee or shore side. They belong to the same category as the Florida reefs and banks (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Phila., 1890, p. 303). In discussing the phosphates of Redonda, a volcanic island in the Caribbean sea, Prof. - H. Hitchcock maintains that the enormous quantity of mineral ftdudes the possibility of its having been derived from the droppings of birds, and suggests that it may have come up from below as a phos- phuret, which has since changed its character through oxidation and hydration (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., p. 6). According to D’Invilliers, the output of guano from the Island of Nevassa is between sixty and seventy-five tons per day. There are two varieties, the gray and the red ; the former is the more valuable, since it contains a less percentage of sesquioxide of iron and alumina (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IL, pp. 75-84). , Paleozoic.—Mr. A. Smith Woodward considers Ctenodus inter- 7uptus the Lower Carboniferous representative of the well-known C. cristatus (Rept. Yorkshire Philos, Soc., 1889). = According to 278 The American Naturatst. [March, H. S. Williams, the Pennine Range of North England affords a typical section upon which the Carboniferous system was founded ; and as t term Carboniferous is a misnomer geologically, since coal-bearing rocks are not confined to the system generally so-called, and as the name does not indicate the geographic position of the typical section, he believes that the adoption of the name Pennian System may be of advantage (Bull. Geol. Mag., Vol. IL, p. 16). Mesozoic.—The dentition and dorsal fin-spines of a shark (A/ybodus delabechei), from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire, have been described by A. Smith Woodward. ‘This specimen is of special interest since it gives the first information as to the number and proportions of the dental series in the jaw of the typical members of the genus to which it belongs (Yorkshire Philos. Soc., 1888). Some Triassic plants from New Mexico have been described by Wm. H. Fontaine and F. H. Knowlton. They include Zguisetum abiquiense, E. knowltontt, Zamites powellii (?), Z. occidentalis (?), Chetrolepis munsterit, Palissya braunii (?), P. cone (2), Cycadites (?), and Ctenophyllum (?). They were found in the shale of a copper mine, and many of the specimens were not well enough preserved to permit of a positive identification. In the sandstone above the shale was found Araucarioxylon arizonicum Knowlton (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIII., pp. 281-285, Pl. XXII- Xxvi.)——A. Smith Woodward has described a new Pycnodont fish from the English Portlandian bed, and named it Mesodon damonit, in memory of one of the most successful explorers of that formation (Geol Mag., Decade HL, Vol. VIL, No. 310, p. 158, April, 1890).—— A. Smith Woodward announces the discovery of a Jurassic fish fauna in the Hawksbury beds of New South Wales (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Nov., 1890). In a recent paper A. Smith Woodward summarizes the skeletal anatomy of the genera Centrolepis and Oxygnathus, and refers two new fishes from the Lower Lias to Cocolepis and Undina respec- tively, under the names C. Hassicus and M. barroviensis (Ann. and Mag. Wat. Hist., Jane, 1890).——A. Smith Woodward has recently elucidated some new points in the skeletal anatomy of the genus Eurycormus. This genus has been placed in the same great group as the existing Amia, and the new gree ss facts tend to confirm the nea 11; Ichthyodorulite, 1 ; Dipnoi, 1; Ganoidei, 18 (Proc. Geol. Ass), Vol. KL, No. 6). 1891.] Zoology. 279 Cenozoic.—A unique siluroid fish from the London clay of Sheppey has been figured and described by A. Smith Woodward. From the character of the fossil its precise affinities cannot be determined, but it closely approaches the living Auchenoglanis of the African rivers. KGnig’s name of Bucklandium diluvii has been retained (Proc. London Zool. Soc., 1889).——Mr. L. C. Hicks has been studying the lagoons of Custer county, Nebraska, and reaches the conclusion that they are the result of sedimentation upon a surface previously shaped by the action of the winds. In other words, the lagoon type is a combination of the sedimentary and zxolian types of conformation (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., p. 25).——In a discussion of the Glacial epoch, F. Leveret presents a line of evidence in support of the theory of two distinct epochs. This evidence is based upon the character of the buried soil and leached till of ten moraines in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. The amount of oxidation and leaching would require the lapse of a long interval of time; that is, an epoch of deglaciation in the midst of the Glacial period (Proc. Boston Soc, Nat. > Hist., Vol. XXIV., 1889). According to L. C. Johnston, the flood of muddy waters from the Nita crevasse in the Mississ®pi River has seriously affected the marine life in the Mississippi Sound. Oyster plantings have been destroyed, and many valuable food fishes have been driven out (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., p. 20). t ZOOLOGY. Function of Gemmiform Pedicellariæ of Echinoids.: — an angle that they become almost tangential to the test. In thus removing its spines the urchin unmasks its gemmiform pedicellariæ, which are then stretched towards the arms of the starfish with the jaws ! Comptes Rendus, CXI., p. 62, 1890. Abstract from Jour. Roy. Micros. Socy., Oct., ‘ 1890, P. 611, j Pa ogo : The American Naturalist. [March, wildly open. The starfish continues its attack, but as soon as one of the pedicellariæ touches an ambulacral tube it immediately bites it; we may suppose that the pain produced is considerable, for the arm of the starfish is actively withdrawn, but it always carries with it the offending pedicellaria fixed in the wound. In some cases the first bites are sufficient to drive off the starfish, but in others it prolongs the attack, and then it is very interesting to see the urchin unmask its pedicellariæ on the points attacked, and, so to speak, follow the movements of the enemy by showing its teeth. In a first fight the victory is always with the urchin, and the starfish retires - covered with wounds. But, as each pedicellaria serves only once for the defense of the urchin, it is gradually deprived of its organs for this purpose. If an urchin is put with several starfishes and abandoned to its fate it succumbs at last. The moment an Echinoid is warned by its peripheral nervous system of the danger which threatens it, it moves its spines in a way which has nothing in common with the ordinary movements of these organs, and which has no other object than to unmask its gemmiform pedicellariz. It is of interest to observe that this movement is exactly the opposite of that which is produced when the surface of the test is wounded by, for example, the point of a needle; in that case the spines and pedicellariz are inclined towards the wounded part. Hekaterobranchus is the name given by Miss F. Buchanan ? to a Spionid worm discovered at the mouth of the Thames; but in a post- script she thinks it may belong to Webster’s genus Streblospio. The characters are a single pair of dorsal branchiz situated on the first seg- ment; cephalic tentacles, not grooved but ciliated all over; prostom- ium well developed ; four eyes ; first segment prolonged below to form a collar; pharynx evertible and richly ciliated ; a single pair of thoracic nephridia, opening on second segment, reaching back to sixth segment, and thence bending forward again, The Anatomy of Scutigera.—Curt Herbst has discovered some interesting facts regarding this’ Myriapod. In his Dissertation’ he describes five systems of glands in the head where he only expected to find the salivary gland described by Dufone. The first is a pair of tubular glands opening at the base of the first maxille. The sec pair belong principally to the segment of the second maxilla and open — in a deep pit on the side of the head. The third system belongs tO the 2? Quarterly Jour: Micros. Sci., XXXII., p. 175, 1890. 3 Anatomi tersuct 4 vittoria (TAT TOs PS g tigera Coleoptrata. Jena, 1890. 1891.] Zoology. 281 same segment and has its openings at the base of the second maxille. The fourth and fifth systems are very similar in structure, but differ in the position of their ducts. The fourth opens just behind the second system, the fifth goes through the body wall immediately behind the commissure uniting the dorsal and supraneural vessels. The histology and structure of these systems are detailed. Regarding the functions of these glands Herbst has but little to offer. He thinks that some of them (possibly System III.) may act as spinning glands; while others may play a part in preparing food material. A discussion of the homology of these glands with the head glands of Hexapods and the coxal glands of other Arthropods follows, but our knowledge of these is not sufficient to lead to sure results, though the author considers them as homologous with the coxal glands. The circulatory apparatus is also described, the most interesting features pointed out being the existence of a cardiac nerve, arising probably from the sympathetic ; and the comparison of the supraneural vessel and the arteries on either side of the cesophagus with the similar + organs in the Annelids. The Balancers of Diptera.—Ernst Weinland presents a long and detailed account * of his studies of the balancers or halteres in twenty genera of flies. The position, color, hairs, relations, the chitinous skeleton, internal structure, canals, terminal vescicle, nerves and nerve- end structures are’ described at great length and illustrated by five plates. The results may be summarized ina few words. The balancers are to be regarded as extremely modified wings with internal canals corresponding to those in the ‘‘ veins’’ or ‘¢nervures’’ of the true wings. They have not yet lost their powers of motion, a hinge remain- ing at the base, and in accordance with their position the direction of the flight of the fly is changed. The sense organs with which they are clothed must be regarded as organs of equilibrium. Nerves of Tortoise Shell.—J. B. Haycraft has noticed the _Sensitiveness of the carapace of the land tortoise (Zestudo greca) of Southern Europe. He finds that nerve-fibres penetrate the osseous portion of the carapace and enter a connective-tissue layer immediately beneath the scutes. In this latter they lose their undulated character, and become covered with a dense sheath of tissue. With suitable prepa- 3 rations these nerves are seen to branch, and the ultimate fibres can be traced to the nuclei of the epidermal cells. Not all cells are thus innervated, nor were any nerves found within the shell itself. * Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zoologie, LI., p. 55, 1890. 282 The American Naturalist. [March, The Cannon-Bone of Ruminants.—The usually accepted view has been that the cannon-bone of the hind leg of the ruminants consists of the coalesced metatarsals three and four, and that the metatarsals two and five become lost during development. J. E. V, Boas now offers evidence > which goes far to show that in these forms we are to recognize besides the coalesced metatarsalia three and four the upper ends of metatarsalia two and five. His views are thus in corre- spondence with those arrived at by various authors in the fossil orms. EMBRYOLOGY.! Embryology of Limulus.—Professor J. S. Kingsley publishes a preliminary note on the ‘‘ Ontogeny of Limulus.’’ ? The segmentation nucleus undergoes several divisions before any signs of segmentation of the egg are seen at the surface. The resulting nuclei migrate towards the surface, and forty hours after impregnation the egg itself begins to cleave, so that the whole becomes separated into cells, with a nucleus in each segment, and a blastoderm forms on one side of the egg. Here the cells are smaller, forming a primitive cumulus, com- parable to that of spiders. A circular spot appears in the center of the cumulus, becomes triangular, elongates, and forms a shallow groove,—the blastopore. The mesoderm forms along its margins. Later six pairs of segmentally arranged sensory thickenings appear outside the legs. The first pair gives rise in the median ocelli, the second to a new sense organ, the third disappears, the fourth remains as the ‘dorsal organ,” the fifth gives rise to the paired compound eyes, the sixth is evanescent. All of these organs are connected by 4 longitudinal nerve. The facts obtained from the ontogeny point to 4 close relationship between Arachnids and Limulus. Embryology of Phalangium.—A preliminary note on the early stages of Phalangium is published by Victor Faussek.* The breaks up into a solid mass of cells, each filled with yolk, and each containing a nucleus. From the large superficial cells there separates by delamination small cells, while the resulting small cells form the blastoderm, which soon appears on one side of the egg. The targ! 5 Morph. Jahrbuch., XVI., p. 526, 1890. } Edited by Dr. T. H. Morgan, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 2 Zoologisches Anzeiger, No. 345, 1890. 3 Zdol. Anz., January, 1891, No. 353. 1891.] Embryology. 283 yolk-cells in the center of the egg have their nuclei undergo a process of fragmentation, increasing by direct development. The germ-cells (sexual cells) appear when there is but a single-layered blastoderm. few of the blastoderm cells, which later form the sexual cells, enlarge and form a group of cells which push beneath the surface. The epithelium of the midgut forms from entoderm cells. The nuclei of the yolk-cells form many small nuclei, surrounded by a quantity of plasma: lying between the yolk and mesoderm, and soon arrange themselves into the cylindrical epithelium of the midgut. The author points out the correspondence between the early stages of Phalangium and Limulus. The Embryology of a Scorpion:—Malcolm Laurie publishes a paper under the above title.‘ The earliest. stage observed had a small blastoderm at the surface of one end of the egg. This becomes several layered by a process resembling delamination. At a later stage there is asingle outer row of cells over one end of the egg, and a thick- ened mass of cells beneath, some of which are migrating into the yolk. The presence of a primitive groove is doubtful. At the posterior end of the blastoderm there is formed a mass of hypo- blast cells, and these may represent invaginated hypoblast. Later a layer of primitive hypoblast cells is to be found under the rest of the blastoderm, and seems to be simply ‘‘sp#¢’’ from the epiblast, Numerous cells migrate into the yolk. The mesoblast forms under the whole ventral plate from a multiplication of cells of the primitive hypoblast. The origin of the serous membrane and, the amnion is described in detail. Ccelomic spaces form in the mesoblast of the segments, and the thoracic appendages contaif portions of the ccelom. The coxal glands open at the base of the fifth appendages, and are at first a pair of simple tubes, opening exteriorly at one end and into the cœlom at the other. They seem to be homologous with nephridia. The lateral eyes are as Lankester and Bourne affirmed, monostichous. The central eyes arise by invagination. The stomodzum forms early ; the proctodæum much later as a solid plug of cells. The gill-books are appendages comparable to the abdominal appendages of Limulus. Development of the Fresh-Water Sponge.*® — Dr. . Otto Mass has studied the development from the egg of Spongilla. The first two segments are equal in size and structure, and similarly the 4, 8, and 16 segments, are all alike, giving similar reactions to staining reagents. * Quart. Jour. Micro. Sci., Vol. XXXI., Pt. II. * Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., Band so, Heft 4. 284 The American Naturalist. [March, There results a solid morula. Serial sections demonstrate that at one pole of the morula the cells sink inwards, while the peripheral cells grow over, enclosing a cavity within one end of the egg. this process is a process of growth of cells around one pole of the egg, or whether we have here a process between epibolic and embolic gastrulation, cannot be definitely decided. The cells soon begin to differentiate into tissues, and only the inner ones retain the yolk spherules. The outer layer becomes columnar ciliated ectoderm, Those cells lining the enclosed cavity become flattened at several places, and push out into passages ending in ciliated chambers. Later these latter form the inhalent passages. The remaining cells filling the egg contain yolk, and are the so-called mesoderm cells. Some of these form needles, each needle the product of a single cell, and by their growth push out the ectoderm before them. These changes have taken place while the larva was within the sponge tissues ; but it now becomes free and swims about with the pole containing the cavity directed forwards. The method of swimming described by Götte, with the pole containing the cavity directed upwards, is undoubtedly pathological. The larval life lasts about twelve hours, —never so long as twenty-four. The best observations on the method of fixation were made with the horizontal microscope. The larva fixes itself by the pole which was directed forwards in swimming,—that is, the end containing the gastric cavity. The cavity itself diminishes. The young sponge flattens to a crust. The high, cylindrical, ectodermal cells become more cubical, then flatten till their longest diameter is tangential to the surface. At first the cilia, one to each cell, were close together, but as the cells flatten they lie farther apart. The above process of fixation and flattening lasts about one-half to three- quarters of an hour. The ectoderm cells around the periphery of the young sponge begin to spread out over the support to which the sponge is fixed, and it takes place by the amceboid-like migrations of the peripheral ectoderm cells. The ectoderm is never thrown off, as _ Götte supposed, and it seems probable that owing to rough treatment of the embryos they lost their delicate ectoderm. After the fixation of the larva the ciliated chambers—evagination from the inner cavity—come nearer to the surface, fuse with the ectoderm, and form the inhalent orifices. The exhalent orifice originates through & secondary connection of the inner cavity with the outer world. Descensus Testiculorum.—Under the above title Dr. Herman? Klaatsch, of Heidelberg, has given, in the Morphologisches Jahrbuch, : 1891.7 Embryology. 285 Dec. 16, 1890, what promises to be an important contribution to that most interesting problema magnum. Regarding the recent work upon the actual ontogenetic changes taking place in the human embryo as insufficient for explaining the true morphological descent of the testis in the Mammalia, the author returns to the comparative methods of Hunter and others, and ulti- mately sees reasons for associating this change of position with changes in other organs,—namely, mammary glands. From the position of reproductive glands, Wolffian body and body- wall in many mammals the gubernaculum is found to be a complex structure, not entirely homologous in different groups. Thus the testis is first attached to the Wolffian body; only later does the latter become connected with the body-wall by a special ‘‘ inguinal liga- ment,” which is connected with a peculiar inward process of the mus- cular body-wall, an ‘‘ inguinal cone.’’ The separateness of these three parts of a complex gubernaculum is shown in the adult Monotremes. The phenomena occurring in the periodic descent in the rodents and insectivores furnish the starting point for the interpretation of all other groups. Here the gubernaculum is chiefly a much-enlarged ‘ inguinal cone,”’ or modified ingrowth of transverse and internal oblique muscles (cre- master). Pari passu with the descent of the testis in the adult occurs the evagination of this cone to form a scrotal pouch, This descent appears to correspond to the period of enlargement of the testis ; the withdrawal into the body to the period of enlargement of the mam- mary glands of the female, In lemurs, apes, and man secondary changes have resulted in the occurrence of the descent once for all in the embryo. Even here the “ inguinal cone,” though not playing so important a part, in the single descent has muscles resembling those in the rodent. The preforma- tion of a scrotum independent of the descent is not found in all these animals so markedly as in man, where it is to be regarded as a newly acquired falsification of the true record of sequences, and one that is here alone transferred to the female (in the form of the labia majora). n man, again, an interesting exception to the lack of periodicity occurs,—a reminiscence of a previous adult rodent-like condition being represented by two successive descents in the embryo. Thus a temporary descent has already taken place in embryo of eight cm. This is followed by what is interpreted as a true reditus testium, 286 The American Naturalst. [March, subsequent to which the permanent, commonly described descent takes place. The anatomical relations in the marsupialia, carnivora and ungulates are to be regarded as indicating a separate line of divergence of these groups from the rodent-like conditions. The position of the scrotum is not really so aberrant in the marsupial as to interfere with close comparisons. A preformed scrotum is here again to be regarded as a falsification of the phylogenetic history, associated with the permanent establish- ment of the descent in the embryonic period. From numerous facts, of which I have given an imperfect survey above, the author establishes a connection between the mammary eee and the descent as follows bryo rodent differs from the adult Monotreme in having the betana ‘t inguinal cone.’ The descent is not found in the Monotremes and lower vertebrates, and must have arisen in higher mammals. In these the descent is associated with the modification of the belly- wall, the ‘‘inguinal cone.’’ In seeking a cause for the production of this modification of the belly-wall, some external factor and not internal organs is to be considered. This external factor in the modification of the muscular body-wall was a mammary glan The simplest Marini gland is the small area of skin glands with well-developed skin muscles in the inguinal region, on each side, in the Monotremes. This is present in the male also, but is to be considered as secondarily derived from the female. That such a body might react upon the body-wall is indicated by the existence of the cremaster muscles in the female marsupial, gland and muscle functioning together. Some such change in connection with a mammary gland may have formed the “‘ inguinal cone.” This cone in the male was utilized as being the point of least resistance in the body-wall, and evaginated when the testes enlarg periodically. Though such a cone is present in female animals, it is not associated with the ovary, as this does not enlarge. The origin of the inguinal ligament remains unexplained, but this also may have been handed over from the female, with other organs connected with the mammary gland. Granting’ the scrotum represents such a primary mammary gland area, we would expect to find no true mammary glands in males., Those present anterior to the inguinal region are easily explain ed = | f 1891.] Embryology 287 recent acquisitions from new organs in the female; while the state of things in the marsupial strengthens the hypothesis. In the lowest Australian marsupial there are no glands in the male, but a scrotal pouch in the place of the female inguinal glands. In Monotremes there are male glands, but no scrotum as yet formed. The discovery of remnants of such mammary glands in the area into which the testes descend would increase the value of the hypothesis. Such are present in all groups of mammals, conspicuous in apes, and even found in man, in embryos. The ‘‘ area scroti’’ are warty, circumscribed regions of the scrotum, one on each side, in which peculiarities of skin glands, hairs, and especially of skin muscle, form strong contrasts to the rest.of the scrotal skin. These ‘‘area scroti’’ are the externally visible outlines of these primitive mammary organs that gave rise to the descent of the testes. On the Urinogenital System of the Crocodile and Turtle.’ —1. There is an undoubted trace of a pronephros in embryos of both, which soon degenerates. 2. A very large glomerulus hanging into the body-cavity on either side. Often the nephrostomes of the pro- nephros are close to its sides. 3. A segmental arrangement could not be made out for pronephros or glomerulus; no very young embryos were examined. 4. The boundary between, pronephros and meso- nephros could not be made out, and it was not possible to count the number of nephrostomes belonging to either. 5. The origin of the pronephros—whether from ectoderm or mesoderm—cou!d not be de- termined. 6. Nephrostomes of the mesonephros often become par- tially or wholly separated from the body-cavity by a growth upward of the lower lip of the funnel, which surrounds the glomerulus above it. 7- The Milllerian duct is formed entirely independently of the seg- mental duct, by a félding of the peritoneal ephithelium anteriorly, constricting off the proximal end of the duct, which then grows’ back- to the cloaca as a solid rod of cells, which soon acquires a lumen. —J. L. KELLOGG. E . The Development of Cyanea arctica.—Since the publication by Louis Agassiz of the third volume of his ‘‘ Contributions to the Natural History of the United States’? no observations have been recorded upon the development of Cyanea arctica. During the month of May of the past summer this Medusa was exceedingly abundant in ineyard Sound and the adjacent waters, and on my arrival at the “R. Weidersheim. Arch. f. Mik, Anat., Band 36, Heft 3, 1890. - Am. Nat.—March.—7. ee 288 — The American Naturalist. j [March, Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl, towards the end A that month, I had no difficulty in obtaining large quantities of ova in the earliest stages of development, and I succeeded in keeping the embryos alive until the end of August, by which time they had developed into Scyphistomas with about twenty tentacles. The developmental history as I observed it differs in so many points from what Agassiz has described, as well as from the observations of other authors upon European forms, that I wish to postpone a detailed account of my observations until I shall have had an opportunity of studying for comparison the embryology of Aurelia flavidula, which I hope to accomplish during the coming summer. In the meantime I wish to record here briefly some of the more important facts which I have been able to establish. e segmentation is practically regular (though the relative size of the first-formed spherules may, vary considerably), and results in the for- mation of a blastula. Certain cells then migrate into the blastoccele, and arrange themselves as an incomplete layer below the cells which remain at the surface, and at the same time an opening appears at one pole of the embryo. This pseudogastrula is, however, very transient, The immigration of cells continues, being apparently multipolar in its distribution, and the opening closes up. Eventually a solid planula or sterrula results, consisting of an external layer of columnar cells anda central mass in which the cell outlines cannot be made out in sections. In this condition the embryos may persist for some time, swimming about actively. From time to time, however, some settle down to the bottom of the vessel in which they are contained, and enclose them- selves in a circular plano-convex cyst. I found a few free-swimming embryos, out of the many hundred which I examined, which had developed a mouth and a central cavity, and possessed a rudiment of a single tentacle, but their further development I was not able to observe. | It is certain that the majority encysted themselves in the manner described, but it is of course possible that this may be due to unsatis- factory conditions of life, though the fact that large numbers of the encysted form developed into Scyphistomas argues against such an idea. While within the cyst, the hollowing out of the central mass the formation of the endoderm take place. The encysted state lasts for several days, but finally the embryo emerges from the cyst a circular aperture in the center of the free convex surface of the cyst, formed apparently by solution, as I never saw any ragged edges to "3 opening. I could not at first believe that the encystment was a stage m the development ; it seemed rather to mean the death of the embryos- 1891.] Embryology. 289 The fact that every young Scyphistoma was attached to a cyst, its stalk passing through the opening and spreading out on the lower flat wall, first aroused my suspicions, and I finally succeeded in observing the embryos leaving the cyst, and have sections through forms in various stages of emergence. Encystment has been observed by Kowalewsky in Lucernaria, but was supposed to be a precursor of death. No one has yet observed what I have mentioned above in any Scyphomedusa, but my preparations do not allow of any doubt as to its existence in C. arctica. Shortly after their emergence from the cyst the mouth forms, placing the internal cavity in communication with the exterior, and four ten- tacles make their appearance. I could not detect any invagination to form the mouth, such as Claus, and especially Goette, have described for other Scyphomedusz. My preparations show that the ectoderm and endoderm come into contact at the margin of the mouth opening, and that there is no stomatodeal invagination of ectoderm such as Goette maintains exists in Cotylorhiza and Aurelia. It is to be noticed that a similar absence of an ectodermal stomatodeum occurs in Lipkea ruspoliana, described by Vogt as the representative of a new tribe of sessile Medusze, but which, it seems probable, is simply a Scy- phistoma. With regard to the formation of the mesenteries of the Scyphistoma, my results are quite at variance with those of Goette. The young Scyphistomas with four tentacles show no signs of them; in older spe- cimens with the same number of tentacles traces of them are occasion- ally to be found ; but as a rule they are not formed till the young larva has acquired eight tentacles. It is unnecessary to state that in G arctica their formation stands in no connection with the formation of an ectodermal stomatodzum, since this structure does not exist. An account of the structure of the mesenteries, and the formation of the “ trichter’’ and of the mesenterial filaments, will be given in the complete paper.—J. PLavrair McMurricu, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. 290 The American Naturalist. [March , PHYSIOLOGY. Vasomotor Nerves of the Portal Vein.—Mall' makes an important advance by finding experimental evidence of the existence of vasomotor nerves in the portal vein. This strengthens the idea that this vein and its branches play the rôle of arteries with reference to the capillaries of the liver. If the flow of blood from the aorta to the alimentary canal be stopped, and the splanchnic nerve be stimulated, a narrowing of the portal vein may be detected. If the stimulation be continued, the lumen entirely disappears ; at the same time there is an increase in arterial pressure. The subject is to be investigated more fully. Relation between Molecular Weight, Molecular Struc- ture, and Physiological Action.—Recent work of Giirber? on the physiological action of lupetidine and related substances has led Gaule? to the conclusion that it is not the weight or size of the mole- cule that determines the physiological action, but the latter is the product of the effects of the different components of the molecule. If, then, a gradual increase in molecular weight be brought about by the continued addition of a CH, group, for example, similarly placed in the molecule, the physiological effects of the compounds so pro- duced will be similar, varying only in degree; but if an NH, group be added instead of a CH, group, the increase in molecular weight will be essentially the same, but the physiological effects will be dif- ferent. Thus the physiological effects of drugs will vary with the molecular weight, only when the variation in the latter results from an increase or decrease in the number of identical atomic groups. A second point established by Giirber’s work is that different groups of atoms act differently, and that these different groups act On different sets of organs. This would suggest the idea that the living substance in each system of organs represents a peculiar chemical’ - proportion ; certain groups of atoms in the body immediately entering into combination with certain groups of atoms in the molecules of substances taken in.—L. G. Life-History of Blood Corpuscles.—A valuable addition to the literature of the blood corpuscles has appeared recently in the 1 Archiv fiir Anatomie und Physiologie. Phys. Abth., Suppl. Bd., 1890. ? Archiv f. Anat, u. Phys, Physiol Abthlg., 1890, p. 401. 3 Ibid., p. 478. ad ‘in Physiology. 291 form of a careful paper by Dr. W. H. Howell,‘ of Michigan Univer- sity. As a result of work extending over a period of two years, most of which was confined to the cat, the author concludes that the cor- puscles originate not, as is usually assumed, in different ways, but in accordance with one scheme of reproduction, which is essentially the same in health as in disease, in the embryo as in the adult. As regards the red corpuscles, these arise in the very young embryo from cords of mesoblastic cells, which outline the position of future veins; the central cells of the cord form corpuscles, while the periph- eral ones form the walls of the veins. Such developing blood vessels were found in the liver and in the muscular tissue of the posterior limb, and it seems probable that corpuscles are thus formed wherever there are developing blood vessels. In the second half of embryonic life red corpuscles are formed in the liver, the spleen, and the red marrow. At first this function is most active in the liver, next in the spleen, and lastly in the red marrow. A few weeks after birth, in the cat, the liver and spleen cease to take part in their formation, and in the adult healthy animal they are produced in the red marrow alone. In case of extreme anzemia, resulting from bleeding or whatever cause, the spleen may resume its embryonic function. Wherever and whenever red corpuscles are produced, nucleated forms precede the mature non- nucleated forms, the latter being derived from the former by the extrusion or migration of the nucleus,—a process which the author was able to follow in part in the living cell. The life-history of the cor- puscle was studied most fully in preparations from the marrow, and is given in brief below. In the very young embryo two forms of red corpuscles-occur. One is very large, oval, and always nucleated, which the author regards as possibly an ancestral form. These disappear in early embryonic life. The other, the true mammalian corpuscle, is much smaller, circular in outline, and is found both nucleated and non-nucleated. These apparently arise from colorless, spherical cells —erythroblasts—found in the marrow and elsewhere. The marrow erythroblasts are derived from large embryonic cells, known in the adult simply as marrow-cells,—the unchanged descendants apparently of the original mesoblastic cells from which the marrow is formed. ese embryonic marrow-cells multiply by karyokinesis, the daughter cells sooner or later acquiring the structure of the erythrob’ The erythroblasts multiply rapidly by karyokinesis, giving rise ultimately to cells from which the nucleated red blood corpuscles are derived by the development of hemoglobin within the cell substance. These * Journal of Morphology, Vol. IV., p. 57, 1899. 292 The American Naturalist. [March, nucleated red corpuscles multiply also by karyokinesis. When mature they are converted into the ordinary non-nucleated forms by the extru- sion of the nucleus. The extruded nuclei are dissolved in the blood plasma, and there is evidence to show that they take part in the forma- tion of fibrinogen. Owing to the loss of the nucleus the corpuscle assumes the biconcave form seen in circulating blood. The white corpuscles, or leucocytes, arise from the lymphocytes, which are formed in the lymphoid tissue, especially the lymphatic glands. The leucocytes enter the blood apparently as unchanged lymphocytes. Each possesses a single vesicular nucleus, surrounded by a small protoplasmic envelope, and has not the power of making amoe- boid movements. From this stage the cell develops by growth into a second stage, characterized by a large protoplasmic envelope and amee- boid movements. In the third stage the nucleus is drawn out into an elongated strap shape, and may become horseshoe shaped or coiled into a spiral. This cell is actively amoeboid, and by the fragmentation of its nucleus becomes converted into the multinucleated leucocyte of the blood. This latter is not, as was formerly thought, a cell in process of division, but rather a disintegrating form, the fragmenta- tion of the nucleus being the first step in the process. The author believes that the fragmented nuclei persist for a time as the blood plates. He is led to this conclusion both by an examination of the leucocytes when in the act of disintegrating, and by the similarity in - the appearance and manner of staining of the fragmented nuclei and the blood plates. The disintegrated leucocytes are dissolved in the plasma to form the paraglobulin, which is believed to be derived wholly from this source. The author discusses fully the work of others and his work has been already reviewed by Minot in the AMERICAN NATURALIST. In addition to the results of actual observation the paper contains a number of inter- esting suggestions. The most potent of these, perhaps, is the view as to how we may best attack the dark problems concerning the origin and relationship of the blood proteids, and the part which they play in the general metabolism.—E. Cooke. 1891.] Entomology. 293 ENTOMOLOGY.! Dr. Lintner’s Sixth Report.—Through the kindness of the author we have been favored with Dr. J. A. Lintner’s Sixth Report as State Entomologist of New York. Though less bulky than some of its predecessors, the present volume shows the same painstaking prepar- ation that is characteristic of all of Dr. Lintner’s work. The report covers a little more than one hundred pages, illustrated by twenty-five figures, mostly from the writings of Riley, Packard, Glover, etc. After a short introduction of general and popular interest, there is a more or less complete discussion of the following insects : Eumenes fraternus, Hypoderma bovis, Drosophila sp., Adalia bipunctata, Dermestes lar- darius, Agrilus ruficollis, Coptocycla aurichalcea, C. clavata, Bruchus scutellaris, Hymenorus obscurus, Meloë angusticollis, Epicauta vittata, E. cinerea, E. pennsylvanica, Pomphopæa sayi, Podisus spinosus, Prio- nidus cristatus, Pulvinaria innumerabilis, Aphis brassica, Gryllotalpa borealis, Melanoplus femur-rubrum, Ixodes bovis, and Bryobiapra- tensis (?). To these accounts a list of publications of the author during 1880, 1881, and 1889 is added as Appendix A, while Appendix B con- tains a list of contributions to the department. » Sexual Selection in Spiders.—Mr. and Mrs. W. G. Peckham have lately published ‘‘ Some Additional Observations on Sexual Selec- tion in Spiders of the Family Attide,’’? to which they append an interesting discussion of Mr. Wallace’s theory of sexual ornamentation. Observations on the mating habits of an undescribed Habrocestum, Attus leopardus, and Synageles picata are recorded, showing that the _ males during courtship so deport themselves that many of the bright markings are displayed before the female to advantage. The authors then take up Mr. Wallace’s attempt to explain the superior beauty of male animals without the aid of selection, by attributing it to their greater vigor and activity and higher vitality. ‘“ This proposition,”’ the authors state, ‘is a complexus holding within it three implications which must be proved before its acceptance can be demanded : First, that male animals have higher vitality than females second, that those males that have the highest vitality have also the most brilliant and intense colors ; and third, that the superior ornamentation of the _ males is due to their activity.” The authors discuss each of these 1 Edited by Dr. C. M. Weed, Hanover, N. H. ` ? Occasional Papers of the Natural History Society of Wisconsin, Vol. I., No. 3. 294 The- American Naturalist. [March, propositions in turn, and, in their concluding summary, state: ‘“ We have found that the weak point in Mr. Wallace’s argument was in the small amount of evidence that he was able to offer in support of each _ of the three propositions, so that the successive steps in the argument grew weaker and weaker. Indeed, it seemed to us that although many of his arguments were strikingly ingenious, they all appeared to rest on very slender evidence, or to admit of another interpretation.” The mechanical execution of this brochure, like that of its predecessors, is altogether admirable, and several excellent figures by Mr. J. H. Emerton add to the interest of the text. Oviposition of Dectes spinosus.*—Late in the forenoon of the rath of last July I came upon a female Dectes spinosus in the act of depositing an egg in the stem of horseweed (Amérosia trifida). When discovered she had gnawed away the outer fibres of the stem over a small area, and was standing head downward attempting to insert her Ovipositor into the stalk. After three trials she succeeded, and the : instrument was inserted to its base. About a minute later the posterior portion of the abdomen began to contract and expand, and in less than a minute an egg was placed in the stalk, The beetle then withdrew the ovipositor, and walked rapidly to the top of the plant. The egg was deposited obliquely in the pith on. the opposite side of the stem from which the beetle stood. The place of oviposition was about two-thirds of the way from the bottom to the top. The egg is 2mm. long by 0.3 mm. wide; elongate oval, slightly curved, and of a pale yellow color. It is represented, magnified, at 4 of the accompanying figure, while J represents, nearly natural size, a section of the Ambrosia stem with the place of oviposition on its side—C. M. WEED. a Species of Hymenoptera.—The thirty-seventh fascicle of M. Ed. André’s Species des Hymenoptera d’Europe et d’ Algerie has lately been issued. It completes the first volume of the Braconide, by Rev. T. A. Marshall, and adds about twenty pages to the volume on the Sphegidze, by M. André, who states that the work on this last-named : family is now suspended on account of his inability to use his eye ie microscopic work,—an embarrassment which his entomological brethren will join us in hoping may be speedily terminated.4 Four excellent * Read before the Entomological Club, A. A. A. S., August, 1890. 4 Since this was written informati received of the death of M. André. 1891.] Entomology. 295 colored plates of Braconide accompany the fascicle. Future issues are to contain a discussion of the Chrysidide and Cynipide, the former by M. R du Buysson. This admirable series of monographs will prove indispensable to American students of Hymenoptera, and should be in every entomological library. Papers by Miss Murtfeldt.—The 1889 Report of the Missouri State Horticultural Society contains three excellent papers by Miss Mary E. Murtfeldt. The first, entitled ‘‘ Outlines of Entomology,” con- tains six chapters discussing the structure, habits, and transformations of insects ; the second, ‘‘ Our Insect Musicians,’’ is a popular discussion of an interesting subject ; and the third consists of the Report of the Committee on Entomology for the year. In the last reference is made to the injuries of Ceresa bubalus, Ceutorrhyncus napi, Lygus pratensis, and Gortyna nitela, each of which did considerable damage in Mis- souri during the year. American Tertiary Hemiptera.—Under the title ‘‘ Physiog- , nomy of the American Tertiary Hemiptera,’’ Mr. S. H. Scndder pub- lished a few months ago ë an important contribution to our knowledge of fossil Hemiptera. It consists of a summary statement of the results of the author’s extended study of thesubject, with remarks upon the relation of the American Tertiary Hemiptera to those of the present _ day, and to the Tertiary fauna of Europe. We have room only for the following generalizations: ‘‘(1) The general facies of the hemipterous fauna [of North America] is American, and distinctly more southern than its geographical position would indicate. (2) All the species are extinct, and. . . there is scarcely an instance where the same species occurs in two localities: (3) No species are identical with any Euro- pean Tertiary forms. (4) A very considerable number of genera are extinct, often including numerous species. (5) Existing genera’which are represented in the American Tertiaries are mostly American, not infrequently subtropical or tropical American, and where found also in the old world are mostly those which are common to the north temperate zone. A warmer climate than at present is distinctly indi- cated. (6) There are no extinct families. (7) The appearance of the same familes, and even of the same groups of genera, in the European and the American Tertiaries is common, but of the same restricted genus very rare. ? Cine Polished Harvest D handsome species (Lio- bunum politum) d in my “ Catalogue of the Phalangiinz Š Proceedings Boston Society Natural History, Vol. XXIV., pp. 562-579- 26 o The American Naturalist. [March,: of Illinois,’’® from three specimens taken about a shed in Champaign county, Illinois. It has not since been discussed. This harvest spider is an outdoor species, occurring abundantly in fields and woods, although seldom found about barns and outhouses. During the past summer I have taken great numbers in Franklin county, Ohio, in the grass along the banks of a small creek, an among the driftwood left by the overflowing of the Olentangy River, The species becomes fully developed early in July; and the males and females are about equally abundant. Both sexes, when disturbed, emit from the coxal region a liquid having a peculiarly sharp, pungent odor. I placed a number of these harvest spiders in a large glass vivarium July roth, 1890. Two days afterward a pair were observed mating. They were standing on one of the vertical sides of the vivarium facing each other. The male kept waving his second pair of legs in the air; his body was somewhat higlter than that of his mate, being inclined downward and forward, while that of the latter was inclined upward in front. Similar observations were subsequently made on many other individuals. When alarmed both sexes have a habit of standing on six legs, rapidly vibrating the body, and moving the second legs in a partial transverse circle in the air. In confinement they eagerly devour plant-lice. The male Z. politum, is represented, natural size, at Fig. 1, Plate IX. At Fig. 2 are shown the more important structural details, magnified. — The body with the legs detached is represented at a; 4 represents the eye eminence, side view; c, the same, front view ; d, the palpus, side view; and e, the palpal claw. DESCRIPTION, = Mate.—Body, 5 mm. long; 2.8 mm. wide. Palpi, 3.5 mm. long. s: I., 25 mm. ; H., 51 mm.; IIL; 26 mm. ; IV., 36 mm. Dorsum smooth, finely granulated’; cleat reddish-brown, with no markings, except occasionally a faint indication (shown by a slightly darker shade) of the usual central dark marking. Eye eminence rather prominent, slightly constricted at base, black above, canaliculate, with a regular curved series of small, acute, black spines over each eye. Cheliceræ whitish, tips of claws black. Palpi slender, light brown, with femur and patella dusky ; finely pubescent, with a sub- obsolete tow of minute dark tubercles on the inner ventro-lateral sur- face of femur, and another row on the inner ventro-lateral surface of * Bull. Ill. St. Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. III., pp. 89-90. PLATE IX. Liobunum politum Weed. 1891.] Entomology. 297 tarsus; joints slightly arched. Ventrum with coxz, including the membranous distal lateral tips, and generally the trochanters, vermil- ion red. Legs with proximal portions light brown; distally dark brown or blackish. Shaft of genital organ nearly straight, slender, flattened, canaliculate ; distal portion very slightly expanded, then slightly contracted, and again expanded into a half spoon-shaped por- tion, and terminating in a small acute point. Female.—Body, 6 mm. long; 3.5 mm. wide. Palpi, 4 mm. long. Legs: I., 24 mm.; II., 52 mm.; II., 25 mm. ; IV., 38 mm. Differs from the male in having a larger, rounder body ; and in the color of the dorsum, which is brown, with a rather distinct, darker central marking and numerous whitish spots arranged more or less transversely. In some specimens the central marking is subobsolete. Apical rings of ovipositor white. Described from many specimens. It is a curious fact that while I have found this species one of the commonest harvest spiders in Ohio, apegaly during 1889 and 1890, I took it but once during three seasons’ collecting in Illinois, and have received it but once from outside these two states. Not a single speci- men has been found, except in this one case, in the numerous collec- tions received from friends and correspondents in twenty other states. e specimens in my collection represent the following counties in the three states named, the dates given being the time the speci- mens were collected. All were taken by myself or my assistants, except those from Iowa, which were received from Professor Herbert Osborn. Illinois: Champaign. Iowa: Story (Osborn). Ohio: Cham- paign, 18 August, 1890; Clermont, August, 1890; Delaware, 18 se? tember, 1890; Franklin, 9 July, 1889, 7, 8, 9, 10, 27, 31 July, 6 August, 2,5, 679 September, 1890 ; Lawrence, 5, 6 September, 1890 ; ison, 19 z xe Sciota, 3 September, 1890; Warren, 5 July, 14, 16 August, 1 It is extremely pee that this species occurs, at least in limited numbers, in most of the central western states.—CLARENCE M. WEED. 298 The American Naturalist. [March, PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. The Biological. Society of Washington.—The eleventh anni- versary meeting was held in the lecture-room of the Columbian Uni- versity, on Saturday evening, January 24th, at half-past eight o’clock. The retiring president, Professor Lester F. Ward, delivered an address entitled ‘‘ Neo-Darwinism and Neo-Lamarckism,’’ in which he took strong ground in favor of the latter doctrine. February 7th, 1891.—Prof. H. F. Osborn read a paper entitled “A Review of the Cretaceous Mammalian Fauna of North America.” It was in effect a review of a paper by Prof. O. C. Marsh upon this sub- ject, in which six new families, sixteen new genera, and twenty-seven new species were described. . He illustrated his remarks upon the blackboard, first giving a sketch of the differences between the tri- ` tuberculate and multituberculate groups of mammals. He then ex- amined in detail the species described as new by Professor Marsh, stating that in no case was more than a single tooth described, and in l cases this was stated to be the upper molar. He stated it as his belief that in numerous instances the teeth were in reality lower molars; and he showed by drawings how teeth referred to distinct species, genera, and even families, seemed to belong to one species. In onè instance he mentioned four families, six genera, and seven different species that seemed to belong to one species. One tooth which had been described as mammalian he thought probably was reptilian, though it was not possible to say positively until the lower part was known. ? Professor Marsh was present, and replied to Professor Osborn, stating that he had seen all the specimens of Cretaceous and Jurassic ; of Europe, and had most of those of Cretaceous age from America 1M his own collection. He differed in foto from Professor Osborn, and had specimens which showed Professor Osborn was entirely mistaken in his assertions. He defended his method of describing and illus trating a single tooth, believing it to be better to describe 4 typical example, at least in a preliminary paper, rather than more hat one not so perfect or typical. He believed the Cretaceous fauna - > have been a large one, the mammals varying from one the size e ae shrew to one as large as an opossum; and when he had leisure " : describe and illustrate the thousand specimens he now had of CHE S 1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Socteties. 299 ceous Mammalia he was convinced the number of species would be increased rather than diminished. In respect to the tooth considered possibly reptilian by Professor Osborn, he now had a specimen showing it to possess a double fang, so its mammalian character was established. He criticised the use of Multituberculata fora group of mammals, and defended the use of a term applied by himself some years previous to the establishment of the one used instead by the author of the paper. Dr. Theodore Gill spoke in reference to nomenclature and the value of making priority of proposal of a name the established law in zoology. He believed the proposal of the name, when it was under- stood to what group or genus or species it was intended to be applied, was of more value than a strict definition. He cited several examples of defective definition ; but where the animal to which the term had been applied was well known, he believed it should be recognized.— Josep F. James. Indiana Academy of Science.—The sixth annual meeting was held at Indianapolis, December 30th and 31st, 1890. Officers and ex officio, Executive Committee of the Academy: T. C. Mendenhall, _ president; O. P. Hay, John L. Campbell, J. C. Arthur, vice presidents ; Amos W. Butler, secretary; O. P. Jenkins, treasurer; D. S. Jordan, J. M. Coulter, J. P. D. John, J. C. Branner, ex-presidents. List of papers read : Physics and Engineering.—A Set of Resistance Coils and Wheat- stone’s Bridge, J. P. Naylor; Transformer Tests, A. P. Carman ; Note on the Magnetic Permeability of an Impure Nickel at low Tempera- ture, A. P. Carman; Freezing Process of Excavation, B. A. Lackey ; A Brief Satciption of the New Steam Engineering Laboratory at Purdue University, W. F. M. Goss; A Refraction Rainbow, W. J. Spillman; President’s Address—The Work of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, T..C. Mendenhall. Chemistry.—Notes on Xylose, W. E. Stone; On Qualitative and ae Reactions for Furfurol, W. E. Stone; On a Pentaglucose Obtained from Corncobs, W. E. Stone and Dumont Lotz; Detection and Estimation of Titanium, W. A. Noyes; A New Method for Quan- » titative Determination of Albumen in Urine, F. C. VanNuys and R. F. Lyons; An Improved Chemical Test for Blood in Urine, R. F. Lyons ; An Apparatus for Determination of Water in Oils and Fats, R. F. Lyons; Oxidation of Phosphoric Acid, H. A. Huston; Albuminoid Nitrogen in Indiana Feeding Material, H. A, Huston. 5 300 The American Naturalist. [March, Geology.—A Recent Find of Musk Ox Remains in Indiana, Joseph Moore; A Review of the Niagara Group in Bartholomew Co., Ind. (by title), J. F. Newsom; Shelby County ‘‘ Earthquake,” J. F. New- som ; Some New Crustacean Fossils, C. E. Newlin ; Geological Section at Vincennes, W. J. Spillman; Sections of Drift in Vigo Co., Ind., J. T. Scovell ; The Highest Old Shore-line on Mackinac Island, F. B. Taylor ; The Effect of the Great Lakes on the Ice Sheet, F. B. Taylor. Botany.—Preliminary Notes on Genus Polygonum, Stanley Coulter; Aberrant Fruit of Juglans nigra, Stanley Coulter ; Aberrant Forms of Juglans nigra—Structural Changes, D. T. McDougal; Value of Minute Anatomy in Plant Classification, Stanley Coulter ; Notes on the Apical Growth of Liverworts, David M. Mottier; Notes on the Germination of Spores of Notothylus (by title), David M. Mottier ; A Remarkable Oscillating Movement of Protoplasm in a Mucor, J. C. Arthur; Accel- erating Germination by Previous Immersion of the Seed in Hot Water, J. C. Arthur ; Notes on Gautemalan Composite, Henry E. Seaton; Parasitic Fungi of Indiana, E. M. Fisher; Circulation of Sap, John Morgan ; Distribution of Peucedanum i in North America, J. N. Rose; Plants Collected by Dr. Palmer in Arizona in 1890, J. N. Rose; Com- parative Structure of the Roots of Osmunda and Botrychium, D. H. Campbell; Notes on the Prothallium of the Osmundacee, D. H. Campbell; Notes on a New Puccinee, Henry L. Bolley; On the Manufacture of Plant Infusions for the Culture of Bacteria, Henry L. Bolley; The Occurrence of Veratrum woodii in Decatur, Ind., W. P: Shannon ; Some Features of the Occurrence of Viola pedata var. bicolor, Jos. H. Taisi ; Preliminary List of Knox County Plants, W. J. Spi man ; Introduction of Noxious Weeds, W. J. Spillman ; Biological Surrey John M. Coulter; The Flora of Texas, John M. Coulter; Weight of the Seed in Relation to Production, Katherine E. Golden. Zoology.—The Identification of Ghost-fishes, Chas. H. Gilbert; The Deep-Water Fishes of the Pacific, Chas. H. Gilbert; The Fishes of the Interior of Kentucky (by title), A. J. Woolman ; Notes on Indiana Reptiles, Amos W. Butler ; Observations on the Habits of Synaptomys cooperii, Amos W. Butler; Chætodontidæ of the Sandwich Islands O. P. Jenkins; Notes on Structure of Muscle Cells in Salamanders, O. P. Jenkins ; Geophila in Jefferson County, Ind. (by title), Geo. c. Hubbard ; Notes on Some Actina, W. F. Glick ; Some Notes on ana Birds, B. W. Evermann ; Contribution to the Distribution of thë Fishes of the West Coast of North America, O. P. Jenkins and B. W- Evermann ; Sailor Spiders on Lake Maxinkuckee, O. P. Jenkins; Tm Butterflies of Indiana, W. S, Blatchley ; The Batrachians and Reptiles 1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Socteties. 301 of Vigo Co., Ind., W. S. Blatchley; The Death of Salmon After Spawning, D. S. Jordan; The Fishes of the Upper Columbia and the Shoshone Falls, D. S: Jordan ; Eels of America and Europe (by title), . S. Jordan and B: M. Davis; Food Habits of the Blue Jay, C. W. Hargitt; Notes on Hydra fusca, C. W. Hargitt ; Acrididæ of Vigo Co., Ind., W. S. Blatchley ; On a Bird New to the State Fauna, W. S. Blatchley; On Cnicus discolor as an Insect Trap, W. S. Blatchley ; Relation of the Number of Vertebræ in Fishes to the Temperature of Water, D. S. Jordan; Notes on Indiana Mammals, B. W. Evermann d A. W. Butler; Audubon’s Old Mill at Henderson, Ky., B. W. Evermann ; The Range of the Evening Grosbeak in the Winter of 1889—90, Amos W. Butler ; Carolina Parakeet in Indiana, Amos. W. Butler ; The Colors of Sounds, Gustaf Kartsen ; The Colors of Letters, D. S. Jordan ; A List of the Orthoptera of Illinois, with descriptions of new species and observations on the songs and habits of little-known species (by title), Jerome McNeill; Description of a New Æsthesio- meter, Wm. Bryan; Researches on the Tactual Perception of Dis- tance, Wm. Bryan ; Researches on Reaction Time, Wm. Bryan ; Fishes of the Wabash Basin, B. W. Evermann and O. P. Jenkins; Hypnotism, W. B. Clarke. Addenda.—Notes on Distribution and Habits of Argynnis diana, S. G. Evans ; Exact and Approximate Formule for Calculating the Force at Any Paine i in the Plane of a Circular Circuit Conveying an Electric Current, Thomas Gray ; Some Data as to the Resistance to Cutting of Metals, Thomas Gray ; Description of a Powerful Electro-Magnet, with preliminary determination of its magnetic field, C. Leo Mees ; Con- tinuation of Experiments in the Change of Density of Metals Under Stress, C. Leo Mees; An Apparatus for Determining Strength of Electric Currents in Absolute Measure, Thomas Gray; Specimeps of Diagrams Obtained in Testing Iron and Steel, Thomas Gray; The Relative Magnetic Resistance of Air p Iron, Thomas Gray; On the Solution of the Equation du = R Thomas Gray. The officers for next year are: President, O. P. Hay; vice presi- dents, J. L. Campbell, J. pai W. A. Noyes; secretary, A. W. Butler ; treasurer, O. P. Jen American Physiological Society.—The annual meeting of the American Physiological Society was held on December 3oth, T the Harvard Medical School, Boston. The following papers presented: On the Growth of Children, Studied by Galton’ s Method of Percentage Grades, H. P. Bowditch; A Contribution to Our 302 The American Naturalist. [March, 1891,] Knowledge of the So-called Poisonous Albumens, V. C. Vaughan; Suggestions for the More Effective Advancement of Physiology, Through the American Physiological Society, T. W. Mills; Further Observations in Regard to the Stimulation of Ganglion Cells, C. F. Hodge; On the Vasomotor Nerves of the Heart, H. N, Martin; On Muscle Fatigue, W. P. Lombard ; Reaction-time Apparatus, J. G. Curtis. SCIENTIFIC NEWS. ‘The last legislature of Alabama made the annual appropriation for the geological survey, $7,500, and continuous,—v. e., till otherwise provided. This places it on a very desirable footing as to permanence, ` for there will be no effort to bring the survey to a close so long as the state continues to advance in the direction it is now going, and so long as we have anything toreport npon. The amount of the appropriation is not so great as could have been wished, but a good deal can be done with it, especially as all engraving, printing, etc., come out of another d. The survey, under Prof. Eugene Smith, is mapping the Warrior and Coosa coal fields. Prof. Alpheus Hyatt has published an article in the February Atlantic Monthly entitled ‘The Next Stage in the Development of Public Parks.” In this paper Prof. Hyatt advocates the establishment of zoological collections in our public parks, grouped in a way to be a use to the student of zoology. He also suggests the establishment of marine and fresh-water aquaria, and believes that not only fish, but marine animals, insects, water plants, etc., should be shown in them. » ADVERTISEMENTS (i | we TED.—Professors of Science. The School | and College a = Elm) hurst ep Mil. | has an established p: | ties and schools whee setae’ ti that have recently secured Profes sors of S nce through this Bureau, we may name the State Diiva- sity of Vermont, the State oe ok = Colorado, Illinois Wesleyan Universit whey coe of Mines, Pritchett School Pemda p cae Graded Schoo! = nor Mtn Mount Mowe Col- lege, and o Sen circulars and full informa- tion, ar vn rng RSM EER CJ TA Man HURST, gain ee a ee ATOE A E HOSfOrd’S Acid Phosphate norr: an In dyspepsia the stomach zy L] È = = N S to assimilate the food. The Aci Phosphate assists the weakened | For sale in sets, my new discoveries caer dozen : species) amon, stomach, making the process of — : digestion natural and easy. WoW. CALKINS r. R. S. McComp, Philadelphia, says : 130 Dearborn St., Chicago. a Used it in nervous dyspepsia, with succes on iw S. LEONARD, Hinsdale, N. H., A NEW BOOK n «The best oe = arepe that From COVER TO OERI has come under coasts Y ABREAST WITH THE DREWS, Jeferson Medi- cal College, arr “A wonderful remedy which gave me most gratifying results in the worst forms of dyspepsia eats pamphlet free. WEBSTER’ S INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY Rumford Chemical Wcrks, Providence, R. I. f BEWARE OF SUBSTITUTES AND i IMITATIONS. CAUTION :—Be sure the word ‘‘ Horsford’s"’ is Printed on the label. All others are spurious. Never sold in bulk, The Authentic “ dye ” comprising the gam —— | issues of 1864,79 ai a oho copyrighted property of the C adariaad, Í a Oro’ y d Enlarged, a A bone s the name of an Webster’s International Dictionary. ROOFING, See. pooh ag over 10 ba than One i oo mElastic R koding Fi vie j ba 80 br pc $2 per rors shave been sed ti bi aai r years, and before the first co — eee dr | naiopongeogipong pS vag le sad ore : py’ fas or iana and | Critical compariso! other Dictionary full particulars, Gasne Roortnc Co., is invited. G: THE BEST. 39 and 41 West — tas York. G. & C. Aiape & CO., Publishers, l Springfield, Mass. U.S. A. Local Néanks Wanted. Sold hy all Booksellers. I tt ADVERTISEMENTS. The Microscope An Illustrated Monthly Magazine for the | Student of Nature’s Little Things. | yeng to the needs of all that use the oe are interested in its revelation Edited by DR. ALFRED C. STOKES, Author of ‘‘ Microscopy for Beginners,” Subscription, $1.00. Sample Copy, 10 Cts. Tae Microscope Pustisuine Co., TRENTON, N. J. AUSES A N D CURE. tation. Deafness treated by an aurist of world-wide repu- ess eradica a cad entirely cured, of ræ o to 30 years’ standing, after all other treatments have ‘hailed. How the ificulty is reached, and the cause remo ved, fully ex se ii _in circulars, with < affi- pr id d free. Dr. A, LONTANE, 34 West l4&th ee N. Y. First-c Class Histological kns at European Prices. 25 cts. each, aN. BEGGS, M.D., Instructor of Histology in the St. Louis Med. College. 2207 Sidney St., St. Louis, Mo. f HORACE v. Librarians, Teachers, Scientists, a nd, Business Men all have to do some copying! è ee XPRESSDU ES, SOW (lc, BensingeA fy a a We suit one and all! BEAUTIFUL | GEOR ts. stamp wit ines or for printe¢ is lished in efer by pen to Prof. Bidders ee and Prof. J. A esi sept Warsaw, I. 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First collection and a S cents. Aiie GU VE GUTTENBERG, Yee =M School, EN, } Pa. PY gata in Amesi correspond with concholo- gists in America, especially in California, change. M British land, e for ri ress Mrs. Falloon, Long Ashton Vic- ange, Bristol, an nd. O oiegega in Academy, Normal or High Sch sani as teacher of the Natural Sciences and Modern Languages. Latin taught in addition, if nT Address G., box 441, Hanover, N. H. eee PROFESSOR of Natural an many, is open for a position in a college. Good ces. Address, C.; Box 136, New Berlin, Pa. OR SALE.—Beautiful sets of Fossil Plants from the Dakota Group Cretaceous. On oe of soy I ~ satin. prepaid, to any and varieties of Dakota Plants. Send gc for plate illustrating aye set. The specimens ‘oi equal the figures . H. STERNBERG, ox 60, — Kans, Waste ED—Hall's works on Palscontology, nd other works giving plates which show fossils of the Niagara Epoch. Address M. D. Sullivan, St. Ignatius College, Chicago, III. 2 i/e ys TEE I., II., III., and IV., of THE RICAN NATURALIST, in first-class con- Pit pas in half Morocco, for sale. $16.00 dress GEO. W. MACKAY, 25 Con — St., Boston, Mass. ANTED—For dissection and microscopic work, Polyps, ero or other Hydro- zoa, Actinozoa, and Cte eare Echinod mata and Mollusca J. A. Leighton, Trinity spe aai. Can. HAVE FOR EXC HANSE: for other shells la OR EXCHANGE —4z4 Volumes (1883- m or land, very fi ms o 1889) AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Unios trigon, occidens, AEE lacrymosus, = (a 1889) AMERICAN NATUR simus, rectus, ala acilis, turberculata, ALIST ; 21 volumes (1 ) E SH ME- | ventricasus ; arga ai; com- CHANIC; all in good condition for binding; | p/anata, ru, gib others na- also, Morris Typewriter. If you have a good nta PERE and suborbiculata. wil send Microscope, Camera, or anything else to offer, | six o ful Anadonta suborbiculata by Please send full s ae E.R. 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Minerals, birds’ skins and | eggs, and general curiosity dealers. — PiISO’S CURE FOR h a mage oa Recommended by Physicians. Best Cou Cures aac all else fails. Pleasant and agreeable to the taste. Children take it without objection. By druggists. CONSUMPTION ISO’S S REMEDY FOR CATARRH. apat Fasiest Cheapest. Relief is immediate. A cure is certain. ae Cold in the Head it has no equal. eg cd an tenes, of of ote a small partic le is applied » Sold by druggists or by mail. Address, E. T. Hazevrie, Warren, Pa. ADVERTISEMENTS. v FOSSILS. Cretaceous Invertebrata and Tertiary Vertebrata Of S. Dakota, Nebraska, and Wyoming, as described by Cope, Marsh, Leidy, and Meek. Placenticeras, Nautilus, Scaphites, Baculites, Teeth and Skulls, Tit- | anotherium, Oreodon, Rhinoceros, | Anchitherium, Elotherium, Palzo- | syops, Dinocerata, Carnivora, etc. Hyracodon nebrascensis. Green River Fossil Fish ; fifty varieties Fossil Leaves of Dakota Group named by Lesquereux. Black Hills Minerals in large variety. /ndian Relics, both ancient and modern. Large stock of everything. Send for illustrated catalogue with prices. Wholesale and Retail. Colleges, large collectors, amateurs, museums, and dealers supplied. Ee Wes tre were DEADWOOD, Re SOUTH DAKOTA. WANTED. -Back numbers of the Naturauist. November 783, April and December 85, October, November and December 87, all or part of ’77. Twenty-five cents will be paid for the Index to Vol. XII, which was issued with the January number of Vol. XIII. Persons having any or all of these for sale will please write us, stating price at which they hold them. FERRIS BROS., Publishers. vi ! ADVERTISEMENTS. BETTER THAN EVER BEFORE. Increase of | Editorial al Sa and List of Wais Nen Tye Ler EC A medium of interchange of observations for all student tf. of nature. Devoted to all departments of nature studies $ 2 Origin E. F. pira cnet rR Publisher. Only so cents a year, a = “ Keep your eyes Sper * (to observe the wonders d beauties = the out-door world) is the motto of M. A. Boor wld k M. S., "Mic eadow, THe p aa oHN H, Sac , Ornithology, Portland, Conn _ UMass. De you enjoy roaming over hills and fields or through „Å. Bani Entomolo ogy» Nor rwich, Con the woods; are youi ested in birds, flowers, insects, Miss C. ANTOINETTE SHEP , Bo otany, rocks etc.: ae have a a microeropei Then you will New Britain, Conn. þe pleased with THE OBSERVER. Address, E. F. BIGELOW, Publisher. THE OBSERVER, No. 5 Waverly Ave., Portland, Conn. “THE SANITARIAN Is the best Sanitary publication in America” (Mississippi Valley Medical Monthly); “Easily maintains its superiority over all similar publications” (Medical World); and “ Has accomplished more good than all of the other Sanitary papers put together” (Hydraulic and Sanitary Plumber). “Th Editor, Dr. A. N. 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With Illustrations. oe, ae. a THE prt tag “pot OF THE RAVEN (Corvus corax sineratus), A Guide to ~ copel of the Mus- cular § m in Birds. By R. W. SaureLpr. With numerous Illustrations. $4.00 THE FINDING OF WINELAND THE GOOD. The History of the Icelandic PEET, and Donon Kan tos Earliest pai of ARTHUR escape rope With "ume Piet seg of the Vellum MSS. e Sagas. 4to. Bound in half-vel $x THE ewe he A PAPERS OF JAMES CLERK cheered M. Kii LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. d by W. D. Niven, M.A., F.R.S. With Steel Portraits. Two vols. 4to. $25.00 Just Published. Part II. oy Illustrations.. 8vo. $1.90. A TEXT-BOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY. By M. MA; FRS. aga Edition, largely revised. Part III.—The Central Nervous System. With K Titeercations. 8vo. $1.90 srpte. 4 Published. Part 1.—Blood—The Tissues of Movement—The Vascular Mechanism. 8vo. $2.60. Part I1 e Tissues of Chemical Action, with their R Respective Mechanisms —Nutritions 8vo. $2.60. Science in Plain Language Series. ASTRONOMY: SUN, MOON, STARS, ETC. 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HODGES, 4I Tafayette Place, New York York NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR FEBRUARY, 1891. PERIODICALS. International Journal of Microscopy and Ratural Science , (Hontiiy), ii: d by ALF Life in Death, as Manifest in Falling Leaves. C pooh want of Ingenuity in the arr oe of rog Farming. ome Thoughts on Light. ( mere Parasitic in Poi dé cinerea. Some Remarks on the Puc attacking Galium. “he pe Tatianna Bacilius I Goant eta for: Vegetable Structures. fhe Study of Entomology à AEEY Zoophvte Tisai. wag en Sex! wit wae | the Pt Urdhins. ood from Wood. ‘he Elements of Microscopy. is soc Fah on the Heavens. SCIENCE (Weekly). recent pa akelas viile Bel, Teh. Fant TOW ge gre Poet b owe Thurst ton, H. T. Cresson, ’ Lieut. Bradley BE John T Se baer es-S. Mot, lacs Wilian way, Robert > m E Cnam chanti James, Cyrus Gallandet, W. M.I s, Joh Bow G. Wilder, i, Jota C ramer, 6. Bows Goode, Burt JM ark ne Philip i Gillet James L. Howe, Daniel GETTYSBURG THIRTY YEARS AFTER. Maj.-Gen. O. O. Howard. Maj.-Gen. Abner ati “A DELIBERATE BODY” HAS CHRISTIANITY FAILED? w Bec $ THE ede. THE CONVICT AND THE CHURCH. A adil, Ste MS, : ae aia H. The Count A Beta j.-Gen. Henry W. Slocum- Thos. B. Reed. The Des ~ a vis W "W Die fee Sa ; T ` Bate te Gan mai Wen Sey oe . The Governor 4 of Jana Jal me gmat Ouida. = e Father Ignatius- THE DEPOSITION. OF MR. | PARNELL. Justin McCarthy, M. P. ADVERTISEMENTS. Al PUBLICATIONS OF THE TORREY BOTANICAL CLUB. TAE BULLETIN. TERE MEMOIRS. Published monthly at $2.00 per year. Back volumes since 1870 can nearly all be supplied. Number of pages a month, 30-40. Many of the articles illus- trated with full-page engravings. Contain eer. 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FERRIS BROS., Publishers, S. W. Cor. Sixth and Arch Streets, Phila. Xt ADVERTISEMENTS. Say of It. PROF. EDWARD S. MORSE. I gladly avail myself of the chance of expressing my hearty admiration for The Century Dictionary, my estimate of i nute and i standard reference-book for every naturalist in the country. PROF. A. S. PACKARD. ye I purchased The Century Dictionary partly for the reason s that it combines the characteristics of a dictionary and encyclo HEAD OF LEAF-NOSED BAT, pedia, and also for its most excellent definitions of scientifc (Phyllorhina tridens) terms and admirable illustrations. I consider it as indispens- From Tue CENTURY DICTIONARY. the department of General Zoology, Biology, and Comparative Anatomy, with Theodore N. Gill, Edward H. Jenkins, Frank H. Knowlton, Arthur B. Seymou Lester F. Ward, Sereno Watson, and J. D. Whitney over various other departments of Natural History. ment of The Century Magazine. 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Correspondence with possible purchasers is solicited. ; aa Compiete — race of noe stage of Minerals free, = Geo. English & Co. 739 a 741 rad New Y Dealers in Minerals. 1512 Chestnut St., Philad : ESTA COVERS FOR ITHE NATURALIST -~ Handsomely stamped cloth covers for use in pindia _ Naruratisr have been prepared by the publishers, and will - r paid, on ore of price, 50 cents per vo > % COVERS FOR VOLUME XXIII. (1889) NOW READ FERRIS BROS., PUBLISHERS, PHILADE! AMERICAN ee + Son Pa to the EDITORS ONLY. : to > the PUBLISHERS ONLY: : | All Orders for Extra (or Reprint) | - MERICA ATURALIST. A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. APRIL, 1891. CONTENTS. PAGE En eo OF THE — INDIANS | Mineralogy and Petrography. — Petrographical ed], . | R. W. Shufeldt, 303 | News—Mineralogical News—New Minerals,. - Onicin OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS toplasmic Physics—Alcoholie ictal | . Botany.—Pro Me ie a ee C Ba y t Tor Faborito Work in = č Botany—A iew + n S- ZOUT, 307 |. Manual of Botany, - OF T THE PROG ` BRATE PALEONTOLOGY e ear FE ae en ot secu eae cack: ; of Corals— _— of the Salamander Diemye- a he a": . . Charles R. Taa | tylus viridescen Embryology. ihe Portal Membranes d Testu- Soon ‘Placenta or abe Rs e ogy o rng pomp: sic — f the e Echino ; igh a Ak Phy yaoi —Note on teat nstinct uae n —An Instance of the Black Snake EDUT T Hyatt and Arms on Insecta, Archeology and LEthnol one Eia gress of Archeology a Munich Association—The Mare of Microscopy.—The Pyenogonids—Method of R n- Pent O ei Nem - thod ses io Hydroids, Actinize, ete. SEA OF SCIENTIFIC SOCET. i SCIENTIFIC NEWS, - eee ‘al — Paleozo PHILADELPHIA: RRIS BROS., PUBLISHERS THE AMERICAN NATURALIST SO XXV. APRIL, 1891. 292. MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NAVAJO INDIANS. BY R. W. SHUFELDT, M.D. WHILE in New Mexico, a few years ago, the writer had abundant opportunities to study the various modes that the Navajo Indians resort to for the purpose of disposing of their dead. Heretofore it has been very generally supposed that this tribe practices but three well-defined methods of: burial, and it is never their custom to deviate from them. I find, however, that the Navajos may choose any one of four means of disposing of their deceased, and in this matter they are very much controlled by circumstances. First and by far the commonest method is the cliff burial, _ wherein the body of the man, woman, or child is removed from the lodge or “ hogan” where the death took place, and is carried to some neighboring cañon, deposited without much ceremony in any of its semi-horizontal rents or fissures in its sides, and there thoroughly covered and walled in with pieces of rock and smaller stones. Most frequently this is performed at dusk, and the body of the deceased may be dressed in clothes that the indi- vidual possessed and valued during life. I have often seen their dead children decked out in’buckskin garments, and wearing both bracelets and necklace of beads. The “ hogan” in which the Sick person succumbed is either abandoned or immediately burned, but in no event is it ever occupied by any of the tribe 304 The American Naturalist. [April, again. They havea notion that the devil (Chinde) long haunts the locality where death has taken place, and they all shun it After a burial the burial party thoroughly wash themselves and- make a complete change of clothing. Often wolves or other wild animals may succeed in getting at a body thus placed in a rocky cleft, and, pulling it dut, devour it, and the bones subse- quently come to be scattered about in the neighborhood of the grave. This has led many to believe that the Navajos are.care- — less of their dead, though there is no truth in this. A few years ago I remembered very well the danger that attended my efforts to secure a few Navajo skulls for Professor Sir William Turner, of the University of Edinburgh. It came to the ears of these Indians in the vicinity, and I was repeatedly cautioned not to make the attempt to carry out my designs. On another occasion I was at the Navajo agency, Fort Defiance, in Northwestern New Mexico, and while there I learned that some fifty or sixty of these Indians had been buried at different times, extending over many years, in a kind of a cave up among the rocks of aneighboring cafion. I postponed my investigation of the place until daylight of the last day of my stay there, not breathing my plans to any one’in the interim. With a large bag rolled up under my arm, and my ambulance awaiting my return atthe entrance of the gorge, I climbed up to the place in a blind- ing snowstorm. Notwithstanding all my precautions, however, my reputation had gone ahead of me, and I found armed Indians posted in several localities, evidently there to resist my depreda- tions at any hazard. They showed their agitation upon a approach, and I returned unsuccessful. Skulls of these Indians were, nevertheless, secured by me at a later date, and are now 1m the anatomical museum at the Edinburgh University. Se Secondly, we may have what I will call here the brush burial, ee and it is resorted to principally in those cases where illness has been long and protracted and no hope for recovery is enterrat The patient is then taken out of the hogan, especially if P ge she be old in years, and is carried to some secluded spot 1# the vicinity of their camp. Here the sufferer is densely surrounc®” with brush-cuttings as a protection against wild animals, and $ 1891.] Mortuary Customs of the Navajo Indians. 305 either at once abandoned to fate, or else may be fed from time to time by relatives until death comes in relief. Navajos believe that an evil spirit or devil is at the bottom of everything that has in.any way anything to do with death, and they rarely speak of their dead, for fear of offending the evil „one; and it has been said that one of these Indians will freeze to death rather than build a fire for himself out of the logs of a hogan wherein one of their number has died. Next, or in the third place, the Navajos will resort to grave- digging as a means sometimes of disposing of their dead, and of this method I have seen one or two examples. While living at Fort Wingate, New Mexico, a few years since, there was a drunken brawl among some of those Indians at a hogan ona hill within a few steps of my house. During the fracas a Navajo squaw was shot and killed. The following day the party pulled down the hogan and burned it, and, wrapping the body of the woman in some cocoa coffee-sacks obtained at the trader’s, they buried her on the spot in a grave so shallow that she was hardly covered from sight. A heavy log or two was placed to protect the corpse against dogs and wolves, and the place was abandoned. A year afterwards I secured her skull, and at this writing it adorns the top of one of the bookcases in my study. In none of these burials do any ceremonies ever seem to be indulged in by the Indians; but it has been reported that the mourners, after the death of a relative, smear their foreheads and under their eyes with tar obtained from the piñon tree, leaving it there until it wears off, and do not renew it. I have never observed any custom of this character. Others have said that in the event of a Navajo dying and leaving no kin, the lodge of the deceased is pulled down over his or her dead body, stones piled over it, with a few branches and mud, and the vicinity is at once deserted. Instances of this kind must also be rare, and it has never been my fortune to see a similar case. Sometimes the shallow grave is dug within the hogan, and the latter pulled down over it, and the Indians move away from the place as usual. aa 306 The American Naturalist. [April, Fourthly, and last of all, the Navajos may occasionally resort to a tree burial. This practice with them, however, must be extremely rare, and up to the present writing I have succeeded in collecting but one instance of it. This occurred at about a mile from Fort Wingate, and its locality, as well as the mode of placing the body in the tree, are well shown in the plate illus- trating this article, and which is a copy from a photograph. The deceased was a child, and its body was wrapped in a Navajo blanket and carried up into a large piñon tree to a horizontal limb about fifteen feet above the ground, At that point a rude platform had been constructed of dead and broken limbs, but the whole so arranged that after the body had been laid in its final resting. place it supported it perfectly, and that completely in the horizontal position. I have never ascertained the name of the family of Indians to which this child belonged, nor why in its case they were led to make such a remarkable departure from their more common mortuary customs. Perhaps in times gone by some of the Navajos may have witnessed the practices of other tribes who were “tree-buriers,” and thus had the idea suggested to them. All such theories, however, are purely speculative in the light of the meagre data now at my hand on this form burial, though it in no way diminishes the interest that attaches to the settlement of such a point. Jae A PLALE iy, a -A Navajo TREE BURIAL. 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 307 ON THE ORIGIN OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS. BY G. BAUR. (Continued from page 229.) STARTED with the sentence that continental islands must have a harmonic flora and fauna. Inthe Galapagos we found absolute harmony; my conclusion, therefore, is: Zhe Galapagos are continental islands, originated through subsidence ; they all formed at a past period one large island, and this island itself was at a still former period in connection with the American conti- ‘nent. This result is in direct opposition to the opinion of all authors whovhave worked on this group of islands, like Darwin, Hooker, Salvin, Grisebach, Engler, M. Wagner, Wallace, Peschel. All declare that these islands are of recent volcanic origin, that they have emerged out of the sea through volcanic activity, and that they have become peopled from the continent succes- sively. Henri Milne-Edwards alone holds a different opinion ; he believes that the Galapagos represent the remains of a former continent, and in this opinion I agree. . The principal reason of the believers of the elevation theory is the volcanic condition of the islands. But I do not see any diffi- culty in that. If mountain ranges like the Himalayas, the Alps, the Andes, the Rocky Mountains, could be elevated thousands and thousands of feet, why could not subsidence take place in other places? If Central America should disappear by-and-by through subsidence, the result would be that the tops of the highest mountains would form volcanic islands, some with still active volcanoes. This would be exactly the condition we see to-day in the Galapagos. I think, therefore, that the volcanic nature of a group of islands is no positive proof of its recent origin. Such groups of islands can be just as well considered as formed by the tops of the volcanic mountains of a sunken part of a continent. But at first let us consider how the facts of the distribution of flora and fauna agree with the elevation theory. Islands which Spang Collection of Mine We have just purchased the celebrated mineral collection of | Norman Spang, of Pittsburg, numbering between À specimens, many of them large and magnificent. We offer it sale, entire, until November 15th, for $10,000. If not disposed” by that date, it will be broken up and sold at retail. a with possible purchasers is solicited. Complete eR Catalogue of our Stock of Minerals free, ound in cloth, 25 cents Geo. L. English & Co. 739 and 741 haa New! Dealers in Minerals. 1512 Chestnut St., Phil el COVERS FOR THE NATURA Handsomely stamped cloth covers for use in binding Narturatist have been prepared by the publishers, and sent, postage paid, on pi of price, 50 cents Pe vo COVERS FOR VOLUME XXIII. (1889) NOW READ FERRIS BROS., PuBLISHERS, S. W. COR. SIXTH AND ARCH STREETS, PHILAP Send Cikta tutions to S iie EDITORS ONLY. Send to the PUBLISHERS ONLY: All Orders for Extra (or Reprint) ~ All Proofs of Texts and Engr: a a NOTE.—a a oe reprint or he copies must ~ before the number containing the article ar otherwise none will be furnished. IHE AMERICAN ATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. APRIL, 1801. CONTENTS K PAGE ame OF THE oeer INDIANS Mineralogy and Petrography. — P rated], . R. W. Shufeldt, 303 News—Mincralogical News—New Minerals, . ea OF THE GALAPAGO: i Botany.—Protopļasmic Physics—Alco oholic Material a ees r, 307 | fr Laboratory Workin in = stematic a g pee ; Manual of Botany, | Zoology. —Reproduction « oft Gauan te Growth R THE YEAR of Corals—The Changes e 8 yobs E 3 Chas 538 es R. Keyes, 327 | tylus viridescens,. . - | OF THE VERTEBRATE HEAD Embryolo, a e W. Norris, 334 Bane IF Bonn gitar the Morph ogy of the Bi meal ral Ciliated Bands gens Echinoderm 343 |. Larvee.. . Physiology. ee on Japati nstinct in Ani 356 | An Instance of the Black S Sankt Attacking Mao, TURE —Hiyat and Arms on Insecta, 358 and Bthnole —International Con- Sere ic Ethnology —The AND PAMPHLETS, Pe eae ae Sn On s Collection of PROCEEDINGS OF ‘Serre Soc SctENTIFIC NEWS, ate ees pone PHILADELPHIA: - RIS BROS., PUBLISHERS THE AMERICAN NATURALIST VoL. XXV: APRIL, 1891. 292. MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NAVAJO INDIANS. BY R. W. SHUFELDT, M.D. HILE in New Mexico, a few years ago, the writer had abundant opportunities to study the various modes that the Navajo Indians resort to for the purpose of disposing of their dead. Heretofore it has been very generally supposed that this tribe practices but three well-defined methods of' burial, and it is never their custom to deviate from them. I find, however, that the Navajos may choose any one of four means of disposing of their deceased, and in this matter they are very much controlled by circumstances. First and by far the commonest method is the cliff burial, wherein the body of the man, woman, or child is removed from the lodge or “ hogan” where the death took place, and is carried to some neighboring cañon, deposited without much ceremony in any of its semi-horizontal rents or fissures in its sides, and there thoroughly covered and walled in with pieces of rock and smaller stones. Most frequently this is performed at dusk, and the body of the deceased may be dressed in clothes that the indi- vidual possessed and valued during life. I have often seen their dead children decked out in’buckskin garments, and wearing both bracelets and necklace of beads. The “ hogan” in which the sick person succumbed is either abandoned or immediately burned, but in no event is it ever occupied by any of the tribe 4 304 The American Naturalist. [April, again. They have a notion that the devil (C/zude) long haunts — the locality where death has taken place, and they all shun it After a burial the burial party thoroughly wash themselves and- make a complete change of clothing. Often wolves or other wild animals may succeed in getting at a body thus placed in a rocky cleft, and, pulling it ðut, devour it, and the bones subse- quently come to be scattered about in the neighborhood of the grave. This has led many to believe that the Navajos are. care- less of their dead, though there is no truth in this. A few years ago I remembered very well the danger that attended my efforts to secure a few Navajo skulls for Professor Sir William Turner, of the University of Edinburgh. It came to the ears of these Indians in the vicinity, and I was repeatedly cautioned not to make the attempt to carry out my designs. On another occasion I was at the Navajo agency, Fort Defiance, in Northwestern New Mexico, and while there I learned that some fifty or sixty of these Indians had been buried at different times, extending over many years, in a kind of a cave up among the rocks of aneighboring cafion. I postponed my investigation of the place until daylight of the last day of my stay there, not breathing my plans to any one*in the interim. With a large bag rolled up under my arm, and my ambulance awaiting my retu — atthe entrance of the gorge, I climbed up to the place in a blind- ing snowstorm. Notwithstanding all my precautions, however, a my reputation had gone ahead of me, and I found armed Indians oe posted in several localities, evidently there to resist my depreda- E be tions at any hazard. They showed their agitation upon as - approach, and I returned unsuccessful. Skulls of these Indians 5 were, nevertheless, secured by me at a later date, and are now . the anatomical museum at the Edinburgh University. a Secondly, we may have what I will call here the brush burial, | and it is resorted to principally in those cases where illness bas ce been long and protracted and no hope for recovery is ene The patient is then taken out of the hogan, especially i she be old in years, and is carried to some secluded spot ® | vicinity of their camp. Here the sufferer is densely SUTON i. with brush-cuttings as a protection against wild animals, oe 1891] Mortuary Customs of the Navajo Indians. 305 either at once abandoned to fate, or else may be fed from time to time by relatives until death comes in relief. Navajos believe that an evil spirit or devil is at the bottom of everything that has in.any way anything to do with death, and they rarely speak of their dead, for fear of offending the evil one; and it has been said that one of these Indians will freeze to death rather than build a fire for himself out of the logs of a hogan wherein one of their number has died. Next, or in the third place, the Navajos will resort to grave- digging as a means sometimes of disposing of their dead, and of this method I have seen one or two examples. While living at Fort Wingate, New Mexico, a few years since, there was a drunken brawl among some of those Indians at a hogan ona hill within a few steps of my house. During the fracas a Navajo squaw was shot and killed. The following day the party pulled down the hogan and burned it, and, wrapping the body of the woman in some cocoa coffee-sacks obtained at the trader’s, they buried her on the spot in a grave so shallow that she was hardly covered from sight. A heavy log or two was placed to protect the corpse against dogs and wolves, and the place was abandoned. A year afterwards I secured her skull, and at this writing it adorns the top of one of the bookcases in my study. In none of these burials do any ceremonies ever seem to be indulged in by the Indians; but it has been reported that the mourners, after the death of a relative, smear their foreheads and under their eyes with tar obtained from the pifion tree, leaving it there until it wears off, and do not renew it. I have never observed any custom of this character. Others have said that in the event of a Navajo dying and leaving no kin, the lodge of the deceased is pulled down over his or her dead body, stones piled over it, with a few branches and mud, and the vicinity is at once deserted. Instances of this kind must also be rare, and it has never been my fortune to see a Similar case. Sometimes the shallow grave is dug within the hogan, and the latter pulled down over it, and the Indians move away from the place as usual. 306 The American Naturalist. [April, Fourthly, and last of all, the Navajos may occasionally resort to a tree burial. This practice with them, however, must be extremely rare, and up to the present writing I have succeeded in collecting but one instance of it. This occurred at about a mile from Fort Wingate, and its locality, as well as the mode of | placing the body in the tree, are well shown in the plate illus- trating this article, and which is a copy from a photograph. The deceased was a child, and its body was wrapped in a Navajo blanket and carried up into a large piñon tree to a horizontal limb about fifteen feet above the ground. At that point a rude platform had been constructed of dead and broken limbs, but the whole so arranged that after the body had been laid in its final resting place it supported it perfectly, and that completely in the horizontal position. I have never ascertained the name of the family of Indians to which this child belonged, nor why in its case they were led to make such a remarkable departure from their more common mortuary customs. Perhaps in times gone by some of the Navajos may have witnessed the practices of other tribes who were “tree-buriers,” and thus had the idea suggested to them. All such theories, however, are purely speculative in the light of the meagre data now at my hand on this form of burial, though it in no way diminishes the interest that attaches to the settlement of such a point. EN a PLATE A. -A Navajo TREE BURIAL. 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 307 ON THE ORIGIN OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS. BY G. BAUR. (Continued from page 229.) i STARTED with the sentence that continental islands must have a harmonic flora and fauna. In the Galapagos we found absolute harmony; my conclusion, therefore, is: Zhe Galapagos are continental islands, originated through subsidence ; they all formed at a past period one large island, and this island itself was at a still former period in connection with the American conti- ‘nent. This result is in direct opposition to the opinion of all authors who*have worked on this group of islands, like Darwin, Hooker, Salvin, Grisebach, Engler, M. Wagner, Wallace, Peschel. All declare that these islands are of recent volcanic origin, that they have emerged out of the sea through volcanic activity, and that they have become peopled from the continent succes- sively. Henri Milne-Edwards alone holds a different opinion ; he believes that the Galapagos represent the remains of a former continent, and in this opinion I agree. The principal reason of the believers of the elevation theory is the volcanic condition of the islands. But I do not see any diffi- culty in that. If mountain ranges like the Himalayas, the Alps, the Andes, the Rocky Mountains, could be elevated thousands and thousands of feet, why could not subsidence take place in other places? If Central America should disappear by-and-by through subsidence, the result would be that the tops of the highest mountains would form volcanic islands, some with still active volcanoes. This would be exactly the condition we see to-day in the Galapagos. I think, therefore, that the volcanic nature of a group of islands is no positive proof of its recent origin. Such groups of islands can be just as well considered as formed by the tops of the volcanic mountains of a sunken part of a continent. But at first let us consider how the facts of the distribution of flora and fauna agree with the elevation theory. Islands which 308 The American Naturalist. ~ (April, emerge from the sea can only be peopled accidentally, and must have a disharmonic flora and fauna. This is seen in all such islands, like the coral islands, which originated in this way. But in the Galapagos we found absolute harmony. Besides that we would have the greatest difficulty in explaining the presence of such peculiar forms as the gigantic land tortoises and the large lizards and the snakes, and so on; and again we would have the greatest difficulty to explain the peculiar distribution of the forms, ~ and their peculiar differentiation on the more peripheral islands. — To take only one example, how is it imaginable to explain the presence of these gigantic tortoises, some of which reach a weight of 700 pounds? They have not been introduced by man. When the islands were discovered by the Spaniards in the sixteenth cen- tury they were present in enormous numbers, like the other ani- mals. According to the elevation theory we can only think of an accidental importation of these tortoises by some current, be- cause they are quite unable to swim. After the islands had been elevated from the sea, and some vegetation had found its place there, it happened once, by a peculiar accident, that a land tortoise was carried over to the island. Alone it was helpless; it could not propagate. This was only possible after a similar accident imported another specimen of the same species, of the other sex, to the same island. Or we could imagine that at the same time animals of both sexes were thus accidentally introduced. By this we could at least explain the population of a single island. Bot l how did all the other islands become populated? To explain this — we would have to invoke a thousand accidents. But how can wê explain that the members of one genus reached all the islands, — _ and again those of another genus all the islands? ow can cee explain that each island has a peculiar form of these genera? With one word, how can we explain the harmony of distribution i the theory of elevation? All this is simply unexplainable by this theory. a The theory of subsidence, however, explains every point inato absolutely easy manner. All islands were connected together_at a former period ; at this time the number of species must bar been small ; through isolation the peculiar specialization of the 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 309 species began ; an originally single species was differentiated in many different forms; every island developed its peculiar races. What seems to me to be a support of the subsidence theory is the fact mentioned by Wolf, that the flora of the Galapagos at elevations of about goo feet is typically that of the Andes at an elevation of 9,000 feet. How could this alpine flora be explained by the theory of elevation ; what is the reason that plants charac- teristic of an elevation of 9,000 feet are found at an elevation of 900 feet? This peculiar fact is also explicable by the theory of subsidence. I have shown above that an elevation of 300 fathoms, or 550 m., would bring together all the central islands. There are two lines of soundings made by the Fish Commission Steamer “Albatross,” one between the Galapagos and Panama, and one to Acapulco. The deepest sounding of the first line is 1,927 fath- oms (3,470 m.), at 6° 44’ N., 80° 27’ W.; that of the other is 2,256 fathoms, at 11° 45’ N., 97° 3’ W. We need only an elevation of about 10,000 feet to connect the Galapagos with America. This would give the highest mountain on the Galapagos an elevation of 14,700 feet. This height is reached by many mountains and very often surpassed. The eleva- ticn of goo feet on the Galapagos of to-day would correspond to an elevation of 10,900 feet. This is, of course, only an approximate value, which may be less or more. But there is no very great difficulty in adopting such an amount of subsidence. The next question is, Is it not possible to determine during which geological period this subsidence of the Galapagos grup, which we have to accept, has taken place? If any form becomes isolated for long a time it preserves the original general character that it possessed at the time of its isolation. This we see very well exemplified by the study of isolated dialects of a language. Í believe, therefore, that the peculiar genera we find to-day on the Galapagos have not originated there, but have been preserved in their old condition. Let us again take the tortoises as an exam- ple. The tortoises found on these islands belong to the true land tortoises Testudinidz ; they represent, together with the forms from the islands round Madagascar and the peculiar Manouria from India and the Sunda Islands, the oldest living representatives of ee 310 The American Naturalist. [April, the family. The paleontological history of the Testudinide reaches back to the Bridger Eocene. From this formation the oldest land tortoise, Hadrianus, has been recorded, which is nearly related to Manouria, characterized by the double caudal-shield, as in the Emydide. Forms very much like those from the Gala- pagos we find in the Miocene. We do not go too far to say that it is probable that during the Eocene period, and possibly a little later, the Galapagos were still in connection with the continent. The important question is, Where was this connection? In their general characters the fauna and flora of the Galapagos show resemblances to the great Mexican and Sonoran province, and also to the West Indies. And it may be that the connection was with these regions (and it seems more probable than any other), but of course it is quite impossible to bring to-day any posi- tive proof for this idea. It would appear that the whole west- coast of America has undergone subsidence. We find there a great number of islands: Prince Wales, Queen Charlotte, Van- couver, Santa Barbara, Guadaloupe, and so on. That all these islands have been in connection with the continent at a former period seems to be certain. They appear as the result of subsidence. The Revilla Gigedo Islands are in the line of this sunken district. Farther south we find the small island Clipperton, and in a southeastern direction the Galapagos. Between Clipper- ton and the Galapagos two islands, Duncan and Galego, have been : recorded ; but they are of a doubtful nature,—at least they have not been seen again in latter times. But could we not imagine that they have disappeared in the course of this and the last century by subsidence ? Near the Mexican coast we have the Tres Marias Islands. These are considered as continental even by Wallace; but the mor distant Socorro of the Revilla Gigedos are considered by Wallace _ as oceanic. Wallace believes, therefore, in subsidence in regard to the Tres Marias, in elevation in regard to the Revilla Gigedos, simply because there are no mammals on the barren Revita Gigedos, and because they are placed within the thousand-fathom line. The fauna of the Revilla Gigedos is typical of that of lowèf California and the Sonoran province, and I believe also that the =i 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 311 Revilla Gigedos are nothing buta part of the American continent ; they are also, like the Galapagos, within the 4000 m. line. South of the Galapagos we have the islands Felice and Juan Fernandez, with their peculiar flora and fauna. It is not possible to determine whether there has been any connection between these islands and the Galapagos, but the fact that we find on the Galapagos three forms of Antarctic animals, which reach the most northern limit in this group, is to be mentioned. These animals are the Otaria jubata, Arctocephalus australis, and the peculiar penguin, Spheniscus mendiculus Sundev., only found on the Galapagos. Another interesting point is that the albatross, which ” so far as I know has only been described as breeding from the southern islands, especially Tristan daCunha, breeds on Hood's Island, as observed by Delano and Wolf. Much work remains to be done. A great number of systematic deep-sea soundings have to be made between these different groups of islands and the continent. And the islands themselves have to be examined very carefully. We know nothing at all about the fauna and flora of the isolated Clipperton Island and Malpelo; we hardly know anything about Cocos Island, which seems to be in many respects quite different from the others, having a more tropical appearance. An enormous and highly interesting field of research is here open. After all this has been done, we may be able to discuss fully the question of the connection of the different islands. One thing, however, we assume to-day: the probability of the origin of the Galapagos through subsidence. But if this be probable for the Galapagos, how is it with the Sandwich Islands, for instance; so far as they are known they seem to be of the same harmonic nature in flora and- fauna. Have they not originated in the same way ? How about the other islands in the Pacific, and how about the theory of the consistency of the Pacific Ocean? Is this theory really estab- lished on a sound basis ? | We now ‘come to another very important question, What is the reason of the variation of the forms on the different islands ? In other words, What is the origin of the different species of the different Tos ? 310 The American Naturalist. [April, the family. The paleontological history of the Testudinide reaches back to the Bridger Eocene. From this formation the oldest land tortoise, Hadrianus, has been recorded, which is nearly related to Manouria, characterized by the double caudal-shield, as in the Emydide. Forms very much like those from the Gala- pagos we find in the Miocene. We do not go too far to say that it is probable that during the Eocene period, and possibly a little later, the Galapagos were still in connection with the continent. The important question is, Where was this connection? In their general characters the fauna and flora of the Galapagos show resemblances to the great Mexican and Sonoran province, and also to the West Indies. And it may be that the connection was with these regions (and it seems more probable than any other), but of course it is quite impossible to bring to-day any posi- tive proof for this idea. It would appear that the whole west coast of America has undergone subsidence. We find there a great number of islands: Prince Wales, Queen Charlotte, Van- couver, Santa Barbara, Guadaloupe, and so on. That all these islands have been in connection with the continent at a former period seems to be certain. They appear as the result of subsidence. The Revilla Gigedo Islands are in the line of this sunken district. Farther south we find the small island Clipperton, and in a southeastern direction the Galapagos. Between Clipper- ton and the Galapagos two islands, Duncan and Galego, have been ` recorded; but they are of a doubtful nature, —at least they have not been seen again in latter times. But could we not imagine that they have disappeared in the course of this and the last century by subsidence ? Near the Mexican coast we have the Tres Marias Islands. These are considered as continental even by Wallace; but the more distant Socorro of the Revilla Gigedos are considered by Wallace as oceanic. Wallace believes, therefore, in subsidence in regard to the Tres Marias, in elevation in regard to the Revilla Gigedos, simply because there are no mammals on the barren Revita Gigedos, and because they are placed within the thousand-fathom line. The fauna of the Revilla Gigedos is typical of that of lowe California and the Sonoran province, and I believe also that YY `% 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 311 Revilla Gigedos are nothing but a part of the American continent ; they are also, like the Galapagos, within the 4000 m. line. South of the Galapagos we have the islands Felice and Juan Fernandez, with their peculiar flora and fauna. It is not possible to determine whether there has been any connection between these islands and the Galapagos, but the fact that we find on the Galapagos three forms of Antarctic animals, which reach the most northern limit in this group, is to be mentioned. These animals are the Otaria jubata, Arctocephalus australis, and the peculiar penguin, Spheniscus mendiculus Sundev., only found on the Galapagos. Another interesting point is that the albatross, which so far as I know has only been described as breeding from the southern islands, especially Tristan daCunha, breeds on Hood's Island, as observed by Delano and Wolf. Much work remains to be done. A great number of systematic deep-sea soundings have to be made between these different groups of islands and the continent. And the islands themselves have to be examined very carefully. We know nothing at all about the fauna and flora of the isolated Clipperton Island and Malpelo; we hardly know anything about Cocos Island, which seems to be in many respects quite different from the others, having a more tropical appearance. An enormous and highly interesting field of research is here open. After all this has been done, we may be able to discuss fully the question of the connection of the different islands. One thing, however, we assume to-day: the probability of the origin of the Galapagos through subsidence. But if this be probable for the Galapagos, how is it with the Sandwich Islands, for instance; so far as they are known they seem to be of the same harmonic nature in flora and fauna. Have they not originated in the same way ? How about the other islands in the Pacific, and how about the theory of the consistency of the Pacific Ocean? Is this theory really estab- lished on a sound basis ? . We now ‘come to another very important question, What is the reason of the variation of the forms on the different islands ? -In other words, What is the origin of the different species of the different islands ? 312 The American Naturalist. [April, Of all the forms from the islands, the genus Tropidurus is best known. The most divergent species of this genus we find on Abingdon on one side, and on Hood on the other. On Abing- don we also find a peculiar species of Nesomimus, of Certhidea, of Cactornis, of Testudo, and probably of Geospiza. On Hood Island we also find a peculiar species of Nesomimus, of Certhidea, of Geospiza (Cactornis has not yet been discovered), and of Testudo. These forms are entirely different from each other, and different from the forms of the central islands. What is the reason of this difference? The fact is that a// forms of an island become modified, and not alone a single species; the plants and the different groups of animals all at the same time. There must be a common cause which produces this effect. And . this cause can only be looked for in the surroundings, in the physical conditions of each island. That there is a difference among these islands is evident. All the lower islands do not reach the damp region; they must be therefore in quite a different physical state. Some of these islands are without a drop of fresh water; others are furnished with this element. This difference must have - a different effect on the same forms of animal and vegetable life. I have expressed the opinion that when these islands were still in connection, forming one large island, there was probably only asingle species of Tropidurus, Testudo, Nesomimus, and so on. There were probably certain small local variations, but they were not so expressed, being not separated; and besides that any new characters appearing were checked by intercrossing. We® could imagine, for instance, that the large island had the higher moist region over its whole extent; the effect would have been that humidity was spread more equally over the whole island. , If a certain portion ‘became separated, and lost that upper horizom, it was at once in a fundamentally different condition. This affect ed the flora and fauna; and the flora again the fauna. All these changes, of course, must have gone on very gradually. te From these considerations we may proceed to get an expe tion of the variation. Hoffmann and others have succeeded, i the course of several years, in changing wild plants by cultiva, tion in gardens. Thus Hoffman could change the wild carrot 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 313 considerably, and this change became inherited. Let us con- sider what was done in this case. The wild carrot was isolated from the others, and brought under different conditions ; it received, for instance, more food, and the effect was the change. It is exactly in the same way that we have to explain the change of forms on the different islands ; an arid, dry island must have a different effect on an organism than a fertile and moist island. The different condition produces a different effect, and thus a different form. If the conditions were absolutely the same, the effect would be the same. Let us imagine that we have a form A, which has, and so have its ancestors, been for a long time in the same conditions. This form A will be represented at a certain moment by very numerous individuals of different age, between the egg and the senile stage. Now let us change the conditions; the change will affect this long series of individuals of the same species in a very different way. The new-born will react differently from the senile form. But among this long series of individuals there will be a certain number of organisms which will be most plastic, as I may express it, to the stimulus of the new conditions. The senile forms, for instance, probably are not affect- ed at all; they die out through senility. Between these and the egg-stage, however, certain members must be in the condition which I call most plastic. The different individuals may be ex- pressed according to their age, A’, A?, A7, A‘, A’, . A", the oldest individual, disappears by senility aaa Am takes its place ; the whole series is moved one line; the individuals of the greatest plasticity, for instance, do not remain the same, but are replaced by the next younger group. In this way a constant flow takes place, which continues until harmony is rachel again between the individuals and the conditions. I may explain this a little better by an example. The different stages of a plant, from the youngest to the oldest, may be expressed in a certain moment by A', A?, A’, At, A5, . . A> Now new conditions begin to appear, for instance, W tie grad- ual disappearance of water. The result will be that the plant has to depend on less food than before; the large forms which have _ become so large through ample food will die out through senility ; 314 The American Naturaust. [April others come in their place, but these will not develop so highly, because the necessary food is not given. The younger forms have to depend from the beginning on less food, and cannot grow to such extent as their ancestors ; the result probably would be the evolution of a smaller race. This will become constant as soon as it is in harmony with the surroundings. We can easily imagine a differentiation on the same spot, through the change of condi- tions ; but great effects are produced by isolation. Ifa part of the individuals of a certain form become separated, the slightest difference in the conditions of the new locality must work on the individuals, until harmony is produced. The absence of inter- crossing of the separated forms will preserve the characters of each. I shall give an example for both cases, taken from the well- known communications of Vladimir Schmankewitsch. _ Let us imagine that the brine shrimp (Artemia salina) is liv- ing in a salt-water lake which is supplied with fresh water by a river. Through some cause this river may be prevented from — emptying its waters in the lake, being forced to take another course. — The result will be that the water will increase gradually in density. By this gradual change Artemia salina will be transformed into ‘A. muhlhausenti. Of course it is impossible that any adult Artemia is changeable ; but the changed conditions will have an effect on the egg and the younger plastic stages; the old forms will disappear. The young ones will change until harmony with the surroundings is restored. Exactly the same will take place if 4 a salina is brought from its original locality to another place, t which the density of the water is greater than on the original local- De ity. In the first instance a new species originates on the same spot, through the change of conditions ; in the second a portion of Ry the individuals becoming isolated from the original stock devel- op into a new form, This whole consideration is based on continuous growth, and on the fact that members of the same form are in a differel stage of plasticity at a different age. If the harmony of a certain group is affected by the intercourse of any disturbing factor," other words, if the conditions are changed,—a general alarm raised in the group until harmony is reéstablished. Imay © =- 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 315 this process the process of harmonic growth, founded on the plasticity of the younger individuals. I believe that most of the variation goes on in certain definite directions produced by the conditions, this word taken in the widest sense. I do not believe that species originate through indefinite variation, produced by ‘the mingling of different germ-plasmas on which natyral selec- tion works. I am inclined to: believe that any change must stimulate the organism, and I think it is this stimulus which affects the germ-plasma just as well as the somatic plasma, if we want to make any such artificial distinction. Perhaps we may be allowed to make some remarks in this con- nection about the inheritance of acquired characters. If any form shows a new character produced during the lifetime of the form, and not dependent upon any portion of the germ-plasma, we speak, in Weismann’s meaning, of an acquired character of this form. I may use a very clear example, taken from Darwin: “ The natives of the Amazonian region feed the common green parrot (Chrysotes festiva L.) with the fat of large Siluroid fishes, and the birds thus treated become beautifully variegated with red and yellow feathers. In the Malayan Archipelago the natives of Gilolo alter, in an analogous manner, the colors of another parrot, namely the Lorius garrulus L., and thus produce the Lori rajah or King Lory. These parrots in the Malay Islands and South America, when fed by the natives on natural vegetable food, such as rice and plantains, retain their proper colors.” Now here we have an acquired character. Will it be inherited? Certainly not, ifthe animal is fed with its natural food; but it will appear again when the animal receives the food producing the peculiar color. Another example: If an alpine plant is trans- ported to a botanical garden, and has become different from the alpine form, it has acquired a new character. The question is, Is this character “ inherited” by the next generation? The answer will be yes, if the conditions that produced this new character remain ; for instance, if we leave the plant in the botanical garden. The answer will be xo, if we change the conditions that pro- duced that new character; for instance, if we bring the plant back to its original locality. 316 The American Naturalist. April, Hoffmann has given to the wild carrot a new character through long cultivation ; this character has become inherited,—that is to say, seeds of the plants showing this acquired character show it _ again if placed in the same conditions. But let us plant the seeds in the original place; they do not receive the food they had in the cultivated ground, and will in a very short time fall back to the original wild state; simply, as it seems, because the conditions under which the character appeared are not given any more. The word inheritance is very often used in an absolutely wrong and misleading way. We cannot speak of direct inherit- ance of an acquired character; what is called here inheritance is simply the reappearance of the acquired character under the same — i stimulus; it is not, strictly speaking, inherited. For instance, we cannot say that the reduction of the biting muscles of lap-dogs is directly inherited. The biting muscles are simply kept low by the effect of the peculiar soft food that these animals receive, and — by their peculiar mode of living ; but if we change the food and ' k bring the animal into different conditions, these muscles will increase again. Inheritanċe is somewhat comparable to reflex motion and automatic motion. Inheritance in its beginning is comparable to reflex motion,—that is to say, a certain character appears undera certain stimulus. Inheritance is comparable to automatic motion oA when a certain character appears without that stimulus. In other” - words, the germ is first reflective, then automatic. oe The difference between my opinion and that of Weismann is this: According to Weismann, the mingling of germ-plasma of different individuals produces variation, on which natural selection acis 2 According to my opinion, variation is the product of the stimulus of the conditions on the germ and somatic plasm ; it is therefore definite. Variation goes on in certain definite lines. It is the surroundings which change the germ and somatic plasm, W! s ; determine variation. E That variation goes in definite lines, determined by the cond tions in which the organism lives, is admitted by all those W" ever studied species; I mean by all those who studied, for instanc®, all the representatives of a single genus and its g bye ses a ees _ 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 317 distribution ; the researches of Joel A. Allen and Dr. Merriam are highly instructive in this line. It is also admitted by nearly all paleontologists. I have expressed the opinion that “ inheritance ” takes place only after a very long repetition of the same stimulus on an organism. Why is it not imaginable that under certain conditions, when the organization, instead of receiving an endless repetition of a stimulus, suddenly receives a single most effective stimulus, that thé effects are inherited, and appear for some gen- erations? I do not want to be misunderstood; I do not believe in the general inheritance of mutilations ; nobody can believe in such atheory. But that certain mutilations, under certain con- ditions, may ġe inherited, this I think is a possibility which cannot be entirely neglected. And we have to consider such cases, dark and unexplainable as they appear. Of course, in the origin of species, I do not think that this question is of any importance, If even certain mutilations in nature weuld become inherited, they could not have any influence whatever on the great harmonic number of the same species. I do not think that a species has ever been developed through inheritance of a mutilation. I think we are yet far from understanding the true nature of inheritance. ` The objection will be made to me that I do not consider the sexes at all. To this I may reply that I am not inclined at pres- ent to lay so much stress on the effects of the mingling of differ- ent germ-plasmas. This mingling doubtless produces slighter or greater individual variation, and is certainly one factor of varia- tion. But we have to consider that nearly all our researches on variation in this respect are based on domesticated ‘organisms, which are, of course, under entirely different conditions from those in free natyre. I can only think that certain even apparently most useful variations, created by the mingling of the germ-plasmas, must soon be swallowed up by the governing mass of harmonic forms, and are thus generally unable to develop a new branch. I consider sexual union more as a stimulative than a formative factor. The same causes that produce variation in asexual must produce variation in sexual animals. What we have to do is to study species and variation in nature; to study ir conditions of life, their surroundings; to find out how these 318 The American Naturalist. [April are in relation to each other. Such a work, in fact, has never been done. Dr. Merriam has undertaken such a task, however, for some of the American mammals, n There is no other place on the whole earth which affords better opportunities for such a work than the Galapagos. Here we have the original natural conditions, hardly influenced by man. If all the variations of the forms on this group of islands, or even only the variations of a few genera, are studied, and the conditions of each variation are examined, then we may perhaps be able to express a more definite opinion on the causes of variation itself. Such work ought to be done defore it is too late. I repeat, before it is too late! Or it may happen that the natural history of the Galapagos will be lost, as it has unfortunately beén lost in so many islands; for instance, of St. Helena and the Mascarenes, lost forever, irreparably ! If I can succeed in raising the necessary funds, I shall try to do something for the solution of this important question. A visit of several months would bring out a good deal of light. The question of the origin of the islands themselves could be solved by the most careful collections of the flora and fauna of each, even the smallest island. The conditions of the flora and fauna as well as the domesticated animals which have become wild, could be studied on the spot. I may make some remarks upon this point. The following animals have become wild on the Galapagos, according to Wolf: Cattle, goats, horses, asses, hogs, dogs, cats, chickens. Cattle are found wild on Charles (8-900); Chatham P (2-3000); South Albemarle some; horses only on Charles : Island ; and asses are very numerous on Charles, Chatham, Inde fatigable, and Albemarle. They live together in troops of ten © i fifteen. Why, Dr. Wolf asks, have these animals adopted te z peculiar habit of sitting on the hind legs like a dog ora cat? And he adds that the most learned man could not help laughing at seeing a these animals in'this peculiar position. Goats are said to have — diminished on account of the dogs. They are found on the — arid mountains of Charles, Chatham, and Barrington. Hogs occur on all larger islands. Dogs live in droves in the uppe 3 and lower regions. The wild-cats on Charles and Chatham 1891.] Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 319 are all black,—a peculiar fact, since this color is hardly ever seen in Ecuador. They live in the roughest fissures of the lava near the coast, hunting for crabs and fishes. Chickens are found on the highest most inaccessible regions of Charles. Also here a great field of research is open. But besides these questions of general interest, some special points could be studied. For instance, material could be collected for the embryology of the penguin, the frigate-bird, the albatross, the seals, the Iguanida, and the large myriapod Scolopendra. “The ground is classic ground,” says Mr. Salvin, “and the natural products of the Galapagos Islands will ever be appealed to by those occupied in investigating the’ complicated problems involved in the doctrine of the derivative origin of species.” But beside studies in nature, we need experiments ; biological experimental stations would be of an enormous help in the ques- tion of variagion. Our means of communication and transporta- tion are so highly developed to-day that it is easy to get animals and plants from very remote places in short time; by bringing these organisms in different conditions a great anes of very valuable experiments at least could be made. I will finish these considerations, which I hope will be taken for what they are, —ideas—not definite opinions,—with a word from Darwin, in a letter to M. Wagner: “In my opinion, the greatest error which I have committed has been not allowing sufficient weight to the direct action of the environment,—z. e., food, climate, etc. ,—independently of natural ection.” Clark University, Worcester, Mass., December 6th, 1890. Am. Nat.—April.—2, 320 The American. Naturalist. [April, ? PRINCIPAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GALAPAGOS ISLANDS. I. DESCRIPTIVE. 1. RIBERO, DieGo. J. G. Kohl, Die beiden aeltesten General Karten von America ausgeführ in den Jahren, 1527 and 1529, auf Befehl Kaiser — Carls V. Weimar, 1860. (On this splendid map the Galapagos are not mentioned.) 2. ORTELIUS, ABRAHAM. Typus Orbis Terrarum, 1570 (Karte No. 5). Second edition, 1580. Theatrum oder Schawbuch des Erdkreys, Autdorff. Americe sive novi orbis nove descriptio. (Galopegos und Galepegos geschr.) 1570. (First notice of Galapagos Islands.) - ' i 3. The observations of Sir Richard Hawkins Knight, in his voyage into the South Sea. Anno Domini, 1593 London, 1622. Sect. LI. aie 4. 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Eighth edition, London, 1889, r : Ge 7b., Notice No. 1, London, 1887, pp. 12-14. i : . L. H. Der Galapagos Archipel. Das Ausland, Jahrg., 60, No. m danas 1887, pp. 725-728. E 41. LEE, LESLIE A. Recent visit of naturalists to the Galapagos. Na ce ture, Vol. XXXVIII., Oct. 11, 1888, p. 569. ; 42. FINDLAY. South Pacific Directory. a 43. LYELL, CHARLES. Principles of Geology, Vol. I., IL. Twelfth a edition, London, 1875. rs 44. DARWIN, CHARLES. A naturalist's voyage round the world. 45: ——. Variation of animals and plants under domestication. 46. —. Geologische Beobachtiingen iiber die vulcanischen Inseln. II. FAuNA anp FLORA. I. GAIMARD. Description d'une nouvelle Espéce ae Tortue et de trois espéces nouvelles de Scingues rapportées par MM. Quoy et Gaimard. Mémoire lu à la Soc. d’ His? Nat. de Paris, le 7 Nov. 1823, par M. ard. Tortue noire. Testudo californiana, “ Quoy et Gaim.” Ferussac. Bull. Soc. Nat., T. I, » PP- 90-91, Paris, 1824. 2 F REYCINET, Louis DE. 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Z. S., 1837, pp. 4-7; Ü. p. 7-11; p. 22. 9. MILNE-EDWARDS, HENRI, Menai, sur la distribution geographique des Crustaces.* Ann. Sc. Nat., 183% 2d serie f. x., pp. 129-174; Froriep. Not. VIII., 1838, pp. 241-248 ; Compt. Rend. VII., 1838, pp. 514-522. _ 10. GRAY, J. E. Zoology of Beechey’s voyage to the Pacific and Behring’s Straits. London, 1839. 11. NEBOUX, . Descriptions d’oiseaux nouveaux recueillis pen- dant I’ expedition de da Vénus. Revue Zool., III., 1840, pp. 289-291 ; 320-325. 12. BELL, THOMAS. Some account of the Crustacea of the coasts of South America, with descriptions of new genera and species, founded prin- cipally on the collections obtained by Mr. Cuming and Mr. Miller [1835]. Zool. Soc. Trans., II., pp. 39-65, 1841. 13. Zoology of the * Beagle,” 1832-36. London, 1843. 14. BELL THomas. Reptiles colinates during the voyage of the “ Beagle,” 1832-36. London, 1843. 15. GOULD, JOHN. In Zoology -of the voyage of the “ Beagle,” Pl. HL, 1843. I5@. FRESNAYE, BARON DE LA. Magasin de Zool., 1843. 16. FITZINGER, LEOPOLDUS. Srtong Reptilium. Fasc. I., p. 44. Vin- dobonae, 1843. 17. WATERHOUSE, G. R. Dësrripons of coleopterous insects collected by Charles Darwin in the Galapagos Islands. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1845, PP. 19-41, Vol. XVI. 18. GRAY, J. E. Catalogue of Lizards in the British Museum. London, 1845. 19: HOOKER, Joser DALTON. Enumeration of the Plants of the Galapagos Islands, with descriptions of the new species. Linn. Soc. Proc., L, 1849, pp. 276-279. Trans. Linn. Soc., XX., 1851, pp. 163-2 . ——. On the vegetation of the Galapagos Archipelago, as compared with that of some other tropical islands and of the continent of America. Linn. Soc., Proc. I., 1849, pp. 313-314. Trans. Linn. Soc., XX., 1851, Pp. 235-262, _ 20a. BONAPARTE, Prince C. L. Conspectus Avium, I., p. 479. 1850-51. Notes Ornithologiques, p. 92. Paris, 1854. 324 The American Naturalist. g’ Bit nat. de Piris. TEER, 1851. : 22. DUMÉRIL, A. M. C., ET BIBRON, G. Herpetologie generale ou Hia “Nat. compl. des Reptiles. Paris, 1834-54. Vol. IV. gerien des K. Oester. Hofes. Wiener Sitzungsber, X., 1853, p. 403, _ 24. MILNE-EDWARDS. [Remarques sur la fauna pre iles Galapagos] Compt. Rend., 1859, Vol. XLVIII., pp. 147, I 25. THOUARS, Du PETIT, ADMIRAL. Observations faite aus es Gale pagos. Compt. Rend., 185, pp. 140-147, Vol. 26. GUENTHER, ALBERT. On a new snake from the Galapagos Islands Honga EEN Ann. Nat. Hist., VI., 1860, pp. 78-79. P. 2 dbn. Holi., 186i, 4; 610, 28. Uber die EEN der Galapagos Inseln. Linnæa, XXXL, so PP. 571-632. Om Galapagos oarnes vegetation. Stockh. Acad. he pp. 61-256. i 30. PETERS, WILHELM CARL Hartwic. Uber eine neue Eidec (Phyllodactylus galapagensis) von den Galapagos it Monatsber. Berl. Ac., 1869, pp. 719, 720 p 31. Pines: Exhibition of a collection of birds from the G ʻi P. Z.S., 1869, p. 433; P. Z. S., 1870 (May). Compt. Rend., XIX, 273-277. 32. GUENTHER, ALBERT. [Æerpetodryas biserialis and Dromicus che missonis.] an KRec., 1870, Vol. VL, p. 11 ' 33- SCLATER, T. L., AND SALVIN, V. Chacacing of new s birds aeee i Dr. Habel in the: Galapagos Islands. P. Z9 PP. 322, 327. 3 “34. PETERS, WILHELM CARL Hartwic. Uber einige Arten der l tologischen Sammlung des Berliner Zool. Museums. Monatsber. : erl. 1841, p. 645. 35. SUNDEVALL, C. J. On birds from the Galapagos Islands, S., 1871, pp. 124-130. 36. BENTHAM, GEORGE. Notes on the classification, pitas i graphical distribution of the Compositæ. Journ. Linn. pr XII P. 556. 37. DARWIN, CHARLES. Reise eines Naturfoschers um die We _ dem Englischen übersetztvon J. Victor Carus. Stuttgart, 1875, PP Pt. ve Also Origin of species. 1891.] Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 325 38. WALLACE, A. R. Geograph. distribution of animals. 2 vols., Lon- don, 1876. Die geographische vaaia der Thiere übers. v. A. B. Meyer. 2 Bd., Dresden, 1876, pp. 34-4 39. GUENTHER, ALBERT. spl from a letter received from Comman- der W. E. Cookson, R. N., concerning two large land tortoises from the Galapagos Islands. P. Z. S., 1876, p. 422 40. GUENTHER, ALBERT, DR. Description of the living and extinct races of gigantic land tortoises. Parts I. and II., Introduction and the tortoises of the Galapagos Islands. Phil. Trans., Vol. 165, Lond, 1876, pp. 251-284, pl. 33-45. | 41. STEINDACHNER, Dr. Franz. Die Schlangen und Eidechsen der Galapagos Inseln. Festschrift d. kk. zool. botan. Ges. in Wien., 1876, pp. 303-339. pl., I.—VII. 42. Cookson, W. E. Letter of Commnnist W. E. Cookson. P. Z.S, 1876, pp. 520-526 43. SALVIN, O. On the Avifauna of the Galapagos Archipelago. Trans. ` Z. S., 1879, May, Vol. IX., Part IX., pp. 447-510, pls. 84-89, with a map of the oe 44. GUENTHER, A. Account of the zool. coll. made during the visit of H. M: Se a ” to the Galapagos Islands. P. Z. S., 1877, pp. 45. ——. The gigantic land tortoises (living and extinct) in the collection of the British Museum. London, 1877, 4to, 96 pp., 54 pl. 46. STEINDACHNER, T. VIII., Ueber zwei neue Fischarten von den Galapagos Inseln. Sitzungsber, K. Ak. Wiss. Wien., 1878. 47. ENGLER, A. Versuch einer Entwicklungschichte der Pflanzenwelt _ 2 Thle., Leipzig, 1879-1881. 48. SHARPE, R. BowDLER Notes on Anous. (Anous galapagentis, sp. n.) Philos. trans., CLXVIII., 1879, 4 49. ALLEN, JoeL AsapH. History of North American Pinnipeds. Washington, 1880, pp. 211-212, p. 769. (Otaria jubata ; Arctocephalus australis. 50. MARKHAM, A. H. A visit to the Galapagos. Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., II., 1880, pp. 742-755. Salvin’s notes on birds, p. 755. 51. WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSELL. Island Life. New York, 1887, pp 261-275. 52. GRISEBACH, A. Die Vegetation der Erde nach ihrer klimat. Anor- mung. 2 Bds., 2 Aufl., Leipzig, 1885. : 53. Rrpeway, ROBERT. Auk, III., July, 1886, 331. 54. —. ` Description of a recently new oyster-catcher (/ematopus galapagensis), from the Galapagos Islands. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol IX., 1886, pp. 325, 326. 55. SHARPE, R. BowDLER. Cat. Birds, Brit. Mus., XII., 1888, 12. $ 326 The American Naturalist. [April 56. RIDGWAY, ROBERT. Birds collected on the Galapagos Islands in 1888. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XII., pp. 101-128. Washington, 1889. 57. COPE, E. D. Report of the batrachians and reptiles colle in 1887- i ’88. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XII., pp. 141-147, Washington, 1889. 58. BouLENGER, G. A. Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians, and ERON Taa. 1889. 59. HOWARD, L. O. (Sc. res. of expl. by St. Albatross.’”’) V. Anno- tated catalogue of the insects collected in 1887—88. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., XII., 1889, pp. 185-216. 60. DALL, WILLIAM HEALY. (Sc. res. of expl. by St. “‘Albatross.””) No. | VII. Preliminary report on the collection of Mollusca and Brachiopoda ob- tained in 1887-’88. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XII., 1889, pp. 219-362. 61. JORDAN, DAVID STARR, and BOLLMAN, CHARLES HARVEY. (Sc. rep. expl. St. “Albatross,” IV.) Description of new species of fishes collected at A the Galapagos Islands and along the coast of the United States of Columbia, 1887-'88. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XII., 1889, pp. 14 183. ka 62. WAGNER, Moriz. Die Enstehung der Artendurch Fräumliche Son- on derung. Basel, 1889, 63. Baur, G. The gigantic land tortoises of the Galapagos Islands. a Am. NAT., Dec. 1889, pp. 1039-1057. 64. . Das Variiren der Eidechsen-Gattung Tropidurus auf den Gala- Biol. Centralbl., Vol. X., No. 15, 16. Sept. 1 i5. m Nachtrag, 20. = Moreno Boll. Mus. La Plata., p. 29, I 66. HEMSLEY, WILLIAM BOTTING. ou on piini state of knowledge of various Insular Floras. The voyage of H. M. ship “ Challenger.” Botany, Vol. I., London, 1885. pagoeTaseln und Bemerkungen iiber den Ursprung der Insel-gruppe. ' T WE Soe Sas) enaa a a E ea (Terie 1891.] Progress of American Invertebrate Paleontology 327 REVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN INVER- TEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY FOR THE YEAR 1890. ` BY CHARLES R. KEYES. KENGE the last consideration of the subject in this journal im- portant contributions to American invertebrate paleontology have been made. The number of titles is considerably in excess of that of last year. Several extensive state reports have appeared ; but the large majority of the papers issued have been incorporated in serials. With the exception of a few brief pres- entations on small zoological groups no monographical works have been distributed during the year just closed. The several great works alluded to last year as in an advanced state of prepa- ‘ration have been necessarily delayed by the discoveries of much new material; but the evidence at hand clearly indicates that the delay will not be unaccompanied by more suggestive results than could otherwise have been reached. Excepting those proposed in a single brochure which has not as yet been generally distributed, the number of new species con- sidered is very much below that of any similar period during the past decade, thus greatly emphasizing the statements made in the last “review.” On a former occasion the fact was mentioned that the interdependence of the stratigraphical geologist, the biologist, and the paleontologist is constantly becoming more and - More intimate. This suggestion has never been more fully cor- roborated than by the recent appearance of several most valuable morphological memoirs, based largely upon critical studies of extinct forms of life. Nor is the reality of the remark less appar- ent in certain late articles dealing with problems of stratigraphy. In the annual report (pp. 116-120) of the Geological and Nat- ural History Survey of Canada, Henry M. Ami has a Systematic List of Fossils with Localities referred to in Report K. Charles E. Beecher, has in the American Journal of Science (3), Vol. XL.: North American Species of Strophalosia, pp. 240-246; On Leptzenisca, a New Genus: of Brachiopod from the Lower 328 The American Naturalist. Helderberg Group, p PP. 238—240, I plate; Koninckia and Related x Genera, pp. 211—219, I plate; and On the Development of the Shell in the Genus Tornoceras Hyatt, pp. 71-75. ; ` L P. Bishop communicates a note on A New Locality of e - Silurian Fossils in the Limestone of Columbia County, N. Y. to : American Journal of Science, Vol. XXXIX., pp. 69-70. i Samuel Calvin describes Some New Species of Paleozoic Fos- sils, in the Bulletin of the Laboratories of Natural History of the State University of Iowa, Vol. I., 173-181, 3 plates; also, Note on a Specimen of Conularia missouriensis Swallow with Crenu- lated Costa, in American Geologist, Vol. V., pp. 207-208, i E. J. Chapman has some Remarks on the Classification of the Trilobites, with Outline of a New Grouping of These Forms; Transactions Royal Society of Canada, Vol. VII., Sec. vi, ee 113-120. ` William B. Clark notes the occurrence of certain fossils, in a Third Annual Geological Expedition into Southern Maryland and Virginia ; Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 81, pp. 6919 J. M. Clarke has: As Trilobitas do Grez de Ereré e Maecurt Estado do Pará, Brazil, in the Archivos de Museu Nacional e Rio de Janeiro, Vol. IX., pp. 1—57, two plates. * E. W. Claypole considers a new form of crustacean in i Paleontological Notes from Indianapolis; American Geologist : Vol. VI., pp. 255-260. i F. W. Cragin, in the Bulletin of Washburn College, Vol. IL, pp. 65-68, has Contributions to the Paleontology of the Plains. Coral and Coral Islands (third edition), by James D. Dana, has appeared, with considerable new material added. The author also has a note on fossils in the Taconic limestone belt at the west foot of the Taconic Range in Hillsdale, N. Y., in American Jour nal of Science (3), Vol. XL., pp. 256, 257. William H. Dall contributes to the knowledge of the Te- tiary Fauna of Florida ; Transactions of the Wagner Froe p tute of Science, Vol. II. , pp. 1—200, 12 plates. : J. William Dawson be A Note on a Fossil Fish and Worm Found in a Pleistocene Nodule in Green’s Creek, Oua in Canadian Record of Science, Vol. IV., pp. 86-88 ; On RiT 1891.] Progress of American Invertebrate Paleontology. 329 and Tracks of Invertebrate Animals in Paleozoic Rocks, and Other Markings, in the Quarterly Journal of Geological Society of _ London, Vol. XLVI., pp. 595-618 ; and On New Species of Fos- sil Sponges from the Siluro-Cambrian at Little Metis, on the lower St. Lawrence, in Transactions Royal Society of Canada, Vol. VIL, Sec. iv., pp. 31-55. In the Canadian Record of Science, Vol. IV., pp. 104—109, William Deeks gives a List of Fossils from the Lower Helderberg formation of St. Helen’s Island. W. W. Dodge notes Some Lower Silurian Graptolites from Northern Maine, in the American Journal of Science (3), Vol. XL., pp. 153-155. P. Martin Duncan, in the Journal of the Linnazan Society, - Vol. XXIIL., pp. 1-311, gives a Revision of Generic and Great Groups of the Echinoidea. R. W. Ells lists many fossils in his Second Report on the Geology of a Portion of the Province of Quebec; Annual Report Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Vol. HI; Report K. Oliver Everett with E. O. Ulrich describes some new Silurian sponges, in the Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. VIII., pp. 253-282. A. H. Foord revises the Group of Nautilus elegans Sowerby; Geological Magazine (3), Vol. VII., pp. 542-552. C. H. Gordon gives his Observations on the Keokuk Species of Agaricocrinus, in the American Geologist, Vol. V., pp. 257-261; and On the Keokuk Beds at Keokuk, lowa, in the American Journal of Science (3), Vol. XL., pp. 295-300. James Hall has an abstract On New Genera and Species of the Family Dictyospongide, in Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Vol. I., p. 22. Also Some Suggestions Regarding ` ing the Subdivisions and Grouping of the Species Usually Included Under the Generic Term Orthis, in Accordance with the External and Internal Characters and Microscopic Shell Structures; pp. 19-21 of same publication. A Pilisiiaey Catalogue of the Fossils Occurring in Missouri t 330 The American Naturalist. [April, | is given in Bulletin No. 1, Geological Survey of Missouri, pp. 60-85, by G. Hambach. The Occurrence of Goniolina in the Comanche Series of the Cretaceous is noted by R. T. Hill in the American Jere of Science (3), Vol. XL. pp. 64, 65. Jos. F. James discusses the Maquoketa Shales and their Correla- tion with the Cincinnati Group of Southwestern Ohio, in the American Geologist, Vol. V., pp. 335-356; and, On Variation, with Special Reference to Certain Paleozoic Genera, in AMERICAN NATURALIST, Vol. XXIII., pp. 1071-1087. T. Rupert Jones describes Some Paleozoic Ostracoda from North America, Wales, and Ireland, in Quarterly Journal Geological So- ciety of London, Vol. XLVI., pp. I-30; also in-the same jour- nal, pp. 534-556, Some Devonian and Silurian Ostracoda from North America, France, and the Bosphorus; and Some Fossil Estheriz, in the Geological Magazine, Vol. IX. , pp. 385-390. Charles R. Keyes has a Review of the Progress of American Invertebrate Paleontology for the Year 1889, in the AMERICAN Natorauist, Vol. XXIV., pp. 131-138; Certain Forms of Stra parollus from Southeastern Iowa, in American Geologist, Vol. Va PP. 193-197 ; Genesis of the Actinocrinidae, in AMERICAN NATUR- ALIST, Vol. XXIV., pp. 243-254; Generic Relations of Platyceras and Capulus, in the American Geologist, Vol. VI., pp. 6-9; Note on the Preservation of Color in Fossil Shells, in Zhe Nautilus, ; , Vol. IV., pp. 30-31 ; Synopsis of American Carbonic Calyptræidæ, in Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, n 1890, pp. 150-181; Discovery of Fossils in the Limestones a Frederick County, Maryland, in Johns Hopkins University Ce 7 culars, No. 84, p. 32; and The Naticoid Genus Strophostylus, in the American NATURALIST, Vol. XXIV., pp. 1111-1117. a Remarks on the Nature of Organic Species are given by Wa Leidy in Transactions Wagner Free Institute of Science, Vol. Il. PP: 51-53. J. P. Lesley has issued Volumes II, and III. of his Dictionary of Fossils; P 4, Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. Joshua Lindai has prepared a General Index to the Fight Re i ] 1891.] Progress of American Invertebrate Paleontology. 331 ports of the Illinois Geological Survey ; Paleontology, pp. 62-151 of appendix. G. F. Mathew has Cambrian Organisms in Acadia ; Transactions Royal Society of Canada, Vol. VII., Sec. iv., pp. 135—162. A Note on Some of the Causes of Extinction of Species appears in the American Geologist, Vol. V., pp. 100-104, by J. M. McCreery. S. A. Miller has the Structure, Classification, and Arrangement of American Paleozoic Crinoids into Families, in the American Geologist, Vol. VI., pp. 340-357; and with W. F. E. Gurley, Descriptions of Some New Genera and Species of Echinodermata from the Coal Measures and Subcarboniferous Rocks of Indiana, Missouri, and Iowa, in the Journal of Cincinnati Society of Nat- ural History, April, 1890. In the AmMEricAN NATURALIST, Vol. XXIII., pp. 261-266, Henry F. Osborn gives The Paleontological Evidence for the Transmission of Acquired Characters. E. N. S. Ringueberg describes some Crinoidea of the Lower Niagara Limestone at Lockport, N. Y., in a Annals New York Academy Sciences, Vol. V., p. 30 Charles W. Rolfe has ene and Distribution of the Genera of Brachiopoda, in the American Nartura.ist, Vol. XXIII., pp. 983-998. Studies on Monticulipora are given in the American Geologist, Vol. VI., pp. 102-121, by C. Rominger. R. R. Rowley has some Observations on Natural Casts of Crinoids and Blastoids from the Burlington Limestone, in the American Geologist, Vol. VI. , pp. 66-67 ; and Batocrinus calvini, in same journal, Vol. V. , PP- 146, 147. Samuel Scudder has, in the Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, pp. 401-472: New Types of Carboniferous Cockroaches from Carboniferous Deposits of the United States ; New Carboniferous Myriapods from Illinois; Ilustrations of Car- boniferots Arachnida of North America, of the Orders Anthraco- marti and Pedipalpi ; and Insects of the Triassic Beds of Fairplay, Colorado, 332 The American Naturalist.’ In the 23d Report of the New York State Museum, pp. 230- 239, Charles Schuchert has: On Syringothyris, Winchell, and its American Specjes; and List of the American Paleozai Orthis, l Spirifera, Spiriferina, and Syringothyris. B. Shimek discusses the Löss and Its F ossils, in the Bulletin di T the Laboratories of Natural History of the State onver of Iowa, Vol. I., pp. 200-214, and Vol. II., pp. 89-08. G. B. Simpson has Descriptions of New Species of Fossils i in the Transactions American Philosophical Society, Vol. XVI, Pe 435-460. J. B. Tyrrell incidentally refers to certain fossils from the Crate > ceous of Manitoba; American Journal of Science (3), Vol. Xb i pp. 227-232. Aiso has Foraminifera and Radiolaria from the Cretaceous of Manitoba, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Vol. VIII., Sec. iv.; pp. 111-115. 7 American Paleozoic Spoges and Braa are described by E. O. Ulrich in the Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. VIIL, pp- 209-678 ; also New Lamellibranchiata, in American Geologist, Vol. V., pp. 270-284, and Vol. VI. pp. 173-181, and 382-389. A. W, Vogdes issues as Bulletin 63 of the U. S. Geologiak Survey, Bibliography of Paleozoic Crustacea. Charles Wachsmuth and Frank Springer have New Species of Crinoids and Blastoids from the Kinderhook Group of Lower Carboniferous Rocks at Le Grand, Iowa, and A New Genus from Niagara Group of Western Tennessee, in Geological Survey Ilinois, Vol. VIII, pp. 155-208; also, Peristomic Plates w Crinoids, in Proceedings Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadel phia, 1890, pp. 345-392. Charles D. Walcott has, in the Proceedings U. S. National Museum, Vol. XIII., pp. 266-279: Descriptions New Forms 0 Upper Cambrian Fossils: and in Bulletin Geological Society d _ America, Vol. I., pp. 335-356, The Value of the Term “ Hudson River Group” in Geological Nomenclature; also; A»Review Dr. R. W. Ells’ Second Report on the Geology of a Portion the Province of Quebec, with Additional Notes on the Group, in the American Journal of Science, Vol. XXXIX, PP ‘IOI-I15. 1891.] Progress of American Invertebrate Paleontology. 333. A. Warner notes some casts of Scolithus flattened by pressure, in the American Geologist, Vol. V., pp. 35-38. In the AMERICAN NATURALIST, Vol. XXIII., pp. 710-712, C. L. Webster has a Description of a New Genus of Corals from the Devonian Rocks of Iowa; and on pp. 621-625, Contributions to the Knowledge of the Genus Pachyphyllum. J. F. Whiteaves describes Some New Species of Fossils from the Devonian Rocks of Manitoba, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Vol. VIII., Sec. iv., pp. 93-110, six plates. H. S. Williams has the Devonian System of North and South . Devonshire, in the American Journal of Science, Vol. XXXIX., pp. 31-38; and, The Cuboides Zone and Its Fauna: A Discus- sion of the Methods of Correlation, in the Bulletin of the Geo- logical Society of American, Vol. I., pp. 481-500. L. C. Wooster gives a few notes on the fossils of the Permo- Carboniferous of Greenwood and Butler counties, Kansas, in the American Geologist, Vol. VI., pp. 8-18. A. H. Worthen notes certain Cretaceous fossils in the drift deposits of Illinois, Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. VIII., pp. 1-24; also, Descriptions of Fossil Invertebrates, pp. 69-154 of the same publication. + 334 The American Naturalist. RECENT STUDIES OF THE VERTEBRATE HEAD, BY H. W. NORRIS. (Continued from page r02.) Poon researches on Amphioxus and the Craniata Van Wite (89) concludes that the skull never consists of metameres; — that only in the occipital region behind the vagus were there at one time separate cartilaginous neural arches. The parietal mus- culature, and the peripheral nervous system, with the exception of a the I., IL, and III. nerves, were once segmented in the region of the heat as well as in the body. The number of the myotomes — of the head is in general nine, but in those Craniata which have — no hypoglossus, less. To a cranial or a body segment belong both a dorsal and a ventral nerve, which were originally separate. Wherever in the Craniata the ventral roots are wanting the cor- responding myotomes do not appear. The vagus is a complex + of two dorsal nerves. There are no grounds for assuming that the Craniata ever possessed more than eight branchial sacks, unless an additional aborted one belongs to the hyoid arch! Beard (’89a) states that certain portions of the cranial and spi. a nerves arise not as outgrowths from the central nervous system but from the ectoderm just outside the neural tube. This mode of E oo agrees with that described by Kleinenberg uS i ectodermal si cculisitons jist above the lateral limit ventral cord, and like the ganglia of vertebrates arise bs tally. It is to be noted that Rabl and Dohrn both con two limbs of the neural plate the neuro-epithelium of one Ii separated from that of the other by a ciliated groove. Two! of neuro-epithelium separated by a ciliated groove are chata tic of Annelids. This ciliated groove in vertebrates’ later most, if not all, of the ciliated epithelium of the permanent € ace : * Iti the above statements of Van Wijhe with the more O CoO aM par © ‘headin of D Duties 1891. | Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. 335 Beard (’89@) reiterates his former conclusions that the nose, like the ear, represents a branchial sense organ. The olfactory nerve, like a typical branchial nerve, develops from two sources: from the ectoderm just outside the foundation of the central nervous sys- tem, and from the special neuro-epithelium The latter grows in length by increase within itself, and later on in development, in many cases it divides up into a number of smell-buds, comparable exactly to the sense organs of the lateral line. The origin of the olfactory nerve in reptiles ıs essentially similar to that in Elasmo- branchs. In the chain connecting the sensory cells of a verte- brate sense organ with the central nervous system there are gan- glion cells arising from three different sources: from the neuro- epithelium itself; between the lateral ganglion and the central nervous system ; as a special differentiation in the central nervous system. Jacobson’s organ is a specially differentiated part of the nose. , There is nothing in the development of the nose per se to suggest a gill-cleft. Golowine (’90a) confirms many of the statements of Beard. He thinks that in the chick the ectoderm situated at the sides of the not-yet-closed medullary tube represents two sensitive organs, and that from these latter the ganglionic system is developed. Beard had stated that the ganglion Anlagen are, after the first Stages, independent of the ectoderm, but Golowine observed their formation from ectoderm cells up to the time the neural ridge is complete. In most respects he agrees with Beard as to the origin of the Anlagen. Before the neural ridge segments it be- comes separated from the sensitive ectoderm by a layer of indif- ferent ectoderm. Thus in the so-called sensitive organ can be recognized two distinct portions: ganglion Anlagen and the Anlagen of the special sense organs. The neural ridge in the cephalic region divides successively into three ganglion groups. Kastschenko’s conclusion that the dorsal parietes of the medul- lary tube deggnerates to such an extent that a second closing Occurs is erroneous. As the neural ridge divides, to each gan- glionic se t isa tof sensitive ectoderm, which has E > * Beard, it should be remembered, holds that th iral ridge is independent of th tral nervous system : Am. Nat.—April.—3. 336 The American Naturalist. ‘[April, latter is to be regarded as an organ of special sense. The subse- quent development of the ganglionic system is entirely independ- _ ent ofthe special sense organs. Though later the ganglia in the — region of the head are directly connected with the branchial sense _ organs, yet the former are never developed at the expense of the _ latter, Beard, Froriep, and Spencer to the contrary. The olfactory — ganglia are probably formed from the neural ridge. They are not derived from the cells of the nasal fossa. The posterior roots of the cranial and spinal nerves are at first cellular, and are formed “ from that part of the neural ridge placed between the dorsal — borders of the medullary tube. : Houssay (’90), in his observations on the development of the Axolotl, agrees with Beard as to the ectodermal origin of the — Anlagen of the dorsal nerve-roots. The cranial ganglia first appear as an unsegmented ectodermal band, which afterwards extends into the trunk, forming the lateral line and nerve. Inthe — | meantime, while this posterior differentiation is occurring, the band anteriorly segments to form the cranial ganglia. The cen- — tral nervous system, though at first unsegmented, is soon meta- meric, both in brain and spinal cord, and this metamerism is _ called “neurotomy.” The dorsal nerve-roots arise each behind the “neurotome” of its segment,’ this relation being secondary. The author thinks there is a complete homodynamy of the periph- : eral nervous system in all the metameres of the body. Indis cussing the metamerism of the head he states that the segments do not appear with any regularity as to time and location. The neurotomes, neuromeres, branchiomeres, and myotomes agree © the manner of segmentation. He believes he finds evidence the existence of an oculohypophysial, a buccal, a hyomane lar, and an auditory segment. The IV. and VI. nerves cannot ! certainly identified as ventral roots. ag Gaskell (89a, ’89é, 90) considers the central nervous sys of vertebrates as made up of two parts: a non-neryous § ing tube, and a nervous portion surrounding that tube. He ba 2 his observations on Ammoccetes, and concludes that the 1 T nervous tube is the altered alimentary canal of a Crustacea 3 Vide Platt and McClure. 1891.] Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. 337 ancestor. The functions of the supracesophageal and the infra- sceophageal ganglia and the ventral chain correspond to the func- tions of those parts of the vertebrate central nervous system which are situated in the same anatomical position, with respect to the non-nervous tube, as the corresponding ganglia of the _ Crustacean with respect to the alimentary canal. The Crustacean cephalic stomach is represented in the brain of the Ammoccetes by the choroid plexuses, the continuation of the tissue of the latter that lines the cavities of the brain being the ventral portion of the stomach walls. The nervous masses lying outside this lining epithelium are probably composed of tissue arranged in the same way and of the same structure as the supracesophageal, infracesophageal, and thoracic ganglia of the Crustacean-like ancestor. The two nervous masses which form the brain proper and olfactory lobes are in the position of the supracesophageal ganglia with respect to the walls of the cephalic stomach, and in connection with a special optic portion which gives rise to eyes of a strictly Arthropod type. Rudiments of the old mouth and cesophagus are seen in the infundibular process. A bilaterally arranged mass of pigmented tissue that fills up a large portion of the space around the brain is looked upon as the rudiment of the Crustacean liver, while its duct is seen in the conus post- commissuralis. The pigment is regarded as the remains of the blood channels of the old cephalic liver. The original Crustacean- like ancestor had a pair of median eyes, represented in the Ammoceetes by the “ dorsal ” and “ ventral ” pineal eyes, the dor- sal eye remaining functional much longer than the ventral. The central nervous system of the Ammoceetes, and therefore of all other vertebrates, is the direct descendant of the Arthropodnervous system in all respects. The vertebrate alimentary canal is formed by the prolongation of a respiratory chamber, the latter contain- ing the gill-bearing legs of the ancestral form; the legs being still present in Ammoccetes in the form of branchial bars. The Segmental cranial nerves are the nerves arising from the infra- cesophageal and thoracic ganglia. The first'two cranial nerves are _ the nerves of special „sense arising from‘ the supracesophageal ganglia.‘ í To fully comprehend tt bove theory ane ve as 338 The American Naturalist. Miss Platt (’89) finds that in the chick the first mesodermal cleft occurs anterior to the first protovertebra, and that two proć tovertebræ are subsequently formed anterior to this cleft. The ; four pairs of protovertebræ entering into the formation of the „head are thus evenly divided by the first mesodermal cleft. Dur- ing the second and third days of incubation the medullary tube becomes divided by a series of constrictions into vescicles or neuromeres. Anterior to the first protovertebra there are seven of these neuromeres. As the protovertebre are successively formed, neuromeres are added, each opposite a protovertebra; but of the latter. The anterior neuromere gives rise to the prosen- cephalon, thalamencephalon, and mesencephalon. The develop- ment of these three brain vescicles is coincident with the cranial flexure, and the latter may be due to the rapid development of the dorsal and lateral walls of the first cerebral vescicle. From the second neuromere is developed the cerebellum. The succeed- ing vescicles, including those between the first five protovertebra, : these medullary folds observed by them in the lizard and chick - are the same as those observed by Platt in the salmon and c The, primitive relation in the chick is different. The V. nerve arises not as Béreneck says, from the outward convexity of the a neuromere of the medulla, but from the concavity between 7 first and second neuromeres. Opposite this concavity a Tia; projects into the fourth ventricle, ‘composed of lines of cells í verging like the rays of a fan toward the point of origin of the nerve. At the time when the VII. and VIII. nerves have just i the neural ridge, from the concavities between the second third and the third and fourth neuromeres spring nerve which unite in a large ganglion. Thus at an early per VII. and VIII. nerves are distinct from each other, but as the ti neuromere is smaller than the others the space between the 5 See Orr. Journ. Morph., Vol. I., No. 2, p. 335. 4 1891.] Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. 339 of these two nerves is very slight. The IX. nerve arises from the concavity between the fourth and fifth neuromeres. The X. nerve is evidently made up of the fused roots of several spinal nerves. The latter arise like the cranial nerves from corresponding concavities in the spinal cord. The cranial neuromeres are to be regarded as homologous with the neuromeres of the spinal cord. Orr stated that the internal ridges projecting into the fourth ventricle cor- responded not to the nerve-roots, but to the spaces between the nerve-roots. In Acanthias, Platt (’90) describes a pair of head- cavities anterior to the premandibular cavities. This observation is of great interest in the light of Dohrn’s recent studies on Torpedo. : : While many observers have noted the relations of the cranial nerves to the neuromeres, McClure (89, ’90) seems to be the first to attempt to comprehend the entire brain in a schematic, seg- mental arrangement of neuromeres. Basing his observations on the embryos of Amblystoma, Anolis, and the chick, he concludes that the primitive brain consisted of approximately ten neuro- meres, which, beginning with the anterior, he calls olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, auditory, glossopharyngeal, and vagus neuromeres respectively. He follows closely the observations of Orr on the lizard, and quotes his definition of a typical neuromere.® The forebrain is to be con- sidered as consisting of two neuromeres and possibly part of a third, the midbrain of two, and the hindbrain of six. “The olfactory neuromere is connected with the olfactory nerve.” The two neuromeres of the forebrain described by McClure are the same as those described by Orr in the region of the thalamence- phalon of the lizard posterior to the secondary forebrain. But Orr says “they never give off any nerves.” As McClure studied Orr's preparations, this disagreement is interesting. The segmen- tal nerve belonging to the optic neuromere is assumed to have degenerated. The midbrain probably consists of two neuromeres, since the III. and IV. nerves arise from this brain segment, and the view is further strengthened by the fact that Scott figures i> Petromyzon an _appearance of neuromeres in the midbrai... Orr. Journ. Morph., Vol. I., No. 2, p. 335. 340 : The American Naturalist. [Apa Hoffmann found that the trochlear nerve arises in the lizard from is the anterior neuromere of the hindbrain, and subsequently shifts _ : forward to the midbrain. McClure promises to prove that Hof. man has probably mistaken the posterior segment of the mid- — brain for the anterior segment of the hindbrain, but as he figures in the chick and lizard an unnamed neuromere between the mid- brain and trigeminal neuromere, the promise is not fulfilled r This ungamed neuromere is described by Orr. Hoffman says it — forms part of the cerebellum. Miss Platt, with whom McClure closely agrees in many points, but whose work he utterly ignores, states essentially the same. Four neuromeres of the hindbrain give rise to dorsal nerve-roots. The abducens and auditory neuromeres possess no nerve-roots, and in Amblystoma the abducens neuromere is wanting. -The VI. nerve cannot be cer- tainly identified with any neuromere. It should be noticed that while McClure gives theoretical evidence for the separate origin of the VII. and VIII. nerves, Miss Platt has already demonstrated the same. McClure agrees with Miss Platt in homologizing the neuromeres of the brain with those of the spinal cord. He con- siders the dorsal roots of the nerves to arise from the outward convexity of the respective ‘neuromeres, or to be intersomitic. Miss Platt says that in the chick the spinal nerves spring from the internal ridge opposite the myotomes or somites. Houssay says that in the Axolotl the dorsal nerve-roots arise each | ir € the neurotome of its segment. “Nine myotomes in the bo region would correspond to the nine spaces between ten net meres of the spinal cord. Therefore our author says the ) ‘ mesodermal head-somites, or myotomes, of Van Wijhe “the retically correspond to the nine spaces between the ten enc alomeres.” 7 Ayers (’90a,’908) sees in Amphioxus, which, as Steiner she consists of a series of physiologically equal segments, 2 | comparable to the brain of higher vertebrates. The anem of the neural axis of Amphioxus is a brain, for it termina head. Moreover, Dohrn’s recent investigations show conclusively hat brain consisted of many more than ten segments. ; 1 This statement shows a surprising lack of acquaintance with the morp er 1891.] Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. 34I neural axis anteriorly ; it is intimately connected with the sense organs, eye and nose; it gives off at least two pairs of sensory nerves with peripheral ganglia; it possesses ganglionic centers of coordination ; it has an enlarged central canal with three diverticula, two optic and one olfactory ; it is the largest part of the nervous system in early stages ; it possesses a cranial flexure ; it shows a differentiation into ganglionic and fibrous tracts. The large col- lections of ganglion cells just posterior to the thalamoccele are homologous with the medullary nuclei of other vertebrates. In the ontogeny of other vertebrates the brain passes through a con- dition which remains as adult in Amphioxus. All the sense organs of the anterior end of the body of Amphioxus are prob- ably paired. The eye-spot is the forerunner of the vertebrate eye, and shows several stages in development. The pigment of the eye-spot is contained in cells that lie normally inside the bounds of the nerve-mass. The pigment bodies form a part of segmental sensory structures. Each of the pigment bodies forms a deposit in an ameeboid cell. The pigment of the the axial nervous system of Amphioxus is in process of migra- tion towards the anterior end of the body. The vertebrate ear has developed within the phylum above Amphioxus, and arose from one of the primary sense organs of the lateral line system, at a period phylogenetically later than the formation of the canal system of these sense organs. The ear capsula does not separate two morphologically different p®rtions of the brain. The higher sense organs of all the Cyclostomata are all paired. The parietal-pineal eye of the Cyclostomata and other vertebrates has been developed from a median portion of the pigmented eye of Amphioxus. The neural axis of all vertebrates is coéxtensive with that of the chorda. The pituitary prominence of the skull of vertebrates does not mark a fixed point. The chondro- or ossicranium possesses no more segmental value than the intestine. | The head-cavities possess relatively the greatest importance before a primordial cranium has made its appearance. The hypophysis arose in the vertebrate phylum long after the appearance of the chorda, and was connected with the infundibulum. It arose as a ‘See Rabl. Theorie des Mesoderms. $ tion, Distribution, and Origin of the Cranial Nerves ; together with 344, 1890. nebst Bemerkungen iiber die Wirbeltheorie des Sraa 342 The American Naturalist. taste organ, and the infundibulum was its nerve. The optic trochlear chiasms have arisen within the vertebrate group the Amphioxus condition. The large number of gill Amphioxus is due to physiological conditions, the br apparatus serving for collecting food as well as for respira LITERATURE. '9goa. AYERS, H. Contribution to the Morphology of the Ve Head. _ Zool. Anz., No. as ‘908. ——. Vertebrate TORAO Lour, Morph., Vol. IV. 1890. ; : ‘89a. BEARD, J. Some Annelidan ears, in the Ontogeny tebrate Nervous System. Nature, p. 259, 1 894. ——. Morphological Studies, ae vy “The Nose and- Organ. Zool. Jahrb., Bd. III., Heft. 5, 1889. ‘89a. GASKELL, W. H. On the Relation between the Structures of the Origin of the Nervous System of Vertebrata. Jour. Physiol Vol ——. On the Origin of the iktisat Nervous System of Ve Brain, Vol. XII., p. 1, 1889. : 'g0. On the Origin of Vertebrates from a Crustacean-lil tor. Quar, park Mic. Sci., No. CXXIII., 1890. ‘goa. GOLOWINE, E. P. Sur le développement du système ga yrs le Poulet. Biss Anz., No. 4, 1890. ve ——. Sur le déviléppement du système ganglionnaire Poulet, risen de la Société des Naturalistes de St. Pétersbourg, XXI., 4890. $ "90. Houssay, F. ‘Prades d’embryologie sur les vertébrés. zool. expér. et gén., VIII., No. 2, 1890. "89. McCiure, C. F. W. The Primitive Segmentation of the V Brain. Zool. Anz., No. 314, 1889. ‘90. ——. The eae of the Primitive Vertebrate Brain Morph., Vol. IV., No. 1, 89. PLATT, JULIA B. sats on the Primitive Axial Seg the Chick. Bull. Museum Compar. Zool., Harvard College, Vol. " No. 4, 1889. 90. ——. The Anterior Head-Cavities of Acanthias. "89. VAN irda eae Die Kopfregion der Cranioten beim f 1891.] Record of American Zoology. 343 RECORD OF AMERICAN ZOOLOGY. BY J. S. KINGSLEY. (Continued from Voi. XXV., page 259.) HEXAPODA. WHEELER, W. M.—On the appendages of the first abdominal segments of embryo insects. Trans. Wisc. Acad. VIII., p. 87, 1890.—Figures and describe these organs in many forms, and regards them as glandular. PATTEN, Wm.—Is the ommatidium a hair-bearing sense bud ? Anat, Anz., V., p. 353, 1890. Ritry, C. V.—Some insect pests of the household. IV., Cockroaches. /nsect Life, II., 266, 1890. Hyatt, A., anp Arms, J. M.—Guides for science-teaching. No. VIII., Insecta. Boston, 1890, pp. xxiii+300, 13 plates.— See Am. NAT., Jan., 1891. WEED, C. M.—Partial bibliography of insects affecting clover. Bull. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Series, I., p. 17. CockeEritL, T. D. A—Asymmetry in insects. Ent. Mo. Mag., XXV., p. 382. * PACKARD, A. S.—Notes on the epipharynx and the epipha- tyngeal organs of taste jn mandibulate insects. Psyche, V., p. 222. . * McNiEtL, JeERomE.—The male element the originating factor in the development of species. Psyche, V., 269. -CockERELL, T. D. A.—Entomological notes from Colorado. Ent. Mo. Mag., XXV., 324, 363, 1889. Wesster, F. M.—Garden insects. Jnsect Life, III., 148, 1890. Proceedings of the second annual meeting of the Association of Economic Entomologists. Jnsect Life, III., p. 180, 1891. Riley, C. V.—The outlook of applied entomology. Jusect Life, III., p. 181, 1891. ' Cook, A. J—Work of the entomologists in the experiment Stations.” Jnsect Life, IIL., p. 212, 1891. _SMitu, J. B.—Fertilizers as insecticides. Znsect Life, IIL, p. 217, 1891. 344 The American Naturalist. Pi Bruner, L.—Notes on beet insects. Blanes Life, IIL, p. ag 1891. on FLETCHER, JAS—Notes upon some injurious insects of the year in Canada. Jnsect Life, III., p. 247, 1891. Rivey, C. V.—Report of thesentomologist. Rep. U. S. Dee j Agric. for 1888, p. 53, 1889. Contains essays upon the fluted — scale (/cerya purchast), hop-plant louse, and papers by Riley and 3 Howard, Webster, Alwood, Walker, and reports by field agai of the entomologist. he * CockERELL, T. D. A—On the variation of insects. Entomol gist, XXIL, 176, 198, 226, 243, 1889. ; Hedsoay, S.—The more important writings of B. D. Wie and C. V. Riley. Washington, 1890. * CocKERELL, F. D. A——Temperature and melanism. Ente ar XXIII., 133, 1890. i ae Evolution of insect galls; Z ¢., 73. Colorado entomology; /. c., p. 1 ; C[atvert], P. P.—Elementary tomalo Ent. News, 70, 86, 102, 119, 140, 157, 1890. Stosson, A. T.—Winter collecting in Florida. Ænt. Neus, bn p. 81, ror. SKINNER, H.—Geographical variation ; / c. , p. 84, 1890. Smitu, J. B—Catalogue of the insects of New _ w final report of state geologist, Vol. II., p- 486, 1890 Coox, A. J.—Teaching entomology. nsect Life, IIL, p. m 1890. a Ossgors, H.—On the use of contagious diseases in contenell with injurious insects. Jysect Life, IIL., 141, 1890. Scuwartz, E. A—Notes on the comparative vitality of ins : in cold water. Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 208, 1890. ——Stray notes on injurious insects in semi-tropical Fong 4. ¢., p. 221, 1890. | Howixo, L. O.—A few additions and corrections to > “ Nomenclator Zoologicus” ; Z c., p. 258, 1890. a FLETCHER, Jas cf Presidential address before Entomo Club, A. A. A.S.) Entom. Amer, VI, 1, 1890: —EC _ entomology. z * a 1891.] Record of American Zoology. : 34 5 CocKERELL, T. D. A.—Appendix to notes on insect fauna of _ high altitudes. Can. Ent, XXII., 76, 1890.—Orthoptera and Lepidoptera. Wicxuam, H. F.—A month on Vancouver Island. Can. Ent. XXII., 169, 1890.—Results of collecting. CockERELL, T. D. A—A suggestion as to the generic nomen- clature of insects. Can. Ent, XXII., 173, 1890.—Use of section names. Coox, A. J—On teaching entomology. Can. Ent, XXII., 193, 1890. Proceedings of the Entomological Club of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science. Can. Ent, XXII., 193, 213, 1890.—Proceedings of Indianapolis meeting. For papers, vide infra. Mortretpt, M. E—Some experiences in rearing insects. Caz. Ent., XXII., 220, 1890. CockErELL, T. D. A.—Ndotes on the insect fauna of high alti- tudes in Custer county, Colorado. Çan. Ent., XXII., 55, 1890. Frenc, G. H.—Subdivision of genera. Can. Ent, XXII., 251, 1890. Rosertson, C.—Flowers and insects. Bot. Gazette, XIV., pp. 120, 172, 297, 1889; XV. pp. 79, 199, 1890. Flowers and insects. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., V., p. 449, 1890. WHEELER, W. M.—Two cases of insect mimicry. Proc. Wisc. N. H. Socy., 1889, p. 217. THYSANURA. FERNALD, H. T.—Studies on Thysanuran anatomy. J. H. U. Circ, IX., 62, 1890. BercroTH, E.—Note on Lepisma domestica Packard. Ent. Amer., VI., 233, 1890.—Is Thermobia = Thermophila preoc. ORTHOPTERA. : WHEELER, W. M—Uber ein eigenthümliches organ im Locust- idenembryo. Zool. Ans., XIIL, p. 475, 1890—Disc-liķe organ in front of head. 346 The American Naturalist. * PicreT, A.—Mem. Soc. Phys. N. H. Geneve, XXX- scribes Jdostatus [n. g.| californicus [n. 5.]. Bruner, L.—Local outbreak of grasshoppers in Idaha, Life, IIl., 135, 1890. Howarp, L. O.—Note on the. mouth-parts of the cockroach. Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 216, 1890. TownseNnD, TyLer.—Further note on Dissoi ( carolina; kc, p. 266, 1800. Gopine, F. W.—A new Orthopter from Tennessee. Amer., VI., 13, 1890.—Stetheophyma doranit. n Bruner, L.—Ten new species of Orthoptera from Ne Notes on habits, wing variation, etc. Can. Ent, XXII 1891.—Cycloptilus borealis, Ceuthophilus pallescens, Udeo compacta. PSEUDONEUROPTERA. CALVERT, P. P.—Notes ona few Virginia dragon- “Notes, L, p. 22, 1890. Powerin. M.—List of dragonflies (Odonata) taken at 4 chester, Kennebec co., Maine. nt. Notes, I., pp. 36, 55, I List of 43 species: _ Casot, L.—The immature state of the Odonata, Pt. His line. Mem. M. C; Z., XVIL, p. 1, 6 pls., 1890. ie * Hacen, H. E Semcon of the Odonata of Norti i 1 Payche, V., 2. Vi, 1880. CALVERT, P. P.—Additional notes on some North Odonata. Ent. News, I., p. 73, 1890. BEUTENMULLER, W.—Mode of oviposition of certain § Odonata. Entom. Amer., VI., p. 165, 1890. Kirsy, W. F—On some new or little-known 5f Libellulinæ from Jamaica. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1889. * Kirpy, W. F.—A revision of the subfamily L descriptions of new genera and species. Trans. z don, XII., p. 249, 1880. * Howi H. A.—Synopsis of the Odonata of No No. H; The genus Anax. Psyche, V., p. 303, Bice | 1891.] Record of American Zoology. 347 COLEOPTERA. *Van DorssurGH, DE Vrigs.—Nueva especie de Tachys. Mem. Soc. Cient. Antonio Alzate, Mex., III., 1890. Rivers, J. J—Habits in the life-history of Pleocoma behrensit. Zoe., I., p: 24, 1890. Wesster, F. M.—Injury to grass from Gastroidea polygoni. Insect Life, LL, p. 275, 1890. Ritey, C. V.—The rose chafer (Macrodactylus subspinosus Fabr.) Jnsect Life, Il., 295, 1890. Wesster, F. M.—Experiments with the plum curculio. Jusect Life, II., p. 305, 1890. CHITTENDEN, F. H.—Notes on Languria. Jnsect Life, Il., p. 346, 1890. WessTer, F. M.—An experiment with Coccinellide in the conservatory. Jnsect Life, II., p. 363, 1890.—Did not destroy Aphides, etc. Weep, C. M.—Food plants of the clover-stem borer. AM. Nat., XXIV., p. 867, 1890. * WATERHOUSE, C. O.— Description of two new Central American Buprestidæ, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., V., No. 27. Wickuam, H. F.—On the habits of some Meloini. Ænt. News, I., p. 89, 1890. S aw Ate: E. A.—Sudden spread of a new enemy to clover. Trans. Ent. Soc., Wash., I., p. 248, 1890.—Sitones hispidulus. Lene, C. W.—Synopsis of Cerambycidæ. Entom. Amer., VL., PP- 9, 65, 97, 104, 156, 185, 213, 1890. Ritey, C. V.—Platypsyllus egg and ultimate larva; /. c., p. 27, 1890. Rivers, J. J.—Description of a new Cychrus; /.¢., p. 71— C. fuchsianus (Cal.). Horn, G. H —[Description of Cychrus merkelli, from Idaho] ; £ c, p. 71, 1890. Widi H. F.—Remarks on some western Tenebrionidæ ; l. c., p. 83, 1890. Cuitrenpen, F. H.—On the habits of Phlceophagus and ences; l.c., P. 99, 1890. 348 The American Naturalst. Rivers, J. J—Three new species of Coleoptera ; 2. c., p. 3, 18 —Amblychila baronii (Ariz.), Cychrus (Brennus) oreophilus (C Necydalis barbare (Cal.). SMITH, J. B—Notes on Elaphidion; Z. c., p. 136, 1890. HAMILTON, J.—Notes on Coleoptera. No. 6. Can. Ent,) P. 237, 1890. ` Harrincton, W. H.—Notes on a few Canadian Rhyne hora. Can. Ent, XXIL p. 21, 1891. ; Hory, G. UA synopsis of the Halticini of boreal Amı Trans. Am. „Ent. Soc., XVI., p. 163, 1889.—Many new s described. The new genera are Pseudolampis, Phydanis, Hemi- phrymus, Hemiglyptus, Leptotrix. . * TowNsEND, T.—Contribution to a list of the Coleoptera : lower peninsula of Michigan. Psyche, V., p. 231, 1889. * Rivers, J. J.—A new genus and species of North An Scarabæidæ. Proc. Cal. Acad., I., p. 100.—Anoplognatha niana. CHITTENDEN, F. H.—Remarks on the habits of some species Cleride. Ent. Amer., VI., 154, 1890. Notes on the habits df some species of Rhyncl l.c., 167, 1890. Wana ite W.—Food habits of some ‘Chrysomelide L e178, 1800. HAMILTON, J—[On Leptura]; Zc., 214. ——On the lists of Coleoptera published by the g survey of Canada, 1842-1888. Can. Ent, XXII, 184, 1890.—Gives catalogue of species. BEUTENMULLER, W.—On the food habits of North 4 Rynchophora. Can. Ent., XXII., 200, 258, 1890. Osgors, H.—On a peculiar pra of Coleopterous ary _ Ent, XXII., 217, 1890.—With dorsal prolegs, in si anthus ; adult unknown. 1891.) Record of American Zoology. 349 E = 1 j | ° 1 * HEYDEN, L.von Synonyma. Entom. Zeit., IX. , Pp. 131, t890: * — Über Epicauta als Fischer, armeniaca Fald., und dichroa Leconte. Wien. Ent. Zeit., IX., 99, 1890. * BEUTENMULLER, W —Tiescrighiels of the larva of Megalodacne fasciata. Psyche, V., 317, 1890 * Hacen, H. A.— Otiorhynchus sulcatus injurious to plants in greenhouses in Mass. Psyche., V., 333, 1890. GILLETTE, C. P._—Parasitism of Hippodamia convergens. Psyche, V., 279, 1889. WEED, C. M.—On the preparatory stages of the 20-spotted lady bird. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bulletin., Tech. Series, I., p. 3, 1889. * Casey, T. L—A preliminary monograph of the North American species of Troglopheeus. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci IV 322, 1889. ' À GILLETTE, C. P.—Notes on the plum curculio and plum gouger. Jnsect Life, III., 227, 1891. Situ, J. B—An invasion by the clover-leaf beetle. sect Life, TL p. 231, 1891. Forses, S. A.—On the life-history of the white grub. Jnsect Life, IIL, p: 239, 1891. Hart, C. A—tThe life-history of wire worms. /nsect a III., 246, 1891. Riley, C. V., and Howarp, L. O.—The piam curculio. Rep. Dep. Agric. ee 1888, p. 57, 1889.. Wenster, F. M.—Experiments in rearing the plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) from plums and other fruit; Z. c., p. 78, 1889. Scuwartz, E. A—On the Coleoptera common to North America and other countries. Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., P. 182, 1890. ——Notes on the tobacco beetle (Lasioderma serricorne). Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 225, 1890. l —— Food plants and food habits of some North American Coleoptera. Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 231, 1890 —Myrmecophilus Coleoptera found in Temperate North America; /. c., p. 237, 1890.—List of known species, etc. Coleoptera 350 The American Naturalist. *ScCHMIDT, J.—Ent. Nachrichten, XVI., Feb. , 1890 Saprinus sulcatulus, from California. LIEBECK, Cuas.—Cicindelide of a season. Lut. Neus, eoo 158, 1890.—Eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey. * LEFEVRE, E.—Ann. Soc. Ent. France, VI., 9, 18899 Describes Alethaxius tuberculifer (Mex.) 9 * FLETIAUX, E., AND SALLE, A.—/. c. Catalo 517 species 0 Coleoptera (some new) from Guadeloupe. * Bates, H. W.—Additions to the Cicindelidæ fauna of M Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1890. SMITH, :J. B.—An experience with rose-bugs. Jnsect Life, [ p. 113, 1890. Wesster, F. M.—Notes upon some insects affecting corn; y P- 159, 1890. ; Smitu, J. B—Notes on the plum curculio. Inset L p. 219, 1891. An experience with the rose-bug. Znsect Life, 220, 1891. HEMIPTERA. WEED, C. M pa EA of the buffalo tree-hopper. Am. N: XXIV, p. 785, 1890. Fourth contribution to a knowledge of the life-history certain little-known plant lice. Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta., 1 : I, p. 111, 5 pls, 1890. WuEELer, W. M—Uber driisenastigen gebilde im abdominal segment der Hemipterenembryonen. Zool, An 317, 1889. Vide Am. Nart., XXIIL, 644, 1889. * WEED, C. M.—Second contribution to the a utumnlif of cun little-known Aphididæ. Psyche, V., p: 208, 1 —The strawberry root louse (Aphis forbesii n- P- 273, 1889. *——Notes on Emesa longipes; lc., p. 280, 1889. * Van Duzer, E. P.—On a new species of Pedic P: 238.—P. occidentalis, Woopworrtu, C. W.—North American Typhlocy i P? 211, 11889. 1891.] Record of American Zoology. 351 AsHMEAD, W. H.—The corn Delphacid (Delphax maidis). Psyche, V., 321, 1890. Ossorn, H.—On the metamorphoses of a species of Aleyrodes. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. for 1888, p. 39, 1890. Rice, G.—Historical sketch of the rise and downfall of the cottony cushion scale (/cerya purchasi). State Board of Hort. California, Bull. XIV., 1890.—Controversial. Van Duzer, E. P.—Descriptions of two Jassids from the cranberry bogs of New Jersey. Entom. Amer., VI., p. 133, 1890.— Thamnotettix fitchit, Athysanus striatulus ; also figure of Agallia 4-punctata. n BERGROTH, E.—Note on the genus Protenor; Z c., p. 217, 1890. Van Duzre, E. P.—Review of the North American species of Bythosocopus ; Z. c., p. 221, 1890.—New species are B. distinctus (N. Y., Md., N. C.), cognatus (Ont., N. Y.) New North American Homoptera: Can. Ent., XXIL, p. 110, 1890.—/diocerus crategi (Ont., N. Y.), Platymetopius frontalis (N. Y., Iowa). Ossory, H.—Period of development in Mallophaga. Can. Ent., XXIL, p. 219, 1890. Van Duzer, E. P—New North American Homoptera; II. Can. Ent., XXIL., p. 249, 1890.—Pediopsis tristis (Kan., I., Mich., N. Y., Ont.), Thamnotettix lurida (Iowa, Mich.) * UHLER, P. R.—Observations on North American Capside, with descriptions of new species. Trans. Maryland Acad. Sci., 1890, p. 73.—Describes as new Ectopiocerus (n.g.) anthracinus, Teleorhinus (n.g.) cyaneus, Closterocoris (n.g.) ornata, Coquillettia (n.g.) insignis, Xenetus regalis, X. scutellatus, Rhinocapsis (n.g.) vanduzeu, Mimoceps (n.g.) insignis, M. gracilis, Macrotylus regalis, M. tristis, M. vestitus. Gopine, F. W.—A new apple pest. Ent. News, I, p. 123, 1890.—Empoasca birdii (I1) Ritey, C. V., and Howarp, O.—Some new Iceryas. Jnsect Life, IIL, p. 92, 1890.—/. rose (Fla.), 7. montserratensis (W. L), T. palmeri (Mex.), and a catalogue of the known (6) species. Ossorn, H—Note on the period of development in Mallo- phaga. Insect Life, IIL, p. 115, 1890. 3 Am. Nat.—April.—¢, 352 The American Naturalist. re ‘Curtice, C—The animal parasites of sheep. Washin 1890.— Trichodectes limbatus T. climax, T. spherocephalus. I SmitH, J. B. Some questions relating to Aphididæ. Insect a Life, E; p. 226, 1891. ae Forses, S. A.—A summary history of the corn root Aptis ne Insect Life, H1., p. 233, 1891. . Riley, C. V.—The flutes scale (/cerya purchasi). Rep. Dep. a Agr., 1888, p. 80, 1889. The hop plant louse; Z. c., p. 93, 1889. a Atwoop, W. B.—Report on experiments with remedii against the hop louse; /.c., p. 102, 1889. $ SCHWARTZ, E. A.—Notes on Cicada septendecim in 1889. Trans. ae Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 230, 1890. ae Van Duzez, E. P.—New California Homoptera. Entom. Amt : VI., pp. 35, 49, 77, 91, 1890.—Pediopsis nubila (Uhler Mts), Agallia oculata, Thamnotettix subenea, Th. coguilletii, Th. gem — inata, Th. flavocapitata, Th. atropuncta, Th. limbata, A inscriptus, Platymetopus elegans, Deltocephalus coguilletti, D. minutus, a Smiru, E. F.—The black peach Aphis; Z c., pp. 101, 201— P Aphis persica-niger nov. (Mich. to Va.) L THYSANOPTERA. Garman, H.—The mouth parts of the Thysanoptera. Ball a Essex Inst., XXII., p. 24, 1890. An asymmetry of the head and mouth parts of te Thysanoptera. Can. Ent., XXII., p. 215,1890. ; HYMENOPTERA. * AsnmEAD, W. H.—On the Hymenoptera of Colorado. Colorado Biol. Assoc., No. 1, 1890, pp. 47. Howarp, L. O.—Two. spider-egg parasites. /msect Lift, - 269, 1890.—Acoloides (n.g.) saitidis, and Baus amene a Insect Life, IL, p. 359. Rutey, C. V., and Howarp, L. O.—The wheat saw-fly. Life, 11., 286, 1890,—Note on and figure of Cephus HEMET 1891.] Record of American Zoology. 353 Two parasites of the garden web-worm. /nsect Life, Il, p. 327, 1890.—Figures Limneria eurycreontis. Some of the bred parasitic Hymenoptera in the national collection. /nsect Life, II., 348, 1890; IIL, p. 15, 57, 151, 1890. Howarp, L. O—A North American Axima and its habits. Insect Life, IL, 365, 1890—Aximi sabriskiei, nov. sp., from New York. Matty, F. W.—Monostegia ignota Norton. Insect Life, HI. 9, 1890.—Notes on life-history. CocKERELL, T. A. D.—What are the uses of bright colors in Hymenoptera? Ent. News. I., p. 65, 1890. ` Fox, W. J.—Aculeate Hymenoptera new to Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Ent. News, 1., 83, 1890. CorDLeEY, A. B.—Sports in venation; Z. c., p. 88, 1890. Fox, W. J.—Polybia cubursis in Florida, /. ¢., p. 93, 1890. * SCHLETTERER.—Ann. K. K. Nahrrh. Hofsmuseum Wien. IV., No. 4, 1889—Monograph of Evaniidæ. 5 American species of Gasteruption. * Kout. F. F.—/. c. Describes new N. A. species of Cremonus, Ammoplanus, and Stigmus. Fox, W. J.—Descriptions of three new species of Hymenoptera. Ent. News, 1., p. 106, 1890.—Hoplisus foveolata (Fla.), Philanthus eurynome (Fla.), Calioxys dolichos (Fla.) Fox, W. J.—Three new species of aculeate Hymenoptera; Zc., P- 137, 1890.—Sphex (Isodontia) macrocephalus (Pa.) Miscophus americanus (N. J), Photopsis cressoni (N. J) ; GILLETTE, C. P.—Oviposition of Anomalon. Ænt. News, L., p. 139, 1890. * Emery, C.—Bull. Soc. Ent. Itala., XXIL., 1890.—Catalogues 107 species of Formicidæ (18 new) from Costa Rica, and describes new species of Pseudomyrma, Strumigenys, Epiptritis, etc., from America i KonL, F. F.—Ann. K. K. Hofmuseum Wien. V., 1890.—First part of monograph of Sphex; new species are S. morio (Brit. Columbia), S. prestans (Cal:), S. neoxenus (Vancouv.), S. excisus a S. clavipes (Cuba), S. maximiliani (Mex.), S. spiniger Met ee : œ 354 The American Naturalist. _ Howarp, L. O.—A new and remarkable Encyrtid: Is it p sitic? Insect Life, IIL., p. 145, 1890.—TZanaostigma con n. g. and sp. from Mex. wy The habits of Pachyneuron, Insect Life, III., 218, 18¢ Note on the hairy eyes of some Hymenoptera. T Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 195, 1890. CoviLLE, F. V.—Notes bumble bees ; /.c., p. 197, 1896; 4 Marzatt, C. L.—An ingenious method of collecting Bomb is and Apathus. Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 216, 1890. Howarp, L. O.—Authorship of the family Mymaride. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 221, 1890. ASHMEAD, W. Hesa anomalous Chalcid. Trans. Ent. Washington, I., p. 234, 1890.—Hoplocrepis albiclavis, n.g sp. from Florida. Remarks on the Chalcid genus Halidea; 4 c., p.: Describes as new, H. schwazi (Virginia). GILLETTE, C. P—New Cympide. Entom. Amer. VI 1890.—Neuroterus flavipes, N. vermes (on bur oak), 4 niger (white oak), Dryophanta liberacellente (on red and s oaks), Rhodites multispinosa (Rose). Notes on Sigalphus curculionis and Sigal can Canad. Ent., XXII., 114, 1890. ROBERTSON, E- ew North American bees of die Halictus and Prosopis. Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. pak f 1890.—H. forbesii, H. pectinatus, H. nelumbonis, H. 4-mat H. gracilis, H. palustris, H. cressonii, H. albipennes, H. P. nelumbonis. Comstock, J. H—On a saw-fly borer in wheat. Bull. Exp. Sta., No. 11, p. 127, 1889.—Cephus pygmaus. * Bassett, H. F.—A short chapter in the history of om gall flies. Psyche, V., p. 214, 1889. * GILLETTE C. P.—Notes on certain Cynipide, with ¢ d of new species. Psyche, V. , 214, 1889. * Jack, J. G—Emphytus cinctus in America. PO 18 = Scuppex, S. H.—Power of vision in Vespide. 279, 1889. 1891] Record of American Zoology. 355 * AsumeEAD, W. H.—On the Hymenoptera of Colorado ; descrip- tions of new species, notes, and a list of the species found in the state. Bull. I., Colorado Biol. Assoc.—64 new species. Neolarra Microbracon, and Dolichopcephalus are new genera. CLARKSON, F.—Argiope riparia and its parasite; Ichneumon aranearum and its parasite, a Chalsid fly. Can. Ent, XXIL., p. 122, 1890. HARRINGTON, W. H.—Two interesting monstrosities. Can. Ent., XXII., p. 124, 1890.—Fanus tarsitorius with trifid tibia. Coox, A. J.—Aphidius granariaphis, n. sp. Can. Ent, XXII. P. 125, 1890.—From grain Aphis in Michigan. Rosertson, C.—Habits of Empor bombiliformis. Can. Ent., XXIL, p. 216, 1890. AsnmEAD, W. H.—Descriptions of some new Canadian Bra- conidæ. Can. Ent, XXIII., p. 1, 1891.—Bracon brachyurus, melanaspis, nigrodorsum, Spathius canadensis, Cenophanes borealis, Rhogas mellipes, Microplitis cincta, Opius canadensis, O. bicari- natus, Idiasta macrocera, Aphidius tumacrogas, A. crassicornis, A. pinaphidis, A. bifaciatus, A. nigriceps, Lipolexis fuscicornis, Hister- omerus canadensis. Davis, W. T.—The habits of a ground hornet. Can. Ent. XXIIL, p. 9, 1891.—Stizus speciosus. \ 356 The American Naturalist. [Apa RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. Abstract Proceedings Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting Haverford Alumni Report Arkansas Geological Survey, 1888. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of.the Smithsonian Institution, 1887 and. 1888, AYERS, H.—Contribution to the Morphology of the Vertebrate Bi: Sepanit- ` Abdruck aus dem PE A Anzeiger, No. , 1890. From the au BEAN, T. a ew Fishes Collected off the Coast of Alaska EF ps Adjacent Region Northwar eee Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIII., pp. 37-45. From the author. BERGEN, J. Jp F. D.—A Primer of Darwinism and Organic Evolution, From thé authors. BOETTGER, O.—Bericht iiber die Leistungen in der Herpetologie während | l Jahres 1887. From the author, ` BONNEY, S. G.—On the Crystalline Schists and Their Relation to the Meso ae in the Lepontine Ext. Quart. Journ. Geo. Soc., May, 1890. From the ror E i : i } r. etin No, 22, Expt. Stat. Caroll University, Dec., 1890. CAPELLINI, G.— Ichyosaurus ee e Tronchi di Cicadee Nelle i Scagliose dell’ ak From the author CHAPMAN, H. C., and A. P, B ER.—Researches upon Respi iration Made : the Physical Laboratory of Jefferson Medical 2 Dae ae the Consumption of Oxyget and the Production of Carbon Dioxide in Animals. ts. Proc. Phila. Acad. Jan., 189r. From the autho Cox; C. tinio is Life. From the auth: yar DALL, Description of a New Species of Sand Shell from Cuba—/ cubana. Ext. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., ma prends = author. E DAM ES, W. ilio arg der deutschen geologischen Caii, Jeki , 1890. From the M FRAZER, P.—The Philadelphia Meeting of the Tnternational Congress of _ Ext. Am. Geol., June, 1890. From the author. FRECH, F—Die Korallen Fauna der Trias. Paleontagraphict g dunar. A.—Les Enchainements du monde Animal dans le temps £' Fossiles Secondai daires. From the author. Surv of New Jersey, Vol. II., Part II., Zoology. Pe Goong, G. B.—The Origin of the National Scientific and 1 Educational 5 tates. Vos the a e ; HECTOR, J —Twenty fourth cat Report of the New Zesind Gai and Laboratory. 1891.) Recent Books and Pamphlets. 357 HouGu, W.—Fire-Making Apparatus in the U. S. National Museum, Ext. Rept. Nat. Mus., 1887-'88. From the Smithsonian Institution HYATT, A., and J. M. ARMS.—Guides for Sclence-Teaching. Insecta. From the authors. Ives, J. E—Echinoderms from the Northern Coast of Yucatan and the Harbor of Vera Cruz. Ext. Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. mie Sept., 1890. From the author. Jouy, P. L.—The Collection of Korean Mortuary Pottery in the United States ae mage Rept. Nat. Mus. 1887-'88. From the Smithsonian Institution, KILIAN, W.—Systéme Crétacé. Ext. de l'Annuaire Géologique Universal, 1888. From G a —The Manual-Training Idea asa Factor in Dental Education. Ext. Dental Cosmos, June, 1890, From the author. LOMMEL, E.—Georg Simon Ohm's wissensshaftliche Leistungen. in der offentlichen Sitzung der k. b. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu Munich, Marz, ste. From the me LUCAS ves, he Expedition to the Funk Island, with Observations upon the — History mA Anatomy of the Great Auk. Ext, Rept. Nat. Mus, 1887-'88. From Smithsonian oe —Ca e of pa of Birds Collected at the Abrolhos Islands, Ea 1887-'88. Ext. Proc. U. S. Nat. M Pa and IV. From the trustees of the British Museum Ly , B. S—An Old Japanese Foot Measure. Ext. Proc. Numismatic and Antiquarian Soc of Phila., 2 rom the author. ae MEYER, A. B.—Der. Knochen py des Königlichen Zoologischen NEWBERRY, J. S.—The meians Fishes of North America. Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 16. dapet the author. NEWHALL, C. S.—The e Northeastern’ America, From the author. OVERLOOP, E. tae or es'du Bassin de I'Escant avec une Planche et deux Cartes. Annexe an Bull. de la Soc. Belge de Geol. de Palconit, et d'Hydrol. From the author. PARKER, gi J.—Skeleton of the New Zealand Crayfishes (Palinurus and Parane- phrops). Studies in Biology for New Zealand Students, No. 4. From the author PEET, S. D.— Prehistoric America. Vol. II., Emblematic Mounds and Animal Effigies. From the author : Report State Geologist of New Jersey. Vol. II., Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology. RIDGWAY, R.—Further Notes on the Genus Xiphocolaptes of Lesson. Ext. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIII. From the Smithsonian Institution. JORDAN, D. S., and B. W. EVERMANN.—Description of a New Species of Fish from ippecanoe River, Indiana. Ext. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIII. From the Smith- sonian ig ScH ong —Die Differenzierung des Saugethiergebisses. Sonder-Abdruck aus dem Biologischen Centraiblatt, Bd. X., June, 1890. From the author. Scorr, W. B.—Beitriige zur Kenntnis der Oreodontide. Separat-Abdruck aus Stapanssov, G.—C —Cursii El tari de Geologii, Bucharest. From the author. TRUE, F. W.—A Review of the Family Delphinidz. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 36. From the author. TUCKERMAN, F.—On the Gustatory Organs of Some Edentata. Aus der internation- alen Monatsschrift f. Anat. u Phys., 1890, Bd. VII., Heft 9. From the author. 358 The American Naturalist. WATKINS, J. E.—Report on the Section of Transportation and Engineering’ United States National Museum, 1888. Ext. Rept. Nat. Mus., 1887-88. From Smithsonian Institution. AB HEELER, H. J.—Soils and Fertilizers. Bull. No. 8, Agri. Exp. Stat., Rh. WHE State Agri. School, Sept., 1890. j WILSON, T.—A Study of Prehistoric Anthropology. Ext. Rept. Nat. Mus., 1887- PP. 597-671 ; —Results of an Inquiry as to the Existence of Man in North America during the Paleolithic Period of the Stone Age. Ext. Rept. Nat. Mus., 1887-'88. From the Smith- sonian Institution. l WOODWARD, A. S., and C. D. SHERBORN.—A Catalogue of British Fossil Verte- brata. From the authors.. : ; — A a RECENT LITERATURE. To THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN NATURALIST : Dear Sir: I have just seen the review of the ‘‘ Guide for Science- Teaching,” No. VIII, on “Insecta,” in the January number of the ERICAN NATURALIST. One sentence of that review cannot be passed unnoticed by those who are laboring for the cause of science- teaching. When Mr. Kingsley says: ‘‘ We cannot help wishing we had some really first-class text-book of entomology which would attack the subject from every side,’’ I must reply, emphatically, that this was the very thing we did not aim to write, and which we did not think was needed. As is well known, the “Science-Guides ” are written for the body of teachers of our public and private schools,—that is, for teaches of the young from five to eighteen years of age. Do these tea need a text-book which shall attack the subject from every side, 0f guide to show them how to make their pupils attack the subject from í sides? Will boys and girls trained from early childhood to do text-book when they enter college? I think not. Nowhere along way is a text-book needed, even if it be “first-class,” and | should it be placed between nature and the child. It may be tha special student in college or the professor would find a reference presenting the subject from every point of view, very convenlenis it is not for specialists that those most deeply interested in the science-teaching are working. These recognize the fact that 1 ‘i science primer, conceived in the scientific spirit, but treating the ject from a few sides, may shoot far below the minds of spec reference book, treating the subject from every side, wouie ~ heavy weight upon the teachers of the young, because it would their imperative needs. | y 1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 359 The time has come when we must explain the ways and means whereby teachers shall be able to make their large classes of children do independent observational and mental work,—in a word, scientific work,—and when this difficult task is accomplished we may rest assured that the power thus gained by the young will enable them to seek and find for themselves those original sources of knowledge on any given subject which are contained in many libraries. We may go even a step farther and make the logical prediction that this same power will enable some of them, perhaps, to add to the stock of absolute knowl- edge. I desire to thank Mr. Kingsley for the expression of his views on other subjects concerning which naturalists are by no means agreed, and I write this reply only because the part of his review to which I have taken exception touches upon what Professor Hyatt and I con- sider a vital principle of science-teaching. Respectfully yours, ju MA General Notes. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. On a Collection of Fossil Birds from the Equus Beds of Oregon.'—Silver Lake is one of the alkaline lakes of Oregon, and lies somewhat to the southward of the middle part of the state, or, approximately speaking, in 43° .05’ N. lat., and 43° 25’ W. long. In a direct line it is a little more than sixty miles from Fort Klamath... It is a small lake, not over twelve miles long by some eight or nine wide. Fresh water passes into it from Silver Creek over a swampy delta near its northwestern extremity, and a smaller stream of pure water enters it from the westward. The topography of the country about it, as well as the geology of the vicinity, is interesting, and the fauna will well repay the further investigation of the naturalist. So far as at present known, there is but one species of fish that occurs in this lake, Afy/o- leucus formosus of Girard, one of the Cyprinide. Numerous species of aquatic birds are found in numbers on the lake, and frequent its the western grebe, represents one of the constantly present podicipi- dine forms found upon this sheet of water; and there they may be ae se echoed Soaig OF Weataciom, March 21st, 1891. 360 The American Naturalist. a seen at any time of the day, either singly or in pairs. Probably, although I have no authority for it, the larger waders and several species of the limicoline birds are also to be found upon the shores of Silver Lake during the vernal and autumnal migrations, | At various distances, and in nearly all directions from it, are to be found a number of other lakes more or less like the one we have been considering, though in most instances larger than it, as im the case of Abert’s Lake, found some forty-five miles to the southward and eastward. In the Oregon desert, about forty miles east of Silver Lake, lies Fossil Lake, so named from the rich deposit of fossil mammals, birds, fish, and so forth that have been found there. This lake has long since dried up, though water may yet be obtained by digging, and that at a depth of two feet or more, anywhere over its former bottom This latter is a perfect mine of wealth for the paleontologist, as it is absolutely filled with the fossil remains of many of the former inhab- . itants of, or animals that resorted to, what at one time must have beet a sheet of water considerably like Silver Lake. Unfortunately for science, when the cattle men first went into that country they gathered ; up as objects of curiosity the majority of the best fossils of this locality, and they have thus been forever lost to us. This will account, I think, for nearly the entire absence of bird skulls among that kind of material subsequently obtained there by naturalists. ee Professor Thomas Condon, of the University of Oregon, was the first scientific man that visited Fossil Lake, and he made a very CaF fully selected and highly valuable collection there; and some of the a fossil birds found by him are now in my hands for description. A few a years afterwards, Professor Cope despatched one of his assistants het & Chas. H. Sternberg, of Lawrence, Kansas, who made an enormous o collection on the same ground. Later, in the ’80’s, Professor co visited the region in person, and made another fine collection, includ- i ing many forms previously found by both Professor Condon p Sternberg. eee In the November number, 1889, of the AMERICAN NATURALIST, Professor Cope, in an article entitled “The Silver Lake of On and Its Regioni,” to which I am indebted for the information gl recited, presents us with some of the results of his eminently important researches in that country. : coe Setting aside the mammals and other vertebrates, it is my inte of to say only a few words here about the collection of fossil birds BE were obtained by the authorities mentioned. he After these latter were safely transferred east by their disti 1891.) ~ Geology and Paleontology. 361 owner and deposited in his cabinets, he, in various scientific publications, described a number of them. They were the following species, viz. : Two forms of Podiceps, P. occidentalis and P. californicus, the first- named Professor Cope believing to be identical with the now-existing chmophorus occidentalis of that region, a species referred to above ; Podilymbus podiceps, Graculus macropus s. n., Anser hypsibatus s. n., canadensis, albifrons gambeli, and another species near Anser nigricans ; also a swan, which he named Cygnus paloregonus, and finally the fossil remains of Fulica americana. There were many other species still remaining, and a few years afterwards—that is, early in the present year—Professor Cope did me the honor to pass all this material into my hands for full description and illustration. Coming, as it does, just as I am about to undertake that volume of my ‘“‘ Osteology of the Birds of the United States”? which has to deal with the water birds, now in course of preparation, this material is especially welcome to me, as the fossil forms can be conveniently compared with the existing species of birds which I shall describe in that work. This beautiful collection of fossils consists of some fifteen hundred or more specimens of bones, many of which are perfect, many of which can be restored, and many fragmentary pieces.? They are all perfectly clean, the vast majority of them being of a deep leaden hue, almost black in some instances, and exhibit their characters admirably. My preliminary examination of this material leads me to believe that there are still over twenty species of fossil birds represented by it which still remain to be described. This is interesting in view of the fact that up to the present time there have been less than fifty fossil birds of the United States described by naturalists. As we all know, they constitute the rarest of all vertebrate fossil remains. So far as the birds are concerned, when the chapter is written and printed on the Equus beds of Fossil Lake, of later Tertiary times, it may prove that some of those forms still exist ; others are undoubtedly extinct ; while the general character of the whole agrees with forms that go to make up the existing avifauna of that region. t a close study of the de- partures therefrom is of the highest importance, and it is rendered the more interesting from the fact that we can compare it with the mam- malian, reptilian, and icthyian faunæ of the same horizon. I find that _ some of these bones must have belonged to rather remarkable types of birds, and different from anything now in existence. They were all found either on or in the loose, friable deposit, the sedimentary _? The writer here exhibited some fine selected specimens from the collection, and sub- SOCICLY P 362 _ The American Naturatst. [Apeil, remains of the former bottom of the lake. Furthermore, such com- parative studies of this material as a whole is enhanced by the discov- ery of other relics found commingled with it. Of this Professor Cope has said that ‘‘Scattered everywhere in the deposit were the obsidian implements of human manufacture. Some of these were of inferior, others of superior workmanship, and many of them were covered with a patine of no great thickness, which completely replaced the natural lustre of the surface. Other specimens were as bright as when first made. e abundance of these flints was remarkable, and suggested that they had been shot at the game, both winged and otherwise, that had in former times frequented the lake. Their general absence from the soil of the surrounding region added strength to this supposition. Of course it was impossible to prove the contemporaneity of the flints with animals with whose bones they were mingled, under the circum- stances of the mobility of the stratum in which they all occurred. But had they been other than human flints, no question as to their contemporaneity would have arisen. . . . . . . . The probability of the association is, however, greatly increased by the discovery, by Mr. Wm. Taylor, of paleolithic flints in beds of corresponding age, on the San Diego Creek, Texas.” 3 Should, in the future, sufficient evidence come to light to establish any such theory as this, then there will indeed be opened to us another important and interesting chapter upon the paleontologic history of man.—R. W. SHUFELDT, Takoma Park, D. C. i Flora of the Great Falls Coal Field, Montana.—Prof. J. S. Newberry gives an interesting account of this flora in the American | Journal of Science, XLI., March, 1891. A number of specimens — were submitted to him for examination, which he found without — exception to be species described by Sir Wm. Dawson from the Koo- tanie Group, Canada, or by Prof. Heer from the Kome Group, Green- land. Further examination by Prof. Fontaine showed them to ei also identical with fossils of the Potomac formation. This proves con clusively the general identity of the geological horizons of these al ae groups, and confirms the view that the Potomac group is Lower Cress ceous, and not Jurassic. A comparison with the Old World forme leads Prof. Newberry to assert that the Potomac, the Kootanie, and the a Kome groups represent perhaps distinct but closely related epochs 0 a the Neocomian or Lower Cretaceous of the Old World. a The paper closes with a brief description of the new specs: — Chiropteris williamsii, Chiropteris spatulata, Zamites apertus, Barre — * AMERICAN NATURALIST, Nov., 1889, PP. 979, 980 1891.] Geology and Pateontology. 363 hronika, Chadophlebis augustifolia, Sequoia acutifolia, Podzamites nervosa, and Oleandra artica Secular Disintegration of Rocks.—In a recent paper Mr. Raphael Pumpelly insists that the recognition of the importance of secular disintegration is essential to the proper interpretation of some of the most difficult points in the study of the crystalline schists. It gives a key to the problem in the Green Mountains, N. H. He instances Iron Mountain, Mo., as a convincing illustration of a deep- reaching disintegration in pre-Silurian time, in a region which has not been folded. A mantle of disintegrated rock would be easily and quickly removed by the breaching action of the advancing sea line. “ If we substitute this process.in each period for the accepted one of slow erosion and breaching of hard rock, we shall,” says the writer, “have to materially reconsider our time scales, in so far as they depend upon the rate of accumulation of, detrital materials.” (Bull. Am. Geol. Soc., Vol. II.) The Origin of the Bahama Islands.—A careful study of the geography and geology of the Bahamas leads Dr. Northrop to declare himself in favor of a theory of elevation of these islands, instead of subsidence. The main facts that bear on the question of the most recent movement are as follows: 1. The soft calcareous mud on the west coast of Andros grows gradually harder and harder toward inland. 2. The depth of the fine calcareous deposit close to shore, 3-. The extension of the pine forest. 4. Mangroves were found high above water-mark apparently dying, _ but none were seen in situations that indicated that the water was becoming too deep for them. Note was taken of the extensive erosion of both the surface and the shore line of the islands. (Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sciences, Oct. 13, 1890.) > Geological News. — General.—In a recent paper on the “Resources of the Black Hills,” Mr. Robert T. Hill says that this region is certainly capable of supporting a large and prosperous popu- lation. Aside from its agricultural resources and scenic beauty, it possesses bituminous coal and coke of good quality, lubricating and illuminating oil, with a possibility of natural gas, ores of precious metals, and of iron, copper, and tin. (Am. Inst. Mining Engineers, Sept., 1890) Paleozoic.—Prof. Alexander Winchell calls attention to some idin rocks in the vicinity of Echb Lake. They consist of rugged 364 The American Naturalist. April, strata standing vertically, with a strike east,—a discordance of stratifi- cation with the Huronian beds, which dip at an angle of 20°, with a strike mostly northeast and southwest. He is convinced of their iden- tity with the vertical strata in Minnesota, and the Kewatin system, Also, they are the prolongation of the ‘“ Lower Slate Conglomerate” of the Thessalon valley. (dm. Geol., Dec., 1890). Charles Proiser has examined the records of drilling in western central New York, and from these well sections has compiled a general section giving the _thickness of the different geological formations, together with the total thickness of the series from the lowest Coal Measures down to the Archean. The results show that the thickness of these formations has been greatly underestimated. (Am. Geol, Oct., 1890. )——Messts. H. R. Geiger and Arthur Keith have worked out the structure of the Blue Ridge near Harper’s F erry, and refer the disputed sandstones to the Upper Silurian. (Bull. Am. Geol. Soc., Vol. IIL., pp. 155-164.) The recent studies of C. Willard Hayes in the Southern Appa- lachians have shown a modification of the well-recognized types unsymmetrical fold and the reversed fault, namely, broad overthrust Faults which, as developed in Northwestern Georgia, are comparable in magnitude with those of the Scottish Highlands and the Rocky Mountains, as described by Geikie and McConnell. (Bull. Am. Geol. Soc., Vol. II., pp. 141-154). An Ordovician chert has been found in the Llandeilo-Caradoc rocks of South Scotland, which is considered by G. J. Hinde to be due to an accumulation of the tests of Radiolaria. The beds of fine-grained red and green mudstones associated with the chert favor the view of a deep-sea origin. Mr. Hinde has described twenty- five new species from this rock, referable to fifteen genera, for the most | Part also new. (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., July, 1890.)——Mr. A. Winslow states that the flexing of the strata in the coal region of at estern Arkansas is essentially Appalachian. A study of the various flexures reveals many features which call for compression and lat oo movement, and this movement was from the south. The date H elevation must have been post-Carboniferous and pre-Mesozoic. (Bull. Am. Geol. Soc., Vol. II., pp. 225-242.)——According to Eugene 4. Smith, the Alabama Coal Measures have an aggregate thickness 5:525 feet. They are characterized by the small amount of sulphur, y an almost entire absence of limestone, and by having 4 conglom- Ss erate at the top of the series. (Alabama Geol. Survey, 1890. pik om A. C. Seward agrees with Dr. Stur that Asterophyllites and Spheno- — phyllum are parts of the same plant. This idea was first suggested 1 1853 by Newberry, who stated at that time that the difference betwee? 1891.] Geology and Paleontology, 365 the wedge-shaped and filiform leaves on the same plant was due to emergence and submergence, Newberry’s explanation was subsequently adopted by Colemans and Kickx, (Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Jan., 1891.) Mesozoic.—Mr. Otto Lerch has made a further study of the beds between the Lower Cretacic, the Trinity sands of R. T. Hill, and the Permian, a few miles west of San Angelo, Texas, and concludes that they are pre-Cretacic and post-Permian, and probably may be the con- tinuation and southward thinning out of the Jura and Trias. (Am. Geol, Feb., 1891.) The Report of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, 1888, contains a description of a head of Hyčodus delabechet from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire, England, by A. Smith Woodward, in which he says that the teeth of the Wealden species differ so much from those of the'Liassic that possibly this later Mesozoic shark may eventually prove to pertain to a distinct genus. ——In discussing the economic features of the Cretaceous rocks of Texas, Mr. R. T. Hill urges the necessity of recognizing the chalky formations of Texas as a distinct geographic region of the United tates. This individuality must be recognized, and the economic development based thereon, instead of the conditions of entirely different non-chalky regions, The agricultural experience of northern and eastern states will not apply to these soils, but we must go to the chalky regions of France and England, where there are analogous for- mations, to learn for what they are best adapted. This region is especially rich in mineral fertilizers, and there is a great variety an abundance of building material. Owing to the slightly disturbed conditions of the formations, the district east of the Pecos is not a Profitable field for the search of metallic minerals. (Report Texas Geol. Survey, 1889.)——A. Smith Woodward has figured and de- scribed two groups of teeth of the Cretaceous Selachian fish Ptycho- dus found in the English chalk. (Ann. Rept. Yorkshire Phil, Soc., 1889.)——-Montagu Browne has revised the genus Dapedius,—a group of fossil fishes not far removed from: Lepidotide. (Trans. Leicester Lit. and Philos, Soc., Oct., 1890.) A study of the Shasta Group leads Mr, George Becker to conclude that the conditions and associations on the British Pacific coast appear to correspond com- Pletely with those in the United States so far as the Aucella beds are concerned, and the present indications are that all of them are to be regarded as equivalent to the Gault. (Bull, Am. Geol. Soc., Vol. II., PP. 201-208.) The newly opened oil field of Colorado is located m the valley of the Arkansas, between Pueblo and Cañon City. At 366 The American Naturalist. “ [Age present its limits are undetermined. The bituminous shales of the Colorado group, which are evidently the source of the oil, underlie a — wide belt of country along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, _ Along this zone, intermediate between the mountains and plains, oil _ fields will probably be found in places where the shales have been — somewhat affected by the proximity of the crystalline rocks, and yet have not been too much disturbed and broken. (Prof. J. S. Newberry, School of Mines Quart, Vol. X., January, 1889.)—-In a recent — paper, Prof. Angelo Heilprin has presented the leading facts touching — the geological and paleontological relations of the Cretaceous deposits of Mexico. These deposits cover, or are scattered over, the greatest part of Mexico, from the Rio Grande to (or through) the states of — Colima, Michoacan, Guerero, and Oaxaca. (Proc. Acad, Nat. Sciences, Phila., Dec., 1890.) p Cenozoic.—R. Lydekker has collected circumstantial evidence which justifies him in regarding the so-called genus Sceparnodon as based upon the upper incisors of the gigantic wombat known as Phas- colonus. (Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. 49.)——-Mr. George Becker has published new evidence in favor of the authenticity of the Calaveras skull, and amply sufficient of itself to prove that man existed during the auriferous gravel period in California. He has the sworn state- 1891.) Mineralogy and Petrography. 367 the earth’s crust nearly as large as that of Europe. Volcanic dust fell on an island ninety-five miles to the windward in such quantities that trees were crushed to the earth by the weight of its mass. During the eruption subterranean noises were heard at Caracas, and in the midst of the Llanos, which cover a space of 36,000 square miles. (Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Science, 1890.) ' MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.* Petrographical News.—The protogine of Mont Blanc isshown by Lévy? to be a true eruptive, apophyses from which penetrate the surround- ing schists and alter them, and break from them fragments which they hold as inclusions, These fragments have been regarded as basic segregations, and the surrounding schists have been looked upon as dynamo-metamorphosed phases of the protogine. Both of these views the author combats. Among the schists he finds eclogites, with diop- side in micropegmatitic intergrowths with quartz and feldspar, amphi- bolites and mica-schists, each of which classes is briefly described. The segregations mentioned oecur most frequently near the contact of the granite with the schists. Many of them resemble so closely certain phases of the schists that Lévy is compelled to regard them as frag- ments of these caught up by the eruptive during its passage from below. A microgranite from the periphery of the main mass of granite con- sists of corroded crystals of the first generation cemented by a granitic ground-mass. This fact is thought to be an indication of the correct- ness of the view that the constituents of granite are mainly of the second generation, those of the first consolidation having disappeared. To the southeast of Mont Blanc are quartz-porphyries which, accord- ing to Graeff,3 are genetically related to the granite composing the body of the mountain. Like the latter, the porphyries have been subjected to pressure, by which process much sericite has been devel- oped, resulting in sericite-schists. The present contact of the erup- tives with the gneisses and mica-schists of the Mont Blanc « massif ” is thought not to be an original contact, but one brought about by dislocations. The conclusions of Lévy and Graeff are thus seen to be in accord in some particulars, while in others they are at variance. Fuller discussions are promised later.—In the first part of a general _ 1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.. 2? Bull. des Serv. d. 1. Carte. gèol. d. la France, No. 9, 1890. . ie phys. et nat., Nov., 1890. 3 400) = The American Naturalist. sketch of the geology of the Japanese Islands Harada‘ gives short des tions of Archean gneisses and schists, and of eruptive rocks of recent age. Among the schists are mentioned graphitic seri schists, with well-developed crystals of tourmaline and hematite, 2 chloritic amphibolite whose principal feldspar is albite. Gabbros peridotites cut the Paleozoic strata. In some specimens of the fi piedmontite was noticed as an alteration product of hornblende. the Mesozoic occurs the largest quantity of eruptives. Granite diorite in many varieties cut through the sedimentary rocks, andc han ee contact action. The eruptives, on the other hand, become coarse- g and porphyritic near the contact, the diorite losing hornble de Among the effusives of this age are i aeniohed quartz- -porphyries porphyrites. Weinschenck > communicates additional info with respect to the rocks of these islands, as a result of the study some hand specimens. Most of the sections examined by him at a hypersthene andesite, witha plagioclase full Sf inclusions, and a ple trachyte containing biotite, garnet, and tridymite in a ground-mass- the same minerals and zircon, in a trichitic glass. The most interest- ing rock of the series bears the same relation to the andesites as augitites do to the basalts. It consists principally of acicular of bronzite in a ground-mass consisting of clear glass and magnetit grains, with porphyritic plagioclase and garnets. The author calls = rock sanukite, from the province in which it is found. Mineralogical News.—The regular silicates are very few in m _ ber, and of them eight are orthosilicates,—viz., exlyite, sunyite, danaiite, garnet, sodalite, nosean and hauyne, and Jasurite. . Brégger and Backstrém® would include in one group, which would call the garnet group. The members of this group is divi two sub-groups, in one of which the tetrahedral habit is predom and the cleavage is octahedral. This includes the first four min “mentioned above, and is known as the helvite group. All its me can be represented by formulas of the garnet type. Helvite ote Japanischen Inseln., rst Lief., Berlin, Parey, 1890. 5 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B. B. VII., p. 133. $ Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIIL., 1890, p. 209. 1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 369 written (MnFeCa),(Mn,S)Be,(SiO,),, danalite as (FeZnMn),[(Zn Fe),S]Be, za zunyite as [(OH),Fe,CIAI,](SiO,),, and eulytite as Bi (SiO, The second sub-group includes the species with with dodecahedral habit and cleavage. Embraced in this is the patie series proper, with a composition R," R," (SiO,),, and the series of the alkaline garnets. The etched figures on the latter indicate that they are all tetrahedrally hemihedral, and a discussion of the best analysis of them leads to the conclusion that they are all of the chemi- cal type. of common garnet. Sodalite is Na,(AICI)AI,(SiO,), and = nosean is Na,[Al(NaSO,)]A1,(SiO,,. In hauyne, calcium replaces some of the sodium in nosean. . Lapis-lazuli, or natural ultramarine, is a mixture of several minerals, of whith one is bright blue. The authors have isolated this and found it to contain: SO: ALO CaO ONG RO a eA 32.652. 3716r 6.47 TOAS “(282 EO L .4F Upon the assumption that this is a mixture of hauyne, sodalite, and ultramarine, it is calculated that the latter substance must be represented by the formula Na [A1(S,Na)]A1,(SiO,), The authors then discuss the nature of artificial ultramarine, and conclude that it is a mixture of five isomorphous substances. A microscopical examination of lapis-lazuli reveals the fact that in all cases this is a mixture of several substances, among which may be mentioned hauyne, diopside, koks- charowite, calcite, pyrite, and a muscovite-like mineral, together with alittle scapolite, plagioclase, orthoclase, apatite, sphene, zircon, and an unknown, probably positive, uniaxial mineral. The interesting Chilian minerals continue to be subjects of investigation to those who are fortunate enough to come into possession of them, Frenzel ? a yellow color and a metallic lustre, has a density of 2.31, and a com- position as follows : a r 0, $ = ie = 2Na,SO,+ Fe,S,0,+6H,O The mineral is from Sierra Gorda, near Caracoles. It is identical with the Peruvian sideronatrite described by Raimond,’ which, however, was regarded by him as possessing but one molecule of Na,SO, to one of the iron sulphate. It is probably an alteration product of hohman- nite, occurring associated with it, and found also in the Sierra de la Caparrosa, as brownish-red, glassy plates and crystals, often arranged in radial aggregates. Their hardness is 3, and specific gravity 2.17. 7 Miner. u. Petrog. Mitth., XI., 1890, p- 214. : Zeits. f. Kryst., 1882, VI., p. 627. _ examined some of these species in more detail. The material in to be hexagonal, Its indices of refraction are w = I1. 558, t= 370 The American Naturalist. They remain unchanged in the air, and have the same compositi amarantite and the specimens of hohmantite ® analyzed a short | since,—viz., Fe,S,0,+7H,O. Various other minerals from thes region are briefly alluded to in this paper, and two new ones (quete and gordaite)"™ are described. Messrs. Genth and Penfield " possession is from the Mina de la Campania, near Sierra Amarantite is found to be ruai with @: 5: ¢==.76915: 1: 9 &@— 95° 38 16", B= 90° 23' 42”, y= 97° 13' 4”. The habit oF crystals is prismatic. The brachy, and macropinacoids are verti¢ striated, and a perfect cleavage is parallel to each. The optical a = 63° 3’, and the extinction in the macropinacoid is 16°=1 acute, Fibres of sideronatrite show a slight pleochroism, with a straw-yellow color parallel to the longer axis, and no color at angles to this. The formula ascribed to the substance differs esi Frenzel’s formula in lacking one molecule of water. Ferronal i although obtainable only in white or grayish cleavage masses, is th g and its composition is SO,=.51.30; Fe,O, = 17.30; NaO = 1 H,O = 11.89 ; specific gravity = 2.547—2.578. Darapsky ” also a few notes of observations on a few of the minerals from A Among these are aromite, paposite, amarantite, hohmannite, coquit aragonite after calcite, from Miisen in Siegen, is one of the few in described in which the latter mineral is known to have changed i the’ ayi and subsequent deposition of calcium cz calcium-bearing solutions containing traces of barium. By € other tation Bauer has found that barium bearing calcium c -° Miner. u. Petrog, Mitth., IX., p. 397. Hiei Gone ie aa 1860, 1 “oD. 40. TE PAANS Mia. etc., 1890, I., p. ro. 1891.] _ Mineralogy and Petrography. 371 tions deposit crystals with the properties of aragonite. The crystals of evrite, from Dillenburg, Nassau, fall into two classes. The first includes well-developed prismatic forms with large macrodomes (P o) on both terminations. The others are prismatic with P4o and P38 on one termination. The other is attached to the gangue. Their axial ratio is .6795:1:.4576. In the article by Messrs. Genth and Penfield “ referred to above appear analyses of picropharmacolite from Joplin, Mo., of a substance supposed to ————. from near Georgetown, N. M.; of pitticite from the Clarissa Mine, in the Tintic District, Utah ; and of giddsite from White Horn Station, Chester Co., Pa. The last-named mineral is discovered to be a hydrous aluminium phosphate. The pitticite corresponds in composition to 4Fe,As, O, Fe,(OH),+ 20H,O.—=The remarkable nfineral locality, Branch- ville, has again been reported upon by Messrs. Brush and Dana.” During the ten years that have elapsed since their previous report 16 ` extensive mining has been carried on at the locality for the purpose of obtaining quartz and microcline for technical uses, During the past two years large quantities of rare magnesian phosphates have been brought to light, and these have been investigated by the mineralogists mentioned. The’ minerals whose indentification is recorded are lithiophilite, hureaulite, reddingite, fairfieldite, dickinsonite, ai fillowite. The lithiophilite is in rudely crystalline masses in a vein, associated with albite, quartz, and spodumene. It is, as a rule, fresh. Occasionally + it is extensively altered into hureaulite through the intermediate prod- uct dickinsonite. The succession in age of its various decomposi- tion products, among which are all the other minerals mentioned above, could not be determined, as they seem to occur together pro- `- miscuously. The hureaulite, heretofore known only at Limoges, France, is in small monoclinic crystals, varying in color from violet to Sya red, and mra into parallel agpregatm. Their axial ratio is $$: ¢=1.9192: 1: .5245 with == 84° 1’, on the assumption of E plane 4 Ps. eed by Descloizeaux in the Limoges crystals as the RIN form. The habit of the Branchville crystals is short pris- matic, with œP and various pyramids well developed. The crystals have a good cleavage parallel to the orthopinacoid, a specific gravity of 3.149, and a composition as follows : TO- FO MnO CaO HO ose 38.36 4.56 42.20 -94 12.20 1.76 u Amer, Jour. Sci., Sep., 1890, p. 199. ; 15 Amer. Jour. Sci., Mch., 1890, p. 201. 16 Tb., 1880, p. 257. 372 The American Naturalist. corresponding to H,(MnFeCa),PO,+ 4H,O. Reddingite is in pink white masses, and in orthorhombic crystals with an octahedral ] The axial ratio is a: 4:¢—=.8678: 1: .9485, and density 3. Their analysis yielded Mr. Wells: a i: a, FeO- MnO CaO HO = Quartz. 34-90 17.13 34.51 -63 13.18 Pe ture and rhombic tabular habit.——The beautiful chalcopyrite ™ cx tals from the French Treek Mines, Chester Co., Pa., occur toget with pyrite ® imbedded in byssolite, thuringite, and calcite in p D in a magnetic iron ore. The principal type of the chalcopyrite is sphenoid ae often modified by a scalenohedron. All the fa striated, and frequently they are so much rounded as to p measurements of their interfacial angles. Twinned crystals are common, the combination possessing an hexagonal habit——The zeolite mordenite has been discovered by Pirsson ¥ in the cavity amygdaloidal basalt, forming fragments in a breccia near Hood in Western Wyoming. The mineral is in very small crystals, specific gravity lying between 2,119 and 2.179. -Their analysis yi SiO, =“ ALO, FeO, CaO MgO K,O Na,O HO — 66.40 11.17 157 1 17 3.58 2.27 ori which is equivalent to 3RAL,Si,,O,,+ 20H,O, in which R rept potassium, sodium, and calcium. The mineral differs from pt containing more water, In crystallization it is monoclinic, S "7 Penfield. our. Sci., Sep., 1890, p. 207. '* Penfield. Ib., HI, XXXVII., p. 209. o « Wb. Sep., 1890, p, -o ES Moye. NL, thos, pay. - 1891.] : Mineralogy and Petrography. 373 examined are 3P, 4P, 2P, œP, Poo, Poo, }P$, 3P$, œP2, and œ P3, making ninety-seven forms now known to occur in the species. —— Baumhauer*! has discovered some small but good crystals of cryo/if in a hand specimen from Evigtok, Greenland, so twinned that both individuals have their basal planes in common, and one appears to have been revolved about 88° 2’ around an axis normal to the base, The limestone of Villefranque and of Biarritz, France, contains long needles of quartz and crystals of dipyr and albite,™ the first of which must have been formed contemporaneously with the limestone, while the last two were produced by the influence of an intrusive mass of diabase upon the enclosing rock. Traube * ascribes the differ- ences in the values of the axial ratios of different sheedites to the amounts of molybdenum occurring in them, Analyses of many specimens reveal the fact that white and light yellow varities contain but little of this element, while the dark varieties contain quite large amounts, (I-8%). The axial ratio of the purest scheelite is 1 : 1.5315, that of calcium molybdenate is 1: 1.5458, and that of most scheelites between these limits. In the pegmatite veins cutting granite near Meissen, Saxony, Sauer and Ussing* have found Baveno twins of microcline in which the gridiron structure is lacking. Lamelle of albite are intergrown with the microcline, but sufficiently large areas of the latter mineral were found to allow of careful measurements of cleavage, angles, etc. The angle between the cleavage lines is 89° 30’, d the refractive indices for sodium light a= 1.5224, P = 1.5264, ¥= 1.5295. The optical angle is 2V= 83° 41’. A pure white zinc sulphide is mentioned by Mr. Robertson® as occurring at Galena, Cherokee Co., Kansas. It is associated with sphalerite, and is in a form suggesting the moist, freshly prepared substance. It is saturated with water bearing a trace of sulphuric acid. Its composition is: Zn = 63.70; S==30.77; Fe,O,= 2.40; Insol.= 2.52. inne * gives some good illustrations of micreciine structure in the feldspar of the Stockholm granite and of the Kyffhäuser gneiss, and suggests reasons for regarding it as a secondary phenomenon produced in non- Striated feldspar. The phenacite reported by Mr. Yeates” from 21 Ib., XVIII., 1890, p. 355. : ™ Beaugey. Bull. Soc. Franc, d. Min., XIII., Feb., 1890, p. 59. 33 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B. B. VIL., p. 232. * Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIII., 1890, p. 192. 3 Amer. Jour. Sci., Aug., 1890, p. 161. 2 Neues. Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1890, IL., p. 66. 7 Amer. Jour. Sci., Sep., 1890, p. 259. x © Amer. Jour. Sci., Feb., 1891, p. 141. _ from the Devil’s Mining Region, in Idaho, Mr. Melville ® has _ ered a mineral resembling scheelite in external appearance, but ing from it in composition. The crystals are small, prismatic, 8 yellow in color, with a hardness of 3.5, and a density of 4.526 374 The American Naturalist. Hebron, Me., turns out upon analysis to be apatite with a tabul habit. i - New Minerals.—A new borate has been discovered imbedded in the form of small, colorless, transparent, or milky-white crystals in t pinnolite of Stassfurt, Germany. The crystals are monoclinic, with 12’. The forms observed are tac 5 ae: —P, rm Po, and —3P3 perpendicular to the plane of symmetry, and makes with ¢ an angl of 7° in acute 8. A= 5. 2Hya—=104° 27. The composition of substance, as found by Baurath, is: B,O, MgO K,O Na,O Cl. HO 52.13 13.80 8.14 -39 -35 232 which corresponds to H,Mg,K(BO,),+6H,O. The name Hin has been given it by Milch8 The same mineral is described the mineral is easily soluble in hydrochloric and nitric acids. A analysis yielded results different from those above given, as follow B,O= 60.53; MgO = 12.23; K,O = 7.39; H,O = 19.85. Themel chosen by Leudecke have the ratios a@:5:c== 1.2912: 1: 1.7572 to #Pcoo. The refractive index for sodium light vibrating to 4 is 1.354. The other optical properties coincide with those: termined by Milch. Prof. Groth suggests that neither of the names suggested for the mineral be accepted until it is found 1 analysis is correct. ——Powe//ite.—In a weathered fragment of bot have a resinous lustre, and are semi- -transparent and brittle. ments of angles indicate a tetragonal symmétry with a: c= 1 ; The planes appearing oP, P, Poo, and œP. The composition is MoO, WO, SiO, CuO MgO Fe, O, AlO; on 58.58 10. 28 325 26.55 -1p -65 23 Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIIL., 1890, P- 479- ten 1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 375 The mineral bears the same relation to calcium molybdate as scheelite does to the corresponding tungstate. An isotropic or weakly doubly refracting mineral occurs in the nepheline-syenite of a ‘‘ massif” in he Kole Peninsula, Russia. Since its properties have not yet been fully determined, its discoverer, Ramsay,*! has not yet assigned to it a name, The mineral is red and transparent. It fuses easily, and yields water. It is attacked by@etids with difficulty, has a low index of re- fraction, „Nna = 1.5223, and possesses no cleavage. Its density is 2.753, and composition : SiO, Al,O,Fe,03 MnO CuO MgO NaO K,O Loss 55-88 15.19 2.69 O83. : 3. OOO GT: aA —Leverrierite® occurs in small pseudohexagonal prisms that are twinned orthorhombic forms with a prismatic angle of 128°. They have a very perfect cleavage parallel to oP, so that they may easily be mistaken for mica, Often the prisms are twisted so that they resemble worm tubes to such perfection that they have been mistaken for organic markings, and have been described under the name ġacilarites. Ac- cording to Termier, all specimens of bacillarites examined by him are prisms of the new mineral whose composition is H,,A1,Si,O,,. The hardness of the substance is 1.5,-and its density 2.3-2.4. The plane of its optical axes is œP% , with a abe acute bisectrix normal to oP and an optical angle 2V= 45°-52°. It may be distinguished from muscovite by its dark color, and from biotite by its weak pleochroism, and its weak double refraction. Leverrierite is found as a metamorphic constituent in carbonaceous clay slates, and in interstratified carbonif- erous eruptives. 3l Ref. Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1891, I., p. 98- 32 Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p- 325- x done by placing a plasmodium in a saturated aqueous < A a OS, E ee N, 376 The American Naturalist BOTANY. Protoplasmic Physics.—Prof. Pfeffer, of Leipzig, has publis the results of his studies on the taking up and extrusion of soli stances by the plasmodia of Myxomycetes, cially of Chondn aifforme. He concludes that, contrary to the more generally accey the plasmodium. The plasma-membrane closes behind the inclu object like a film of oil from which a needle is withdrawn. “a Indifferent or insoluble substances are not infrequently enclosed vacuoles, from which they may pass back into the protoplasm ; È vement, Itis, as yet, wholly impossible to explain why one follows the movements of the protoplasm, while others are thro ut In the study of protoplasm within the cell-wall the author observed in the root-hairs of Zrianea bogotensis that precipitates formed in the modia of Chondroderma, he has observed all the intermediate conc i betwee pulsating and inactive vacuoles, and has succeeded ingenious experiments in producing vacuoles artificially. » OF some other suitable substance, which contained ufnahme und Ausgabe ungeléster Körper. Abhandl. d. Math.— - Bd. XVI., p. 149” (Bot. Centralbl., XLIV., 180.) haut und der Vacuolen, etc; Z. c. p. 185. (Bot. Ce 1891.] i Botany. 377 undissolved granules of the same substance. After it had taken up some of these granules the plasmodium was removed to pure water, when a vacuole was slowly formed about each granule, in consequence of its gradual evolution, These artificial vacuoles differed in no respect, except in size, from the natural ones, but even showed, in some cases, slight pulsations. They were seen to divide and to fuse with each other and with pulsating vacuoles, and were formed even in chloro- formed plasmodia. It is evident that these vacuoles cannot be depend- ent on a special organ, the tonoplast of De Vries, for their formation. Pfeffer considers the hyaloplasm and the granular plasma of the cell protoplasm to be essentially the same, and to differ merely in the presence or absence of granules of most various composition, some of which are foreign substances. He has seen the change from one to the other condition, and has observed the formation of vacuoles in both granular and hyaline plasma. He considers the existence of a plasma- membrane, distinct from the remaining cytoplasm, very probable, in view of the peculiar osmotic phenomena presented by the cytoplast. It is uncertain whether this membrane owes its origin to a definite sur- face stretching or whether the contact of water is also necessary. Vital activity does not appear to be essential either to its formation or to the manifestation of plasticity in the protoplast.—J. E. HUMPHREY, Amherst, Mass. Alcoholic Material for Laboratory Work in Systematic Botany.—lIt is now generally recognized that laboratory practice or field work is indispensable to effective instruction in all the natural Sciences, Botany deals with material that is especially adapted to training the powers of observation. The translation of the characters of a stem, leaf, or flower into appropriate language will give the student a habit of careful investigation, as well as facility in description. Plants direct from the field are generally considered to be in the best possible condition for use in the laboratory. It is a difficult matter sometimes, however, to shape courses of instruction so as to have plants in flower just at the time when they are needed. During the spring there is an abundance ; but in the fall and winter, how shall material be provided? To furnish a class of thirty or more from a greenhouse is too expensive ; moreover, plants will not always blos- - Som in the greenhouse just when desired. The plan is sometimes adopted of pressing enough specimens to supply each member of the class with a specimen of the species to be studied. There are serious objections, however, to this plan. In the first place, specimens col- lected in such a wholesale way are not apt to be satisfactory. Al 378 The American Naturalist. specimens should be as complete as possible when they are to by students. Second, dry material is very difficult to dissect. So in water will soften the tissue, but renders it too soft and pulpy dissect nicely. A third objection to this plan is the expense of ¢ ing so large an amount of material every year, for, in most least one specimen will be used up by a student in a single study. Having experienced the above difficulties in the laboratory, _ been trying in various ways to overcome them. The wor -winter in the laboratory is to make a study of typical species of orders, among which are the Rosacez, Ranunculaceze, Nymp! and Leguminose. This work has been preceded by similar s the orders Composite, Graminez, and Cyperacez in the fall, and _ general work in plant analysis during the previous spring term. course is accompanied by lectures. Now, instead of pressing N specimens of each species as is intended for study each year, the following plan: The species to be studied are selected. As ae board sheets. A convenient size for the sheets is 14x22 inches. specimens are fastened to the card-board with fish-glue, or fastened with narrow strips of gummed paper ;_I think the fis preferable. The mounted specimen shows the whole plant if The fruit is also shown. When the plant is too large to press the flower, fruit, various forms of leaves, and a piece of ther stem are mounted. If the plant has medicinal properties, | Such ; a set of permanent, aad specimens duplicates growing fresh in the field sufficiently for the purposes of syste study, The cards, when in use, are suspended from an arm by dog hooks,” which may be obtained at any bookstore. The about one foot long, and, as the tables are arranged in our } can be fastened to the window casing. Very nice hori with attachment can be obtained of furniture dealers. To go along with these mounted specimens a sufficient- =e and young fruits for dissection to supply the class is and preserved in alcohol until they are to be used. So fa ouf ence has been that alcohol is the best preservative for | t 1891] Botany. 379 well as for tissue designed for histological purposes. The fresh material is put in 50 per cent. alcohol, and then the strength of the alcohol is gradually increased until it is at. least 80 per cent. A very effective way of hardening-is to place the material in a straight glass vessel, such as a straight beaker having a membrane of chamois-skin for a bottom, This is placed in another jar. This makes a vessel within a vessel. The outer one contains 95 per cent. alcohol; the inner con- tains the material and just sufficient 50 per cent. alcohol to cover it. Gradually the alcohol in the inner vessel will become stronger, until it is sufficiently strong to preserve the tissue, This is Schultze’s appara- tus. ardening in this way saves alcohol and time. Where material is changed from weaker to stronger there is always left over a consid- erable quantity of alcohol too weak to use for permanent storage. Where the Schultze apparatus is used, the spirit in which the material is when hardened is strong enough to preserve it indefinitely. We store our hardened material in ordinary fruit jars. It is perfect in all respects except color, the loss of which is more of an advantage than disad- vantage. The tissue is clear and cuts smoothly. By keeping it slightly moistened with the preserving fluid while dissecting, it preserves its shape as long as desired. It is less pulpy than fresh tissue, and much more manageable than dry. The sets of mounted specimens are permanent, and with careful usage will last a long time. The supply of alcoholic material can be replenished from time to time at slight expense It is of great value to have a set of microscopical slides on which are mounted sections of the ovary so cut as to show the insertion of the ovules ; also their parts and their arrangement. This is a subject of much importance in the study of systematic botany, and one in- volved in considerable difficulty. The fresh tissue of ovules is delicate, and by hardening in alcohol, imbedding, and making permanent micro- Scopical mounts, a very profitable and interesting course of study may be arranged. If any teachers have occasion to use specimens for study during the season when flowers are not in bloom, they will find this method worth trying.—W. W. Row Ler, Cornell University. A Field Manual of Botany.—It is announced again that there will soon be issued a special edition of Gray’ s Manual for field use. It will be printed on thin French paper, with narrow margins. It will be bound in full leather, lintp, and cut flush, very much like a foreign guide-book, The price will be two dollars, which is but a trifle more than for the ordinary edition. It will prove a useful book to students _ and collectors.—Cuaries E. BESSEY. 380 The American Naturalist ZOOLOGY. Reproduction of Urnatella.—Statoblasts have not hithert found in this curious type of the Polyzoa, first described by Mr. Edward Potts has lately succeeded in having the animal reprodu itself by germination from the jointed stems which remain after polyp-heads have died down. “About the middle of September I gathered from the bed of the Schuylkill canal, below Flat Rock D: some sticks bearing colonies of Leidy’s Urnatella. The heads ast soon died ; but as no statoblasts have yet been discovered to be duced by this polyzoon, I kept the jointed stems under the impres that they took the place of gemmules and would reproduce thems in the spring: On February 1st I found them thus rejuvenating selves, and I now have a good stock of Urnatellas.”’ e is an extract from a note by Mr. Potts to one of the- editors.—R. The Growth of Corals.— Alexander Agassiz has figured specimens of coral, natural size, taken from the shore end XX., No. 2.) _ The Changes of the Salamander Diemyctylus virid —I have now demonstrated the following facts with reference Amphibian: 1. The eggs are internally fertilized. 2. The have the form and coloration of the adult aquatic ones. non-ciliated. 6. In the terrestrial forms the oral epithelium is -—Simon H. Gace. 1891.] Embryology. 381 EMBRYOLOGY.! On the Foetal Membranes of Testudinata.—Dr. K. Mitsukuri has published an elaborate paper in the Journal of the College of Science, Imperial University of Japan (Vol. IV., pt. 1), on the feetal membranes of the, turtle. The contribution is a paper of fifty pages, with ten excellent plates. The amnion arises from an anterior and two lateral folds,—there is no posterior fold,—and these extend grad- ually from before backwards.’ The lateral folds meet above the embryo, but their cavities do not unite across, so that a connection between the amnion (proper) and the serous envelope—sero-amniotic connection —always remains along the line of union. The backward growth of the amniotic folds over the embryo does not stop at the posterior end, but continues to grow backward, although diminished in width, until finally there is produced a tube extending from the posterior end of the embryo, reaching a length as great as the embryo itself, and placing the cavity of the amnion into communication with the exterior, In the Testudinata the allantois arises as a diverticulum from the posterior region of the midgut, and is from the first continuous with it. The later stages of the foetal membranes are more complicated. The allantois is obstructed in its growth over the embryo by the sero- amniotic connection. Ultimately the allantois surrounds the yolk by means of its three lobes. ‘‘ There is always, even in very much ad- vanced eggs, a small mass of the white just at the point where the three lobes of the allantois meet at the lower pole.” It seems that we have here, in a very primitive condition, the structure described by Duval as the placenta of birds. The yolk-sac passes into the interior of the body in hatching, where it lies for a long time, and may be found in young tortoises late in the spring of the year following. Mitsukuri thinks that if the embryology of the groups of reptiles and birds are carefully gone over again many structures which are highly significant in the light of facts now obtained will be found to have hitherto escaped notice; for instance, the sero-amniotic connection and the posterior tube of the amnion. The amnion was probably de- veloped originally by mechanical causes. In Testiudinata, when the head fold is produced, there are two reasons why it should sink into the yolk ; ‘* first, the yolk is very large and liquid, especially beneath the blastoderm ; and, in the second place, the white disappears from over * Edited by Thomas H. Morgan, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 382 The American Naturalist. the blastoderm, which then adheres firmly to the shell-membrane, ht there is no space for the head fold to grow, except towards below.’ The Placenta of Rodents.—Duval has published a paper in Journal de l’ Anatomie? giving a clear and interesting account of discovery of the “‘ inversion ’’ of the germ-layers of rodents, a theory of the method by which this curious process has beani indeed, Duval believes that, although often in error, Bischoff the fundamental meaning of the phenomenon, and had a knowledge of the process than some of the investigators that after him. Primarily the KAKES of the blastodermic portion of the em vesicle has been the cause of the inversion of the layers. ‘This was clo connected with the formation of the ectodermic amnion which up over the embryo as the latter sinks into the vesicle. By thie of the amnion are there is formed a cavity lined by € which, owing to the Sinking of the embryo, lies, as it were, center of the vesicle, but still adove the embryo. This ai place in its simplest form in the hare, but in the other rodents i place by an abbreviated condition; for the amniotic (ect _ Space first appears as a sf/it in the thickened ectoderm above derm. Subsequently the cavity of the amnion is divid parts, an upper and a lower, by a constriction formed in t! This division the author believes primarily to have taken place early development of the allantois in order that it might under the upper (attached) pole of the embryo. In many i amnion divides into its two parts before the appearance of tois, and this is but a precocious process, caused in the ms the growth of the allantois. On the Morphology of the Bilateral Ciliate ‘the Echinoderm Larvæ.!—In a previous work (Die 2? XXVI. Anne., No, 6, 1891. ČR. Semon, Jenaische Zeitschrift, XXV. (N. F., XVIIL), 1890. 1891.] Embryology. 383 der Synapta digitata (Jen. Zeit, XXII.) the author refers to the preoral ciliated band as arising from the adoral band (surrounding the mouth), and not from the other ciliated band, from which it is entirely separated, thus opposing the older view of Gegenbaur, adopted by Korschelt and Heider in their Lehrbuch. But the author’s present work, begun in April, 1890, at Helgoland, shows that the adoral band arises without connection with the preoral band, and that the union of their edges is secondary. Thus ontogenet- ically is given striking proof of the correctness of Gegenbaur’s sup- position, The stage where but a single ciliated band is present is called the Auri- cularia stage of the Bipinnaria, In older larvæ the postoral and preoral portions of the longitudina} (circumoral) ciliated band unite at the preoral apical pole, and form a median unpaired stripe. Later, on a plane parallel to the ventral sur- face, this median unpaired stripe divides, and thus forms thé preoral and postoral ciliated bands of the Bipinnaria. í The ciliated bands are formed by a loss of cilia and flattening of the cells over the rest of the body, thus leaving the bands as the only ciliated part. This process begins on the ventral side; the cilia dis- appear last at the apical pole. ; The adoral ciliated band is formed in a similar way, and at its anterior part comes into close relation, secondarily, with the preoral band. Thus is solved the only difficulty to Job. Miiller’s plan to derive the body form and arrangement of the ciliated bands for all Dipleurula larvæ from a fundamental type, since it is shown that the Asterid larva passes through an Auricularia stage, and that the preoral ciliated band is separated from an ancestral single ciliated band. This stage with a single ciliated band is the typical form, ontogenetically repro- duced in sufficiently young larve of all classes of Echinoderms. The author notes as an interesting fact that in Joh. Miiller’s com- parison the Ophiurid pluteus, by the increase of the posterior dorso- ventral bendings (auriculz of the Auricularia and Bipinnaria), to long and characteristic projections, in this important point stands nearer the typical form than the Echinid pluteus to which in other respects it is more comparable. He points out the close relation existing in all larvae between the upper transverse border of the preoral band and the adoral ciliated band. He believes that the Dipleurula larva cannot be traced back to the “ypical trochophore with preoral ciliated rings; probably not to the Am. Nat.—April_—6, 384 - The American Naturalist. mesotrochal larva ; possibly it may be compared to a ¢elotrochal la but it must be shown that the bands arise in a similar way in This is only a tentative suggestion. s In Tornaria the arrangement of two longitudinal ciliated bands ees throughout with the Asterid larva, as does also its i the mature animals, it is difficult to show more than a very di genetic SSA a As a t of these observations, we believe that the Diple ir the hie and lower worms, as well as molluscs. An homologiing the circumoral ciliated bands of Echinoderms with the cilia a of the other larval types cannot be carried out. Asterid and Echinid larva were negative. The author speaks of a bilateral fibre-system, united by a cross missure, lying in the dorsal skin under the epithelium. It tainly more branched. This may be regarded as a well-developed mal musculature.—GrorcE W. FIELD. PSYCHOLOGY. Note on Imperfect Instinct in Animals.—On a num occasions I have observed that the instinct of animals is someti shown to be imperfect, and reading Mr. George J. Romanes’s bo “ Mental Evolution in Animals,’’ where mention is made of w fection of instinct ” (page 167), his illustrations quoted recal interest of this subject. Regarding insects, on July 4th, noticed among the fireworks displayed upon an open stand, corner of a vacant lot in Chicago, a number of bunches of ; sized fire-crackers with their bright crimson covers Consp distributed among the other pieces of similar explosives. was standing close by a pretty, bright, reddish-brown with silver spots on the under surface of the wings, supposed to be the larger species of Argynnis, came flying | 1891.] Psychology. 385 the ground from the north. When nearly opposite, attracted by the bright color, it changed its course quickly and flew directly to the fire-crackers, trying one bunch and then another, as I have noticed the same species of butterfly do in a field at Hyde Park while feeding, going from one bright red flower to another. Then suddenly recovering itself, and as if coming to a point of realization of a mistake, the insect continued its headlong journey southward until lost to view, I find in my diary on June 24th, 1884, while I was standing on a street corner in Chicago waiting the arrival of a car, an Alypian moth (Adypia octomacudata) was attracted by the clothes which I wore at that time. The specimen was a beautiful male, and when I stood still it flew about my body in the air repeatedly, and persistently alighted on my clothes, although it was gently brushed away several times with my d. e black and white on the moth coincided closely with the small St och of the same in my suit, the significance of which im- pressed me strongly atthe time. Last summer (1890) I noticed several times that small white butterflies were attracted by bits of white pieces of paper which had been carelessly thrown upon the ground. An instance bearing upon this point is recorded in the AMERICAN NAT- URALIST (Vol. XX., page 976), in which many Ajax butterflies (Papilio ajax), which are wary and ordinarily captured with great difficulty, became attracted by dead specimens of the same species which I pinned upon the ends of twigs and stuck in the ground to serve as decoys. I was allowed to increase my collection with a num- ber of additional specimens in this way by the use of a net, which could not have been otherwise taken. In the matter of birds, it is an every-day experience of hunters to attract wild ducks and some other birds within gun-range by artificial decoys placed at a point where the birds can see them in passing over on the wing, and I have myself shot American golden plover frequently which were attracted by flat tin pieces ‘which I had painted in imitation and cut in the shape of these birds, and stuck upon sticks which elevated them from the ground. In the latter case almost every individual in a flock of twenty to thirty have been shot in this way ; and imitating their call-note would again and again call them back, although each time a number shot from the flock would fall to the ground, which were probably noticed by the birds that escaped the fire, for they some- times dove down from above in the direction of the falling birds, It is interesting, although digressing a little from the subject in hand, to note that in localities where these birds frequented by thousands in their migrations ^ some years ago, but few are seen now, and are fast follow- į _ tioned, I was hunting in a piece of heavy hemlock timber about itasa large black snake (B. constrictor), and he was hold coil or two of his tail, while his head was several feet above straight as could be. It took but an instant for me to appt extraordinary behavior on the part of a species of snake with ¥ Was quite familiar. I was about to reach up and strike him 386 The American Naturalist. ing in the path of the Carolina paroquet and wild pigeon, o a great measure to their inability to adapt their imperfect and | instinct to the sudden encroachment of civilized man. I once att a great fire which consumed a number of large warehouses and a gr quantity of lumber. The fire occurred in the dead of the night, lig ing up the surrounding vicinity brightly, and the heat was i While thus gazing at this spectacle I noticed dozens of tame doves a English sparrows, irresistibly drawn by the intense light, fly direc into the flames, and hundreds were consumed in less time than it tak to relate the observation. Similarly, « on July 7th, 1890, I noticed different species of beetles heedlessly plunging into the globe that rounds the light, and were destroyed. Mr. Romanes says (page 17 that under the general heading of ‘“ Imperfection of Instinct” “ may include two very distinct classes of phenomena ; for instinc be imperfect because they have not yet been completely developed, they may appear to be imperfect because not completely answe: some change in those circumstances of life with reference to they have been fully developed.”” To which of the two pheno the above notes will belong requires but little reflection on the pat the reader.—Dr. JosrpH L. HANCOCK. An Instance of the Black Snake Attacking Meanie autumn of 1867 I was residing at Stamford, Conn., being at that about seventeen years of age. Apart from my college studies, entire time was given over to the subject of biology and the fo of collections of various animals. The country about Stam admirable ground for the collecting naturalist, and by the advantages were not neglected. One day, during the time above miles from the town, and upon passing under a tall tree my from its lower limb, immediately overhead. In an instant I of my outstretched arm and hand. His body was straight gum- zos when in a twinkling he let go his hold, and | 1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 387 all in a loose coil on my head and shoulder, but as quick as a flash twined himself about my neck, with the hinder third of his body twisted about my arm at the arm-pit. Rearing his head within a few inches of my face, and rapidly quivering his tongue at me, he was quite a picture to behold. It required but a moment or two, however, for me to demonstrate to this hardy and soot-tinted representative of the reptilian race that he had attacked a quarry entirely too big for his powers,—though I confess he warped down his constricting coils in a manner not to be despised as coming from so small a snake. Seizing him near the head, and leaning my gun against a tree, by three or four vigorous pulls I soon disengaged him, and his disappointed snakeship was taken home alive. He measured something less than six feet.— R. W. SHUFELDT, Zakoma, D. C., February 24th, I8QI. ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.! International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archeology.— Tenth Session, Paris, August 19 to 27, 1889.—This congress grew out of the meeting at Spezzia, in Italy, in September, 1865, of four gentlemen of high reputation in connection with studies relative to prehistoric anthropology: Capellini, of Bologna ; Gabriel de Mortillet, of Paris ; Steenstrup, of Copenhagen ; and Stoppani, of Italy. To further the organization, a meeting was agreed upon to be held at Neuchatel, in Switzerland, in the year following, 1866, and the organization was completed and the congress established at the meeting in Paris in 1867. The subsequent meetings were as follows: 1868, London and Norwich; 1869, Copenhagen ; 1871, Bologna; 1872, Brussels ; 1874, Stockholm ; 1876, Budapest ; 1878, Paris; 1880, Lisbon. Subsequent meetings were arranged for Rome and Athens, but were defeated by rumors of pestilence and war. The tenth session was organized to be held at Paris in the year 1889, thereby taking advantage of the French exposition and the many opportunities for study afforded, as well as the number of foreigners who would be in attendance. The meetings were well attended, and brought together the most illustrious scientists of various nations. ‘The influence of the congress was highly beneficial, and it deserved support. Not only did distant _ anthropologists and prehistoric archeologists become acquainted with " Edited by Dr. Thomas Wilson, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 388 The American Naturalist. each other, but they had a chance there to present new discoveries 2 announce new theories. The congresses act as an internati ` clearing-house, and enable the scientists of the world to com notes, and, if needs be, correct their errors, That the importan these congresses has been recognized by the European anthropolo, is demonstrated by the numbers in attendance, the average of wl has been 588 members, while the session at Stockholm counted adherents. The foreigners usually number about one-half the attene ance. The average representation, stated by countries or nations, hi been as follows : France, 126; Sweden, 115; Great Britain, 70 gium, 68 ; Italy, 45 ; Déimárk, 41; Austria-Hungary, 35 ; Germany, 20; Portugal, ro; Russia, 8; Netherlands, Norway, and Finl each 6 ; Switzerland and Roumania, each 5 ; United States of Am 4; Luxemburg, 2; Brazil, Greece, Turkey, Argentine Republic, each I ; all other nations taken together, 4. i A permanent council had general supervision of the affairs o congress, but a committee of organization was charged with the of preparation. The program for this session, as agreed upon by this commit and published in advance, was as follows: Monday, August 1889, 2 o'clock P.M. Address of the president. Report of secretary-general, Election of the bureau and council. it by-laws.—Tuesday, August 20th, 1889, 9.30 A.M. Visit to Museum of Natural History in the galleries of anthropology a l paleontology. 2.00 P.M., regular meeting in the amphitheatre | of! College of France. —Wednesday, August 21st, 1889, 9.00 4 meeting at College of France. 1.00 P.M., reception of the mel of the congress by the municipality of Paris at the Hotel de vV 4.00 P.M.—Thursday, August 22d, 1889. Visit to the colonia play at the exposition. Rendezvous on the Esplanade des Inv: k oo seduce on pr Seine, and visit to he n —Sunday, August aoe 1889. Meeting at College of Fr A.M., and closing session at 2,00 P.M.—Monda ay, August Excursion by rail to Chelles, the great paleolithic station. _ _ The questions proposed by the committee for discussion were as follows: 1, Denudation and filling of the ling of the caverns, and their relations to the antiquity of 1 x891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 389 The periodicity of glacial phenomena. 3. Art and industry in the alluvial and in the caverns. Paleontologic and archeologic classifica- tions, and their value as applied to the Quaternary period. 4. The chronological relation between the civilization of the ages of stone, of bronze, and of iron. 5. The relation between the civilizations of Hallstadt and similar Danubian prehistoric stations, and the civilization of Mycene, of Tiryns, of Hissarlik, and of the Caucasus. 6. A critical examination of the skulls and bones of the prehistoric man belonging to the Quaternary period discovered within the past fifteen years. The ethnic elements properly belonging to the ages of stone, bronze, and iron in Central and Western Europe. 7. Ethnographic survivals which may throw light upon the social state of primitive populations of Central and Western Europe. 8. How far do the analogies of archeology and ethnography authorize or sanction the hypothesis of relations between the peoples, and how far of prehistoric migration ? There were 450 members of the congress enrolled, though not all were present. Twenty-seven countries were represented, of which nineteen were European, six of the two Americas, and one each from Asia an Oceanica. The congress at Lisbon was nearly as large as that at Paris. It had 417 enrolled members, of which 330 were foreigners to that country. Monsieur de Quatrefages, the president, opened the congress by an address of welcome, and recalled to his hearers, in a few words, the history of the work of Forchammer, Worsaae, and Steenstrup in 1847, making a happy accord of natural history and archeology. These were founded upon modern sciences regarded up to that time as having a relation together, but which were nevertheless united by an alliance that has become more and more fruitful. From this the past of the human race plunged in an immense unknown, far beyond the reach of history or even the most” obscure legends, and embracing only the geologic times with which their investigations had to deal, These investigations were published, and soon it was recognized that one branch more had been developed òn the tree of human knowledge. M. de Quatrefages followed the International Congress of Anthro- pology and Prehistoric Archeology from its foundation and commence- ment in 1865 or 1867 through each one of its sessions. The session then opened at Paris had among the others an extreme importance, first question on the program, ‘‘The Geology of Prehistoric Times, ” was a declaration of our profession of faith. In adopting the 2 390 The American Naturalist. sixth question, ‘‘Our Notions Anthropologic,’’ the congress i that one of its subjects of investigation is attached to antiquity, becomes an object essential to its studies, and one to be followed : paths of the science. Comparative ethnography throws light mn primitive ancestors, while geography comes in as an important efficient aid. : The congress in dealing with the question of fossil man would: sustain on the one part dogmatism, nor on the other philo This will explain its es in the different countries in wh met, The secretary-general, Dr. Hamy, then told of the steps w been taken in order to protect this meeting of the congress the difficulties encountered at Lisbon, and augmented by the d that M. de Quatrefages would be the president. He then named committee of organization, and announced the bune and as follows : President, M. A. de Quatrefages; vice presidents, MM. (G.), Beneden (J.-L. van), Bertrand (Alex.), Bogdanoff, (N.), Evans (J.), Hilderbrand (H.), Gaudry (Alb.), Mason ( Muller (Soph.), Schliemann (H.), Vilanova ; secretary-general, (E. T.); secretaries, MM. Boule (M.), Cartailhac (Em.), (J.), Fraipont (J.), Vasconcellos-Abreu Verneau (Dr.); . Benedikt, Cotteau, Gosse (Dr.), Hovelacque, Lumholtz, 3 (Ladislas), Odobesco, Riedel (J. F.), Schmidt (Valdemar), Szabo Szabo e first question proposed by the committee of organiz “The Cutting and Filling of the Valleys, the Filling- of erns, and These in Their Bearing upon the Antiquity of Ma M. Gaudry was the reporter. ‘‘It is not certain,” said greatest experience with the objects made and used by early n in entire accord.” A good thing from which to determine stage of man ducking the prehistoric times is s rap! There are three points in the Plistocene geologic paiid rina important to establish the age of the strata which the tacts of man - 1. The. glacial- and interglacial formations ; The observations in divers places in Germany E strates that there have been several interglacial formations. . 1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 391 2. The great Glacial age. In England and in Norfolk the boulder clay, that is evidence of the grand Glacial epoch, is above the forest n consequence, the depots at Chelles and Montreuil, which con- tain the animals of a warm temperate climate, do not correspond with the earlier epoch of Plistocene that followed the age of the forest bed. M. Gaudry supposed this to be a depot of the interglacial age of Rixdorf ; and that it is, in any event, a Plistocene deposit, not rela- tively of antiquity. : 3. The cutting of the valleys, The theory of Prestwich was that the Plistocene deposits, the most elevated, are the most ancient. In general this ought to be true in France. The locality of Vaucresson, 150 metres above the sea, of Montreuil-sous-Bois, too metres, both of a Quaternary period, very ancient, contemporaneous with the grand glaciers of the north of Europe, and characterized by abundant remains of reindeer, mammoth, and the wooly rhinoceros associated with chipped flints, are illustrations, The Chelléen of Bas Montreuil, and of Chelles with deer, Rhinoceros merkii, Elephas antiquus, are grand interglacial depots, during which the climate became warmer, and the melting of the gigantic masses of glacial ice produced immense erosion. Finally, M. Gaudry believed that the alluvium of the lower level, where they find the mammoth, reindeer, and the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, represents a return of the cold. It was contested that if the valley of the Seine was cut in the begin- ning of the Quaternary epoch, the Chelléen ought to be more ancient than the depot of Haut-Montreuil. It was necessary that the Stratigraphic geologist should mark in a precise and indisputable man- ner the age of the cutting and the depots of our valleys of the Seine. Professor Geikie, the Scotch geologist, sent a paper on this subject, which was read. The relative positions of the fluvial strata of a valley do not necessarily indicate their antiquity, and the elevated strata are not necessarily the most ancient. In certain cases there have been grave exaggerations of fluvial cutting accomplished during the Pleisto- cene times. Our grand valleys in Scotland were cut before the Glacial period, and at an epoch which M. Geikie does not dare to fix with precision. These valleys continued to be cut during the Pleistocene period. Those which are in the region covered by the iers have naturally escaped this action. As for the levels of the gravels, the inferior or lower ones simply indicate a normal state of the water-course, as the superior or higher ones testify to the torrential action of the river. We do not possess any serious or certain knowl- edge that will permit us to calculate the degree of cutting operation in | 392, The American Naturalist. the valleys of the northwest of Europe during the time these were occupied by paleolithic man. We can only affirm thai ma is the result of alluvial action very much prolonged. argued at length: ‘‘ The Great Ice Age,” and “ Prehistoric Ei and said he was content with conclusions he had therein anno favor of that periodicity. Eo M. Adrien de Mortillet was of the opinion that the theory from Belgrand. This theory was not affected by the fact that- had been found at the bottom of the gravel the bones of the Rhin the lower strata, by which the latter were changed in their charac appearance. Dr. Gosse presented certain Chelléen implements, the first Mr. John Evans visited, now thirty years ago, Saint Acheul pany with Prestwich, and he adopted with all his heart that been said by that great geologist. The paleontologic i evid uncertain and sometimes founded in error. At Norfolk, fi there is in one stratum Z/ephas antiquus, in the same the and it is impossible to establish in the stratum a proper di M. Gabreil de Mortillet defended the geologists against the of neglect in investigations into the prehistoric. The ¢ valleys is a question difficult to solve. The wisest man Y extensive knowledge seems unable to harmonize all the fi ; . 1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 393 It can only be done by extensive acquaintance with facts. The Tertiary plateau of Paris at the beginning of the Miocene was horizontal and intact and 170 metres in elevation. It was profoundly affected by the Seine during the Tertiary, which made a colossal cutting compared with that of the Plistocene, which in Paris is only 40 metres in eleva- tion. The movements of the soil explain perfectly the conclusions as to the filling of the valleys at the periods of depression, and of cutting during the periods of elevation. Monsieur Mourlon, of Brussels, said that diversity of views and dif- ferences of opinion proved that the solution of this problem is yet far distant. He recommended that each person should take up his own proper study in his own country, and pursue it without any precon- ceived ideas or opinions. He explained the situation at Mons and — Ixelles as identical with that of Igtham presented by Mr. Prestwich, and said that the deposits were doubtless Pliocene, yet they found chipped flints of the Moustier type. M. Marellin Boule said that he had studied the fossil bones of Ixelles at the museum, and that all the species belong to the fauna of the primi- genius. The deposit at Ixelles is probably not older than the com- mencement of the Plistocene as we know it in France. In any event, it does not belong to the Pliocene. Gosselet, of Lille, objected that Mr. Prestwich was too uncertain. He always said “It is perhaps” pre-Glacial, etc. Yet M. Gosselet was opposed to M. Mourlon in his opinion that the deposits at Mons were anterior to the Plistocene. M. Max Lohest said that none of the numberless depots yet discov- ered in the caverns were characteristic of any determined geologic epoch. Fauna of the mammoth and Rhinoceros tichorhinus are found as well in the red plastic clay, the rolled pebble, and the stratified mud as in the clay full of sharp stones which came from the roof of the cav- ern. He attacked the theory of M. Dupont, and declared that the height of elevation of a cavern above the level of the river was not evi- dence of its antiquity, and that the formation of the Belgium valleys ` had begun anterior to the Cretaceous epoch, The clay of the plateaux in the east of Belgium that came from the cutting of the valleys was deposited probably anterior to the age of the mammoth. On the arrival of man the face of the country presented much the same appear- ance as now. Monsieur van den Broeck, of Belgium, responded to his colleagues, MM. Mourlon and Max Lohest. In his opinion the Belgium val- leys were not cut until after the Pliocene, because we found the sedi- 304 The American Naturalist. ment of that epoch crowning the hills and plateaux in the neig hood of the valley. In the valley of the Meuse, M. van den B cited evidence to prove that the lower levels were much more : than the high levels. Localities cited by M. Mourlon were not Plistocene, because both were situated on the flank of the valley, an not on the Plistocene of the plateaux. The fauna of a cavern only be the same as that of the valley. Mr. John Evans was in accord with those who said that the valleys had been cut before the Plistocene, but we should not f that there may be valleys of all epochs. He approved the o and conclusions of Prestwich, but only in regard to that which c cerns the Plistocene, and said that neither himself nor other gec gists of England could follow Mr. Prestwich in his theory o worked flint being pre-Glacial. In his opinion the d worked flint at Igtham was a superposition well established. omas Wilson said a few words upon the progress American geologists on the subject of the Plistocene period discovered on the surface in his country, as had been those implements found by Mr. Prestwich at the locality of Igtham i On the subject of the cutting of the valleys and their su filling, he remarked that the rivers of France and England es have been carried out to its conclusion by the courses of he invited the geologists of Europe who were interested in st this question not to neglect the opportunity of visiting States upon the occasion of the next geologic congress, to 1891, that they might investigate our rivers; those flowmg mountains to the Atlantic seaboard, some of them passing thr glacial moraine, like the Connecticut, Hudson, and Delaware, ¢ others coming from mountains unaffected by the glaciers, as tae quehanna, Potomac, and James ; or go to the west, where ’ found rivers from 1,000 to 4,000 miles in length, as the Ol land, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Missouri, on the banks _ to be found cut the same kind of caverns as those of Be also the terraces of the high, low, and middle levels of F grand, and Mortillet; they were thus to be found, not Positions, but stretched out for hundreds of miles. ‘The earth one place would be carried to another further down, and and redeposited many, many times before reaching the 0c 1891,] Archeology and Ethnology. 395 Monsieur Judge Piette described at length the position, condition, and geologic formation of the great cavern of Mas d’Azil, Ariege; how it was found in a tunnel made under or through the mountain by the passage of the river l’Arize, and how it had been inhabited by prehistoric man during all epochs. He had visited this cavern, which is a stupendous and wonderful work of nature, his interest being corres- pondingly excited because in it were to be found in great quantities and great thickness, in different parts of the caverns the evidence of the occupation by prehistoric man in all his epochs ; the paleolithic, the earliest cavern epoch, down to and including the neolithic and even bronze age. ; M. Chambrun de Rosemont and Madame Clemence Royer gave their opinions. Monsieur Gosselet confined himself to the question which was being discussed, and gave it as his opinion that there were to be found the following phenomena in the cutting of the valleys : 1. A first cutting anterior to the deposit of the lower or earliest Plis- tocene. 2. A second cutting posterior to the deposit of the yellow clay, but anterior to the upper diluvium. These repose indifferently on the strata of the lower Plistocenc, and which may have been more or less eroded. Sometimes the gravels of the two epochs are super- posed. 3. A third cutting posterior to the Plistocene period. Sometimes this finds the Plistocene in the valleys; but it is not infrequent to find the Tertiary and even the secondary deposit €xposit exposed by the cutting. 4. After this last cutting the water of the rain and the rivulets produced a heterogeneous clayey deposit that covered the slopes and descended even to the bottom of the valleys. In this one can find the dééris of the age of polished stone, of Roman objects, and others similar. The relations of the divisions in the fauna and the human industry of the Plistocene epoch have not been determined. M. de Szabo described the Plistocene formations in Hungary.— Tuomas Witson. (Zo be continued. ) The Munich Association for the study of anthropology, eth- nology, and prehistorics is publishing its transactions in an organ called Beiträge sur Anthropologie und Urgeschichte Bayerns, which has now reached its ninth volume. Professors J. Ranke and N. Riidinger are the editors, and a series of most important papers have filled its pages since publication began. The fourth number of Volume VIII., which is now before us, con- tains an elaborate inquiry into the racial groups now forming the pop- _ ulation of the Bavarian province Oberfranken, northeastern part, com- 396 The American Naturalist. . ed by Ludwig Zapf. The article i is accompanied by a map sł observed there, four dialects being spoken in that section, In the same number Dr. Höfler discusses Bavarian dialectic for diseases and for the parts of the human body, and Hugo gives an illustrated report on recent excavations made at Pfiin Faimingen, which resulted in the discovery of Roman temples for the worship of Jupiter Dolichenus and of idols representi deity. The numbers 1 and 2 of Vol. IX, of the Beiträge are united in fascicle, and contain in eighty-five pages much that is of though the contents refer more to local than to general topics eology and ethnology. Ten plates illustrate the articles, may be mentioned as the most likely to attract attention: Inhabitants of Southern Bavaria, by Sopp; Prehistoric Ske the Tract between Inn and Salzach Rivers, by Weber; The H o1 m - the Bajuwarian Landholder, by Tresel; On the Difference of 4 Population Statistics, by G. von Mayr ; Hill Tomb near Dec by A. Er ; New Prehistoric Discoveries in Bavaria, by The appendix of thirty-four pages gives the minutes of the of the Anthropologic Society of the Bavarian capital during the | months of 1889. The Map of Prehistoric Bavaria, in fifteen sheets, } ous work of Prof. F. Ohlenschlager, is now completed, tor two years, and the publication of the whole map was € period from 1879 to 1890. The important discoveries : the latest years made it possible for archeologists to establish chronology for the objects of the Hallstatt and La a of which is facilitated by copious indexing. The colo: ing to the places of discovery are twenty-three in nvumbee _ graphic data are all entered upon the military survey map western Germany. 1891.] Microscopy. 397 MICROSCOPY. ! The Pycnogonids.?—Three genera of Pycnogonids, each with a single species, are to be found at Wood’s Holl,—viz., Pallene empusa, Phoxichilidium maxillare Smith (Anoplodactylus lentus Wilson), and Tanystylum orbiculare. During July, August, and September these are found with eggs. Pallene inhabits the hydroids (Tubularia, Pennaria) on the piles of the wharves, and is also common on the red sea-weeds below low-tide mark. The hydroids or sea-weeds as soon as collected were bfought into the laboratory and worked over piece by piece. Each bunch was in turn swished rapidly backward and for- ward in a dish containing a small amount of water, so that the Pycnog- onids were shaken loose and could be easily picked out. The other genera were more easily found, and on separating the masses of hydroids, etc., could be readily seen clinging to the stems. The males of Pallene carry on each pair of ovigerous legs a small bunch of eggs. Each bunch contains from one or two to fifteen or twenty eggs. The eggs of Phoxichilidium and Tanystylum are individually much smaller than the last, but are very numerous, so that the bunches are much larger, especially so in the former. Phoxichilidium carries several lunches strung along on the ovigerous legs; the bunches are white, and very conspicuous against the purple color of the adult. Tanysty- lum has smaller bunches of eggs, with the individual eggs larger than the former, and the masses are carriéd so that they form a circle of clusters held against the ventral side. The adults with eggs were put into alcoholic picro-sulphuric acid for several hours, and then gradually carried through different grades of alcohol. Other methods of hardening gave far less satisfactory results, —#.e., boiling water or Flemming’s solution. To prepare the eggs and embryos for study they were passed through absolute alcohol (one hour), turpentine (two to four hours), soft paraffine (one hour), hard paraffine (one to two hours). They were cut in paraffine, and fixed to the slide with albumen fixative; then back again through turpentine, alsolute alcohol, ninety-five per cent., eighty per cent., seventy per cent. alcohol to Kleinenberg’s hematoxy- lin, where they were left for a very long time (twelve to forty-eight hours); then washed fifteen minutes in acid alcohol, and up again 1 Edited by C.O. Whitman, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. 2 T. H. Morgan. Studies Biol. Lab., V., 1, 1891, pp. 2, 3. * This difficulty was overcome by Barrois? b se of ce _ tion, a little expedient may be recommended which the _Teagent. After the long narcosis in poor water, the pol given the most uniformly good results. In this way the! 398 - The American Naturalist, egg was in many cases pricked with a very sharp need before. into Seales alcohol. It is necessary to do this undera the only satisfactory one. In Pallene the larger size of the egg1 a study of the earlier stages much easier, but the other gente much simpler development. Method of Rendering Opaque Nemertean Eggs parent.—The eggs of Nemerteans which have a direct deve are opaque, and cannot be rendered aap cle ro glycerine. The m xture must be allowed to fice: gradually th causes a Three mixtures, containing glycerine in ine proportions were used, the first consisting of one part glycerine parts water ; the second, equal parts of glycerine and water three parts of glycerine to one of water. Enough carmine aad to give the mixture a wine color. Each mixture was allowed to kill Hydroids, Actiniz, and similar forms in an expan tried in many places and on many forms, and has uniformly of value. The animals to be killed are left i ina small aa effect of i e ites: This manifests itself in one or some forms draw themselves completely together, while ¢ y half expanded and limp in the water. They are t colonies or in large groups into fresh salt water which is at the time cool, The effect of a mass of cool, pure water is such as ti the animals to expand fully and promptly. Immediately sion is seen to reach its maximum, in. the course seconds, they are transferred by a quick motion to some lack energy enough to contract forcibly, as is usually the € ing reagents, alcoholic corrosive sublimate and picro- 5 * Recherches sur l'embryologie des Némertes, Lille., 1877, P- 191- 1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 399 Actiniz may be easily preserved expanded and intact, and Hydroids of all genera yield good specimens. The transfer to fresh sea-water is the only point requiring care. No time limit can be given, as the factors are too variable ; but a little practice is sure to show the charac- ter and advantages of this method.—H. B. Warp, Cambridge, Mass. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Boston Society of Natural History.—December 3d, 1890.— Dr. J. Walter Fewkes spoke of ‘ The Summer Ceremonials of the Zuñi Indians: a Study of Aboriginal Religion.” December 17th.—Prof. A. E. Dolbear read a paper on “ The Physics of Crystalline and Cellular Structure.” A communication on ‘‘ Kame Ridges and Hillocks of Hingham,” by Mr. T. T. Bouvé, was also presented, January 7th, 1891.—Business: Election of members, Final action on the: proposed new by-laws was taken by the society. Mr. J. G. Owens read a paper on “ʻA Few Games of the Zuñi Indians.” January 21st.—Prof. A. E. Dolbear read a paper on “ The Physics of Crystalline and Cellular Structure ”’ February 4th.—Mr. G. H. Barton described ‘“ The Hawaiian Islands: Their Natural History and Inhabitants.”’ The paper was illustrated with astereopticon. Mr. J. H. Emerton exhibited a new model of Oahu, which he has lately made for the museum of the society. February 18th.—Mr. Warren Upham spoke of ‘“ Walden, Cochituate, and other Lakes Enclosed by Modified Drift.’’ Prof. W. H. Niles presented a paper on ‘‘ Notes upon Asphaltum Deposits in California.”’ March 4th.—Prof. W. M. Davis presented a paper entitled ‘ Illus- tration of the Faulted Monoclinal Structure and Topographic Devel- opment of the Triassic Formation of Connecticut by a Working Model.” Prof. N. S. Shaler spoke on the ‘‘Antiquity of the Glacial Period.” Prof. Shaler called the attention of the society to the Dorkin photographs. March 18th.—Dr. G. Baur read a paper on “‘ The Importance of a Scientific Investigation of the Galapagos Islands.” Prof. W. O. Crosby made a communication *‘ On the Colors of Soils.” April 1st.—Dr. H. C. Ernst spoke on the latest developments in the “ Germ Theory of Disease,’’ illustrated by stereopticon and exhibition of tube-cultures.—J, WaLTER FEWKES, Secretary. Am. Nat.—April.—7, 400 The American Naturalist. [April Biological Society of Washington.—December 13th, 1890.— The following communications were read: The Occurrence of an Asiatic Cuckoo on the Pribylov Islands; Mr. William Palmer. New Notes on the Genus Phylloxera ; Prof. C. V. Riley. The Teeth of the Muskrat; Mr. F. W. True. The Wing of Metopidius; Mr. F. A. ucas. December 27th.—The following communications were read: A Pre- liminary Study of Ticks in the United States; Dr. Cooper Curtice. Exhibition of a New Rabbit from the Snake Plains of Idaho; Dr. C. Hart Merriam. On the OTE of Florida, with Reference to Its- Bearing on Fossil Faunas; Mr. W. H. Dall. February 7th, 1891.—The following were read: Dis- — covery of Vertebrate Life in Lower Silurian (Ordovician) Strata ; Mr. C. D. Walcott. A Review of the Discovery of the Cretaceous Mam- malia; Prof. Henry F. Osborn. March 7th.—Communications: Exhibition of Young Hoatzins; A Specimen of Bison latifrons from Florida; Mr. F. A. Lucas. The Fishes of Great South Bay, Long Island; Dr. T. H. Bean. A New Aster from Southern California ; Mr. J. N. Rose. Color and Odor of Flowers in Attracting Insects ; Mr. Geo. B. ae Embryo of a Chick with Two Protovertebre ; Mr. J. M. Stedm March 21st.—Dr. W. H. Dall spoke upon the mre of the Peace Creek Bone-Beds of Florida.” Reference was made to the discovery of bones of various sorts by the Coast Survey and other exploring parties, while the recent explorations for phosphates have brought many more to light. In some counties the sticky clay esp the bones occurs in cavities of Eocene and Miocene rocks. of bone’ in these localities indicates that the animals had nd become mired in attempting to cross swampy ground ; and their pie > indicates that they had been gnawed by carnivorous animals. Evi- at lightning, A Jed the strata dences of fire are also present, but it was considered th and not man, was the probable cause. Some authors containing the bones Miocene, some Pliocene, and some Quatre The bones found are those of the Elephas, Rhinoceros, fi Llama, Deer, Hippotherium, Equus, Tiger, Tapir, therium, Megalonyx, Glyptodon, Porpoise, and Alligator, fish fragments. Professor Cope had made a comparison : Florida remains and those of the west, particularly the ieee beds, of Miocene age. Some forms, however, were similar the Equus beds, of Pliocene age. The Florida remains a thought, of an epoch between the Loup Fork and the Equus 1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 401 Dr. Dall stated that he had lately visited the Peace Creek locality for the special purpose of settling the age of the deposit. He explained the method of dredging for the phosphate in the river, stating that 200 tons per day were obtained. It is mostly in the form of pebbles about the size of marbles. Above Arcadia he found a section along the river bank which showed a bed with the bones ¿n situ. The layer was about 11% feet thick, overlying strata of Pliocene age (as shown by marine shells) ; and the bone bed was in turn overlain by a deposit of phosphatic material. The bones, therefore, could not be older than the Pliocene, and as the marl above them was covered in turn by astratum which also contains Pliocene marine fossils, the conclusion was inevitable that the bone beds of that locality, at least, were of Middle Pliocene age. Dr. R. W. Shufeldt read a paper ‘‘ On a Collection of Fossil Birds from the Equus Beds of Oregon,” from the collection of Prof. E. D. Cope. He first described the features of Silver Lake, a beautiful sheet of water frequented by great numbers of water birds. ‘‘ Fossil Lake” was the bed of a dried-up lake, not many miles distant; and in the fine silt of this locality many bird remains had been discovered by Prof. Condon and Prof. Cope. He thought there were at least twenty undescribed extinct species. Indian relics, implements of obsidian, were found in the same bed as the bird remains, though it could not be asserted positively that the two were contemporaneous. Mr. F. A. Lucas spoke of the anatomy of Hesperornis, the gigantic, extinct, toothed bird. He compared it with various living birds, and concluded the evidence indicated a foot patterned after that of the grebe, but more highly specialized. With Marsh he did not think it. was a land bird, or that it used its wings in swimming, but that it was a highly specialized aquatic. r, F. H. Knowlton discussed the function of cypress knees. He referred to the idea advanced in 1848 that these knees, which vary in height from one inch to two, four, and even ten feet, performed the function of aération. This idea had been later on fully elaborated by Prof. N. S. Shaler. Another theory, advanced by Dr. Lamborn, is that the knees buttress the trees, and so prevent violent winds from uprooting them. The latter idea seemed very plausible, as it was an undoubted fact that no one had ever seen an uprooted cypress tree. Prof. Shaler had contended that when the knees were submerged the tree invariably died, but this was stated not to be the case. of. L. F. Ward, in discussing the paper, expressed his disbelief in the theory that the knees were for the purpose of increasing the areat- 402 The American Naturalist. [April, ing surface, He described the appearance they presented, and stated his belief that they certainly furnished support to the tree in many cases. He questioned the fact of this being their original purpose, but thought it might be the after result. He mentioned a tree planted by Bartram, near Philadelphia, which grew in dry ground, and had knees too yards from the trunk. This tree was probably one hundred years old, and had never grown in or near the water. He advanced the idea that the knees were only aborted shoots, thrown up fiom the roots | like the suckers of the silver poplar and ailanthus. Water he didnot consider necessary for the growth of the knees. He had not seen any | tree actually arising from a knee and so connected with the parent, but ‘he believed investigation would show that the knees were of the nature of aborted sprouts.—JosEpu F. JAMES. ee Proceedings of the Natural Science Association of Staten Island.—November 8th, 1890.—This being the annual meeting, Te- ports of officers for the past year were read and accepted. The treas- urer reported an income of $168.08 and expenses amounting to $1 16.83, leaving a balance of $51.25 in the treasury. ; The election of officers for the ensuing year resulted as follows : President, Dr. N. L. Britton ; treasurer, Eberhard Faber; recording secretary, Chas. F. Simons ; corresponding secretary, Arthur Hollick; curator, Jos. C. Thompson. ' ; Dr. Britton alluded to his recent proposition (see Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. XVIL, p. 121) to recognize plants which, with greater or less frequency, bear flowers of a color other than the n weer hue under the rank of “ forms,” the difference not being sufficient to Class them as varieties. Thus the common salt-marsh pink (Sabbatis stellaris), whose flowers are normally red, occasionally produces air of a pure white color, and this albino condition was therefore described under the name Sadbdatia stellaris forma albiflora. This form hoe recently been collected in considerable quantity in the meadows owe of South Beach, where it grows with the ordinary red-flowered form, es and in certain patches is equally abundant. Another salt-marsh speci m acts, their ordinary color being scarlet. The same OcCurTy™ © — been reported in other districts. 1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 403 Some years ago Mr. Hollick collected a plant of the New England aster (Aster nove-angli@) at West New Brighton, which, instead of having the ordinary purple rays, had them rose-colored. This h been described by Dr. Gray as var. roseus, but it manifestly falls into the rank here alluded to as “forms,” and I should propose to call it A. nove-anglie forma roseus Gray. Mr. Hollick exhibited specimens of lignite and pyrite from the recently opened fire-clay beds at Green Ridge. This clay has been mined in this locality to a depth of about thirty feet. It is covered by from six to ten feet of drift, and is undoubtedly of Cretaceous age, the same as the Kreischerville clays, the two no doubt being continuous. About three-fourths of a mile to the eastward, at Fresh Kills, drift clay is being mined to as great a depth, but there is as yet no indication of the Cretaceous clay being near at hand. Both these localities were visited on election day on the occasion of the annual field day with the Torrey Botanical Club and Brooklyn Institute, at which time the specimens were collected. Mr. Hollick also reported that on the same day a new locality was discovered for wintergreen ( Gaultheria procum- bens), near Giffords, where there was a large patch full of berries. March 14th, 1891.—A paper was read by Mr. Charles W. Leng, “Notes on Some Species of Donacia,” as follows : It has been my task during the past few months to make a revision of the genus Donacia, in the prosecution of which I have, with the assistance of my fellow coleopterists, Messrs. Davis and Thompson, collected considerable numbers of those species inhabit- ing Staten Island. Their specific identity has thus become known to me, and certain facts respecting their habits which have not been elsewhere definitely recorded seem to be proper matter for these proceedings. : There are about twenty species inhabiting the United States and Canada, of which five only are known to occur here. It is possible, however, that additional species may be found by sweeping damp meadows with a net in June and July, a method not adopted by us last year. The genus is quite homogeneous, and the species are indeed so much alike that most collections are in some confusion. The body beneath is more or less flattened and densely clothed with decumbent hairs, ; Tous and resembling silk or satin, according to the fancy of the describer. These hairs serve as a protection against the moisture to which their pond-frequenting habits expose the insects. The color i varies from coppery bronze to testaceous, more or less mottled 404 The American Naturalist. with metallic green. The length is about half an inch. The antenne — and legs are comparatively long, and the variation in the length of the joints of the one and in the spinous processes which adorn the other afford the most convenient characters, combined with the form of the elytral apices, for the separation of the species. They may be known as follows Prothorax not tuberculate, scarcely punctulate ; Third joint of antennz little, if any, larger than second ; Elytra squarely truncate, lucida. Third joint of antenne at least twice as long as í second ; Elytra squarely truncate, palmata. Elytra more convex, subtruncate, piscatnix. Prothorax not tuberculate, coarsely, densely punctate ; Third joint of antennz little longer than second ; z Elytra squarely truncate, subtilis. Prothorax evidently tuberculate, scarcely punctate ; Third joint of antennz little longer than second ; Elytra more convex, subtruncate, tuberculata. In addition to the above, the sexual characters assist in separating : the species. All the males have the last dorsal segment, called the pygidium or podex, short and truncate; the females have the sam” part longer and rounded at apex. The male of /ucéda has the posterior femora spinose, often armed with two or three spines; the female has A but one spine. The sexes of panata and piscatrix differ similarly 10 the femora; the male pa/mata is further distinguished by 4 dilation of the first joint of the anterior tarsi, and the male of piscainix yy : excavation of the first ventral segment. The sexes of subtilis : but little ; both have the posterior femora unidentate. The male of tuberculata has but one spine, but the female is without any. x From the results of last season’s collecting I am satisfied that o above-described species affect different aquatic or subaquatic plants ; o the first three appertaining to the water-lilies, sud#lis to the pers growing at the pond margin, and ‘¢uderculata to the Sagittaria. = a evidence I have is as follows: Our collections were made principally at Britton’s ice pond, at the small pond on top of T A ee at Butler’s or Galloway’s pond near Garretson station. In Lee the yellow water-lily grows abundantly, mingled with the lily, but only at Butler’s pond do gradually shelving banks ator odt Hill, amd 891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 405 marshy stretch necessary to a free growth of the rushes. At all of these ponds the first three species of Donacia were abundant, but only at Butler’s did we find swué#z’s. At that pond were many specimens, some resting on the lily pads, but the greater number on the stalks of the rushes. (Identified by Mr. Arthur Hollick as Juncus effusus L.) Mr. C. M. Weed, in the Bull. Ohio Ex. Sta., Oct., 1889, describes the abundance of subtilis in a similar situation near Columbus. My friend, Mr. E. M. Hulbert, tells me it is abundant near New Britain on sweet flag, and ‘‘no water-lilies within a mile, and no other species found.”’ In regard to ucida, palmata, and piscatrix, all three have been taken often on the leaves of the lilies and within the flowers, and there is a further confirmation of their lily-frequenting habits derived from an observation of the roots of that plant. In the operation of cleaning the ponds for winter, the icemen drag out the ranker growth of lilies and throw them, roots and all, on the banks. I have found in Novem- ber oval cases of a thin but tough material attached to these roots and containing Donaciæ in the imago and larval stages. These cocoons are waterproof, and enable the beetle to pass the winter under two or © three feet of water, or perhaps, when near the bank, imbedded in ice. The larvee of our American Donaciz have not been described, and though I have dried specimens I cannot venture to make a complete description. They appear to be whitish grubs, about half an inch in length, with the head darker, but not otherwise conspicuous. The body appears to taper slightly beyond the head. I have searched about the plants inhabited by swé#%s for similar cocoons, but hitherto unsuccessfully. Many of the stems are now €aten, possibly by its larva, and among the roots are empty cases, but these might have been washed up from the pond. The last species, *cdercudata, is known to us on Staten Island by a single specimen taken on Sagittaria. It was however, taken in numbers by Mr. Davis and myself in the cranberry bog at Jamesburg, N. J., on the same plant. Water-lilies occurred a few hundred yards away, and on their leaves were a few specimens of /ucida, but on the Sagit- taria only ¢udberculata. The life-history indicated by these observations is certainly a curious chapter in coleopterology. The parent beetles hover about the food plant proper for their offspring. They lay thereon their eggs, and the larvæ hatching, eat and grow fat until the approach of winter warns them to prepare the waterproof case for their coming transformation, within which the perfect insect develops and lies dormant until following summer, when. he emerges to repeat the cycle. It is, of 406 The American Naturalist. [April, course, no more than all the butterflies do, but possesses a special — interest from the accompanying adaptation to an aquatic career. Mr. Arthur Hollick presented a specimen of soapstone rock from the Clove road outcrop, showing well preserved glacial striations, or ossibly ‘‘slickenside’’ markings, neither of -which had been pre- viously noted from such rock, probably on account of its being so soft and easily weathered. January roth, r891.—Mr. Arthur Hollick read the following notes upon additions to the flora of the Island, illustrated by specimens: Since the last appendix to the ‘‘ Flora of Richmond County” was published, about two years since, a number of important finds have been made. Some of these are of plants not previously found on the Island, others are of plants which had been previously reported but not verified by specimens, while others are of importance as new localities for’ rare species, I take pleasure in acknowledging our indebtedness to the members of the T orrey Botanical Club, who are responsible for seven of the finds, discovered during several field-day excursions to the Island. Ranunculus lacustris Beck and Tracy. Abundantina pond on Ocean Terrace, near the Vanderbilt mausoleum ; only known previously from a pond near Court House Station. Tilia americana L. Richmond (Wm, T. Davis.) These trees were | discovered May 3oth, 1888, but it was not until the following year that the flowers were obtained and the species positively identified. +hé trees are few in number, and grow in the woods near the defunct North and South Shore R. R. So far as we know, they are the only native - lindens on the Island. oe Euonymus europeus L. Escaped along a roadside near Richmond — ley. an AEE tees Sere EN Ta Val Eupatorium hyssopifolium L. Pleasant Plains. Aster radula Ait. Arlington. (Dr. R. G. Eccles.) Hieracium aurantiacum L, Rossville; in grassy grou shore. Veronica chamedrys L. Prince’s Bay. (Mrs. N. L. Britton.) Salix purpurea L. Abundant along roadsides near Rossville. ably the relics of old basket-willow plantations. Habenaria ciliaris (L.) R. Br. Old Place (Wm. Bogardus’s Corners. Habenaria blephariglottis (Willd.) Torrey. Arlington. (Dr. Eccles.) nd, near the Prob- T. Davis) and B e e 1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 407 Microstylis unifolia (Michx.), B. S. P. Near Egbertville (Mrs. N. L. Britton), and Ocean Terrace, near Four Corners. This inconspicu- ous little orchid has recently been found in comparative abundance at both localities, and may probably be looked for in similar situations elsewhere. It was admitted into the original “Flora of Richmond County,” published in 1879, upon the strength of a single rather poor specimen found by Judge Addison Brown “in a glen near New Dorp,” and until another specimen was found by Mrs. Britton about three years ago this was the only voucher which we had to show as evidence of its occurrence here. Liparis leselii (L.) Rich. Garrettson’s ; onespecimen only. (Miss Millie Timmerman.) This species was admitted into the original cata- logue on the authority of I. H. Hall, in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club for April, 1874, where there is a note to the effect that it was found ‘on Staten Island, in the gravelly bank of a railroad cutting.” Cypripedium acaule Ait., forma alba. A single specimen of this albino was found by Mrs. Edward Heylyn. The exact locality is not known to me. Belamcanda chinensis (L.) Red. Tottenville ; along a brook. Tradescantia virginica L. Bogardus’s Corners ; evidently spreading. Eleocharis palustris (L.) R. Br., var glaucescens (Willd.) Gray. Common, r Scirpus olneyi Gray. New Dorp. Glyceria distans (L.) Wahl. New Dorp Panicum miliaceum L. Todt Hill road, near Moravian Church. Association of American Anatomists.—The next meeting will be held at Washington, D. C., in September, 1891, at or about the time of meeting of the Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons. The officers for that meeting are as follows: President, Joseph Leidy ; vice presidents, Frank Baker, F. D. Weisse ; secretary and treasurer, D. S. Lamb; executive committee, Harrison Allen, Thomas Dwight, and B. G. Wilder. 408 The American Naturalist. = SCIENTIFIC NEWS. The Royal Society of Canada announces its annual meeting in Montreal, May 27th, the session lasting one week. In the words of the preliminary circular, which has been mailed to us, it is anticipated that the meeting will be attended by many distinguished persons, emi- nent in literature and science, from Europe and the United States, as well as from the Dominion of Canada. The ordinary sessions of the society will be held in the buildings of the McGill University, and the popular evening lectures will be delivered in the Queen’s Hall on St. Catherine Street. The museums and art galleries, with the educational, industrial, and other institutions of the city will be opened to visiting members and associates. Local excursions to places of interest in the neighborhood will be arranged for, and receptions, garden parties, and entertainments of various kinds will also be provided. It is also pro- posed to keep a directory, wherein the names and addresses of all those attending the meeting will be registered, and thus members and associates will be enabled to communicate one with another without delay. The committee are engaged in the preparation of a hand-book, for gratuitous circulation among intending visitors, which will include an historical account of the society, together with other interesting scientific and local information, a copy of which will be sent on appli- cation. Sir Donald A. Smith is chairman, and J. A. Beaudry, CE, and W. J. Smyth, Ph.D., honorary local secretaries. All E interested in literature and science may become associates for aa meeting, and are cordially invited by the local committee to be present thereat. Joseph Leidy, M. D., Professor of Human Anatomy in the Ve versity of Pennsylvania, and president of the Academy of : eoo Sciences of Philadelphia, died April 30th. He was born in Eae < o phia, September gth, 182 3- His father, Philip Leidy, was 4 — eo Montgomery county, Pa., and his ancestors on both sides were GONT from the valley of the Rhine. a His taste for natural history was exhibited at a very early oo o received judicious encouragement from the master of the school = x he acquired the rudiments of an English education. At the a sixteen he left school with the intention of becoming an a 7 - oe father proposed. aes \ 1891.] Scientific News. 409 In the meantime, however, much of his leisure had been passed in a wholesale drug store near his home. His time here was so well spent that the proprietor did not hesitate, when an opportunity offered, to recommend him as competent to take temporary charge of a retail drug store belonging to a customer. He was encouraged by his success in filling the trust thus reposed in him to study the properties and art of compounding drugs as a profession. His study of nature, while thus occupied, had not been neglected. To botany and mineralogy he had added comparative anatomy, his first practical studies in that branch having been made on a barn-door fowl and a common earth- worm. So absorbed did he become in his anatomical studies that, at the suggestion of his mother and with the consent of his father, he gave up all intention of becoming either artist or apothecary, and resolved to devote himself to that profession which would afford him the best opportunity for pursuing those studies from which it was now evident he could not easily withdraw himself. In the autumn of 1840, therefore, he began the study of medicine, devoting his first year to practical anatomy. Having entered the office of Dr. Paul B. Goddard, he attended . three full courses of lectures in the University of Pennsylvania, pre- sented a thesis on ‘‘The Comparative Anatomy of the Eye of Verte- brated Animals,” and graduated as doctor of medicine in the spring of 1844. Immediately after receiving his degree his first work in con- “nection with the university was as assistant in the chemical laboratories of Drs, Hare and James B. Rogers. He began the practice of medicine in the fall of 1844, and continued it for two years, when he resolved to devote himself entirely to teaching. He -was elected Professor of Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania in 1853. In 1871 he was appointed Professor of Natural History in Swarthmore College. In 1845 he was elected a member of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, and in 1846 the chairman of its board of curators. In 1882 he. became its president. Dr. Leidy’s work covered a wide range of subjects. He was a good mineralogist, botanist, and zoologist. His original work was done in $ logy and in the paleontology of the Vertebrata. He first deter- mined the identity of the Zrichina spiralis of man with that of the hog, and discovered many new forms of Entozoa. His early researches into the anatomy of insects and of other invertebrates are well known. His later work was in the field of vertebrate paleontology, of which science in America he laid the foundations. His most important work outside of this field is his Monograph of the Fresh-Water Rhizopoda of North 410 The American Naturalist. [April, America, which is especially valuable for its admirable illustrations, — drawn and colored by himself. Dr. Leidy received the Walker prize of the Boston Society of Natural - History, and the Lyell medal of the Geological Society of London. He received the degree of LL.D. from Harvard University. At the time of his death he was president of the faculty of the Wagner Free Institute of Science, and of the Department of Biology of the University of Pennsylvania; also of the American Anthropometric Society, to which body his brain has been committed for examination — and report, Professor Leidy was a man of fine presence, and was possessed of a sonorous voice. He was an admirably lucid lecturer, and had excel- lent artistic skill. In his disposition he was retiring and even timid, and his sympathies were easily roused. His interest was readily enlisted on behalf of ‘the under dog in the fight’’; and the person who appealed to this side of his character was rarely disappointed. From an intellectual point of view, he was an acute and accurate observer, and a tireless investigator. Of the systematic and generalizing faculties he possessed little, and for this reason he was no organizer of men. In fact, he was indifferent to this aspect of human relations, being a? ‘‘ individualist ’’ in this respect, as he was in his scientific pursuits. American science has sustained a severe loss in the death of Leidy. His life has been a stimulus to the progress of intellectual pursuits 1 this country, and it will produce much fruit in the future, as ithasm the past. Honors came to him and his fellow-citizens will honor thém- selves by erecting to him a permanent memorial in some conspicuous part of the city of his birth. WE regret to announce the sudden death, on February 13th, at e i age of 77 years, of Mr. William Davies, F.G.S., for forty yeas the Geological Department of the British Museum, from which he : retired as senior assistant some two or three years ago. This nET paleontologist was widely known and highly esteemed by scientists e all countries for his great knowledge of the fossil back-boned an m 2 and for the genial readiness with which he imparted it to students a" world to the great shrine of natural history in London. tions went back to the days of Dean Buckland, Agassiz, Ow Phillips, Hugh Miller, and other great pioneers and founders sciences of geology and paleontology. No one, perhaps, 1891.] Scientific News. 411 more than he did the removal of the natural history collections from the historic galleries in Bloomsbury. It is certain none labored more strenuously to effect their safe transfer to their new home at South Kensington, and the arrangement of the gallery of fossil fishes, con- taining the finest collection of fossil fishes in the world, was his especial pride and care. Mr. Davies was remarkable for his unaffected sim- plicity of manner and modesty of character. He occupied the some- what rare position in these scribbling days, of knowing more than he wrote, instead of writing more than he knew. Nevertheless, Mr. Davies contributed several instructive and interesting papers to the Geological Magazine. In one, ‘‘On the Omosaurus,”’ he described the removal to the museum workshops of the huge septarian nodules from the Kimmeridge clay of Swindon, Wiltshire, and the subsequent devel- opment therefrom of the remains of ‘‘ that gigantic British dragon of old time,” the Omosaurus armatus of Owen, one of the finest speci- mens of its class in the National Museum. The descriptive catalogue of the Plistocene mammalian remains from Ilford, Essex, of Sir Antonio Brady’s collection in the British Museum, was also from his pen. Some rather sensational journalistic articles were published at the time about this fine collection, comprising the remains of parts of the skeleton of a considerable number of individual specimens of various Rhinoceri (2. Zptorhinus), primeval oxen (Bos primigenius), deer, and especially of the mammoth (Ziephas primigenius) from the Pleistocene deposits of the valley of the Thames. Mr. Davies used to relate that for some time afterwards people came to the museum ‘and inquired anxiously for the British elephants, and went away quite angry an disappointed when they were shown the series of detached bones, not in the least realizing that a simg/e bone often sufficed an anatomist for the reconstruction of an individual animal. They really seemed to expect to see the one hundred and fifty Essex elephants set up all in a row. Mr. Davies wasa great lover of nature, and enjoyed many a botanical ramble over the South Downs; but even when out for a holiday it was not easy to keep him long out of a museum. Then nothing delighted him more than to pore over a nondescript heap of old bones that every one else had given up as hopeless. It was marvelous to watch the patience and skill with which he would select and fit such rough frag- ments together, and finally build up the limb bone of a rhinoceros or ” or the spinous processes of the vertebra of an Iguanodon. Mr. Davies will be sincerely regretted by his former chiefs and colleagues, and by many friends. His end was doubtless hastened by anxieties concerning 412 The American Naturalist. [April, r891] the illness of his only son, Mr. Thomas Davies, F.G.S., senior assistant of the Mineralogical Department of the British Museum.—AGngs CRANE. « Dr. John LeConte, Professor of Physics in the University of California, died April 29. He belonged to a distinguished scientific family. His father and uncle were both naturalists. His younger brother is a prominent geologist and chemist, and his nephew was an explorer and naturalist and served as chief clerk in the United States mint in this city for the five years preceding his death. John LeConte was born in Liberty county, Georgia, on the 4th day of December, 1818, graduated at Franklin College, University of Georgia, in 1838, and studied medicine at the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York, where he graduated in 1841. He settled in Savannah, Ga., in 1842, and there began the practice of his pro- fession, but in 1846 was called to the chair of Natural Philosophy and a Chemistry in Franklin College, which he held until 1855. He lectured on chemistry at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, in 1855-56, and in 1856 became Professor of Natural and Mechanical — Philosophy in South Carolina College, at Columbia. “In 1869 he was appointed Professor of Physics and Industrial Mechanics in the University of California, and after holding the office of president of the university, in addition to his chair, from 1876 until 1881, he retired to the chair of Physics, which he retained up to the time his death. His scientific work extended over fifty years. ; ADVERTISEMENTS 1 NORTH AMERICAN ; | ) ; | In sets, including 15 to 20 of my new species. | Very fine material. Just collected by foto's Acid Phosphate | -W. W. CALKINS, sia the stomach fails 147 California Ave., Chicago, Ill. ; food. The Acid EE a saute eae hosphate assists the weakened | Now Ready, Price 15s. ing Printed by order of the Trustees of the Australian Museu: of stomach, maki the 2 digestion Hatural and ao of | m, Sydney. Volume II., Part I., ge Oy: | AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA and 1 2 a ; : at THEIR TRANSFORMATIONS. B the late “Use = McComg, Philadelphia, says : ALEXANDER WALKER SCOTT.” With Il- d it in nervous dyspepsia, with | lustrations drawn from the Life by his Daughters, success.” | Harriet MorGan and HELENA Fore. Edited D and Revised by ARTHUR SIDNEY OLLIFF and r. W. S. LEONARD, Hinsdale, N. H., Herena ForDE. A says: ; The work will be published in parts, each containing } fool by 1314) plates, colored by hand, and As ‘os Fag I z only those species of which the transformations were known to Mr. Scott will be figured. Dr. T ue fresh issue of Parts I., II., and oon re E. i 7 > olume I. of the work (London, 1864, Van Voorst, cal Coll ae SRO, Jefferson Medi- nine colored plates) will shortly be available for pur- Ln ege, Philadelphia, says: chase. WwW ; “ The best remedy for dyspepsia that as come under my notice.” € ~ . r on D The work may be obtained from KEGAN PAUL, os ssop remedy which gave me | TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., Ludgate Hill; gratifying results in the worst forms GURNEY & JACKSON, Paternoster Row ; and of dyspepsia.” H. SOTHERAN & CO., Strand, London. Descriptive pamphlet free. BEAUTIFUL GEODES Rumford Chemical Werks, Providence, R. I. Be I0 ative bırd and mammal skins. Hun- WARE OF SUBSTITUTES AND areis OF berini ia re DS IMITATIONS m or for printed lists. Estab- , lished in 1873. Refer by permission to Prof. Robt. Ridgway and Prof. J. A. Allen. . K. WORTHEN, Naturalist and Taxidermist, Warsaw, Ill. ION :—Be sure th i print e word ‘‘ Horsford’s’’ is Ne ed on the label. All others are spurious ver sold in bulk. z Check-List of Canadian Plants. mec has been published and is now offered for sale what is ved to be a complete list of the Phanogamous and Vascular Cryp- a an of Canada. The Catalogue of Canadian Plants issued lites ou ee Survey of Canada has been used as a basis, but a ; iaf species discovered since it was published have been ‘ pee: ‘et = list. Many genera, too, have been revised by specialists, edt revisions have been used in the preparation of the Check-List. additional species discovered last year (1890) are included. € price of the list is 50 cents per copy, 3 copies for $1.00. Address, JAS. M. MACOUN, Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada. A ADVERTISEMENTS. 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Notices for scientific societies a private individuals inserted under this head free of charge. For business houses, two cents per w INERALOGY. — Course Rar gea ted b correspondence. First collection and k $1. Postage 25 cents. Kidega. VE GUTTENB DE Cmn High School, Pittsburgh, Pai wasp TED—To correspond with concholo- sts in America, especially i with a ti to exchange. cate Address Mrs. Falloon, Long Ashton Vic- arage, et: England. ANTED— Position in Academy, Normal or High School, as teacher of the Natural guag Latin taught , if necessary. Address G., box 441, Hanover, N. H. i COLLEGE PROFESSOR of Natural Sciences and Ge many, is open for a position in a college. ces, Address, C., Box 136, New Berlin, Pa. For EXCH ANGE —14 Volumes (1883- 1889) AMERICAN JOURNAL OF Te 10 volumes (1880- 879- ' n good condition aa pone’ co Morris Typewriter. If you have a good croscope, » Camera, oF Ss dun: else to offer, ER CHADBOURN, LEWISTON, ME. 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Pleasant and re able to the taste. Children take it without objection ruggists. pisos REMEDY TE, É ALAN RRH.—Best. Easiest to use. Cheapest is immediate. A cure certain. For Cold in the eect it has no equal. lied s See n, Pa Itis an Ointment, of wase h a small particle i to the nostrils. Pice Sold by drug ward by mail. Addres p T. HAZELTINE, ADVERTISEMENTS. v -FOSSILS | Cretaceous Invertebrata and Tertiary Vertebrata Of S. Dakota, Nebraska, and Wyoming, as described by Cope, Marsh, Ta. and Meek. Placenticeras, Nautilus, Scaphites, Baculites, Teredo, Turtles, Teeth and Skulls of the Titanotherium, | Oreodon, Mesohippus, Acerathe- | rium, Hyracodon, Elotherium, Car- Baio __ Hyracodon » nebrascensis. | nivora, etc. Green River Fossil Fish ; fifty varieties Fossil Leaves of Dakota Group named by Lesquereux. Black Hills Minerals in large variety. Jndian Relics, both ancient and modern. Large stock of everything. Send for illustrated catalogue with prices. Wholesale and Retail. Colleges, large collectors, amateurs, museums, and dealers supplied. L. W. SFILWELCL; DEADWOOD, SOUTH DAKOTA. Mention AMERICAN I NATURAALSE. WANTED.. s= Back damba of Je Naturauist. November ’83, April and December '85, October, November and December ’87, all or part of 77. Twenty-five cents will be paid for the Index to Vol, XII, which was issued with the January number of Vol. XIII. Persons having any or all of these for sale will please write us, stating price at which they hold them. 7 FERRIS BROS., Publishers. sil plants from the Dakota Group vi ADVERTISEMENTS. BETTER THAN EVER BEFORE. Increase of | Editorial a) Şat and of We, Nr "THEE OBSERVER. A medium of interchange of observations for all f nature. Devoted to all deprimati of nature eTa : è Original, interestin Don’t fail to try it for 1B. E. F. BIGELOW, Editor and Publisher. Only o cents a year. ae “ Keep ycur eyes aa (to observe ee: and beauties of the out-door world) is the Rabin “ge M. A. Booru, F. R.M. S. 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With Sixty- three Plates and numerous Illustrations ın the text, Two sia arad TENT. S, —Vol. I. The Pretertiary Insects (with 35 plates). Vol. II. The Tertiary Insects (with 28 These two volumes, of which only one hundred copies are issued, form the most gona pe= work on Fossil Insects that has ever been publishe da , and most of them are fi n the ihographic plates. tions inc ith t ti all the Fossil Insects which beads ever cg des eons from Nort America, ess a very: ahi number now first publis mee, and especially amo e Pa on æoz and Mes oic cockro ache sa considerable ‘number of "European form: But, classification, distribution, and eesleaist sequence i) he diff t group The term insects has been used in a broad senss, t llas hexapods, or true insects. Just Published. sping Ri PSYCHOLOGY. By HARALD a Professor at thé University of Copenhagen. sound RO oaa. 12mọ, Cloth, $r. con NTS t d of Psych Mind ak Body —The Conscious and the Unconscious —Clas: silicati tion of the r analara ‘Eisen e ove ychology of Cognition—The Psychology of Feeling— The Psychology of the Will. LESSONS ee An cng seine ae By James H. Correritt, F.R.S., and Henry SLADE, R.N. llusi ated, $r.2 “ The in a racter, and is Fs oats especially to meet the wants of junior students in engineering, raed other commencing the study. recommend the book as one of the best small treatises on the subject.” — Engine. ring and Mining Journal MIXED METALS: OR, METALLIC ALLOYS. By Arrnur H. Hiorns, Principal of School of Metallurgy, Birm mingham and Midland Institute. 16mo. With Hilut ag ies “It is a very compact, interesting, and valuable little treatise.”"--Metal Worker. New Book by J2Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. THE METEORITI C HYPOTHESIS. By J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., Correspondent of the Institute Pdi NoE of Astronomical Physics in the Normal School of Science. With Illustrations. THE MyoLosy OF THE RAVEN (Corvus corax siner taiur) A Guide to Pg re of the Mus- min Birds. By R.W.SHUFELDT. With numerous Illustrations. 8vo. Co ae P its able, intelligent author, and a credit to the aie workers of me country. geen rnal of bob Medicine and acetone; Archives New Uniform Edition of Alfred Russel Wallace's Works. ONT NATORE A TO THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION: AND aaa 4 brad opie OTHER ESSAYS. By Atrrep RUSSEL WALLACE, LL.D., F.L.S. New Editio Darwen. An E f Its Applications. xposition of the Theory of Natural niger gs, with Some of Its Appl ALFRED tas Wattrace, LL.D., 7 Si S., Author f “The Malay Archipelago,” etc. With Map , Portrait, and Illustrations: ramo ka “* The present ject of thirty years of thought and observa- -A pondan of the ka importance to the maigin m the subject. —New York Times. TYCHO Beane. A Picture of per E and Work in the Sixteenth Century. By J. L. E. Drever, h.D., F.R.A.S. With Illustrations. 8vo hej ie valuable contribution to the Be of saai astronomy ; abounds with onnes ‘on Nate Perfect mk 8g yet full be es rapa par sympathy, a vigorous and picturesq ue individual a MACMILLAN & CO., 112 Fourth Avenue, New York. ADVERTISEMENTS. The American Geologist for 1891, EDITED BY Pror. S. Catvrx, University of Iowa ; Dr. E. W. CLAYFOLE, Buchtel College; Jony Everman, Lafayette — Dr. Perstror Frazer, Franklin e. Pror. F. W. Ceaerin, Washburn maa Pror. C. L. HERRICK Cincinnati University; Pror. A. LAKES, Colorado School of Mines; Dr. ANDREW C. Lawsox, late Geologi y t cal Survey of Canada; E. O. Uxrrcn, Illinois Geological Survey ; Peor. I. C. W University of West PAA Da: ei LEX. WıxcHeELL, University a Michigan; Pror. N. H. Wincwet, University of Minnesota. SPECIAL OFFERS TO NEW SUBSCRIBERS. For the year 1891 the subscription rate for the GEOLOGIST will remain at $3.50. 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L. aes & Co. 733 AND 735 Bros MINERALOGISTS. EW YORK. FHE AMERICAN ATURALIS A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. MAY, I89I1. CONTENTS. PAGE | LIOTROPISM OF HYDRA, Eo Edmund B. Wilson, oli THE T n bt oe aur, “ss Sex 0 OLD Fort ss ve Ee, TH ap Growra-Preroprerry OF THE POTA - Conway Macuithiw. Sevens Complete al eee — ee s Report U i th — Pary West of the ne One- Hu iar 453 434 455 452 a egies Period—Submarine aie of A EE —— aes : North American ms—The > Field Editon” "ot Gray’ s Manua The F Flora ai the Nebraska Plains en ervations on a ppm ate Develop- velopment —The Lower Ht J amy Amon a P tl —The Later Larval Deveopeeat of joxus—Development of the —_ Ba- ryology of Glires, . Ethnolory.— The Taasisi Congress ea y redarea and Preistorie a of Paris sha “neat tons onalamatd — sr Language — a seal Mi ots ss eae os PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, c. * Screntirie News, - - - ee PHILADELPHIA: Scientific [nvestigators. ONE of the greatest needs of American science at the present time is a convenient medium in which — brief preliminary notices of the results of investigation can be published. A considerable length of time of necessity elapses between the conclusion of any series of observations and their appearance in print, and it is of great advantage to the observer, and still more to his fellow-workers, to have the results made known as ; soon as possible, thus insuring priority of discovery to __ the one, and allowing the others to keep more perfectly : posted with what is going on in the scientific “o around them. = . A preliminary notice should be nabii at once fe! = to be of value, and hitherto there has been no scientific ~ periodical in this country, published at sufficiently brief _ intervals, and open to all investigators, which has Specially opened its columns to the publication of such = : _ hotices, and has undertaken to make them public ¥ "b a5. little delay as possible. This the NATURA! a proposes to do, and invites the coöperation of alt 1 vestigators in an attempt to inaugurate a department for the prompt and satisfactory publication of pr >- notices of the results of scientific ineei THE AMERICAN NATURALIST THE HELIOTROPISM OF HYDRA? BY EDMUND B. WILSON. I. /ntroductory—Every observer of Hydra is familiar with the fact that the animal possesses considerable power of locomotion, and under certain circumstances may creep restlessly about the aquarium; it is not so generally known that its wanderings, which on superficial examination seem vague and meaningless, are in reality directed towards a definite end, and play an im- portant part in the life of the animal. Trembley observed as long ago as 1791 that the movements of Hydra viridis show a definite relation to the source of light (heliotropism), the animal manifest- ing a marked tendency to collect on the illuminated side of the aquarium. Although this heliotropism is now well known, it has not received the attention it deserves; as far as I know, indeed, nothing has been added to Trembley’s account by later observers. I find no mention of the subject in any of the more recent papers on heliotropism, except in Loeb’s very interesting work,” and this gives no more than a brief review of Trembley’s results. The subject is, however, one of considerable interest for several reasons. Hydra is not known to possess any kind of differen- tiated visual apparatus; the animals can be kept under observation for a long time and their behavior closely studied ; the comparison of H. fusca with H. viridis enables us to determine how the l Read before the American Morphological Society, December, 1890. *Heliotropismus der Thiere. Würzburg, 1890. 414 The American Naturalist. (Mey, - movements are affected by the presence of chlorophyll; on account of their slowness, the movements may be accurately followed step by step. Although the observations recorded in the following pages have occupied my attention at intervals for several years, they are still far from exhaustive, and I offer them only as a beginning. They indicate, however, that the purpose of the creeping move- ments and the stimuli that call them forth have not hitherto received any satisfactory explanation, and that a number of very interesting physiological questions connected with them have in consequence been overlooked. Since the heliotropic movements are complicated by-other actions, I will first describe the general character of the movements as a whole. Il. General Character of the Movements—Marshall has given a very good account of the mode of locomotion of Hydra, though he makes no attempt at an accurate analysis of the movements, and does not mention heliotropism. I shall there- fore treat only of the general character of the movements. The following account applies both to H. viridis and to H. fusca, unless otherwise stated. Ina light of moderate intensity (ina north room) the animals, after wandering more or less irregularly about, gradually collect on the side turned towards the window, usually not far from the surface of the water, though here and there a straggler lags in the background or along the sides of the aquarium. The movements then become less active; the animals may remain for a considerable time with only slight changes of position, and, if the food be abundant, rapidly increase in number by growth and budding. It appears, therefore, that in moderate daylight Hydra is positively heliotropic, and its | behavior is the same with lamplight, even if it be of very p intensity. If the intensity of the light be increased, a points ultimately reached at which the action is reversed and the animals move away from the light (z. e., the heliotropism becomes negative), though this action is less striking in its resu $ movement, since the animals do not collect on the side bee S to the light, but move into the shadow of leaves, etc, OF 3 z 3 Zeitschrift für Wiss. Zoologie, XXXVII., 1882. its than the advance 1891.] The Heliotropism of Hydra. 415 bottom. It is, however, difficult to determine the precise character of the negative: heliotropism, since it only occurs at an intensity that is unfavorable to the general condition of the aquarium, and thus indirectly injures the Hydras. Up to this point there is no essential difference in the behavior of the two species, although, as many observers of Hydra have pointed out, the.movements of H. viridis are more rapid than those of Æ. fusca, so that the former species almost invariably leads the march towards the light. If now the aquarium be allowed to stand for a long time undisturbed (the water remaining unchanged, but maintained at a constant level), until the food supply of Daphnia, Cypris, etc., becomes scanty, a very interesting series of movements may be observed in H. fusca, (They are only occasionally performed by H. viridis, and never, so far as I have observed, with the same regularity as in the former species.) After a prolonged stay near the surface the animal detaches itself from the the glass, and with tentacles widely outstretched sinks slowly to the bottom, often floating for a time at the surface before the descent. Arrived at the bottom, it slowly crawls once more to the light side, gradually, and with many deviations from the straight course, reascends to the surface, ultimately sinks again to the bottom, and so on. Thus the movements pass through a cycle, extremely variable in its details, but on the whole maintain- ing the character of a slow and regular rotation. The duration of the cycle is extremely variable; it may be only one or two days, or it may be as many weeks.‘ What is the use of these movements, and by what stimuli are they called forth ? HI. Purpose and Cause of the Movements.—It appears to be commonly assumed that Hydra moves towards the source of light “ for the sake of warmth, ’—ż e., that within suitable limits a higher temperature is more agreeable to the animal or more * In order to realize the truth of this description it is necessary to have under obser- vation a large number of individuals in a large aquarium, to which they have become thoroughly accustomed by a residence of weeks or months. Many of my observations have been made on a fraternity of Hydras from five hundred d strong, @ ch had arisen in the aquarium from a group of three or four course of about two months. In this fraternity the cyclical character of the movements was very marked, and the descent of the animals might be observed al —— the 7 416 The American Naturalist, [May, favorable to its physiological processes. Whether the animal has any “preferences” or exercises any conscious choice is an open question ; but this question aside, the assumption that it is stimu- lated to move towards the light by the invisible heat-rays is clearly without foundation. The light, before impinging upon . the animal, must as a rule traverse a considerable thickness of water, by which the heat-rays are almost wholly absorbed, and thus rendered inoperative. Experimentally the same result is given as follows: If in the winter season an aquarium be placed close to a north window, in a warm room, the animals collect as usual on the light side, although, as shown by a thermopyle, the other sides may receive a much greater supply of heat-rays. Ex- periments with Bunsen flames or heated objects placed close to the aquarium and kept in a fixed position for days show no percep- tible movement of the Hydras towards the source of heat, pro- vided no luminous rays are given off from it. The most con- vincing evidence is afforded by the behavior of Hydras towards rays that have passed through water as compared with rays that have passed through liquids absorbing the same amount of heat but transmitting fewer light-rays. Thus it is easy to arrange an apparatus such that a group of Hydras is offered the choice between rays that have passed through water (transparent to the visible rays, but nearly impervious to heat-rays) and a strong solution of iddine which, as shown by the thermopyle, is practi- cally the same as water in respect to the transmission of heat-rays, but absorbs a large proportion of the visible rays. Under these circumstances the Hydras invariably move ™ the direction of the rays that have traversed the water, thus p ing that the attractive influence must be exerted by the visible rays. ; It is certain, therefore, that notwithstanding their complete lack of definite visual apparatus, both species of Hydra are not only very sensitive to the visible rays, but pe response to the stimuli afforded by them. that the heliotropism cannot have the same part to p life of green plants, since it is not peculiar to In this regard Hydra differs strikingly from rform definite actions if a i It seems certain, 2% the green Hydra the Protozoa, s 1891.] The Heltotropism of Hydra. 417 which, as a rule, it is only the chlorophyll-containing forms that seek the light. The main purpose of the heliotropic movements, as I am convinced, is simply to place the animals in the position of maximum food supply, and the entire cycle of movements of which heliotropism is a factor may be explained on the same basis. The favorite and usual food of Hydra consists of various minute Crustacea,—Daphnia, Cypris, and other Entomostraca, especially the first named,—though it will readily devour insect larvæ and many other small animals. It is a well-known fact that Daphnia and related forms manifest ina high degree a helio- tropism of the same character as that of Hydra,—i. e., positive in moderate light, negative in strong light—and it must result from this that so far as the movements of the two animals are determined by light the tendency will be, in the long run, for the Hydras to collect in the localities most frequented by their prey. It is impossible to study an aquarium well stocked with the two animals without being struck by the immense advantage secured to the Hydras by their position on the illuminated side near the surface. In this region the Crustacea often swim in swarms, darting about through a forest of outstretched Hydras, many of which are gorged with food and actively budding, while in other parts of the aquarium both animals are far less abundant. The power of seeking the light, or of avoiding it when too strong, thus confers upon the blind, sluggish Hydra a means of pursuing and capturing its active and highly organized prey, and a vague, diffused sensibility to light becomes in this way of vital importance to its possessor, and may be brought under the action of natural selection. It cannot be doubted that individuals possessing a sensibility higher than the average will have a distinct advantage over the others, so that natural selection will tend to perpetuate them. An interesting feature of the case is that the increased food supply directly increases the rate of reproduction, —Ż. €., by budding,—so that, in the long run, individuals of high sensibility will multiply more rapidly than those of low sensibility, and leave a larger number of descendants in increasing proportion from generation to generation. It may be noted, further, that the 420 The American Naturalist. [May, add that A. viridis is far more hardy than H. fusca, being ` able to live for many days or weeks in foul water that would quickly prove fatal to the latter species. This power of endur- ance may be due to the liberation of oxygen through the assimi- lative action of the chlorophyll. En résumé, the movements of Hydra may be resolved into three actions, which, taken together, insure to the animal a supply of food and air. These are’(1) heliotropism, (2) aérotropism, and (3) detachment from the support ; and the three are so combined as to form on the whole a cycle. Each movement appears to be called forth bya particlar stimulus,—the first by light-rays, the second by dissolved air, the third apparently by diminished food supply of a certain kind. The entire series of movements is useful to the animal, is in large part even of vital importance, and at first sight gives the general impression of consciousness and design; yet a careful analysis of the action weakens this impression, and indicates that it may be regarded as a series of rather complex reflexes, into which the element of consciousness, and a fortiori intelligence, need not enter at all. We may perhaps push the matter a step further back. Granting that the heliotropism of Hydra has been acquired because of the similar heliotropism of Daphnia, we may next seek an ex- planation of the latter action. The explanation lies close at hand, though I have never seen it stated. There can be little doubt that Daphnia, like Hydra, seeks the light because it there finds the maximum food supply. It is well known that a large number of microscopic green plants possess a considerable power of loco- motion, and that they are positively or negatively heliotropi¢ according to the intensity of the light, This is true, for instance, of the zodpores of numerous species of fresh-water alge, of many desmids, and other forms. These plants form a part—probably an important part—of the food of Daphnia, and the animal would accordingly gain a great advantage by acquiring a similar helio- tropism. Lastly, the heliotropism of the plants is no doubt 3 provision for placing them in the optimum position for assimilation" It appears, therefore, that the ultimate reason for the heliott a of Hydra may lie in the mode of assimilation in green plants, ai 1891.] The Heliotropism of Hydra. 421 the case seems to me an interesting one, as illustrating both the correlations between associated organisms, and the nature of the conditions that may enable natural selection to operate at or near the beginning of a series of physiological and morphological modifications. IV. Color Discrimination —Like many other heliotropic forms, Hydra is chiefly affected by the blue rays. If strips of glass of various colors be fastened to the illuminated side of an aquarium, both species of Hydra show a very marked tendency to collect under the blue, and an equally marked avoidance of the red, green, yellow, or any combination of colors containing no blue. This preference for the blue is (within rather wide limits) independent of intensity. This is strikingly shown by the comparison of a light “ yellow” glass with a dark blue cobalt glass,’ the former being of high, the latter of low, intensity. If equal areas on the light side of an aquarium be covered (see Table IL.) (a) with yellow, (4) with blue, (c) with an opaque screen, anda fourth area (d) be left uncovered, the result is invariably that in the course of a few days the greatest number of Hydras will be found under the blue (allowance being of course made for the initial differences) ; the uncovered area stands next, and the shaded and yellow areas contain fewest, with no constant difference between them. That is, the areas compare as follows, as regards: HIGHEST. LOWEST. INTENsITY, (d) White, (a) Yellow, (4) Blue, (c) Dark, i llow, ATTRACTIVENESS, (4) Blue, (æ) White, f a be 1 The colors of the glasses used in the experiments, as tested by the spectroscope, were as follows : - RED.—Transmits red and a little orange. Complete absorption of the upper end down to a little beyond the Dline. Lower end just percéptibly shortened. YELLow ; i absorption of upper end down to å in the green. Red end very slightly shortened. Two layers cut out of the upper end as far as E, but still transmit some green. Three BLUE.—Transmits blue, indigo, and violet, and a very little green and red. Ina single int transmissio between E and green nearly. With three or four layers nothing is visible below F. 422 The American Naturalist. [May, The same result is reached if two or even three layers of blue glass are used (see Table II.), although in the last case the blue color is so dark that at a short distance it appears nearly opaque to the eye. It.is, moreover, immaterial whether the four (three) areas constitute the only source of light (the top and other sides being in this case covered with black paper) or the diffused light of the room enter from behind and above; the result remains the same. Red and green glass agree nearly with yellow, the Hydras treating them practically as if they were opaque. (This statement will require some modification hereafter.) The result thus obtained is rendered still more striking if the yellow and blue glasses be interchanged. Within an hour or two the Hydras begin to move out of the yellow light and into the blue, and in a day or two, more or less according to circumstances, the numbers under the blue are far in excess. Thus the Hydras may be driven from one area to another and back again by inter- changing the glasses, as often as may be desired (see Table HI). — For further details the reader is referred to the explanation of the tables and the ‘chart. BF, E ae Mh wo ott gee EA Siw SAES NNA AL The Heliotropism of Hydra. 423 1891.] TABLE 1,—//ydra fusca. AREAS . ca 3 Mla ees E fice ni. IV. Y VE. VIL ViN IX jason OF THE Torns 6 4 es ee ke O a B2 R2 G2 Date. Hour, Weather. Temperature, F. March 9, 10.30 A.M. Bright. 11 17 19 18 9 27 11 25 16 “ 9, 12.30 P.M. s 10 15 18 19 19 17 24 16 22 “ 10, 10.30 A.M. Cloudy. 67° 14 8 21 22 23 10 27 9 33 “10, 4.30 P.M. si 75° 15 7o a 35 4 7 230 72 y "o 11, 9.30 A.M. “ 14 4 23 30 27 9 25 9 32 * 12, 10.30 A.M. Bright. 74° 21 11 15 34 29 14 28 $ 35 “ 13, 10.30 A.M. Cloudy. 26 6 21 41 20 13 33 43 “o ih 1230 P. “a 72° 33 8 25 30 31 7 30 5 46 > REARRANGEMENT OF THE COLORS . > o a ayo +++ S B4 B2 Bı Date. Hour, Weather. Temperature, F. March 15, 9.30 A.M. Cloudy. 70° 21 16 22 21 21 27 18 25 26 u” 56, 3.30PM. Bright. 70° 15 27 15 26 20 30 II 33 26 ‘+ 7642890 A i 62° 17 23 18 22 23 38 15 41 25 “ 417, 10.30 A.M. a 70° 21 25 23 17 27 41 20 47 21 ' « 18, 11.30 A.M. n 68° 13 36 20 22 15 43 14 50 18 « . 38 §.00 PM a 68° 13 39 10 2I 18 45 14 52 21 REARRANGEMENT. OF THE COLORS . p >. sere eb ee as we A G2 R Date, Hour. Weather, Temperature, F. March 19, Noon. Cloudy. 66° 29 7 34 17 39 24 42 “o 19, 3-45 P.M as 35 6 3 26 ak A ee f “ 20, 10,.00A.M. Bright. gar 36 10 31 19 33 27 53 “ 90,° 3.45 P.M. 39 II 35 14 42 21 63 “ 21, 9.45 AM. Foggy. 70° 33 10 4! 13 38 40. Ó% egal! GOO PAL X 66° 35 8 48 17 52 18 64 “ 23, 10,00 A.M. Cloudy. pate 34 14 33 25 35 24 58 424 The American Naturalist. ae EXPLANATION OF TABLE I. The areas marked I.-IX. were vertical parallelograms of equal size (34 by 125 mm.), extending from the bottom to the surface, consecutively placed on the side of a large square aquarium, which was placed at a dis- tance of fourteen feet from a window three feet wide and eight feet high, facing the northeast, so that direct sunlight never fell upon the aquarium. The top of the aquarium was covered, the ends and rear side uncovered, so as to admit the diffused light of the room. Area IX. extended to within nine mm. of one end of the aquarium. I. was nearly in the middle. The Hydras had lived for about two months in the aquarium, and were very large and vigorous, many of them actively budding. Throughout the experiment there was a moderate supply of crustacean food, but the ani- mals nevertheless often descended to the bottom and filled themselves with sediment. The alternate areas II., IV., VI., VIII., were first covered with double layers of colored glass (for the color-test see page 421), as in the table, and these were allowed to remain for five days. The results were as follows: The total number of Hydras increased from 153 to 215,—#. ê., 40 percent. The record of the colored areas (taking the mean of the first two and the last two observations) was: . Yellow ... . . decrease (percent)... .++ 56 Red Ke a m E A Green . 5 eas ae Sa ae ae 7° Hoe So ks eae n ge The record of the light areas was : Ps +++ +. «increase cent.) <0 o tee ie oy ee on, Iert LA eee i “ “ . 89 ooo “ u . 80 Cee “ “ ek eee Thus all of the colors except the blue show a large dec ERT and all of the light areas a large increase. The increase in the blue is more — than double the general rate of increase, but less than that of the two areas, I. and IX. The colors are now rearranged, one layer of blue bees substituted for the green, two layers of blue for the red, three layers ee for the yellow, and four layers of blue for the former two layers of me bet Results, after four days, as follows (taking, as before, the mean a two observations) : sie) = The Heliotropism of Hydra. 425 Total increase 215 to 233,—z.¢., fo per cen Single blue (after green), . . rease (per cent) 692 Double blue (after sr 3 Triple blue (after yellow) " 436 Quadruple blue Sen double blue), PR "a 40 Every light area shows a heavy decrease. The experiment seems to show that under the existing conditions the limit of attractiveness, as determined by intensity, lies between three and four layers of blue glass. On replacing the various blues by red, green, and yellow, as in the table, every colored area shows a heavy decrease, and every light area a large increase. The general result is that, allowing for all variations of weather, tem ture, and irregular movements, Æ. fusca shows a very marked “ preference for blue in comparison either with light of other colors or with white light ; and an equally marked “ praka ” for white light as compared with any color except blue. 426 The American Naturalist. [May, A ee A ` a’ > s = pam] KS e e | BA gi BN F S HN x * e | 6 ae T B x z 2? 5 a l in The above diagram shows in graphic form the same results set forth j Table I. Vertical distances from the base denote the numb peo. horizontal distances to the right of the left-hand vertical line de enote t date (see Table I.) The colors were changed at the vertical double 1891.] The Helotropism of Hydra. 427 The curves show very strikingly, along with the indefinite diurnal fluctua- tions, the immediate fall in the number of Hydras when placed under any color except blue. The curve IV., as compared with that of II., shows that the attractive influence of blue, under the conditions of the experi- ment, ceased when the intensity of the blue was diminished beyond three layers of glass. The comparison of curves II., VI., and VIII. shows a remarkable simi- larity between them, and indicates that, under the conditions of the experi- ments, the actions of red, green, and * yellow”’ did not materially differ. EXPLANATION OF TABLE II. (page 428.) This experiment gives a comparison of blue, yellow, white, and the shadow of an opaque screen (II.), and shows the amount of fluctuation from day to day. The general arrangement is the same as in Table I., the same aquarium, Hydras, position, and areas being used as before, but the areas are increased in number, so as to extend over nearly the whole illu- minated side, area I. being three mm. from one end, and area XVI. nine mm. from the other. The comparison is made between the first and last observations Total increase, = to oe é., 60 op cent. Blue, increas . à a 2387 per cent. Yellow, Pien crys 30 Dark screen, decreas 37 Light (a mean of V., Vi. VIL, increase L et: An inspection of the table shows that although these figures express the broad general result with sufficient accuracy, they are not to be taken to mean more than this, since there is a wide margin of apparently fortuitous variation from day to day. The table shows a marked “pre refer- ence ” for the blue, and a much less marked but still distinct “ preference for ordinary daylight, as compared with the light of diminished intensity ka the opaque screen. The yellow glass acts practically as if it were opa z9 l Sz o So Mite ne ve Se Gt lH a A a 4 TAX ‘AX ‘AIX ‘IIIX‘IIX ‘IX ‘X ‘XI A ‘IA ‘A N 8 | coe wy H—W ATV 1891.] The Heliotropism of Hydra. ` 429 TABLE IIIl.—Aydra viridis. EN E E Il. HE ORE: Wa VEL VIL ARRANGEMENT. . .... G merg y R March 24, 5.30 P.M. I o 6 2 8 2 2 *: 8.30 P.M I I 7 6 5 5 I Mo, 945 AN. o o 14 o o 7 o REARRANGED pe o Y B R March 25, 2.00 P.M o 3 4 5 5 4 o H + 26, 5.00PM ° 5 I 6 6 4 o ©. 20- 5.00 P.M o 7 > 3 6 6 o way, 4.00 P.M o 3 o 4 9 6 2 a 38,4200: 7M o 3 o 5 9 6 2 ; s 29, _ 3.00 P.M. o 3 o 2 I5 4 o REARRANGED ERER E T y R B March 29, 9.45 P.M. o 4 o 9 6 8 2 -g0 9.45 AM. o 4 o 10 I 6 8 " 31, 9.00 A.M. ce) 4 o 12 o 5 9 REARRANGED ole Fas -B B March 31, 12.30 P.M. I I 7 4 6 6 4 Ame. 1... O30 AM. s I II 2 9 4 4 REARRANGED ee SoS i: tee Bı prl 2,1000AM. 5 cw o- 13 6 =e GOP 4 2 7 to F : 7 oe trea. 6 3 3 Ceara 6 5 EXPLANATION OF TABLE III. General conditions of the experiment, as in Tables I., II., but the ani- mals were in a cylindrical aquarium, eight inches in diameter, and the areas were much smaller (colored areas, 20 by 70 mm. ; light areas, 10 by 70 mm.). The middle area (IV.) was turned towards the window. The end areas (L, VII.) would therefore tend to receive any Hydras advancing towards the light around the sides. e results show a complete avoidance of all colors except blue, and a marked “ preference ” for blue as compared with ordinary daylight. The results obtained by the use of colored glasses are con- firmed by tests with the actual spectrum.’ If a spectrum produced by passing a beam of light from an Argand lamp through a prism be thrown upon a group of Hydras, they show a very marked tendency to collect in the lower blue. It is *For this purpose I have used an Argand gas-burner, the light from which was passed ; rgan ; first through a narrow slit, then through a biconvex lens to render the rays approximately Parallel, and finally through a large prism (bisulphide bottle). The spectrum thus ob- ium rul tained was projec za ed in small squares, and at Aa A migi im — the side of a square aquari 430 The American Naturalist. [May, difficult to fix exactly the limit of the attractive rays. As nearly as can be determined they extend over the lower third of the blue end,—i. e., from G nearly to F—and for a short distance into the green. The results of these experiments leave no doubt that, irrespec- tive of intensity; Hydra prefers’ blue light to all other colors and to white light (ordinary daylight). My observations indicate further that, although the blue rays are by far the most efficient, a slight attractive influence is also exercised by the green. Under ordinary circumstances—/. ¢., when diffused daylight is not cut off from behind or above—Hydra appears to be as indifferent to green as to red or to an opaque screen. If, however, the animal be enclosed in an aquarium so arranged as to offer it the choice between green and either red or “ yellow,” a distinct though slight preference is shown for the green, and the animals very gradually accumulate behind it. The green glass used in this experiment shows no trace of blue under the spectroscope. If the choice be offered between red or “ yellow” (the latter = red + yellow + green), no perceptible preference is shown, even if the experiment be continued for weeks. This result is of some interest, for It seems to show that the slight attractive influence of green © nullified by the admixture of red and yellow, just as the attrac- tiveness of blue is diminished by the admixture of the other — colors, as has been shown. ‘ 2 The preference of Hydra for blue as compared with white light is a very remarkable fact; for the animal can never have had any experience of pure blue, but only of white, light, t t» blue plus the other colors of the spectrum. Neither can ti preference for blue glass be due simply and solely to the attractive = influence of the blue rays, for the ordinary daylight ente = the aquarium contains at least as many blue rays 8S her valaenes Arcee {about two feet from the prism) was about the inches ee meats nated n e onto ark terest a hee hy th. g iat i that proceeding from the prism. Eo ?The word “ prefer” is perhaps objectionable as implying an act of gee the part of Hydra. I do not wish to make such an implication, h ' ae word only for the sake of brevity. 1891.] The Heliotropism of Hydra. 431 light after its passage through the blue glass. The conclusion- would seem to be inevitable that the lower rays exercise an injurious or repellant action, and thus tend to produce negative heliotropism, or to counteract the effect of the blue rays. Itis a tempting hypothesis to suppose that the blue rays are most efficient in light of low intensity, and the lower rays most efficient in high,—a view which would explain in the clearest manner the reversal of heliotropism with the change in intensity. Experiment, however, does not sustain this conclusion, but indicates that the animal is wholly indifferent to the lower rays. Hydras supplied only with light that has passed through red or yellow glass do not noticeably move either away from or towards it, but behave as though the glass were opaque. Tested with the actual spectrum, they appear to be quite indifferent to all of the rays except the lower blue and the upper green. I have also tested this question by the comparison of nearly pure blue glass with purple (aqueous solutions of methyl-violet of various intensities), which is a mixture of blue and red. Any repellant action on the part of the red might reasonably be expected to counteract more or less completely the attractiveness of the blue. Experi- ment shows, however, that purple is as attractive as pure blue, —neither more nor less, as far as can be determined. It appears, therefore, to sum up, that although the lower rays are without any perceptible action on Hydra, by themselves or when mixed singly with the upper rays (as in purple), yet they partially counteract the attractiveness of the blue rays when mixed with them as they are in ordinary daylight, and of the green rays when mixed with them so as to form yellow (é. e., white light minus blue). This paradoxical result I am at present unable to understand, but the problem is undoubtedly worthy of the most careful investigation. Why the blue-green rays alone should be operative it is impossible to say. The recent works of Loeb and Groome upon animal heliotropism, -and the earlier work of Sachs, de Bary and others upon plants, show that in all probability the blue rays are the effective ones in all cases of heliotropic action, whatever its Purpose or mode of origin, whether in plants or animals, whether 432 The American Naturalist. [May, guided by differentiated visual organs or not. If this conclusion be well founded, the efficiency of the blue rays must depend upon some fundamental characteristic of protoplasmic action, and the sensibility to the lower rays, as manifested by differentiated visual end-organs in higher forms, has probably been secondarily ; acquired by an extension of the original blue-sensibility. It seems hardly necessary to point out that this conclusion by no means implies that all forms of heliotropic action have the same physiological meaning. It relates solely to the mode of stimulus, not to the purpose of the actions called forth by the | stimulus. Sneezing and winking may both be produced by a sudden visual stimulus, but we do not for this reason conclude that these actions must play the same physiological 7ô/e. To the ultra-violet rays the animals, as far as can be deter- mined, are as indifferent as to the ultra-red. - V.—The last point to be considered relates to the mode in which the stimulus acts,—a question of greater importance than appears at first sight. There seems to be no doubt that blue rays imping- : ing upon Hydra exert a directly attractive influence; for if an | aquarium be supplied with blue light only (entering through a small window) the animals move pretty directly towards it, and : do not simply wander aimlessly about until they reach the blue : by accident. The case is different when a number of the ant- mals, already situated on the illuminated side of a square aqua- rium, are offered the choice between a number of differenty colored slips fastened to that side. a Under these conditions, as has been shown, the animals decrease under the red, yellow, and green glasses, and steadily accumulate under the blue, although no unmixed blue light m aa? pinges upon those individuals not actually behind the blue ga ee The lower rays, however, exert no repellant action in themselves, and we must therefore assume that the animals tend to wander irregularly about until the blue areas are accidentally discovered. : : Observation shows, moreover, that the tendency to wander eee - under every condition of illumination. By marking off thet” of an aquarium into small squares it is easy to follow and sts ‘rately record the individual movements of a group of Hy ene 1891.] The Heliotropism of Hydra. 433 a long time. The results show that even after the animals have thoroughly established themselves in the usual position on the illuminated side they are to some extent continually on the march, and seldom remain in one spot more than a day or two, and the time is usually much less than this.. I cannot make out that the movements are more active under the red, yellow, or green, or in darkness, than in daylight or under blue, though a sudden change, whether of color or of intensity, is apt to stimulate the movements for a time. This latter fact probably explains the comparatively rapid dispersal. of the animals upon the substitution of a neutral color for blue (see tables), which at first sight s seems to point to a direct repellent action. On the whole, the facts seem to warrant the conclusion that Hydra has an innate (automatic ?) tendency to wander, and that light and oxygen_operate not so much by calling forth new move- ments as by the modification of indefinite movements that tend continually t® recur irrespective of external stimuli. If this be so, the case shows an interesting analogy to the movements of plants, many of which (including heliotropism), as Darwin has so strikingly shown, have arisen through the modification by special stimuli of an innate circumnutatory movement. Some of these move- ments in plants, though no doubt unconscious, have an extraor- dinary likeness to purposive, intelligent acts. It would be difficult to say in what lies the superior claim of Hydra to recognition as a conscious, not to say intelligent, being. Bryn Mawr, Pa., April, 1891. 432 The American Naturalist. [May, guided by differentiated visual organs or not. If this conclusion be well founded, the efficiency of the blue rays must depend upon some fundamental characteristic of protoplasmic action, and the sensibility to the lower rays, as manifested by differentiated visual i end-organs in higher forms, has probably been secondarily acquired by an extension of the original blue-sensibility. | It seems hardly necessary to point out that this conclusion by | no means implies that all forms of heliotropic action have the ; same physiological meaning. It relates solely to the mode of stimulus, not to the purpose of the actions called forth by the stimulus. Sneezing and winking may both be produced bya sudden visual stimulus, but we do not for this reason conclude that these actions must play the same physiological vé/e. To the ultra-violet rays the animals, as far as can be deter- mined, are as indifferent as to the ultra-red. - f V.—The last point to be considered relates to the mode in which | the stimulus acts,—a question of greater importance than appes at first sight. There seems to be no doubt that blue rays imping- : ing upon Hydra exert a directly attractive influence; for if an aquarium be supplied with blue light only (entering through a small window) the animals move pretty directly towards it, and : do not simply wander aimlessly about until they reach the blue : by accident. The case is different when a number of the ani- mals, already situated on the illuminated side of a square aqu rium, are offered the choice between a number of differs colored slips fastened to that side. a Under these conditions, as has been shown, the animals decrease under the red, yellow, and green glasses, and steadily accumulate under the blue, although no unmixed blue light = a pinges upon those individuals not actually behind the blue a oe The lower rays, however, exert no repellant action in themselves, and we must therefore assume that the animals tend to wander oe irregularly about until the blue areas are accidentally discat : Observation shows, moreover, that the tendency to wan : under every condition of illumination. By marking off the oe of an aquarium into small squares it is easy to follow „i rately record the individual movements of a group of Hydras 1891.] The Heliotropism of Hydra. 433 a longtime. The results show that even after the animals have thoroughly established themselves in the usual position on the illuminated side they are to some extent continually on the march, and seldom remain in one spot more than a day or two, and the time is usually much less than this.. I cannot make out that the movements are more active under the red, yellow, or green, or in darkness, than in daylight or under blue, though a sudden change, whether of color or of intensity, is apt to stimulate the movements fora time. This latter fact probably explains the comparatively rapid dispersal. of the animals upon the substitution of a neutral color for blue (see tables), which at first sight s seems to point to a direct repellent action. On the whole, the facts seem to warrant the conclusion that Hydra has an innate (automatic ?) tendency to wander, and that light and oxygen operate not so much by calling forth new move- ments as by the modification of indefinite movements that tend continually t® recur irrespective of external stimuli. If this be so, the case shows an interesting analogy to the movements of plants, many of which (including heliotropism), as Darwin has so strikingly shown, have arisen through the modification by special stimuli of an innate circumnutatory movement. Some of these move- ments in plants, though no doubt unconscious, have an extraor- dinary likeness to purposive, intelligent acts. It would be difficult to say in what lies the superior claim of Hydra to i es as a conscious, not to say intelligent, being. Bryn Mawr, Pa., April, I89I. 434 The ‘American Naturalist. [May, REMARKS ON THE REPTILES GENERALLY CALLED DINOSAURIA. ae, BY G. BAUR. HE name Dinosauria was proposed by Prof. Richard Owen (1), in a paper on “ British Fossil Reptiles,” read before the ninth meeting of the British Association, at Birmingham in 1839. In this order were placed the genera Megalosaurus, Hylaeosaurus, and Iguanodon. Already in 1830, however, Hermann v. Meyer (2) had placed Megalosaurus and Iguanodon in a peculiar group of the fossil saurians, with “ Extremitaeten wie bei den schweren Landsaugethieren.” Kaup (3) follows H. v. Meyer, and calls the order containing Iguanodon and Megalosaurus : Rieseneidechsem, Megalosaurier. Owen gave the following characters for the group he had called Dinosauria (/.¢., p. 102, 103): DINOSAURIANS, “This group, which includes at least three well-established — genera of saurians, is characterized by a large sacrum, compe of five anchylosed vertebra of unusual construction, by the height and breadth and outward sculpturing of the neural arch of the dorsal vertebræ, by the two-fold articulation of the ribs to me vertebrz, viz., at the anterior part of the spine by a head and tubercle, and along the rest of the trunk by a tubercle attached to the transverse process only, by broad and sometimes complicated coracoids and long and slender clavicles, whereby crocodilian r characters of the vertebral column are combined with al ee ian type of the pectoral arch; the dental organs also exhibit same transitional or annectent characters in a greater p~ degree. The bones of the extremities are of large proportional size, for saurians; they are provided with large medullary er _ties and with well-developed and unusual processes, ae terminated by metacarpal, metatarsal, and phalangeal bones, ™ 5 with the exception of the ungual phalanges, more or less f 1891] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 435 those of the heavy pachydermal mammals, and attest, with the hollow, long bones, the terrestrial habits of the species. The combination of such characters, some as the sacral ones, altogether peculiar among reptiles, others borrowed, as it were, from groups now distinct from each other, and all manifested by creatures far surpassing in size the largest of existing reptiles, will, it is presumed, be deemed sufficient ground for establishing a dis- tinct tribe or suborder of saurian reptiles, for which I would propose the name of Dinosauria ” (p. 103). A few years later, in 1843, Fitzinger (4) placed Megalosaurus in the family “ Megalosauri,’ among the Loricata; Iguandon we find under the family name “ Therosauri,” among the order Sauri. ‘ In 1845 H. v. Meyer (5) introduced the name Pachypodes for the group he had established in 1830, including Iguanodon, Hylzo- saurus, Megalosaurus, Plateosaurus. Paul Gervais (6) established the families Megalosauridz and Iguanodontide in 1853, without giving definition. In 1866 Owen (7) characterized the Dinosauria thus : “ Cervical and anterior dorsal vertebrae with par- and diapoph- yses, articulating with bifurcated ribs; a few anterior vertebrz, more or less convex in front and cupped behind, the rest with flat or slightly concave articular ends; dorsal vertebrae with a neural platform; sacral vertebra exceeding two in number; body sup- ported on four strong ambulatory unguiculate limbs. Skin in some armed by bony scutes. Teeth confined to upper and lower jaws, implanted in sockets.” He names the genera: Iguanodon, Scelidosaurus, Megalosaurus. In the same year Haeckel (8) and Cope gave the first classifica- tion of the Dinosauria. Haeckel considers the Dinosauria a subclass, which he divides in two orders : “ Erste Ordnung der Dinosaurier : Harpagosauria H.; Carnivore Lindwiirmer. Zweite Ordnung der Dinosaurier: Therosauria H.; Herbivore Lindwürmer.” : Haeckel uses the same name as Fitzinger for the herbivorous forms represented by Iguanodon. 436 The American Naturalist. May, The Harpagosauria are represented by Megalosaurus, Hylæo- saurus, Telorosaurus. Cope’s first note on the classification of the Dinosaurs was published in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1866, p. 317. He distinguishes Orthopoda with the genera Scelidosaurus Ow, — Hylzosaurus Mont., Iguanodon Mont, Hadrosaurus Leidy ; and Goniopoda with the genera Lælaps Cope and Megalosaurus Buckl. : In 1870 Cope (9) characterized these in the following way: ORTHOPODA. “Cope, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1866, 317. Therosauria Haeckel, 1866. Proximal tarsal bones distinct from each other and from the tibia, articulating with a tibia and with a terminal face of a well-developed fibula. The ilium with a massive, nar- rowed, anterior prolongation. Hadrosauride, Iguanodontide, Scelidosauride.” - GONIOPODA COPE. “Proc. Ac. Nat Sci, Phila., 1866, 317. Harpagosauria Haeckel, 1866. Proximal tarsal bones distinct from tibia ; the latter closely embraced by the much-enlarged astragalus, on its inferior and anterior faces, forming an immovable articulation. Astragalus with an extensive anterior articular condyle below, above in con- tact with the fibula, which is much reduced, especially distally : Anterior part of the ilium dilated and plate-like. Lælaps, Poe- cilopleuron, Megalosaurus, Cœlosaurus, and perhaps Bathygnathus and Aublysodon.” ; In the same paper a third group, SYMPHYPODA, İS established, l with the genera Compsognathus and Ornithotarsus and the follow- ing- characters : 2 “ First series of tarsal bones confluent with each other and with the tibia. Fibula distally much reduced. Anterior piit MARE dilated, plate-like.” ` aS Later it was found that Ornithotarsus belonged to the - ~ poda, Compsognathus to the Gonipoda. Huxley (10) gave the first characteristic of the 1869. “The bony exoskeleton is sometimes more Dinosauria = 1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 437 developed than in the Crocodilia, and sometimes absent. The centra of the posterior dorsal vertebræ are flat or slightly con- cave at each end, and they have crocodilian transverse processes and ribs. The centra of the anterior dorsal and of the cervical vertebræ are sometimes concave behind and convex in front (opisthoccelous). There are four or more vertebræ in the sacrum. The pelvis and bones of the hind limb are in many respects very like those of birds. No clavicles have been observed, and the fore limb is sometimes very small in proportion to the hind limb.” One year later Prof: Cope (11) gave the following characters : “Limbs ambulatory or prehensile. Ilium horizontal, support- ing a long sacrum of five or six vertebre, the anterior derived from the lumbar series. The acetabulum thrown forwards, and not complete, but perforate. Ischium long, longitudinal, posterior, _ Supporting the parts, in front of a process. Ribs free, double- headed. Neural arches united’ by suture; chevron bones present.” The next paper is Prof Huxley’s (12) well-known memoir on the classification of the Dinosauria. The order Ornithoscelida is created, with two suborders: “I. Dinosauria, with the cervical vertebrz irii short, and the femur as long as or longer than the tibia. II. The Compsognatha, with the cervical vertebræ relatively . long, and the femur shorter than the tibia.” The Dinosaurs are now characterized fully : | “1. The dorsal vertebrae have amphiccelous or opisthoccelous centra They are provided with capitular and tubercular trans- verse processes, the latter being much the longer. 2. The number of the vertebre which enter into the sacrum does not fall below two, and may be as many as 3. The chevron bones are attached Se ee and their rami are united at their vertebral ends by a bar of bone. 4. The anterior vertebral ribs have distant capitula and tubercula. 5. The skull is modeled upon the lacertilian, not on the cro- Codilian, type. There is a bony sclerotic ring. > 438 The American Naturalist. [May, 6. The teeth are not anchylosed to the jaws, and may be lodged in distinct sockets.. They appear to be present only in the pre- maxille, maxillæ, and dentary portions of the mandible. 7. The scapula is vertically elongated; the coronoid is short, and has a rounded and undivided margin. There is no clavicle. 8. The crest of the ilium is prolonged both in front of and behind the acetabulum, and the part which roofs over the latter cavity forms a wide arch, the inner wall of the acetabulum having been formed by membrane, as in birds. 9. The ischium and pubis are much elongated. 10. The femur has a strong inner trochanter; and there is a crest on the ventral face of the outer condyle, which passes between the tibia and the fibula, as in birds. 11. The tibia is shorter than the femur. The proximal end is produced anteriorly into a strong crest, which is bent outwardly: or towards the fibular side. 12. The astragalus is like that of a bird; and the digits of the pes are terminated by strong and curved ungual phalanges.” The Dinosaurs are divided by Huxley into three families: I. Megalosauride ; Teratosaurus, Palzosaurus, Megalosaurus, Poikilopleuron, Lzlaps, and probably Euskelosaurus. II. Scelidosauride ; Scelidosaurus, Thecodontosaurus, Hylæo- saurus, Polacanthus (?), Acanthopholis. II. Iguanodontide ; Cetiosaurus, Iguanodon, Hypsilophodon, Hadrosaurus, and probably Stenopelyx. With 1877 begin the publications of Prof. O. C. Marsh, based on the extensive collections brought together by his collecto In 1877 a new order of reptiles is named Stegosauria, but 4 characters are given (13). The year following the order Sauropoda of the Din established (14), to contain the very large reptiles, named by os Atlantosaurus, Apatosaurus, Morosaurus, and Diplodocus, i by Cope Camarasaurus, Amphiccelias, etc. The cha i this order are: r SAUROPODA. “1. The fore and hind limbs are nearly equal in size. 2. The carpal and tarsal bones are distinct. A a osauria is 2 = 1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 439 3. The feet are plantigrade, with five toes on each foot. 4. The precaudal vertebræ contain large cavities, apparently pneumatic. ; 5. The neural arches are united to the centra by suture. . 6. The sacral vertebræ do not exceed four, and each supports its transverse process. 7. The chevrons have articular extremities. 8. The pubes unite in front by ventral symphysis. 9. The third trochanter is rudimentary or wanting. 10. The limb bones are without medullary cavities.” Cetiosaurus, a member of this group, had always been con- sidered as one of the Crocodilia, and Owen (15) had placed it in a special group, Opisthoceelia. In this Owen was followed by Haeckel, but not by Huxley, who placed Cetiosaurus among the Iguanodontida. Seeley intro- duced the name Cetiosauria in 1874. Another new order of reptiles was created by Marsh (16), under the name Cceluria, without characters, in 1881. In the same year the first classification of the Dinosauria is given by Marsh (17). The Dinosaurs are considered an order, and divided in five suborders: Sauropoda, Stegosauria, Ornithopoda, Theropoda, Hallopoda, Coeluria. The diagnoses are thus given : Order DrnosauRIA Owen. “1. Suborder Sauropoda (lizard foot). Herbivorous. Feet plantigrade, ungulate; five digits in manus and pes. Pubes united in front by cartilage. No postpubis. Precaudal ver- tebree hollow; limb bones solid. Family, Atlantosauride; genera, Atlantosaurus, Apatosaurus, Brontosaurus, Diplodocus, and Morosaurus. 2. Suborder Stegosauria (plated lizard). Herbivorous. Feet * plantigrade, ungulate; five digits in manus and pes. Pubes free in front. Postpubis present. Vertebre and limb bones solid. Family, Stegosauride ; genus, Stegosaurus. 3- Suborder Ornithopoda (bird foot). Herbivorous. Feet digitigrade; four functional digits in manus and three in pes. 440 The American Naturalst. [May, Pubes free in front. Post pubis present. Vertebræ solid ; limb bones hollow. Family, Camptonotidz ; genera, Camptonotus, Diracodon, Laosaurus, and Nanosaurus. 4. Suborder Theropoda (beast foot). Carnivorous. Feet digitigrade; digits with prehensile claws. Pubes coésified in ; front. Post-pubis present. Vertebræ more or less cavernous; limb bones hollow. Family, Allosauridæ; genera, Allosaurus, Creosaurus, and Labrosaurus. _ 5. Suborder Hallopoda (leaping foot). Carnivorous (?). Feet digitigrade, unguiculate; three digits in pes. Metatarsals much elongated; calcaneum much produced backward. Two vertebre in sacrum. Limb bones hollow. Family, Hallopodide ; genus, Hallopus. DINOSAURIA (?) 6. Suborder Cceluria (hollow tail). Carnivorous (?). Family, Coeluride ; genus, Ccelurus.” The year following, 1882, the Dinosauria are placed in a sub- class, with five orders (18). é a. Sauropoda. 4. Stegosauria. 3. Ornithopoda. 4. Theropoda. 1. Suborder Cæluria. 2, Suborder Compsognatha. 5. Hallopoda. The subclass Dinosauria is characterized in the following words: ; “ Premaxillary bones separate ; upper and lower temporal arches; rami of lower jaw united in front by cartilage only ; no teeth on palate. Neural ‘arches of _vertebrz united to centra by su cervical vertebrze numerous ; sacral vertebrz codssified. Cervical ribs united to the vertebrze by suture or anchylosis ; thoracic m double-headed. Pelvic bones separate from each other, and from sacrum; ilium prolonged in front of acetabulum ; acetabulum ; formed in part by pubis; ischia meet distally on median line. Fore and hind limbs present, the latter ambulatory and large ee than those in front; head of femur at right angles to condyles; | tibia with procnemial crest; fibula complete. First row of wo composed of astragalus and calcaneum only, which together ee a the upper portion of ankle joint.” B After this Cope (19) established the following system, consi d the Dinosaurs an order, with four suborders. : 1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 441 “Feet ungulate; pubis projecting and connected in front; no postpubis. Opisthoceha. Feet ungulate; pubes projecting free in front ; postpubis present. Orthopoda. Feet unguiculate; pubes projecting downwards and coossified distally ; calcaneum not pro- duced. Gontopoda. Feet unguiculate; calcaneum much produced backwards; (?) pelvis. Hallopoda.” In 1884 Marsh (20) again published another classification. He divided the sub-class Dinosauria into four orders and three sub- orders : 1. Order Sauropoda. 2. “ Stegosauria. 3. “Ornithopoda. 4. “ Theropoda: Suborder Cceluria. “ — Compsognatha. “ Ceratosauria. The Hallopoda are now considered an soli of atic not placed within the Dinosaurs. In 1885 Cope (21) placed the Criscia among the Dinosauria, and gave the following character: “Os quadratum immovably articulated, capitular and tubercular rib articulations distinct. Ischium and pubis distinct, the latter directed forwards, back- ` wards, or downwards ; two posterior cranial arches; limbs ambu- latory ; no procoracoid.” In 1887 (22) Baur divided the Dinosauria in three groups: “ A. Carnivorous Dinosaurs, Harpagosauria Haeckel, 1866. I. Goniopoda Cope, 1886 (Theropoda Marsh, 1881). B. Herbivorous Dinosaurs, Therosauria Haeckel, 1866. II. Orthopoda Cope, 1866. 1. Ornithopoda Marsh, 1881. 2. Stegosauria Marsh, 1877. C. Crocodilian-like Dinosaurs, Sauropoda Marsh, 1878. III. Opisthoccelia Owen, 1859.” In the same year Prof. Seeley (23) gave a new classification. 442 The American Naturalist. [May, He reached the result “that the Dinosauria has no existenceas a natural group of animals, but includes two distinct types of animal structure.” These two orders are called Ornithischia and Saurischia. ORNITHISCHIA. “Tn this order the ventral border of the pubic bone is divided so that one limb is directed backward parallel to the ischium, as . among birds, and the other limb is directed forward. Neither of these limbs of the pubis appears to form a median symphysis. a The ilium is prolonged in front of the acetabulum as a more or : less slender processor bar. The vertebræ are solid, and the skele- ton is not pneumatic. The basicranial structure is distinctive differing from that of crocodiles and lizards. The body and limbs are frequently covered with scutes, which many form a com- J plete shield or be reduced so as to be unrecognizable. The digits vary from three to five.” E a SAURISCHIA. “ In this order the pubis is directed forward from its symphysis with the ischium, and no posterior limb of the bone is developed. i Both pubis and ischium appear to meet by a median symphysis, 3 so that the arrangement.and relation of the bones are lacertilian. e The anterior prolongation of the ilium has a vertical expansion. : The vertebre are more or less pneumatic or cavernous, and in the dorsal region the neural arch is commonly elevated. The 2 ` basicranial structure is sub-lacertilian. No armor has been found. The digits vary in number from three to five.” o In 1889 Marsh (24)admits four orders of Dinosauria: Sauropoda, Stegosauria, Ornithopoda, Theropoda ; Ceratosaurus, Hallopus, ae and Compsognathus being placed among the Theropoe oe 4 Cope (25) admits, partially at least, Seeley’s classification, be keeps the order Dinosauria, which he divides in two n coe Saurischia and Orthopoda; the first with the inferior pe o elements directed downwards, the second with the pelvic elements a directed backwards. a Lydekker (26) divides the order Dinosauria in three sub Sauropoda, Theropoda, Ornithopoda. In the Ornithopoda ™ . includes the Stegosauria of Marsh. l : 1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria, 443 In 1889 he keeps this arrangement and divides the suborders in the following families (27): I. Ornithopoda.—Trachodontidz, Iguanodontidz, Scelidosauridz, Stegosauride, Cee ; II. Theropoda.—Anchi gal ide, Compsognathide, Cceluride. III. Sauropoda.—Atlantosauridz, Diplodocidae, Cetiosauridz. In 1890 Prof. Marsh (28) separated the Hallopoda from the Dinosauria with query, and placed them in a special order; at the same time he gave the family Ceratopside, which he had ` established in December, 1888 (Am. Journ. Sci.), the rank of a suborder, with the name Ceratopsia. After this Baur (29) expressed the opinion that Hallopus is nearly related to Compsognathus, and that it is unnatural to place the Ceratopside in a special suborder. In the latest paper on the subject Prof. Marsh (30) has given up the suborder Ceratopsia, considering the Ceratopside a family only. | Prof. Zittel (31) retains the order Dinosauria, which he divides in this way : I. Unterordnung Sauropoda. Families: 1. Cetiosauride. 2. Atlantosauride. 3. Morosauride. 4. Diplodocide. II. Unterordnung Theropoda. Families: 1. Zanclodontide. 2. Megalosauride. 3. Ceratosauride.~ 4. Anchisauride. 5. Coeluride. 6. Compsognathide. 7. Hallopide. III. Unterordnung Orthopoda. A. Stegosauria. Families: I. Scelidosauridz, 2. Stegosauride. - B. Ceratopsia. C. Orni- thopoda. Families: 1. Camptosauridæ. 2. Iguanodontidæ, 3- Hadrosauridæ. 4. Nanosauridæ. 5. Ornithomimidæ. After this review of the general classification of Dinosaurs we see that there are quite a number of different ideas. Leaving the older views aside, we have to-day the following principal Opinions, taking the latest views of the different authors. A. The Dinosauria are a Natural Group—1. -~ Dinosauria form a subclass of reptiles, containing four orders : 2. Stegosauria. 3. Ornithopoda. 4. Theropoda (Marsh, 444 The American Naturalist. ' [May, 2. The Dinosauria form an order of reptiles, containing three suborders: Sauropoda, Ornithopoda, Theropoda (Lydekker); Sauropoda, Orthopoda, Theropoda (Zittel). 3. The Dinosauria form an order of reptiles, containing two suborders : Saurischia, Orthopoda (Cope). B. The Dinosauria are not a Natural Group—The reptiles generally called Dinosauria belong to two distinct orders: Ornithischia and Saurischia (Seeley). ; The first question to decide is, Do the Dinosauria represent a natural group or not? To examine this we will proceed to study a member of each of the three groups, Sauropoda, Orthopoda, and Theropoda, and compare these members among themselves. Of the Orthopoda especially we will take as a type Iguanodon, the structure of which is best known through the different publications of Dollo in the Bull. Musée Royal His. Nat. de Belgique; of the Sauropoda we will take Diplodocus, described by Marsh; and of the Theropoda, Ceratosaurus, also made known by Marsh. We begin with the skull, then treat the vertebræ, the shoulder girdle, the pelvis, the fore and hind limbs, the abdominal ossicles, and the dermal ossification so far as necessary. I. THE SKULL. l /guanodon.—Al\ that I have to say about Iguanodon is based on the careful descriptions of Dollo (32). ; 1. The brain-case is completely ossified; a very strong xÍ sphenoid being present. i 2. The premaxillaries are separate, and there is a strong P? cess extending between the nasals and mandibles, excluding ~ oo maxillaries from the nasal opening. 3- No epipterygoid (columella). Ses 4. The jugals are Pe toa nie process of the maxilares; they are not placed in the same level with the alveolar border, but a considerable distance outside of it. They do pa E theend of the dental series. They are in connection with da lachrymals, postfrontals, quadratojugals, and maxillaries. ; bound the orbits inferiorly, and also somewhat posteriorly- 1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 445 5. The quadratojugals are placed between quadrate and jugal, but do not touch the squamosal. 6. The squamosals do not send down a process to join the quadratoj ugal. ` 7. The quadrate is very elongate, with its lower end directed forwards; there is a well-developed pterygoid process. 8. The mandible has a distinct predentary line. g. The dentary has a greatly developed coronoid process. 10. The externa] nasal openings are limited by the premax- illaries and nasals. 11. The prelachrymal fossz are small, and limited by the maxillaries, prefrontals, and lachrymals. 12. The orbits are limited by the supraorbitals, lachrymals, jugals, and post-fronto-orbitals. Diplodocus——These notes on Diplodocus are based on the figures of Prof. Marsh, which, however, are not quite correct, as I found from the study of the original specimens. 1. The brain-case is completely ossified; a very strong ali- sphenoid being present. 2. The premaxillaries are separate, and there is no process extending between the nasals and maxillaries, excluding the maxillaries from the nasal opening. 3. No epipterygoid (columella). 4. The jugals are placed in the same level with the alveolar border of the maxillaries. They do not reach the end of the dental series. They are in connection with the lachrymals, post- orbitals, quadratojugals, and maxillaries. They bound the orbits only pre-inferiorly. -5. The quadratojugals are placed between the quadrate and maxillary, but do not touch the squamosal. . 6. The squamosals do not send down a process to join the quadratojugals. 7. The quadrate is elongate with its lower end strongly directed forward. There is a very large pterygoid process. _ 8. The mandible has no predentary bone. 9. The dentary is without coronoid process. Am. Nat.—May.—3. 446 The American Naturalist. May, 10. The external nasal openings are limited by the premaxil- laries, maxillaries, and nasals. 11. The prelachrymal fossæ are large, limited by the maxillaries, prefrontals, lachrymojugals. (The suture between jugals ‘and lachrymals seems to be very indistinct.) 12. The orbits are limited by the post-fronto-orbitals, and lachrymojugals. Ceratosaurus——Mostly after Marsh. 1. The brain-case is not ossified in front ; there are no strongly ossified alisphenoids ; this region like Sphenodon. 2. The premaxillaries are separate ; there is no process extend- ing between the nasals and maxillaries, excluding the maxillaries from the nasal opening. 3. An epipterygoid (columella). 4. The jugals are placed in the same level with the alveolar border of the maxillaries, and reach the end of the dental series. They are in connection withthe lachrymals, postorbitals, quadrato- jugals, and maxillary. 5. The quadratojugal is placed between quadrate and jugal, and seems to touch the squamosal. 6. The squamosal sends down a small process to join the quadratojugal. : 3 7. The quadrate is very much like that of Sphenodon, with a foramen between quadratojugal and quadrate, and directed back- wards with its distal end. There is a very large ptery goid process. ; 8. Mandible without predentary bone. _ 9. Dentary without coronoid process. 10. The external nasal openings are limited byt illaries, nasals, and maxillaries. 11. The prelachrymal fossz are large, limited by the prefrontals, lachrymals, jugals, and maxillaries. 12. The orbits are limited by the prefrontals, frontals, ne orbitals, jugals, and lachrymals. 3 | ae By comparing these three forms it is evident that Iguanodon an he premax- post-fronto- stands quite isolated. It shows the peculiar lower jáw, thepeeer a 1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 447 nasal openings from which the maxillaries are excluded,' and the peculiar maxillary with the free posterior dentary end. From the study of the skulls alone it is evident that Iguanodon has to be separated entirely from Diplodocus and Ceratosaurus ; that there is no affinity whatever among these animals, which could permit us to place them in a common group may it be called a subclass or an order of reptiles. è. But I have to say exactly the same in regard to Diplodocus and Ceratosaurus. Diplodocus is of a crocodilian pattern, show- ing a well-developed alisphenoid; Ceratosaurus, however, is typically Rhynchocephalian or Proganosaurian in nearlý every detail, and it is certainly very much more related to these groups than to any other group of the so-called Dinosauria. The study of the skull alone would be sufficient to show that the Dinosauria is an absolutely unnatural group without any right of existence; it shows that the three members, Iguanodon, Diplodocus, and Ceratosaurus belong to three distinct groups of Monocondylia, with very little relation to each other. II. THE VERTEBRÆ. The vertebræ are of the character of the Archosauria, the dorsals having well-developed transverse processes. As is well known from the study of the Testudinata and* Crocodilia, the character of the articular faces of the centra of the vertebrz is of very little value in tracing the phylogenetic relation of groups. _The sacrum, however, shows peculiarities. [guanodon—In Iguanodon the sacral ribs are placed more or | less between the centra of the sacral vertebra. They are united to distinct diapophyses of the neural arches and to the centrum; the diapophysis may extend in some forms (Agathaumas) as far as the end of the sacral rib, but it is never separated from it. In other words, in Iguanodon the ilium is separated by sacral ribs, ‘which are placed between the centra and to which diapophyses of the neural arches are suturally united or coéssified. 1 This condition resembles very much that seen in mammals, in which aparra a process of the premaxillary extending between nasal and maxillary. irds the rey is Area from api n vpe pa the descending branches a eaa nasal. 448 The American Naturalist. [May, Diplodocus—In Diplodocus and its allies the sacral ribs are not intervertebral, but are connected with the centra of the vertebre only, without diapophyses. Ceratosaurus—In Ceratosaurus and its allies the sacral ribs are intervertebral, but entirely free from the well-developed diapophyses, which also support the ilium. The diagrammatic figures show these gelations. We see also that the structure of the sacrum shows greater differencés than we find in a natural group, and also shows that the Dinosauria must be given up. : II. THE SHOULDER GIRDLE. In the shoulder girdle we find, as in all Archosauria, a simple coracajd and an elongate scapula. So far no clavicles have been found, and I think that these elements are absent in Iguanodon and Diplodocus and the allied forms, but I should not be surprised at all if further discoveries would demonstrate the presence of _ clavicle and interclavicle in the megalosauroid forms. IV. THE PELVIS. Iguanodon.—The pubis of Iguanodon and its allies at once distinguishes it from all the other groups. As is well known and now shown without doubt, the ectopubis or pectineal process in this form is exceédingly developed; the entopubis or true pubis being directed backwards This character alone is sufficient to i separate Iguanodon far from Diplodocus and Ceratosayrus. In the highest specialized members of the Iguanodon group— Agathaumas (Triceratops), for instance—the ectopubis is enof mously developed, the entopubis being quite rudimentary. oe Diplodocus—Here we have the pubis directed forwards, and cs pierced by the obturator foramen, all the bones of the pelvis being very massive. a eee Ceratosaurus.—Also in this form the pubes are directed for- wards, but are closely united at the distal two-thirds, appe™ g G like a chevron bone when seen from front; also the ischia n : united at the distal end; the elements of the pelvis being ende se pi It is evident that Diplodocus and Ceratosaurus T other very much more in the structure of the pelvis than they % geet 1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 449 in comparison with Iguanodon. The pelvis of these two forms can be reduced to the type seen in the Rhynchocephalia and Squamata. V. THE FORE AND HIND LIMBS. The structure of the limbs is of very great taxonomic value in a definite animal group of forms; but if we would take the limbs alone to establish a system we would be led to the most absurd results. The order Enaliosauria was established for the Ichthyo- saurs, and Plesiosaurs which are provided with paddles. But this is only a parallelism in structure. The Plesiosauria have no re- lations whatever to the Ichthyosauria. The same we may say in regard to the Dinosauria. The Iguanodon-like forms resemble very much the Megalosaurus-like forms; but there cannot be the. slightest doubt that this resemblance does not mean affinity, but parallelism. ' VI. ABDOMINAL OSSICLES. So-called abdominal ribs were present in the megalosauroid forms, as shown by Deslongchamps. They have not been dis- covered yet in Iguanodon and Diplodocus, and it is impossible to determine with our present knowledge whether they were present or not. VII. DERMAL OSSIFICATIONS. Dermal ossifications are known in the Iguanodon-like forms, especially in the highly developed Stegosaurida and Agathau- midz; they seem to be absent in the Diplodocus and Cera- tosaurus forms. I do not consider such ossifications of great taxonomic value, especially not for ordinal characters. If we now recapitulate, we have found that the structure of the skull and sacrum of Iguanodon, Diplodocus, Ceratosaurus, make it sure that these three animals are in no near relation to each other ; that they doubtless are the representatives of three different groups; that the Dinosauria have to be given up. The question ‘Now comes up, What names shall we apply to the three groups of archosaurian reptiles represented by Iguanodon, Diplodocus, and Ceratosaurus ? 450 The American Naturalist. [May, Iguanodon belongs to the group which has been called Thero- sauri by Fitzinger, 1843; Therosauria by Haeckel, 1866; Ortho- poda by Cope, 1866; Ornithopoda and Stegosauria by Marsh, 1881; Ornithischia by Seeley, 1887. Of all these names that of Therosauri or Therosauria has the priority. But I do not believe that this name will be favored. I think it best to introduce a new significant name for this group of archosaurian reptiles: Lguanodontia,—like Crocodilia, Plesiosauria, Ichthyosauria, Aétho- sauria, etc., the most typical representative of this group being Iguanodon. To this group belong the families, Iguanodontidæ, Hypsilophodontidæ, Hadrosauridæ, Ornithomimidæ (?), Sceli- dosauridæ, Stegosauridæ, Agathaumidæ.? Diplodocus belongs to the group which has been called Opisthoceelia by Owen, 1859; Cetiosauria by Seeley, 1874; Sauropoda by Marsh, 1878. I think it best to use the name Cetiosauria introduced by Seeley, Cetiosaurus being the oldest member of the group, and doubtless synonymous with one and probably more of the American genera. Of this group there is evidence so far of only one family, the Cetiosauride. Ceratosaurus is a member of the group which has been called Megalosauri by Fitzinger, 1843; Harpagosauria by Haeckel, 1866; Goniopoda by Cope, 1866; Theropoda by Marsh, 1881; I propose to use the name Megalosauria for this group. It is the oldest name used, and Megalosaurus is the oldest genus known, and there is no doubt that one or more of the American generte names will prove to be synonyms of it. ee: ; In this group the following families can be distinguished: Zanclodontide, Anchisauride, Megalosauride, Compsognathide, j Ceeluridz.’ ae _ As the result of this paper I may state this: ie 1. The group generally called Dinosauria is an unnatural -r which is composed of three special groups of archosaurian wade etek * Ceratops Marsh is the same as Monoclonius Cope, as I know from actual arer ae the i study types. That Agathaumas Cope is the same as Triceratops Mosh wN we 1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 451 tiles, without any close relation between each other. The Dino- sauria do not exist. ; 2. The so-called Dinosauria contain three groups of rep- tiles, which ought to be called Iguanodontia, Megalosauria, and Cetiosauria. | The distinctive character of these three groups are: IGUANODONTIA. Brain-case compleétely ossified; a well-developed alisphenoid ; no epipterygoid (columella) ; premaxillaries with a posterior outer process extending between nasals and maxillaries, excluding maxillaries from nasal openings; jugals fixed to a special process of the maxillary outside the alveolar border; posterior alveolar end of maxillaries free; not connected with jugals or quadrato- jugals ; quadrate directed forward; mandible with a distinct pre- dentary bone; dentary with greatly developed coronoid process ; sacral vertebrze with ribs and diapophyses united, intervertebral ; pubis consisting of two branches ; the anterior one ectopubis (pec- tineal process, prepubis) greatly developed: the entopubis directed backwards, well developed or rudimentary ; ilium very much extended in front and also behind. CETIOSAURIA. Brain-case completely ossified; a well-developed alisphenoid ; no epipterygoid (columella) ; premaxillaries not excluding maxil- - laries from nasal opening; jugal and quadratojugal forming a continuation of the posterior border of the maxillary in the same plane; quadratojugal in connection with maxillary; quadrate directed forwards; mandible without predentary bone; dentary without coronoid process ; sacral vertebra with ribs only ver- tebral; pubis consisting of one branch, the entopubis only, directed forwards. MEGALOSAURIA. Brain-case ‘not ossified in front; no ossified alisphenoid; an epterygoid (columella); premaxillaries not excluding maxillaries from nasal opening; jugal connected with alveolar end of maxil- _ lary, on the same plane; quadratojugal free from maxillary ; quad- 452 The American Naturalist. [May, rate directed backwards; mandible without predentary bone; dentary without coronoid process; sacral vertebræ with ribs intervertebral; and diapophyses without connections with ribs; pubes directed forwards, and strongly united at the ends. The Iguanodontia appear in the Lias with all characters (Scelidosaurus), and form an absolutely isolated group so far. The nearest relations seems to be with birds rather than with any other groups of the Monocondylia. Whether the peculiar condition of the premaxillaries and the relations of the jugal to the maxillary, which remind us of the arrangement in mammals and some Theromora, indicates affinity to the ancestral forms of these groups, I am unable to say; but the fact that in mammals the pubis is also turned back has to be noticed. The Iguanodontia reach to the Upper Cretaceous, and show in Agathaumas and Diclonius their highest specialization. The Cetiosauria are confined to the Jurassic, Wealden, and Cre- taceous (Cambridge Greensand).* They seem to have their nearest relatives in the Belodontidz. The Crocodilia, with their peculiar pelvic arch, seem to be also related to this group. he Megalosauria extend from the Triassic to the Cretaceous. _ The skull is of the pattern of Paleohatteria of the Proganosauria and the Rhynchocephalia, and it seems very probable to-day that the Megalosauria have developed from the Rhynchocephalia. Protorosaurus seems to be in this line. ~ The earliest reptiles doubtless go back to the Carboniferous, from which formation we do not know a single reptile so far. This is made probable by the existence in the Permian and Lower Triassic of different groups of Reptilia. : likely that birds began to be branched off already in B Lower Triassic, probably from a group which gave also ong” to the Iguanodontia; but to decide this question is not pos- sible to-day. I still believe with Hitchcock that a great no of the tracks in the Connecticut Triassic sandstone afe H*® tracks of true birds, not of any of the Megalosauria ane : to-day. All Megalosauria known have a long tail, and we ONS” aah metatarsals figured by Seéley of a Dinosaur from the Cretaceous Greensand not be distinguished from those of Morosaurus. It is very - A l : y 3 1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 453 to expect ‘to find impressions of a tail, with the impressions pro- duced by the hind limbs, but this we do not. The impressions, therefore, seem to be produced by an animal having a short tail. Some characters of birds remind us of the Megalosauria; but the fact remains that we know hardly anything about the actual ancestors of this branch of the Monocondylia. The birds have a well-ossified alisphenoid, no epipterygoid, and there seems to be little doubt that the avian ancestors of the birds of to-day had already this character; but the ancestors of these must have had the brain-case open in front, no ossified alisphenoids, but an epipterygoid ; and here, again, we reach a form like the Progano- sauria and Rhynchocephalia. Clark University, Worcester, Mass., Feb. 11th, 1891. AUTHORITIES CITED. 1. OWEN, R.—Report on British Fossil Reptiles. Brit. Asso. Rep., Lon- don, 1840, pp. 102, 103. 2+ MEYER, H. v.—Uber fossile Saurier. Isis, 1830, pp. 517-519. Also in his Palaeologica zur Geschichte der Erde und ihrer Geschopfe. Frankfurt, a. M., 1832, p. 201. 3. KAUP, J. J.—Das Thierreich in seinen Hauptformen systematisch qeschrieben. Vol. II., Part 2, p. 18, Darmstadt, 1836. 4. FITZINGER, LEOPOLDUS. Bere Reptilium. Fasciculus Primus: Amblyglossæ. Vindobonæ, 1843, p. 1 i _ 5« MEYER, H. y, —System der eid Saurier. Neues ‘Jahrb. Min., 1845, pp. 278-285. 6. GERVAIS, P.—Observations Psat ap aux reptiles fossiles de la Fr rance, Paris, Compt. Rend., XXXVI., 1853, P- 7- OWEN, R.—On the Anatomy of vad Vol. I., London, pp. 14-18. 8. HAECKEL, Ernst.—Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Berlin, 1866, Bd. H. , p. 136. 9. COPE, E. D.—Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia, Reptilia, and Aves of North Aunérka. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. XIV.. 1870, p- 9°, 99- HuxLey, T. H.—An Introduction to the Classification of Animals. ndon, 1869, pp. 110-111. oe sabe "D .—Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia and Reptilia of North America. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., Phila., 1870, pp- 26-53- 12. HuxLey, T. H.—On the Classification of the Dinosauria, with Obser- Vations on the Dinosauria of the Trias. Q. J. G. S» Vol. XXVI., pp. 32-36. 454 The American Naturalist. [May, 13. Mars, O. C—A New Order of Extinct Reptilia (Stegosauria) from the Jurassic of the Rocky Mountains, Am. Jour. Sct., Vol; XIV., Dec., 1877, P. 513. 14. MARSH, O. C.—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs. Am. Jour. Sci., XVL, Nov., 1878, 15. OWEN, R.—On the Orders of Fossil and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time. ‘Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1859, p. 164. 16. MARSH, O. C.—A New Order of Extinct Toran: Reptiles (Cœluria): Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXI., April, 1881, p. 340: 17. MARSH, o. C.—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs. Part V. Am. p Sct., XXI., May, 1881, p. 423. 18. MARSH, O. assiGcation of the Dinosauria. Am. Jour. Scis Vol. XXIII., January, 1882, pp. 81-86. 19. Cope, E. D.—On the Characters of the Skull in the Hadi Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phil., June, 1883, p. 98. . 20. Marsu, O. C.—On the Classification and Affinities of Dinosaurian Reptiles. Brit. Asso. Rep., 1884, Montreal. London, 1885, pp. 763-766. 21. Cope, E. D.—On the Evolution of the Vertebrate, Progressive and Retrogressive. Am. NAT., March, 1885, pp. 245-247; April, 341 22. BAUR, G.—On the Phylogenetic Arrangement of the Sauropsida. Jour. Morph., Vol. 1., No. 1, Sept., 1 23. SEELEY, H. G.—On the Climification of the Fossil Animals Com- monly Named Dinosauria. Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. XLIII., Nov. 24, 1887, PP: 165-271. 24. MARSH, O. C. —Comparison of the Principal Forms of the Dinosauria of Europe and America. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXVIL., April, 1889, PP- 323-331. 25. Cope, E. D.—Synopsis of the Families of Vertebrata. ne 1889 (published March 12, 1890), p. 849. é . LYDEKKER, R. peaveardd case of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia. eek , London, 1888. 27. LYDEKKER, R., and H. A. NicHotson.—A Manual of Paleontology: Vol. II., 1889. 28. Marsu, O. C,.—Distinctive Characters of the Order Hallopoda. Additional Characters of the Ceratopsidz, with Notice of New Creta: — ceous Dinosaurs. Am. Jour. Sci, XXXIX., May, 1890. See, ` 29. Baur, G.—Am. Nar., June, 1890, p. 569- North 30.. MARSH, O. C uGlosnte Pike or Horned Dinosaurs of Am. NAT. America. Am. Jour. Sci., XLI., p. 167, 1891. 4 Lief, ae | 31. ZITTEL, KARL A.—Handbuch der Palaeontologie. Vol. I, I 32. DoLLo, L—Quatrieme Note sur les Dinosauriens de i ee Bull. Mus. Roy. d’Hist. Nat. de Belgique, Vol. II., 1883, pp- 224-743 IX., X. 1891.] Cup-Stones Near Old Fort Ransom. 455 CUP-STONES NEAR OLD FORT RANSOM, N. D. BY T. H. LEWIS. PPARENTLY the earliest mention of cup-stones, in print, was in 1751, ina historical work on the Province of Branden- burg, by J. C. Bekmann. The author speaks of certain boulders there which have on them apfchensteine, or little-bowl-stones, as he terms them. Next, in 1773, there was found at Lynsfort, in + North Britain, a druidical altar full of “rock basons,” which was pictured in Camden’s Britannia, 1789. From that time on, at intervals, first incidentally, then by purposed search, interesting discoveries were made until, so far as the rings were concerned, almost every country on the earth was represented. As regards the cups, their distribution has not yet proved to be nearly so widespread. Still they have been found in the British Isles, France, Switzerland, Bohemia, Austria, Northern Germany, the Danish Islands, and Sweden; but these are all the European countries known to possess them, apparently, according to the authorities. Flitting now eastward over vast kingdoms we meet with them again in far-off India. Here, in 1867; Mr. Rivett- Carnac found cup-cuttings upon the stones of the cycloliths of Nagpoor, and, shortly after, upon rocks 7 situ of the mountains of Kumaon, where, in one place, he found them to the number of more than two hundred, arranged in groups of apparently parallel rows. In the Kumaon region he also found ring sculp- turing, which very much resembled that which is seen in Europe. Outside of these named countries, and North America to be mentioned further on, the world isa blank as regards cup-cuttings on rocks, so far as our present knowledge goes, or at least to the extent that I have been able to find recorded information of the same, Although met with and described nearly a century and a half ago, as hereinbefore related, it is only within the last forty-five years that incised cups on rocks and stones have been particularly 456 The American Naturalist. [May, written about, either in Europe or in the United States, and specu- lative theories advanced concerning their origin and uses. It was in 1847 that Messrs Squier and Davis, partners in original research in the state of Ohio, brought their operations to a close by the production of the “ Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” the comprehensive work which methodically displayed all that was then known of the antiquities of the great region implied by that geographical expression. In this book (on page 206) there is a description, with wood-cut illustration, of a block of sandstone which had been found in some unnam Ohio mound. The stone weighed between thirty and forty pounds, and showed several circular depressions, evidently artificial, which our authors thought were used as moulds for the purpose of hammering thin plates of copper into small bosses of concavo- convex shape, such as had been often found. This is the proto- type of the cup-stones of the western hemisphere.’ Professor Daniel Wilson, of Toronto, in his “ Prehistoric Man,” (third edition, 1876, Vol. I.), also devotes several pages to the Subject, and gives drawings of two cup-stones found, too, in Ohio. Of the first he speaks thus: “ A cupped sandstone block on the banks of the Ohio, a little below Cincinnati. Others much larger were described to me by Dr. Hill,” etc. The second one he describes as a “ cupped sandstone boulder,” found near Tronos [Ironton] M i8747 The author, in this work, considers that m use of these cups—everywhere, all the world over—was to grind the ends of stone implements, and that where they were accom- panied by concentric circles and other devices the latter were no more than additions of idle fancy. The late Professor Charles Rau, of Washington, D. C., icles however, to be the first writer in the United States to bring ue ward and collate comprehensively in a special treatise the data os relating to cup-stones on this side of the Atlantic, and to treat _| Were the facts concerning the 7eo/o/inga rock, situated sixteen leagues SOT" in the i Mexico, exactly known, it might with propriety take precedence here text of the Squier and Davis stone; for it was discovered in 1805 by who said that on its surface were some circular holes of little depth. dissimilarity of the published representations of it, however, Professor Rat that a proper doubt remai 1, not to be removed until the stone had again been - and reported upon. 1891.] Cup-Stones. Near Old Fort Ransom. 457 their resemblance to those found in the eastern hemisphere. In his “Observations on Cup-Shaped and Other Lapidarian Sculp- tures in the Old World and America” (1881) he? describes a few specimens whose characteristics are undoubted. The best of these are the “incised rock” in Forsyth County, Georgia; the sand- stone block with cup-cavities discovered by Dr. H. H. Hill in Lawrence county, Ohio;* and the sculptures on Bald Friar Rock in the usquehanna River, Cecil county, Maryland. Toward the end of the work Professor Rau gives the various speculations which have been published as to the purpose for which cup-and ring-cuttings were made, but states that after all that has been said concerning their significance in the Old World, he hardly ventures to offer an opinion of his own. Still he thinks that both kinds of sculpture belong to ove primitive system, of which the former seems to be the earlier expression. Turning to America, he considers that here, as yet, the number of discovered cup-stones is by far too small to permit the merest attempt at generalization. The author just referred to has shown in his book that true cup-stones have been found in the United States as far east as Connecticut and as far west as Illinois, but the fact that rocks having such incised work exist also far beyond the Mississippi valley has not yet, apparently, become known to the antiquarian world. It is therefore for the purpose of describing one so located that this paper is written. The rock in question is situated in Ransom county, North Dakota, and, with others, it came under my observation in the middle of last August, at which time full notes were taken, and the pictographs to be described further on carefully copied. Ransom county derives its name from a post of the United States army which was formerly maintained on the west side of the Shyenne River, in that part of its course known as the Great Bend. The top of the bluff on which the ruined fort stands is about two-hundred-and-fifty feet above the river. About one- quarter of a mile to the westward, on the north half of the south- 2 In “ Contributi North American “Ethnology,” Vol. V., Washington, 1882. 3 Thisis th he “ i ist boulder ” already illustrated in Professor. Wilson's “ Prehistoric Man ” (1876). 458 The American Naturalist. [May, west quarter of section II, town 135, range 58, there is a large spring known as the “Fort Springs,” situated in the bottom of a deep ravine, which is about ninety feet below the fort site. It is probably formed by a seepage from “ Big Slough,” which starts about one mile south and extends some fifteen or twenty miles in a southerly direction. The bluff immediately to the west of the ravine rises to the height of about one-hundred-and-sixty feet, and on the top, over a quarter of a mile away in a northwesterly direction, there is a small knoll which was called “ Bear’s-Den Hill” by the Indians. On the steep slope of the bluff, about one hundred yards north of west from the spring and fifty-three feet above it, there is a large light-colored granite boulder, on which there are a number of incised lines, cups, and other figures. The base of the boulder, which is firmly imbedded in the side-hill, is eight-and-a-half feet in length and four-and-a-half feet in width, and on the side next to the spring extends out of the ground about three feet. The top surface on which the carvings occur is irregular in outline, and is seven feet two inches in length, and from two feet six inches to three feet ten inches in width, sloping slightly towards the east. The particular figures seen upon it, and reproduced here in fac-simile as regards their forms, are - explainable somewhat as follows, viz. Fic. 1—Apparently the horns is some animal. Fic. 2—A nondescript. There is a similar’ figure on the quartzite ledge near Little Cottonwood Falls, in Cottonwood county, Minn. Fic. 3—A crescent. This figure is often found along the Mis- sissippi River in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa. Fic. 4—A nondescript animal. Fic. 5.—A peculiar-shaped cross. There is one oii on the face of a cliff a few miles above Stillwater, Minn. Fics. 6, 6.—‘ Pins,” so-called. There are two of the same shape on the quartzite ledge, among other figures, near the “ Maidens,” at Pipestone, Minn. Fics. 7, 7, 7—Three pairs of cups, one set being joined by 4 a ae groove, and the other two by curved gr ooves!" Balvraid, in Inverness- in tore ‘Sir J Qi. at f isolated stone near ed grooves. shire, Scotland, which has five pairs of cups that are joined by straight or . 1891.] Cup-Stones Near Old Fort Ransom. 459 Fics. 8, 8, 8, 8.—Are four long grooves with odd-shaped ends. These grooves are only about one-eighth of an inch in depth, while the ends are from one to one-and-a-half inches in depth. Cups (not numbered).—The cups or circular depressions are from about one-half-inch to nearly two inches in diameter, and one inch to one-quarter of an inch in depth. Some are perfect circles, . while others are oblong in outline. There are thirty-four single cups and twenty-five cups that are connected with or intersected by grooves, making a total of fifty-nine positive cups, without considering the terminals of the four long grooves and others — that are more doubtful. Where grooves intersect the cups an arbitrary line has been drawn on the illustration, in order to separate them and to more fully demonstrate the character of the designs. In every instance where this has been done the cups are well defined, but yet they cannot otherwise be fully shown on a tracing giving only surface outlines. Within a radius of four hundred feet from the spring there are thirteen incised boulders of various sizes and shapes, the one here described being the largest and finest of the group. The pictures, etc., on five of the best ones were copied; the others having only slight grooves and a few cups were not. On the bluffs on both sides of the ravine there are a number of ancient mounds of the mound-building period, one of which is located on the west side immediately above the spring. There are other boulders at various places in the northwest on which these cup-like depressions occur, and they are also occa- sionally found on the face of perpendicular ledges and on the walls of caves, but in nearly every instance there are other incised figures on the same surface. It may be further stated that the cup-cavities as shown at the terminals of Fig. 5 of the illustration Now given are also seen in connection with incised figures on rocks at these other localities referred to. The cup-stones (large boulders or rocks) are not to be con- 9 Pl p “i —* in or etc., Edin- reais 2, of his sie sl Sculpturings upo no si and Sweden. Similar figures also on early British coins prior to iptabolicie’ s time ( -D. 40), and on the French-Keltic coins of moulded bronze. See Plates LIII. and LV. of Waring’s “ Stone Monuments,” etc., London, 1870. 460 The American Naturalist. [May, founded with the smaller stones called “ nut-holders ” or “anvils,” which are from two to twenty inches in diameter, one to four inches in thickness, and which have one or more slight cavities or pits on each face. These cavities average about one inch in diam- eter, and very rarely exceed one-half inch in depth, the average being one-fourth of an inch. These relics are found throughout the west and south along the streams and lakes, and the prairies are no exception to the rule. Still less should cup-stones proper ` > confounded with the large circular excavations in rocks found in various regions which have been used as mortars. Mortars are found in fields. The rocks may be ten inches square and upwards, and the cavities range from six to fifteen inches in diameter and from one to five inches in depth. They are also found on the ` upper surface of ledgesand on the tops of very large boulders. — In one place in this vicinity there are at least twenty-five mortars on two acres of land. While the American cup-stones are similar in nearly every respect to those found in Europe and other portions of the globe, it would be the best policy to study them as an entirely separate class of antiquities, for in all probability there is not even 4 remote connection between the two hemispheres in this respect. After.a thorough comparison has been made and the necessary links have been found, there will then be ample time in which bo bring forward the facts to prove relationship. In the meanwhile, awaiting thorough exploration of the field, all such attempts, though interesting in a literary point of view, may be considered somewhat premature in a scientific one. Since the above was written I have examined a book, just pub- lished, which treats of the same kind of ancient work. It apes: nine or ten years after Rau’s, and, so far as known to me, IS the only general handling of the subject within that period. Its title is “ Archaic Rock Inscriptions; an Account of the Cup and Ring Markings on the Sculptured Stones of the Old and New Worlds. It is of anonymous authorship, but béars the imprint of A. Reader, London, 1891, and is a 12mo of only 99 pages. The wa ee evidently one of the mystical antiquarians who, to speak figura- A tively, have their eyes continually turned to those és fatui the è PLATE Xi. ~ @3¥L2WwID290 6 T ee ae H t , ? + : t a i oo fo {ao #0 a Pry idaho elevated ; l ros ee 43348 T eo pA ae | Ti SaNoNt o Te 6 CUP-STONES. 1891.] Cup-Stones Near Old Fort Ransom. 461 elusive and ever unapproachable ancient faiths—the Tree, Ser- pent, Phallic, Fire, Sun, and Ancestor worships—and delight in the search for analogies concerning them. As regards the cup- and ring-markings, he himself adopts the phallic theory for their origin. His little book, however, admirably fulfills the promise of its title, for it not only includ t that prior writers collected, but gives interesting facts not accessible or not discovered when Pro- fessor Rau wrote. The most striking piece of new information is concerning the cup- and ring-markings on the rocks in the envi- rons of Ilkley, Yorkshire,—a new locality. Here the cups have been counted into the hundreds in all; many of them are con- nected by grooves. As regards America, all that this new author finds—and prob- ably all there is to find—are two articles in the AMERICAN NAT- URALIST. The first one is contained in the number for December, 1884, and is entitled “ Rock Inscriptions in Brazil,” by J. C. Bran- ner. The author does not use the word cups at all, nor do his diagrams show any; he only mentions in his text certain “ points or indentations,” often arranged in parallel vertical lines, and por- trays them in the drawings, where also single circles are shown,— mostly provided with a central point. He found, however, “ mor- tars ” scooped out on the rocks by the river. The other article appears in the number for July, 1885, under the heading of “ Ancient Rock Inscriptions on the Lake of the Woods,” by A. C. Lawson. Neither does this writer mention cups, but his illus-. trations show concentric circles which have the usual central dot, Tupelo, Mississippi, February 11th, IQI. _ Am. Nat.—May.—4. 462 The American Naturaitst. [May, ON THE GROWTH-PERIODICITY OF THE POTATO- TUBER.’ BY CONWAY MACMILLAN. HILE considerable research has been bestowed upon the physiology of bulbs, corms, and tubers, it does not appear that any extended observations have been made upon the method of. growth of such an organ as the potato-tuber. It is a well- known fact that the growth in length of upright stems and other aérial organs is not regular, but exhibits a marked daily perio- dicity, the time of greatest average growth being in most cases not far from six o'clock in the morning. Upon this subject, since the researches of Sachs,? Baranetski,? Pfeffer and others, & number of observations have been made by various investigators. ‘It appears that in most above-ground organs there is a clearly marked diurnal period, unless this period is obliterated by etiola- tion, suffocation, anzesthesia, or some other abnormal condition. We know, too, that besides the daily periodicity there is a grand- period of growth for each organ of the plant ; that some organs reach the grand-period more rapidly or continue in it longer proportionately than other organs or similar organs on the other . plant, or in the same plants under different conditions. The gr owth in length, then, of any organ is not regular, but is to be grap cally represented as a wavy curve, with an ascending portion, @ climactic portion, and a descending portion. In all of the pe e this large curve, the climax of which represents the grand-perio of growth, one must notice the rhythmic pulsations due to a daily growth-periods, and more or less synchronous with the alternating periods of light and darkness, of higher ‘and lower temperature, of less and of greater oxidation. 1 Read before the Minnesota Academy of Science, May 5th, 1891. ? Arbeit. d. Wiirtzb. Institute, 1873. 3 Die tägliche Periodicität d. Langenwachsthums, 1879. t Physiolog. Untersuchungen, 1873. 1891.] The Growth-Periodicity of the Potato-Tuber. 463 Seasonal rhythm in the growth in girth of organs is well known in the ordinary woody stems of Dicotyledons® and Gymnosperms, where the increasing tensions of later months reduce the rate of growth below the rate of the earlier months. This periodicity is a more simple and readily explained form than those forms which have been alluded to above. It is found principally in organs provided with a cambium cylinder and a relatively inextensible bark, and is referred to merely by way of illustration. While the potato-tuber, which is to be considered, has a cambium area, it can scarcely be said to have a cortical area at all analogous to that of the erect tree-trunk, We shall not find the tuber, protected as it is and growing during a single Season, affected by the conditions of alternate freezing and thawing, wind disturbance, stress, flexion, etc., which have so much to do with seasonal periodicity of growth in girth of woody stems. A few months ago the writer was struck with what seemed to be a great dearth of investigations into the manner of growth of tubers, and forthwith gave some attention to devising a method by which the gap in our knowledge of tuber-physiology might be filled in part. After due deliberation a method was formulated and applied, with but imperfect success at first, but as experience became wider the imperfections were gradually remedied. In all of the experiments Mr. C. P. Lommen, student in biology at the University of Minnesota, gave much assistance in setting up appa- ratus, and by one or two helpful suggestions concerning certain technical difficulties which presented themselves in the course of our investigations. The method of research first adopted by us has been described elsewhere somewhat in detail? but upon this method certain important improvements have been made. The apparatus used was the Baranetski self-registering auxanometer, with electric clock attachment, manufactured by Albrecht, of Tiibingen. At first both wheels of the apparatus were not employed, but afterwards it was found that twe wheels could be combined in such a way as to multiply the tracings tenfold, and ‘Pfeffer. Pflanzen-physiologie, IT., 89. *Hartig. Anat. und Phys. der Holzpflanzen, p. 366. "L.c. Botan, Gazette, May, 1891. - 464 The American Naturalist. [ May, in our later experiments the wheel attached to the tuber-thread does not bear the tracing needle, but carries another thread on its large circumference, which runs to the small circumference of the tracing wheel. By this means hourly registrations are obtained instead of three-hour registrations as by the first method. To recapitulate the method as finally developed: A potato- plant, grown in a box from which one end had been removed, was selected and carried to the experimenting room. With due care a tuber was exposed, and under it, resting upon the bottom of the box, a wooden block was placed in such a way that down- ward pressure would not disturb the position of the tuber. The root-stock umbilicus was protected from desiccation or injury during these processes of blocking up. Next a wooden jacket consisting of two squares of cigar-box material, held together by a number of slightly stretched rubber-bands, was fitted over the tuber in such a way that one square of the cigar-box wood clung to the block below and the other piece was parallel, but on the upper side of the tuber. To the center of this upper square a small screw was fixed, and to this screw afine silver wire was tied—since thread was rotted by the soil,—and this wire, after the whole apparatus of block, tuber, and jacket was covered with earth again, came to the surface of the soil under the first wheel of the auxanometer. An inch and a half above the ground a twisted linen thread, which gave better friction on the wheel, was attached to the silver wire, and this twisted thread was over the small circumference of the first wheel and drawn taut by a weight of about forty grams. Passing from the large circumference of the first wheel to the small circumference of the second was a linen thread equally weighted at each end,and over the large circumference of the second wheel was passed a th nail bearing at one end the tracing needle and at the other & a counterpoise. The tracing needle was placed in come K the vertical smoked cylinder of the registering apparatus. | rested upon a clock-work in which a ratchet-wheel was "> — by a lever attached to the clock-work by a spring and Deal” at the opposite end an armature near the poles of a small clee magnet. Connected with the magnet was a two-celled Laf l j | f oe Z 1891. The Growth-Periodicity of the Potato-Taber. 465 battery, but interpolated in the circuit was the electric clock, so adjusted that every hour the circuit was closed for a few seconds. During the closure of the circuit the electro-magnet attracted the armature, overcoming the tension of the spring and releasing one cog of the ratchet-wheel. By this means the vertical cylinder turned about one-sixteenth of an inch with the hands of the watch, and the tracing needle made a horizontal mark upon the smoked paper covering the cylinder. The opening of the circuit as the hands passed by the hour released the armature, allowed the spring to pull back the lever, and stopped the clock-work until the next hour, when a similar horizontal mark was made. During the hours, then, any expansion of the tuber would loosen the string attached to the jacket. Pulling against this the weights would turn the first wheel. This would turn the second wheel, and the indication of growth, one hundred times magnified, but in proper ratio, would appear as vertical tracings upon the smoked cylinder. This brief description of the Baranetski apparatus is given that the exact method of research may be apparent. The first experiments upon the growing tuber, made in accord- ance with the method described in the Botanical Gazette, were Satisfactory in so far that they demonstrated the availability of e Baranetski apparatus for the purpose for which it was employed. In one of the early experiments a trace of periodic growth was distinguished, but it did not seem to be sufficient to justify any confident assertion of periodicity. The first experi- Ment continued two weeks. During this time the needle kept falling ; at the close of the experiment it was about half an inch below its original level. In the second experiment certain drops in the tracings, usually in the early morning, were noticed, but I have since come to believe that not all of these were true growth- tracings, but were due, at least in part, to changes of temperature of the soil, the strings, and the atmosphere, with consequent enings, relaxations, and alterations in the needle-position. Against such accidental and confusing records there was a con- stant necessity of guarding. In general, a conservative statement of conclusions from these experiments with the single wheel is as follows : 466 The American Naturalist. [May, 1. The apparatus as set up indicated growth by cylinder- tracings. 2. A possible indication of periodicity in the growth may have manifested itself. Further than this one could not go under the conditions of the experiment. Desiring to obtain more perfect results, and to solve the question as to the manner of growth of the tuber, the improved method of setting up the apparatus was developed as described above, and the first experiment gave some interesting results. The method of culture in water employed by De Vries® in the study of roots was contemplated, but rejected on account of certain practical difficulties. The experiment began with a tuber about 34-inch in diameter. ~ At this time the full-sized top of the plant had begun to perish from the effects of mildew. After attachment the registering needle gave two or three sharp drops, owing to the stretching of strings and general getting into equilibrium of the apparatus. After this stage was passed the needle began dropping very gradually. This slow descent was continued from eight o'clock in the evening until about eight o’clock in the morning. At this time the drop ceased, and horizontal tracings continued until about 1.30 P.M., when a short, abrupt hour’s drop was registered, fol- lowed by a longer one, then by one shorter than the second but longer than the first, next by one longer than any, closely succeeded by another long one. After this the registrations were short, and the regular, gradual fall until 8 a.m. began. Here again the horizontal mark began and continued until 2 P. M., when a second drop began, on a somewhat smaller scale than the ie registered the first day. The total extent of the second day's maximum, between 2 P. m. and 8 P. m., was about one-half of the first day’s maximum. The third day the same tracings COM- tinued at the same hours,—only the tracings of the maximum were very much reduced, so as to be not more than onesie the total length of the second day’s tracings. The fourth day’ | tracings were like those of the second day in almost ev: ery par 3 Landwirthschaftliches Jahrbuch, 1880, Bd. IX., p. 37. 1891.] The Growth-Periodicity of the Potato-Tuber. 467 ticular, and those of the fifth day likewise, except that the latter showed a less maximum growth. The sixth day was péculiar, During this day no appreciable drop in the tracings was detected. The explanation of this cessation is not offered. It may be said, however, that the death of the top was now about complete, so far as the leaves and the secondary branches were concerned. Only in the lower part of the main stem was living green tissue to be found. During the whole twenty-four hours of the sixth day, then, no divergence of the tracings from the horizontal was observed ; but during the succeeding twelve hours a slight drop began. At 7 o'clock a.m. of the seventh day a decided drop began, continuing until 11 a.m. There then succeeded a period of gradual dropping, which disappeared about 3 P. M. Another drop took place in the evening from 6 tog p.m. The eighth day began with a drop at 7 A. M., continuing until 11 A. M., when three hours of horizontal marks followed. At 2 P.M.a five-hour drop began, and continued as a gradual depression until IO P.M. At 7 A.M. again another abrupt drop was registered, terminating at 11.30 A.M. At 3 P.M. a gradual, slight drop, last- ing until 8 P. m., ensued. During four succeeding days the same thythm continued, only the drops became slighter and slighter, Finally, on the fifteenth day the needle ceased to trace. The explanation of these very curious maxima and minima in the growth of the tuber isa complicated matter. -It can be given as yet only conjecturally. Before passing to any such conjectures it may be well to give in their order the conclusions arrived at from the line of research described above : - 1. The increase in diameter of the potato-tuber is not regu- lar, but is rhythmic. 2. Maxima of growth may occur either once or twice, and perhaps oftener, during twenty-four hours. 3- Maxima of growth are not of long duration, and are fol- lowed by periods of slower growth, or of entire cessation of 4. The maxima of some days are greater absolute maxima than those of other days. This indicates a grand-period for the tuber. 7 : 468 The American Naturalist. [May, 5. Regular periodicity in the tuber continues after the perio- dicity*of the aérial stem is suspended. 6. Connected with profound changes of condition in the _ aérial stem changes in the periodicity of the tuber may be noted. 7. There is some connection between the periodic growth of the tuber and the periodic growth of the aérial stem. What this connection is does not appear. 8. There is also, it is probable, an independent periodicity in the growth of the potato-tuber which is obscured and modified by the secondary induced periodicity, which is related to conditions of the aérial stem and its mode of growth. Passing now to conjectural explanations of the observed peri- odic growth of the potato-tuber, it may be affirmed that very little can be expected at this stage of the investigations. Whether like embryonic shoots of Hedera, with their heliotropic irritability, the potato-tuber retains, somehow, in hereditary fashion, its above- ground periodicity, and thus gives hint of the time when its pre- cursors were exposed to rhythmic alternation of light and dark- ness, is entirely an open question. On the other hand, it is equally uncertain whether the induced periodicity is due to one or many causes. Some lines of attack are indicated below, and it is hoped that they may be followed to their rational gonclusion. ; 1. The rhythm of assimilation in the above-ground stem ud affect the growth of the below-ground tuber. The synthesis of carbohydrates is a diurnal affair. From these carbohydrates the substance of the tuber is formed. Thus the rhythm above might induce a rhythm below. 2. The conversion of plastic into reserve materials is character- istic of an organ like the tuber. This conversion depends upo? the activity of certain ferments which are results of destructive — and constructive metabolic changes in the shoot area. Tien metabolic changes are consequent upon the respiration function, and this is a rhythmic function. sod 3- The growth of the above-ground stem is strongly pent and demands, in any plant, the same kind of material which w be supplied to a growing tuber. This drain upon the piei rial in one direction might induce a corresponding dearth + 1891.] The Growth-Periodicity of the Potato-Tuber. 469 another, so that the periodic growth of the above-ground stem might induce a periodic growth in the below-ground tuber. 4. The asynchronous grand-periods of growth of the different above-ground organs might be reflected in an irregular and erratic periodicity in the below-ground tuber. 5. Combinations of these various conditions, and : a modifica- tion of them all by the independent rhythm of the tuber itself, would have to be considered, and only by the most elaborate and extended researches could the proximate causes for the observed tuber-periodicity be detected. In closing this contribution to the physiology of tubers, one word may be added by way of note. It is possible, as may be shown, to apply auxanometer methods to root stocks by uncover- ing the root stock, attaching a silver thread, running it horizon- tally to the open side of the box, passing under a horizontal roller and upward, and finally adding the linen or silken thread which runs on the small circumference of the first wheel. Or, in this case, doubtless one wheel alone could be employed. Such study of underground stems, as in the grass root stock, the potato rhiz- ome, or any other underground stem, would scarcely fail to throw some light upon the method of growth of the tuber. A compari- son of underground organs should be made along this line. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, May rst, 1891. 470 The American Naturalist. " [Maş, EDITORIAL. EDITORS, E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. r these pages nearly four years ago (AMERICAN NATURALIST, XXI., p.549) we made an appeal for some properly qualified person to write a “Complete Unnatural History.” The neces- sary conditions of mind were stated at some length. There must be an instinctive ability to unerringly discriminate between the false and the true, and to invariably appropriate the former; a capacity to trace results from no adequate cause ; and a firm con- viction that all the so-called leaders of science were totally wrong, while the author is infallible. Although we have not returned to the subject in the interval, the editors of the Narurauist have been constantly on the look- out for the proper person. Numerous claims have been investi- — gated, for many pretenders have arisen. It is useless to enumer- ate them all, for until this present year of grace, 1891, nota single candidate has been proposed who had the necessary grasp of sub- ject, the proper disregard of cause and effect, and the all-impor- tant wealth of imagination. The Ohio minister who preached those celebrated sermons on the Creation in which petroleum was regarded as “ strong-smelling grease,” fried out from the decom- _ posing bodies of antediluvian reptiles; the man who claimed that the Great Lakes are drained by an underground channel into the Mississippi River ; the Buffalo doctor who maintained that bacteria are decomposing fibrin; the crowd of “ pyramidologists,’—all were soon dismissed in short order. We debated longer in the case of a callow youth whom we found studying the relations existing between the abundance of birds and meteorological conditions— not because of any capacity shown in choice of a subject, but from the methods of thought revealed by a glance at his note- book. A sample will suffice: “ June 23d, 9 a. M. Saw two er Sky clear. Wind S. W. June 2 3d, 9.23. Three loons on wae distant half mile. Sky clear. Wind S.S. W. June 234, 9-37- Wir son’s tern flying overhead towards west. Sky clear. Wind a little A 2. ae pe SE a H 1891 ] Editorial. 471 stronger.” And so on page after page. Imagination is here clearly lacking, and the promising youth was therefore turned over to the tender mercies of Dr. Chadbourne’s Society for the Suppression of Useless Knowledge. Now we believe that we have obtained the long-sought author. The essay which forms the basis of this opinion was published in January, 1890, in Vol. III. of Zhe Literary Light, published by C. D. Raymer, 243 Fourth Avenue, S., Minneapolis, Minn. The essay is entitled “ The Origin of Life and Species, And Theory by Which all Phases of Life, and Phenomena in Connection with Such, can be Readily Explained.” Would we had the space to reproduce the whole essay ! Excerpts must for the present answer, for doubtless this brochure will be embodied in the long-looked- for Unnatural History. “ An organism is a creature of environment, and has, like all things, obtained its life and all that belongs to it, and sequently all the possibilities of its future, during its incipiency by heredity. Whatever evolved properties and principles an environment may contain, generation rarely leaves any out. The future growth determines where and what from they were produced. Sequently they are species.” “ A reproduction, like all things, is composed of ponderables and imponderables. It is an organism with life attached, or com- posed of an aggregation of lives... . I have yet to learn that ponderables alone exhibit any activity whatever. They are invariably produced by, through, and are an organism.” “ Generation is not a substance. It is a word to express the workings of the activities of a thing, a substance or a combina- tion of substances by which phenomena are exhibited or produced. ..... It being the agent in all reproduction, performing the functions of the activities of a combination or an environment of material, containing definite substances, in first producing organ- ized nuclei out of that material through the positive energies, usu- ally in vast numbers. . . . They are called in the animal king- dom when fully developed, ‘ episoids’ or ‘ zooids’ ; in the vegetable, “pollen grains’ or pollen.” 472 The American Naturalist. [May, “When we are first able to perceive nuclei with the most perfect lens yet constructed, we find them to be mere specks. By close observation we are able to perceive that the albuminoid substance is consumed, and that the nuclei grow, and in a short time are developed living organisms, just ready to emerge from the first stage of their existence.” “ Bacilli by generation are a product of the properties of the products of the earth, where they first originate. Properties of the earth’s products are a substance that we can usually taste.” “Intelligence is an imponderable substance, grown and pro- duced by the animal kingdom, and as it and bacteria are products of products of the earth, they may be called kingdoms of growth. Human intelligence is a product produced by the animal man, the seat of which is located by phrenologists in his brain, in no less than thirty-five sections, and like all organisms in nature, may be classed into genera, species, and varieties.” “Should any error of fact or otherwise occur in my explana-. tions, or should any phenomena in nature appear that no place can be found in my hypothesis, or a desire for further explanation on the subject, I would like to be informed of the fact, and what it is. Ifa fallacy, wherein does it lay—GerorGE Davis; address, 2613 First Ave. S., Minneapolis, Minn.” ~ Wecan assure a long-waiting world that if Mr. Davis attempts the Unnatural History the result will be a complete success. —TuE commission selected to examine and report on suitable locations for national reservations of land for the purpose 0 creating public parks has donea good work. They have selected about one hundred ‘tracts from all parts of the country, whi will be recommended to Congress for adoption. To the Yellow- stone, the Yosemite, and the Sequoia Parks will be added z5 or more from nearly every state and territory of the Union. This is a measure which the scientific sentiment of the country ‚will universally sustain. The preservation of tracts of forest, if only of limited extent, is highly important ; and the preservation of game commends itself to everybody. Reasonable hunters are rare, and a good many men consider themselves sportsmen who 1891.] Editorial. 473 do not deserve the name. Without game reservations like the national parks, the large game of this continent will soon become extinct. . What we need further is an efficient forestry organization which shall prevent or suppress the forest fires which annually desolate our country. As our state organizations have shown themselves incompetent to deal with the question, the national government should take hold of it. It is to be hoped that the Forestry Commission of the Agricultural Department will be empowered to do so. Not only should the forest fires be suppressed, but their authors should be punished, whether the former are, as in some instances, at least, of incendiary origin or not. Railroad companies should be compelled to place spark catchers or ex- tinguishers on their engines, under heavy penalties for non-com- pliance. Some action must be taken in the matter immediately, especially as we are now receiving the scum of Europe, whose carelessness of all matters of public economy is well known. We cannot afford to have our mountain regions converted into bare rocks, as most of the regions inhabited by the earlier civilizations of Europe now are. First the forests disappear, and then the soil . from the mountain sides. Fire is a great friend of man, but in the hands of an unwatched European peasantry it is an evil great enough to render the punishment inflicted on Prometheus a whole- some warning to all who misuse this one of the greatest of nature’s benefits. 474 The American Naturalist. [May, RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. T, C. C—Annual meso of the Museum of Am. Archzology of University of sae va I., No. 1, 1 From the author. Annual Report of the Cornell University Agri. Exp . Station, 1890. Annual Report (Third) of the Marine Biological Lab oratory, 1890. nual Report of the Curator of the Museum of Cdiapiitative Zoology at Harvard An T pà A A Noles on nagar of Mammals made in Central and Southern PRE by Dr. Audley C. r, with Descriptions of New Species of the Genera Ves- pertilio, Sciurus, paces of Mammals collected by Mr. Streator in and British Columbia, with Descriptions of two New Sub-species of Sciurus.—Notes on a Small Collection of West Indian Bats, with Descriptions of an separ New Species. —Description of a New Species and a New Sub- -species of the Genus Lepus.’ Exts. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat, Hist., Vol. III. From the author. ad , R. C—The Wild Cattle of Great Britain. From the author ERS, HOWARD.—Concerning Vertebrate Coptalogetelies: Reprint from foul Perg Vol. IV., No. 2. From the author tide ALICE.—Studies in Evolution and Biology. From the author - G—Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs. Vierter Band, Vermes, 15-16 trang Fiinfter Band, Arthropoda, 28 Lieferung; Sechster Band, Reptilien, 69 Li , MONTAGUE,— — of a Genus of Fossil Fishes—Dapedius. Ext, pase Leese Literary and Philos. Soc., Oct., tg: CHAPMAN, F. M.—On a Collection of Birds made e by Mr. Clark P. Streator in = British Columbia with — soon by the Collector. Ext. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. IIT. From yang FRANCESCO nore Malacologiche circa la Nassa semistriata € N. costulata del Brocchi. Dawso hes Vis anus an Educator.—The — Group of Logan. Reprints Canadian eee of Science, July, 1890. From the a Ducés, A.—Aparato Venenoso del Sam mses Bean). From the author. DEWA LQUE, G.—Queiques observations au sujet de la Note de M. E. Dupont sur Le Pondingue de Wéris. From the apo i FELIX, JOHANNES. Erehags t aves der Gattung Protosphyraena ae Besonderer Abdruck = der Zech der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft, XLII., 1890. From Geological ei ty Minois, Vol. VIII. Geology by A. H. Worthen ; Paleon Chace Worthen, C. Wachmuth, F. Springer, E. O. Ulrich, and O. Everett. Edited by J GILL, THEODORE. —The Osteological Characteristics of the Families Ranicipitidæ, dnote Angu re Murzenidz, Murzenesocidz, Simenchlyide, and Syna- Phobran: Exts. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIII. From the author die i Hance. ERNST ot Ponito Sandton. Vergleichende Untersuchunges sc g und Zusammensetzung der Pelagischen Fauna und Flora. From capes HEGELER, hag C.—A Protest against the Legal and Moral Doctrine of the S : of Illinoi Ia, yao .—The Geology and Paleontology of the Cretac of Mexico, Ext, t. Proc. Phila, Acad. Nat. Sciences, Dec., 1890. From the paee 1891.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 475 LERCH, O.—Remarks on the Geology of the Concho Country, Texas. Ext. Am. Geol., A 1891. From the author, LINTNER, J. A.—First, Second, and Sixth PER Reports on the Injurious and other eee o the State of New York. From the or. : MERRIAM, C. 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PACKARD. te een ets Century deasa partly for he re HEAD OFiLEAF-NOSED BAT, pedia, and also for its most excellent definitions of pre = (Phyllorhina tridens). terms and admirable illustrations. I consider it as indispens- From Tue Century DICTIONARY.. able both to the working and caching scientist. The Century Diction S a reference-book for men who cannot afford a great library, but who need some work to which they can refer for a definition of a common word or for a scientific or technical term, which can be depended upon to be at once full and accurate, THE CENTURY DICTIONARY is above every other. It is not only a complete word Dictionary, but it is an encyclopedia of common things as well. 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Our 100-page illustrated catalogue indexes every variety, gives valuable scientific papers, etc. Price, 15c., or handsomely boun ’ 25,000 miles of travel by members of our firm are planned for the su _ of '91, exclusively for the purpose of securing minerals. WRITE TO US FOR WHATEVER YOU WANT. Geo. as „ English & Co. 733 AND a INERALOGISTS. gee have been prepared by the publishers, ands w n prape paid, on receipt of price, 50 cents pa vol MERICAN NATURALIS A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. JUNE, 1891. CONTENTS- E. metro ie oe ra of the Cretaceous Fo Surface Geology of 4 ; Wapanine ¢ CELLS IN ANIMAL BODIES k HUustrated], J. L: Kellogg, 51% RECENT va Row IN New — - [Hlustrated], . Ralph S. Tarr, OF THE OEE o THE a k M. Chapman cms Cutaseybornonvs, . Daniel D. Slade, OF Maini foao [Continued], J- S- Ki "gsi, Scientific [nvestigators. aK ONE of the greatest needs of American science the present time is a convenient medium in which ae notices of u results of investigation ies aes THE AMERICAN NATURALIST VoL. XXV. JUNE, 1891. 294. WANDERING CELLS IN ANIMAL BODIES. BY J. L. KELLOGG. 1e some of the surface sediment ofa quiet fresh-water pond be examined under the microscope, one would very likely find a curious, colorless organism, containing a number of granules, and perhaps now and then a microscopic plant. A little observation will show this animal—for such it is—to be merely a mass of pro- toplasm which possesses the power of changing its shape by the protrusion of any part of its body in irregular branches, or thin, fine filaments. By means of these, it is able to move very slowly from place to place, forcing its way between particles of dirt which surround it, and also to take in solid food. This latter process is accomplished by a covering over or flowing about a piece of food by the thin, jelly-like body. When the food is thus covered over, the fluid protoplasm of the animal, which is called an amæba, is seen to possess the power of truly digesting the food which it holds. This process, taking place in a single unspe- cialized or undifferentiated cell, is called intracellular digestion. The ameeba is, in its structure, a single cell, comparable to any one of the myriads of cells that go to make up the body of one of the higher animals. These cells may lose, in a higher organ- ism, the simple amceboid form, and assume complex shapes and functions in different parts of the body; generally ‘losing, also, the power of movement. Many, however, retain the power of moving under proper stimuli,—as, for example, the cells that go 512 The American Naturalist. [June, to make up muscular tissue, where their united contraction causes movements of organs of which they may forma part. This movement is, of course, not voluntary with the cell; but there are certain cells, even in the bodies of the most highly differentiated animals, which still possess this power of acting voluntarily without external stimuli. If a drop of blood be taken from the body of any of the ver- tebrated animals, with one or two exceptions, and the microscope again called into use, its fluid part will be seen to be filled with motionless, pale-yellow discs. Among these red blood corpuscles will be seen, here and there, transparent bodies, larger or smaller than these, as the case may be, which we recognize by their slow movement as amceboid cells. These are the white corpuscles of the blood. In lymphoid tissue, such as that of the spleen, and small lymph nodules occurring in different parts of the body, larger amceboid cells of the same nature are collected in great masses, which are richly supplied from the general vascular system. Though these amceboid cells in the blood are called white cor- puscles, and in the lymph glands lymph corpuscles, and so on, they are all included in the general term “leucocytes.” Their func- tions in these different tissues will be more readily understood if we first examine cells of the same nature in some of the lower forms of animal life; for in these their habits and relations to the bodies of which they are a part are more easily observed and classified. The student of biology will recognize a distinct morphological bearing in the observations about to be recorded concerning these wandering cells. Our knowledge of them has come mainly | through a study of the embryonic development of lower animals, and foremost among investigators of this subject must be placed the name of the great Russian morphologist, Metschnikoff. It was he who first noticed their similarity of function in the whole animal series, and he formulated his great mass of observations in. what is called his phagocyte theory. Almost all the examples to be given here are the results of his researches. On account of their very great interest to all classes, these observations are very widely known, and we may briefly consider a few of them. In so doing, also, we will be better able to comprehend the important 1891.] Wandering Cells in Animal Bodies. 513 functions supposed to be possessed by amceboid cells in higher animals. In the embryo of Echinoderms, such as the starfish, there is a stage in which the organism consists of a single layer of cells in the form of a sphere, called a blastosphere or blastula, and its interior is filled with a jelly-like mass. Certain of these cells in the layer work out from between their neighbors by ameeboid movement, and come to lie free in this jelly (Fig. 1), where they move about. This is a fact of morphological interest, as these cells eventually form one of the primary layers—the germ- layers—of the embryo, which, by a definite development, form cer- tain organs of the adult. As the starfish blastula becomes older, it reaches a stage in which certain of its tissues break down, and these are not to pass into the body of the adult animal. Metschnikoff has observed that broken-down particles were taken up by the moving cells, as the Amceba takes , its food, and also found that they Fig.1 were digested by the cells. Now Ue ok ae teen these particles, if allowed to re- to swim by means of cilia, showing amoe- main, would have been injurious °° °S- to the animal, so their assimilation by the amceboid cells was of great use to the individual. It was because of this peculiar function that the wandering cells were called phagocytes, or eating cells, and they are very generally known by this term. In order to establish a theory, now generally accepted, of the descent of the Metazoa, or many-celled animals, from the Protozoa, or single-celled forms, Metschnikoff sought for and proved the existence of this intracellular digestion in certain amceboid cells of sponges. Following out these facts, obtained in purely morpho- logical research, he was enabled to lay the foundation for certain views which are of the utmost practical interest, as we shall see, 514 The American Naturalist ` [June, even in such an apparently remote field as that concerning many diseases of the human race. In a tadpole, whose legs have commenced to grow, preparatory to assuming the adult condition, the tail begins to wither and dis- appear; and in this organ, Metschnikoff made another interesting and well-known discovery. The tissues were now of no further use to the organism, and he found that the leucocytes had attacked them, and were gradually eating them away. He often found unmistakable pieces of nerve and muscle-tissue inside their bodies, which were evidently undergoing a process of obliteration by digestion. In the pupa stage of insect metamorphosis the inter- nal organs are disintegrated, and here again the phagocytes attack the useless tissues and eat them. Certain strong, well-nourished cells, however, remain unharmed, and from these the organs of the adult are built up. Such an occurrence as this appears to be rather remarkable, and the question at once arises as to why these phagocytes should destroy one tissue, and apparently leave another unin- jured. Metschnikoff has conclusively shown that these wander- ing cells exert an undoubted choice in the selection of their food, and that they prefer dead to living tissue. His method of proving this fact was as follows. Taking some sea-urchin’s eggs, and kill- ing them by boiling, he carefully injected them under the skin of a nudibranch—one of the Gastropods,—and found that they were immediately surrounded by amceboid cells, and eaten by them in the usual manner. The same experiment was again tried, but this time the injected eggs were not killed. The result ‘was that they not only remained unharmed, but, on the introduc- tion of spermatozoa among them, they were fertilized, and com- menced to develop. In such an experiment as this, it is noticeable that when a foreign body is introduced into an animal through an injured region of the skin, the leucocytes already in the vicinity are not the only ones which are ready to attack the invading particles. Very soon their fellows appear, having come from distant tissues, and take part in the fray; and not only do they attack organic substances, which by digestion would be assimilated, but also 1891.] Wandering Cells in Animal Bodies. 515 inorganic particles, which they cover by their protoplasm, and retain, so that they cannot do harm to the animal. I have been told that in men whose arms have been extensively tattooed with India ink, the small lymph nodules in the axilla are some- times very deeply pigmented. As has been said, these nodules are made up principally of amoeboid lymph leucocytes, and when the lymph, carrying particles of ink, passes through them, the phagocytes pick up the pigment granules and retain them. Again, it has recently been stated that if a bit of sponge be inserted under the skin of any of the mammals it will in a few days entirely disappear ; and if, before this occurs, it be taken out and examined, it will be found to be full of phagocytes which are destroying it. i Osler, in a recent address on the subject, says that in the sputum of smokers there appear cells from the alveolar epithe- lium of the lungs, which are evidently amæboid, carrying parti- cles of carbon. The same is said to be the case with miners who inhale coal-dust, and that these carbon-laden cells may continue to appear for months after a man has ceased to expose himself to the dust. It need not be said that such unusual work put upon the lungs might lead to serious results. In the process of digestion in mammals, fats are emulsified, or broken into small particles in the intestine, and are transferred bodily through its wall into lymph vessels. In this it differs from the transfer of a dissolved salt through a membrane by dialysis, and the numerous leucocytes in the intestinal wall are known to carry the fat particles through the lining epithelium into the lymph capillaries beneath, where they disintegrate and liberate their load. It is not definitely understood how the fat particles are taken in, but it is supposed that the phagocytes push out processes or pseudopodia to the surface of the ers epithelium cells, and then surround them, and draw them inward. There seems to be a tendency to divide the functions of leuco- cytes into those which are normal, and abnormal. For example, in the last instance mentioned, the work done by amoeboid cells is said to a natural or normal one, and it undoubtedly is m On the other hand, the attack made upon the bit of sponge intro- 516 The American Naturalist. [June, duced beneath the skin would by some be called an abnormal function performed by the wandering cells. It would seem, how- ever, that a tissue so constructed as to be able to adapt itself to conditions caused by some unforeseen accident would employ an entirely normal function in adapting itself to new circumstances. An irritating particle may be placed between the shell and mantle of an oyster, and very soon the cells of the latter secrete a hard covering of pearl over the foreign object. The secretion would not have taken place had it not been for this accident, and yet we regard the process as an entirely normal one. In the case of the collecting of dust particles in the alveoli of the lungs, some may call it a natural function, while others may have a different opinion. The leucocytes in animal bodies, though they may differ from one another in some respects, are essentially alike in function as far as is known, and anything that they are called upon to do, and are able to perform, may be regarded as normal. One more fact concerning the action caused by the introduc- tion of foreign, inorganic bodies is that, if the substance be too large, the leucocytes often unite with one another and cover the object. They make a fixed covering of what is called fibrous tissue, and the process is known as encystment. Sometimes, however, great numbers of leucocytes may die in the attempt to dispose of foreign particles, and their disintegrated bodies form a substance called pus. The sore resulting from this is an — abscess. We shall now see that these leucocytes have a far more inter- esting and important function than those already mentioned, and its discovery was made by Metschnikoff. It is known to every one that a number of diseases to which man and other mam- mals are subject are caused by bacteria,—microscopic plants,— which enter the body in various ways, and by their multiplication occasion changes in the tissues that may be exceedingly danger- ous to the attacked individual. It'is claimed by many, that the most important function of the phagocytes is to take up these micro-organisms and destroy them. Perhaps the most interesting observation given us on this sub- ject by Metschnikoff is that made upon Daphnia, a small fresh- 1891.] Wandering Cells in Animal Bodies. 517 water crustacean. He found that many of these animals, which he kept in an aquarium, were very liable to be attacked by the long, needle-like spores of a certain fungus. These, once established in the tissues, multiplied and often caused the death of the animal. The spores first obtain a position in the intestine. By degrees they work their way through its walls, and appear in the body- cavity. As soon as this happens, phagocytes appear on the scene in great numbers, and attack the invaders. If these can only be killed, they will be rendered ,harmless, for then their breaking down can be accomplished, and they can be removed. But if they are too numerous, some will escape uninjured, and, finding themselves under suitable conditions, will sprout and grow, and this means the death of the individual. It will be seen by Figure 2 that one of these spores is several times larger than a leucocyte, and though the latter is capable of great distension, it may not be able alone to dispose of a spore. In such a case, two or more may invest dif- Spores and blood of ro bat ra ferent parts of the same enemy, But a more effectual coöperation may: be secured in this remarkable way. Several cells may become fused into one great mass, forming a single individual of sufficient size to surround a spore and kill it, When this has been accomplished, the spore S008 loses its original shape, and finally falls to pieces. These differ- ent stages are shown in Figure 2. This united effort of the phagocytes may thus prevent disease ; though very often, when the invasion is too great, they are not able to stem the tide, and the animal dies. : Still following, for the present, the experiments of Metschni- koff, we may notice a few observations made upon verte- brates. The microörganism of splenic or relapsing fever is as large bacillus, and favorable for study on this account, for bacteria appear as extremely small objects, even when magnified as greatly Fig. 2 518 The American Naturalist. [June, as possible. Taking a bit of infected tissue from an animal suf- fering from this disease, Metschnikoff placed it under the skin of a mammal, such as a mouse or rabbit, and on taking it out and examining it, in the course of a few hours, he found that it had been surrounded by the wandering cells of the animal, and that many of the bacilli had been taken up, and appeared to be under- going a process of digestion in their interior (Fig. 3). Of course, it often happens that in animals suffering from this disease, the bacilli may become so numerous as to kill the amceboid cells, and finally cause the death of the animal itself. Itis well known that in typhus fever there are certain stages of the disease in which great numbers of spirilla—another form of bacteria —are found in the blood of the suffering individual. Now one would naturally expect, from what has been stated, that the white blood corpuscles would be found to contain them ; but, curiously enough, this is seldom, if ever, found to be the case. In making ex- Fig-3 perimental investigations with the prevention Pao x ot from a frog s, of this disease in view, Metschnikoff recog- splenitis. After Metschni- Nized in this fact a serious objection to the theory which he had advanced concerning these leucocytes. He inoculated an ape with the spirilla, and they soon appeared in the blood. Some time afterward, however, they became less numerous, and finally disappeared altogether. This circumstance led Metschnikoff to suspect that perhaps they had collected in some other part of the body, so he killed the ape and finally found that the amceboid cells of the spleen were filled with the missing spirilla. To be sure, some were yet free, but a great many were not only invested, but in all stages of digestion. This fact throws some light on the unknown function of the spleen, and at least indicates the conclusion that it attains to the importance of a therapeutic organ. In erysipelas there is not only an acute inflammation, but also a degeneration of tissues; and it has been for some time an unexplained fact that a resorption of these broken-down parts 1891.) Wandering Celis in Animal Bodies. 519 took place. The disease is caused by the penetration of a strepto- coccus; and Metschnikoff found that there were here two kinds of amceboid cells at work, one of which, the smaller, attacked the cocci in the usual manner, while the other concerned itself only with the taking up of tissues which had been broken down in necrosis. We have here an interesting array of facts, which have been graphically summed up by Osler. He says that Metschnikoff has likened specific inflammation to a warfare in which the invading forces are represented by microörganisms, and those who offer resistance by leucocytes. The news of the arrival of an enemy is telegraphed to headquarters by the vaso-motor nerves, and the blood vessels are used as an avenue of communi- cation with the threatened region. When the invaders are established, they live on the host, and scatter injurious substances which they have formed. The active leucocytes make an attack, and try to eat the microörganisms, and some may, die in the fight. Their dead bodiessform an accumulation of pus, and when many are slain, the battle-ground is known as an abscess. Either force may be victorious, resulting in the one case in the recovery of the animal, and in the other in its sickness or death. In our bodies, then, there is a standing army of movable cells, which may be quickly concentrated, and attack any foreign foe which may appear. With a view of determining how active the phagocytes actually were in attacking foreign bodies, C. Hess took a small glass receptacle, on the side of which was avery fine slit opening into its interior. He now filled this glass with a pure culture of whatever microérganism-he chose to use, and, leaving the slit open, he placed it beneath the skin of a dog or pigeon. This foreign body very soon caused an inflammation. After some time, Hess found that a multitude of wandering cells had collected about the glass, and upon removing it, he found that a great number of them had worked their way through the opening into - its interior, and were then actively engaged in a battle with the bacteria. He did not stop here in his observations, however, but continued to watch the movements of the phagocytes, and 520 The American Naturalist. [June, finally came to the conclusion that the invested plants were destroyed by a true process of intracellular digestion. Sutton has recently given some valuable information in regard to tuberculosis in birds, which he says is more prevalent than in man. He tells us that the bacilli, from whatever place they may have come, get into the alimentary canal, and there penetrate into its walls. In some cases they may be taken up in the blood vessels, and getting into the general circulation, may finally be deposited in distant tissues of the body, such as the liver, lungs, or brain, and, in multiplying, cause the death of the animal. In the bowels, they are undoubtedly attacked by the leucocytes, and are surrounded, killed, and destroyed. Sometimes the battle may go against the defending force, when the bacilli are gaining an entrance, and then great numbers gather to reinforce their comrades. Many are killed, forming pus-cells, and others fuse together, as Metschnikoff saw them doing about the spores in Daphnia, and forming the giant cells. “These giant cells,” says Sutton, “are powerful antagonists, for’ I have seen one contain as many as fifty bacilli.” The relation of leucocytes to inflammation and fever is pretty generally admitted. It is easily demonstrated that, under certain stimulation, such as the exposure of a bit of the mesentery of an animal, or the introduction of some foreign body, the leucocytes appear on the spot, coming in blood vessels from distant parts ; and that they, in some way, penetrate the vessel walls, and appear in the tissue outside, ready to engage an enemy which may be present. As the last author referred to says: “ Zoologically considered, inflammation is, in essence, a local struggle between irritants and the white cells of the blood. When the whole of the blood is engaged in the struggle, as in ague, anthrax, and the like, we have general inflammation or fever. The different varieties of fever, when due to microorganisms, depend on the habits of specific bacteria; some are more virulent, others are slower in attaining maturity, or are more irritating to the tissues.” There is something wonderfully attractive in this theory of Metschnikoff’s, and of course when it became known, a great number of investigators at once began to make all kinds of 1891.] Wandering Cells in Animal Bodies. 521 experiments bearing on the question. Many have confirmed the theory, but there are also those who bitterly oppose it, and among such there are a few very prominent scientists. Before saying anything about this other side of the question, it may be of interest to depart from the subject for a moment, and notice a few important facts in regard to the supposed micro- organisms of disease. Different species of bacteria—using the term to include all micro-organisms—appear everywhere in great numbers ; but they are not all to be dreaded as enemies of mankind. When an animal dies its body is disintegrated and returns to dust by their action. Not only is this the case, but some species are actually of great benefit to our living bodies, by helping to carry out the functions of some of its organs. Some time ago, however, the presence of certain specific microérganisms was noticed to be of constant occurrence in certain diseases, while they were absent in a normal condition. The discovery was an interesting one. Investigations multiplied, and finally a great number of diseases were believed, by some, to be caused by these so-called “ germs.” It made little difference whether or not there was any other reason for it than the presence of some form in the course of the disease, which was supposed to be its cause. Finally conservative men saw the danger of allowing this unsound reason of post hoc, ergo propter hoc, to carry things any farther. Better reasons for the prevailing belief were asked for, and generally failed to be given. Almost everything was then received with doubt, and to-day the pendulum of popular belief in the subject seems to have swung very far in the opposite direction. This is evidenced in a statement by Dr. Koch, the great German bacteri- ologist, who has recently created such an interest through the world by his supposed cure for consumption. Ina recent address before the International Medical Congress, he says that ssas — microdrganisms are positively proven to be the causes of disease : namely, those of anthrax, erysipelas, and tuberculosis. Other great authorities, however, would add a few more, such as those causing glanders, cholera, pneumonia, and so on. At any rate, the number is now surprisingly small. Variations of the theory 522 The American Naturalist. [June, are now being suggested. Some believe that certain diseases may be caused by a combination of many kinds of micro- érganisms. The opinion seems to be growing that ordinarily harm- less, or septic, forms may, under favorable conditions, change into those which are harmful, or pathogenic. It is probable that most people, or at least those living in great cities, take into their bodies daily, micro-organisms which, under very favorable conditions, would cause disease. One person may . take in safely, perhaps, many times the number required to cause disease in another. Sutton has expressed this fact as follows: “ The more these questions are studied, the more we perceive that the outbreak of infectious diseases depends not so much on the presence of microorganisms—for, like torula (the yeast plant), they seem to exist everywhere—as upon the existence of suitable _conditions, and as yeast cannot grow and multiply without sugar, neither can the poison of erysipelas, typhus fever, and the like propagate without the presence of some substance produced in living bodies, of the nature of which we are ignorant.” For example, “ relapsing fever is unknown except in times of famine, when the body-chemistry is deranged by want of food, privation, and hardships of every kind.” But to return to the phagocytes, we must notice a few objec- tions that have been urged against the experiments of Metschni- koff. A few investigators who do not believe in the phagocyte theory, claim that there are other elements in the body which exert an active influence against microorganisms ; but, of course, this, in itself, is no argument against the supposed function of the wandering cells. Ribbert, and one or two others, while agreeing with Metschnikoff on some points, believe from their experiments that such fungi as microdrganisms, or spores of fungi, are pre- vented from growing in a tissue, not so much on account of an active attack of leucocytes, as the fact that the latter probably deprive them of oxygen necessary to their growth, and perhaps also keep away other nourishing materials. It seems to be impos- sible for any one to contradict, in any case, the fact that the pha- gocytes take up bacteria, unless in the instance referred to of splenic fever, when in the blood, this does not occur, as Metschnikoff 1891.] Wandering Cells in Animal Bodies. 523 himself found. But Fligge, and others, claim that the parasites taken up are really only those which have already been killed, or at least injured, by chemical substances of the body, and that the white blood corpuscles are simply scavengers that pick up dead material, as the lymph corpuscles are known ‘to. destroy feeble and broken-down red blood corpuscles in the spleen. In experimenting with the anthrax bacillus, Baumgarten found that after having been injected into pigeons, the bacilli were very seldom taken up by leucocytes, but that they seemed to degen- erate precisely as they did when left in distilled water. A great many objections have been of the nature of a direct contradiction of the observations which Metschnikoff claims to have made. For instance, it is stated by Koch that anthrax bacilli, though taken up in leucocytes, may actually continue to grow there. There are a great many bitter opponents of this eating-cell theory, and, no doubt, many observations have been made which would be very difficult to explain by it. It is apparent from what has been said, that in spite of these objections, many facts remain, which are of great importance to the study of pathology and therapeutics. It will be of value, also, to the medical practitioner to keep himself informed on the progress of this work at the present day. It is often asked by those who are not able to understand the true aim of a science, what practical results are obtained by the great search for unknown facts that is being made in the so-called natural sciences. Without mentioning the discoveries made in this way, which have successfully answered many economic ques- tions, it is a noticeable fact that all the knowledge developed by this phagocyte theory, and the work it has stimulated, sprang, in the first place, from Metschnikoff’s purely morphological re- searches. If the knowledge obtained from the experiments here er ated, cannot be directly applied tothe relief of human suffering, it is probable that a foundation has been laid, upon which it may be possible to build up methods for operation against the common enemy. 524 The American Naturalist. [June, A RECENT LAVA FLOW IN NEW MEXICO. BY RALPH S. TARR. 1s the southern central part of New Mexico, on the mail road from Carthage to Fort Stanton, and about fifty miles east of the Rio Grande, there is a flow of basalt having every evidence of being very recent. It has a north and south extension of more than thirty miles, and a width varying from one-fourth of a mile to four miles. The point of extrusion is a small cone stand- ing at the northern end. The period of eruption was brief, and the material extravasated has barely succeeded in filling a narrow valley. Some time ago I crossed this region, and made a few observations, which, though by no means complete, are deemed worthy of presentation, with the hope that the notice may serve to call the attention of some one to the interesting phenomena, and thus lead to a more detailed study. The lava flow is situated in a basin of interior drainage, almost completely enclosed by mountains. This basin, which varies in width from ten to thirty miles, and has a north and south exten- sion of fully one hundred miles, is bounded by the Oscura and Jicarilla Mountains on the north, the White and Sacramento Mountains on the east, the Huego and El Paso Mountains on the south, and the Organs and San Andreas on the west. The exact area of interior drainage cannot be told at present, but it must exceed one thousand square miles. On the foothills of the mountains are quite. distinct beaches, which with other evidence tend to prove that this basin is the site of one of the Quaternary lakes, of which there were others in this vicinity. The loose gravels of the basin quickly absorb all the moisture which falls upon the surface, and the mountain torrents rarely escape far into the plain before being entirely absorbed, A few never-failing mountain brooks enter from the White Mountains on the northeast side, and they also sink into the soil within a few miles of their outlets from the mountain gorges. At the lowest part of the basin are some shallow salt lakes and marshes of the “playa” type, 1891.] A Recent Lava Flow in New Mexico. 525 surrounded by extensive deposits of gypsum. These desiccated lake remnants, together with the beaches and extensive lake-bed deposits, conclusively prove the former existence of a lake in this interior basin, and the freshness of the deposits points strongly to the conclusion that the lake is of recent date. Both the mountains and foothills show signs of much more powerful erosion than seems possible under the present conditions of rainfall. This would not be so strongly stated if it were not for the fact that well-defined valleys, now somewhat clogged, extend well out into the lake deposits, much farther than the present streams succeed in going. It isin one of these valleys that the lava flow under consideration is found. The cone which is at the northern end was not visited, but I was informed that it was fresh and had every appearance of extreme youth, and this must be so from the evidence furnished by the lava itself. Near the cone the lava spreads out over con- siderable territory, but farther south becomes constricted, and at the southern end again broadens out, conforming in a measure to the shape of the stream valley which it fills. The elevation at the northern end is 5,360 feet, while at the southern end it is 4,100 feet. Viewed from either side of the basin the flow isa striking object, forming as it does a jet-black stripe in the monoto- nous brown of the surrounding plain —the brown so characteristic of the parched soil of an arid country. No bushes or grass have found life possible upon these black basaltic rocks, no soil has formed, and so the lava stands out with all its native blackness. Some moss, cacti, and a few stunted shrubs are the only forms of vegetable life that have as yet found a footing on this inhospitable rock, and these only in a few nooks and crevices. as ` The present surface is undoubtedly the surface of original cooling, and one might almost be justified in the belief that the cooling took place but yesterday were it not for the evidence to _ the contrary furnished by the scanty vegetation. The flow, made up of rolling masses of a vesicular, ropey lava, very pen broken and fissured. Everywhere on the floor the basalt has been broken into splinters and boulders, which are piled up in lit- tle hillocks over almost every part of the surface. So ragged is 526 The American Naturalist. [June, this surface that in only one or two places i is it possible for even a mule to find his way across the lava. The stage road is deflected by it for a distance of several miles, then crosses it at the narrowest part, running for the entire distance over bed-rock, which rings with a- metallic ring under the hoofs of the horses and the wheels of the wagon. On either side of the road is an impassable desert of boulders, slaggy and black, and ranging in size from mere splinters to large blocks many tons-in weight. Frequently it is possible to see where the consolidated crust of the flow burst asunder and a small side stream issued forth, cool- ing and cracking into slaggy, vesicular splinters and blocks. At other places the lava surface has broken into innumerable pieces, as if under the influence of some irregularity in the underlying topography. Not uncommonly the surface has been thrown into rounded waves, and cooled with the ropey surface so characteristic of some lava flows. The action of the weather has made no impression on the broken blocks. The sharp-pointed splinters and the ragged edges of the vesicles are as untouched by weather as if they had just ceased forming. The two photographs accom- panying this paper, one a view of the side of the flow, the other a nearer view in the same locality, will vouch for what I have said, and will give a much better idea of the appearance than any ‘description that I can write. The region for many miles on either side of the lava flow is a desolate one, almost destitute of water and inhabited only by the tanchmen, who here.and there have found a small spring at which they can water their cattle. Those who live in the vicinity are all of the opinion that the flow is a very recent one, and their con- clusion is, as I think I have shown, well founded. They base their conclusion upon still another bit of evidence, which I cannot | verify, since I have been unable to visit the locality. Without any ‘personal evidence for or against it, I present the matter as it was told to me. The belief is that the lava has been erupted, if not since historic times, at least not long before the time of the Span- ish Invasion. It is believed that the lava flow has been the means of destroying a large and thriving Pueblo Indian town. Many reliable persons have told me of certain ruins, fifteen’ or twenty ‘OOIXAJ MAN NI VAVI LNAOaY 1891.] A Recent Lava Flow in New Mexico. 527. miles north of the volcanic cone, which indicate the former exist- ence there of not only a pueblo, but extensive irrigation works. These ruins are quite famous in New Mexico under name of the Gran Quivira. At present there is not even drinking water within many miles of the ruins, much less water for an irrigation - supply. Furthermore, the canals are said to be at present tilted at | various angles, as if disturbed by some subterranean disturbance. If this be true, we have not only a recent eruption, but also one which by either surface or subterranean disturbances has destroyed canals, and even caused a spring or stream to disappear. As I have said, whether this eruption has taken place since the time of the Pueblo Indian occupation of New Mexico or not I am not prepared to state ; but certainly this isolated flow is in no way con- » nected in point of time with the great basalt flows of the Tertiary in New Mexico, but is vastly more recent. The time of eruption must be reckoned, if not in hundreds, in thousands rather than tens of thousands of years. The matter deserves, I think, a much more careful study than I was able to give it, and I hope that some one may find it convenient to give it sucha study. Am. Nat.—June.—2. 528 The American Naturalist. [June, THE ORIGIN OF THE AVIFAUNA OF THE BAHAMAS. BY FRANK M. CHAPMAN. S° far as the relationships of the islands themselves are con- cerned the Bahaman group offers from the zoological stand- point an apparently simple case. Asa coral formation arising from the Bahaman banks we may regard them as oceanic and of independent origin. In an analysis of their fauna, therefore, we are not confronted by the perplexing problems which beset us in studying the larger West Indian Islands, where a probable con- nection with the mainland greatly enlarges the scope of our inquiry, and renders more involved the questions to be determined. Here, however, we have an area which has not been populated by a past connection with contiguous regions, but owes its life to the more or less fortuitous occurrence of the ancestors of the species which now inhabit it. Primarily through the resulting isolation the original forms have in many instances become evolved into what we term new species, whose range is restricted to one OF more of the islands in question. The Bahamas possess no indig- enous terrestrial Mammalia, and thus conform to the law which generally obtains among oceanic islands. The two or three species of Mus which are found there have evidently been intro- duced through artificial means. Birds, however, possessing in their power of flight a most effec- tive means for extended wanderings, have found the intervening waters no bar to their occupation of the Bahamas. The islands — furnish them with resting places in their migrations, with homes — during the rigors of a northern winter, with breeding grounds during the summer, or with a permanent habitat, beyond which © they are unknown. > We may imagine these islands as at first barren coral reefs and sand-bars, tenanted alone by gulls, terns, and other pelagic spē- cies, as indeed some of the islands are now. But, devoid ofa vegetation which, through its fruit or support of insect life, would 1891.] The Origin of the Avifauna of the Bahamas. 529 furnish food, no land bird could exist there. Increasing vegeta- tion finally rendering them habitable, they were ready to receive the first-comers of a future avifauna. This, as we shall see, has been supplied from various sources, and there have now been recorded from the Bahamas about one-hundred-and-fifty-six spe- cies and subspecies of birds. The influences which have been most active in producing this fauna we may discuss after we have reviewed the fauna itself. Of the one-hundred-and-fifty-six species, seventy-two are water- birds of generally wide distribution, and, with two exceptions, we may dismiss them at once as in no way distinctively Bahaman. The remaining eighty-four land birds we may divide into non- breeding and breeding birds. The first class, or non-breeders, is composed of thirty North American species which find in the Bahamas either a winter home or a pathway for their migrations to and from the tropics. Although, as we have said, the islands afford many of these species congenial homes during the winter, the migratory habit is evidently too strongly developed to permit of their becoming permanent residents. Unless, therefore, they are residents in the same latitude on the mainland, apparently in no instance have they assisted in populating the Bahamas. It is the second class, however, of breeding birds which claims our especial attention. Here it is we shall find the truly Bahaman species which give character to the avifauna. We owe our knowledge of this avifauna largely to the original investigations of Dr. Bryant, Mr. Cory, the naturalists of the ‘‘ Albatross,” and to Dr. Northrop. It is, however, far from complete. Several islands have as yet been unexplored, and we need more exact information concerning the distribution of many species. Dr. Northrop’s recent paper on the birds of Andros is an important step in this direction, and his success in this field may well stimu- late and encourage other workers. So far as we at present know, fifty-four species of land birds may be considered as breeding in the Bahamas. In our study of their relationships we may include two species of water birds whose compara- my sedentary habits have promoted their differentiation into forms. These birds we may divide into two-classes ; 530 The American Naturalist. [June, the first consisting of species of more or less general distribution, and not confined to the Bahamas; the second consisting of species and subspecies peculiar to the islands, beyond which they are, as a rule, unknown. The first class numbers thirty-two species, which may be summarized according to their distribution, as follows : Cosmopolitan.—1, Circus hudsonius; 2, Falco peregrinus ana- tum; 3, Pandion haliaétus carolinensis ; 4, Strix pratincola. Continental.—1, Cathartes aura ; 2, Falco sparverius ; 3, Ceryle alcyon. North American.'—1, Accipiter velox; 2, Antrostomus caroli- nensis; 3, Agelaius phæniceus bryanti; 4, Ammodromus savar- narum passerinus; 5, Dendræca vigorsti ; 6, Mimus polyglottus. Tropical.—1, Columba leucocephala; 2, Columbigallina passer- ina; 3, Zenaida zenaida ; 4, Geotrygon montana; 5, Crotophaga ani; 6, Tyrannus domenicensis. West Indian.—1, Chordeiles minor; 2, Euethia bicolor. Cuban.—1, Chrysotis leucocephala ; 2, Sporadinus ricordi ; 3, Tyrannus magnirostris ;* 4, Vireo altiloquus barbatulus ; 5, Den- dræca petechia gundlachii ; 6, Mimus gundlachit. Haytian—1, Speotyto cunicularia dominicensis. 2, Loxigilla violacea ;* 3, Dendreca petechia ;** 4, Mimus elegans? Porto Rica and Northern Windward Islands—1, Margarops fuscatus? The second class numbers twenty-four endemic species and subspecies. In attempting to explain their specific affinities we shall be obliged to consider each one in connection with its allies. 1. Rallus coryi—Known from two specimens taken on Andros. It is closely related to the Rallus longtrostris group of rails of continental distribution. 2. Ardea bahamensis—Found throughout the Bahamas. It is nearly allied to the North American Ardea virescens, which, ranging from Northern South America to Canada, is subject to more or less variation under favorable conditions. 1 The species here given are all residents in Florida. 2 Recorded only from Inaugua, 3 Occurs also in Jamaica. D The Origin of the Avifauna of the Bahamas. 531 3. Coccyzus minor maynardii—A resident representative of Coccyzus minor, a species of general distribution throughout the West Indies and coasts of the surrounding mainland. In South- ern Florida it occurs only as a summer resident, and is not there distinguishable from the Bahaman bird. 4. Saurothera bahamensis—Known only from Andros and New Providence. Allied species of this very distinct West Indian genus occur in Cuba, Jamaica, Hayti, and Porto Rica. The Bahaman species most closely resembles Saurothera vieilloti of Porto Rica. When we consider the limited power of flight now possessed by this species (Dr. Northrop states that he was told they could be captured after a short chase),‘ its appearance in the Bahamas is certainly remarkable. Nor can we here argue loss of flight-power through the influences of an insular exis- tence, for the bird’s congeners are no better adapted fcr extended journeys. 5. Dryobates villosus maynardii—A common resident of An- dros, New Providence, and Abaco. It differs very slightly from the Florida form, Dryodates villosus audubonit. 6. Centurus nylanus. 7. Centurus blaket_—This is one of five instances in which a Bahaman form has become further separated into two or more forms inhabiting different islands. Centurus nylanus is found on Wattling’s Island, while C. d/akei is known only from Abaco. They are closely related to each other, and also to their obvious _ ancestor the Cuban Centurus superciliaris. 8. Doricha lyrura. 9. Doricha evelyne—The first of these nearly related species is apparently restricted to Inaugua and Long Islands; the second -~ has a wider range, and has been found on most of the remaining islands. The genus Doricha is Central American, and not else- where represented in the West Indies. The presence of these two species in the Bahamas is, therefore, not easily accounted for. Doricha elize,the most northern species on the mainland, is found in the vicinity of Jalapa. The Bahaman birds, however, more closely resemble D. dryanti of Costa Rica. *The Auk, VIH., 1891, p. as ? ance of similar types in widely separated regions. Vireo crass man, we find Vireo allenii, a race so nearly resembling V. 6 p32 = The American Naturalist. [June, 10. Myiarchus lucaysiensis—This fly-catcher is evidently de- rived from the Cuban Myiarchus sagræ; indeed, some authors consider the birds inseparable. 11. Blacicus bahamensis —A near relative of a West Indian group of fly-catchers, and probably closest to the Cuban AVacicus carribeus. | 12. Pitangus bahamensis—Related species occur on the four larger West’ Indian Islands. The Bahaman bird is probably nearest the Cuban Pitangus caudifasciatus. | 13. Icterus northropt—A well-marked species, known as yet only from Andros, where its discover, Dr. Northrop, found it not uncommon. It is an evident representative of the Haytian /cferus dominicensis. 14. Spindalis zena. 15. Spindalis zena townsendi —The distribution and relation- as ships of these birds are particularly interesting. The first is found in Andros, the second is apparently restricted to Abaco, while on the intervening island, New Providence, an intermediate and connecting form occurs. Spindalis is a characteristic West Indian genus; Cuba, Grand Cayman, Jamaica, Hayti, and Porto Rica each have distinct species, and quite recently a well-marked species has been described from Cozumel. Strange to say, the more northern of the Bahaman birds, Spindalis zena townsend of Abaco, finds its nearest ally in this Cozumel species. 16. Vireo crassirostris. 17. Vireo crassirostris flavescens—The center from which the — species of this group of Vireos have originated is now difficult to determine. Their exact relationships to the North American Vireo noveboracensis and the Cuban Vireo gundlachii can be only — questions of uncertain speculation. *However, without determin- ing their origin, we have in them a marked instance of the appear- near representative, but southward, on the island of Grand Cay- flavescens that Mr. Cory considers them to be inseparable. On RRAN ae 1891.] The Origin of the Avifauna of the Bahamas. 533 the mainlands at Yucatan the species reappears in Vireo ochra- ceus, which, although decidedly smaller than the island birds, exactly resembles them in coloration. On the islands of Old Providence, 250 miles north of Aspinwall, the species again is found, but here is nearer the West Bahama bird, V. crassirostris. 18. Callichelidon cyaneoviridis —Callichelidon is the only genus of birds peculiar to the Bahamas. That this single instance should be among the swallows, birds possessing great power of flight, and generally having extended habitats, is indeed most remarkable. Mr. Scott’s recent capture of this species in the Tortugas * is, so far as we know, the only occasion on which it has been found beyond the Bahamas. It has not been recorded from Cuba, and this is one of a number of cases where species which should occur there have not been recorded from that island. Indeed, our knowledge of Cuban birds may well be sup- plemented by much additional information before it can be con- sidered complete. As has been said, C. cyaneoviridis in its generic distinctness stands alone among Bahaman birds, and unless it is a survivor of a once more widely distributed species it is difficult to give even a probable theory of its origin. It has no near West Indian relatives, unless the very different Zachy- cineta euchrysea of Hayti be considered as such, and it is per- haps as near to Tachycineta thalassina of Northern North America as to any other species. 19. Certhiola bahamensis—One of a very distinct group of three species of peculiar distribution. Certhola caboti, very closely related to bahamensis, is found in Cozumel, while the remaining species, C. tricolor, which inhabits the island of Old Providence, is nearer to bahamensis than to caboti. 20. Geothlypis rostrata. 21. Geothlypis coryt. 22. Geothlypis tannerii—Three closely related forms inhabiting __ Tespectively the islands of New Providence, Eleuthera, and Abaco. _ Additional material will doubtless show, as Mr. Allen states, that the bird from Andros will constitue a fourth form.. This is the fifth and by far the most interesting instance in which an 5 The Auk, VII., 1890, p. 265. 534 The American Naturalist. [June, established Bahaman species has become further divided into several insular races. The genus Geothlypis is not found in the West Indies, and we are forced to consider the very distinct Geothlypis trichas ignota of Florida as the probable ancestor of the rostrata group. The supposition becomes more probable when we consider that ignota, in having a larger bill and more yellow below than the North American Geothlypis trichas, thus presents a distinct step towards the Bahaman species. In other words, although more nearly related to ż¿ríchas, ignota is in a degree intermediate between it and rostrata. We dwell on this because the origin of the Bahaman bird is of special importance, although being evidently derived from the Florida form, it more nearly resembles, indeed is very similar to, Geothlypis beldingit of Lower California. Thus we find that quite independently of each other two birds whose habitats are separated by a continent have been evolved to almost specific identity. This instance is of great value in study- ing the relations of island faunæ, where the same type may appear on widely separated islands, and be replaced on intervening islands by a nearly related but still different species. We have noted somewhat similar cases in our remarks on Spindalis and Vireo crassirostris and Certhiola. May we not assume here that ~ the intervening species is a common ancestor, and that by similar lines of divergence two forms have been produced which are more nearly related to each other than they are to the parent stock ? 23. Polioptila cerulea cesiogaster—A form differing very i slightly from P. cærulea, which occurs both in Florida and Cuba. fo 24. Mimocichla plumbea—A species closely related to Mimo- cichla schistacea of Cuba. List oF Brrps PECULIAR TO THE BAHAMAS, WITH THE SPECIES WHICH THEY APPARENTLY REPRESENT. BAHAMAN SPECIES. REPRESENTED SPECIES. Rallus coryi, Rallus longirostris group (Continental). Ardea bahamensis, Ardea virescens (Continental). Coccyzus minor maynardi. Coccyzus minor (Tropical). Saurothera bahamensis. Saurothera vieillotii (Porto Rica). 1891.] The Origin of the Avifauna of the Bahamas. 535 Dryobates villosus maynardi. Dryobates villosus audubonii (Florida). Centurus nylanus (Wattling’s Island). \ \ Centurus superciliaris (Cuba). Centurus blakei (Abaco). Doricha lyrura (Inaugua, Long Island). } Doricha bryantii Doricha evelyne (Andros, New Provi- (Costa Rica). dence, Abaco). Myiarchus lucaysiensis. Myiarchus sagre (Cuba). Blacicus bahamensis. Blacicus barrat group (Cuba, Hayti, etc). Pitangus bahamensis. Pitangus caudifasciatus group (Cuba, Jamaica, and Hayti). Icterus northropü. Icterus domenicensis (Hayti). Spindalis sena. : > Spindalis zena townsendi, \ TTT oe Vireo crassirostris. (?) Vireo crassirostris allenii Callichelidon cyaneoviridis. (?) Certhiola bahamensis. Certhiolo caboti (Cozumel). thly pis trichas ignota Geothlypis coryi (Eleuthera). 2 7 Bieta oe Geothlypis tannerii (Abaco). Polioptila cerulea ce@esiogaster. Polioptila cerulea (Cuba, Florida). Mimocichla plumbea. Mimocichla schistacea (Cuba.) Geothlypis rostrata (New Providence). ) This completes our review of the endemic species and sub- Species. We may now classify them according to the distribution of their apparent ancestors, and placing them with the land birds previously given as not peculiar to the Bahamas, summarize the avifauna exclusive of water birds, as follows. Bahaman forms obviously derived from the same ancestor, or from each other, are here included as one : í "a 2 HABITAT AND NUMBER OF REPRESENTED SPECIES. ENDEMIC. NON-ENDEMIC. Cosmopolitan, 4 o 4 Continental, 5 2 North American, 5 o 5 Floridan, 3 2 ; - Tropical, 8 2 6 536 The American Naturalist. [June, : West Indian, Cuban, Haytian, Porto Rican, Central American, Uncertain, a Aime O N UON wm OO (o = E -SELD BA) We have said that the formation of the fauna we have just reviewed has, in the case of thé land-bird element, been caused by more or less fortuitous circumstances. This in a measure is true. Inaugua on the south is distant from Cuba and Hayti about fifty miles, Great Bahama on the north is distant from Florida sixty miles, while these islands are situated respectively thirty and ten miles from their nearest neighbors in the group. These in turn are separated. from others by varying distances, never greater, however, than the distances first mentioned. Of Great Bahama we know nothing; no ornithologist has ever visited it. Of Inaugua, we have some knowledge, and it has apparently served as a gateway for many species of West Indian origin which are now distributed throughout the Bahamas. Others, ‘four in num- — ber, have not advanced beyond this portal. Once established on Inaugua, the most difficult step would have been taken, and future _ ones become comparatively easy. It is not assumed that all the : Bahaman species of West Indian origin have been derived = through Inaugua, though it is evident that some of them have, e and we may in this way, through a northward movement among the more eastern islands, account for the distribution of the Cuban parrot, which is found on Abaco, but is unknown on Andros. We mention this island merely as a possible first step for future Bahaman birds. Our examination of the fauna renders in a degree apparent the chief cause which promoted this step. As a rule, the land birds of oceanic islands have descended — from | or are non-sedentary species, whose habits render them = ject to the influences of storms or trade- winds, the most po . factors in the formation of insular avifauna. For this reason we should not expect to find species of especially sedentary disposition forming a prominent part of an island fauna. © entary is not a here as meaning non-migratory alone, bu 1891.] The Origin of the Avifauna- of the Bahamas. 537° also refers to those species which, being non-migratory, are at the same time species of retiring habits,—that is, are terrestrial or thicket-loving, and do not, as a rule, make extended flights. It is obvious that birds of this character would not be exposed to the action of storms and gales, and we rarely find them inhabiting islands. Wrens are excellent examples, and with the exception of a small group found on the southern Windward Islands, are unknown from the West Indies, although they are abundant on all the surrounding mainlands. The Carolina wren, one of the most common birds of Florida, has never been found in the Bahamas, nor indeed in Cuba. On examining the Bahama fauna, therefore, we find that the birds, although resident now, are descendants of, or are co-specific with, either migratory species or species whose non-sedentary habits have rendered them sus- ceptible to the influences of that island populator, the wind, to which many Bahaman birds doubtless owe their original appear- ance on the islands. But we have also found that the descen- dants of the migratory species which have become endemic are residents in the same latitude on the mainlands. Birds of strictly migratory habits, therefore, are not apt to form a part of island life, unless the islands occur near the limits of their breeding habitats. The Bermudas are annually visited by large numbers of South American migrants, but the “number of resident land birds is restricted to six. Thus the Bahamas do not owe their avifauna to purely migra- _tory species, but to the occurrence there of resident species from, generally contiguous areas ; and their original appearance may š havė been due to a gradual extension of range, Or, as we have ' said, to their accidental occurrence through the influence of violent winds. With the exception of two bi-continental species, which throughout their ranges are subject to local specialization under favorable conditions, the endemic Bahaman birds are derived from species which in their generally limited ranges and close relation- ships with other species prove their susceptibility to the influences (Of their surroundings. As to the causes which have produced differentiation in the forms we have just discussed, we can say very little. We may .538 The American Naturalist. [June, assume that changed conditions of environment acting on isolated species have resulted in their evolution into new species, presum- ably better adapted to theif surroundings. But just what condi- tions have effected a given result we do not know. In the further division of a Bahaman species into two. or more races the case ‘becomes even more perplexing. We have not, then, different physiographic or climatic conditions to the influences of which we may ascribe observed changes. On the contrary, we find differ- ent forms of the same species inhabiting islands almost within sight of each other, where they are apparently subjected to simi- lar conditions of existence. In several instances these differences, though here constant and characteristic, are not greater than those presented by individual variation in a larger series of a given species from one locality. Perhaps we can assume, then, that through the continued isolation of a comparatively small number of individuals certain characters, due originally to purely individual variation, have become perpetuated and specific. Amonga smaller number of birds the extent of variation would, of course, be less; but this would be more than counterbalanced by the fact that any new character would be far more likely to be prese ‘through a forced interbreeding of closely related individuals. Of the age of the Bahaman avifauna we can, of course, judge only by comparison. But the conditions which govern any given areas vary so greatly that even in this way we can form only an approximate idea of the relative age of their faune. The isolation afforded by insular existence in tending to Pr& serve new characters would at the same time hasten the consum- mation of permanent forms. The rate of divergence, therefore, is, without doubt, more rapid among island-inhabiting ee than among those confined to the mainland. From the comparative ease with which we have been able 8 trace the specific relationships of most of the endemic birds, and, i with one exception, from the absence of peculiar genera, it is ee able that the Bahaman avifauna is of recent origin. Being s0 largely derived from, it is, of course, more recent than, that of the : larger West Indian Islands, where sixteen endemic genera occur; — indeed, is not so old as the avifauna of the Windward i 1891.] The Origin of the Avifauna of the Bahamas. 539 where seven endemic genera are found. Perhaps in distinctness from related species the avifauna may be compared with that of Grand Cayman, an island situated 175 miles south of Cuba, and 200 miles northwest of Jamaica, The character of the formation of this island I do not know; Commander Bartlett has said of it, with Little Cayman and Misteriosa Bank, that they are the sum- mits, fast appearing above tide-mark, of a submarine range having an average height of nearly 20,000 feet. Through Mr. Cory’s collectors and the naturalists of the “Alba- tross ? Grand Cayman has been thoroughly explored, and fifteen endemic species and subspecies have been found there. These are largely derived from Cuban birds, and eleven of them are gen- erically represented in the Bahamas. From this review of Bahaman bird life we may presume to offer the following conclusions: . First—The Bahamas are largely West Indian in their affini- ties, and the group of islands may claim the rank of a fauna of the Antillean region, characterized by the presence of forms differ- entiated from their West Indian ancestry and by the infusion of a slight Floridan element. Second.—A greater number of endemic species have been derived from Cuba than from any other region. Third —North American migrant species which breed in higher latitudes, while occurring in great numbers in the Bahamas, at certain seasons of the year, have-not assisted in forming the resi- dent avifauna. - Fourth —The avifauna is of comparatively recent origin. fifth —Forms of a common ancestor may be differentiated from this ancestor in much the same manner, and thus, though having widely separated habitats, more closely resemble each other than they do the parent species. : Sixth—In several instances certain Bahaman forms inhabiting _ Contiguous islands have become differentiated from each other without, so far as we can observe, being subjected to thanged climatic or physiographic conditions. Seventh—We may, perhaps, assume from this that these birds originally owe their characters to individual variations which, among a number of individuals, have become permanent. 540 The American Naturalist. [June, ON THE GENUS CHLAMYDOPHORUS. BY DANIEL D. SLADE. ces Chlamydophoridz of the group Loricata in the order of the Edentata comprises two species: C. truncatus and C. retusus. Chlamydophoride—Dorsal disk divided into a dorsal and a pelvic shield; pelvic shield agglutinated to the pelvis ; feet strong; toes united; claws large. C. truncatus—Dorsal shield only attached by the middle of the back, which is covered with hair on the sides. C. retwsus—Dorsal shield attached to the skin of the back to the edges. Both are extremely rare, and present very singular osteological modifications. The recent arrival of a mounted skeleton of the Pichiciego, C. truncatus, at the Museum of Comparative Zoology, in Cambridge, has induced me to bring together the few facts which constitute our present knowledge of these interesting Edentates. It is now about sixty- five years since the first description of C. truncatus was given by Dr. Harlan, of Philadelphia, and published in the New York © Lyceum of Natural History. In 1828 the result of the investi- gations of Mr. Yarrell upon a second specimen received iñ England was published in the London Zoological Journal. But strange to say, neither he nor Dr. Harlan had recognized the bony- shield and its relation to the pelvis, which constitutes its unique — character among living mammals,—an oversight which maybe explained by the anxiety to preserve intact the skin with its coat : of mail, to accomplish which it was thought necessary to sevet = the bony processes by which the shield is connected with the : pelvis. In 1855 a full descriptive monograph upon the C. ea catus was published by Prof. Hyrtl, of Vienna, in which full justice was done to its anatomy. In 1857 a short publication on tE structure of the pelvis of the’ C. truncatus was made by Dr. J.B Gray, of England; and in 1870 an interesting paper was read bade Mr. Edward Atkinson, “On Some Points of Osteology of the - Pichiciego,” before the British Association, at Liverpool. 19 1880 - 1891.] On the Genus Chlamydorphorus. 541 some interesting notes by E. W. White were published in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society. Since this, I find scarcely an observation or allusion to the subject. Apart from its remarkable conformation, a certain interest attaches to the animal under consideration, due to its singular scarcity. There are but few specimens in the museums of the world. In Europe twelve to twenty only are known, and in our own country there are not more than six or eight, for some of which fabulous prices have been paid. The Pichiciego’s sole habitat is in the neighborhood of Mendoza, in the interior of Chili, South America, at the base of the Andes, a country well noted for its terrible earthquakes. Our knowledge of its habits is very limited It is nocturnal; it passes most of the time in the sand-burrows which it makes; is extremely timid; is. rarely seen, and very rarely captured, except when accidentally discovered nestled within the blankets of Indians who are sleeping upon the ground. Its food is said to be chiefly that of worms, and in this respect, as much as in its general subterranean habits, it resembles the European mole. poe The entire external surface of the body is covered with a fine, white, silken hair, more delicate even than that of the mole. Over this is a shield, cloak, or covering, composed of a series of plates of a texture which resembles thin sole leather, covering the superior portions of the cranium, and extending half round the body for its entire length. This “coat of mail” is made up of twenty-four cross-series of quadrangular plates, counting from the vertex, the posterior edges of each row covering the anterior of the one immediately succeeding. The posterior truncation, formed by a sudden curving of the shield at a right angle to the body, is also composed of plates similar to those upon the back, but disposed in half circular rows, of which there are five. The lower margin of this surface at about its center presents a notch, beneath which passes the caudal extremity, also protected by plates. The semicircular margin of the truncated portion, as well as the lateral margins of the shield, are fringed with the same Silken hair, that of the exterior ring of the truncated portion form- _ ing a double, somewhat bristly ridge, standing out at right angles. 542 The American Naturalist. [June, Upon the cranium. the dermal plates descend from the vertex to the snout in gradually narrowing series, being attached to the frontal protuberances, of which I shall presently speak. The extent of its attachment to the dorsal shield in the middle of the back varies; it would seem to be connected to the spinal meta- pophyses by a loose cuticular tissue, and posteriorily more inti- mately to the osseous pelvic shield beneath. oR There is no distinct pinna,—only a slight elevation of cartilage at the external meatus. The small, entirely black eye is scarcely visible, deeply covered as it is by the intermingling of the hairy fringe and mantle. The mamme are pectoral, two in number. The testes are abdominal. The entire length of the skeleton — from the tip of the snout to the pelvic shield varies very slightly — from five inches. “wef BON ay we re, ead — NA A S e A tie Ly A pede ay yyy, Ub P pis ae OR S A NAA Ce ES Fig? 1.—Chlamydophorus truncatus Harl. ; two-thirds natural size. The cervical region of the vertebral column presents the usual anchylosed condition of the centra of the second, third, and fourth vertebre, with the rudimentary development of the arches — and neural spines, commonly found in the Dasypodide. Ee metapophyses of the two last dorsal and three first lumbar verte- bræ are elongated for the attachment of the dermal coat. The sacral vertebræ are uniform in number and arrangement with the 1891.] On the Genus Chlamydophorus. 543 shield the specimen should be before one. Without this aid, and even with the assistance of drawings, the admirable descrip- tion of Professor Hyrtl can with difficulty be comprehended. But I have no better resource than to translate his words: “Three longitudinal crests spring up from the dorsum of the sacrum, of which the middle one absorbs, as it were, the two lat- eral, at a point just behind the ischiatic foramen ; thus only one remains. This, in the shape of a long, perpendicular, thin, pellu- cid plate, perforated in many places, is produced throughout the entire length of the sacrum, and posteriorly is lost in the sphee- roma. The middle crest at the spot where the meeting of the lateral ones produces a bony mass is transformed into a*bony transverse plate, which is connected on either margin with a long and unusual process of the ischium, which I call the ascending. rim i ps Oren ae Wey, ie 4 > Ke "0 ow P SSS Oe a eee L e NNAS S T mi Sr — 7 1. =e h an — Sas a a z > SS Fic: 2.—Chlamydophorus truncatus Harl. ; two-thirds natural size; skeleton. From the dorsal face of the transverse lamina two round, bony columns rise and become supports to the sphceroma. Thus this wonderful sphceroma is tonnected to the pelvis by five fulcra. The two first and principal ones arise from the ischia, the two middle are the two columns erected on the transverse lamina of the sacral crest, and the highest is the termination of the median crest.” Since the strongest fulcra of the shield are found in the place Where in other Dasypodidæ the tubeta ischii reside, it would seem evident that this unusual structure springs from the conflu- ence of the tuberosites. Its shape is that of a semi-circular disc, with its convex margin upwards, which is thicker than the lower Am. Nat.—June.—3, 544 The American Naturaist. [June margin. It is vertical in position, and the smooth posterior sur- face is ornamented with semi-circular rows of foramina and fissures. “which give insertion to the short, tough fibres by which the dermal coat is bound to the shield throughout.” According to the dissection of Mr. Atkinson, the sphceroma is completely invested on doth its surfaces by the common integument of the body, so that the anterior concavity and the bony fulcra inplanted into it are clothed with hairy skin, reflected from the back, while the posterior surface is covered by the closely adherent continuation of the dermal horny coat. The caudal vertebrae are fourteen in number ; the transverse processes of the eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh are elongated so as to produce a spatulate condition of the organ. The cranium is conical, capacious, compressed, and without - sutures. Seen in profile, owing to the elevation of the vertex, as well as to the concavity between the two singular rounded pro- — cesses which are given off from the frontal and which connect with the olfactory organs, the contour of the cranium reminds one of the Indian elephant. Especially is the mandible ungulate in its character, in its depth, perpendicular ramus, rounded angle, and in the condyloid process being longer than the coronoid. From the anterior portion of the two frontal tuberosities a narrow ridge on either side converges towards the nose. The elongate nasal bones terminate at an orifice, opening downward. The dental system is composed of eight molars on either side of both jaws. The teeth are long, cylindrical, have no true roots or crowns, are encircled by enamel, are so deeply set that those. of the mandible dimple its inferior margin. They are slightly curved. The orbital and temporal fosse are not separated. The zygomatic arch is slender posteriorly, but anteriorly it is mor developed with a descending process from the malar. The external meatus auditorius is prolonged in the form of a long, winding, cylindrical osseous tube, ascending behind the — articulation of the jaws, and, arching over the roof of the zygoma terminates in an aperture just behind the éye. This osseous tube is composed of two separate pieces, which are joined by an inter- posed ring of cartilage. This very remarkable auditory app% 1891.] On the Genus Chlamydophorus. - S45 suggests a similitude to the common ear-trumpet used by the deaf, particularly as it is capable of limited movements. The præsternum is broad for the articulation of the first rib. It has also a sharp crest or keel upon its anterior surface, being decidedly bird-like in its character., The scapula presents several modifications. The prescapular border is deeply notched; the posterior border of the postscapula is greatly elongated, being sickle-shaped. The dorsum has a second spine, smaller, but parallel to and beneath the true spine. The acromion is very long, passing forwards, downwards, and inwards over the head of the humerus to, be articulated with the complete clavicle. The humerus, large and broad, has a prominent deltoid ridge. The epicondyles are both much produced transversely, the inner one being perforated. The radius is small. the ulna much flattened, with an olecranon process nearly as long as the shaft. The first and second digits of the manus are slender and elongated, and both have the normal number of phalanges. The other three have the metacarpal short and broad, the proxi- ‘mal phalanx suppressed, the middle very short, and the ungual phalanges enormously developed, that of the third being the longest. The femur is large and strong, with a well-developed third trochanter. The tibia and fibula are firmly anchylosed at each extremity, and arched in opposite directions. The os calcis is’ elongated backwards and flattened. The pes is normal in type, and Presents no modifications. Both manus and pes are plantigrade. The following abstracts are from the notes on C. truncatus by E. W- White, F.Z.S., London, published in the Transactions : “I was induced in August, 1879, to undertake a ride of forty leagues from Mendoza, and a diligent search for six days, in com- pany with a large number of men, in order to obtain a better knowledge of its habits. I was fortunate enough to secure one living specimen of C. truncatus, which, in spite of the utmost attention, survived capture only three days; in fact, no instance has occurred of a longer survival in captivity than eight days. “The usual drawings of this animal in zoological works are erroneous in more than one particular. 546 © The American Naturalist. [June, “1st. The tail is represented as flexible, and terminating én a somewhat flattened, though, on the whole, solid, pointed paddle, whereas it is almost perfectly inflexible, the paddle at the extrem- ity being completely flattened and rounded at the vertex. “ 2d. The fringe issuing from the ultimate and large ring of the dorsal carapace, instead of being drooping, as often depicted, where it unites with that of the exterior ring of the truncated extremity, forms a double, somewhat bristly fringe, standing out well at right angles to that truncated extremity. “3d. The lateral edges of the dorsal chitinous shield are sharply serrated, instead of forming a continuous wave-line. “4th. The eye, instead of being distinctly visible, is rudimentary and hidden by the fringe and mantle. “sth. The projection of the slightly convex truncated extrem- ity is very exactly a section of a circle, the center of which is a point whence issues the tail, the whole of this truncated armor plate forming a very hard, solid, bone-like structure, which at once suggests the use to which it is devoted,—viz., to act as a rammer to consolidate the sand and to fill up the entrance to its burrow, from the inside, and thus prevent the ingress of its enemies. “6th. When walking, the C. truncatus plants both fore and hind feet on the soles, and not on the contracted claws, as is the case with the ant-eater, carrying its inflexible tail, which it has no power to raise, trailing along the ground and inclined downwards from the body. As it commences to excavate, the fore feet are first employed, and immediately afterwards, supporting its body on the tripod formed of these and of the extremity of the tail, both hind feet are set to work simultaneously, discharging the sand with incredible swiftness. Although analogy and form would seem to indicate it, I never could detect the tail aiding in the operation of excavation ; in fact, its inflexibility precludes this idea. The only use of the flattened extremity appears to me to be to furnish it with a more secure point of support in the shifting sands. | “ Sluggish in all its movements, except as a fodient, in which — capacity it perhaps excels all burrowing animals, the C. truncatus performs the operation of excavation with such celerity that & 1891.] On the Genus Chlamydophorus. 547 man has scarcely time to dismount from his horse before the creature has buried himself to the depth of his own body. The tunnel scooped out, of the exact size of the truncated extremity, presents three ways of exit. “The light, fine sand in which it burrows proclaims unmistak- ably its presence by the tracks left. Besides the impressions of the four feet, the inclined, stiff tail leaves its deep, central, indented line. If the tracks were numerous the animal would no longer be rare, but it is a fact that a year or more sometimes elapses without any trace of its existence. Occasionally specimens have been unhoused by the plow. I could not succeed in discovering the nature of the food from the solitary live specimen which I obtained, but I fed it on milk, which it lapped like a cat. “ This delicate little animal is extremely Ñ susceptible to cold. My living example, S N TA after passing a night in a box of earth T covered with flannels, was found the fol- NA lowing morning in a very exhausted con- Fé! sew ne aori dition. Wrapped in warm clothing, and isagad pg unre see placed near the fire, it soon revived. ize. Its normal paradise seems to be when the temperature of its residence is such as is produced by sand so hot as almost to scorch the hand. During the summer it leaves its burrow at dusk to search for food, and, being truly nocturnal, moonlight nights are very favorable for discovering it.” Mr. White thinks that the use of the fringe surrounding the shield is solely to prevent the introduction of sand beneath it ' during excavation. The only description of Chamydophorus retusus is in the short monograph by Dr. Hermann Burmeister, Director of the Museum of Buenos Ayres.! This museum contained in 1863 the only specimen then known. The animal is a native of Bolivia, and its habitat the neighborhood of Santa Cruz. No one of the natives, says Dr. Burmeister, had ever seen the animal, until they were shown the one captured by St. Martin at Pari, Santa Cruz. They were aware that there was an animal which lived underground, 1 Abhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu Halle, 1863. IAN Ñ ` 548 The American Naturalist. [June, and to which they gave the name of Lloron, meaning a new-born infant, from the peculiar cries it made. Dr. Burmeister gives an amusing account of its capture, and the celerity with which it threw out the sand, supported by the hinder parts in its effort to escape by burrowing. C. retusus is larger than C. truncatus, and has one or two bits: tles on the hinder edge of the dorsal shield, with many bristles on the lower edge of the lateral portions. The upper part of the pelvic shield has pencils of bristles. There is a well-developed pinna. - RECORD OF AMERICAN ZOOLOGY. BY J. S. KINGSLEY. (Continued from Vol. XXV., page 355.) LEPIDOPTERA. SmitH, J. B—Contribution toward a monograph of the insects of the Lepidopterous family Noctuide of temperate North America—Revision of the species of the genus Agrotis. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 38, 1890.—An exhaustive paper of 23! pages. Vide Aw NAT, XXIV. p- 1090, 1890. FERNALD, H. To markings of Pupæ. Zool. Ani, XIII, p. 47, 1890.—Reference to literature. Ketticorr, D. S—Our injurious Ægerians. Am. Nat., XXHI, p. 1106, 188ọ ( 1890). SmıTH, W. W —Carpocapsa pomonella in New Zealand. Eo, Mo. Mag., XXVI., p. 218, 1890. Benr, H. H.—Double broods of Sedi calippe. Zota, P, 211, 1890. Packarp, A. S.—The life-history of Drepana arcuata, with 2 - remarks on certain structural features of the larva, and on supposed dimorphism of Drepana arcuata and Dryopteris rose — a Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H., XXIV. , P- 483, 1890. Hints on the evolutión of the bristles, spines, and tubercles of certain caterpillars, apparently resulting from a change fon 1891] Record of American Zoology. ~ 549 low-feeding to arboreal habits ; illustrated by the life-histories of some Notodontians; /.¢., p. 94, pls. 2, 1890. BEHRENS, Jas.—Notes on Lepidoptera. Zoe., Tu p.60, 1890.— Captures of Lycena regia and 5 Papilios in California. Lorp WatsincHam.—Notes on the genus Argyresthia Hb. with descriptions of new species. Insect Life, TUIL, p: 117, 1890.—New species are A. cupresella (Cal.), freyella (Tex.), plicipunctella (?) Patron, W. H.—Notes upon Ephestia interpunctella ; bti p. 158, 1890. WALKER, Pu.—Silk culture: Report of the year’s operations. Rep. Dep. Agr. for 1888, p. 3, 1889. Martatr, C. L.—Swarming of Lycena comyntas. Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 206, 1890. ; Swartz, E. A.—Interesting food-plant of Pieris rape; le., P. 250, 1890.— Cakile americana. LuGGER, Orro,—On the migrations of the milkweed butterfly; ' 46, p. 256, 1890. . Martatt, C. L.—Abundance of oak-feeding Lepidopterous larve in the fall of 1889; /.¢., p- 259- -Stosson, A. T.—Larve of Seirarctia echo. VL, p. 8, 1890. ope Dyar, H. G.—Preparatory stages of Plusia californica; l.c Pp. 14, 1890. Preparatory stages of Heterocampa SM Amer., V1., p. 209, 1890. Smitu, J. B—A new Morrisonia; a Entom. Amer., brotata. Entom. p. 21 1—WV. rileyana (Fla.) : | BEUTENMÜLLER, W.—Preparatory stages of Samia cynthia ; l-t., Pp- 2 16, 1890. : Description of the preparatory stages of Datana angusi ; l c; p. 219. : 220.—C. stigma (Fla.) Situ, J. B—A new Copipanolis ; 4 ¢., P- pipan ra leptinoides ; Z. vj _ Dyar, H. G.—Preparatory stages of Schisu P. 230, 1890. Epwarps, W. H.—On certain statements in Scudder’s Butter- flies of New England. Canad. Ent, XXII, p- 61, 1890. 5 50 The American Naturalist. [June * Bruce, D—A rainy day on the mountains. Can. Ent., XXII, p. 67, 1890.—List of Colorado moths. Grote, A. R.—The Noctuide of Europe and North America compared. Can. Ent, XXII., pp. 69, 105, 145, 1890. BEUTENMULLER, W.—Food Plants of .Lepedoptera. No. 13. Ent. Amer., VI., 16, 1890. Scuaus, Wm., JR—New species of Mexican Lepidoptera; /.¢., p. 18, 1890.—Caria melicerta, Lasaia sessilis, Theope eupolis, Th. bacenis, Enyo tedium, E. riscus, Calliomma germen, Pergesa mexi- cana. Situ, J. B—A new species of Feralia; Z. c., p. 26, 1890.—F. major (N. H., N. Y., D. C.) : A new species of Oncocnemis; /.c., p. 30, 1890.—0. extremis (Brit. Columb.) | Macuesney, C. P.—Notes on Zeuzeura pyrina; lc., p. 31, - 1890. NEuMcGEN, B.—New beauties from near and far; /.c., p. 61, 1890.—Parnassius smintheus var. nanus (Brit. Columb.), Arctia diecku (B.C.), Sphingicampa bisecta var. nebulosa (no loc.), Horama Jalapensis (Mex.) Ira (n.g.) gundlachiana (Cuba). ScHMIDT, P. J.—A melanic Argynnis bellona ; l.c., p. 70, 1890. Dyar, H. G.—Preparatory stages of Arachnis picta Packard. Entom. Amer., VI., 73, 1890. = BEUTENMÜLLER, W.—Descriptions of the preparatory stages of Edema albifrons ; Lc., Pp. 75, 1890. SmitH, J. B—A new species of Agrotis; Zc., p. 76, 1890. A. atristrigata (Brit. Columb.) “x __——A new species of Botis; Z c., p. 88, 1890.—B. nelumbalts (N. J.) , Fernap, C. H.—A bit of history; /.c., p 112, 1890.—Date of Zeller’s “ Crambidz.” : Epwarps, Hy.—Some apparently new Noctuide in the collec- ‘ton of the British Museum ; Z c., p. 114, 1890.—Herrichia ceroma (Cal.), Annaphila casta (Oreg.), Euclidia annexa (Oreg) e ain AR, H. G.—Preparatory stages of Arctia dota; lt, p YP 1090. : 1891.] Record of American Zoology. | 551 SmitH, J. B.—New species of Tzniocampini. Ent. Amer., VI. Pp. 121, 1890.—Tentocampa carminta (Col.), T. curtica (Cal.), 7: addenda (Cal.), T. venata (N. Y.), Perigonica (n.g.) angulata (Cal.), P. fulminans (Col.) Dyar, H. G.—The genus Datana; /.c., p. 127, 1890.—Synop- sis of N. A. species. Stosson, A. T.— Varina ornata. Entom. Amer. VI., p. 136, 1890. SKINNER, H.—A new Pamphila; /.c., p. 138, 1890.—P. slos- sonæ (Fla.) ; SMITH, J. B—A new species of Plagiomimicus; / c., p. 139, 1890.—P. triplagiatus (N. Mex.) Dyar, H. G.—Preparatory stages of Dilophonota edwardsii and D, ella; l.c., p. 141. Situ, J. B—Contribution towards a monograph of the Noc- tuidz of temperate North America. Revision of Scopelosoma, Ent. Amer., VI., p. 147, 1890.- Grote, A. R—The North American Eustrotiini ; Z c., p. 161, 1890. ; NEuMcEGEN, B.—New species of Arctians. Ent. Amer., VI., p. 173, 1890.—Arctia favorita (Col.), Euchetes conspicua (Col.), Arachnis zuni (New Mex.) Situ, J. B—A new Bombycia; Zc., p. 179, 1890.—8. can- dida (Fla.) Dyar, H. G.—Preparatory stages of Datana palmi ; l.c., p. 181, 1890. ; Dyar, H. G.—Arctiide of North America. Can. Ent, XXIII, p. 43, 1891—Synonymy of Halesidota trigona. FLETCHER, J.—Popular and economic entomology. Can. Ent., XXII., p. 41, 1890.—Ephestia kühniella. Frencu, G. H.—Some new Colorado moths. Can. Ent., XXII., p. 44, 1890.—Cossus brucei, Tolype distincta, Halesidota occidentalis, H. subalpina. _ Epwarps, W. H.—Notes on Erebia epipsodea. Can. Ent., XXII, p. 49, 1891.—Reprint from “Butterflies N. A.” Fyres, T. W.—Gelechia gallediplopapi n. s. Can. Ent, XXII, P. 248, 1890. 552 The American Naturalist. [June, Dyar, H. G—A new form of Cerura from California. Can. Ent., XXII., p. 253, 1890.—C. cinerordes. ; : Frencu, G. H.—Preparatory stages of Yolype velleda. Can. Ent, XXIL, p. 255, 1890. * Epwarps, W. H.—Butterflies of North America. III. series, Part X., 1890.—Argyunis alcestis, A. adiante, A. atossa, Satyrodes canthus. Wricut, W. G— Vanessa californica. Can. Ent, XXIIL, p. 27, 1891. FERNALD, C. H.i—New.. N. A. Microlepidoptera. Can. Ent., XXIII., p. 29, 1891.—Psecadia delliella (Tex.), Propexus mag- ` nificus (Col.), Schenobius maximellus (Tex.) Epwarps, W. H.—Description of a new species of Erebia, and notes on the so-called Chionobus bore of Colorado. Can. Ent, XXIII., p. 31, 1891.—E£. ethela (Wyoming). TuaxtTeR, R.—Food plants of some Bombycide and Noctuide not included in H. Edwards’s catalogue. Can. Ent., XXIII, p. 34, 1891. Dyar, H. G—Phragmatobia rubricosa.: Can. Ent. XXII, p. 40, 1891. ; Morrat, J. A—Aillopos titan. Canad. Ent, XXII., p. 4% 1891. ; seg D.—Lepisesia flavofasciata. Can. Ent, XXIII., p. 4% 1891. Patton, W. H.—Scent glands in the larva of Limacodes. Can. Ent., XXIII., P, 42, 1891. : : Smia, J. B.—A correction [to Arctiide, supra]. Can. Ent, XXIII., p. 43, 1891. : Druce, H.—Description of new species of Lepidoptera (Het- erocera) from Central and South America. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon- (Trinidad), Chasmina alcidamea (Guatemala), Celæna lilacina o (Panama), Perigea agnonia (Guatemala, south), Caradrina an a 1891.] Record of American Zoology. 553 (Panama), Agrotis lamptera, A. limenia (Guatemala), Cosmia lavipra (Panama), Xanthia alala, X. alcandra (Mex.), Polia lavina (Mex.), P. ameria (Guat.), Anarta agonax (Mex.), Ardisura gran- dis (Mex.), Acontia splendens (Panama), 7) halpochares lavonia, Th. lagore (Mex.), Xanthoptera laphyra (Mex., Panama), Callopistria agyra, C.langia (Panama), Plusia andra (Guat.), Plustodes lavonia (Panama), PI. agenoria (Mex.), PL. alesa (Panama), PI. laodamia (Mex.). Packard’s genus Coloradia reappears in Paraguay. Martartt, C. L—Notes on the early stages of brier moths. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., XI., 1888 [’89]—ertca bidentata, Anisota stigma, Callimorpha suffusa. Keruicort, D. S—Our injurious Ægerians. Journ. Columbus Hort. Soc., V., p. 11, 1890.—Figures seven species. AsumEap, W. H.—Report on an outbreak of the army worm, and on some other insects affecting grain, in Maryland. Jnsect Life, IIL, p. 53. 1890. Dyar, H. G.—Description of certain Lepidopterous larve ; lc., p. 61, 1890.—Nola sexmaculata, Nerice bidentata, Schizura PRENO Mamestra confusa. * Druce, H.—Descriptions of new species of Lepidoptera e from Central America. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., V., 18 * PA H. B.—Abh. Senckenb. Naturf. Gesell. Frankfurt. — Lepidoptera of Porto Rico. * GROTE, A. R—Revised check-list of the North American Noctuidae. Part I., Thyatirine—Noctuine. Bremen, 1890, pp. 52. Dyar, H. G—Two species of Lepidoptera new to our lists. Ent. News, I., p. 105, 1890.—Callidryas statira and _Composs Jidelissima, from Florida. Bunker, R.—Some experiences in larvee-rearing ; ; L c., pp- 108, EL? I 890. BALLARD, Jutta P.—What can it be? Lc, p. 124, 1890— Wants information as to a large caterpillar. BEuT ÜLLER , W.—Description of the preparatory stages ot Datana contracta Wakes; L.c., p- 144, 1890. Frencu, G. H.—Another tropical species of Lepidoptera in Florida. Ent. News, I., p. 153, 1890- —Composia olympia. 554 The American Naturalist. [June, hi Ann. Soc. Ent. France, VI., ix., 1889—’90.—Describes new forms of Leptarctia from U. S. Wesster, F. M.—Army-worm notes. Jnsect Life, IIL., p. 112, 1890. Coguittet, D. W.—The cypress-twig borer ; /. c., p. 116, 1890. Smitu, J. B—Contributions toward a monograph of the Noc- tuidæ of temperate North America. Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, XVI., 1889, p. 321.—Synopsis of Oconemis ; 28 species, none new, ; *Druce, H.—Descriptions of new species of Lepidoptera, chiefly from Central America. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, VL, iv., p. 77, 18809. Rivers, J. J.—A new species of Californian Lepidoptera. Proc. Cal. Acad., IIL., i., p. 103.—Melitea macglashanit. * SOULE, C. G., and Exior, I. M.—Notes on the early stages ot some Heterocera. Psyche, V., p. 259, 1889. f * Hincerev, H.—Second brood of Callosamia promethea. Psyche, V., p. 280, 18809. * SouLe, C. G., and Euior, I. M.—Variation of color in the larve of Sphinx gordius. Psyche, V., 228, 1889. “Cockers. T D A Tisia milberti. Entomologist, XXIL, P. 185, 1889. * Smytu, E. A.—Notes on the southern distribution of some common butterflies. Psyche, V., p. 347, 1890. *Etwes, H. J.—The Argynnides of North America. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, Repr. Psyche, V., 308, 1890. x A revision of the genus Argynnis. Trans. Ent. Soc. London., IV., p. 53 5, 1889. * Rivers, J. J—The Argynnids of North America. Psyche, V., p. 328, 1890. * Suyru, E A— Notes on Collar eurytheme and C. philodice. Psyche, V., P- 334, 1890. a y Forges, S. A.—The American plum-borer, Euzophera semr funeralis. Psyche, V., p. 295, 1890. _* Grorz, A. R.—North American Lepidoptera. Revised check- list of the North American Noctuidae. Pt, I, Thyatirine-Noc tuide. Bremen, 1890, pp. 52. 1891.} Record of American Zoology. 555 * PACKARD, A. S.—The partial life-history of Pseudohazis eglanterta. Psyche, V., p. 325, 1890. * Hotmes, H.—Observations on Saturnia to. Psyche, V., p, 318, 1890. Scupper, S. H.—Diary of a hibernating butterfly. Psyche, V., p. 330, 1890. Smitu, J. B.—Preliminary catalogue of the Arctidz of Tem- perate North America, with notes. Can. Ent, XXII., pp. 52, 73, 100, 116, 141, 161, 175, 204, 230. Epwarps, W. H.—Correction of an error; /¢., 75.—Eury- nome vs. Erinna. Notes on a revision of the genus Argynnis by Henry J. Elwes; /.¢., p. 81, 1890. Bran, T. E—The butterflies of Laggan, N. W. T.; account of certain species inhabiting the Rocky Mountains in latitude 51° 25’. Can. Bant, XXIL, pp. 94, 126, 1890. Epwarps, W. H.—Description of a new. species of Argynnis from Canada. Can. Ent., XXII., p. 113, 1890.—A. alberta. Dany, W. H.—Food plants of Melitea taylori. Can. Ent., XXII., p. 121, 1890. Rowery, R. R.—Causes of long pupal periods among Lep- idoptera. ‘Can. Ent., XXIL, p. 123, 1890. Grove, A. R.—Hepialus quadriguttatus. Can. Ent, XXIL, p. 124, 1890. Frencu, G. H.—Some new moths. Can. Ent., XXIL, p. 133, 1890.—Crocota rosa (Ohio, Tex.), Platycerura gigantea (Col) ~ Exwes, H. J.—A reply to Mr. W. H. Edwards [supra]. Can. Ent, XXII., p. 150, 1890. Lyman, H. H.—Notes on Argynnis freya, chariclea, and mon- tinus. Can. Ent., XXII., p. 181, 1890. Dyar, H. G.—Partial preparatory stages of Erycides batabano. Can. Ent, XXII. p- 211, 1890. : Lyman, H. H—Note on the occurrence of Lepisesia flavo- fasciata.. Can. Ent, XXIIL., p. 8, 1891—At Ormston; Canada. Winy, A. F—List of Lepidoptera taken at Little Metis (Rimouski Co.), P. Que. Can. Ent, XXIII, p. 10, 1891—107 species, : 556 The American Naturalist. [June, BEUTENMULLER, W.—Description of the preparatory stages of Smerinthus excecutus. Can. Ent., XXIII., p. 14, 1891. Taytor, G. W.—Ayédernaria defoliaria Linn. in Vancouver Island. Can. Ent, XXIII, p. 15, 1891. Epwarps, W. H.—Chionobas bore. Can. Ent., XXIIL, p. 16, 1890.—In Colorado. : Beur, H. H.—Classification of Dryocampa riversii. Zoe,1, p. 106, 1890—Belongs to Edema. Yosemite Lepidoptera. Zoe, I., p. 177, 1890.—List of 21 Rhopalocera, with notes on distribution. Lorp WALSINGHAM.—Steps towards a revision of Chambers’ Index, with notes and descriptions of new species of [Tineina] continuation. Jnsect Life, IL, p. 284, 1890.—Cf. Nar., XXIV, p. 450. New species are Adela punctiferella (Cal.), A. e@rugino- sella (La.)—Id., l.c, p. 322, 1890. Coptotriche (n. g.), Fischeria ceanothi (Cal.) Murtretpt, M. E—An interesting Tineid. Znsect Life, Il, P. 303, 1890.— Minesta melanella n.sp. Larva mines in leaves of Quercus obtusiloba. Hopxins, C. L—Mountain swarming of Vanessa californica. Insect Life, Il., p. 355, 1890. Dyar, H. G—Preparatory stages of Syntomeida epilais Walker and Scepsis edwardsii Grote. Insect Life, Il., p. 360, 1890.— Larva of first on oleander, of second on rubber tree. . APHANIPTERA. Jons L. C.—The jigger-flea of Florida. Trans. Ent. Soc. ume I. , P- 203, 1890. DIPTERA. Ritey, C. V., and Howarp, L. O.—Anthrax parasitic on cut- Worms. Insect Life, IL, p.353, 1890. WEBSTER, F. M Notes on a species of necrophagous Diptera. Insect Life, Il, p. 356, 1890.—Larva of Conicira sp. in a disin- 3 | corpse. Ritey, C. V., and Howarp, L. O.—The tulip tree gall. Insect ns IL, p. 362, 1890.—Notes on Diplosis liriodendrt. A peach pest in sae Life, IIL, ix, 189° Ceratitis capitata, 1891.] Record of American Zoology. - 557 * Bicot, J. F. M.—Ann. Soc. Ent. France, VI., ix., 1889—"90.— Describes from North America Rhamphomyið morrisoni, R. pachymera, R. nigrita, R. geniculata. CurTICE, C.—The animal parasites of sheep. Washington, 1890. —Melophagus ovinus, Estrus ovis. OsTEN-SACKEN, C. R.—Correction to: Monographs of the Diptera of North America, Vol. I. Washington, 1862. Trans. Ent. Socy. Washington, I., p. 208, 1890. TownsEND, TYLER.—Notes on some interesting flies from the vicinity of Washington. Trans. Ent. Socy. Washington, I., p. 254, 1890. On the fall occurrence of Bibio and Dilophus; Z. c., p. 260, 1890 HAMILTON, J.—Onthe probable g santhemums by Eristalis tenax. Entom. Amer., VI., p. 81, 1890- WHEELER, W. M.—On two new species of Cecidomyid flies producing galls on Antennaria plantaginifolia. Proc. Wisc. N. H. Socy., 1889, p. 209.—C. antennaria, Asynapta antennari@ (Wisc.) WHEELER, W. M.—Descriptions of some new North American Dolichopodide. Psyche, pp. 337, 355» 373; 1890.—Dolichopus albiciliatus (Wisc.), D. incongruus (Wisc.), D. flagellitenens (Wisc.), D. henshawi (Mass.), D. germanus (Wisc.), Gymnopternus panitens (Wisc.), Chrysotus wisconsinensis, Ch. pratincola (Neb.), Ch. choricus (Wisc.) Diaphorus satrapa (Nebr.), D. palpiger (Wisc.), D. vauterbergi (Nebr.), Peloropeodes (n.g.) salax (Wisc.), Aphanto- timus (n. g.) willistoni (Wisc.), A. fraterculus (Wisc.), Hydrophorus Żhilombrius (Wisc.) are new. Notes are given on other forms. * Braver, F., and BercenstamM, J. Ep. v.—Die Zweiflügler des kaiserlichen Museums zu Wien. IV. Vorarbeiten zu einer Monographie der Muscaria Schizometopa (excl. Anthomyide) Denk. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien., Math. Nat. Classe, Bd., LVI, í Abth., p. 69, 1890. Cockerett, T. D. A—The Bigelovia Cecid. Ent. Mo. Mag., IL, 1, p. 109, 1890.— Cecidomyia bigelovia. * Suiru, J. B.—Notes on the structure and history of Hema- _ tobia serrata. Psyche, V., p. 343, 1890. Riney, C. V., and Howarp, L. O.—A grub supposed to have: traveled in the human body. Jnsect Life, Il, p. 238, 1890. llenizati f h Chry- a J * #. 558 The American Naturalist. [June, EDITORIAL. EDITORS, E, D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. PROFESSOR KARL VOGT, of Geneva, has been lecturing the naturalists, in the Revue Scientifique. Like a good blade he cuts both ways, for having hewed the theological Agag in pieces, he now reminds his fellow-workers that they, too, are no better than they ought to be. He quotes, with approval, the assertion of a modern author, that “in the early days of science the Creator dictated the laws ; later, this function was attributed to nature; but now M. M. the naturalists have assumed the duty with much enthusiasm.” Prof. Vogt’s polemic is directed against the dogma promulgated by Agassiz, and which was then used by Haeckel as one of the foundations of the evolution hypothesis, that the embryologic and paleontologic records agree. He easily finds numerous examples where the earlier and primitive forms of life as revealed by paleontologic research do not agree with the embryonic stages of living types. He finds this to be true of both’ Vertebrata and Invertebrata, and then triumphantly asks, “Where is your fundamental biological law ?” As Prof. Vogt is no doubt aware, this is no new difficulty so far as regards the want of coincidence between the embryologi¢ scale and that of living types. It was pointed out by Von Baer, the father of embryology. But the coincidences are so many that it was plain that’an explanation had to be sought, which, if found, would harmonize the discrepancies. As long ago as 1868, in an article entitled the “ Origin of Genera,” the senior editor of this journal stated that explanation, and the progress of discovery has Verified it, so that it is so far matter of common knowledge, that it is surprising that Prof. Vogt finds such a mare’s-nest to-day- This essay showed the necessary distinction between “ exact” and “inexact parallelism,” and the reason for it. ` Haeckel has referred the same order of facts to two causes, which he termed “ palin- — and “cenogeny.” In “palingeny” the complete phylo- genetic record is preserved in the embryology (ontogeny); pai “ cænogeny ” that record is not strictly adhered to. Now there are ‘two kinds of “ inexact parallelism.” One of these is due to “cemO- geny,” where the record is not maintained, for various reasons. 1891.] Editorial. 559 The other kind of “inexact parallelism” exists only in the brain of the student, and this is what chiefly troubles Prof. Vogt. It is always apparent when one attempts to compare things which should not be compared. If we compare, for instance, the embryologic record of a placental mammal with the adult non-placentals as they now exist, we will not get a parallel series, for the simple reason that both lines have long since abandoned their points of _ departure, and have added characters which were not present in their ancestors. The non-placentals are supposed with good rea- son to have been the ancestors of the placentals, yet the embryos of the latter, as is well known, do not possess marsupial bones nor inflected angles of the lower jaw. But it is also well known that a few existing Marsupialia do not possess either of these charac- ters, and it is generally admitted that some of the Jurassic Mam- malia resemble such Marsupialia most closely, and are probably the very ancestors for which we are looking. Andsoeverywhere. . It was expressly pointed out in the paper mentioned, that in order to find “exact parallelism” it is necessary to compare the species which form the same single line of descent; and that in proportion as our comparisons depart from this line, by so much will the inexactitude appear. As regards the Vertebrata, it will not be long before we will be able to present several Such lines, and ultimately many of them. In the lower animals the case will be more difficult as to their major characters at least, since these originated in such ancient geologic ages, and the structures them- Selves are generally so fragile, that some of the evidence must have been lost. “ Cænogeny” is, however, most especially seen in _ animals with long periods of metamorphosis. Here the larva has a life of its own, subject to the same classes of stimuli as those which affect the adult. But the history of these changes, when unraveled, will present the same parallelism between the primitive and later forms of larve as does the adult evolution itself—C. SOME important extra-American explorations have been recently undertaken by our citizens. The U. S. Fish Commission steamer “Albatross,” while on her way to the Pacific coast, recently con- ducted a series of sounding and dredging operations between the Central American coast and the Galapagos Islands, aided by 560 The American Naturalist. [June, Prof. Alexander Agassiz, who accompanied the expedition. More recently Prof. G. Baur, of Clark University, has under- taken an exploration of the Galapagos, with the express object of making the fullest geological and biological researches. An expe- dition has been fitted out by Lieut. Peary, U.S.N., for the purpose of approaching as near to the North Pole as possible via Northern Greenland. He goes under the auspices of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and is accompanied part of the way by Profs. Angelo Heilprin and Sharp, ofthat institution, and by Prof. Hoyt, of the Philadelphia High School. Mr. W. L. Abbott, of Philadelphia, recently returned from an extensive exploration of Central Africa, bringing with him several new vertebrates (including two antelopes) from Mount Kilimanjaro. He has recently returned, and will continue his researches. AT its last meeting the National Academy of Sciences elected _ two foreign associates: Prof. Karl Gegenbaur, of Heidelberg, and Dr. J. S. Stas, of Belgium. These gentlemen occupy the first rank in their respective pursuits, viz., comparative anatomy and chem- istry. Their election confers honor both upon them and upon the Academy. Two vacancies existed in the membership at the time of the last meeting, but the Academy did not see its way clear to fill them, although eligible candidates were not wanting. The deaths of Hilgard, Leidy, and Le Conte have caused vacancies which will render more probable several elections next year. Mosr of the Philadelphia members of the committee on recep- tion of the International Congress of Geologists of 1892, have resigned from that body as an expression of their dissatisfaction with the change of place of holding the congress from Philadel- _ phia to Washington, after the former had been adopted by the Bureau of the Congress. Prof. Leidy, who signed a protest against the change, has since died, and Prof. Heilprin, who did not protest, has since resigned. Prof. Lesley alone remains on the committee. THE new Scribner’s Century Dictionary has an especial value to scientific men from the care its. publishers have taken to represent fully the language of modern science. The editorship of Profs. oe Gill and Coues guarantees its excellence from the side of biology- ` 1891.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 561 RECENT PIRS AND PAMPHLETS. AMEGHINO, F.—Los Piagiaulacideos Argentinos y sus Relaciones Zoologicas Geo- logicas y. Geo {ficas. Boll. del Inst. Geograf. Argentino, Tome XI., 1890. Lista de la Republica Argentina, 1888.—Apuntes Preliminares sobre Algunos Mamiferos Estinguidos del Yacimiento de ‘‘ Monte-Hermoso” Existentes en el “ Museo la Plata.’ Ext. de la Entraga 1a del Tomo 1 del Bol. del Mus. La Plata, 1887.—Emuneracion Sistematica de las Especies de Mamiferos Fosiles Collecionadas por C. Ameghino en los Terrenos Eocenos de la Patagonia Austral y Depositados en el Museo La Plata. BECKER, G. F.—Antiquities from Under Tuolumne Table Mousitnin i in California.— Notes on he Early Cretaceous of -s ae Oregon, Exts. Bulk Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 189-200, Pl. 7; pp. 201-208. the author BRAINERD, E.—The Chazy banbae® in pn Champlain Valley. Ext. Bull. Geol. Surv. Am., Vol. II., pp. 293-300, Pl. rr. From the society. BROWNE, M.—Revision of Dapedius. Reprint Trans Leicester Lit. and Philos. uthor. CAMPBELL, H. D., and W. G. BRowN—Composition of Certain Mesozoic Igneous Rocks of Virginia. Ext. Bull. Geol. Surv. Am., Vol. II., pp. 339-348. From the society. 1 CHANCE, H. M.—The Resources of the Black Hills and Big Horn Country, Wyoming Read before the Am. Inst Mining Engineers, September, 1890. From the author. CHARENCEY, M. LE COMPTE DE.—Etude sur la langue Mam. Ext. der Compte Rendu du Congrès International des Americanistes me session - Berlin’ 1888. From the author CLUTE E, O.—Education at the Michigan Agricultural College. From the peri CREDNER, H.—Die Urvi ee (Eotetrapoda) des Sächsischen Rothliegenden. Sonder-Abdruck aus der Naturwissenschaftlichen Wochenschrift. From the author. ALL, W. H.—On Dynamic PEDES in Evolution. From the author. DIXON, S. G.—Koch's Method of Treating Tuberculosis. Ext. Medical News, Janu- ary, 1891. From the author DUPONT, E.—Notice sur LauréniSoc. Can., Vol. VII., Sec. 4, 1890. From the author. WHITMAN, E. O.—Specialization and Organization, Companion Principles of all Pro- gress, Reprint from Beet Lectures, 1890, From the aut WIEDERSHEIM, R.—Beitraige zur Entwicklungsgeschicte von Proteus anguineus. Separat-Abdruck aus] dem apc fiir Mikroskop. Anatomie, Band XXXV. From the author. WILLIAMS, G. H.—The TPED and Structure of the Piedmont Plateau in Mary- land. Ext. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., II,, pp. 301-319. From the society. WILLIS, B.—Graphic Field eee n Areal Geology, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IL., pp. «cs P1.6. From the author WIN , A=—The meant lata eee ome Geology of Western Arkansas. Bull. ea. ae Am., Vol. II., pp. 225-242, Pl. 8. m the author. WOLFF, J. E.—On the as Cambrian Age 7 x Stockbridge Limestone. Ext. Bull. Geol. hooks Am., Vol. ÍI., pp. 331-338. From the society. WOODWARD, A. SMITH. —On a Tooth of a Carboniferous Dipnoan Fish : oops neno —On Two Groups of Teeth of the Cretaceous Selachian Fish Ptychod Reprints from the Annual Report Yorkshire Philos. Soc., 1889. From the author. OLTERSTORFF, W.—A/dytes obstetricanus und Triton palmatus im Thüringer Wald. Separat-Abdruck aus dem Zoologischer Anzeiger, No. 357, 1891. ——Ueber die Geographische Verbreitung der Amphibien Deutschlands insbesondere Wiirttembergs. oh ctepipsiran te us Tieni des Vereins für vaterl. Naturkunde in Wiirtt,’ 1890. From the author RECENT LITERATURE. The Oyster: A Popular Summary of a Scientific Study,’ by Prof. William K. Brooks, of Johns Hopkins University, is a most fascinating little volume,—fascinating not only for the way in which the story of an oyster’s life is told, but also because it is the first time that the real dangers to the great oyster industry of the Chesapeake ave been clearly told so that the “ practical man ” may no longer have any excuse for ignorance and disregard of them. The remedy for the threatening danger of extinction of the oyster in a large pro- Portion of the waters of Maryland is pointed out, and it is to be hoped that the necessary steps may be taken looking towards rational methods of oyster culture and adequate legislation in the state of Maryland. The author, after giving an account of the most successful experi- ments in rearing spat at home and abroad, gives histories of how our * The Oyster: A Popular Summary of a Scientific Study. By W. K. Brooks. Johns Hopkins Press, 1891. + ! cultivated product. Let us not imitate their example.—J. A. R. t ë 564 The American Naturalst. [June, people have been abusing the promise of the lavish fecundity of nature until to-day oysters are extinct in certain places, or rapidly becoming so over areas as large as the Chesapeake Bay. e speaks in no uncer- tain tones, and from abundance of verified observation and experience, in regard to what are the most important steps to be taken in practical culture and legislation which shall protect the cultivator and give him the reward of his labor. The illustrations are selected for the most part from more technical memoirs already published by the author and others, and illustrate the little volume and its subject admirably. The second plate illustrating the relations of the viscera is, however, open to the criticism that the ‘liver ” is represented ina manner which does not obtain in the oyster — at any time in the course of its life. No ducts open upon what may | be regarded as the dorsal aspect of the stomach, as seems to be repre- ~ sented on this plate. The histological details representing the structur® of the gills might also have been more carefully and accurately repre- sented than is done in Plate 1. But these are matters of minor importance, and‘do not essentially detract from the value of this little volume as an epoch-making contribution to the whole subject of the oyster industry and oyster culture. It is to be hoped that the advice it contains will be heeded by the legislators and the interested public, else it may be safely predicted that the center of maximum production, ten or twenty years hence, will not be the Chesapeake and its tribu- taries, but Long Island Sound, New Jersey, and Delaware Bay will become the dominant sources of supply. If the productiveness of those regions should fail, we should soon be reduced to paying as dearly for our oysters as the English, German, and French do for theirs, and to whom the oyster has long since become a luxury that is not within the reach of the slender means of the poor. They have already suf- fered the penalty for the improvident exploitation and exhaustion of the natural supply, and now depend almost wHolly upon the artificially 1891]. Geology and Paleontology. 565 General Notes. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. On the Crystalline Schists and Their Relation to the Mesozoic Rocks in the Lepontine Alps.'—At the close of the year 1888 Prof. T. G. Bonney read before the London Geological Society a paper in which he maintained that these rocks could be arranged in certain fairly definite groups, which exhibited a strati- graphical succession. On this communication only two criticisms of importance were offered. Of these one expressed a doubt as to the — value of the method which Mr. Bonney had adopted in his work ; t other affirmed that certain schists, regarded by Mr. Bonney as members — of a very ancient series, probably Archean, had been demonstrated by the presence of Mesozoic fossils to be of the latter age; or, in other words, that in the Alps ordinary sediments deposited in the Jurassic epoch had been subsequently converted into true crystalline schists, a result øf metamorphic action, which he had implicitly affirmed to be incredible. Early in 1890 Prof. Bonney replied to these Criticisms in the following language: i ‘ The former criticism, which amounted to an assertion that the general succession of the Alpine rocks could only be ascertained by very detailed mapping, in my opinion indicated an imperfect knowl. edge of the subject, while it was scientifically unsound and historically incorrect. It indicated an imperfect knowledge because, as a matter of fact, a considerable part of the Alps has already been mapped, not by irresponsible amateurs but by official surveyors, and it was with the interpretation of these maps that I was largely concerned ; and because it assumed that an impossibility could be performed. As I have had the honor to fill the same position in the Alpine Club that I haye done in this society, I may affirm, without fear of contradiction, that a very elaborate petrographical mapping of the Alps 1s impossible, for the most painstaking and conscientious of surveyors must assume much that is incapable of demonstration. A very'large part of the whole area is concealed by snow, glaziers, débris, pasture, forest ; and some 1 On the Crystalline Schists and Their Relation to the Mesozoic Rocks in tDe & — Alps. By T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.GS., Professor of Geology sity College, London, and Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. - 566 The American Naturalist. [June, one of these obstacles very frequently interferes, in a most provoking way, just at the most critical point. Further, no small amount of the rock which is visible can only be regarded from a distance. Many a cliff, many a ridge, is inaccessible, and the examination, even of every point which it would be possible to reach, would require the expendi- ture of such an amount of time that I am certain it never has been, and believe that it never will be done. ‘¢ But further, the criticism, in my opinion, was scientifically unsound — and historically unjustifiable,—scientifically unsound because very commonly the most important problems which are presented by the crystalline rocks receive a decisive answer from one or two sections only. Ihave not the slightest desire to undervalue elaborate mapping, but we must be careful not to treat it as a fetish, as though it were the only means appointed for the discovery of geological truth. Its results more commonly are the removal of minor difficulties in a conclusion already attained, and the disclosure of the precise mode in which cer- tain effects have been produced. The criticism was historically unjus- tifiable because, so far as my knowledge goes, it is a fact that in regard to difficult petrological questions infallibility has not been found to reside with the makers of geological maps. ‘‘ My work, both in the Alps and in other regions, which has been carried on with a definite object and a fairly clear idea as to the need- ful evidence, has led me to the following conclusions, which, though they have been already expressed, I will venture to repeat for the information of the reader: ‘1. That a group of truly crystalline schists is always more ancient than any rock to which, on the evidence of fossils, a date can be assigned, “2. That many such groups can be proved to be older than any Paleozoic rock. “3. That though crystalline schists have often been claimed as metamorphosed sedimentary strata of Paleozoic or Mesozoic, if not of Tertiary age, the evidence in support of this claim has hitherto always broken down on careful examination, and in not a few instances has proved hardly worthy of the name. 7 4. That in certain cases structures exist in the crystalline schists which must be indicative of sedimentation, and that in not a few TOS a sequence can be detected which must be due to successive deposition. Great as modifications resulting from subsequent pressure very frequently are, these may often be separated, and the earlier record as in the case of a palimpset be deciphered. 1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 567 ‘In the Alps there exists, as has frequently been pointed out by those who have preceded me, a great group of crystalline schists, the bulk of which must be metamorphosed sedimentary deposits. This group can be traced, practically without a break, from one end of the chain to the other. These schists certainly.overlie, sometimes it would seem unconformably, another series of gneisses and schists, generally coarser in texture. These seem to be divisible into two groups, differing in lithological characters, of which the upper, though sometimes well eveloped, is not seldom wanting; so that instead of the gradual transition from it to the first-nafed group, which can sometimes be observed, we find the latter resting with marked discordance upon some part of the lower series. “The oldest unaltered rocks in the Alps generally belong to the lowest part of the Mesozoic system, Jurassic or Triassic (possibly sometimes Permian), but in certain districts not inconsiderable deposits of Carboniferous age (quite disconnected from the last named) occur, and in the northeastern Alps Paleozoic rocks of yet earlier date have been identified. All these are practically unaltered, An exceptionally wide experience enables me to affirm, without fear of contradiction, that, in case of any large mass which would be referred without hesi- tation to the Jurassic, Triassic, or Carboniferous group, there will not be found, however great may have been the mechanical disturbances ~ which it has undergone, any transition exhibited by it into one of the normal gneisses or schists ; at most a microfoliation has been developed or a superficial resemblance set up. The crystalline schists also do not exhibit, as a rule, any tendency to pass into ordinary sedimentary rocks. Appearances suggestive of this transition are found on closer examination to be due either to pulverization of the rocks by pressure, or to the inclusion of a later series by folding or faulting. “ But while there can be no doubt of the general truth of this state- ment, it has recently been asserted that in certain districts of the Alps there is a passage from Jurassic rocks into truly crystalline noah while in others fossils of that age occur together with garnet, mr and minerals resembłing staurolite, in schists which cannot be distin- guished from certain members of the above-named eer If B x assertion be correct, it must follow (1) that the Alps exhibit true TERU and (2) that, Masmuch as these are undistinguishable fro! _ &raphical evidence can be proved to be very mu Mesozoic rocks, a schist, like a granite or a dolerite, almost any geological epoch. might belong to M 568 The American Naturalist. [ ime l “This last opinion can claim the sanction of antiquity and the authority of weighty names, but the progress of investigation had largely diminished the number of its supporters, when it seemed to | receive a new life from a recognition of the amazing effects of mechanical forces in modifying- rock-structures, and from the above- named discoveries in the Alps. Specimens illustrative of the latter | were exhibited at the International Congress in September, 1888. , Those supposed to indicate the passage of an ordinary Jurassic lime- | _ stone into a crystalline marble (from a district which I had already 7 visited) did not appear to me convincing. But those exhibiting fossils . in a rock resembling a true schist were certainly very remarkable, | and seemed to afford considerable support to the opinion mentioned above. I was, not, however, convinced by them, because, though I | had not examined the two localities in which the supposed ‘ fossili- ferous schists’ occurred, I was fairly acquainted with the geology of the district, and had been very near, in one case within less than a mile, to each locality. I had also examined rocks identical, as I | believed, with those in which the fossils occurred. The knowledge | thus obtained, notwithstanding the apparent evidence of the specimens exhibited, suggested to my mind the possibility of a mistake, and å doubt whether the identity of the fossiliferous rock with the true schists of the district was not more apparent than. real. Still, s0 remarkable were the specimens, sọ great was the weight of authority, ` that when these cases were quoted against me in the discussion on MY paper, I departed from that which has become almost a rule with me; viz.,to pay no regard to criticisms founded on second-hand information : —and stated that I accepted the challenge.” ` oa During the summer of 1889 Prof. Bonney resumed his study of the district under discussion in company with Mr. J. Eccles, F.G-S. results of their investigations fully confirm the conclusions Prof. Bonney had stated the year before. | The Australian Cenozoic Fauna.—Mr. J. W. Gregory 5375 that this fauna seems to be composed of two constituents; about 3 third are species of the ordinary Palearctic Upper Cretaceous genera; cated seem to have migrated southwards and become mingled on ther : Journey with a fauna that agrees most closely with that of the Eocents of India and Malaysia. No abyssal types were picked up OP ~~ : march, nor do any of the species retain any trace of the influencë r . deep-sea habitat. Hence the route may have followed the coasts = Asia and Malaysia, or the line may have lain across what is now 1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 569 occupied by the deep abysses of the Indian Ocean ; but if so it must have occurred before its bed had subsided to anything like its present depth. (Geol. Mag., Nov., 1890.) Fossil Fishes of the Cretaceous Formations of Scandi- navia.2—This is a quarto publication of the Royal Dublin Society, and forms part of Vol. IV. (Series II.) of their Transactions. As the author had placed at his disposal the collections at Stockholm and Copenhagen, and furthermore had the opportunity of comparing the Scandinavian specimens with those in the British Museum, his memoir is a valuable contribution to science. The classification is based on that of Mr. A, Smith Woodward, and _ with few exceptions, the most important family represented is the Lam- nide. A general view of the ichthyic fauna of the Swedish chalk is given as follows: “It has shown, generally, a closer relationship to the Cretaceous fauna of the north of Europe, as represented in the English and French chalk, than to the more highly specialized fauna of Asia Minor ; but it does not afford representatives of several of the Physos- tomous Teleostomi, such as Ichthyodectes, Protosphyreena, and Pachy- thizodus, which occur in the English chalk, and have been found in the Upper Cretaceous rocks of North America. A few teeth occur in the Swedish chalk which are referred to Enchodus. Examples of a large species of Dercetis occur, and some fragmentary remains which are probably Clupean. ‘The highly specialized forms, such as Chiro- thrix, Rhinellus, etc., found in the Lebanon chalk, do not occur in the chalk of Sweden. Among the Acanthopterygian Teleosteans the most important are the remains of Beryx and Hoploptery%- ‘“ The great majority of the fish remains are Selachian, and comprise no fewer than twenty-four species. Three species, V1Z., Carcharodon rondeletii (M. & H.), Otodus obliquus (Ag.), and OEI e (Ag.) are usually regarded and known as indicating a Tertiary fauna ; _ but in the Scandinavian chalk they have been found in association with many undoubted Cretaceous forms in the Faxe limestone, and so appear to prove that these species were in existence before the Ae of the deposition of the Tertiary strata. The Tectospondylic shar ; are represented by two species of Ptychodus and indefinable aes o Myliobatis. The Asterospondylic sharks occur in very large numbers, Scandinavia. By James NW. On the Fossil Fi s Formations of i Jn ossil Fishes of the Cretaceous XLVL Trans. Royal Dublin _ Davis, F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A., etc. Plates XXXVIII. to = Soc., Vol. IV., Series IT. - 570 The American Naturalist. [June, and represent several genera. Beautifully preserved specimens of Notidanus, Scapanorhyncus (Rhinognathus), Odontaspis, Oxyrhina, Otodus, Lamna, and Corax are abundant, and have a wide vertical range. The character and extent of the Selachian fauna indicate conditions very similar to those accompanying the deposition of the English and French chalk, and that of Central Europe generally, whilst it affords comparatively few data for comparison with that of Lebanon.” The Surface Geology of Alaska.—I. C. Russell’s paper on the surface geology of Alaska contains some interesting facts on the glaciation of that region. He agrees with Dauron and McConnell that there is a great area to the north of the Cordilleran glacier which was not occupied by ice during the Plistocene. Of living glaciers those on the north side of the Coast Range are very much smaller than, and do not descend nearly so far as, the glaciers on the south side of the same range. Closely related to the distribution of the glaciers are certain climatic phenomena. _ In the Yukon region the winters are long and extremely cold, but the snowfall is not great. The summers, though short, are pleasant, and hot enough to melt the winter’s snows. On the southern coast the winters are not severe, but the snowfall is heavy on the mountains, and the summers are cloudy and hot, with much fog. These observations show that abundant precipitation, accompanied by a low mean annual temperature (due especially to a cool and cloudy : Summer) has resulted in the formation of the vast ice-fields on the southern coast of Alaska from which magnificent glaciers descend to the sea. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I., pp. 99-162.) . Geological News.—General.—Sir. Wm. Dawson has retained the name “Quebec Series” in his recently published hand-book, as the name for the Atlantic type of the lower member of the Ordovician, : and as equivalent to Upper Calciferous and Chazy of the interior region of America. (Canadian Record Science, July, 1890.)—— Alexander Somervail offers the theory of ‘segregation’’ as an explan- ation of the banded structure of certain rocks in the Lizard District, England. By the the term segregation he means the separation of the unlike, and the union of like, minerals during the cooling of the common magna out of which the rocks are formed. (Geol. Mag.» Nov., 1890.) Henry Hicks is of the opinion that the pre-Cambrian rocks of Britain contain evidences of successive periods of elevation 1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 571 and depression, and probably of volcanic activity. He thinks also that the tendency of the evidence is to show that some granitoid rocks, such as those classed in Wales under the name Dimetian, are among the very oldest of the pre-Cambrian rocks which are now found exposed, and that some quartzites, porcellanites, and schists occupy an intermediate position in point of age between these granitoid rocks and the Pebidian series. (Geol. Mag., Nov., 1890.) MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.' Petrographical News.—Mount Avidlo, in the southern Alps, consists in part of tonalite and in part of a quartz-mica-diorite, both of which intersect a series of crystalline schists, in which contact alteration has been effected. The tonalite is the rock so well known as comprising a large part. of the Adamello group of the Alps. It is essentially a hornblendic quartz-mica-diorite. A garnetiferous variety ‘is described by Salomon? as an endomorphous contact product. It is characterized by the possession of plagioclase zonally developed, with the most acid zones on the exterior. The extinction of crystalsevaries as much as 30°, being by this much greater in the nucleus than in the peripheral portions. The quartz-mica-diorite forms a boss only two kilometers distant from that of the tonalite, but it is regarded by the author as having no genetical relation with the latter. These two masses of eruptives are surrounded by two series of schists: a younger series including phyllites and epidote-amphibolites, and an older one embracing gneiss and mica-schists. The former are in contact with the diorite, by which they have been changed into rocks composed essentially of quartz, muscovite, biotite, chlorite, and andalusite, of which the biotite and andalusite are new products. Corundum, tour- maline, sillimanite, and zircon are also new products, but are — only in small quantity. A cordierite-biotite rock, consisting of was found as an inclusion 1n the diorite. According to the degree of alteration effected in them the rocks are separated into two zones: an outer one, the zone of the ilmenite-frucht-schiefer, in which the phyllites have suffered merely ls change of their chlorite into biotite, and an inner zone, 1 which andalusite is an important constituent. The schists around the tonalite belong to’ the older series of gneiss and mica-schists. These have been 1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me. ? Zeits. d. deutsch. geol. Ges., XLIL., 1899, p. 450- 572 The American Naturalist. [June, more completely metamorphosed than the members of the phyllite series, for in addition to andalusite there is an abundant development of cordierite in them, where they approach the eruptive. As in the case of the diorite contact belt, there have also been recog- nized in the belt surrounding the tonalite two distinct contact zones. In the outer one the normal gneiss and mica-schists have been changed into cordierite and andalusite varieties, containing a fibrous orthoclase. In the inner zone all resemblance to gneiss and mica-schists has dis- . appeared, and the rocks have become aggregates of cordierite, anda- lusite, plagioclase, sillimanite, tourmaline, garnet, spinel, corundum, and zircon. The replacement of the orthoclase of the outer zone by plagioclase in the inner one indicates a difference in the composition of the two belts, but this is thought not to be a result of more intense metamorphism, but as due rather to a difference in the composition of the original materials. The cordierite in these rocks is colorless and non-pleochroic, but it becomes brown and pleochroic on heating. It often twins parallel to œP, and alters readily to a pinnite-like sub- stance. The other constituents possess no unusual peculiarities, They are all well described, but none are analyzed. Dykes of porphy- rite cut the schists, and a single one occurs in the tonalite, but none of them merit special mention in this place. The most valuable con- tribution to the study of the crystalline schists that has appeared for some time is entitled ‘‘ The Greenstone-Schist Areas of the Menom- inee and Marquette Regions of Michigan.” In it the author, Dr. G. H. Williams,’ discusses the origin of the crystalline schists found so widely spread over the country bordering on Lake Superior. The _ paper opens with an excellent historical review of the recent work on crystalline schists in Europe, in which all the important articles on dynamically formed schists are abstracted. This chapter, together with the foot-notes accompanying it, form a splendid resumé of the _ present state of our knowledge on this subject, and is well worthy the study of all geologists, particularly of those who still hold to the — _ belief that all schistose rocks were originally laid down as sediments. In the special part of the volume the author describes the present fea- tures of the green schists of Michigan, and shows conclusively that were once igneous rocks, often volcanic flows, sometimes tufas, in - which foliation and mineral changes have been produced by dynamic agencies. The rocks from which the schists were formed were diabases, a | : ; diabase-porphyries, diorites, and gabbros among the basic types, granites and quartz-porphyries among the acid types. The resulting 3 Bull. No. 62, U. S. Geol, Survey. $ 1891.] ; Mineralogy and Petrography. 573 types are chlorite and hornblende-schists, granulites, gneisses and por- phyroids, sericite-schists, and other foliated rocks, An important part of the study is that embracing the discussion of the effects of pressure upon the mineral constituents of the original rocks, and of the new structures produced in the secondary rocks. The new minerals formed during the production of the schists are albite, microcline, zoisite, garnet, quartz, hornblende, epidote, biotite, muscovite, sericite, rutile, anatase, and sphene. Each of these is carefully described, and the conditions under which it was formed are carefully examined. The genesis of the schistose structure is finely worked out, both macro- scopically and microscopically, and the mineral change that accom- panies the development of the foliation is well shown. A large body of green schists is thus proven to have been developed by pressure from massive rocks, just as the gabbro-diorites were formed from gab- bros in the Baltimore region. There are many interesting features of the Michigan schists that might be dwelt upon at some length did space permit, and many important mineralogical metamorphoses might be referred to. But no review, however full, can do more than Suggest the outline of the bulletin. It must be read to be understood. The many. good maps and illustrations and the nine lithographic plates of rock structures render great aid to the reader. It is evident that the schists of Michigan cannot grade into the overlying fragmen- tals, and since they are much more squeezed than these, that they can- not be of the same age.——An important communication, bearing upon the relation existing between dyke rocks and their corresponding Plutonic facies, has lately appeared under the names of Hunter and Rosenbusch,* who have discovered that one of the rocks occurring in dyke form in the elzolite-syenite region of the Serra de Tingua, Brazil, is a new type, which may be regarded as the equivalent of the plutonic elzolite-syenite. The rock has been called trachyte, phono- lite, and basalt by various writers, but the present authors have decided to give it a distinctive name, ‘‘ monchiquite,’’ from the locality in Por- tugal from whence the type was first described. The rock belongs among the camptonites. It is of a dark color, and is composed of a dense ground-mass holding small phenocrysts of amphibole, pyroxene, examined, the ground-mass is found to . mica, and olivine. Carefully * Miner. u. Petrog. Mitth., XI., 1890, p. 445: 574 The American Naturalist. . [June, SiO, TiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO MgO CaO Na,O K.O HO CO Rock 46.48 .99 16.16 6.17 6.09 +92 7-35. 5-85 3-08 4.27 .45 Base 53.43 20.86 2.61 -29 1.14 11.63 2.51 7.06 But little interest attaches to the components of the rock. The horn- blende and augite are often zonally developed. In the former the kernel shows evidence of having been corroded, while the external envelope never exhibits sign of such resorption. Analyses of one variety of the augite and of the hornblende appear in the paper. The latter mineral contains 3.37 per cent. of K,O. As the result of a microscopic study of the « Weissenberg gneiss,’’ in Saxony, in which cordierite and other characteristic contact minerals were discovered, Weber ë pronounces the rock a member of the graywacke series that has been metamorphosed by the Lausitz granite.—The basalt of Royat (Puy-de-Dome) contains geode-like cavities lined with calcite and other minerals, Calcite also fills crevices and holds fragments of the rock torn from the sides of the clefts. In some of these fragments are crystals of feldspar with the morphological and optical properties of orthoclase, but with a large proportion of sodium in its composi- tion (SiO, = 66.83 ; Al,O, = 19.20 ; CaO =.06; K,O = 6.29 ; Na,O= 6.8).°——Zirkel? has determined the small hexagonal crystals in the altered sandstone of Steinberg, in the Habichtswald, Germany, to be cordierite, produced probably by the solution of the interstitial sub- stance of the sandstone by basalt. Termier ê notes the occurrence of veins of orthoclase and quartz in the silicified Carboniferous schists of Saint-Etiénne, whose structure is neither micropegmatitic nor micro- , Stanulitic, though both minerals were deposited simultaneously from the same mother-liquor, He also describes briefly a silicified schist consisting of bands of opal and chalcedony, from the Butte of Mont- _ ‘Taynand.—,-Quartz-twins occur porphyritically developed in the 9 pumice of Cobo de Gata. Miscellaneous.—Offret W has recently published a very exhaustive account of some investigations upon, the effect of various temperatures upon the indices of refraction of several minerals, for every color 10 the visible spectrum, His paper opens with an historical review of the - Work already published. Then follows a very full description of the ‘ Arnie Jahrb. J. Min., etc., 1891, L., P. 211. : eee Soc. Franc. d. Min., III., 1890, p. 372. Sf Min., ete., 1891, I., p. 109. Bull ranc. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p. 330. nn. Neues Jahrb. f. Min, etc., 1891, I., p- 108. `- 9 Osa 10 Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p. 450. 1891.] Minerale and Petrography. Y methods used in his investigations, and of the apparatus employed. A thorough discussion of the limitations of ‘his methods covers about a hundred pages. After showing that the, results obtained by the method used, which is that of the prism, are quite accurate, he records his measurements upon calcite, beryl, phenacite, aragonite, barite, cordierite, two topaz crystals from different localities, orthoclase, and oligoclase, at temperatures up to 330°. In two tables, appended to the statements of general results reached in each case, are given the indices of refraction for six differently colored rays moving along the several axes of elasticity in each mineral, and under different conditions of temperature: (1) as measured in warm air, (2) as calculated for a vacuum. A third table contains the values of the double refraction calculated for a vacuum, and a fourth represents the variations in the angle of the prism used produced by different temperatures. Without entering into the details of the investigation, it may be said that the figures reached by the author are worthy of the greatest confidence, and that when differing from those obtained by other observers they must be accepted in place of these latter. Among the most interesting of the general results obtained are the following : Of the minerals examined only barite and aragonite show a refractive index decreasing with an increase in temperature. There is a general increase in the value of the optical angle and in the dispersion of the axes, with increase in temperature. The double refraction increases with the temperature only in the case of beryl. Brazilian topaz is the only mineral showing a decrease in the amount of double refraction, 1m passing from red to violet light. Other points of interest brought out in the work are too numerous for mention here. The paper covers ba me: dred and eighty-seven pages. In a recent communication arel gives a very valuable synopsis of microchemical methods, app uct not only to the determination of the constituents of minerals in t in sections of rocks, but useful also as aids to the blowpipe in Sepe tive mineralogy. His article opens with a few EURA Apr on manipulation. Then follows a résumé of the tests that have g1 ese most satisfaction in the detection of fifty-nine of the EF as are arranged alphabetically, and under each are given the aa A for making the tests selected. Wyrouboff ™ proposes a Oe i for the explanation of polymorphism, and shows how eaten : a very also the explanation of pseudo-symmetry. His paper, T ar sero clear exposition of. his views, opens with the account of his _ | Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B. B. VIL., P- 434 ® Bull. Soc. Franc, d. Min., XIII., 1890, p. 277- Am, Nat.—June.—5. 576 The American Naturalist. [June, standing of the differences between polymerism, polymorphism, and pseudo-symmetry. The first he regards as purely chemical, and as not affecting in any way the arrangement of particles in crystals. It has to do merely with the molecules, while polymorphism has to do with the crystal particles.3 The molecules unite according to certain definite laws, yielding the crystal particles, which may exist even in solution, when they may reveal themselves by their effect upon polarized light. The crystal particles are in their turn disposed regularly to form the crystal. When this disposition is identical with that of the molecules in the crystal particles a symmetrical body results. When the arrangement of the particles is different from that of their constituent molecules the body is pseudo-symmetrical. The various forms of a polymorphic body belong to the first class, which is divided into two groups. In the first belong those substances in which @ change in crystallization occurs without a corresponding change in homogeneity. In the second class belong those bodies which, when heated, break up into a large number of individuals of a different grade of symmetry from the original individual, without definite contours and without definite arrangement. To explain the first class the author supposes the molecules in the crystal particles to undergo a rearrangement coincident with that of the particles themselves. This is called direct polymorphism. Indirect polymorphism is the term - applied to the change the second class of substances undergo. In these the symmetry of the particles changes, while that of the aggre- gate of particles remains unchanged. To the first class only is the term polymorphism strictly applicable. The second class belong rather to the paramorphic bodies. The second part of the paper contains results of observations on polymorphic substances, among which are the bichromates of rubidium, potassium, and ammonium, and the sulphates of sodium and of lithium. O. Lehmann," in a very brief communication, states his view of crystal structure, which is quite — different from that of Wyrouboff. He declares that the essential condition of a crystal is not the regular arrangement of the molecules in the particles, but it is the construction of. these molecules. He also reiterates the statement made in his ‘‘ Molecular Physik ’’ to the effect that no chemical substance can crystallize in more than one way- Allotriomorphic and polymorphic substances are different chemically- In a second paper! he gives brief descriptions of eight additional a o AMERICAN NATURALIST, Feb., 1890, p. 174. Zeits. f. Kryst., XNIIL., 1890, p. 456. BIb., p. 464. 1891.] Zoology. 577 organic compounds that show allotropic forms.——The parts of Dr. Hintze’s'® Mineralogy continue to appear with commendable rapidity. The fourth part concludes the discussion of prehnite, takes up in order axinite, harstigite, and the pyrosmalite group, and begins the treatment of the micas, which occupies one-hundred-and-twenty-five pages, and is not yet finished. Although there are perhaps some omissions to be noted with respect to American occurrences, the thoroughness of the author’s work cannot be gainsaid. The analyses of biotite given in the article on that mineral number 177, and those of muscovite 120, in addition to some twenty or thirty of varieties of these minerals. Dufet 17 describes a new method for the determina- tion of the optical orientation and of the dispersion of the axes in triclinic minerals, and applies his method to the study of potassium bichromate. Mr. Lane ® illustrates a method for determining the ' planes in crystals in thin section. -It is based in the relations existing between the zone-circles and face-points in a stereographic projection, ZOOLOGY. The Coloration of the Flounders.—Whoever has seen the flounders alive, or even dead but not deprived of their skin, has noticed the remarkable difference existing between the dorsal aspect exposed to the water and the ventral surface which in the living animal moves along the bottom. While the dorsal face is more or less pigmente® the ventral is white. Why is this? The school of Weismann, more Darwinian than Darwin himself, is accustomed to attribute the fact to hatural-selection ; and the school, which is rapidly increasing, ar- ing to which the environment affects the animal, ought to attribute * to a physical influence, in view of the fact that the ventral side receives naturally much less light than the dorsal. In truth, one cannot rae how natural selection could produce it. From this pean: of m oF coloration of the ventral side seems of no importance, and if it Is e one would think that it is more advantageous to the flounder = this side gray, like the dorsal, rather than white,—that is to say, -T Professor Cunningham, of the Marine Biological ESERE: recently studied this phenomenon, and believes that 1t 1s cued DY 1 Handbuch der Mineralogie. 4te Lief., pp. 481-640. Leipzig, 1897. . Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., 1890, p- 341- 18 Bull, Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. II., 1891, P- 365- 578 | The American Naturalist. [June, action of the environment. He resumed his studies a short time © since, and gives us the following results. He has experimented on young flounders (Pleuronectes flesus), in which the eye had not yet entirely left the ventral face. Already the pigment of this face had largely disappeared ; the animal swam with the left side down, and on the dorsal side the color was pronounced. Blackening the cover and sides of a glass jar, he put it with the young fish within on a support, and arranged beneath the vase a mirror in © - such away as to reflect the sunlight into the vase. Now the dorsal side of the fish would be in darkness, and the ventral side exposed to - the light, thus reversing the normal conditions. The water was renewed frequently, and the fish given all the food they required. Other flounders were put into a similar vase, which was normally lighted. The results were as follows : Of thirteen fish lighted from below three only kept the usual colora- tion ; the others showed a greater or less quantity of pigment cells and chromatophores. Under these conditions it seems probable that the absence of color from animals in normal conditions is due to the difference of circumstances, and that light is the agent which deter- mines the development of pigment cells. It can, nevertheless, not be the only one; there exists coloration among animals living in the obscurity of profound depths.—Reewe Scientifique. Parmella etheridgei.—Mr. C. Hedley records a new mollusc, Parmella etheridgei Brazier. It was found on the stems and leaves of the palms growing on the lower ground of Lord Howe Island, It oh the second species of a long-lost genus. (Records Australian Museum, — Vol. I., No. 4.) The Spawning Seasons of San Diego Fishes.—The follow- ing is a summary of observations on the spawning seasons of the San : Diego fishes. Those marked with an asterisk (*) are viviparous, and os etime . the length of gestation has not in all cases been made out. indicated for the viviparous species is that during which young, some times well developed, were taken : Heterodontus francisci, from January to April; *Sgualus —_ - ; from July 20th to September ; *Scylliorhinus ventriosus, egg fo ready to hatch Dec. 27th; *Galeus californicus, September qth t | F ebruary 14th ; * Zriacis semifasciatus, September 6th to October 7th; i *Rhinotriacis henlei, September 7th; *Galeorhinus syopterus, Ange goth ; Clupea mirabilis, December 11th to February ; Stolephoris ee ringens, April, May, and June ; S. delicatissimus, April, May, and J s n ) 1891.] 7 Zoology. 579 S. compressus, April 24th to July ; Zylosurus exilis, April; Siphostoma auliscus, throughout the summer; S. /eptorhynchum, throughout the summer ; Atherinopsis californiensis, from November to March; Afheri- nops affinis, May and June ; Sphyrena argentea, July ; Serranus maculo- aggregatus, with young from December to May ; *Hodconotus argenteus, December, January, and February ; *Amphistichus argenteus, Novem- ber to March ; *Ditrema laterale, December, January, and February ; *D. jacksont, November 7th to March; Caulolatilus princeps, July and August ; Zyphlogebius californiensis, May and June; Ophiodon elongatus, January 30th (San Francisco); *Sebastodes paucispinis, December, Jan- uary, and February ; *S.flavidus, January ; *S. ovalis, October ; ES. miniatus, November to March; *S. ruber, July; **S. vis, January and February; *S. rubrovinctus, September, October, and November ; *S. auriculatus, September ; *S. vexillaris, January and February ; Oligocottus analis, January to April; Zsesthes gentilis, May ; I. gilbertii, March; Heterostichus rostratus, March; ? Fierasfer dubius, floating eggs procured in August from ocean's surface ; Pleuronichthys CÆNOSUS, pelagic eggs in April; Aypsopsetta guttulata, pelagic eggs in April. Descriptions and figures of most of the eggs of these have been pre- pared, and will be published later.—C, H. EIGENMANN, San Francisco. The Pineal Eye.—Several papers have appeared in the past two years treating of this organ. Possibly those of Leydig! have attracted most attention. Leydig was the first to suggest that this might be a sense organ, but in these later papers he takes the ground that the pineal gland is a lymph gland, and that the ‘‘ nerve cord, which has been described as connecting it with the brain, isin reality a strand of connective tissue. On account of the author’s position as a histolo- gist, these views are certainly entitled to weight, but connective tissue of ectodermal origin is certainly an anomaly. Professor A. P. W. homas, in an article on the development of Sphenodon,* states that in the recently hatched tuatara the pineal eye still shows as a sey spot through the translucent skin over the parietal foramen. This ave been able to observe even in a tuatara-eight inches in length. But as the tuatara grows older the skin over the pineal eye eS more opaque, and though in some individuals the scantier i oe ‘Ment of the pigment over the parietal foramem affords a feeble indica 1 Biolog. Centraibl., Bd. VIIL., p. 707,1889. Ibid, Bd. X., p- 278, 1890 * Proc. Royal Society, XLVIII., p- 152, 1890. 580 The American Naturalist [June tion of the position of the eye, yet in others the pigment is deposited there as elsewhere, so that all external trace of the eye is finally lost.” Mr. W. E. Ritter has investigated the pineal eye in several lizards from the western states. The species studied are Phrynosoma douglassit, Ph. cornuta, and Uta stansburiana, which are described at some.length. The author upon morphological grounds is willing to -accept the view that the organ in question was a visual structure, and that, contrary to Leydig, its function was not primarily. that of a por- tion of the lymph system, although it may have secondarily acquired the latter character. The conclusion which one comes to after read- ing the literature is that the ontogeny of the whole region: must be carefully followed before the question can be settled. A Migration of Butterflies.—While sailing up the Gulf of Mexico from St. Andrew’s Bay to Pensacola, Florida, on the 14th day of February last, I noticed a great many butterflies passing north. We were from five to ten miles from shore, and the butterflies all came from the south. I was at a loss to know just where they could come from, there being no land to the south nearer than Cuba and Central America. Would it be possible for them to fly such a distance? I could not procure a specimen, so cannot say what species they were ; but for size and general appearance they compared quite favorably with the fritillary’ They certainly were migrating north, for hun- dreds passed us during the day.—A. H. Borers y BOTANY. ° Saccardo’s Suggestions to Phytographists.'—The extensive experience which I have gained in the elaboration of my *‘ Sylloge : Fungorum ” convinces me of the utility, I may say the necessity, of following in the description of plants certain oft-neglected rules. The following are recommended : ae 1. It is necessary that the botanist who describes with minute and =. involved details new species from morphological and biological stand- points should append thereto careful and comparative diagnoses — 3 Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XX., No. 8, r891. } Rathschlige fiir die Phytographen, inbesondere die Kryptogamisten. Hedwigia, Bd. XKX., Heft I, I891. S o 4 : ie 1891.] Botany. 581 (preferably in Latin) according to phytographic rules.. Indeed, it is very difficult and often very uncertain to seek out in the multitude of details the essential and distinctive characters. 2. The diagnosis is with certain authors. (especially among the cryptogamists) extraordinarily detailed and prolix; in others too laconic. A good diagnosis should give in a clear and careful state- ment only the essential and distinctive characters; all observations concerning details should be given after the diagnosis; for new species it is necessary to give the relationships with the nearest related known Species. Whoever determines new species knows how much time it takes if he has to do with very prolix diagnoses without reference to relationships. 3- Experience has already shown, at least for the Cryptogams, that relative to authority it is very useful to give in brackets the author who first described the concerned species under other genera. It is always necessary to subjoin the name of the author who has transferred the Species from the original genus to another, for otherwise one must assume that the writer of the treatise in which the combination of names is cited is also the author of this combination. We find, for example, in Winter’s works, names as Keine: “‘Spherella convexula (Schwein.), Syn. Spheria convexula Schwein.” If the name of Thiimen is not added after the parentheses we must’assume that Winter i is the author of the combination, and then we should have, according to the rules of other botanists, the two expressions: Spherella convexula (Schwein. ) Wint., or Spherella convexula Wint., both of which are incorrect. But if we say Spherella convexula (Schwein.)Thiim., we have the entirely new information that Schweinitz established the species and Thiimen transferred it to the proper genus. 4. In the description of parasitic Cryptogams the host plants (or animals) are to be given with their technical Latinized nomenclature, The common names (English, Italian, German, etc.) are often difficult to identify. - In measuring organs, microscopic or macroscopic, one system, the metric, should be employed ; for microscopical measurements the Micromillimetre, or mikron (#) is suggested in place of fractions. The different measures and fractions are often the source of error or d doubt. 6. For concise statements of the dimensions of microscopic organs it is suggested (as it is moreover done in manifold ways) to write first the figure of the length, then that of the greater breadth, the two connected by the sign ~, and the character » omitted ; for flat organs 582 The American Naturalist. [June, a third figure can be added for the thickness ; for instance, spore 15 <4 signifies spores 15 » long and 4 » broad and thick; spore 1s 4 © 2 signifies spores 15 » long, 4 » broad, and 2 x thick. Some authors use in place of the character < (which I proposed and have used since 1872) the characters =, :, x, which have in mathematics other and fixed meanings. For macroscopic organs one must give the units of measurement, m., cm., mm., and the parts measured. 7. In designating plant groups feminine forms are used (Dicotyle- dones, Ranunculacez, Anemonez, etc.). The same should be done in the Cryptogams; if we say Sphzriacee, Mucedinez, Hydnez, we should also necessarily say Pyrenomycetez, Hyphomycetez, Hymeno- mycetez, and not Pyrenomycetes, Hyphomycetes, Hymenomycetes, as many do. 8. The colors of plants, especially those of the corolla, of fungi, of spores, are often inexactly described. It were well to use an exact nomenclature which is founded on normal specimens. I shall publish for this purpose a Chromotaxy which I hope will be of great use. 9. In respect to the nomenclature of the fruits and spores of fungi it would be expedient to use only the following terms, which are already adopted by most mycologists: Hymenomycetez: pileus (which form it also possesses), basidia, sterigmata, spore, cystidia. Gasteromycetee et Myxomycetez : peridium, gleba, capillitium, flocci, spore. Uredineæ : sorus, uredosporz, teleutospore, meso- — spore, pseudoperidium, zcidiospore, paraphyses. Ustilaginez : sorus, Spore. Phycomycetez: odgonia, oösporæ, antheridia, spermatia, zygosporæ, azygosporangia, zodspore. Pyrenomycetez et Phymato- spheeriacee : stroma, perithecium, loculus, ascus, sporidia, paraphyses. Discomycetez et Tuberoidex : ascoma, gleba, ascus, sporidia, para- physes. Schizomycetez : filamenta, baculi, cocci, endospore, arthro- Spore. Spheropsidea: perithecium, basidia, sporule. Melanconiee: acervulus, basidia, conidia (but not gonidia, a name which must be reserved for the lichens). Hyphomycetez : czespitulus, sporodochium, hyphæ, Spore, : From the germinating spore arises the promycelium, which com- monly produces the sporidiola.— Translated by H. W. Norris. x 1891.] Embryology. 583 EMBRYOLOGY.! Development of the Scyphostoma of the Scyphomedusz. —Professor C. Claus has published a paper dealing with the early Stages of the embryo and the structure of the scyphostoma of Coty- lorhiza, Aurelia, and Chrysaora.? The paper is largely a detailed criticism of Goette’s work on the same subject, and a vindication of Claus’s preceding paper, especially on those points in which Goette differed from him. ‘The discovery of the ectodermal origin of the four muscle-bands of the scyphostoma would seem to be the only new point of value added by Goette. The others were either pointed out by Claus in his former paper, or else are now shown to be erréneous. Goette described the endoderm in Aurelia as arising from cells wan- dering from the blastula into the segmentation-cavity, where they united into a solid plug, attached at one joint to the wall of the blas- tula. Later a cavity arises in the middle of the mass, and this com- municates with the exterior by means of a blastopore. Claus denies this method of formation of the endoderm. Exceptionally, he says, wandering, isolated cells are found in the segmentation cavity of Aurelia, but the large mass of cells pushes in from the endoderm pole. The two or three cells which may arise elsewhere from the blastoderm take no part in the formation of the permanent endoderm, and seem to degenerate. In Cotylorhiza the gastrula arises by invagination. _ Goette’s statement that the lining of the proboscis is formed by an ectodermal invagination is verified, but there is not formed an cesoph- agus like that of the Actinians in the Scyphomeduse, as Goette affirmed. In contradistinction to the Hydropolyp, the Scyphopolyp has not only the ectodermal lining of the proboscis, but is also charac- terized by four evaginations from the part of the stomach-cavity, which 0 to form the interior of the tentacles, and there alternating with the tænioles. The four septal muscles arise from ectodermal ingrowths from the peristome, differing in this from the Anthozoa. The sense- organs arise from the bases of the eight radial tentacles. Goette has denied that the polyp and jelly-fish in the Scyphomedusze are to be regarded as forming an alternation of generations. Claus Shows, however, that to deny the traditional alternation of genera- __ "ions in Scyphomedusz consists merely in giving a narrow — to ! Edited by Dr. T. H. Morgan, mn Hopkins University, Paimas, Md. a Zool. Inst. Wien., T. IX., * 584 The American Naturalist. [June, the terms themselves, and that, properly speaking, the process found in the group is clearly to be regarded as a true alternation of asexual generations. Body-Cavities of Paludina vivipara.—A short preliminary notice is published in the Zool Anzeiger for February 23d, by R. v. Erlanger, on the ‘‘ Development of Pa/udina vivipara.” The descrip- tion of the origin of the body-cavities is interesting. The gastrula arises by invagination. ‘‘ Soon the archenteron pushes out (aus stiilpt sich) at the sides and ventrally, so that one sees in side-view of the embryo two sacs (Schläuche), one long dorsal, one the archenteron, and a shorter ventral one the ccelom sac. Soon the ccelom sac pinches off from the archenteron, and surrounds it ventrally and at the sides. In course of development the mesoderm cells (which before formed a- mass with the cells in close contact) separate more from each other, forming a parietal and visceral layer, at the same time growing around the archenteron dorsally. Lastly, the mesoderm breaks up into the characteristic spindle-cells which run irregularly through the the body- cavity. In the meantime the cesophagus arises by invagination of the ectoderm, and connects with the archenteron, while the gastrula mouth (blastopore, Urmund), as is known, is converted into the anus. At this stage the mesoderm collects ventrally in the archenteron, not far from the hinder end of the body, in two cell-masses, and in these soon a lumen appears. The sacs so formed press together in the ventral mid-line until they fuse with one another and fuse into a single mass, whose paired origin is for a long time indicated by a middle septum. In this way is formed the sac of the pericardium.”’ 1891.] Entomology. 585 ENTOMOLOGY:! Recent Publications.—Mr. Lawrence Bruner has lately pub- lished? an interesting and extended account of the insects affecting the sugar-beet. A number of new original illustrations appear in con- nection with it. Full reports of the recent meetings of economic entomologists at Champaign, Illinois, have appeared in late issues of Lnsect Life (VIIL, Nos. 5 and 6). Mr. S. H. Scudder has begun, in Psyche, the publication of a series of interesting letters between Harris, Say, and Pickering. Prof. A. J. Cook and Mr. G. C. Davis have lately published, in Bulletin 73 of the Michigan Agricultural Col- lege, descriptions of seven new species of hymenopterous parasites. Professor Cook also has a number of interesting entomological articles in the Report of the Michigan State Board of Agriculture for 1890. Mr. C. H. Tyler Townsend has published several important papers concerning Diptera in the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington. In the same Proceedings Mr. E. A. Schwarz has also printed a number of interesting papers on Coleoptera and general entomology. An excellent account of the facilities for investigating injurious insects possessed by American experiment Stations, together with a summary of the results so far obtained by the Station entomologists, appeared recently in the Journa? für Landwirth- schaft. It was prepared by Prof. M. Wilckens, of Wien, who some months ago passed through America, studying the systems of our agricultural colleges and experiment stations. Article XL, Vol. UI., of the Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural His- ~ tory is by Prof. C. P. Gillette, and consists of descriptions of a large number of new species of Cynipid in the laboratory collection. It is illustrated by a good plate. -Osborn on Pediculi and Mallophaga.—Prof. Herbert Osborn, of the Iowa Agricultural College, has lately published as Bulletin No. 7 of the United States Division of Entomology an excellent dis- cussion of ‘The Pediculi and Mallophaga Affecting Man and the Lower Animals.” One new genus—Hematopinoides—and five new Species of Pediculi are described ; while a single species is also added to the known Mallophaga. The bulletin is well illustrated, many of the figures being new, and forms a very acceptable contribution to our Knowledge of these little-known groups. ‘Edited by Prof. C. M. Weed, Hanover, N. H. _ * Bulletin Nebraska Experiment Station, IV., pp. 55-72- 586 The American Naturahst. [ June, Scudder’s Tertiary Insects.—One of the most notable of recent entomological publications is Mr. S. H. Scudder’s ‘‘ Tertiary Insects of North America,’’ which forms the last monograph published by the United States Geological Survey,—a quarto volume containing ~ 734 pages and 28 plates. - According to the author’sssummary, the monograph contains descriptions of 1 species of Myriapoda, 34 of Arachnida, 66 of Neuroptera, 30 of Orthoptera, 266 of Hemiptera, 112 of Coleoptera, 79 of Diptera, 1 of Lepidoptera, and 23 of Hymenoptera, making 612 species in all. Mr. Scudder states that for the lower orders ‘‘ these numbers are slightly in excess of those obtained from the European Tertiaries, if the rich amber fauna of the Baltic is excluded ; for the corresponding number for the European species from the rocks would be approximately as follows: Myriapoda, 1; Arachnida, 24 (recently, however, nearly doubled) ; Neuroptera, 59; Orthoptera, 36; and Hemiptera, 218; a total of 338 species, against 397 for the American rocks. There is no doubt that this excess would be found even greater in the higher orders by the material already many years in hand; and the extent of insect-bear- ing rocks of the west, which as yet have been touched only here and there, isso immeasurably greater than that of similar European strata that only the lack of students in this field of American paleontology can prevent our deposits from assuming a commanding position in the world.” Packard’s Forest Insects.—The long-expected Fifth Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission has lately been issued. It con- r sists of an enlarged and revised edition of Bulletin No. 7 of the Com- mission, treating of ‘Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees.” The author, Prof. A. S. Packard, is to be congratulated upon the com- — pletion of the report upon which-he has been at work so long. It ` will prove extremely useful to entomologists aş well as lovers of trees and forests. The volume contains forty plates, twelve of which ae colored, and nearly a thousand pages of letter-press. “‘ It is hoped,” ‘says Dr. Packard, in his preface, “ that the work in its present form » may serve asa convenient synopsis, a starting point for future more detailed work, as well as a hand-book of reference for the use of future observers.. . . A volume could be written on the insects living On- any single kind of tree, and hereafter it may be expected that he insect population of the oak, elm, poplar, pine, and other trees will z treated of monographically. Certainly there could be no more inter- esting and profitable work for the young entomologist. ”’ 1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 587 ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.! The International Congress of Anthropology and Pre- historic Archeology of Paris.—( Continued from page 503.) Fourth Question.—‘‘ The Chronologic Relations between the Civili- zations of the Ages of Stone, of Bronze, and of Iron.” Monsieur Judge Piette continued the discussion from the last ques- tion by continuing the description of his discoveries in the grotto of Mas d’Azil. The principal idea which he sought to elucidate in his dissertation was of an epoch of transition which should be intermediate between the cavern period, the Madalenien epoch, and the polished ” stone age. Hedeclared that the human industry of the Madalenien epoch had not been uniform in its duration. In the Pyrenees there were four phases of this civilization, which might be grouped into two series, the first or earliest represented by the bones of the horse, and the later that represented by the bones of the deer. Thus, going from the bottom to the top there were four strata, the first that of the ox (Bos), the second that of the horse (Equus), the third that of the rein- - deer, and the fourth that of the common deer. In the last epoch the climate, which had been until then dry and cold, became warmer and humid. The reindeer became rare, and the art of the epoch fell into decadence. ‘This was the prelude to the age of polished stone. The evidence which he cited to prove these.conclusions was derived from his excavations in the Grotte Mas d’Azil. He described the fauna, the industrial implements in bone, the shells, and pieces of pottery, and insisted particularly upon the discovery which he had made of the pebbles which had been colored with the oxide of iron, ground and made into a paint, and applied with a brush. He also described the designs, some of which were in straight lines, parallel, cutting each other at right angles, chevron, fern, and curious and rare concentric circles with dots in the center. While many of the strata belong to the. age of the caverns, and _ were paleolithic, yet some of those on the surface were neolithic ; and - between the two, Judge Piette though he could identify a transition in the civilization, and he undertook to make two series of this tran-» sition, and to give to it, the first and lowest, the name of acesmolithic and to the top that of cémolithic, the one being the commencement and the other the completion of the art of polishing stone. This ‘This PoE is edited by Dr. Thomas Wilson, Smithsonian Institution, Wash- =, DG 588 Ihe American Naturalist. [June, paper was followed by Mr. Boule, who said that it attacked the theory of hiatus between the paleolithic and neolithic ages which had been heretofore recognized by nearly all prehistoric anthropologists. But he declared that there was more to this theory of Judge Piette than had been supposed, for it corresponded largely with the discoveries made by himself and M. Cartailhac in the Grotte de Reilhac, where they ` found objects of human industry which suggested an intermediate stage between the two periods and not a hiatus. M. Adrien de Mortillet recalled that M. Salmon had already made similar discoveries, and that he had given to the first period mentioned by Judge Piette the name of Campinienne. But Judge Piette defended the nomenclature which he had made. A large discussion took place over this subject ; many instances and localities were brought to the attention of the congress, and while nothing was permanently decided or determined concerning the question at issue, yet the members were requested to investigate with particularity and in detail this question of the possible hiatus, or whether there was an age of transition inter- mediate between the two great ages of stone. M. Cartailhac cited M. de Mortillet as having said, in 1874, that the hiatus, instead of being a veritable one, was simply our want of knowledge, and he continued the discussion by a description of the objects found by him- self and M. Boule in their excavations in the Grotte de Reilhac, near Gramat, at which I had assisted. Dr. Sophus Müller, of Copenhagen, had commenced the methodical publication of the types of objects of the age of polished stone in Scandinavia. The first part of his work, comprising 270 figures, was Presented before the congress. The first epoch of prehistoric man in Denmark was that of the shell heaps. The cutting implements common to these shell heaps are unknown in the sepultures ; the hatchets were chipped and not polished. The second epoch was represented by forms more developed, among which were hatchets and chisels with the edge polished. A few of these were found in the Danish sepultures, which is contrary to that in France. They, or the knowledge to make them, were probably brought from the west, where they appeared to the author to belong to the civilization of the megalithic monuments. — After this epoch came that of megalithic monuments, more recent “than those of France; simple dolmens, those with small and single chambers, are probably the most ancient. The large chambers and the duplication of them are probably the types more recent. The earlier and simpler dolmens of the most archaic forms have a certain relation to the same monuments in Asia. According to Dr. Müller, the 1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 589 theory of the Scandinavian archeologists as to the relative age and epoch of these monuments is confirmed. Monsieur Ad. de Mortillet coincided with Dr, Muller as to the anteriority of the small dolmens of Scandinavia. He said it derived support from an investigation of those of France, and also of those in Algeria, which he had been charged by the Commission of Prehis- toric Monuments to examine and describe. Dr. Verneau gave descriptions of his studies of the antique monu- ments of the Canary Islands. Dr. Hamy took exception to some of the conclusions of M. de Mortillet, and objected to premature generalization which should include different countries. He declared in favor of special conclu- sions for each region. He proposed to publish a work giving the results of his investigations in Algeria. Monsieur Felix Gaillard, of Plouharnel, argued in favor of the con- temporaneity of the stone cists as places of sepulture with the dol- men. He cited many cases from his locality in Plouharnel, Carnac, etc., Morbihan. Monsieur B. Reber described the tombs in the neighborhood of Geneva, made after the fashion of the stone cist,—that is, with flat, unwrought, rude stones. Monsieur Montelius, of the Prehistoric Museum of Stockholm, gave a most interesting paper upon ‘‘ The Chronology of the Age of Bronze in Europe.” He said there were no coins, and consequently no dates, which belonged to the age of bronze, but in Northern and Central Europe there had been found among the pieces of bronze a vase, a fibula, and some other objects, which were undoubtedly of Italian or southern manufacture. The age of bronze in Scandinavia, according to M. Montelius, divides itself into six periods. In Italy, in France, and elsewhere in Europe, one can distinguish but four periods. difference of the date of the origin of bronze between Italy and North- ern Europe is not so great as we have heretofore believed. According to the most detailed and particular investigation of M. Montelius, he: thought himself able to divide the age of bronze in Scandinavia into- six periods, which were thus distributed: The first was from 1500 to 1300 B. C. ; second, from 1300 to 1100; third, from 1100 to goo; fourth, from goo to 750; fifth, from 750 to 5505 sixth, from 550 to 400, and including the transition towards the age of iron. One who has not seen M. Montelius, and compared with him these divisions, can scarcely understand how he is able to distinguish them, what the evidences are, or their character, on which he bases his theory; and. 590 | The American Naturalist. [June, yet to me, who had seen and heard Monsieur Montelius in all the minutia, extent, and number of his investigations, the proofs were highly -satisfactory and convincing. M. Montelius continued with antoher paper,—‘‘ The Preclassic Civili- zation of Italy.” He recommended to the prehistoric archeologist the study of this civilization, and declared that it had never been satis- factorily done either by the prehistoric archeologist, nor yet by the classic archeologist. He said the Italian objects found in Central Europe, even up to the north, established the fact of commerce, or, at least, relations between the peninsula of Italy and the center and north of Europe in times of high antiquity. He had chosen speci- mens and types.of objects which are exhibited in the museums, and also those shown only in publications, by means of which he has formed an album containing no less than two thousand figures, which are classed chronologically and divided into four parts geographically. The first was Sardinia; the second, Sicily and Southern Italy ; the _ third, Central Italy ; and fourth, Northern Italy. Each one of these divisions was again subdivided into chronologic periods, thus: For Northern and Central Italy he had four periods: 1. Objects which were of simple form in bronze and sometimes in copper. The hatchets were rude, flat, with only an indicated edge. 2. Celts, hatchet- shaped. 3. Celts, with wings and the most ancient type of fibula. 4. ` Celts, with a stop and å socket; the fibula made of spiral form ard with a simple arch. During the age of iron the civilization divided itself, and changed according as it was on the one or the other side `- of the Apennine mountains. To the north was the fifth period of Benacci, sixth of Arnoldi ; both of which periods were of Villanova and Pre-Etruscan. 7. The period of La Certosa or Etruscan. 8. The period Celtic or Gaulois. On the south of the- Apennines was the fifth,—the first period of the age of iron. 6. Periods of Proto- truscan, with a notable invasion, bringing new and strange elements ; and 7th was the Etruscan period. Supposing the Etruscans to have arrived in Etruria by sea, they had not traversed the Apennines till a much later epoch. | _ This communication of M. Montelius was exceedingly interesting to me, not alone because of his investigations into the age of bronze in the Scandinavian countries, of which I have already favorably spoken, _ but because I had been over this preclassic country of Italy, and had been struck many times with what I conceived to be the errors of classic scholars, with their apparent failure to comprehend the modern science of prehistoric archeology, with the difference which it had 1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 591 wrought in our opinions concerning the antiquity, and particularly of its occupation, of Europe, and consequently of Italy. I have neither the competence nor the opportunity to make any such investigations as had been done by M. Montelius. I was all the more satisfied and gratified to find that he, a prehistoric archeologist, had done so, and that his conclusions were so much in harmony with my own. Monsieur E. Vouge described the extreme west of Lake Neuchatel and changes which have taken place therein. He showed various Stratigraphic charts by which 'the strata of the different ages were known and to be recognized, and from this examination he arrived at a series of conclusions. The lowest, and consequently the earliest, Stratum containing evidence of human industry was that which be- longed to the neolithic age. But these people did not long remain at this point. Their houses and establishments, once burned, were never reconstructed. But their occupation of this country was evident, and that it was extended cannot at all be doubted. It was separate, dis- tinct, and anterior to that of the age of bronze or of the Helvetes, which followed. It is difficult to say at what epoch of time the men of the bronze age made their appearance on Lake Neuchatel. The Stations of bronze did not remain intact because of the movements of the lake, which, for 1,500 years or more, have changed the borders. There was, said M. Vouga, at this point a commercial station. There may have been also there, or in the neighborhood, a foundry or manu- factory, but he thought it more than likely to have been only a com- mercial station, for they found, in what might have been called or served as a warehouse or salesroom, swords in their scabbards, shears for shearing, and knives, also in their scabbards. All these were bound up in packages, whether separately or together is not stated, but tied together, as though they were intented for sale, or possibly for transportation, so, in any event, it was considered as a commercial Station, either of sale or transshipment. This was all covered with turf, and with the débris and clay, and is distinctly and definitely separated from the antiquities of the Gallo-Roman epoch, which are to be found on the turf and scattered through it. Monsieur Baron Joseph de Baye gave a résumé of his excavations in the Gauloise sepultures in Saint-Jean-sur-Tourbe, in the Department of Mame. There were two levels to these tombs, and the funeral fur- niture, torques, bracelets, fibulas, lances, beads of glass, of amber, of bone, etc., were exceedingly important, as they were in part different from anything that this district had yielded to this time. In one of the tombs was found the skeleton of a young man, from sixteen to < Am, Nat.—June—6. 592 The American Naturalist. [June, twenty years, with skull abnormal, with numerous os wormiens, and possibly artificially deformed, following a custom that prevailed in the east of Gaul. The skeleton still carried about the neck and on the arms beads of amber of large size and great number. On a bronze wire were strung the small beads of glass, amber, coral, a boar’s tooth, pebbles, fossil shells, and a small statuette. The latter was anterior to the Roman epoch, but was similar to those which have been found in the Departments of Meurthe-et-Moselle, Argovie, Hungary, and in Caucase, and was a new evidence of the relations between Gaul and the Orient. z Monsieur Cartailhac presented the results of an archeologic voyage made by him to the Balearie Isles. He showed a most beautiful series of photographs, which represented the ancient city and edifices, and the objects most notable belonging thereto. (To be continued.) Remains of the Worship of Ashtaroth in Palestine.—To this day the fe//aheen (peasants) of Palestine have the custom of ascending some high place, at the full of the moon, and pouring out olive oil, as an oblation, on some particular rock, long used for the purpose, and having a hollowed space on top,—being, in fact, a rude sort of altar. When questioned on the subject, they can give no reason for the act, except that it is an old custom,—that their fore- athers did so from time immemorial. As they are Mohammedans, and therefore abhor all idolatrous practices, this is all the more remarkable. It seems to be unquestionably a remnant of the ancient worship of Ashtaroth, the two-horned or crescent-bearing goddess, and which once prevailed so extensively in this country. Ashtaroth was especially the goddess of the Zidonians, and the Israelites fell at once into the idolatry when they slew the Zidonians at Dan, preserving the idol and the priests of this people, in order to continue the abomination. The worship of Ashtaroth was set up in Jerusalem, and on the hills in its vicinity, King Solomon himself building high places for the purpose, and participating therein. In- teresting indications of this are revealed at the present date. From time to time images of the goddess are found in excavating in Jerusa- lem and its neighborhood, as well as in the Moabite country, where this form of idolatry greatly prevailed. These idols are of terra-cotta or baked red clay, and are about from seven to eight inches high. They are usually hollow within, and represent the goddess draped, but with bare, protuberant breasts, and wearing a tire or moon-shaped ornament on the head. 1891.) Proceedings of Scientific Societies. "593 . These smaller images must have been the personal or household gods which we find so often referred to; while for the public worship doubtless a larger idol was set up. A thorough exploration of the ‘‘ high places” of Palestine, which abound, would no doubt prove of great importance, and add largely to our knowledge of the religion and ancient customs of the early inhabitants of the land. — HENRY GILLMAN, Jerusalem, Palestine, April 16th, 1891. The Mika Operation.—The rite known as the Mika Operation, performed by the natives of Australia, is supposed by most observers to be for the purpose of limiting the population. Mr. R. Ethridge, however, agrees with Mr. J. Frazer that the custom is a remnant of a forgotten religious ceremony. (Proc. Linnean Society of New South Wales, Vol. V., pp. 255-258.) PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Boston Society of Natural Histary.—April 15th—Dr. R. R. Andrews read a paper on “The Development of the Enamel of the Teeth,” illustrated by the stereopticon. The annual meeting of the society was held on Wednesday evening, May 6th, at 734 o’clock. Business: The curator, secretary, and treasurer read their annual reports. The directors of the Natural History Gardens and Aquaria presented their first report. Officers for 1891~'92 were elected. Dr. C.-S. Minot spoke on the ‘‘ Evolution of the Head.” May 2oth.—Business: Election of a councillor for one year. Prof. DA W. Q. Crosby read a paper on the ‘ Geology of Hingham.” : _ G.H. Barton described a ‘ Glacial Pot-Hole at Pearl Hill, Fitchburg, Massachusetts.” —J. WALTER FEWKES, Secretary. Biological Society of Washington.—May 2.—The following ~ Communications were read: Dr. Theodore Gill—‘ On the Classifica- tion of the Apodal Fishes.” Mr. B. T. Galloway—“ Recent Progress in the Study of-Plant Diseases.” Dr. Frank Baker—‘‘ Notes on = Dwarfs.” Mr. Charles Hallock—“‘ Distribution of Fishes by Under- : 8round Water-Courses.’’ Mr. F. C. Test—‘‘ Notes on the Dentition of Desmognathus. ”’ Mr. J. M. Holzinger—" Incentives to Natural Histor y Work.” Co The American Naturalist. [June, 1891.] May 16th.—The following communications were read: Prof. C. V. Riley—‘‘ The Mexican ‘ Arrow Weed’ and “ Jumping-Jack.’’’ Mr. J. M. Holzinger—* Incentives to Natural History Work.” Mr. Wil- liam Palmer—“ The Distribution of Certain Mammals, Birds, and Plants on the Pribyloff Islands.” Dr. George Vasey—‘‘ Notes on Recent Field Work of the Botanical Division of the Department of Agriculture.” Mr, F. A. Lucas—Qn a Tortoise from Duncan Island.’’—Freperic A. Lucas, Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NEWS. Francis W. Cragin, S.B., Professor of Geology and Zoology in Washburn College, Topeka, Kansas, has issued a prospectus of a geological and physical geography of Kansas, an illustrated hand- book, educational in its relation to pure science, and practical in its relation to the development of the natural resources of the state, for the use of students, teachers, travelers, farmers, investors, and general readers. We have received the prospectus of the Geologists’ Association (University College, Gower Street, London). The president is T. V. — olmes, F.G.S., M.A.I. The object of the association is to facilitate the study of geology and its allied sciences. The methods adopted by the association are: (1) Monthly meetings for the reading of papers, etc., (2) visits to museums, etc., (3) excursions, (4) publica- tion of papers, etc., (5) the formation of a library. They are well adapted to meet the requirements of those who may be interested in, but know little of, geology ; whilst the experienced geologist is enabled both to add to his own knowledge and to impart it to others, Dre H. Hensoldt, curator of the Geological Museum and lecturer in Petrographical Philosophy at the School of Mines, Columbia Col- lege, New York, will shortly issue a work, ‘Studies in Microscopical 1y.” It will consist of a series of one hundred mineral and rock sections for the microscope, with descriptions and accurate, artistic lithographed plates. ADVERTISEMENTS. Lchaustion Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. hg phosphates of the system are consumed with every effort, and exhaustion usually indicates a lack of supply. supplies the phosphates, thereby relieving exhaustion, and increasing the capacity for labor. PLEASANT TO THE TASTE. . A. N. Krour, Van Wert, O., says: “ Decidedly beneficial in nervous exhaustion.” Dr. S. Newman, St. Louis, Mo., says: “A remedy of great service in many forms of ustion.”” Descriptive pamphlet free. Rumford Chemical Wcrks, Providence, R. I. SUBSTITUTES AND BEWARE OF IMITATIONS. ae tnim sure the word ‘‘ Horsford’s’’ is On the label. All others are spurious. Never sold in bulk, s em a E The Acid Phosphate NORTH AMERICAN LICHENS In sets, including 15 to 20 of my new species, Very fine material. Just collected by W. W. CALKINS, 147 California Ave., Chicago, Ill, Now Ready, Price r5s. Printed by order of the Trustees of the Australian Museum, Sydney. Volume II., Part I., of AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA and THEIR TRANSFORMATIONS. By the late ALEXANDER WALKER SCOTT. With Il- lustrations d from the Life by his Daughters, Harriet Morgan and HELENA FORDE. "Edited and Revised by ARTHUR SıpNEY OLLIFF and HELENA FORDE. The work will be published in parts, each containin, three foolscap (17 by 1314) plates, colored by hand, an only those species of which the transformations were known to Mr. Scott will be : fresh issue of Parts I., I., and II., forming (London, 1864, Van Voorst, shortly be available for pur- Volume I. of the work nine colored plates) will RUBNER & C BEAUTIFUL GEODES. 10,000 native bird and dreds of beautiful and rare trop ica th inquiries or for printed lists stamp wi d lists. lished in 1873. efer by permission to Prof. Robt, Ridgway and Prof. J. A. Allen. S. K. WORTHEN, Warsaw, Ill. CHA Natiralist and Taxidermist, Check-List of Canadian Plants. Several additional species discovered last year (1890) are included. The price of the list is 50 cents per copy, 3 copies for $1.00. Address, JAS. M. MACOUN, Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada. HA ADVERTISEMENTS. The Microscope Librarians, Teachers, Scientists, and, Business Men all have to do some copying An Illustrated Monthly Magazine for the Student of Nature’s Little Things. Adapted to the needs of all that use the Microscope or are interested in its revelations. Edited by DR. ALFRED C. STOKES, Author of ‘‘ Microscopy for Beginners.” | Subscription, $1.00. Sample Copy, 10 Cts. We suit one and all! | Lii ein the World. forthe epics seinen pacha hroughoat Tae Microscope Pusuisuine Co, | S=snnhset = lee herehe bought it. TRENTON, N We illo nly send a Yi ie a 3 oiin ‚N.J $10 0 ote Bul 4 jolin f DEAFNESS. a EOR S EA LASO — Sf ttusic, all g ae Be ITs CAUSES AND fone. Ge Chri: njo, $3. à ——_ ae a. shes eadi fated and entirely cure ed, of Strings, Book of Instructions, Allinneat Case 83. O MO en ter all other treatments have fail “How the he aly i reached, andthe 0 Celebrated cause removed oiri in ‘ciroulars, wit affi- mailed free. Dr. A. eee 34 West [4th St., N. Y. sr a Sea elie alal i ee E HORACE V. WINCHELL, MINING EXPERT AND GEOLOGIST. REPORTS ON. MINING PROPERTIES A SPECIALTY. 120 STATE STREET, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. A NEW Pivosopny. pea ‘20. Now ready. It is asi y tical, and at the same time authoritative work — —just the one to arouse the student or general ante pecs ai for Hai Science study. ~All w x looking Pe ” accurate, comprehensive, judiciously condensed, entertaining work on Physics should poss > this nse te pricelist Sin oa Sou copies mailed to any address on receipt of price. Descriptive pamphlets and comp AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, NEW YORK. CINCINNATI CHICAGO. Please "i mention the AMERICAN NATURALIST ADVERTISEMENTS. ttt NOTICES. Notices for scientific societies and private individuals inserted under this head Jree of charge. y business houses, two cents per word. MNERALocx. — Course conducted by First collection and ddress AVE GUTTENBERG, coral ‘High School, Pittsburgh, Pa. OV pas ED—To correspond with concholo- Mrs, Falloon, Long Ashton Vic- arage, Bristol, England No TED— Position in Academy, Normal ool, as teacher of the Natural ages. Latin taught in addition, if necessary. Address G., box 441, Hanover, N. H. me i PROFESSOR of Natural many, is open for a position in a college. references, - Address, C., Box 136, New Berlin, Pa. | OR SALE.—Beautiful sets of Fossil Plants from the Dakota Group Cretaceous, On Sete of $3.00 I he forward, prepaid, to any dress in E | ast varieties of Dakota Plants. Send 5 “cents for gh fo ae set. The — will CHAS. H. STERN i Ox 60, i tga Kans. JE i ora aA s works on Palæontology, d other A giving plates which show fossils of the Niaga: . Address M. D. Sullivan, St. Ignatius 1 Coles: Chicago, Ill. OLUMES L, Er et ~~ SY 3 Pleas dition, gere in half Morocco, for sale. Price $16.00. Address GEO. W. MACKAY, 25 Congress St, Boston, Mass. pee wW = ANTED—For dissection and microscopic work, Polyps, Jelly-fish, or other Hydro- zoa, Actinozoa, and Ctenophora ; also Echinoder- ta and Mollusca. or ex given. J. A. Leighton, Trinity College, Toronto, Can. OR vcd ular alge e species of Union- ide fr p er, Ill. ; the finest in the OR EXCHANGE—14 Volumes 883 world. Fine abies pier other land shells 1889) AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCI Fifty species of eggs in full sets; Indian 10 volumes (1 1889) AMERICAN Rane stone atid flint im ts. ANTED, shells ALIST; 21 volumes (1879-1890) ENGLISH ME- poor a fossils, curios and scientific litera TANIC; all in good condition for binding; Dr. W. S. STRODE, BERNADOTTE, ILL. also, Morris Typewriter. If you have a ahs 88 Microscope, or an else to offer, INERALS TO EXCHANGE for others, please send full description. JOHN etn ROLLO, E. R. CHADBOURN, LEWISTON, ME. mington, Delaware. First-Class Histological Mounts ESTN : at European Prices. Gorpen Hitt Scuoot, a A Preparatory School for Boys. WM. N: Beces, M.D. EELO Pue A Instructor of of Histology in the St. Louis Med. College. 2207 Sidney St., St. Louis, Mo. JOHN M. CROSS, A.M., Principal. tv ADVERTISEMENTS. NEW OIL IMMERSION. VY, $35 TO $45. A Magnificent Lens for Bacterio- logical Work. ss hs se er Invited, JAMES W. QUEEN & Co. Makers of the Acme Microscopes, PHILADELPHIA. TRAZAR BROS | No. 93 SUDBURY STREET, BOSTON. MASS. Taxidermists and Dealer in Naturalists’ upplies and Specimens. | | | | ds’ Skins Direct importers of the best makes of English and French bird, animal, and _ fish eyes, and ‘all supplies required by Taxidermists, Ornithologists, Oologists, Ento- mologists, and Botanists in full assortment, always on hand. Minerals, birds’ skins and | eggs, and d general | curiosity dealers. PÆ Send Stamp for Illustrated Catalogue of SEE and for List of Bir and Eggs Best Cough a Recommended by Physicians. Cures where all else fails. Pleasant — oe oe to the taste. Children rect it without os ecti y druggi pisos REMEDY FOR CA CATARRH.—Best. — to use. Cheapest. Relief is immediate. A cure i certain. For Cold in the Head it has no equal It is an Ointment, of which a small article is oF ent to the nostrils. Price, 5 50c. Sold by eres by mail. Address, T. Haskivor, rene ADVERTISEMENTS. Vv FOSSILS. | Cretaceous Invertebrata and | Tertiary Vertebrata Of S. Dakota, Nebraska, and Wyoming, as | described by Cope, Marsh, Leidy, and Meek. | Placenticeras, Nautilus, Scaphites, | Baculites, Teredo, Turtles, Teeth and Skulls of the Titanotherium, Oreodon, Mesohippus, Acerathe- rium, Hyracodon, Elotherium, Car- nivora, etc. Hyracodon nebrascensis. Green River Fossil Fish; fifty varieties Fossil Leaves of Dakota Group named by Lesquereux. Black Hills Minerals in large variety. Jndian Relics, both ancient and modern. Large stock of everything. Send for illustrated catalogue with prices. Wholesale and Retail. Colleges, large collectors, amateurs, museums, and dealers supplied. cE WwW STH WELL, DEADWOOD, SOUTH DAKOTA. Mention AMERICAN NATURALIST. WaN TED.— Back numbers of the Naturauist. November ’83, April and December 85, October, November and December 87, all or part of ‘77. Twenty-five cents will be paid for the Index to Vol. XII, which was issued with the January number of Vol. XIII. Persons having any or all of these for sale will please write us, stating price at which they hold them. FERRIS BROS., Publishers. v: ADVERTISEMENTS. BETTER THAN EVER BEFORE. Le se. i Sagie zs Sand Die o New Type. Cisse OBSERVER A medium of interchange of observations for all fnature. Devoted to ali departments of nature pho nal, inter restin Don’t fail to try it for 1891. E. F. BIGELOW, Editor and Publisher. Only i cents a yea = ances ‘Keep your e ae ”” (to observe the won poya Enrrors : and Feauini a the out-deor world) is the motto of M. A. Boot, F. R. M. S., Microscopy, Longmeadow, oun H. SAGE, Ornithology, Portlan d; Conn. [Mass. THe OBSERVE 4 £14 A. PEARSON, Entomo ogy, Norwich, Con woods ; are on re nc in Minds, oe be ct, Miss C, ANTOINETTE SHEPARD, Foar : rocks, è ave you a microscope? Then you wi New Sritain, Conn. be pa = Tue OBS Addrss, E. F. BIGELOW, Publisher. THE OBSERVER, No. 5 Waverly Ave., Portland, Conn. ESE ESS ON al es aca gaan “THE SANITARIAN Is the best Sanitary publication in America” (Mississippi Valley Medical Monthly); ‘‘ Easily maintains its superiority over all similar publications” (Medical World) ; and ‘“‘ Has accomplished more good than all of the other Sanitary papers put together’? (Hydraulic and Sanitary Plumber). “The Editor, Dr. A. N. BELL, is well known to the mercantile community for his co-operation with the merchants in quarantine reform, and to his profession as a leader in Sanitary Science ” (Wew York Journal of Commerce). 96 PAGES TEXT MONTHLY; TWO VOLUMES YEARLY. mps). in advance; 35 cts. a Number. i copies, 20 cts. (ten two-cent postage stamps) $4.00 a yea All DET D should be ELS to the Edito 113a SECOND PLACE, BROOKLYN, | N. Po FORS SALE. Twenty different specimens of fos- sil plants from the Dakota Group Cretaceous will be sent to any ad- dress on receipt of $2.50. Send stamp for plate illustrating the set and list of roo specimens. CHAS. H. STERNBERG, P. O. Box 60, LAWRENCE, KANSAS. Betulites vestit, vat. ovalis Lx. | a ; i ADVERTISEMENTS. vu MACMILLAN & CO.S NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. Now Ready, Limited Edition in Two Volumes, THE a apy oe INSECTS OF NORTH fener ao tg © With Nores on Some European Species. By AmuEL H. Scupper, Paleontologist of the U. S. Geological Sariy, in charge of the Division of Fossil Insects. With Sixty- three Plates and numerous Illustrations in t è text. Two volum 20.00. sa TENS; —Vol. I. The Pretertiary Insects (with 35 plates). Vol. II. The Tertiary Insects (with 28 t These two volumes, of which only one hund dred c copies are issued, form the most extensive work on Fossil ecn that has ever been published. Over eight hundred and fifty species are described, and most of them are ed on the lithographic plates. The descriptions include, with two ni three exceptions, all the Fossil Insects ich have ever been described from North America , besides a ve number now sing ‘published, and among t the Palaozoic and Mesozoic cockroaches a pas! Fa le number of Eur uropean forms. But, tudent will find scattered through both pepeetication, distribution, and geological Í Sequence ‘of the different groups. the toe = insects has been used in Just Published, 8vo.; 779 Pages, 337 Hlustrations. $6.00. MAMMALS.—Living and Extinct. By Wriuram Henry Fowrer, C.B., F.R.S., D.C.L., Director = Natural History Lepetany: British Museum, and RICHARD LYDECKER, B.A. 8vo. Cloth, ustrated with 357 s ques $6.00. Just Published. DENIER OF agr gfe — Haratp Hérrprnc, Professor at the University of Copenhagen. anslated by Mary E. Lo zzmo. Cloth, $1.50. CON iy: TEN TS.—Subject and Method laf Psychol —Mind and Body—The Conscious and the Unconscious ai of the al ade Elements—The Psychology a Cognition—The Psychology of Feeling— e Psychology o! oe: nn a ee By James H. Correritt, F.R.S., and Henry Stave, R.N. $1.2 Se acer Sh IO and is > ed especiall eet the wants of junior students in engin, The work is slemen ary in character the study. 7 set recommend Bar te aa as one of the best small treatises on the subject.” — Engineering and Mining Journal. MIXED METALS: OR, posing wal Pacem By ArrHuR H. — en of School of Metallurgy, Birmingham and M 6mo. With Illustra: “ Itis a very compact, interesting, Di ‘abuse Mi little treatise.” —Metal oiie. New Book by J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. THE ot cap Bar Rh HYPOTHESIS. Pa Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., Correspo ndent of the Institute r of Astronomical in the Normal School of Sciences With Illestrations. Svo. $5.2 gag THE MYOLOGY OF THE KAYEN, (Corvus corax sineratus). A Guide to the — of the Mus- cular System in Birds. „B7 R sgn Taian numerous Illustrations. 8vo “ Is worthy of its able, i se: on tie seimila workin il thib cumniey.A>, —Journal of _ Comparative Morticine and rt iss orien New Uniform Edition ofi Alfred Russel Wallace's Works. CONTR THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION: AND TROPICAL wi edie ESSAYS. By ALFRED Russet WALLACE, LL.D, F. PES, New Edition. $1.75 ] ith Some of Its Applications. ee An Exposition of se Pago et ary a a ee. With Illustrations. wus ay cas eae scan pe ti pee nie of ty rand of ecto a tion.. . - A contribution of the first importance to to the literature of the subject. ”—New York MACMILLAN & CO., 112 Fourth Avenue, New York. vit ADVERTISEMENTS. The American Geologist for 1891. EDITED BY “Paor. S. Cauvin, University of Iowa ; Dr. E. W. CLAYPOLE, doi College; Jonn Everman, Lafayette College ; Dr. Perstvor Frazer, Franklin Institute; P Pror. F. W. Cracrx, Washburn Co adie Pror. C. L. HERRICK, Cincinnati University; Pror Colorado Schoo pr Mines; Dr. Ayprew C. Lawson, Fea Geological = oe of Canad m 0. Ur RICH, Ilin eG eological Survey ; Pror. I. c. Wart Uni rsity of West Virginia; Dr. ALEX. WINCHELL, » University of Michigan Pror. N. H. WiıscuerL, University of Min SPECIAL OFFERS TO NEW SUBSCRIBERS. For the year 1891 the subscription rate for the GeoLoersT will remain at $3.50. Any old subscriber who remits that sum with the name of a new subscriber will be entitled to have his own sub- scription extended six months. The cost of the numbers for 1888, after January 1st, 1891, will be $3.50; those of 1889, $2.50, and of 1890, $2.50. New subscribers who remit to us cash in advance will receive all back numbers and the subscription for 1891, for $11.00, but this will debar them from the privilege of the follow- ing premiums. Any new subscriber who remits to us cash in advance may select from the following premium list, by which he will receive the se- lected book and the GEoLoGIsT at a considerably less rate than he could obtain both separately. These are special offers for this specific purpose, for which we have made favorable arrangements with the various publishers. The works here listed are such as every geologist would desire to have in his library. orth American Geology and Paleontology. By S. A. MILLER. Recent published ; 664 pp., Royal octavo, 1194 illustrations. Regular Soca, $5.00; with the GEoLoGIsT for 1891 McNally’s Standard Atlas of the World. Oné large volume of 196 pp, elegantly illustrated, substantially bound, with gold s ide stamp, revised to 1890. Indispensable to every stude ie Size of atlas as closed, 11x14 inches. Regular price, best English cloth bind- ing, $4. ge mes the GEoLOGIsT for 1891, $5.00. vemonstr tion of ce of Man before Adam. A study of ‘their condition, antiquity, sacta! ‘affinities and progress- ive dispersion over the earth. With charts and other illustrations. ALEXANDER LL, LL.D. 3d cs 1 mla Sr0, cloth. Reg- ular price, $3.50; with te: GEOLOGIST for 1891, ‘World Life. A study of the formation, growth and on of worlds, from their earliest existence as nebulous masses difusoa through di ALEXANDER 12m0.» oie Bint price, oath: with the GEOLOGIST for 1891, Sparks from a Geologist’s Hammer. of geological essays. By ALEXANDER WINCHELL, LL. D. oon 1 edition, illustrated, 12mo. G by $4.00. = PERES Regu- _ exposition. By PROF. JOHN DEWEY, D. 6mo, 28 lar price, $1.25; with the GEOLOGIST tor 1891, BT. si tly = ae ADVERTISEMENTS. Worta: eae Use and Abuse. uy Wn. Matuews, LL.D. Twentieth , 12mo., ki e 504 pp. Regular price, $2.00; with the GEOL- ost ‘fo wi cere bac and eae By Wa. Matuews, LL.D. Third edition, 1 we et 394 pp. Regular price, $1.50; with the GEOLOGIST for pet 3.7 aa We Teach Geology? By ALEXANDER WINCHELL, LL. D. Should d by all teachers and those interested in educational matters. 12m cloth. Regular price, $1.00; with the GEoLOGIsST for 1891, Dickens Works; complete set in twelve volumes; with the GEOLOGIST 4.00. Mammoth re opeedia, F Beste ee 2176 pp., 620 illustrations; with e GEOLOGIST for 1, $4. ig and Precious Stones of North America, By GEORGE F. Kunz. arge quarto, pp. 336, 8 colored plates and numerous minor engrav- tes arte gilt. Dacula price, $10.00; with the GEOLOGIST for 1.00. The Metallur urgy of Steel. By Henry M. Howe. “A notable conribu- tion to the literature of iron and steel metallurgy. 2 Roya quarto, 425 pp., cloth, gilt, ora illustrated. Regular price, $10.00; with the GEOLOGIST for 1891 Modern American Methods of vehi er Smelting. By Dr. E. D. PETERS Second edition, large 8vo., Stagg pp., illustrated. Rogulae price, $4.00; with the GEOLOGIST for 1 00. Mining Accide: se By SIR FREDERICK A. ABE ith the laws governing coal mining in every state and territory i the United States, and those = pii pa acm and Prussia, never before collected in haan ti = pp-4 420, cloth. Reg- ular price, $4.00; with the krapat sti pe -00 America Not Discovered ty Ost A historical PAR of the dis hts of America a the Norsemen in the tenth century. B. RsoN, A. M. 3d edition enlarged, 12mo., cloth. Regular price, $1. 00: with the Groroorst for 1891, $3.75. , Chemi and Stratigraphical. SEPH PREST- WICH, M. dah RS. FGS In Bn ae with puras MER iy ee gn and Physical. a, ys- Depune m for both volum en, $15. oS. With tise Grorocrsr for 1891, $15.50. [See the advertisement of Macmillan & Co. in t EOLOGIST. | Bier’ s Atlas of the Metropolitan District and Adjacent Country. Unr valled as a specimen of the map-maker’s art. Just errati brs two inches to the mile. TAS are 23 x 35 inches, the atlas being 1724 x 23 inches Regular p ice, $20. With the GroLoeist for 1891, $20. [See advertisement of J ulius Bien & Co., in the GroLoeisT.] For these premiums money must be sent in advance, and in all am by postal order or note, or by express or draft on New Yor ork. For public libraries this affords a rare opportunity to procure ur su scription list is steadily increasing, and with the year 1891, which will be memorable in the history of American geology, because of the American session of the International Congress of Geologists, we expect to see it doubled. We hope our old subscribers, to whom we acknowledge our hig T for numerous favors, will = attention to these offers for 1891. THE AMERICAN —— SEPT. 18, 1890. MINY. x SEBI BSEMENTS SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. Snee AND PEOPLES. A noe L G. Brin > M.D. $1.75. ont reco mead sit es ‘Races and Peoples.” ” Asia tic Quarter. “ His b is — The “A an and really ears work. eo Beckie (Eng. Tie eis, “This volume is most stimulating.” — The New ork Times. THE WINNIPEG COUNTRY. By A. ROCHESTER FELLOW (S. H. Scupper). $1.50. FACT AND THEORY Toei I. The Suppression of Consumption. By G. Hambleton. 40 cents. II. The Society and the “Fad.” By Appleton Morgan. 20 cents. Il. Protopiasm and Life. By C. F xX. 75 cents. IV. The Cherokees in Pre- Columbian” Times. By homas. $1.00 V. The Tornado. By H. A. - Hazen. $r.00. VI. Time Relati ena. By Joseph Jastrow. 50 cents. - Household Hene. By Mary Taylor Bissell, M.D. 75 cents. Others in preparation. then PARESDOR COAST. urnal of two Summer Cruis regi peeves on its early overy, on the Eskimo, on its tact wit no eo node eol and natural histor to- gether witha ibliography of char oth e tory Of tne Labrador Fen By Aurises — Packar, M.D., Ph.D. 88, abaut gs D, $3.5 PERIODICALS. International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science (Monthly). Edited b y Apop „ALLEN and NEE SPIERS. $1.75 per year CONTENTS. Life in 8-05" as Manifest in Falling Leaves. Curious want of Ingenuity in the Harvesting a 5 I ros Fusing. [Fr e Thoughts on Light. ( Senoren Parasitic i in Cypre Some Remarks on the Pucciniæ pede Galium. The Influenza Bacillus. eo — for Veg The Study of Entomology. L Homely Dopina Trough. aoe tahi — Yip my Aquarium. \rhificial Sea-Water. ood. he Elements of Microscopy. he Aspect of = Heavens: n Darkest Afric SCIENCE _ (Weekly). g recent re aia nas be named : Mel- ville Bell wE ensi, T Stanley Pan, AR H. Thurst Cresson, Lieut. Bradley Fiske, John T Stoddard, |, Charles-s. i cacaues W. ed way, Robert H. ar Richards, v p W BG a m ° =e = P: fa; A > a2 = EZ = pon = — = = cD z. TE Da -i = = = = NORTH AMeRICAR REVIEW OUR NEW WARSHIPS. By the Hon. B. F. Tracy, Secretary of the Navy- | BRUTALITY AND AVARICE „TRIUMPHANT K ush C. Hawkins IS AVARICE TRIUMPHANT? oe EOE PHYSICAL EDUCATION THE LAW AND T THE LYNCHERS A Tie AoD o o as Enon e ANOTHER VIEW 0 OF GerrysnivRe “ig nie eS a es ae Ma} “én Jo Gibbon A CHAT ABOUT NEWFOUNDLA Soe Sea ae be ly Blake THE ABC OF MONEY. a By Andrew Carnegie. CHANGaS i nue Ronan Patis i 2 2) +. +s « . George B. Waring, Jr CHANGES IN THE B. he ee es T "Shes Senator Saxton FLOODS AND FORESTS ix L. Oswald THE CONTAGION oP Ein ; 3 : : Cyrus i — af the New "York Health Department dion INDEX TO VoL. C ADVERTISEMENTS. at PUBLICATIONS OF THE TORREY BOTANICAL CLUB. THE Published monthly at $2.00 per year. Back volumes since 1870 can nearly > e be erally Number of pages a month, 30-40. Many of the articles illus- BULLETIN. ted w g Contain pot _ lengthy for publication in BuLLETIN, and are issued as material bec vailable. The subscri tion a pres is rs o0 a volum e, but THE the numbers ai Pe paread separately. Lik, ‘owe issued, entiled, oe Mis + “ Contributions to the Flora of Virgina containi ng pape y na ) an u k M E M O | R S + esem L., and the new Clematis Addisonit, Britt. mayi kad for | 75. cmt = N i ini he , “ The Termin maar of Certain North America n Plants,” hoa fifteen plates, isi in press. Price ommunications skoi be addres EDITORS OF THE TORREY BOTANICAL CLUB, Columbia College, New York City. Photography jor te Scientist BOOKS OF INSTRUCTION Scientific Photography, including Flash-Light and Photo-Micrographic Work. Amateur Outfits in Great Variety. E. @& H.T. ANTHONY ©& CO. 591 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. Manufacturers and Importers of Photographic Apparatus, Chemicals and Supplies. Fifty Years Established in this Line of Business. ga Send for Catalogue. Synopsis of the Families of Vertebrata. . BY PROF. E. D. COPE. This article, which was printed in the AMERICAN NATURALIST for October, 1889, has been issued in separate form by the publishers, for the use of lecturers, instructors and others who may have use for it, and will be sent by mail, postpaid, on receipt of 25 cents. FERRIS BROS., Publishers, S. W. Cor. Sixth and Arch Streets, Phila. en ADVERTISEMENTS. What Two Naturalists “gay OF At <2 PROF. EDWARD S. MORSE. adly avail myself of the chance of expressing my hearty Century Dictionary, my estimate of its — n standard reference-book for every naturalist in the country. PROF. A. S. PACKARD. E purchased The Century Dictionary partly for the reason that te p a 4 > z e ae $ 3 1 HEAD OF LEAF-NOSED Bar, pedia, and also for its most excellent definitions of scientific (Phyllorhina tridens). terms and admirable illustrations. I consider it as indispens- From Tue Century Dictionary. able both to the working and teaching scientist. ‘The Century Dictionary. S a reference-book for men who cannot afford a great library, but who need some work to which they can refer for a definition of a common word or for a scientific or technical term, which can be depended upon to be at once full and accurate, THE Century Dictionary is above every other. It is‘not only a complete word Dictionary, but it is an encyclopedia of common things as well. e large number of scientific and technical words defined and the tions at first hand, from men who, as specialists, are practically familiar with the 4 words and things defined. Prof. Elliott Coues, M.D., Ph.D., has been in charge of the department of General Zoology, Biology, and Comparative Anatomy, with Prof. Theodore N. Gill, Edward H. Jenkins, Frank H. Knowlton, Arthur B. Seymour, Lester F. Ward, Sereno Watson, and J. D. 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