F Fe o ari THE AE GE AMERICAN NATURALIST, An Hllusteated Hlagazine OF NATURAL HISTORY. EDITED BY EDWARD D. COPE Anp J. S. KINGSLEY, ASSISTED BY Dr, C. O. WHITMAN, Dr. C. E. Bessey, THoMAs WILSON, Pror. C, M. WEED, ProF. W. S. BAYLEY, Pror. E. A. ANDREWS. VOLUME XXVIII. Jan. Jue (69 Mo. Bot. Garden, l PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A, THE EDWARDS & DOCKER CO, 518 anp 520 MINOR STREET. 1894. CONTENTS. LEADING ARTICLES: Srnci fs some Cases of Apparent Transmission of Mutilations. Dr, O. von Certain pe Heaps of the M ass s River, Florida, hitherto unexplored (II- ustrated i CGB M i jonesii; A sreaions supposed to be new, feoi Cold Spring Har- r, Long Island (Illustrated). HENRY L. Osporn and C, W, HAR Grrr. Courtship among the Flies, J. M. ALDRICH...... Some Recent Chemico-Physiological Discoveries Regarding the Cell, P. H. CRITTENDEN The Classification of the Arthropoda. J. S. KINGSLEY 118 The Range of the Crossbills in T pag g aA with Notes on their Unusual Occurrence in T The Energy of Evolut E 3 COPE On a Small Collection pe Vertebrate Fossils from the Loup Fork Beds of Northwestern Nebraska, with Note on the Geology of the Region (Il- lustrated). J. B. HATCHE ER Whence Came the Cultivated Strawberry? L., H. BAILE The Parasitic Protozoa Found in Cancerous Diseases PARR ALICE BoDINGTON The Anen. of AEA toward Foreign Substances (Illustrated). E. J. The Waki Tussock-Moth yet betes sivas daa Smith and ae in Notes on a Species of ep a ( state) F. L. HARVEY The Meaning of Tree- HL Unusual Flights of the Ae E (Tes as lateralis Say) in AOS ern Illinois "aem J. L. HANCOCK A Glacial Ice Dam a Limit to the Ice Sheet in Central Ohio (Illustrated). W.G T IGHT. Animal Mechanics. Dr, M. Miles The Origin of Pelagic Life (From ProF. W. E. BROOKS)........ ...2.-.-0s00000+ The Origin of the Vertebrate Skeleton, J. S. KINGSLEY Variation of Etheostoma caprodes ga get W. J. MOENKHAUS.... ckism and Neo-Darwinism, L. H. B roians Pollination (Iustrated). J. L. Hancock iv The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXVIII, The Origin of the Subterranean Fauna of North America (Illustrated). A, S. PACKARD The Numerical Intensity of Faunas. L. P, GRATACAP The REEE of the Wing of Sterna wilsonii (Illustrated). V.J. LEIGH- A ee rams Jamaican Naturalist, Dr. Anthony Robinson. T. D. A. COCK- ERELL The Classification of Snakes rpi E. D. Core Limits of Biological Experime Dr. M. MILES Abalone or Haliotis Shells of E Califórnia Epea M. B. WILLIAMSON........ The Duration of Niagara Falls. Dr. J. W. NCER The Mechanical Cause of Apa in the tae a the Shells of Gasteropoda, (Illustrated). W. H. Some Birds of Paradise from ron Guinea A G. S. MEAD The Nri of Hypnotism, Jas. WEIR, M. D Rules of Nomenclature Adopted by the aaa Zoological Congress, Moscow, Russia, 1892, Moritz FISCHER Prairie — and Wild Pigeon in Jackson Co., Michigan, 1894. L. W. POPP eeeees Seeeeeees guaeny * Time Divisible in Three Periods—The Lafayette, Glacial and Rec Ww The Sasa of the Uredinez (The Rusts) (Illustrated), C. E. BESSEY.. On the Evolution ofthe Art ` uisg in Stone. A Preliminary Paper by J. D. McGuire. C. H. Zoology in the High School. Mw. EDITORIALS.—The Languages in Peg 38; Philadelphia and the Chicago Exhibit, 38 ; The most Useful Citizen, 39; A Word to our Exchanges and Correspondents, 39; City Postal Boxes, 249 ; The Congress of Zo- ol at Moscow, 249; The Days after the Chicago Exposition, 249; The Allis Laboratory, 250; City Parks, 399; Madacascariensis, 399; Poachers in the National Parks, 400; The Sundry Civil Bill, 400; The U. S. National Academy of Sciences, 494; The Propisi National Academy of Science and Art, 495 ; The Haeckel Celebration, 496 ; The U. S. Geological Survey, 684; The Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, 685; The American Association, 781; The Tariffon Books and Appara- Destruction of the Palisades, 783; A Museum Doorway, 937 Newspaper Mendacity, 937; Lieutenant Peary, 938; The Flavor of , 989; Parity of Vertebrates, 989; The International Congress of Zürih, 1011; The Publications of Raiiisjiie, 1011; The Botani- cal Society of America, 1012; Biology in the University of Texas, 1013; Dates of Issue of the Naturalist, . RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.—40, 147, 251, 329, 401, 497, 589, 687, 784, 863, 940. RECENT sguningy= Se Second and Concluding Part of J. Roth’s Allge- meine und Chemische Geologie, 43; Our Household Insects, 43; Horns and Hoofs, 44; Zirkel’s Text-Books of Petrography, 150; Zim- merman’s Botanical Microtechnique, 152; The Letters of Asa Gray, 1013 1014 1894.] Contents. 153; Orr’s Theory of Development and Heredity, 154; The Wilder Quarter-Century Book, 156; The Canadian Ice Age, 254; The Mol- lusc-Fauna of the Galapagos Islands, 255; An Examination of Weis-. mannism, 257 ; Extinct Monsters, 259; Chapman on the Birds of the Island of Trinidad, 332; Memoirs of the National Academy of Science, Vol. V1, 333; A Dictionary of Bird cues Eleventh Report of the State Mineralogist of California, $853 A ual Report of the Canadian Geological Survey, 1890-91, 336 ; isois. Annual Report of the Di- rector of the U. S. Geological Survey, 336; Annual Report of the New Jersey Geological Survey for 1892, 386; Marbles and Limestones of Arkansas, 337; On the Classification of the Myxosporidae, 404; Stiles, and Hassall’s Cestodes, 406; Clark’s Microscopical Methods, 409 Dodge’s Practical Biology, 409 ; The Wood’s Holl Lectures, 500; Re- port of the U. S. Fish Commissioner for 1889-91, 502; Mineral Resour- of the U.S., 1892, 502; Gage’s Microscope and Microscopical Methods, 592; ' Shufeldt on Chapman’s Birds of Trinidad, 592; Annual Report Minnesota Natural aoe se for 1892, 573; The Genus Salpa, 690; Bateson’s Diction f Variation, 692; Louis Agassiz, his Life and Work, 746; Wiii. Ornithology, 787; Seeley on the Fossil Reptiles: II, Picttasadirns VI, The Anamed aa and their Allies; VIl, Further Observations on Pareiasaurus, 788; S on the M ali i , 8 for 1892, 866; Marsh, on the Tertiary Artiodactyla, 867 ; cathe and the Ancestry of the Vertebrates, 943; Correlation Pipen of S. Geol. Survey, 944; Economic Geslaty of the U. S., 945; Van. Invertebrate Paleontology; Seitaro Goto, Studies on the Ectoparasitic Tre GENERAL NOTES.— Geography and Travels.—The Ascent of Mt. St. Helens, 46 ; Source of the Mackenzie River, 49; The Grand Falls of Labrador, Antarctic Exploration 503; Geology ind Paleontology. oui Food Habit of the Plesiosarus, 50; The Texas Region, 50; Terrestrial Submergence Southeast of the American Con- tinent, 51; Tropical Mioc sal Fossils in Siberia, 51; ronan Geology, 52; An Ex tinct Lemuroid from Madagascar, 52; Geo Ne 163, 267, 341, 416, 511, Tas 796, 884, 954, Jira The Geological Structure of the Mount Washington Mass of the Taconic Range, 158; Origin of the Pennsylvania Anthracite, 160; ae System in Can- ada, 161; Evidences of a Submergence of Wes rn Europe at the Close of the Glacial Period, 161 ; The Manus of eae 164; Trans- Pecos Texas, 263 ; Estimates of the Duration of the Glacial Epoch, 263 ; Geology of Martha’s Vineyard, 265; Plistocene Birds of Madagascar, 266; Antennz in Trilobites, 266; Development of the Brachial Sup- Fauna of the Caspian Sea, 338; Coasts of Bekring Sea and Vicinity, 1017 vi The American Naturalist, [Vo]. XXVIII, 339; The Age of the oe Mammal ian Fauna of the Central Plateau of France, 339; Plistocene Diastrophism in the California Coast, 340; e Geology of the jenen Coail 411; Intrusive Dikes in Gran- and Its Invertebrate Fauna, 510; New Polyzoans from the Be Cretaceous, 510; Sae, on Ameri rican Eocene Vertebrata in Switz- land, 594 ; Pi ountai basca River, 880; American Te ertiary Aphidæ, 881; The Köiorntidk e kes in ; The Shasta- 1024; A Gypsum “‘ Cloche ; 1024; The Malaspina Glacier, 1027; Plistocene Problems in Missouri, 1027 ; Wortman on the Creodo nt om ofelis Mineralogy ani Petrography.—The Granite of Santa Lucia, California, and aN ock Variety Carmeolite, 57; The Ancient Rocks of Southern Finland, 58; Petrographical News, 58, 168, 421, 704, 800, 949, 1029; ineralogical News, 171 ; New Minerals, 59; Globular Granite in Finland, 166; The Inclusions in the Basalts of the Oberlansite, 166; ermometamorphism, The Ho of te, 109; The Effect Impurities in Crystallizing Solutions, 169 ; North Caro- lina Quartz Crystals, 1 New Books, Me sand Instruments, 172; e Eruptive Rocks of Cape Bonita, Cal., lurgite and Violan from St. M nal Plagioclase, 423 ; cynite in Gabbro, 423 l Constants of Topaz, 423; Eleolite Rocks rom Trans >, ; Differentiation of ; Id nites, 3; The Sc Soda-f from the Berkeley Hills, Cal., 602; The New Island off Pantelleria— a Correction, 603; Friedel’s Cours de Mineralogie, 698 ; — be- tween Atomic Weight and Crystal Angles, 699 ; = age from Corn- wall, 700; Eudialite from the Kola Peninsula, 700; Ejected Blocks of Monte Somma, Bh Phonolites from the Black Hills, 702; The Ori- gin of n Iron Ores, 708; The Tonalites of the Rieseferner, 703; Nepheline-Melilite Rocks of Texas, 799 3 Eleolite-Syenite from Eastern ario, 800; Crystallization of Ena argite, ; Crystallization of parry and Meta. scolecite cng Crystallization of Herderite, 871 Composition and Related Physical Properties of Topaz, 871; Composi- tion of Chondorite, umite, and Clinohumite, 872 $: Leucite from ilizati cl 1894.] Contents. a oma in Gypsum, 876; New Sulphostannate from Bolivia, 877 ; te from Franklin Furnace, 877; Zirkel’s Petrography, 946; In- ee in Volcanic Rocks , 946; he sig Leap gee a the Adirondacks and of the Lake Tira Region, 947; The Augite Granite of Keka- quabic Lake, Minnesota, 948; Composite Dykes “ oy ae 1019 i An- alysis of „Clays, 1019; The Phonoiites of Northern Bohemia, 1 ra Zoology. — Pipa dallit sp. nov., 66; Changes of Plumage in the Bobo- link, 66; On three new genera of Characinide, 67; Descriptions of ill Rodents from California and Oregon, 67; Zoological = 71,187, 271, 350, 437, 526, 614, 890, 1046; New Ma ina 72; Reap- pearance ofthe Fresh-water Me jusa Lim crag he rbit 181; Desert: tion of a New Genus and eve of ct e Rodent from the sd ted States, 182; Descripti on of a New Per oo ats collected by J. K Townsend in 1834, 185; The “italy of — ca, 269; The Pro- duction of Sound Am mane the Ants, 270 ane of Herbivorous Animals, 345 ; Cladoceran Se an 345; ne oe of the Harvestmen, 345; Range of Placos sy » 846; The Scales of Toshia, 346 Mammalia of Mt. Pon o, 347; The “came of Thibet, 348; Re- production of the ines a 431; a in Hydroids, 431; The Parietal Eyes, 432; East African Reptiles and Batrachia, 434 ; ag n Lake, Wis 807; Rotatoria of the Great Lakes, ; The atarsa Anatomy and Relationship E Pauropus, 810; Thysanura from the Cave of Central France, 811; ea ofa Comparison o of Antipoda a pine 812; The Carotid, Thymu: he ee oid — o Indiana, 958, Termi jaaa Nerve Cell, 1041; Structure of "Clepsine, 1041; A New pe ee kansas s, 1042; A New Bassalian type of Crabs, 1043; Note on ‘he ihe aie th of Hyla gic ielerens in New Jersey, 1045; Yolk Nailsi atagaster. of Cyma! sage Ellis and Everhar’s North American Fu ungi, 63; A Synopsis of er Groups of the Vegetable ng = Aine 63; The Number of a 173; New Book on Ferns, 180; Holophytes and Hysterophy- tes, 343; The Microdrganisnis of E siraga 343; What is mds derma? 496; The so-called *‘ Russian Thistle,” 427 ; Thaxer nagro of the Laboulbeniaceae, 605; Abnormal Plant Growths, 706; he Approaching Meeting of the Assoc. =. Sci., 706; The "Com ela of Coulter’s Texan Flora, 707; Dr. Kuntze’s E Studien, 1030; Notes on the Trees of Northern Nebraska, 1034; Mess ; rs. Rand and Redfield on Nomenclature, $ ical Ne Embryology.—Embryo of Sponges, 73; Development o Newt, 76; xperimental raaa Arna , 79; Formation of the Anne Eye, 80; Clea Format f Organs, 272; Experimental Soca: 352; p rebima of rye cornea, 353; Development 1046 viii The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXVIII, of Sponges, 439; Oökinensis in on maximus, 528; Earthworm Phylogeny, tnd "Determination f Sex Entomology.—Evolution and bsg omy, wy Habits of Halobates 84 ; Pupation of Gyrinus oa Dinew s, 85; Hermann August Hagen, 86; E omo- logical Notes an news, 86, 195, 445, 535; North American Dacian. pidae, 189; Peculiar Oviposition of an Aphid, 190; Pupal Develop- ment ar Color in Imago, 191; Studying ‘Insect Histories, 192; Biology of the Apple Aphis, er paca in Cecidomyia, 194; Flights of Dragon Flies, 194; nivorous Tipulid, 195; The Four-lined Leaf- Eres (Ilustrated), gy Indiana Orthoptera, 281; A Curious Hemiptero Ameriaan Membracidae, 283; Colors of Lepidopterous Sain ‘esa, pr of Arseniteson Caterpillars, 284 ;M , 534; New York Reports, 535; The Pear-Leaf 2e ter, 616; Habits of the Leap- ing — of Southern Georgia, 618 ; Note on the Winter Ant, 619 ; North merican Centophili, 893; The Plume Moths, 893; New Use of Bi- sulphide æ apa 894; Mimicry in Diptera, 894; Description of a ew Pelecinus from Tennessee, 895; Flight of Locusts, 896 ; Biology 3; Embryoni i id Larvae, 1060; Soci cono he Hive Bee, 1060; Notes on mpshire Lepidoptera, 1 emiptera of Buffalo.............. Psychology.—The Recidivist, 537; Mutualists, 713; The Habit of ipee nimals, 898 ; Subjective Defense in the Low Animals, minal Skull, 958; The Habits of pre eae opacum, ; Habits of Ophibolus getu ENA mes Physi ee of Viper Poiso: n, 620; T he Secretion a Urea. Archaeology and Ethnology.—The Plateau Implements , of Southe n England, ; Plistocene Gravel Specimens in in Spain, 89; The Mia kauaks of of American and Prehistoric l the University of Pennsylva- nia, 355, 626; The Trenton Gravel tho 357 ; . W. Boy Dawkins on Paleoli lithic Man in Eur 448; Tobacco Pipes in Shell ; an Italy, 971 ; The Age of Certain Stalactites, 1063: ; Indians Mining Lead, Mieroscopy.—Orienting Small Objects for Sectioning and « Fixing ” them i arin ial PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES 93, 197, “sa wis ei oe ScrENTIFIC News 95, 203, 287, 367, 460, 550, 630, 722, 830, 906 711 1062 977 978. 1894] Index. INDEX. BALONE or Haliotis Shells s hè Toi Coast: M. jie ens Tarer Z COPt isee 512 Action of Leuc arska toward For- eign Substances... .....seerseseee Adams, C. C., Kana Explora- MAG A aaao esris ccceseses Toe F., Age of Certain Stalac- EMERE NAPERO 063 piee of Lord Salisbury.......... 782 Aerial Roots of Acer Canes m, L. Age o Plistoce Fauna Spe BS of ‘be Central lateau of F AgrioChceruS.....+serseesseseressesesees so D M, Courtship Among 35 Alant poe Franklin Furnace.... 877 | A lien, Dr. H 208, 978 | et Laboratory dipe idirin 250 TE EO scout 552 | pams A Violan from St. Mar- | CEE O 422 American ar coe Aav: Sis- 781 | gee gen dv. Stk, | ER 25 | Apaia T ‘cal Soci 199 American Society of eai Ai 197 American Tertiary Aphide. .......:. 881 Amblystoma opacum, habits o 969 morpha microphylla. Pursh.... Amusement Among the Lower im: i 89. Analyses of Cl 1019 Ancestors api 41 Ancient American = k reai 716 Ancient Conglomerates......+.....+++ 1021 Spg jers t Rocks of Soni Fin- haimil Mechanics. Manly Miles 5 AnorthoclaSe ...---++++++-sesceeeenesees 421 ntarctic Exploration. C. C. ica Glee] N E 693 Antenne in Trilobites Vesta sike byyy 266 Antennal Sense Organs of Insects. r Annual Report R i of the en Geological Survey, 1890-91. 336 % Te lae aea rtof Minnesota Nat- ral History Survey for 1892.. 593 Kigu Report o ew Jersey Geol. Surv. for 1892..........+ 6 Aphidæ (fossil) 881 Aphis mali. Fabr. sessie sesser - 193 Aphyocarax agassizii 612 peidame es. 612 ris . 612 Arachnida » NTEN R a 350, 1047 Ara gonite 42. Archeology and Ethnology, 89, 355, 446, 622, 716, 821, 902, 971 Arctic Geology. ......ssesesesseceeerers 52 Arsenite jes n Caterpillars, Effect of.. 284 Arthropoda........scsseseeseee enseeeere 187 pee of Me. l Helens. sissies- shm ice ee copay a of North American Precotrypidia sales 189 Asiphoiie LESS 7 OSTAS Sires D ei 67 Atelodus bicornis 45 Atherinoid he 08 Atmosphere asa Factor in Dyna- cal Geology VaN. 953 Atta Sainte 618 clar 619 Atienuition of Viper Poison......... 620 Aue one pota used for. AE 873 Augite Gra f bic Min nn Augite, Hoor Glass form of.......-- EE ipepe, descrip- S. N. Rhoads........ 182 Auriferous Slates of the Sieve Ne- PAE ee 414 hen E E A venees 171 gee EB. —Neolamarck- and Neodarwinism........ Whence came the Cultivated Beebe berry ? 293 Bag 443 Basic e Dyke at Hamburg, N. J...... 801 Basic Rocks of the Adirondacks ae ad the Lake Champlain Bates, TM —Notes on a Few Shrubs of Northern Nebraska.. 803 x The American Naturalist. Bates, Notes on at GEE of Rae bras ern Ne ..... 1034 E nat ETEN ERE care 1049 Bay, ne C.—Hansen’s Microdrgan- of Fermentation........ ... 343 What i is Micoderin a a? RERE i 426 Bayley, W. S., Review of J. Roth’s Allgemeine Geologie.. 43 Review of Zirkel’s New Text Book of Petrography.........+4. yen QOMOEIE -s vein secccsrsave 501 519 gray i fossil) 1057 Bennett, G., Dr. 552 Beraneck’s Studies on the Forma- tion of the Annelid Eye...... 81 Bessey, C. E.—Botany at Brook- The Homologies of the Ure- dine (the Rusts) The so-called “ Russian This- tle’ Review of Atkinson’s Stud of the Biology of Ferns by the Collodion Method............... Review of Ellis and Ever- hart’s North American Fungi., anay of Letters of Asa E TAA E AN 153 Review of Zimmer érmann’ s Bo- rene Microtechnique......... 152 ynopsis of th pol ed Groups of the Vegetable Ki ham: 424 Biology of the Apple aiai s... 193 Biology of the Glow-w iale Biology of the Horse Biology in the E? *xas stsstess 1 iai of 1013 Biological ney at Havana, Illino’ ag Station of the E of Illin Bipes zanaki i sedees6se6 sbresyos Birds of Paradise from Guinea. ead cuio O16 PE of Carbon Remed y for Aph .. 894 Black Earth OF ROM i eas 886 Bobolink, Change of Plumage in... 66 Bodington, A., Parasitic Protoz found in Cancerous Dis 807 Bolitophila luminosi 961 DOMES MAE aires ielan 448 Boring in Eastern Kansas .......... 163 Boston Society of Natural History, 459, A eeeeeeee Botany at Brooklyn,.................. 804 Botanical Society of America....... 1013 Breeding Habits of the ec Triclads of Limulus ............. 544 Brusina’s Discovery of a New Fau the Cenozoic Beds near Lagreb, and its Rela- tions with the Recent Fauna of the Cas DOR siccisccavuases 338 Bryaxis gr P ENSE, 6 Bumpus, H n the of oe Rocio the ‘Slide. 721 Butler’s reae Ins Siogaet 43 Butler, A. , The Range o Crossbills in ~ Ohio Valley, wit otes on their unusual Occurrence i i itd so fee ae 36 ACOXENITE aa 520 ambarus faxonii, descrip- niea aR OAE R oot 042 gea Rocks of Pennsylyania the “Tne Ss to the te ware ges Canfieldite ...... Caro pos Thymus and Thyroid Peaster eck. mean tes 813 Carnivorous Tipid scga Soses» 195 S E R OE SE 797 iis Fossils in France ............... 956 Cocindelid Larvae iaia 060 Cenozoic, 55, 164, 268, 341, 418, 12, 596, 797, 886, 955. ee 1028 Ceutophili of North America........ 89 Central Shell Heaps of the St. John’s River, Florida, hitherto unexplo 3 e Bloom- Beld Moorei a s... 15 oon dpan Adsepiicnn cece reie 71 CNL OLOPAUS MAOLVICUS. 6.0000. 71 +E of | Kometens Animals.. 345 Boln ona eT 424 ice EE E CME O 522 Cetacea (extinct) of Italy............ 98 Change of Color in the Northern te a E eres EA 890 Chapman, F, M., etter eenst ing Shufeldt tu Ch Birds of Trinidad ............... 592 aracinid from Bea oeu. 67 Characinidz, South American...... 610 Chemico- Physiologica Discoveries the Cell. O iiil een 97 Chicago Expositio 249 Chilostomata from a Jurassic Bed.. 341 Chinch Bug ng CASES. crseceeeeseesees 963 Chloromelanite ............ EDRU AA 425 Chondrodite, , Composition Of s.5; 872 Chondros (Vol. XXVIII, 1894.] Chordata “Chorimycter us SOOO geBO tees teen eeene Cicinnurus Gnoliosauras m A iy Postal Be OE ie cas aspen A 4Cladoceran pits rustacea Clark, „ The Meaning of Tre En “Clark’ + Mictossogical Method Classification of the Art Hrona. le Fee eee eereenseeseens âA kis N s E D. ingsle ification of the Memnettines.. Bee assifica Co PELA Triassic “Claypole, , The Action „of Leucocytes "toward Forei Substan a, Stet eof. seteeeneseeees . Rapid Method of Hardening and Sectionin LAS —Observations e Distribution of Cocci- itle Known Jamaican Naturalis, Dr. Anthony Rob- Thelen tas eoptera at Lower California..... Calar Form «Colo were Formation and its Inver- Citi a Ledan Larvs..... ‘Comparison of p saya oo Composite Dykes on Arr: Rocks of Point Bonita, 42 Erupti ve meaty in Michigan ,...... 421 Eruptive Rocks in Minnesota...... 511 eanue side Rafinesque.... 641 957 Pe rite 19 Evidences of a Submergence of beet rn Europe at i oa close f the Glacial Period......,..... 161 Evolution of the Art of Weine, in 997 Expert rien Recenter. UEN, 352 Extramorain tesseesereseee 955 Eyes of the Fatis entiris is 345 P Gland in Orni- aen and its Secre- Fichi M., Translation ot the Rules of Nome clature adopt- ed by the International Zoo- logical Co oscow, Russia, 1892 929: Fishes, 351, 960............ 1048. Flights of Dragon-Flies .............. 194 ; Fligh f Locusts aces” es Collection from _ 1028 Fluid ‘Enclosures ' in Sicilian Gyp- 874 Food 1 Habit itot the Plesiosaurs eae eee 1894] Foraminifera, Precambrian......... Forbes, H, O Formation of the Annelid Eye...... Fowke, G. Norse, Remains in the a ighborhood of Boston Bay.. ckeite Freshwater ea sheng Drift at Fusus toril. © pan K Microscope and Mi- copical Methods.......... Gailenreuth Cave in 1894. Ee, Seaman getul: u. Habits s TA sage gad List of Ophid ‘Ae abe of Ophibolus a found ne Geology of the Antarctic Conti- Geology of Bathurst, N. S. W Geology of Conanicutt Island, I Geology of India Gaston of om s aller airius Geology ntology, 50, 158, 263, 388, “ul, 508, 594, 798, 878, 950.. pene of ve Roc the po Athebese oe ar News. Genel, ky M Mount ains, n atchewan a Riter isin 54, Arch ean, 163, 4 Paleozoic, 54, ae oe 5i, 796, Geological iaai of America...... Geological Survey of Pennsylvania Geological Structure of the Mount ree — — of the Ta- Geologic T "rime s as Indicated by the je ary Rocks of North Saeco aul “Tinvels, 46, 503.. Gill, T.—An Australasian Sub- ee nily of Fresh-waler Atheri- T es Lepidosirens and Bdellosto- ry New Bassalian Type of st pareen is > dies iia: Glacial Dam and a Limit to t wc ts me Cen tral Ohio. W O, Tight scsseasic cise. icine Period Effect on Present Fauna of North America Index. Globular Granite in Finland......... Gneiss Gold Chloride Formic Acid Sta ing of Sectio ei ae Fixation in Sublimate Alcohol........... Gold p aiie Ç; ristol Gopher Frog, Scan GE cash cecsntys Gordon, Dr. Grand Falls o fLabe PROT se civsese- Granite Inclusions in a ASh of Oberlausitz.......... Granite of Santa ta Lucia, California, anda new Rock Variety, Car- eiis Gratacap, i Faà kamani cian In- tensity of Faun Greenland Insects Greenstone Dy ay Of. nesses Gregory’s Translation of Loewin- -Lessi Extermination of Reck-form ing M Grobben, Dr E: Gromia nie arg, nee AN S & Günther -Guthrie s ZPT: Second Edi- tion of. Glypholycus bicolor Gypsum ‘* Cloche” ABITS of le os Se Ie a ae Haeckel hafta Set ree ST 460 Hancock, J. L. Unusual —— = e Grouse Locust lateralis Say) in Aona Tilinois. Ornithophilous Pollination. ...; The Whit-warked Tussock- Moth in oe and OE a a rapid Oo of. Hargitt, C7ŢW a Perigonimus Jonesi, ahydroid pe said pring Harbor, patie ty on me Island. ..363 Harvey, F. L. Notes ona — af: Simocephalus, sessosss. +o Hasskarl, J Hatch’s F paee BOE OR E E Hatcher, On — oo i ptori n the Geology of of the Region. Hinmetenaiite.; 1.. see eeesee xiv Heckson, S. J- Hemen wey Co = eect No aT kai 436 ichorda...... Hemiptera. of Buffalo. and tasara in Gabb eaei crystallization OE an Hertwig's Studies of the paras Organs. Hexa Ffolcostephanus deanstt.ceces coccvess oti Jossularis SB OTE R Hol s and Hysterophytes. .. E the Hom mologie Uredineae, = E. ene s Marbles and Limestones of A Hoplides hat eee eee eescsses s...» u System of Descriptive Terms.. Hydroids pinatra of Utah, origin of... et Manne lea Hypnotism | agen Duration of....... edo yaar of Salamanders in urare, Inclusions i in Volcanic Rocks....... Indiana Academy of Science Indiana Orthoptera ..ssos Injurious i “nee of England nsects Vi one Internal forera and Relationship eee wees of Pauropus, F, C. Kenyon... my L Gmnlogiei 1 Congress Sorta ang emp a Dykes in Gran- ite . Iron-haematoxylin and Centroso- m- Fi Tron Triani Of MotGlecks vec ccc, Tsotypi JAROSITE J Jayne, H The American Naturalist. Johason, C. W. Trio a ag in the p anii pom e Juniperus communis Lisceresserereese AN or Yat Pe Quarterly... PEREA 9 Jr-- OCC eee sete Peer eoreas Scales of Lepidosteus........... ig ie A the Pani TN Kraus Kingslcy, T z e Classification of the Arthropoda............++. Origin of the qos Skele- ton L ace ciate 5 Dr. Lamellar! ap ik in yee Crys- Lacon near the Shap Gran- ite Mass. Land-connection between New J Long Island......... AE E 380 Stbtt of Win g of Sterna wilson uroid ( Extinct) phase Madea odendron CSNOSLENSE. 000. eons a era of New Heed gy Lepidosireus and Bellostomids, T Gill Lepus ameri Leucite — Ew Jersey onsas ins Lignites of Southern Chili........... Limits of geting Experiments, Manly Miles Limnocodium — in the Shef- eld Botan Ti Dr. G... Lop cus mauritianus M.- ens. REELE EEEE j APEE T PEPEE EER Lo — nae Mammals near Ly- rance. a Dee Luminous Organs 3 of Histiot rueppelli ooo ee as ee et eees [Vol. XXVIII, 889 803 605 1894.] Lydekker’s eee Chapters a Footed Aii ACKINTOSHITE......-..s0005 Malaspi na Glacier ee TEETER OA E T RR, a 271, 960 of Mt. Pocono, W. A em apes ot} Rio Grande del Sul.. Mammoth in n Canada and Alaska.. Mori c 5, “On the Vertical Distribution of Pelagic a in Green Lake, Wisc Meee ut Martha's Vineyard.. aie esis ck. Mead, hs S. The Ornithology of w Guinea ai S. Mead...... Mead, G. S. Bir dise fro S Gii A TERESAN Meaning of Tree. Tife, H. L. Clarke 465, Measurement of Crystals,............ Meberkohlem-sandsteine in China, McGuire, J. e Non-exist- ence of Paleolithic Culture.. Mechanica! keg paan in the Apert — of the She mi ities N TA Dal is sasisases Me ane S. E. Description a Cam- VUS j AXON. Description of Etheostoma pa- Me cea dae of North Ameri Memoirs of the praep pek my of ae uc. Mar Indian Corn in Assisii Indians Mining ch rs et ea pe Se Cave in 1894....... f. Boyd Da kins on Paleo- : iithic asa i TD ROP G cece nccase-s Caas = Field ork a the of Am. aud Pre- historie Archaeology of the Univ. of Pi Quaternary ibe in Speci- The bhi Gravel Discus- PC Sect nae in the Skull of Primor- Fi ial Fishes Method of Imbedding in a Mixture Celloidin and Paraffine...... 267, 341, 417, of . Mesozoic, 54, 163, 12, 797, 886. Index. at 399 1049 7 188 348 513 544 ‘Natural Scie Micas Michigan Fish Commission Work in 1894 Microérganisms of Fermentation... Microscopy......360, 544, 720, tee Middle n nian in California Migul Miles, M, Animal Mechanics Limits of Biological Experi ment Milesinus. hong Sti gee Hee TEAN Mim n Di ptera Mineralugy and Petrography, 57, 166, 514, 597, 601, 698, 702) 799, 870 Mineral Resources of the U. S., 1892 Mineral sf nea Miocene Bird-Bones Moenkhaus, W. 7. Vaiiativn of Behinik caprodes Rafines- Mollusca, 71, 187, 271, 851, 438, 526, ’891, 960 Mongooses Moore, C. B. Central Shell Heaps of the St. John’s ah th! , Flor- ida, hitherto unexplo ae pipes i in Shell “Heaps of the Moore, J. z Tie andersonii in New Morgan’s Experimental Studies on Teleost Eggs Mutualists, J. Wier ssssorees =e Academy of Scien- nce e of Staten Island...202, 363, 452, PRMCPOIDIE e ss, coe cos saeeeoses ses Renee: Dr AK: E. 367, Bentley, R hm, a Boehm, T Chabry, Dr Danielssev, D auld Se aes 2 fos t; P. 5 p gen BE ga Atl 203, a Gumpenbers, C Von: eae Ha agen ae, 86, Halfer, A The American Naturalist. xvi Hasskarl, J. K 462 Heider, Dr. A 552 Hyrtl, Dr, J 725 Klipstein, A. von. seeeteneeeen eens 7 Knop,: Dr, A..<.:... EET 551 Lockwood; Dr Boii iseni 289 Marshall, Prof. pn ..203, 287 Middendorf, Bie. Fo VOR, 462 Nill, J 726 is Bo Putt Reshenswon 367 Passerim, 367 ean "Vilanova.. siressa -OB im 552 Rink, H. S ARL S TEE 552 Romanes, Ge Joxan 630 Saocki, FOE Assisin '552 wab, R. von 367 Spruce, R a a n .461, 551 tur, D 203 Ulrich, Dr. F 550 Undeet, Dr. Q Mo eana 552 seler, J 451 mw Beneden, Pe Tiaa 287 Williams, G. H 4 Wrzesniowski, Prof. A......... 552 Néocomian Invertebrates............... 7 Neolamarckian Theories of Evolution........... 292 Neolamarckism and Neodarwinism. L. H. Bailey io OBL Neotoma arizone 271 intermedia 69 ochroura 67 ecidomyia............: 194 Nepleine: Melilite Rocks of Texas = Ne ptu Neutral v heoa Acid Fixatives for 5 ei 97. New a gaea ae age of......... 341 New Island oft Pantelleria........... 603 ew Mammals ‘ical Trinidad 72 New Minerais. ooo. ries 56 ew Red Horizons............... a per Mendacity................ 37 adana Dictionary of f Birds, B 334 New Yor i 246, peh 629 om cae da vlan Whine 859 Nickel O 516 Niobrara Rocks i in eee Denie 164 Nitra lineolata Heilpri 912 Nomenclature of a sonal M oa i Koris, W. W 1013 Norse Remains near Boston Bay, G. Fowke. Notes on a Species of las. F. L. Harvey.......cccore0. 395 [Vol, XXVIII, Numerical Intensities of Faunas, Ee P. Gratacap A 752 À arinin YX Ees Orgyia leucostigma in Chicago, 326 po Smail En for Sec- 360 Orig Pac n Iron Ores 703 Origin of of Pelagic Life (from W. E7 585 Origin of = pa Pennsylvania Anthra- kourissa 160 Origin of the Subterranean F aunaof — America, A. S, Pack- seses. 727 Origin p the M epai Skeleton, . S. Kingsley 632 Odkinensis i x Limax maximus, F. . Washburn 528 Ophidia oe near Seo Ind. 958 Ophibolus getulus, habits Pe e.e» 969 Optical Cee sof Topas. naca 423 Optical Methods 598 arig of New Guinea. G.S. Mead - 889 a Pollination. J. L. insani 679 P deroa: of Se ape CKY se eeee eens 1 OryZomys COSLATICINEES. cececcececceces 72 perae PERN A EE E 72 Oryx gazella 44 Osband, L. A. Abnormal Plant TRATE ARES aisse 706 Osborn, H. L. and C. W. Perigonimus jonesii, a hydroid from Se S H Long a Ane 27 . Owen’s p war al Saena 204 Oyster Cisie, at kaai France. - 187 Oysters, flavor 938 Pp" KARD, A. Origin of the Subterranean Fauna of North merica 27 Paleolithic Culture, non-existence ve 90 Paleo! ithic Man in Europe........... Aee Invertebrates........ $s seen 512 P egocephali............... 796 Paradisea apodea ce GAT oS ei ariama AE E EO Paradisea SEXlellannnonmnresenreese 919 Paraffine Sect 721 Parasitic Protozoa found in Cancer- Se seenrtes, a P See eee eeeeee 307 - 432 tates of Vertebrates............... « 939 1894.] Parthenogenesis among the Acari of Feathers ae eee of ci neipes Habits of Atta OFUNNEA .00ecc00 .s.sss seneee iliary Expeditio s from Tane seal eary Aux ariki brunneipes l air Pennsylvania Odontological Socie- ty Pentlandite Periclase Perigonimus Jonesii. A Hydroid sed to be new, from Cold gitt Periods of aeea in the Ap- palachian Sys Perognathus latirostris, description LS. ma Pra Petouhaphict weve 58, 168, 421, 516, o ea 800, 949, Pesotettix di ifferenti Philadelphia and Chicago Exhibit. Phonolites tie the oe Hills.. of oe rn Bohem (APETTTETTTTETTTTT Phosgen lpi of beech Physio! Payton P pyri eT Reg K by ro Fy Pisces Pisodus OWENEL.....+++ 200 HO Ay hy 0 pa ob E: an ei "he Mg and ....sesesseesee sseseeonres Plistocene Birds of Madagascar..... climatic changes — `L. S., F. G.-S., F. S. A. Extr. Geol. Mag. Səpt. 1893. From the author. : pee ae Nee g è te a e A easa A ea a gee a E e E Seb R S N ale il Ste Moe > ee eis I S Rag a ar et 1894,] Recent Literature. 43 RECENT LITERATURE. The second and concluding part of J. Roth’s Allgemeine und Chemische Geologie’ completes the valuable set of volumes the first two of which have proven such a boon to chemical and petro- grapical geologists. That portion of the volume before us has been edited by the author’s daughter, who has attempted to present the subject matter contained in it as nearly as possible in the form in which it would have appeared had her father lived to complete his work. The title of the book describes the nature of its contents. The discussion relating to the weathering of rocks comprises 59 pages, on many of which are found analyses that serve to illustrate the subject. Seventy-two pages are devoted to the decomposition of rocks through the influence of vol- canic and other examinations from beneath the surface of the crust and thirty-two pages deal with rock distintegration consequent upon tem- perature changes, the action of organisms, and the effects of wind and water. Three appendices to the three volumes follow, and to each there is added an excellent index. The brochure just issued, like all the others that have come from the pen of its author, is a masterly and thorough treatment of the subject of which it treats. It is a fitting capstone to the excellent monument which the authors reared to him- self during the concluding years of his life. It is so replete with interesting information that it must prove a necessity to every student of rocks. W.S. B Our Household Insects.’—Under the title Mr. Edward A. Butler has written a book which is decidedly better as regards accuracy coherence and scientific value than the usual popular works on ento- mology. Eighteen chapters are utilized to discuss a great variety of household insects—many of which in America at least could only rarely be viewed in the light of “ pests ” : the list includes wood boring, club- horn and long-horn beetles, meal-worms, ants, wasps, horn-tails, clothes moths and meal moths, crickets and ear-wigs, flies of many kinds including gnats, midges and mosquitoes, the flea and bed-bug, the book- louse and “ silver-fish ” and lastly human Pediculi. Besides a consider- 1 Allgemeine Geologie, von Justus Roth. 2te Abt. Verwitterung, Zersetzung und Zer- stérung der Gesteine. Nachtrige. Berlin. W. Hertz., 1893. Pp. 211-530 and ix, 2 Our Household Insects: An Account of the insect pests found in ening ers By Edward A. Butler, Longmans, Green, and Co. 44 ‘The American Naturalist. , [January, able number of fair illustrationsin the text, there are seven page-plates showing photographic enlargement of various insects. | Horns and Hoofs*.—This octavo volume of 411 pages is a reissue in a collective form of articles which have appeared from time to time in the Field and Land and Water. The animals come under the designa- tion of “ big game,” and include the wild oxen, sheep and goats, the Asiatic and African antelopes, the Asiatic and South American deer, the wild pigs, and the rhinoceroses, ancient and modern. In some of =— << = aes mar bambi" it == taint Fig. 1. Ore i, the SEA of Africa. the chapters all the members of particular groups are discussed, òè! other cases, while the geographical distribution of all given, the author limits the full description to the more important members. The rela- tions existing between the different groups and the past distribution of each particular group are treated of more at length than is customary in the majority of sporting works. In fact the book rises much above the general level of this class, as it could not fail to do as the work of Dr. Lydekker, who is one of the most competent of modern zoologists. orns aand Hoofs or Chapters on Hoofed Animals. By R. Lydekker. Horace Cox; The Field Office, Windor House. Loudon, 189 1894.] Recent Literature. 45 His long residence in Įndia gives him especial authority on the Mammalia of that region, and we accordingly find his descriptions of some of the little known species of the oriental mountain ranges to supply a long feet desideratum. These remarks are especially applic- able to the wild species of sheep and goats. We find the work lacks symmetry in the inclusion of the rhinoceroses while it omits the tapirs and horses; and a strictly scientific limitation would include also the Proboscidia. Perhaps these forms can be added in a future edition. In any case it is a book which no sportsman or naturalist can not be without. It is illustrated by 82 excellent cuts. Through the courtesy of the publisher, we are able to reproduce two of them. —— 2 = ain = Fig. 2. Atelodus bicornis; the common African rhinoceros, . 46 The American Naturalist. [January, General Notes. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. The Ascent of Mount St. Helens.—The following abstract of an account of the ascent of Mount St. Helens by Mr Fred. G. Plum- mer, prefaced by a brief history of its recent eruptions, appeared in the December number of Scientific American : “St. Helens has shown considerable activity in recent times. In August, 1831, there was an uncommonly dark day, which was thought to have been caused by an eruption of a voleano. The whole day was nearly as dark as night, except for a slight red, lurid appearance, which was perceptable until near night. Lighted candles were neces- sary during the day. The atmosphere was filled with very light ashes, like the white ashes of wood. The day was perfectly calm. There were no earthquakes or rumblings. After the ash clouds had cleared away it was seen that the pure white snow upon St. Helens was browned by the fall of ashes. It is also said that lava flows took place at that time.” “In October, 1842, St. Helens was discovered all at once to be cov- ered with a dense cloud of smoke, which continued to enlarge and move off in dense masses to the east, filling the heavens in that direc- tion. When the first volume of smoke had cleared away it could be seen distinctly from various parts of the country that an eruption had taken place on the north side of St. Helens, a little below the summit, and from the smoke that continued to rise from the crater it was pro- nounced a voleano in active operation. When the explosion took place the wind was morthwest, and on the same day, extending from thirty to fifty miles to the southwest, there fell showers of dust or ashes, ` which covered the ground in some places so as to admit of its being gathered in quantities.” “On November 23, 1843, St. Helens scattered ashes over the Dalles of the Columbia River, fifty miles away, and burned continuously un- til February 16,1844. Dense masses of smoke rose from the craters in immense columns, and in the evenings the fires ‘ lit up the mountain side with a flood of soft yet brilliant radiance, ” “Having determined to investigate the most active volcano of Washington, we left Tacoma by the midnight train, August 10, 1893, Jp 1894] Geography and Travels. 47 with packs containing necessaries for the trip and the instruments for observing and recording all we were to see.” “ When we reached the mountain, with the aid of a glass I was able to map out a route to the larger of the craters which would not cross any of the great crevasses in the ice slopes. Our ascent began imme- diately, and in less than an hour became very steep and in places dan- gerous. Our progress was checked by an enormous cañon, several hundred feet deep, which appeared a counterpart of the great cañon of the Yellowstone. Its formation showed several old lava flows, which, being firmer than the cinders and broken rock, in most places overhung the walls of the cafion and made descent out of the question. The great glacier åt its head was fully 100 feet deep at the foot, and was ploughing its way into a huge terminal moraine of small rocks. We could plainly hear the rocks grinding together as the great body of ice slowly forced them down the cafion. This great glacier headed in the ice cap at the summit of the mountain, and, although it looked steep and slippery, we decided to try the route. It was then 10 o’clock in the morning—a bad time to climb ice slopes aud snow fields—but we had been gone from Tacoma nearly a week and had only provis- ions for two more days. We had proceeded but a short distance cutting steps in the steep ice slope, when a bombardment of rocks warned us that our route was to be a dangerous one. The surface of the glacier seemed a sheet of ice clear to the summit, and down its slippery surface came rocks large and small as fast as the noonday sun melted the ice and snow which held them near the top.” “Imagine a toboggan slide about three miles long, starting nearly 10,000 feet above the sea with an initial grade of forty-five degrees. The speed of the rocks as they passed us was terrific. They whirled at such a rate that they seemed spherical in form, and as they flew down the slope seemed only to touch the high places in the slightly wavy surface of the glacier, making a metallic sound as they clipped the ice into a cloud which trailed them like a comet’s tail. Here and there great rocks lay upon the surface of the glacier, probably having been held by a fall of new snow, and now and then one of these flying rocks would strike those which were held by the ice, and, amid a shower of sparks and chips, would bound into the air fifty feet or more, still whirling like a buzz saw and giving out a sound which I cannot describe. All this would have been very entertaining if so many of the flying rocks had not passed near us.” “ We were exposed to this danger for over an hour while climbing a quarter of a mile, and to say that we were all thoroughly frightened 48 The American Naturalist. [January, would not do the rocks justice. When at last we reached a place of comparative safety, we were too much much awed to speak.” Source of the Mackenzie River.—Up to the present time the Mackenzie River has never been traced to its head, and its source has only been known from Indian report. The mystery has been solved by Mr. R. G. McConnell of the Dominion Geological Survey, who has just returned from a four months’ exploration trip in those re- gions. The following account of his trip is taken from the Vancouver “Mr. McConnel arrived in British Columbia from Ottawa in June, and started out on his trip fron Quesnelle on the 9th of that month. The party numbered six in all and consisted of himself, his assistant, Mr. Russel, two whites he engaged at Quesnelle and two Indians. From Quesnelle the party proceeded in canoes up the Frazer to Gis- come Portage. This is seven and a half miles long, aud after crossing it they proceeded down Crooked River to Fort McLeod. Their route then lay down Parsnip River to the forks, where Findlay River meets the Parsnip and gives birth to Peace River.” “ On reaching Findlay River Mr. McConnel really commenced his summer’s work, as the chief object of his trip was to explore that river and, if possible, the Onimeca also. Mr. McConnel accordingly went up Findlay River to its junction with the Onimeca, and followed the lat- ter river to its head, returning down it again to the same spot. This river is easy navigable on the upper portion, but in the first thirty miles it falls over 500 feet, and is consequently extremely rapid and. difficult to ascend. Mr. McConnel then proceeded up the Findlay River.” “ Whites had been up the Onimeca River previous to him, as at one time that was a famous gold country, but Mr. McConnel and his party were the first whites to ever ascend the Findlay River to its head. The river is about 250 miles long and is navigable for the greater portion of the way in canoes, though owing to the rapids the party had to proceed the last fifty miles on foot, an arduous proceeding, owing to the roughness of the country. The country is very mountainous, and, though at the lower part of the river the valley is six miles wide, the mountains come right down to the water’s edge in the upper portion.” “ At its mouth the Findlay is about as wide as the Frazer at Ques- nelle. It is not deep except in the cafions, where the current is very _ Strong, and, owing to numerous rapids and eddies, progress is very slow. At the head of Findlay River is a lake known in the Indian 1894.] Geography and Travels. 49 tongue as Lake Fehutade, which, being interpreted, means “ narrow wa- ters between mountains.” This lake is the real source of the Mackenzie River. It is between twenty-five and thirty miles long and not more than a quarter of a mile wide, and is enclosed by high mountains. Around the edge of the lake are glaciers, and the scene is a very pretty one. The mountains rise 5000 to 6000 feet above the lake, while they are some 9000 feet above the level of the sea. After exploring the lake Mr. McConnel started on his homeward journey about the end of August, and it was none to soon, as ice began to form on the river, and while on the Parsnip the party experienced a snowstorm.” Mo: Bot. Garden, 1895, 50 The American Naturalist. [January, GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. A Food Habit of the Plesiosaurs.—Mr.S. W Williston re- ports finding a number of pebbles in such a position with respect to the bones of a Plesiosaur discovered in the Niobrara chalk in Kansas that the conclusion is irresistible that the stones had been in the stom- ach of the reptile. They had probably been swallowed to aid in diges- tion, a custom still in vogue among the Crocodiles. Some of the pebbles were attached by the original soft limestone matrix to the ribs and thoracic vertebri, so that there could not be a shadow of a doubt as to the contemporaneity of deposition. ` The saurian is one of the largest of the order, measuring when alive about fifty feet. The pebbles, 125 in number, are extremely hard, con.. sisting almost wholly of silica, varying in weight from 1 to 170 grams. They are conspicuous in color, either white, black or pink, and show a great amount of abrasion, and probably came from the shores of the Benton sea. From the uniformity of shape among the smaller ones, their number, and their color, Mr. Williston is inclined to think they were not merely water-worn pebbles, accidentally swallowed, but they had been selected by the saurian for a purpose, and that their present shape is owing to their prolonged use as “ gizzard stones” in the animal’s stomach. (Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII, 1891-92.) The Texas Region.—In a recent paper on the physical geography of Texas, R. S. Tarr embodies the results of his personal observation with the published geological work of others in the same region and summarizes the geological history of Texas as follows: “The evolution of the Texas region began with an old Paleozoic or Pre-Paleozoic mountainous land which was denuded at the beginning of Carboniferous times to an old topographic form, not unlike the hilly region of southern New England. The Carboniferous beds were added to this land, by elevation, first as a costal strip, even before the end of the Carboniferous. A gathering in of shore lines formed a great in- terior sea, later a completely land-locked dead sea in which Permian beds were deposited; and from the close of the Permian to the begin- ning of the Cretaceous there was a period of denudation during which the younger Paleozoic beds were reduced to base-level and the older mountainous areas still farther degraded. A rapid subsidence lowered Wee tae ea ee eee eee a 1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 51 the entire region below the Cretaceous sea; then at the close of the Cretaceous the land was elevated, possibly by the renewal of the mountain-building forces of the central area. The Rocky Mountain uplift caused an uptilting, raising the land still higher, and adding the ` Tertiary coastal strip to the Cretaceous. A later uplift added the costal prairies and a recent slight subsidence has completed this record of change, and has given us the Texas region.” (Proceeds. Phila. Acad., 1893.) ` Terrestrial Submergence Southeast of the American Con- tinent.—At the meeting of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, Madison, 1893, Dr. J. W. Spencer brought before the Society evidence of epeirogenic movements in the Antillean region, in very recent geologic times, amounting to two and one half miles of vertical subsidence of great land areas. The author’s recent studies of valleys among the southern Appalachian mountains convinces him that these valleys are independent of mountain movements, and are due to erosion, either atmospheric or by running water. The valleys and channels among the Greater Antilles, and between them and the con- tinent, are an exact reproduction of the southern Appalachian land valleys. From this analogy the author concludes that both the land and submerged Antillean valleys were of a common subaerial origin. The submerged valleys and channels are of varying depths, the author cites examples ranging from 3,738 feet to 14,000 feet, and even in one case 20,000 feet is reached. The submergence indicated by the channels means extensive continental land-movements, which were not violent enough to obliterate the former land topography. This great continental depression diminished to the north, so that the southern states have been only partl~ submerged. The great continental extension was during late Cenozoic time, if McGee’s determination of the age of the Lafayette formation be ac- cepted. The drainage of this area was largely into the Pacific, or its embayments. The watershed between the Atlantic and Pacific is still represented by the mountains of Cuba, Haiti and the Windward islands. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, Nov., 1893.) _ Tropical Miocene Fossils in Siberia.—A small collection of fossils collected by Dr. William Stimpson in northern Siberia, about 62° north latitude, on an arm of the Okhotsk sea, has been reported upon by Dr. Wm. H. Dall. The collection comprises six species of ‘molluscs, of which five are new. In his general conclusions the author 52 The American Naturalist. [January, remarks that “formally the species point to a distinct analogy with those of the China and Japan seas, and like the existing fauna of those seas, they indicate bonds of relationship with the west coast of Africa and the coast of Australia.” The matrix of the fossils determines them to be of Miocene age, and as the fauna indicated by them lived in waters as warm as the Japan sea, the annual mean temperature of the Okhotsh sea in the era m which these fossils flourished must have been about 60° F., a difference of 30° to 40° F. from that of the present time. (Proceeds. U.S. Natl. Mus, Vol. X VI., 1893.) Arctic Geology.—According to Sir Henry Howorth the Arctic lands, during the Pleistocene period, instead of being overwhelmed by a glacial climate, were under comparatively mild conditions. Since Plistocene times the climate has been growing more and more severe. The author bases this conclusion on a study of the Arctic flora as dis- played in Greenland, Spitzbergen, and the uncovered moraine of the great glacier in Alaska, and also upon certain faunal facts. He cites evidence to show that the present flora of Greenland is undoubtedly & relic of an old flora which has survived in favorable localities, and not an importation since Glacial times. The same is true of the Spitzber- gen flora. The discovery of a colony of sea-cows on Bebring’s Island seems to indicate a recently milder climate in that region. The pecu- liar types of northern migratory birds suggests that at no very remote period they lived the year round in their present breeding places m Northern Siberia, Greenland and Spitzbergen, and that it is the present ever increasing cold that leads them to migrate in search of warmth — and food. In short, the only Glacial climate we are warranted in supposing to exist in the Arctic lands is that which is now current, and it is the product of changes in the level of the earth’s crust since Plis- tocene times. (Geol. Mag., Nov., 1893.) An Extinct Lemuroid from Madagascar.—At a recent meeting of the Royal Society of London Dr. Henry Woodward read a communication from Mr. Forsyth Major concerning a huge fossil Lemuroid from Madagascar, to which we referred in the Nov. number of the Naruraxisr (p. 1002). The following report is given in Na- ture , July 20, 1893. “It is now forty-two years since Geoffroy Ste-Hilaire announced to the French Academy of Science the discovery of gigantic eggs and 2 few of Æpyornis from superficial deposits in the Island of — hd 1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 53 Madagascar, anticipating that a rich fauna of extinct vertebrata would be speedily forthcoming. Little has, however, been added to our knowledge since 1851 to the present time. In addition to the remains of a Crocodile, two Chelonians, and a Hippopotamus, first discovered by Grandidier, the number of distinct forms of Æpyornis is now rapidly increasing, and promises to rival in variety the New Zealand species of Dinornis, whilst the disclosure of a rich mammalian fauna seems only waiting to reward the carrying out of systematic explora- tion. “Four collections of sub-fossil vertebrates, from various regions of Madagascar, have recently been acquired by the British Museum of Natural History. Amongst one of these sent over by Mr. J. T. Last is a somewhat imperfect skull of strange appearance obtained with numerous fragmentary Chelonian, Crocodilian, Hippopotamus and Æpyornis, remains from a marsh at Ambolisatra on the southwest coast of Madagascar. For this remarkable fossil Dr. Major proposes the name Megaladapis madagascariensis, and the establishment of a distinct family of the sub-order Lemuroidea, of which Megaladapis appears to be a much specialized gigantic member, being approximately three times the size of the cranium of the largest existing Lemurid. “The salient features of the skull are the enormous lateral develop- ment of the anterior inter-orbital portion of the frontals, extending over the small, thick-walled tubular orbits. The post-orbital frontal region is comparatively narrow and elongate, and separated by a slight contraction from the equally narrow parietal region, bearing a thick and flattened sagittal crest. The brain-case is low, short and narrow, and placed at a considerable higher level than the elongate facial por- tion. Both the cranial and facial portion are somewhat bent upwards, the former posteriorly, the latter anteriorly. A striking general character is the remarkable pachyostosis (thickening) of the cranium. “The author points out that, in its peculiar features, this skull only carries to an extreme, characters which are present, but in a much lesser degree, and in varying gradations, in the different members of the Lemuroidea, both recent Lemuridae, and extinct Adapidae. In the very simple pattern of the molars, the superior of which are of the pure tritubercular type, Megaladapis approaches closely to the Mala- gasy Lemurides, Lepidolemur, and still more to Chirogaleus. “The diminutive size of the brain-case (comparable only with what ‘we find amongst the Marsupialia and the Insectivora) is viewed by the author, in this instance, as a degeneracy, other characters being equally indicative of a retrogressive evolution undergone by this Lemuroid. 54 The American Naturalist (January, “Tt is strongly insisted upon, generally, that ‘low’ organization in Mammalia is by no means always synonymous with ‘ primitive’ or- ganization, and that retrogressive evolution is more frequently to be to be met with amongst Mammalia than is generally admitted. “As,regards the geological age of Megaladapis and its associated fauna, one of whose members the Crocodilus robustus, is still living in the lakes of the interior, evidences of various kinds goes far to prove that these sub-fossil remains represent a fauna which was living at a comparatively very recent period, and that man himself was contempo- rary with it, and in part responsible for its destruction. “The author adduced evidence in support of the proposition that an older Tertiary vertebrate fauna will ere long be forthcoming in Mada- gascar.” Geological News. General.—In a brief report on the organic remains obtained from a deep well near Galveston, Texas, Mr. G. D. Harris compares the fossil shells wlth the recent ones of the Atlantic and Pacific shores of America and the fossil faunæ of the Atlantic slope, including that of the West Indies. The relationshi ps are shown in a bathymetric table. The collection comprises 77 species, of which 20 are new. In addition to the marine forms enumerated in the table, the following fresh water'species were obtained: Polygyra hindsii Pfr., Amnicola, not distinguishable from peracuta, and a Planorbis allied to - vermicularis from the Lake of the Woods. (Fourth Ann. Rept., 1892, Geol. Surv., Texas.) Paleozoic.—A new gasteropod, Loxonema winnipegense from the Trenton limestone of Manitoba is described and figured by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves. The author considers it of interest on account of its strikingly close similarity to some of the most typical Jurassic species of Pseudomelanie. (Canadian Ree. Sci., 1893.) In regard to the use of the term “ Catskill,” Mr. J. J. Stevenson avers that, in nine-tenths of the area in which this series is exposed within the Appalachian Basin, the Chemung is the important portion of the series. Catskill is simply epochal but “ Chemung” carries with it the conception of those physical and biological characteristics which mark the closing period of the Devonian. For which reasons, Che- mung should be used to designate the whole group, retaining Catskill pee ieee and local signification only. (Amer. Journ. Sci., Nov» of er Betty alt he AAEREN Mesozoic.—In a contribution to the “Invertebrate Paleontology | the Texas Cretaceous,” Mr. F. W. Cragin describes 168 species dis- Mat oe asta a a ioe ne SS 1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 55 tributed as follows: Coelenterata, 1 sp. nov.; Echinodermata, 32, of which 17 are new; Molluscoidea, 2 sp. nov.; Brachiopoda, 1 sp. nov. ; Mollusca, 132, of which 82 are new. The text is illustrated by 46 plates of drawings, some of which were made by the writer. (Fourth Annual Rept., 1892, Geol. Surv., Texas.) _ The discovery of fossil Cretaceous plants at Glen Cove, and various other localities in Long Island, by Mr. Arthur Hollick, together with the collections made by Mr. David White in Gardiners Island, Block Island, Center Island and Marthas Vineyard, have enabled Mr. Hol- lick to trace the continuity of the cretaceous strata from New Jersey through Staten and Long Islands to Marthas Vineyard, and to dem- onstrate beyond question that the theory of Mather and subsequent observers in regard to the eastward extension of the cretaceous forma- tion was correct, and emphasizes the probability that certain limited areas of the New England coast could also be referred to that horizon. (Trans. New York Acad. Sci., Vol. XII, 1893.) Two new forms of the Pyenodont genus Anomeedus, A. superbus and A. willetti from the upper English Cretaceous are described by A. Smith Woodward. This genus was described by Forir, but his defini- tion was based solely upon the arrangement of the splenial teeth. The new material enables Woodward to make the definition more satisfac- tory. In the same paper the author describes the splenial dentition of two new species of Ceelodus, C. inaequidens and C. fimbriatus. (Geol. Mag., Nov., 1893.) In some notes on a few fossil leaves from the Fort Union group of Montana, Mr. F. H. Knowlton describes a new species, Populus meedsii, evidently related to P. heerii Sap. from the Eocene at Floris- sant, Colorado, and which has for a living analogue P. angustifolia James, a species living along streams from New Mexico and Colorado to California and Washington. (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893.) Cenozoic.—In a study of the rocks of Carmelo Bay, California, Mr. A. C. Lawson finds no evidence for Whitney’s statement that Miocene rocks are here invaded by a mass of granite. The rocks, consisting of sandstone and shales, are probably Eocene, and rest upon a worn and eroded surface of granite. The supposed metamorphic rocks are laminated voleanic flows. Miocene formations are abund- antly developed but do not extend down to to the shores of the bay. (Bull. Univ. California, Vol. I, 1893.) 56 The American Naturalist. © Mr. R. A. F. Penrose records the discovery of a Plistocene 1 ganese deposit near Goleonda, Nevada. The ore occurs as a lentil mass in a soft calcareous tufa, and probably represents a local pre tation from spring waters. The position and nature of the ore sl that the bed was laid down in shallow water and subsequently cove over by a tufa deposited from the supersaturated lake water. (Jou Geol., Vol. I, 1893.) 1894.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 57 MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY-' The Granite of Santa Lucia, California, and a New Rock Variety Carmeloite.—The Santa Lucia Mountains’ in the vicinity of Carmelo Bay, California, consist largely of a porphyritic granite whose phenocrysts of glassy orthoclase are corroded with inclu- sions of cloudy orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, biotite, apatite and mus- covite, which substances also constitute the groundmass of the rock. The striking feature of the inclusions is that their different areas are not only uniformly orientated with respect to each other, but they are also definitely orientated with reference to their host. They lie in cer- tain definite planes within the phenocrysts, and their crystallographic axes are definitely arranged with respect to the axes of their hosts. The quartzes all lie with their vertical axes nearly perpendicular to the basal plane of the orthoclase, consequently in sections of the pheno- crysts cut parallel to the basal pinacoid every included quartz grain exhibits the axial figure. Another feature worthy of notice is the ten- dency of the inclusions to idiomorphic forms, whereas, the same miner- als in the rock’s groundmass are always allotriomorphic. The facts of the idiomorphism of the inclusions and their definite orientation sug- gest to Lawson that these and their hosts are of contemporaneous age. This view is strengthened by the observation that many inclusions on the edges of the phenocysts have grown out into the surrounding matrix, in which, as has already been noted, the components are the same as those occurring as inclusions, but are much larger than these, and are allotriomorphically developed. This granite is cut by dykes of fine-grained aplite. The rock to which the author has given the name Carmeloite, is a young volcanic, marked by all the characters of a recent lava. Itis probably younger than the Monterey series of the Miocene, and older than the newer terrace formations of the region. Under the micro- scope the rock is seen to consist of phenocrysts of iddingsite, plagioclase and often augite in a matrix composed of a felt of small, lath-shaped plagioclase and granules of magnetite and pyroxene, lying in a glass containing numerons feebly polarizing globulites. There are six areas of the rock in the Carmelo Bay district, the occurrences differing mainly in the quantity of glass present, the presence or absence of 1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me. 2 A. C. Lawson, Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. of Cal., Vol. I, p. 1. 58 The American Naturalist. iddingsite in the groundmass, and of augite among the phenocrysts. The — occurrences differ also in their chemical composition, their silica come tents varying between 52.83 % and 60.00 %. The analysis of one specimen (Sp. Gr. = 2.51-—2.54). SiO, ALO, Fe,O, FeO MnO CaO MgO K,O Na,O Ign. Total 60.00 19.01 3.20 .68 tr. 4.10 1.28 2.79 6.97 4.30 = 10238 i Since the rock contains too much SiO, for a basalt, and too little for andesite, and because of the prominence of iddingsite as one of its essential components, the author prefers the new name, Carmeloite,t0 —— any already in use among petrographers. The Ancient Rocks of Southern Finland.—In the German resumé of his article on the old rocks of southern Finland, Sederholm divides these into two groups—the Archean and the Algonkian, and the first of these groups into two sub-groups. The older Archean consists of phyllites, gneisses, micaceous and other schists and granular limestone, cut by granite and diorite. All the members of the series have been subjected to dynamic metamorphism on an enormous seale. The schists are supposed to have originated both in sedimentary and in erruptive rocks. The younger Archean schists are phyllites, mica- schists, sandstone-schists, and a greenstone schist that was originally & uralite porphyrite occurring as a surface flow. These are cut by à red granite that is sometimes porpbyritic and often pegmatitic. It shows [J anuary, f f no evidence of having been subject to great pressure, but nevertheless it is foliated—a consequence, according to the author, of flowage. The Algonkian rocks are all fragmental, and above them are the Rapakivi granite and a diabase, both of which are effusive. A younger olivine — and a panidiomorphic gabbro are also thought to be voleanl¢ ows. Petrographical News.—Smith' has discovered that the supposed peridotite® of Manheim, N. Y., is an alnoite in which there is no pyTO™- ene. it contains a large quantity of melilite in the typical forms, but the mineral is positive in the character of its double refraction, like the artificial melilite made by Vogt. Incidentally the author mentions - that positive melilite exists also in the nepheline basalt of Wartenburg, - Bohemia, and in the alnoite from Alno, Sweden. § Fennia, 8, No. 3, p. 138. * Amer. Journ. Sci., XLVI, p. 105. 5 Cp. AMERICAN NATURALIST, Sept., 1892, p. 769. 1894.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 59 About 600 miles north of the Falkland Islands in the South Atlan- tic, a fall of volcanic dust occurred on May 26, 1892. Palache, who has examined some of the material, finds it to consist of fragments of glass and pieces and crystals of orthoclase, plagioclase, green hornblende and magnetite, with a very small quantity of what appears to be pyrox- ene. The character of the dust is thus andesitic. New Minerals..—Iddingsite has been known for some time as a ` component of certain eruptive rocks from the far west, but not until Lawson’ discovered it in the carmeloite of California, had its character- istics been carefully enough investigated to warrant its receiving a name. As described by Lawson, iddingsite occurs as a pbenocryst with well-defined crystal outlines. It is of a bronzy color, has a very per- fect cleavage and a hardness of 2.5. Its cleavage lamellae are brittle. Before the blow-pipe+the mineral is infusible, though it loses water when heated. It is decomposed by acids after long treatment, but loses only its dark pigment, without alteration of its optical properties, when gently heated with hydrochloric acid. Maximum density = 2.839. Its crystals possess in thin section the habit of olivine. If the cleavage is regarded as pinacoidal, the other crystallographic faces are the prism, with a prismatic angle of about 80°, and another pinacoid, both of which are perpendicular to the cleavage. The elongation of the crys- tals is in the direction of the second pinacoid. If the cleavage is re- garded as parallel to the macropinacoid, 6 is in the cleavage plane, a is at right angles to it, and c is parallel to the elongation of the erys- tals. The plane of the optical axes is the brachypinacoid, and the min- eral is orthorhombic and negative; a = A, b6—Bande=C. In thin section the color varies between yellowish green and chestnut brown, and tbe absorption is strong parallel to e. The absorption formula is - C>B>A. The mean index of its fraction is low, and the double re- fraction strong. Qualitative tests showed the presence of silicon, iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium and water. In spite of the resemblance of its crystals to those of olivine, the author regards it as most probably an original separation from the magma that yielded the carmeloite. Mackintoshite is the name given by Hidden and Hillebrand’ to the original material from which the alteration product thorogummite’ is derived. Only a very small quantity was available forstudy. This is 6 Amer. Geol., June, 1893, XT, p. 422. 7 Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. a. Nol L, P GE- 8 Amer. Jour. Sci.. XLIV, 1890, p. 98. 9 AMERICAN NATURALIST, Jan., 1893, p. 72. 60 The American Naturalist. [Januaryy described as opaque and black. Its hardness is 5.5 and density 5.488. Its crystals are square tetragonal prisms and pyramids like those of zircon. It is infusible before the blow-pipe, and is insoluble in the sim- ple acids. It dissolves readily in a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid, and in aqua regia. In nine-tenths of a grain of material, the fol- lowing constituents were found: SiO, w ZrO,(?) ThO, La,O,.Y,0, PbO FeO CaO MgO K,O (NaLi),O P, Os HY 13.90 22.40 88 45.30 1.86 3.74 1.15 .59 .10 4.81 The new mineral thus differs from thorogummite in the possession of one molecule of thoria. Canfieldite is a new germanium mineral from somewhere in Bolivia.” Its crystallization is regular, small crystals being bounded by the octa- hedron and the dodecahedron. The hardness is 2.5, density 6.266, lustre metallic and color black with a purplish tinge. Its streak is grayish black and degree of fusibility 1.5 to 2. Upon analysis, the following result was obtained : S Geo. Ag Ke Zp. Ins. Total 17.04 6.55 76.05 13 29 = 100.06 which corresponds to the formula Ag, Ge S, A re-analysis of the Freiberg argyrodite yields results that accord better with the formula oregon than with the formula Ag, Ge S, proposed for it by its dis- cover, Winkler.” Both minerals have the same composition, conse- quently, since argyrodite is monoclinic, they are dimorphs. Marshite—This copper iodide” occurs at Broken Hill, New South _ Wales, as tiny crystals implanted on a siliceous cerussite. The crys tals are probably hemihedral-tetragonal. In color they are reddish- brown, in lustre, resinous. They possess an orange yellow streak, are transparent and brittle. Kehoeite, from Galena, Lawrence Co., S. D., forms seams and bunches in the galena of the Merritt mine. The material is white, amorphous and insoluble in water. Its analysis yielded Headden™ the following — S: P,O; SO, ZnO CaO AlO, Fe,0, MgO Cl H,O Ins. Total 26.76 .50 11.64 2.70 24.84 78 08 tr. 31.06 1.76 = 100.02 — "S, L. Penfield, Amer. Jour. Sci., XLVI, 1893, p. 101. u Jour. f. prakt. Chem., XXXIV, 1886, p- 177. 12 C. W. Marsh, Proc. Roy. SL N S. W. XXVI, p: 326. 13 Amer. Jour. Sci., XLVI, p. 22. 1894.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 61 corresponding to R,(PO,),+2 Al,(PO,),+2 Al,(OH),+21 H,O. eptuneite and Epididymite are associated with aegirite, arfve- dsonite, eudialyte, ete, near Julianehaab, Kangerdluarsuk, Green- land. The former is found as short, prismatic monoclinic crystals, with a perfect cleavage parallel to-œP. Their color is black in the larger crystals, but deep red brown in the small ones. Their hardness is 5-6, density, 3.234, and composition: SiO, TiO, FeO MnO MgO K,O NaO Total 51.53 18.13 10.91 497 49 488 9.26 = 100,69 These figures correspond to the formula (ł Na,+K,) Si,O,+(4Fe+ + Mn) TiO,. Epididymite is regarded as a dimorph of eudidymite. It occurs in orthorhombic prisms elongated in the direction of their macroaxes. Their analysis: SiO, = 73.74; BeO = 10.56 Na,O = 12.88; H,O = 3.73, corresponds to the formula for eudidymite, viz. : HNa Be SiO, Density = 2.548. Franckeite, from near Chocaya, in the Animas District, Bolivia, is an associate of the silver ores of the region. It occurs,” as a radial, aggre- gate, or as a structurelass layer of a dark gray or black substance, that is opaque and soft. Its hardness is about 2.75, and density 5.55. Its quantitative analysis yielded : Pb Sn Sb S Fe Zn Gangue Total 50.57 12.34 10.51 21.04 2.48 1.22 TE BEST while qualitative tests showed it to contain also about .1% of german- iun and a fractional percentage of silver. The mineral is a sulfo-salt of the the formala: Pb, Sn, S, + Pb, Sb, S, It resembles in appear- ance and in the nature of its components the plumbo-stannite from Moho in Peru, but differs from it in the proportion of its constituents. Oylindrite owes its name to the cylindrical form that itso commonly assumes. It is described by Frenzel" as possessing a dark, lead-gray color and a metallic lustre. It is malleable, has a hardness of 2.5-3, and a density of 5.42. It occurs in cylindrical bodies imbedded irregu- larly in a granular lamellae mass of the same substance. An analysis of the mineral gave: O A Te PL Di Total 35.41 62 8.00 8.73 26.37 2450 — 98.63 4G. Flink, Geol. För. Férh., XV, 1893, p. 195. 15 A. W. Stelzner, Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1893, II, p. 114. 16 Ib., 1893, II, p. 125. 62 The American Naturalist. [January, corresponding to Pb, Sb, Sn, S, The mineral is easily decomposed by hot hydrochloric and nitric acid, but is scarcely affected by cold 4 hpdrochloric acid. Like franckeite and plumbostannite, it is a South — American mineral, occurring, as it does, at the Mina Santa Cruz, Poopó, Bolivia. : 4 Hantefeuillite accompanies crystals of apatite, pyrite, iron and mon- | azite at the apatite mine at Odegiirden, Bamle, Norway. It is found in the greenish nodules composed of wagnerite and apatite, that are scattered through the apatite veins cutting gabbro. Michel" describes it as forming transparent, colorless monoclinic crystals radically grouped. Its hardness is 2.5 nnd density 2.435. The crystals are all 7 tabular in habit, being elongated parallel to e, and flattened to œP %. Their optical axes lie in the latter plane, and their optical angle has a value—2Vna = 54° 23’, An analysis gave P,O, = 34.52; MgO= 26.12; Cao = 5.71 ; H,O =34.27, corresponding to (Mg Ca), (PO,)s +8H,O, which is the guano mineral bobierrite in which Mg has been 2 in part, replaced by Ca. : Chondrostibian, as its name indicates, is an antimony mineral occur- ring in grains. It is reported by Igelström” from the famous manga- nese mine Sjogrufran, Grythyttan, Sweden. Itis found disseminated as grains through barite, which, with calcite and tephroite, forms a cryp- tio-crystalline mass. These grains constitute nearly 50% of some of the barite plates to which they impart a brownish tinge. The mineral itself is yellowish-red in color, though in large pieces it appears dark brownish red. It is weakly magnetic, and yields, upon analysis, figures ` indicating the following composition : | WO, AsO, Mn,0, FeO, HO Total : 30.66 2.10 33.13 15.10 19.01 = 100.00 corresponding to 3R,0, Sb,0, + 10 H,O. 1” Bull. d. 1. Soc. Franç d. Min., xvi, p. 38. 18 Zeits. f. Kryst., xxii, p. 43. : 1894.] Botany. 63 BOTANY. Ellis and Everhart’s North American Fungi.—-Subscribers to this set have recently received Century XXX of this great distribu- tion of specimens, bringing the number up to 3000. Messrs. Ellis and Everhart are to be congratulated upon having carried their work to this point without a break or serious delay; an achievement never before excelled. May we not hope that they will push forward now toward the fortieth century ? The present volume is a miscellaneous one, including representatives of genera in widely separated families. Thus, there are of Æeidium : species, Capnodium 3, Cercospora 11, Cladosporium 2, Cylindrospor- um 3, Gymnosporangium 2, Morchella 1, Dirchoapere 1, Peziza 4, Phyllosticta 4, Puccinia 7, Septoria 6, Uromyces 2, besides many others of equally wide relationship. Of the quality of the specimens nothing need be said. The preceding Centuries have shown that in this regard nothing is wanting. Botanists who are so unfortunate as not to have secured a set of the North American Fungi, will be glad to know that the authors have begun a new set under the name of “ Fungi Columbiani,” of which they now offer Centuries I and II at six dollars each.— CHARLES E. Bessey. A Synopsis of the larger Groups of the Vegetable King- dom.—tThe following synopsis represents the results of a careful review of the larger groups of the vegetable kingdom. The Classes are, with few exceptions, those usually recognized by modern authors, but in the first and second their limits have been slightly extended so as to include a comparatively small number of degraded chlorophyll- less forms, the Bacteria and the Phycomycetous fungi. In like manner, in a few cases, slight changes have been made in the limits of the groups below classes (here tentatively called orders), otherwise they remain essentially as usually outlined. In the attempt to co-ordinate groups it becomes obvious that the “Orders” of the lower plants are equivalent to the “series” of the Angiosperms, according to the nomenclature of Bentham and Hook- ers Genera Plantarum. At first sight it may seem to be a violent innovation to transfer the term “Order” from Rosacee, for exam- ple, to the great aggregate of forms, the Calycijlore, yet a careful study 1Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska. 64 The American Naturalist. [January, of the whole system of plants warrants the assertion that these Ben- thamian “series” are entitled to no higher rank. The so-called “orders” of the manuals are, in fact, no more than families, and these in the flowering plants have become greatly multiplied. The apetalous families of Dicoyledons are not regarded as constitut- ing a separate group, but are distributed among the Chori petale and Gamopetalz. In both Monocotyledons and Dicolyledons the apocar- pous families are regarded as primitive and lower, and the syncarpous as higher; and among the latter the epigynous are regarded as higher than the hypogynous. SYNOPSIS. Branch I. PROTOPHYTA (Protophytes; Water-Slimes). Single cells, or chains of cells, reproducing by fission and endo- spores, _ Class 1. Scnizopuycear. f Order C (Fission Algæ.) 1 Order N Branch II. PHYCOPHYTA (Phycophytes; Spore-Tangles). ystiphorae (Blue-green Slimes), ematog (N , Bacteria, etc.). Single cells, chains, or masses, the latter sometimes forming a branch- ing plant with rhizoids, Sexual reproduction by the union of two pro- toplasts to form a single resting-spore (zygospore or odspore). Order Protoccoidea Green-Slimes, Synchytria, ete,). Class 2. CHLOROPHYCEAE. | Order Conjugatae (Ponds “gin , etc. } (Green Algæ.) } Order Siphoniae (Green-Felts wny Mildews, etc.). (Order Confervoideae (Water-Flannels c.) 5 Stc.). Class 3. Puarornycear, f Order Phaeosporeae (Kelps). (Brown Algæ.) Order Dictyoteae. . Order Fucoideae (Rockweeds), Branch III. CARPOPHYTA (Carpophytes; Fruit-Tangles). Chains, plates or masses of cells, the latter often forming a branch- ing plant with rhizoids, Sexual reproduction (where known) by the union of two protoplasts to form a spore-fruit (sporocarp). Class 4. COLEOCHAETEAE. { Order Coleochaetaceae (Simple Fruit-Tangles). Order Ustilagineae (Smuts), “Imperfect Fungi.” io Me anka arave « Order Hyphomyceteae, Ses Beng (Qs paren Cette Class7. RHODOPHYCEAR, 4 Order Florideae (Red Seaweeds), Class 8. CHAROPHYCEAE. { Order Spas Ness up i een eee en ~ EE ea AOA E S A E SEA N ie I ea y cnt e ey rA ea EEGA facet AET E E Wee E Gaa BETS aia 1894.] Botany. 65 Branch IV. BRYOPHYTA (Bryophytes; Mossworts). Masses of cells, forming a flat, branching plant with rhizoids, or a leafy stem (odphyte), reproducing by the union of two protoplasts and the formation of a leafless, spore-bearing stem (sporophyte). “Class 9. Hrraticar, f Order Marchantiaceae (Liverworts, proper). : Order nniace Scal Oss renea Order om minuet sates thas fisd Livereoits). r Andreaeaceae Class 1 acua. 54 Sa er Sphagnacewe (Peat Mosses). Order Archidiaceae. Order Bryaceae (True Mosses). Branch V. PTERIDOPHYTA (Pteridophytes ; Fernworts). Masses of cells, forming a flat plant, usually with rhizoids (oöphyte), reproducing by the union of two protoplasts and the formation of a stem with roots and spore-bearing leaves (sporophyte). der Ophioglossaceae lS 4 ongues). Class 11. FrLICINAE. Ona Marattiaceae (Rin; her ) (Ferns.) tad Filices (True Ferns Pyrite and Rudellites are the most beautiful minerals ever seen and exceedin ngly low n pele RARE AND VALUABLE BOOKS. igi meted 9 G., Mi ie large eap ee 454 pp., 41 plates, many colored figures. xtra r e, foreign price, $52.50; my price $30.00. torer, Dictiona of Solubilities. Extra rare, $17.5 Murchison’s Silurian System ine rare, Trelease and Gray, leman’s Botanical Works 4to, 92 tg rare, $ a 10.00. Hooker, Flora raphy. opt $12 2 i dto. Usual price, $62.50; my price, $20.00. eys. 1l 38 ae plates, cloth $5.50. Botany from P. R. R. 462 pp., 138 es, e1836 figu s, $5.00. : š 3.00. Mammals from P. R. R. 944 pp., 60 plates, 217 figures, $3.00. SEND FOR OUR CATALOGUES. Dr As E- FOOTE 1224, 26, 28 N. 4ist St., Corner of Viola, Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A. JOHN J HORN ESTABLISHED 1842. WM. H. 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The book must be sent at tthe = THE aie Ani is published weekly at $8.00 a Sal free o w sU Uais ps RIBERS FOR (Se YEAR 1893 Sil be sent con- taining a pere isa al Fran kH Shae: ia, cai a For Y REVIEW, entitled PROFIT AND OSS. for the best Home and Foreign Literature. i repai of THE LIVING AGE and one or other Ta our vivacio us American , ost other peri atio “Sample sopies of Tu Line Ace, 1 eis ac :_ ETRE & €O., E SCIENTIFIC OPTICIAN “2 - o GRINDERS OF LENSES OF ALL KINDS. / WALNUT and THIRTEENTH STS., PHILA. nhs ce b. ree a ae: ie oe ie $4.60 per Year-(Foreleuy:. E = EG AMERICAN NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES Š IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. MA NG DITORS Prors. E. D. COPE, Pea. anp J. S. KINGSLEY, Boston: SOCIATE DITOR H.C. M EKCEN Philabelphia: < Pror. E. A. ANDREWS, Baltimore, FEBRUARY, 1894. CONTENTS. PAGE, > l CHEMICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL - DISCOV- in Finland—The Inclusions in the Basalts of the : RDING THE CELL. P. M Crittenden. 9T |- Oberlausitz. — es [F CATION OF THE ARTHROPODA. J. Kinst 118 Crysta'lizing Sclurions — oF Raras IN THE OHIO VALLEY, New OEP ROE Ne ews— i NOTES ON THEIR UNUSUAL ages te IN W. Butler. 136 Boss aso PampHigts.. .....°- = 147 ! URE.—Zirke?’ s New Text Book of -Zimmermann’s Botanical Microtech- Letters of Asa Gray—Orr’s Theory of and Heredity—The Wilder Quar- DE Ne a aE Zoology. hrpi of iie Freshwater Mee sa, Limnocodium sowerbii— Description of a New d Species of Arvicoline Rodent from the org States (Ilu-trated)—Desription of a Perognathus collected by J. K. Townsend in 1834 (Hlustrated) Zoological , News. Entomology.—North American Pakia > Peculiar Ovıposition of an eats iene pal Development and ago——Sturyir Insect Hiari Behar o the eiA ppie ans a 1 Sates) —— Nematodes gon-Flies—A AS “‘Tipulid PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SocteriEs. ~ SCIENTIFIC News. Worlds Tribute i 4 Chas. Marchand’s Glycozone Highest Award. (a BothMedal and Diploma. a} Aes i TON edal a and ee ‘awarded to archands Glycozone | ration ] ras 1 HARMLESS REMEDY PREVENTS FERMEN F FOOD IN ‘THE STOMACH. AT: 1S TAB” MOST” bbe AGENT: FOR HEAL PURPOSES. If € WE. DYSPEPSIA, ga wee OF THE STOMACH, HEART AG ' ANB ALL INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF THE reid TRACT. ey DF eet Ecozone ‘isso sold only sett n 4-02., 8-02, and eer) yellow = ig ters rea sa E E Teen, with’ signat ture. Feeeanen ¢ OnLy er) a a Res ae AMERICAN NATURALIST Vou, XXVIII. February, 1894. 326 SOME RECENT CHEMICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL DIS- COVERIES REGARDING THE CELL.’ By R. H. CHITTENDEN. In opening this discussion, or rather in making such remarks as seem appropriate in connection with the subject before us for consideration this morning, I am reminded that the chem- istry and the chemical processes of the cell have received very little attention from the generality of biologists. This is per- haps natural, since the morphological side of biology has for many years presented a more attractive field for the majority of scientific workers, and the difficulties have not been so great as in the chemical and physiological problems awaiting solu- tion. Simplicity of structure, as embodied in the single cell of a unicellular organism, means to the physiologist increased com- plexity of function. In the higher organism with its many groups of cells, we can easily comprehend how one group may be characterized by one line of functional activity, while a neighboring group of cells in the form of another tissue or organ is endowed with functional activity of quite a different order. One group of cells is set apart for one line of duties, _ While another group has quite different functions ; in other y 1The Introductory paper in a discussion of our present knowledge of the cell at _ the meeting of the American Society of Naturalists, New Haven, Dec. 28, 1893. 98 The American Naturalist. [February, words, structural differentiation has begotten or accompanied chemical and functional differentiation. All this seems quite plausible, indeed, quite natural, but how shall we explain all the varied functions possessed by the unicellular organism unless we accept the idea of a possible chemical differentiation of the cell protoplasm inside the cell wall. Digestion, assimi- lation, excretion and reproduction are functions possessed alike by the unicellular organism and its higher neighbor the multicellular organism. In the latter, we recognize distinct groups of specially characterized cells for each phase and form of functional activity, each group as in a gland or tissue hav- ing a different chemical structure with its own peculiar line of chemical activity and its own particular katabolic products. In the unicellular organism, on the other hand, a differentia- tion of protoplasmic particles is the only plausible explanation of the diverse functions of the living cell. This being true we can no longer look on the cell as the ultimate unit of structure, certainly not from the chemical standpoint. The cell may be considered rather as a complex molecule, or series of molecules, built up of many morphologi- cal atoms or rather groups of atoms. Thus, the cytoplasm, for example, may be looked upon as a multitude or mass of living units of structure, as the plasomen of Wiesner. Call them what you will—plasomen, idiosomes, gemmules, plastidules, idioblasts or physiological units—these particles have the power of dividing, and, indeed, of growth and assimilation. Moreover, it is possible that this power of growth and repro- duction may be independent, in part at least, of the cell nucleus and the constituent karyoplasm. Furthermore, the nucleus too may perhaps be considered as composed of auto-divisible organic individuals, these hypothetical particles, both of the cytoplasm and of the karyoplasm, being considered as the living atoms of the molecule, the last divisible living bodies of the cell. ; For fifty years or more, the cell theory of structure and development as outlined by Schleiden and Schwann has bee? the nucleus for nearly all phases of biological work, and although our knowledge of the cell has advanced greatly 1894.] Chemico-Physiological Discoveries: The Cell. 99 all directions during the last half-century, yet nearly all the problems of life are still viewed from the standpoint of the cell theory; morphological facts and physiological facts are all tested more or less by their relationship to cell structure and cell function. As Whitman’ has aptly said “all the search- lights of the biological sciences have been turned upon the cell; it has been hunted up and down through every grade of organization; it has been searched inside and out, experi- mented upon, and studied in its manifold relations as a unit of form and function”, and yet, if I understand the matter aright, many morphologists to-day are inclined to protest somewhat against “the complete ascendency of the cell as a unit of organization.” We must not ignore the existence of the organic chemical compounds, with their peculiar molecu- lar structure, which compose the cell protoplasm; the whole secret of organization, assimilation, growth, development, etc., may rest upon these ultimate elements of living matter. These may be the actual representatives of the physiological units of Herbert Spencer, or the plasomes of Wiesner; they may be the real units of all forms of living matter, the bearers of heredity and the true builders of the organism whether it be simple or complex. These protoplasmic particles are not necessarily limited in their action, or in the influence they exert, by cell walls or other boundaries. The physiologist, however, like all other biologists, ee been wont to look upon the cell as “the unit of the manifold varia- ble forms of the organism” (Hammarsten), representing the seat of the many varied chemical processes characteristic of the individual tissues and organs. The cells naturally, through their variable activity, govern the range and intensity of the metabolic processes of the organism; but all this is simply a general expression of the idea that the chemical processes of the higher organism are localized in the cellular tissues of the body rather than in the adjacent fluids. It appears to me that we have every reason to believe in the existence of ultimate particles of living matter, both cytoplasm and karyoplasm, in- HE inadequacy of the cell-theory of development. Journal of Morphology, Vol. 3, p. 639. 100 The American Naturalist. [February, side the cell, which are the real units of the organism. They may not be recognizable morphologically, but they exist nevertheless as individual links in that chain of molecules of which we believe living protoplasm to be composed. As Quincke® has recently said “ bioiogical science must, well or ill, take into account the fact that the development of the cell and the life of organic nature depends on masses and layers which cannot be seen by the microscope alone.” Hence, the chemistry of the cell offers an interesting field of work full of promise, although for the most part it has been studied mainly with a view to obtaining more light regarding the general metabolic processes of the higher organisms. From a chemical standpoint, the living animal cell may be considered as a combination of varied chemical substances always in a state of unequilibrium, unstable in the highest degree, readily prone to break down by oxidation or cleavage into bodies of less complexity, each downward step in the pro- cess of disintegration, giving rise to the liberation of a certain amount of energy. These explosive, or it may be gradual, decompositions are going on continually as long as life endures, and chemical transformations and chemical decompositions are therefore an essential part of the life history of the cell, or of the organism of which it is an integral part. In them are hidden many of life’s mysteries, and some of the most in- tricate as well as important phases of physiological phenomena are closely connected with these more or less obscure chemical transformations. ' This constant liberation of energy, so characteristic of the living animal cell, coming as it does from the continued dis- integration of the living substance of the organism creates 3 demand for fresh material to supply the place of that which | has undergone this vital decay, otherwise the vital energies flag and the bodily structure withers away. The food material supplied to meet this demand, although it may be easily oxidizable or combustible cannot supply the needs of the or- ganism without becoming vitalized. As dead, inert matter it is simply combustible; it can exhibit energy as heat only like 5Nature. Vol. 49. p- 6. 1894] Chemico-Physiological Discoveries: The Cell. 101 other forms of organic matter, but its energy cannot be made available in the manner required by the living animal organ- ism. It must first be fitted for assimilation through digestion or otherwise; after which, having passed into the circulating fluids, it finally reaches the cell under whose influence it un- dergoes a final change by which it is raised to a higher plane. That which was dead has become alive, a chemical transfor- mation has occurred, the atoms in the molecule have been rearranged and we have to deal with living matter; a change accomplished through the anabolic power of the living cell, or better of the cell protoplasm. Anabolism and katabolism, construction and destruction, are thus going on continually in the living animal cell side by side as a necessary concomitant of life, but the processes are not everywhere of the same order. They are qualitatively and quantitatively unlike, especially the katabolic, the latter showing some peculiarities character- istic of almost every individual group of cells as comprised in individual organs or tissues. Each individual cell as a com- ponent of the many and varied tissues of the organism is to be compared to a well equipped chemical laboratory, the character and amount of the work produced being dependent in part upon the intrinsic qualities of the cell, i. e. of the cell protoplasm, and in part upon the nature of its surroundings or environment. While these statements apply more particu- larly to the animal cell, they are likewise true of the vegetable cell, the only difference being that in the latter we find a pre- dominance of synthetical processes, a remarkable power of building up complex substances such as starch and proteid out of the simple food material obtained from the air and the soil, while the animal cell is especially characterized by the extent of its katabolic processes. It is thus very evident that while in the early stages of growth and development, all animal cells, for example, may show a striking similarity in composition, as soon as differen- tiation in form begins to manifest itself with an accompani- ment of functional activity, chemical composition is gradually altered until at last each group of cells characteristic of the individual organs and tissues acquires a composition peculiar 102 The American Naturalist. [February, to itself. Obviously, however, the most striking differences are manifested in the character of the so-called secondary con- stituents of the cell protoplasm, i. e. the katabolie products of the cell’s activity, such as the different enzymes or their an- tecedents, the albuminoids, pigments, fat, glycogen, etc., to which must be added the substratum of dead food material for the nutrition of the cell. From this very diversity in the character of the katabolic products of protoplasmic activity, we might easily argue corresponding differences in the charac- ter of the primary constituents of the cell protoplasm, which in turn would imply fundamental differences in the nature of the anabolic processes by which the cell protoplasm is formed. It will be seen from what has just been said that it is notan easy matter to discriminate between the primary constituents of a cell and the so-called secondary constituents, or such as arise from the katabolie activity of the primary bodies. Furthermore, it is an extremely difficult matter to isolate from a given tissue or organ the active cells entering into its struc- ture, or to collect together a sufficient number of unicellular organisms free from impurities or admixtures. When, bow- ever, this has been accomplished and we are ready to analyze the isolated cells, we are at once confronted with the limita- tions attending this kind of work, especially the fact that any ordinary method of separation or analysis, even the initiatory steps in the process, immediately transforms the living matter into dead matter, which transformation may be accompan! by cleavage or other chemical changes of more or less com- plexity ; so that the bodies we identify as components of the cell protoplasm may be simply alteration products, oF frag- ments of the larger and more complex molecules resident 12 the living matter. | From microscopical examination we have evidence that protoplasm is far from being homogeneous, that it is loade with granules and pervaded by a mesh-work of irregu®” arrangement. These various forms of protoplasmic diferet" tiation have, as you know, been variously named by different investigators, as the spongioplasm, paraplasm, h yaloplasm, ete, 1894,] Chemico-Physiologieal Discoveries: The Cell. 103 and we are led to infer marked differences in chemical compo- sition from the behavior of the several parts of the cell to- ward the many pigments or dyes used in histological investi- gation. There can be no manner of doubt that the differences in color between the nucleus and the cytoplasm of the cell, for example, as brought out by the agency of various pigments is due to differences in chemical composition. Again, as you are well aware, Ehrlich has been able to discriminate between the different varieties of granules found in cell protoplasm by their behavior toward neutral, acid and alkaline aniline dyes. Thus,in the centresome we have a mass of differentiated cytoplasm, which as Watasé* has shown in the egg of Unio, may be made to stand out with great distinctness by means of acid-fuchsin, while the spindle fibres and the rays of the aster remain practically unstained, thus clearly pointing to differ- ences in chemical composition which are well worthy of note. Again, there are still other granules frequently present in the cytoplasm of many cells, staining dark with osmic acid, which indicate still other differences in chemical composition. But our knowledge concerning the chemical nature of proto- plasin is far too imperfect and scanty to admit of our drawing any other than the broadest generalizations from the affinity the protoplasm may show for various pigments. Further, as you well know, the nuclear constituents have been divided by various investigators, as by Flemming, into several groups according to the action of different stains; thus, we have the chromatic substance or chromatin, which stains readily with the aniline dyes and which comprises especially the nuclear network, then achromatin, or that por- tion of the nucleus which does not stain readily, as the nuclear matrix and the nuclear membrane. Such statements as these may be added to almost indefi- nitely, but for our purpose the above are amply sufficient to indicate the existence of marked chemical differences in the cell cytoplasm and karyoplasm. And, indeed, that is all they do indicate; they give us very little knowledge of the real nature of the substances which are the cause of these differ- ‘Homology of the Centresome. Journal of Morphology, Vol. 8, p. 433. 104 The American Naturalist. [February, ences in reaction. We must have more definite chemical knowledge before we can hope to attain to a clearer under- standing of the actual make up of cell protoplasm. Further, such knowledge is not to be obtained solely by micro-chemical study. The latter is surely important, but macroscopical methods must be relied upon mainly to furnish the desired information, and when we have full knowledge of the chemical nature of the substances present in the protoplasm, we may hope to find micro-chemical methods adapted to their accurate detection. What now is the state of our knowledge regarding the primary constituents of cell protoplasm? Taking the results which have been elaborated by painstaking work during the last ten years, I think we are justified in asserting that the primary constituents of the cytoplasm are especially a peculiar group of proteid or albuminous bodies known as nucleo- albumins and characterized by containing phosphorus. These are by far the most numerous of the substances present in the cytoplasm. Next in importance are simple proteids belonging mainly to the group of globulins, a class of albuminous bodies insoluble in water but readily dissolved by 5-10 per cent. salt solution. Lecithin comes next, a complex phosphorized body having a constitution similar to that of a fat and yielding by decomposition higher fatty acids, glycero-phosphoric acid cholin. This body is also insoluble in water and likewise 12 salt solution, but is readily dissolved by ether and somewhat by alcohol. Another substance almost invariably present ? cytoplasm is cholesterin, a solid crystalline alcohol of som what uncertain constitution, insoluble in water and salt solution, but readily soluble in alcohol and ether. There — maining constituents of the cytoplasm are the inorgamlé elements calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium unl with chlorine and phosphoric acid to form chlorides and phosphates respectively. It may be somewhat questionable whether all of these latter salts are primary constituents of : cytoplasm, although it seems quite certain that potassium — is present in fairly large quantities in animal cells 18 ee true primary constituent. Potassium phosphate is certainly 1894,] Chemico-Physiological Discoveries: The Cell. 105 of primary importance for the life and development of the animal cell, as no doubt also are the earthy phosphates, although we can hardly formulate how they exist in the cyto- plasm unless it be in close union with the proteids or nucleo- albumins of the cell, for which we know they have a strong affinity. Again, it is to be remembered that the ash of all cells shows the presence of a certain amount of ferric oxide. This, however, does not come from ordinary iron salts present in the protoplasm, but the iron appears to exist in some pecu- liar organic combination, apparently united to carbon. It is especially to be noted as a component of so-called iron-con- taining nucleins, or nucleo-albumins. It is thus seen that proteid matter in some one or more forms, mostly as nucleo-albumins, constitutes the great bulk of cytoplasm, and the typical anabolic product of the living cell is unquestionably represented by a molecule, or molecules, in which proteid matter occupies a prominent place. “But that the albumin molecule is alone the bearer of life and all the other constituents of the protoplasm its satellites we cer- tainly cannot affirm.” (Kossel) Between the cytoplasm and the karyoplasm there is very little constant difference. The one typical constituent of the cell nucleus, however, is nuclein or one of the bodies of that group. It is important to note in this connection that such examinations as have been made show that the primary con- stituents of the cell may be located in the nucleus in great part, or they may be evenly distributed through both cyto- plasm and karyoplasm, or indeed they may be almost wholly wanting in the nucleus, occurring only in the cytoplasm.’ This latter condition offers a ready explanation of the well- known fact that cells rich in nuclei and consequently contain- ing only a little cytoplasm, as the spermatozoa, are extremely poor in many of the primary bodies of ordinary cells. The one body, however, characteristic of the cell nucleus is nuclein. Cholesterin and lecithin are certainly common_to both cyto- plasm and karyoplasm, being found abundantly in cells rich ‘Kossel. Verhandlungen d. physiol. Gesellschaft zu Berlin, Feb’y, 1890. 106 The American’ Naturalist. [February, in nuclei as well as in cells poor in nuclear elements. We must reiterate, however, that the first place in importance among these so-called primary bodies is to be ascribed to the proteids in all living cells, for it seems more than probable that the nucleins and the lecithins found in cell protoplasm are constructed synthetically out of certain cleavage products of the proteids and phosphates. However this may be, the globulins, nucleo-albumins and nucleins are, so far as our present knowledge extends, the important constituents of cell protoplasm in all animal and vegetable cells. Of these three classes of bodies, the nucleins and the related nucleo-albumins are deserving of special notice. The substance originally known as nuclein and first identi- fied by Hoppe-Seyler and Miescher as the main constituent of the nucleus of pus cells was prepared by a number of in- vestigators from different kinds of material rich in nuclei, or nuclear substance. Thus, Miescher prepared it from the sper- matozoa of different animals, Geoghegan from the. brain, Hoppe-Seyler from yeast cells, Plész from the liver and von Jaksch from the human brain. The products obtained, how- ever, while showing certain points in common, were unlike each other in many respects. Thus, they were all alike in containing a noticeable amount of phosphorus, but the per- centage of phosphorus was found on analysis to vary from 1.8 per cent. up to 9.5 per cent. Again, the several products dif- fered in their degree of solubility in alkalies, some being very soluble and others only slightly so. These marked discrepan- cles were naturally considered as implying that the so-called nuclein was not a chemical unit, but rather an indefinite mix- ture of organic phosphorus compounds with proteid matter: but we now know, thanks to the painstaking work of Kossel and others, that there are a group of closely related bodies, nucleins, widely distributed in nature, wherever cell structuré ” to be found, as the main constituent of the cell nucleus, and likewise present in certain substances such as milk and egg- yolk which serve as food for developing animals. The latter class are better known as nucleo-albumins, from which & typical nuclein can be separated or rather prepared by the 1894.] Chemico-Physiological Discoveries: The Cell. 107 proteolytic action of the gastric juice,’ which dissolves away the excess of proteid matter leaving a non-digestible nuclein. The essential points of difference between the typical nucleins are made clear by a study of their cleavage products. Thus, the nuclein found in the karyoplasm of most cell nuclei on being boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, yields as cleavage products, phosphoric acid, xanthin bodies and acid-albumin, The nuclein, on the other hand, present in the sperm of the salmon fails to yield any albuminous matter, its cleavage pro- ducts being only phosphoric acid and hypoxanthin. The third group of nucleins, better known as nucleo-albumins, yield only phosphoric acid and albuminous bodies by cleavage, the xanthin bases, if formed, being in too small quantity to admit of certain detection. From the nuclein of yeast cells, Lieber- mann obtained by cleavage metaphosphoric acid, and both he’ and Pohl.were able to prepare a combination of metaphos- phoric acid with egg-albumin, also with serum-albumin and with albumose, resembling nuclein in properties. Further- more, by varying the proportions of acid and albumin it is possible to prepare different forms of nuclein, varying in their content of phosphorus, and in their solubility in alkalies, like the natural nucleins obtainable from cell nuclei. It is questiona- ble, however, whether these synthetical products are in every way akin to the natural nucleins, for it seems probable that the nuclein molecule formed through the activity of the living cells is constructed on a somewhat different plan, so far as the arrangement of the atoms is concerned. Thus, Altman? has shown that when a nuclein is subjected to a mild process of decomposition, as on exposure to the action of an alkali at ordinary temperature, it is broken apart into albumin and a peculiar acid rich in phosphorus, to which the name of nucleic acid has been given. Moreover, it is possible to regenerate the nuclein out of these two components, the body so recon- structed having all the properties of the original substance. Nucleins, therefore, to quote Halliburton, may be considered € Compare Lilienfeld Du Bois Reymond’s Archiv f. Physiol. 1892, p. 129. ‘Liebermann. Pfliiger’s Archiv fiir physiologie Bd. 43 p. 99. Ueber Nucleinsiuren. Du Bois Reymond’s Archiv für Physiol, 1889, p. 524. 108 The American Naturalist. [February, as compounds of proteid substances with nucleic acid, the various members of the group differing in the proportion of proteid matter to this phosphorus-rich acid. Thus, we may have a chain of nucleins, one end of the series being repre- sented by nucleic acid itself with its 9 to 11 per cent. of phos- phorus and without any admixed proteid, such for example as is found in the heads of the spermotozoa, which are doubtless derived from the nuclei of the spermatogenic cells; while in the middle of the series are the nucleins proper consisting of proteid with varying amounts of nucleic acid, and at the other extreme nucleins composed almost entirely of proteid, con- taining at the most only 0.5 to 1.0 per cent. of phosphorus and represented by the substances generally known as nucleo- albumins. Nucleins are not digestible in artificial gastric juice, while 4 nucleo-albumin, as already stated, undergoes a partial diges- tion, the excess of combined proteid matter being converted into soluble products, while a typical nuclein remains as an insoluble residue, which however may be dissolved by weak alkalies. With this understanding of the general character of of the nucleins, many of the micro-chemical observations recorded by different workers in cytology become intelligi- ble. Take as an illustration the work of Zacharias’ on ves® table cells. This observer, as you remember, made a large number of digestive experiments with artificial gastric juice, and noted the occurrence in the nucleus of two distinct sub- stances indigestible in pepsin-acid solution, which differed from each other in their solubility in acids and alkalies. As a result, Zacharias states that the resting cell nucleus consists of a ground mass composed in great part of nuclein, while the nucleoli consist of albumin and plastin. Remove the albu- min from the nucleus by digestion, and the nuclein will dis- solve in dilute alkali, leaving a network of plastin. Further, Zacharias states that plastin is an essential constituent of the total protoplasmic content of the cell, including the nucleus and the chromatophore. Now, note the differences between the nuclein and the plastin as defined by Zacharias. Plastid, *Botanische Zeitung. 45th Jahrgang, pp. 281 and 329. 1894.) Chemico-Physiological Discoveries: The Cell. 109 for example, does not dissolve or even swell up in 10 per cent. salt solution, hence it is not a globulin or simple proteid ; fur- ther, it does not disappear on treatment with hydrochloric acid of moderate strength, as nuclein does. Again, plastin is much more difficultly soluble in alkalies than nuclein. Now as a matter of fact these two bodies have an extremely close relationship; they are both nucleins, having the same general type of structure; they differ merely in the proportion of nucleic acid and proteid. The plastin of the histologist, therefore, is simply a form of nuclein, less acid in character because it contains less nucleic acid and a larger proportion of proteid; hence, it likewise contains less phosphorus and for the same reason is more insoluble in alkalies. In a general way we may say that the so-called nuclear sap or nuclear matrix is composed practically of a globulin-like body, just such as is found in the cytoplasm and which by digestion with artificial gastric juice is converted into soluble products, as proteose and peptone. The bulk of the nucleus, however, is composed of material insoluble in gastric juice. The bodies composing this indigestible matter are all phos- phorized; in fact, they are nucleins of various kinds. Thus, the so-called chromatin network which is distinguishable from all other constituents of the cell by its strong affinity for various dyes is composed of a nuclein rich in phosphorus, viz.: a nuclein with a large content of nucleic acid and a cor- responding smaller content of proteid. The nucleoli, on the other hand, which have a less pronounced affinity for dyes than the chromatin, are composed mainly of the so-called plastin, i. e. a nuclein comparatively poor in phosphorus and not readily soluble in alkalies. In other words, and this I think is the point deserving of special emphasis, the cell nu- cleus in all cells is composed mainly of nucleins, compound bodies made up of proteid matter and nucleic acid, the latter rich in phosphorus, the individual parts of the nucleus vary- ing somewhat in accord with the varying character of the nucleins as determined by the proportions of proteid to nucleic acid. That is to say, “in the processes of vital activtiy there are changing relations between the phosphorized con- 110 The American Naturalist. [February, stituents of the nucleus, just as in all metabolic processes there is continual interchange, some constituents being elaborated, others breaking down into simpler products.” ® We are not to forget, however, that these bodies may possibly be fragments of still more complex molecules resident in the living karyo- plasm of cell nuclei. In any event, the character of these fragments, if such they are, must tell us something as to the nature of the original molecules, and consequently on the basis of the above statements we may reasonably argue the probable existence of different, though closely related, chemical varie ties of karyoplasm as peculiar to the cell nuclei of individual organs and tissues. Lilienfeld,” however, while accepting in a general way the views already expressed emphasizes the probability that as & rule tHere is a constant difference between the nucleus and the body of the cell, in that the former in every phase of life con- sists mainly of nuclein substances, i. e., nucleo-proteids, nuclein and in extreme cases nucleic acid, while the body of the cell 18 composed mainly of pure proteids and nucleo-albumins with a low content of phosphorus. But as there are changing rela- tions between these individual bodies, the tone of color obtainable by different dyes is obviously more or less variable; but as a rule, we may say that the nuclein-containing bodies of the nucleus have the strongest affinity for basic dyes while the proteids of the cell body naturally seize hold of the acid dyes. Further, Lilienfeld, who has recently made a thorough study of the inner structure of leucocytes and has named the characteristic constituent of the nucleus, nucleo-histon, describes this body as a nucleo-proteid, a body comparable to a chemi salt composed of a proteid base, histon, and a complex acid, leukonuclein, which in turn is made up of nucleic ace and proteid. So that in this the latest work in this direction that I am familiar with, we find results all bearing out the gene? statements just submitted.” Again, Lilienfeld has show” 10 Halliburton ae ; 1 Verhandlungen der Berliner physiologischen Gesellschaft. Du Bois Reymond* Archiv für Physiologie. Jahrgang, 1893, p. 391. 1? Compare Lilienfeld ‘Zur Chemie de Leucocyten.” Zeitschr. Phyiol. ar Band. 18, p. 473. 1894.] Chemico-Physiological Discoveries: The Cell. 111 that it is the nucleic acid of the nucleus which is the primary cause of the pronounced color shown by this portion of the cell on treatment with aniline dyes. With this understanding of the wide-spread distribution of nucleins throughout all animal and vegetable cells, let us con- sider somewhat more in detail the character of their decom- position or cleavage products, for this may give us a clearer insight into their general nature. As already stated, the nucleins thus far studied yield on treatment with dilute mineral acids a row of peculiar crystalline nitrogenous prod- ucts, the xanthin bases so-called, the true antecedent of which Kossel has shown to be nucleic acid. Hence, the yield of these bodies, which, by the way, belong to the uric acid group, must depend upon the amount of nucleic acid contained in the given nuclein. The wide-spread distribution of these bodies, throughout the animal organism especially, wherever cell activity is pronounced, their close connection with uric acid and their evident origin in the nucleic acid of cell nuclei are facts of great physiological importance, since they throw possible light upon the physiological function of the cell nu- cleus and at the same time point to a genetic connection between the nuclein bases and uric acid. This phase of the matter, however, we cannot now consider, but there are one or two points connected with these nuclein bases that we cannot afford to pass by. First, the bases themselves are four in number, viz.: adenin, guanin, xanthin and hypoxanthin, all well defined bodies of known chemical constitution. Among these, adenin stands foremost. It is, to be sure, the one most recently discovered, but its characteristic chemical nature and constitution give it a peculiar prominence the others do not possess. It is not only a product of the chemical decomposition of pure nuclein by dilute acids, but it is widely distributed in nature, and its distribution in the organs and tissues of animals and plants corresponds to its genetic relationship to the characteristic constituent of the cell nucleus. Thus Kos- sel has obtained it from the pancreatic gland and from the spleen, also from yeast cells and from tea leaves, but found it 18 Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie. Band 12, p. 241. 112 The American Naturalist. [February, wanting in muscle tissue, poor in nuclei. F. Kronecker" found it in the spleen, lymph glands and kidneys of oxen, while Stadthagen” found it present in the liver and urine of a patient suffering from leukemia, a disease in which the white blood cells are enormously increased in number. It is not to be understood, however, that the adenin exists wholly free in these cases. On the contrary, it exists in plant and animal tissues in loose combination, in part at least, with albumin and phosphoric acid. This combination is easily broken by the action of dilute acids, especially at 100° C., and also by spontaneous decomposition after death, i. e., the adenin is an integral part of the nucleic acid which is present in all cell nuclei, and under certain conditions can be split off from the complex molecule of which it is an integral part. ; In composition, adenin is peculiar in that it contains n0 oxygen. It is composed solely of carbon, hydrogen and nitro- gen in such proportion as to warrant the conclusion that it 18 a polymer of prussic acid, HCN. It has in fact the same pèr- centage composition as prussic acid, and its ready convert bility into potassium cyanide by fusion with caustic potash at 00° C., testifies to the close relationship between these two bodies. The existence of cyanogen compounds in the animal body has long been suggested as theoretically probable, and the finding of adenin gives to this hypothesis a substantial basis and points to the cell nucleus as the seat of these cya2® gen compounds. Further, adenin is closely related to hypo* anthin, a body with which we are more familiar and whose origin we shall need to consider. Moreover, we find when "° come to study relationships that all the so-called nuclei bases are closely related to adenin, as is seen from the follow ing formule, which bring out the analogies quite clearly: Adenin CLN, NH Guanin C,H.N.O ne Hypoxanthin C,H,N, O Xanthin C,H,N,O Both adenin and hypoxanthin contain a peculiar chemical group O,H,N,, called by Kossel and Thoiss" adenyl, and W° 4 Virchow’s Archiv. Band 107, p. 207. 15 Ibid. Band 109, p. 390. Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie, Band 13, p. 396. 1894.] Chemico-Physiological Discoveries: The Cell. 113 may consequently consider adenin as adenylimid, while hypoxanthin may be appropriately termed adenyloxide. As might be expected from the close relationship between these two bodies, adenin can be readily converted into hypoxanthin; and in a similar manner the allied base guanin can be trans- formed into xanthin. Thus, Schindler” finds by experiment that adenin dissolved in water and exposed to putrefaction at about 20° C. with exclusion of air, in time entirely disappears, a large amount of hypoxanthin appearing in its place and likewise a trace of xanthin. In other words, oxygen-free adenin is made by this process to combine with oxygen, being converted into the related oxygen-containing body hypoxan- thin, with a giving up of ammonia. Guanin by a like method of treatment is changed into xanthin. The reactions involved are very simple as the following equations show : GHN +: HO sae C,H,N,O -} NH, denin Hypoxanthin Ammonia CH,N;,O + H,O maa C;H,N,0, a NH, Guanin Xanthin Ammonia We thus have every reason for believing that when hypoxanthin results from the breaking down of nuclein it passes through the intermediate stage of adenin. In other words, adenin is a primary cleavage product of nuclein, or rather of nucleic acid, while hypoxanthin is a secondary product coming directly from the adenin. In a similar man- her, guanin isa primary decomposition product of nucleic acid,. xanthin being in the same sense a secondary product. These- ur bases are plainly closely related and intimately associated, in many ways, and all are alike cleavage products of the nu- clein obtainable from cell nuclei. But the primary bodies. adenin and guanin are evidently far more susceptible to the- changes going on in living cells than their neighbors hypox- anthin and xanthin. All four, however, are capable of com- plete decomposition with formation of a variety of decompo- 11 Zeitschrift fiir Physiologische Chemie. Band 13, p. 432. 8 114 The American Naturalist. [February, sition products. In this connection, one of the most instructive series of changes adenin undergoes outside the body 1s that induced by long-continued warming with dilute hydrochloric acid, in which it is completely broken down into ammonia, carbonic acid, formic acid and glycocoll or amido-acetic acid. Xanthin and hypoxanthin furnish the same products by like treatment : C,H,N,+ 8H,0 =4NH,-+C0,-+2H-COOH + CH,-NH,-COOH Adenin. Formic Acid. Gly cocoll. C,H,N,O+7H,0—4NH,+C0,-+2H-COOH + CH,-NH,-COOH Hypoxanthin. 0,H,N,0,+ 6H,0O=3NH,-+2C0,-+ H-COOH-+CH,NH,-CO0# anthin. Again, adenin can be easily decomposed completely into carbonic acid and ammonia, but the most striking fact in COP nection with this body, as already stated, is its easy converti- bility into cyanide of potash, indicating as it does the close relationship existing between this substance and the cyanog® group. | In attempting to ascribe a function to adenin that shall correspond to the accepted function of the cell nucleus, a must have proof that this substance, under conditions W s obtain in the body can readily pass into new forms easly capable of undergoing reactions. As has been shown by °% periment, the conditions for vigorous reduction processes ae present in every cell. Reduction gives a blow by which t i oxygen-free adenin may be transformed into a new body ba¥ ing a strong avidity for oxygen, and which may in turn i transformed through the laying on of more molecules into A body resembling, if not identical with, azalminic 8&0 d Adenin, for example, dissolved in dilute hydrochlori¢ “a and treated with zinc is quickly decomposed by the reducing action of the nascent hydrogen evolved into what is ovid azulminic acid C;H,N,O, a derivative of dicyan. If dicyan re | CN 1894.] Chemico-Physiological Discoveries: The Cell. 115 is simply dissolved in water and allowed to stand exposed to the air for a long time, the solution gradually becomes dark in color, accompanied by a dissociation in which formic acid, prussic acid, oxalate of ammonia and urea result, together with a certain amount of azulminic acid; reactions which again emphasize the cyanogen-like character of the adenin molecule. Such being the nature of adenin, it is not to be doubted that bodies emanating from this substance with strong affini- ties must be important actors in the physiological and chemical processes, especially those of a synthetical order, going on in all cellular tissues. In this connection it is to be remembered that Pfliiger on purely theoretical grounds ascribed great im- portance to the physological rôle played by the cyanogen group with polymerization, etc., in the living albumin molecule. Dead albumin, such as we see in the white of egg, blood-fibrin, ete., is a comparatively stable substance, indifferent to neutral oxygen, not readily prone to change, and yielding decomposition pro- ducts by no means identical with the cyanogen-like bodies resulting from normal proteid metabolism. Evidently then the dead food-albumin in being assimilated is reconstructed on a different plan, the atoms are rearranged and in the living albumin molecule, as in the protoplasm of the cell, we are lad to infer a close union of the carbon and nitrogen with formation of the comparatively unstable cyanogen group. In the dead protoplasm, on the other hand, the nitrogen of the proteid is joined directly with hydrogen to form amidogen (NH,), but in the processes of anabolism going on in all living cells, the , nitrogen is detached from the hydrogen and made to combine more directly with carbon to form the more unstable group CN. Asa result, the katabolic products of proteid metabolism known to us are the cyanogen-containing bodies, guanin, uric acid, creatin and the related body urea. These are products of the katabolism of living protoplasm, and in the discovery of adenin and its close relationship to the typical xanthin we have added proof of the existence of cyanogen- containing radicals in the protoplasm of the cell, especially in the karyoplasm of the nucleus. In all of these xanthin Sze Drechsel, however, Der Abban der Eiweissstoffe. Du Bois Reymond’s Archiv, 1891, p. 248. : 116 The American Naturalist. (February, bodies there is to be seen a peculiar combination of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen such as is not found in dead proteid matter. The structure of the molecule is different and is em- blematical of a still more complex molecule in which the atoms are similarly arranged. Thus, it is to be remembered that whenever an organ rich in cells is decomposed by dilute acid, adenin, guanin, xanthin and hypoxanthin are never obtained alone. They are not found as individuals, but in every tissue which has retained its original condition, the two special xanthin bases, for example, are found in combination with other groups of atoms, especially with phosphoric acid and albumin, as parts of a higher compound, the nuclein. From this higher compound, the individual components cannot be extracted by simple solvents or other like methods of isolation; a blow must be struck by which the complex molecule shall be shattered and the individual parts liberated, as by the action of a dilute mineral acid. In tissues very poor in nuclear elements, on the other hand, as in muscle tissue, we find only the decomposr tion products of nuclein; the chemical union between the individual fragments is broken, and the phosphoric acid, for example, no longer exists in organic combination, but as solu- ble alkali phosphates. In a similar manner, the xanthin and hypoxanthin, exist in a free condition capable of extraction by water alone. Further, in the transformation of adenin and guanin into hypoxanthin and xanthin respectively, with a splitting off of the NH group and the acquisition of oxygen we have a possi- ble illustration of the manner in which the migration of the amidogen group of albumin to urea takes place; a transforma- tion which no doubt goes on in the tissues and perhaps” every cell nucleus. Certainly then in the light of what has been said, the cell nucleus may be looked upon as in some manner standing 1? close relation to those processes which have to do with formation of organic substances. Whatever other functions it may possess, it evidently, through the inherent qualities 0 the bodies entering into its composition, has a controlling 1894.] Chemico- Physiological Discoveries: The Cell. 117 power over the metabolic processes going on in the cell, modi- fying and regulating the nutritional changes.” And you will notice that I lay great stress upon the chemical nature of the karyoplasm, the inherent qualities of the plasm as indicated by its molecular condition. It is not the mere fact that the karyoplasm is housed, so to speak, in a certain definite struc- ture that it is possessed of its characteristic qualities, but the qualities are peculiar to the living molecules themselves. The living molecules are different from the dead molecules because they have a different chemical constitution, the atoms are arranged in a different manner. All this being true we can easily see how cells devoid of specific nuclei may perhaps be functionally active, to a slight extent, provided they contain the same chemical groups in the cytoplasm. But I have already exceeded the alloted time, while there is much that might be said. Still, the foregoing will indicate in a limited way that there is a field of work in connection with the chemistry of the cell that cannot consistently be ignored in biological inquiries. "Compare M. Verworn, “ Die physiologische Bedeutung des Zellkerns.” Pfliiger’s Archiv f. Physiol. Band 51, p. 1. 118 . The American Naturalist. [February, THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARTHROPODA. By J. S. KINGSLEY. _ In the concluding section of my paper on the Embryology of Limulus (93), I expressed my views upon the classification of the Arthropods. The following is to be regarded as an ex- pansion of the remarks I then made, with the inclusion of some matter not then available. Since the days of von Siebold (’46), the naturalness of the group of Arthropoda has been almost universally recognized, only a few, like the present writer (’83) and von Kennel in his recent text-book of Zoology (93), appearing to doubt the homo- geneity of the division. On the other hand, the way 1 which the Arthropoda should be subdivided has been very differently regarded by different authors. Space will not per mit an extended résumé of the growth of our knowledge, but it is fair to say that almost every person treating of the subject has added materially to the basis for a natural classification, either by the discovery of new facts or by throwing new lig ; upon facts known before. At present, the great majority of naturalists divide the Arthropod phylum into two groups n sub-phyla, which, however named, are essentially Branchiata and Tracheata, the former embracing the Trilobites, Euryp- terids, Hemiaspids and Xiphosures, along with the true Crus- tacea; the latter containing the Onychophora (Peripatus) Myriapods, Hexapods and Arachnids. Yet this division is not universally accepted, and a few ya ago, Professor E. Ray Lankester, following out the earlier sug- gestion of Strauss-Dürckheim and the later one of the young? 5 van Beneden (’71), demonstrated that the affinities of Limulus were with the the Arachnids rather than with the Crustacea. This epoch-making paper—“ Limulus an Arachnid ”—™ form the basis of all farther studies of Arthropod taxonomy since it logically follows from his conclusions that the p tions made between Branchiata and Tracheata are physiologr 1894.] The Classification of the Arthropoda. 119 cal rather than morphological, and that their emphasis tends to obscure true relationships upon which alone a natural sys- - tem can be based. Since Lankester wrote, most students of Arachnid morphology and every one (excepting Professor Packard) who has investigated the structure or ontogeny of Limulus, have endorsed the general conclusion that Limulus is closely related to the Arachnids. This being the case, Lankesters’s later views upon the sub- division of the Arthropoda possess a peculiar interest. In the ninth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, article “Zoology,” he gives the following arrangement: Branch Arthropoda. Grade 1, Ceratophora. Class I, Peripatidea. Class II, Myriapoda. Class III, Hexapoda. Grade 2, Acerata. Class I, Crustacea. Class II, Arachnida. Class IIT, Pantopoda, Class IV, Tardigrada. Class V, Linguatulina. Professor Claus is apparently not so radical in his ideas. I fail to make out from his various polemical articles (86 * *., 87 *) exactly what his later views are, but in the fourth edition of his Lehrbuch (’88)—the fifth edition is not at hand —there is such a lack of regularity in the subordination of type, headings, etc., that it is difficult to ascertain his opinions. As I interpret him, he has the following scheme : Arthropoda. : Class 1, Crustacea. Sub-Class I, Entomostraca. Sub-Class IT, Malacostraca. Gigantostraca. Merostomata. Xiphosura. Class II, Arachnoida. Class III, Onychophora. 120 The American Naturalist. [February, Class IV, Myriapoda. Class V, Hexapoda. From this it would seem that the only conclusions which can be drawn are that, at least at this date, Professor Claus re- garded the Gigantostraca as a subdivision of the Crustacea, but was uncertain whether to regard it as equivalent to the Entomostraca and Malacostraca or not. It is impossible to give the views of Hatschek, as the part of his “ Zoologie ” treating of the Arthropods has not yet appeared. In his general table (’88, p. 40) he accepts, in a modified way, the Articulata of Cuvier, and regards the Onychophora as a class, of equal rank with the Arthropoda. The earlier studies of Boas upon the classification of the Crustacea possess such value that his general ideas upon the subdivisions of the Arthropoda deserve mention. In his “ Zoologie” (90) he adopts the following arrangement: Arthropoda. I Class, Crustacea. I Sub-Class Entomostraca, including as Orders: I, Phyl- _lopoda ; II, Cladocera; III, Xiphura (sic); IV, Tri- lobitæ; V, Ostracoda; VI, Copepoda; VII, Cirr- edia. II Sub-Class, Malacostraca. I Class, Myriapoda. (Peripatus doubtful.) II Class, Insecta. IV Class, Arachnida. Lang (’88) has the following classification : Arthropoda. I Sub-Phylum, Branchiata. Only class Crustacea. First “Anhang to Branchiata—Trilobita, Gigantostraca, Hemiaspide, and Xiphosura. Second “Anhang ”—Pantopoda. II Sub-Phylum, Tracheata. I Class, Protracheata. II Class, Antennata (Myriapoda and Hexapoda). III Class, Chelicerote sive Arachnoidea. “Anhang” to Arthropoda—Tardigrada. 1894.] ; The Classification of the Arthropoda. 121 Fernald, has approached the subject from the standpoint of Hexapod morphology. He gives (90) a phylogenetic tree in which two main trunks arise from the primitive unsegmented worm. One of these embraces the Annelids and Peripatus, the other includes the Arthropods proper. This latter branches into the Hexapods and the Crustacea, the. Arachnids and Limulus being represented as offshoots from the main Crus- tacean line. The origin of the Myriapods is left in doubt, but of the two divisions the Chilopods are represented as an offshoot from the Diplopod stem. Richard Hertwig (92) adopts the following scheme : Branch Arthropoda. I Sub-Phylum, I Class, Crustacea. 1 Sub-Class, Entomostraca, containg as regular mem- ' bers the Orders: I, Copepoda; II, Branchiopoda; III, Ostracoda; IV, Cirripedia ; and, as “Anhangen,” V, Xiphosura; VI, Trilobite; VII, Gigantostraca. II Sub-Class, Malacostraca. II Class, Onychophora. III Class, Myriapoda. IV Class, Arachnoida (including Pantopoda as an “An- hang”). V Class, Hexapoda. Lastly, von Kennel, whose studies on Peripatus entitle his views on Arthropod taxonomy to a hearing, denies (93) the validity of the group Arthropoda, claiming that those features which would seem to unite the Tracheata and Branchiata are either superficial or are common to the whole series of meta- meric Invertebrata. He places the Xiphosura among the Crustacea, apparently regarding them as equivalent to the rest of the group. The Tracheata are divided into three sub-classes, Myriapoda, Hexapoda and Arachnoida, the relationships of Tardigrada and the Pycnogonida being regarded as uncertain. My own views, as stated in my last paper on Limulus, have not undergone any extensive modification, although the tab- ular statement has undergone some slight changes. Chief of these is the transfer of the Trilobite from a position of uncer- tainity to a more close union with the true Crustacea, a matter 122 The American Naturalist. [February, which will be referred to again below.. I would now present the following scheme: Phylum Arthropoda. Sub-Phylum I, Branchiata. Class I, Crustacea. Sub-Class I, Trilobite. Sub-Class, II, Eucrustacea. Class II, Acerata. Sub-Class I, Gigantostraca. Sub-Class II, Arachnida. Sub-Phylum II, Insecta. Class I, Chilopoda. _ Class II, Hexapoda. Sub-Phylum III, Diplopoda. Incertæ Sedes— Pycnogonida. Linguatulina. Pauropoda. Tardigrada. Malacopoda. The various papers by Lankester, McLeod, Laurie and my- self have, I think, clearly shown that the older grouping of the Arthropoda into Branchiates and Tracheates is not justified by the facts of structure and ontogeny; that tracheæ are not homologous structures in all Arthropods which possess them, and that the old group of Tracheata is polyphyletic in orig!” Since classification must represent the various lines of descent, the old must therefore go. There remain many points which must be investigated anew, but I feel confident that further research will support, in its main features, the classification adopted above, and considered more in extenso below. PHYLUM ARTHROPODA. I am not prepared to discuss the validity of this grouP: although for reasons that will appear below, I am inclined to believe the great divisions which I recognize are but remotely related to one another, and it may yet be proved, as I pi gested several years ago (’83), and as von Kennel believes; tha 1894.] The Classification of the Arthropoda. 123 they have no common ancestor nearer than the Annelids. The jointed nature of the appendages offers no insuperable objection to this view, while the early phases of the egg, the formation of the germ layers, the structure of the alimentary canal, the morphology of the reproductive and excretory or- gans, as well as certain facts concerning the circulatory, respir- atory and nervous systems are easiest explained upon such an hypothesis. The presence of compound eyes in branchiate and tracheate forms would, at first thought, be a strong argu- ment for the older views, but these organs differ so greatly in their structure that it is easier to regard them as homoplastic organs (comparable in a way to the eyes of Cephalopods and Vertebrates) rather than as derivatives from a common com- pound ancestral visual organ. For our present purposes, the group of Arthropoda may be retained as a convenient assem- blage, characterized in the following manner: Heteronomously segmented animals, with, typically, a pair of appendages to each somite; the whole enclosed in a chitinous segmented exo- skeleton, the jointing of which extends to the appendages, thus justifying the term Arthropoda. The appendages, prim- itively locomotor in function, may be modified, on one or more somites, for the taking or commuting of food, for respiration, copulation, oviposition, sensation, fixation, etc. No circular layer of muscles in body wall; nervous system consisting of a pair of primitively supracesophageal ganglia and a ventral chain of paired ganglia, of which one or more pairs may, in the course of development, be transferred to the prestomial re- gion. Eyes, simple, aggregate, or compound, with, in some cases, an inversion of the retinal layer. Colom small, incon- Spicuous; circulatory organs consisting of a dorsal heart en- closed in a vascular pericardial sac ; blood-vessels more or less evidently metameric, terminating in “lacunar” spaces. Respir- ation, either by the entire surface of the body or by specialized outgrowths or involutions of the same. Excretion, either by true nephridia or by Malpighian tubules, developed from either the mid- or the hind-gut. Reproductive organs consist- ing of gonads developed from the celomic walls and with modified nephridia serving as efferent ducts. 124 The American Naturalist. [February, In order that we may compare, part with part, the different forms of Arthropods, it becomes necessary to assume some basis of comparison, and apparently the only one available is that of the exact homology of the similarly situated meta meres in the different groups, but here we meet with a difficulty. How can we be certain, for example, that somite 10 of the lob- ster is the exact homologue of somite 10 in the beetle? How can we tell that no somite has been lost in the evolution of these different lines? Perfect certainty is impossible, and we now know that in the serial comparisons of not more than five years ago, errors crept in, because there is a tendency of somites to become aborted or obsolete. This tendency is well-known in cases of Apus and Oniscus, where one of the anterior pairs of appendages is greatly reduced ; and in Limulus, Scorpions, Moina, etc., where an anterior somite is not differentiated until after those behind it. In many forms there is an obliteration or a fusion of cœlomic cavities in the anterior region, the mesoderm flowing together as a common mass. On the other hand, the embryonic phases of the nervous system seem to give clear indications of neuromeres in the anterior end of the body, and, as farther back, neuromeres cor- respond to the mesodermic metameres, it is reasonable to accept until error be shown, a somite for each neuromere at the an- terior end of the Arthropod body. Unfortunately, we have detailed knowledge of these neuromeres in but few cases, and even in these there is a lack of uniformity in the observations. In the Hexapods it has been shown that the “cerebrum” 0 the adult is composed of at least three pairs of ganglia called by Vaillanes, respectively, the protocerebrum, the deutocere brum and the tritocerebrum. These elements have been rec ognized by Tichomiroff in the silkworm (teste Cholodkowsky) in Acilius (Patten, ’88), in Blatta (Cholodkowsky, ’91), m Mantis (Vaillanes, 91), in Xiphidium and Anurida (Wheeler, 93), while Carrière (90) has described four cerebral elements in Chalicoderma. The figures of the latter author do not seem to me conclusive, and I am inclined to believe the more num- erous observations in this difficult field as the more probab correct 1894.] The Classification of the Arthropoda. 125 These cerebral elements apparently have different values. So far as observations go, the protocerebrum is always preoral, and in no case is any appendage developed in connection with it. Apparently, the region in which it occurs is to be com- pared to the preoral lobe of the annelids, while the two gang- lia of which it is composed would correspond to the “ Scheitel- platte” of German embryologists. The other cerebral ele- ments, on the other hand, are primitively behind the stomo- dum, and, in some forms at least, an appendage is developed in connection with each. Thus the antenne belong to the deutocerebral neuromere, while in Anurida Wheeler has shown that the tritocerebral neuromere possesses at an early stage a pair of small appendages, which here, as in all Hexa- pods, is absent from the adult. In the Crustacea, not a few observations go to show some- what similar conditions. We find there a protocerebrum with- out appendages at any stage, followed by a series of ganglia which present many claims to belong to the postoral series. In a paper on the Embryology of Crangon (’89), I claimed that in that form the antennze were primitively postoral,. but since the validity of my observations have recently been questioned by Weldon (’92) and Herrick (’92),' they must be repeated before they can be accepted. Aside, however, from these questionable observations, there are many other facts which go to show that the antennal neuromeres belong to the the postoral rather than to the prestomial series. There is, however, less evidence for this position for that pair of ganglia which exist in the lobster (see Bumpus (’91), pl. XVII, fig. 1), _ between the protocerebral ganglia and the neuromeres of the antenne. It is without appendages, and although its fate has not been traced, it probably becomes fused in the “ cerebrum ” of the adult? This neuromere is, I am inclined to think, also to be regarded as belonging to the same series as that of the antenne, 1 For some remarks upon these criticisms, see my paper (’93), p- 235, foot-note. ? Professor J. P, McMurrich informs me that he has found these deutocerebral gan- glia in the various Isopods (Jara, Oniscus, Porcellio, Armadillidium, etc.) which he has studied. 126 The American Naturalist. [February, In the Arachnids and the Xiphosures, we have evidence of several elements in the “brain.” Both Patten and myself have shown the existence of three pairs of cerebral ganglia in Limulus, in front of the ganglia of the first pair of appendages. Patten finds (90) the same number in the brain of the Scor- pion, as do Locy (’86, pl. XI, fig. 70) and Kishenouyi (90) in Agalena. The copies of Morin’s figures given by Korschelt and Heider (’92, fig. 383 B) seem also to be in full harmony. On the other hand, Schimkewitsch (87, pl. XXI, fig. 3) repre- sents two pairs of ganglia in Epeira in front of the ganglia of the first pair of appendages, while in the diagrammatic figure (pl. XXIII, fig. 5) he apparently indicates four pairs of pre- appendicular ganglia. In other groups of Arthropods I know of no detailed obser- vations which can be used to aid in the enumeration of the neuromeres in the anterior region of the body. If we assume ‘that in the cases of Hexapods, Crustacea, Xiphosures and Arachnids, the neuromeres enumerated above represent the total somites in this region, we may then compare, somite by by somite, these groups in the following manner : HEXAPOD. ARACHNID. XIPHOSURE. CRUSTACEA. fae Neuromere I | No Appendage | No Appendage | No Appendage | No Appendage n IT | Antenna No Appendage | No Appendage | No Appendage “III | Appendage No Appendage | No Appendage Antennula “IV | Mandible Chelicera lst Leg ntenna “Vİ Maxilla Pedipalpus 2d Leg Mandible VI | Labium Ist Leg 3d Leg Maxilla 1 w VIT | Ist Leg 2d Leg 4th Leg Maxilla 2 “ VIII} 2d Leg 3d Leg 5th Leg Maxilliped 1 “IX | 3d Leg 4th Leg 6th Leg Maxilliped 2 waste eee Of course it will be understood that this grouping is limited by our present knowledge, and that at any time discoveries may be made which will overturn it. It is, however, to bè noted that it brings the hinder margins of the thorax of the Hexapoda and of the cephalothorax of Limulus and of the 1894.] eet Classification of the Arthropoda. 127 Arachnids into exact correspondence. In the case of the Crustacea the corresponding line passes behind the third maxilliped of the Decapod. . If it should, however, be shown (as many believe) that the Crustacean metastoma has its own somite, the line will be thrown forward to behind the second maxilliped, and it will correspond to the line of division between the head and thorax of the Edriophthalmia. Since the older ideas of numerical sequence are better known, I have used them in the following discussion rather than that based upon the neuromeres. Thus in the Hexapods somite (or appendage) I=Neuromere II; in the Arachnid and Xipho- sures somite I = Neuromere IV; in the Crustacea somite I = Neuromere III. The morphology of some other organs call for a moments’ consideration. Prominent among these are the vasa Malpighii. These are usually regarded as characteristic of the “Tracheates,” and their presence in the Arachnids has been adduced as a strong argument for their association with the Hexapods. It has been, however, pretty conclusively shown that these organs are not homologous throughout the Arthropod phylum, for in the Hexapod they are derived from the hind-gut, and are therefore ectodermal, while in the Arachnida, as Loman (’86-7) has shown, they are derivatives of the mesenteron and are consequently entodermal. Their similarities are those of homoplassy rather than of homology, and the only argument that can be drawn from the occurrence in these forms is that Arachnids and Hexapods are not closely related. Similar organs with similar functions have been described in various Edriophthalmia, but we are yet in doubt as to their origin. The studies of Spencer (’85) represent them as without chitin- ous intima in the Amphipods. They may, therefore, be ento- dermal. A detailed study of the region of the hind-gut of certain Decapods might give results interesting in this con- nection. The trachee furnished another instance of homoplassy. These organs furnish the chief ground for the group called “Tracheates,” since in most they form the sole means of res- 128 The American Naturalist. [February; piration. Yet these are, in the opinion of many, not homol- ogous. In the Hexapoda they arise, ontogenetically, as in- pushings of the ectoderm of sides of the body, outside and above the line of the insertion of the limbs. Their method of growth, the general structure, etc., all point to their origin, as was pointed out by Chun (’75) from dermal glands which later assumed respiratory functions. The trachee of the Arachnids, on the other hand, have had a different origin. In those forms in which they have been studied, they arise as inpush- ings behind the temporary appendages on the abdomen. There is not a little evidence to show that they have arisen from gills borne on the posterior surfaces of these appendages, as in the Limulus of to-day ; that they have been pushed into the body, taking the form of lung books, a condition perma- nent in all the respiratory organs of the Scorpions and in those . of one or two somites of the Araneina; and then, coincidently with a reduction in the circulatory organs, they have penetra- ted farther and farther into the body. For the details of this process, as well as for the wonderful histological similarity between the embryonic gills of Limulus and lungs of Arachnids the reader is referred to my full paper. The “spiral threads” in the two cases are to be explained as mechanical in origin— corrugations give greater strength without excessively thick- ening the intima. Still, a third type of “trachea” 1s to be be found in the gills of the Oniscid Crustacea. These organs have become adapted for aerial respiration, and, in connection with this change, the organs have been permeated by branches of minute tubes, lined with a chitinous intima, produced by inpushings of the outer body wall. These trachee cannot be regarded by the strongest advocate of the naturalness of the “ Tracheates ” as homologous (i. e., homogenous) with those of the Hexapods. I have made a number of, as yet unpublished, observations on these organs in Porcillio. Leydig described them in detail some years ago (’78). The peculiar structures in the genus Tylos as described by Henri Milne-Edwards (4 : p- 187-8) should be considered in this connection. It is only recently that the existence of nephridia in the Ar- thropoda has been placed beyond a doubt. The earlier students a = ,—2 P} and + P> occur. On three highly modified crystals of phosgenite from Monte Poni, Sardinia Goldschmidt” has discovered the new forms P$ and 3 P$ The distribution of the more common faces seems to point to a trape- zohedral symmetry for the crystals, but no circularly polarizing effects could be detected in them. The axial ratio determined from the mean of the best measurements is a: e= 1 : 1.0888. An analysis of jarosite from the cavities of the auriferous quartzite of the Buxton Mine, Lawrence Co., i D., has been made by Headdon.” His results are: SO, AsO, Fe,0, Ca0 NaO K,O H,O Total 30.29 251 49.28 462 1.57 11.24 = 99.93 SF. Loewinson-Lessing’s: Tables for the Determination of Rock-Forming Minerals. Translated by J. W. Gregory, With a chapter in the ese Microscope. London & N. Y., MacMillan & Co., 1893. Pp. 18A mer. Jan Sci., XLVI, 1893, p. 24. 172 The American Naturalist. February, Three fragments of powellite have been obtained by Koenig and Hub- bard” from the south Hecla copper mine in Houghton Co., Mich. The mineral has a density of 4.349. Its composition was found to be: MoO, WO, CaO MgO _ FeO, SiO, Cu Total 67.84 1.65 27.30 .16 96 1 52 tr = 99.43 Native lead is reported by Kempton” as occurring’ in thin scales and pellets, some of which approach rectangular forms, in a gangue of pyroxene of a pale green color. It is associated with iron oxides and calcite. The location given is near Saric, Sonora, Mexico. Methods and Instruments.—Federow” in a recent article elab- orates a new universal method for the measurement of crystals, sug- gests a new system for crystallographic nomenclature and illustrates a new method of projecting crystal planes, and determining by graphical means their symbols. The universal goniometer used in his investiga- tions is described at length and pictured in detail. The author illus- trates also the application of his method to studies in optical erystallo- graphy. He describes two models of universal microscope stages, constructed for the purpose of enabling the observer to revolve the object under investigation in two directions. The plagioclases ane studied and it is shown that the labor of determining their nature 8 much reduced by the method of work suggested by the author. paper is an important one and and one well worthy of close study. Czapski” suggests the use of the iris diaphragm between a condense of moderate strength and the stage of the microscope for the rapid interchange of parallel and converged light, and also the use of the same appliance in the ocular tube of the instrument for the isolation of the axial figures of very small crystals. G. Friedel” gives a new method for determining the value of the double refraction in thin sections of minerals that seems to be simple in its application. s Goldschmidt” and Jolles” discuss two proposed methods for projec tion of crystal forms. Jolles article is illustrated by five plates and sixty figures. *Ib., XLVI, 1893, p. 356. Science, June 23, 1893, p. 345. *Zeits. f. Kryst., XXI, p.574and XXII, p. 229. Ib. XXII, p. 158. *Bull. Soc. Min. Franc., XVI, p. 19. sib., XXII, p. 20. *Ib., XXII, p. 1. 1894,] Botany. | 173 BOTANY, The Number of Plants.*—It is a question of science, and, if one will, also of reasonable curiosity, to ascertain approximately at least, how many are the plants which live upon the surface of our globe. And, in fact, almost every work of general botany devotes some atten- tion to this subject. It is indeed true that the criterion of “ species” is not equal for all botanists, some having a tendency to reduce, others to multiply (on the ground of very minute differences) the number in existence. The middle criterion of Linneus, however, prevails by great length, which, somewhat improved, predominates in the classical works of De Candolle, Bentham, Hooker, Grenier, Godron, Koch, Asa Gray, Parlatore, Caruel, etc., etc. Admitted, however, some dis- crepancy in this criterion, the effect would be almost insignificant in comparison with the immense number of plants. Without enlarging too much upon the successive increases which the researches of the diligent have brought to the number of plants, I will sum up these results in a chronological table: 500-400 B. C. Hippocrates reckons 234 plants. 310-225 B.C. Theophrastus “ Mo ~ Ti-A D: Dioscorides “ 600 “ 23-79. Pliny : 800 “ 1650. Caspar Bauhin “ 5,266 “ 1704. Ray . 18,655 “ between species and varieties. 1771. Linnzeus (see. Richter Cod. Linn.) reckons 8,551 species, of which 7728 are Phanerogams and 823 Cryptogams. 1807. Persoon (Syn. Plant.) reckons 20,000 species of Phanero- gams. 1819. P. De Candolle (Theor. El.) reckons 30,000 species of Phanerogams. 1524. Steudel (Nom. Bot. I Ed.) reckons 70,000 species of Phanero- ‘gams and Cryptogams. 1841. Steudel (Nom. Bot. II Ed.). reckons 78,000 species of Pha- nerogams. 1845. Lindley (Veg. Kingd.) reckons 79,837 species of Phanero- gams. 1885. Duchartre (Elem. Bot.) reckons 125,000 species, of which 100,000 are Phanerogams and 25,000 are Cryptogams. * By P. A. Saccardo, translated by Roscoe Pound. 174 The American Naturalist. [February, If we wish however to distribute the number of plants according to the principal groups and on the basis of the most recent monographic works, we arrive at the following result: NO. SPEC. Dicotyledons 78,200 See Durand Index Gen. Phan. 1888. Gymnosperms 2,600 where the numbers are taken from Monocotyledons 19,600 | Bentham. and Hooker Gen. Plant. 1862-1883. i Ferus 2,685 See Hook. and Bak. Syn. Filic. 1868-74. Equis. Marsil. Lycopod. 565 See Baker Fern Allies 1887. osses 2,303 See Mueller Syn. Muse. 1849-51. Liverworts 1,641 See Gott. Lind. Nees, Syn. Hep. 1844. Lichens 5,600 See Krempelhuber Gesch. Lich. 1870. ; Fungi 11,890 See Strienz Nom. Fung. 1862. Algae 6,200 See Kutzing Spec. Alg. 1849. Total 131,104 But this number (131,104) is greatly increased by recent and vigor- ous contributions made especially in the vast field of the Cryptogamis in consequence of the improvements made in the microscope and the increased number of observers. In fact, according to Underwood, the American hepaticologist (efr. Bot. Gaz. 1892) from 1844 to the present time the number of. Liverworts by researches made in more regions the world has doubled. And as for the Algae according to my K E colleague, G. B. De Toni, upon documents collected by him and in part published in his admirable Sylloge Algarum, the number of species described up to to-day is distributed as follows : NO. SPEC. Chlorophyceae 2,798 (Syll. Algar. Vol. I, 1889.) Cyanophyceae Phaeophyceae 1,100 * Florideae 2,100 “ Bacillariaceae (Diat.) 5,000 (Syll. Algar. Vol. II et seq.) Characeae 200 Total 12,178 1894.] Botany. 175 Whence it appears that this vast group, too, has doubled since 1849. Then in regard to the Fungi the results obtained in the active and multiplied researches of the last twenty years have surpassed all ex- pectation. The number of species, in fact, reported in Vol. X of my Sylloge Fungorum and which goes to May of the current year, 1892, attains the marvellous sum of 39,663, that is to say, that in thirty years the group of Fungi has almost quadrupled. We should therefore join to Sum’ Total 131,104 (above indicated) For the Liverworts 1,400 For the Fungi 27,773 For the Algae 5,978 and we have 166,255 This sum is deduced from positive data and it is annoying that on the other vegetable groups there is no information summing up the latest additions. However, to judge from the most recent botanical periodicals, as the Botan. J ahresbericht, the Botan. Centralblatt, the Monographiae Phanerogamarun, etc., etc., one cannot deny that the osses' have doubled since 1851 and that the Phanerogams and Ferns have increased almost five per cent.’ Thus we shall have: Sum total preceding 166,255 For the Phanerogams an increase of 5,011 For the Ferns 134 For the Mosses 2,306 Total 173,706 Which sum, then, represents with great approximation the true number of species of plants known up to the present time, that is 105,231 Phanerogams and 68,475 Cryptogams thus distributed : ‘The celebrated bryologist Schimper in the preface to his Synopsis Muscorum 1860- 1876, thought that the Mosses of the whole world, when known, would amount to More than 8,000 species. *The publication of the new and great Nomenclator Plantarum is eagerly awaited, already in part printed at London by the munificence of Darwin. From this one will be able to state exactly the real increase of the Phanerogams in these last years. 176 The American Naturalist. [February, NO. SPEC. Phanerogams 105,231 Ferns 2,819 Equis., Marsil., Lycopod. 565 | Mosses 4,609 Liverworts 8,041 Lichens 5,600 Fungi 39,603 Algae 12,178 Total 173,706 When we consider the many regions which still remain to explore or are imperfectly explored, it is beyond doubt that the number of plants will still increase very greatly. And one may be certain that it will be the number of the cellular Cryptogams which will receive the greater increase, as compared with the higher plants. In fact the per fections of the microscope which permit the convenient study of these most minute productions are, we may say, of yesterday, and the pro digious conquests of these last years, accomplished above all in the field of the Cryptogams are proof of this. But the chief design that moved me to write this short note regards the probable number of Fungi to appear. From a few hundred forms which were known at the beginning of the century we have jum as has been seen, to about 12,000 species in 1862, and to-day we un nearly 40,000 of them. An astonishing progression, which is not explained solely by the increase of investigations, but reveals the enormous and scattered mass of fungous forms. It has been oj" by several botanists that the specific autonomy of many Fungi is 2 founded on a secure basis and that many such species are rather to be considered as “forms of substratum”, that is variations 0 7 species by reason of the different substratum or matrix in which they grow. I do not wish to deny that several admitted species may fn themselves in this situation, but it is to be observed that in beings the most part simple and microscopic the differential characters o be of great importance to our eyes, and hence it is necessary 1 eee slowly before refusing them as good, as one must observe pr their constancy. this After all, on the subject of these suspected forms of substratum, © : is a fact worthy of much consideration, that we very often ne op a n ii the identical living matrix several species of the same gen themselves, most distinct, although related, as happens, ¢- 8» f thesame neipauy 1894.) Botany. 177 genera Sphaerella, Diaporthe, Leptosphaeria, Pleospora, Phoma, ete., ete. If the matrix had acted to modify the characters of Fungi, why should we find mingled together on the same branch, on the same leaf, two Diaporthes, two Sphaerellas, perfectly distinct? I am therefore convinced that a reduction of species will have without doubt to be made, but always with great caution, retaining also on this subject the just precept: melius est distinguere quam confundere. In the number of the Fungi are comprised also the so-called imperfeet forms (Sphaeropsideae, Melanconieae, Hyphomyceteae) which amount to about 10,000 species. These, in the judgment of some mycologists, ought to be excluded from the census of species; but this does not seem just, because, if for some few we know for certain that they form part of the metagenetic cycle of known perfect forms, it is more cer- tain still that of the greatest part we know nothing positively of their metagenesis and are able to suspect that they are permanent forms of which the perfect state either has disappeared, or is wanting or is very rare. Why then should we exclude from the census of fungi beings distinct and constant? We have seen that in only thirty years the number of fungi has in- creased by almost 28,000 species. I may add that an increase of certainly 8,100 species belongs to the brief period from 1882 to 1890 (efr. Suppl. Syl. Fung.) in spite of the fact that my Sylloge Fungorum was published contemporaneously, a repertorium of all the Fungi hitherto described. Now we ask ourselves: to what results will the already well-begun mycological researches lead us when we have ex- tended them to the whole world and to all fungus-bearing hosts? Some example can perhaps enlighten us a little on this journey still to be made. One of the best known regions (although not perfectly) in respect to the Phanerogamic flora more than the Cryptogamie, is with- out doubt the Venetian region. In this, according to the enumeration made by the well known Professor De Visiani in his work of 1869 (Catalogo delle piante vascolari del’veneto) we have 2939 Phanerogams, a number which even to-day remains almost unchanged, For the Cryp- togams we have the accurate work of the G. Bizzozero published | in: 1885 (Flora Veneta Crittogamica, Ven. 1885), where the Venetian Cryptogams amount in all to about 6,000 of which 4,200 are fungi, a number raised now to about 4,800 by the researches of Professors A. N. Berlese, C. Massalongo, ete. If the number of Venetian Phanerogams studied diligently from more than a century ago till our own time could not with new studies increase more than a very small number of species, it is positive that 12 178 The American Naturalist. [February, the number of fungi will increase considerably. In fact the Venetian Hymenomycetes were until now scarcely studied and the interior prov- inces like those of Venezia, Rovigo, Vicenza, Belluno, Udine, which comprise the Alpine region which will give us without doubt a large contribution of new forms, are in a mycological respect almost entirely unexplored. I am therefore convinced that when all the Venetian territory is well explored, we will have at least 7,000 fungi in its Flora, a number which compared to that of the Phanerogams (2,939) sur- passes it by certainly ł}. According to this proportion if we have to- day more than 105,000 Phanerogams in all the world, the fungi in order to exceed them by ł ought to ascend to about 245,000. This calculation cannot be accused of exaggeration when we see that the greatest part of the fungi being parasites, a connection between them and the hosts (for the most part Phanerogams) must necessarily exist. But this is not all. We have rich and accurate repertoria of fungi according to their hosts; as the general one of Westendorp, the one for Venice of Cuboni and Mancini; the very recent one for North America of Farlow and Seymour. A glance at these repertoria shows us at once that there are very many Phanerogams which harbor para- sitic fungi by tens and hundreds many of which are exclusive to them. We have moreover careful monographs of the fungi which grow upon the vine (Pirotta, Thuemen), on the Lemon and Orange (Penzig), on the Mulberry (Berlese). Now the fungi which grow upon the vine are according to the last census of Thuemen (1892) in number 599, those on the lemon and orange 190, those on the mulberry 200. When we consider these hosts as generic groups (Vitis, Citrus, Morus) and caleu- late that for each of these groups alone, on an average, 40 per cent. of the parasitic fungi are exclusive to them (and not wandering oF pam: genous) we have: for the genus Vitis, proper species of fungi 288 Citrus 76 Morus 80 the average of which numbers is 131. Now the genera of greater pl af of Phanerogams being, according to Bentham and Hooker 8,41 ; we reckon 131 fungi proper for each one of these genera, there a ded the huge cypher of 1,102,627 parasitic fungi, to which must be l that of terrestrial and non-parasitic (about 11,000) in all 1,1139% Certainly this number does not appear at all impossible when We ae that the data are taken from genera (Vitis, Citrus, Morus) which a tains few species in comparison with others (e. g. Solanum, 4® h with- Euphorbia) which possess several hundred more of them, whic . 1894.) Botany. ‘179 out any doubt have peculiar fungi. Nevertheless reflecting that sev- ‘eral species or groups of plants are notoriously attacked by a less number of fungi; that in certain regions of the globe, whether because of dryness, or because of the scarce vegetation parasitic fungi are also rare;’ finally that woody natures, as the three taken for data, are habitually more attacked by parasitic fungi than the herbaceous, I believe I shall be held just and in every way conservative in calcula- ting only thirty parasitic fungi, on the average, for each genus of Phanerogams. We have thus 252,510 species of parasitic fnngi, which united to the recorded non-parasitis amount to a total of 263,510. The number of parasites (252,510) divided among all the known species of Phanerogams (105,000) would give us the reasonable number of a lit- tle more than two special fungi for each phanerogamic host, without counting that also the ferns, mosses, liverworts, and even the greater fungi, offer an asylum to not a few fungous parasites. This calculation deduced from the number of fungi for each generic group of Phanerogams accords more than sufficiently with the calcu- lation previously made from the connection of the number of species of Phanerogams and that of fungi in a given area well explored, in a way that makes it appear that the total number of species of fungi, perfect and imperfect, in the whole world ought to ascend at least to the neighborhood of 250,000, that is to say, a little more than six times the number we know to-day. To summarize, we may conclude that the species of plants known and described up to the present time are about 174,000, divided into 105,000 Phanerogams and 69,000 Cryptogams, that is in the lump 50,000 more than were admitted even in recent works. As regards, then, the entire number of species which cloak our globe, by the cal- culations alone which I have previously explained regarding the fun- eous vegetation, I think we shall not go astray in estimating that the Flora of the world when it is completely enough known, will consist of at least 385,000 species of plants (that is, 250,000 fungi and 135,000 species of the other groups). If one wish only to reduce to 15,000 the Species which will appear in these other groups (not fungi) the sum total of plants would ascend to 400,000 species at least. * Mycologic raphy and statistics are still little advanced. However if we see Europe e a ar Da rich in fungi, if we see Argentina and Brazil, Cuba and the United States, Australia and New Zealand, Siberia, Ceylon, and Algiers varyingly but yet always rich in fungi, this signifies that they are liberally diffused at least over à great part of the world. 780 The American Naturalist. [February, When shall we come to know well this enormous number of plants? If since 1824 the sum of plants has jumped from 70,000 according to “Steudel, to the modern sum of 174,000, that is in 68 years we have discovered 104,000 species, to arrive at a problematical 400,000 about -150 more years of research ought to run. Our remote grandchildren will see whether these prophecies are verified, or whether in this we ‘are greatly in error—P. A. Saccarpo. [In Atti Cong. Bot. Int 1892. Translated by Roscoe Pound. ] . New Book on Ferns.—A book on the “Study of the Biology — of Ferns by the Collodion Method,” by Professor G. F. Atkinson of — Cornell University is announced for early publication Tt is to be fully illustrated from original drawings by the author, and will include in | - the descriptive portion a discussion of the development, morphology d anatomy of the gametophytic and sporophytic phases, while a second : part deals with methods of study. The house of Macmillan & (0.8 to bring out the book, which will be looked for with interest by labora- tory botanists.—Cuartes E. Bessey. 1894.] Zoology. 181 ZOOLOGY. Reappearance of the Freshwater Medusa, Limnocodium sowerbii.—Mr. E. Ray Lankester reports finding well-grown speci- mens of Limnocodium sowerbii in the Victoria Regia tank of the Shef- field Botanic Gardens. This jelly-fish was first noticed in 1880 in Re- gent’s Park, to which it had probably been transported from Brazil on the rootlets or leaves of a Pontederia. It was observed from year to year until 1891, when all trace of it was lost, and naturalists gave up the hope of carrying on any further investigation into its life history. Its appearance in Sheffield is accounted for by presuming that some. reproductive germs were attached to the water plants sent from Re- gent’s Park to re-stock the tank in Sheffield, April 4, 1892, and April T, 1893. The curious thing is that in 1892 and 1891 no Limnocodium Were seen in the original source, nor in 1893 except the few sent from Sheffield and placed there by Mr. Sowerby. This beautiful little organism was first studied by E. Ray Lankes- ter, who ascertained the following facts. The jelly-fish appear suddenly each year as early as April or as late 48 August, and remain from five to twelve weeks, when they die down and absolutely disappear. When first seen they are extremely minute, vo of an inch in diameter, and gradually develop to the full size of half aninch in diameter. Of the many hundred specimens examined in successive years, every one without exception were males. They pro- duced abundant motile spermatozoa, but not a trace of egg-cell has ever been found in any one of them. In 1884 Dr. A. G. Bourne described a diminutive polyp, not more than 4 of an inch long, devoid of tentacles which he found adhering to the root filaments of Pontederia in the same tank in which the Limno- codium was discovered. This polyp was supposed to be the “tropho- Some” of the Limnocodium medusa. That this inference was true was Proved Dr. Fowler in 1890, who was fortunate in seeing the little spherical young found floating in the tank, nipped off by a process of transverse fission from the free ends of the minute polyps described by Bourne, The next question, How do the polyps originate? has not yet been answered. They increase by budding, but never form colonies of more than four “ persons.” In Conclusion, the author refers to the remarkable form worked out: 182: The American Naturalist. (February, | by Mr. R. T. Günther during last winter, the Limnocnida tangany- isie, a fresh water jelly-fish from Lake Tanganyika. Individuals of three kinds are described by Mr. Giinther, viz.: males, females, and asexual individuals which produce crops of buds on the manubrium While differing from Limnocodium in most respects, Limnocnida agrees with it in the minute structure of the marginal sense organs, - According to Mr. Lankester no light is thrown by Limnocnida on the problem of the life history of Limnocodium. (Nature, Dee. 7, 1893.) _ The American freshwater hydroid Microhydra ryderii Potts, is sup posed to be a near ally Limnocodium. a Description of a New Genus and Species of Arvicoline Rodent from the United States, Rhoads, Gen. et. sp. 20% — (Lake Kichelos, Kittitas County, Washington.) —AULACoMYS ARVI COLOIDES.— Diagnostic Characters—Skull large, massive, angular; malars parallel. Superior incisors long and slender (about equalling length of nasals), projecting anteriorly, strongly recurved and with flattened faces. A narrow, longitudinal sulcus equally divides the anterior face of each superior incisor, this groove, slightly magnified, showing a clear-cut, well-defined channel. To the naket eye this channel can be detected only on closest scrutiny. First lone molar with six angles on each side, two isolated triangles oD the outer, and three isolated triangles on the inner side. On the inner side ws are made up: 1, an inner posterior angle or shoulder of the anteriot loop; 2, a rounded angle widely separated from the first but a connected therewith by a continuous valley and reaching nearly age from the median line as angle No.3; 3, 4 and 5, large equidisiam™ acute triangles of equal size, much larger and longer than opp outer triangles and separated therefrom by a zigzag median lin e u & amel forming the alternating bases of opposing series of triangles; = A the inner angle of posterior loop. Exteriorly the angles are form as follows: 1. a rounded corner at the outer base of anterior opi asmall angle abutting on the extended valley of auterior p T angle being anterior to plane of angle (No. 2) of the oppo E a rounded angle, widely separated from angle No. 2 of same a s to the extreme posterior deflection of the crescent-like B | w Vi Re: angle No. 3 terminates; this loop is connected by a narro 2 the anterior loop and in like manner with its preceding angle on ; the same side and the two opposing angles, the five angles par d f nected representing the four normally present in the anterior imi | recent Arvicola, Evotomys, Synaptomys, Myodes and Cuniculus; °° 1894.] Zoology. 183 Two triangles of equal size, their bases formed by the median line of enamel connecting the bases of the three larger opposing internal tri- Fi AULACOMYS ARVICOLOIDES, Type. Explanation of Plate.—1. Skull, from above. 2. Same, from below. 3. Exterior of left Mandible. 4. Anterior view of superior Incisors. 5. Crown of right, lower first Molar. (Figs. 1, 2, 3 & 4 x 134 diameters; fig. 5 x 214 diameters). of base of last inner triangle. The molar series are prismatic and non- rooted, Remainder of molar dentition much as in the genus Arvicola. Owing, however, to the greater relative depth and width of the entrant angles in Aulacomys the basal corners of opposing triangles of the lower molar series do not overlap as in Arvicola but stand distinctly upon their respective sections of the median enamel wall. Frontal bones flattened superiorly and lacking trace of supraorbital ridges. Nasals, short, abruptly triangular, terminating posteriorly in a point, very broad anteriorly and deeply notched subterminally. Nasal pro- cess of premaxillary, reaching behind anterior plane of orbits, far be- hind base of nasals and terminating in a slender point. Auditory bul- lae, triangular, narrow, not encroaching on basisphenoid, the tympanic process of the meatus (viewed from below) lying within lateral profile of the brain case. Postpalatal notch acute, terminating the hastate pterygoid fossa, so formed by the contraction of the pterygoids. Con- 184 The American Naturalist. [February _dylar ramus short and heavy with strong posterior shoulder forming a knob at base of condyle, containing the greatly extended root of lower incisor. Coronoid process, stout, erect and triangular. Angle very short and massive. at Pa Body probably stouter than in Arvicola. Tail over half the length of head and body, sparsely and evenly coated with short spines and ter- minated by a well-defined pencil of slender hairs. Feet five-toed, each with five tubercles; claws long and slender. Whiskers pronounced, the longest reaching behind ears. Aulacomys has {the superficial appearance of Arvicola but with a very long and apparently naked tail and heavy whiskers. Cranially, it combines the molar dentition of Arvicola with the incisor dentition of Synaptomys. ` In these very respects, however, it differs from both genera—from Arvicola in the five-angled formation of the anterior sec- tion of the first lower molar, and from Synaptomys in the length, nar- rowness, protrusion and central sulcation of the upper incisors, also in the extension of the roots of the lower incisors far beyond the last molar. The dentition of Aulacomys shows, in the number of angles of the anterior lower molar, an approach to the extinct form, Arvicola (Anap- togonia) hiatidens Cope, from the bone caves of Pennsylvania’ but dif- fers radically from it in the isolation of the triangles. The absence of supra-orbital ridges, the posterior prolongation of the nasal premaxillary processes beyond nasals, the acute post- notch, the shape of the pterygoid fossa and the massiveness of the posterior members of mandible are all, in a greater or less degree, di- agnostic of Aulacomys as distinguished from other Arvicoline genera. Specific characters.—Type, No. 1358; Ad., 2. Col. of S. N. Rhoads, Lake Kichelos, Kittitas Co., Washington [Alt. 8,000 ft.], September, 1893. (Col. by Allan Rupert.) : Description—Characters as decribed for genus. Above, reddish- brown, lined with black. Pelage, basally, everywhere plumbeous. Below, hoary plumbeous, lightest on throat. Upper parts of feet black- ish. Tail very slightly darker above, than below. Ears not promi- nent, well-haired on both sides and with distinct valvular antitragu Whiskers black. $ Measurements (taken in flesh by collector).—Total length 17 tail 70 ; (taken from damp, relaxed skin), hind foot 27; ear 10; pe? 7. 1Proc, Soc. Amer. Philos. 1871, P. 92: ?Millimeters. Ne eae a ee Pe ee eee Poe eae eae Sn eee cee S 1894.) Zoology. 185 _ Skull—Basilar length 29; total length (occipito-nasal) 31; zygo- matic breadth 19; nasal length 9; interorbital constriction 5; inter- parietal breadth 7; interparietal length 4.9; crown length of molar series 7.4; greatest depth of cranium 10.9; length of mandible 20; height of coronoid process 11; ratio of zygomatic breadth to basilar length 65.5; zygomatic breadth to occipito-nasal length 58. The specimen on which the foregoing characters are based was taken near Snoqualmie Pass on the Cascade Mountains. Out of a large series of rodents from this district it is the only specimen of its sub- family. It arrived in the form of a flat skin, reversed, with the skull separate and intact—SamuEL N. RHOADS. Description of a New Perognathus collected by J. K. Townsend in 1834. PEROGNATHUS LATIROSTRIS. Sp. Nov.—Type, No. 694, ad $, Col. of Acad. Nat. Sci. of Phila. ; “ Rocky Mountains, J. K. Townsend ;” Summer, 1834.) Description—(mounted specimen, lacking tail, once preserved in Spirits)—Largest known species of the genus. Upper half of head and body to root of tail, brownish-yellow, interspersed medially with black, spinous hairs, becoming purer brown on sides and bordered laterally from base of nose to tail with a broad ill-defined line of pure ful- vous. No black tips to brown hairs of - back, all hairs being unicolor from root to tip; black hairs coarsest. Pelage long and coarse throughout. Whiskers, . slender, sparse, the longest reaching far behind the ears. Lower parts, feet, forelegs to shoul- der, and inside of hind legs, dirty white. Ears pronounced, rounded, rather sparsely haired, with marked antitragus not higher than broad at base. Hind ears and spot over Perognathus latirostris, Type. eyes fulyous. Hairs of base of tail same ; ealan aien a as under parts all round point of frac- ture, seeming to indicate a unicolor tail. Soles hairless along median line to heel. Cheek pouches very large, external opening of same Stretching from upper incisors half way to forelegs. Skull—(occipital and postero-mastoid region absent) ; cranium deep, slightly arched, as viewed from above, subrectangular ; rostral portion very wide; interparietal bluntly mucronate anteriorly; coronoid pro- 186 The American Naturalist oe cess erect, abruptly recurved near the blunt tip, anterior width of nasals nearly twice that of posterior width ; a broad supraorbital fur- row laterally borders the brain case from the lachrymals to the mas- toid side of parietals, audital bullae separated anteriorly by full width of basi-sphenoid, molariform dentition as in P. paradorus. Measurements—(from mounted specimen); length of head and body 145; hind foot (shrunken), 27; ear from crown, 6. Skull.—total length (approximate) .35; tip of nasals to interparie tal 28.4; base of incisor to anterior tip of audital bullae 18; zygo- matic width (at outer bases of squamosal process of malar) 17.5; in- terorbital constriction 8.8; length of nasals 14; nasal width (near tip) 4.2; nasal width (near base) 2.2; interparietal width 8.2; crown length of upper and lower molar series 4.6; length of median parie- tal suture 5; greatest parietal length (masto-squamosal) 10; length of mandible (inner base of incisors to condyle) 17.4; height of coro noid process from angle 8; greatest depth of cranium 11. The specimen from which the above description is taken was col- lected by J. K. Townsend during his memorable Rocky Mountam journey nearly sixty years-ago. It has been exhibited in the museum of the Academy during the greater part of that period and has lost its tail in the service. The locality given on the present label is only ap- proximate, if correct at all, as an earlier entry of the specimen (prob- ably copied from the original one) in the catalogue gives the epee as “694, Thomomys rufescens, yg., J. K. Townsend, Columbia Rivet This name was, a long while ago, altered to “ Perognathus fasciatus, as the museum label now stands. Probably the person making the last identification changed the given habitat to “ Rocky Mountains” to 8 cord with the habitat assigned to fasciatus by Baird. The specim® was probably taken east of the 34th meridan and south of the 43rd parallel, in Nebraska or Wyoming. It is not impossible that 1t se from a more western region. Its differentiation from its nearest me P. paradoxus, indicates a different faunal habitat from that occup! by the latter. Dr. Townsend makes no mention of the genus Paw nathus in his list of the mammals observed during bis joun does Dr. Bachman, in his supplementary list of novelties publish that the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences. It is possible t the specimen, owing to its mutilated (tailless) condition and being P in alcohol, was hastily overlooked, or classed as a young Geomys catalogue entry implies this), and later on it was mounted as e The specimen is over-stuffed, but does not appear unduly st j iti : laterally. From its appearance and the dimensions of its sku 1894.] Zoology. 187 evidently a larger species than paradoxus, the largest of the genus hitherto known. In many respects, notably of the dentition and gen- eral proportions of the brain case, and in size and coloration, latirostris resembles paradoxus, but is strikingly different in the size and propor- tions of the rostrum and of the interparietal. Owing to the loss of occipital portions I am unable to give the usual ratios for sake of com- parison with Dr. Merriam’s tables. Perognathus latirostris belongs to the paradozus group of the subgenus Chetodipus.—SaMvuEL N.Rwoape Zoological News.—Mo..usca.—The experiments in oyster cul- ture carried on at Roscoff, France, have been extremely satisfactory. In a communication addressed to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, M. de Lacaze Duthiers gives a detailed statement of what has been ac- complished. The spat were planted in a closed fish pond so situated that at high tide the sea water could find entrance. The young oysters grew rapidly, and in three years, that is to say the fourth year of their age, they were well grown and fine in flavor. During this year, young were produced in large quantities, thus settling the question of the age for reproduction in the oyster. (Péches Maritimes, T. I, 1893.) ArTHRopopa.—Mr. Walter Faxon reports 105 new species of Crustacea, some of which represent new genera, in the collection ob- tained by Mr. Agassiz in the dredging carried on by the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer, “ Albatross,” off the west coast of Central America and Mexico and in the Gulf of California, during 1891. (Bull. Harvard Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XXIV, 1893.) According to Dr. C. O. Porat, the Syrian Myriopods collected in 1890 by Dr. Barrois comprises 19 species, many of which are new, dis- tributed among 10 genera. In its general aspect this Syrian fauna re- sembles that of southern Europe and northern Africa, being interme- diate in its characteristics. The species are described and figured in Revue Biologique, Nov., 1893. VERTEBRATA.—The report of the U. S. Fish Commission for 1889- 91 contains a review of the Sparoid fishes of America and Europe, by D. S. Jordan and B. Fesler. The family comprises about 55 genera and some 450 species, all valued as food, chiefly inhabiting the shores of warm regions. The authors consider the group closely allied to the Serranide on the one hand, the genus Xenistius being very close to the Serranoid genus Kuhlia; on the other hand, Scorpis, Cyphosus, etc., approach the Chetodontidae. Of the 12 subfamilies into which the 188 The American Naturalist.’ [February, group is divided, 3 are exclusively American, and 2 are confined to the Old World. M. Leon Vaillant describes a new genus of fishes from the Caroline Islands of which there are now two individuals at the Paris Museum. This fish resembles Fierasfer of Cuvier, but differs from it in the size of the dorsal fin, and more particularly in the character and position of its scales. In the Caroline genus the scales are distinctly separate, large in proportion and form a sort of network with lozenge-shaped meshes over the body; they are not imbricated, but merely touch, end forend. It is this singular arrangement of the scales that leads Mr. Vaillant to create a new species to which he refers these fish with the ` specific name Rhizwketicus carolinensis. (Revue Scientifique, Dee. 1893.) A list of the Mammals of Rio Grande de Sul published by Dr. Herman von Ihering shows the following distribution : Marsupialia 11; Diplarthra 8; Cetacea 2; Edentata6; Glires 24; Chiroptera 17; Carnivora 19; Pinnipedia 2; Quadrumana 3. (Rio Grande de Sul, 20, IV, 1892.) From certain cranial and dental peculiarities, Mr. C. Hart Merriam considers the Yellow Bear of Louisiana a species distinct from Ursus americanus Pallasand U. horribilis Ord. He gives a description based on five skulls from Morehouse Parrish, Louisiana, and claims for it the name U. luteolus, given by Griffith in 1821. (Proceeds. Biol. Soe. Wash., Dec., 1893.) He thinks it is the Cinnamon Bear of Audubon and Bachman, but of this there is much doubt, Two new species are added to the list of Mammals from East Africa, a dormouse, Eliomys parvus, closely resemblingj E. kellenii, and a mouse Mus tana, allied to M. musculus. Both species are described by Mr- Frederick True in the Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., 1893. 1894 ] - Entomology. 189 ENTOMOLOGY. North American Proctotrypidæ.—Mr. Wm. H. Ashmead furnishes in his Monograph of North American Proctotrypide, one of the most important of recent descriptive works on American insects. . In preparing the 457 pages of his text the author has had ample opportu- nities to work up our rich Proctotrypid fauna, studying in addition to the various American collections those of the Royal Museum of Berlin. Mr. Ashmead believes that the Proctotrypidæ are more closely allied to the Chrysidide and Cynipide than to the Chalcidide, next to which they are so commonly placed. He would separate the Mymarine as a distinct family allied to the Chalcids. The lives of adult Proctotrypids are of short duration, not longer than four or five days in confinement, though probably longer under natural conditions. They occur in a great variety of situations, the favorite resorts of some being moist places where vegetation is luxuri- ant and insect larve abundant ; others are found along the borders of woods or in the open fields; still others frequent fungi, and some occur in ant’s nest. Comparatively few are found on flowers. “There is scarcely any doubt but that many of the wingless forms to be found in various genera of this family are only dimorphic forms of winged species, although comparatively little is postively known on the subject.” The eggs of these insects are “ ovate or oblong in shape, with a more or less distinct peduncle at one end, and agree well in gen- eral with many in the family Ichneumonide, although those in the subfamily Platygasterinz, on account of the longer peduncle, more closely resemble those in the family Cynipide.” The larve are inter- nal feeders, and in pupating plan for a protection of some kind. “The Proctotrypide are apparent widely distributed over the whole world, although outside of Europe little is known of the exotic forms, and it is not possible therefore to generalize upon the genera and their distribution. From an examination of various exotic collections of Hymenoptera, it is safe to predict the species will be found to be numerous and widely distributed, but far less numerous than the Chal- cidide ; judging from my own collecting I should say less than one- fiftieth in number. Only a small percentage of the species is yet described.” The affinity of North American forms with those of “Edited by Prof. C. M. Weed, Durham, N. H “Bull. 45, U. S. Natl. Museum, Washington, 1893. ` 190 The American Naturalist. [February, Europe is shown by the way they fit into established European genera. South American species have required the erection of many new gen- era. A large number of new species are described in the present mono- graph, which concludes with a full Bibliography and eighteen original plates illustrating structural details of members of the various gen- era. Peculiar Oviposition ofan Aphid.—During the autumn of 1890 I found a species of Phyllaphis on beech in central Ohio, the oviparous form of which agrees with Buckton’s short description and figure of P. fagi. I presume that it is that species, but do not think the present evidence justifies a definite reference to that effect. The colonies were found on the underside of the leaves, with more or less floceulent mat ter about them. The sexed forms developed during October, and the oviparous females wandered over the bark of the twigs, limbs, and trunk in search of crevices in which to deposit their eggs. When a Fig. 1.— Phyllaphis of beech: a, oviparous female, magnified ; 4, head and antenna of same, greatly magnified; c, egg on bark, magnified. position by suitable place is found the egg is laid, and then driven into hind legs the following method: The insect so places itself that its oo easily touch the egg, then standing on its four front ones it bragr th two hind ones down upon the egg in rapid succession, striking = considerable force. This serves the double purpose of pushing ga in place, and of drawing out a viscid secretion, with which it is cove into a thread-like, silvery film, that so resembles the surrounding bar that it isdifficult to detect it. I watched an oviparous louse go th p this process for about a minute and a half.—C. M. Weed in Trans : Ent. Society, November, 1893. 1894.) Entomology. 191 Pupal Development and Color in Imago.—Discussing the recent experiments of Merrifield in which lepidopterous pupe were submitted to various temperatures and the results on the imagoes noted, Mr. J. W: Tutt briefly recapitulates’ the well-known facts of histolysis and continues thus: “If we apply the simplest elementary laws relat- ing to vital force to the pupa, we shall find that the following facts hold good :—(1). The pupa when first formed has a certain amount ofinherent vital force by means of which both the processes of histoly- sisand rehabilitation are carried on in it. (2). That pupa which has the nearest approach to the normal amount of vital force will undergo the most perfect histolysis and rehabilitation, and will produce an imago most nearly conforming to what is known as the normal type, that is the type produced under the most healthy and satisfactory con- ditions. Conversely that pupa whose amount of vital force is farthest removed from the normal (whether in excess or in defect) is one in which histolysis and rehabilitation will be least perfect, and the imago produced will be the farthest removed from the normal type. (3). That individual which has been best fed and which had enjoyed the most perfect health in the larval stage, will enter pupal life under the most satisfactory conditions and will (the pupal conditions being equally satisfactory) emerge therefrom as the best specialized product, whilst the converse to this must also be true. “The second point also deals with an elementary principle. The vital force in the pupa is converted into energy ; the energy at the dis- posal of the pupa is most probably directed first to the building up of the vital reproductive organs, and afterward to the secondary organs or tissues or such as are not necessary to life. Therefore an excess of energy in a pupa will be expended as a rule on secondary structures rather than on vital ones, and we find that a weak or diseased pupa fails first in regard to non-vital tissues, such as pigment, scales, wing- membrane, etc. “The females of insects, as compared with the males require an excess of energy for those structures necessary to the reproduction of the species ; they, therefore, have a smaller surplus to devote to the for- Mation of the non-vital tissues, and as we well know frequently fail very markedly in their development of these. : “ We are now in a position to understand that as a general rule pig- ment, scales, etc., are produced in proportion to the amount of material and energy available for the purpose, "The Entomologist’s Record, 1V, 312. 192 The American Naturalist. [February, “These and other general principles have to be considered when we attempt to discuss the results which Mr. Merrifield produces by his temperature experiments. ; * * * “Tf now we apply these principles what do we find? Insects which are allowed to pass through their changes at the normal temper- ature produce the form which is normal for the district ; that is they undergo the normal processes of histolysis and of rehabilitation, and in a state of health have at their disposal the energy requisite to give them their ordinary wing expanse, scaling and color. Now what does Mr. Merrifield do in his experiments? He subjects the pupa to a low temperature. This of necessity lowers the vitality of the pupa and s0 lessens the available energy. The insect therefore does not develop under normal conditions, and an abnormality is the result. The insect must use what energy it has to build up its vital organs, and fails in building up perfectly its secondary tissues—color, scales, wing mem- brane, and fails-to in direct proportion to the degree in which the vitality is lessened. Below a certain temperature during the period of active development the vital force ceases to act at all, and the result 18 death. Heat, greater than that to which the insect is normally sub- jected, instead of lowering the vitality to the lowest ebb at which life can be sustained, affects the histolysis and rehabilitation in a directly opposite manner. Under its influence the vital processes are carried on at express speed. Energy is expended at the fastest rate possible, and the tissues are formed without having sufficient time to mature #8 i they would under normal conditions, the surplus material is rapidly utilized, with the result that as marked an abnormality is produc under the one condition as under the other, although in an opposite direction. ” ntomolo- Studying Insect Histories.—That the pursuits of the e pont i gists are not always so delightful as the chasing of June butte x shown by the following extract from a paper recently read by Mr. To O. Howard before the Association of Economie Entomologists: j gain the clearest and most accurate idea of a life history, the insect m be studied under perfectly natural conditions, and not under pee which more or less imperfectly simulate the natural ones. There 1s? easy road to the most perfect knowledge of habits. It involves yer ing through mud and bramble patches; it involves the contan» of of sunstroke, and in our southern country the constant pe Leptus and Ixodes (itch-mites and ticks) ; it involves constant W pa ing and watching and watching, astride the small limb af a fruit 1894.] Entomology. 193 perhaps, on your back under bushes, on your knees in the wheat-field, on your stomach in the pasture, with your face down close to a cow dropping, and with the summer sun beating down upon your unprotected head, watching and watching until the eyes grow dim; but in this way only are the unsolved problems in the life histories of injurious insects most satisfactorily worked out. Biology of the Apple Aphis.—The common Aphis of the apple ` (A. mali) has for many years puzzled entomologists by its summer his- tory. During June, usually, winged viviparous females leave the apple and disappear. In September other similar forms return to ap- ple and give birth to the oviparous females which deposit the eggs on the twigs. In a paper on the insect foes of American cereals read at the recent meeting of the Association of Economic Entomologists, Mr. F. M. Webster of the Ohio Experiment Station gave a clue to the summer history in the following paragraph : “It would appear almost. visionary to advocate spraying apple orchards in midwinter to protect the wheat crop, but nevertheless one of the most serious enemies of young fall wheat passes its egg stage on the twigs of apple during the winter season. I refer to the Apple Leaf-louse (Aphis mali Fabr.), Soon after the young wheat plants appear in the fall, the winged viviparous females of this species flock to the fields, and on these give birth to their young, which at once Apple Aphis; wingless viviparous female. Magnified. make their way to the roots, where they continue reproduction, sapping the life from the young plants. On very fertile soils this extraction of the sap from the roots has no very serious effect, but where the soil is ‘Not rich, especially if the weather is dry, this constant drain of vitality soon begins to tell on the plants. Though they are seldom killed out right these infested plants cease to grow, and later take on a sickly 13 | 194 The American Naturalist. [February, look, and not until the Aphis abandons them in the autumn to retum to the apple, do they show any amount of vigor.” This leaves the summer period still unaccounted for, but in the dis- cussion which followed Mr. Webster’s paper, Dr. C. V. Riley stated that he had “ for a number of years known that this species had a sum- mer existence on various grasses. ”* Nematodes in Cecidomyia.— g pig Pror. V. LATHAM DS E n S, ae be University, S S.A. FREDERICK GAERTNER A. M. M. dei "Biusburg U. Fi STEVENSON BROWN, ‘reside Mionifeat Ñi Soc., Me r baai ILANDRO VICENTINI, , Chieti, Italy. The following are a portion of the Contents for January, 1893. Polarised Light, and its Application to the y ewezde IR ) G. H. Bryan, M. A. The Microscope and Its Accessories. (Illustrated. ) ’ The] Edito A Device to take the place of the Camera Lucida in S midea o eae ) H. G. Piffard, M. D. A orap hal Month by the Mediterranean. G. H. Bryan, M. A. ing Tissues and: Sections of Tissues in Water. J. W. Plaxton, M. D., Jamaica. Preparing Socios of Teeth for Histology and Bacteriology. Prof. V. A. "Latham. Selected Notes from the Postal Micro. Soc. Note pe (Illustrated.) otes. eries. Correspondence. Reviews, e Subscription, United States and ake $2.75 the year, post free. Agent: M. A. BOOTH, F. R. M. S., LONGMEADOW, MASS. g amana PLASTER CASTS OF THE FOLLOWING MAMMALIA with dentition in good preservation, made under direction of Professor E. D. Cope may be had by application to Jacob Geisman, 2102 Pine St., Philadelphia. Phenacodus primaevus Cope, (Wyoming) $100.00. 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HOTCHKIN, M.-A., is ee of of “ Mornings of the- as “History of Germ antown,” ` This eee from Ris- ‘ing Sun Philadelphia to New Hope on the Delaware is carefully treat- ae particularly fitted for the pages. with numerous hoas illustrating the points of historic interest and of natural and arti- i ficial mey ‘THE ABLEST L dip, Apri Kvt roe. 2 ed by the author whose wide èx- < perience in historical work renders $13.00 f Littell’s Living Age, one year, | ment of Leading educators and of a year, ie of postage. Has stood Peerless in the Best ie of ; al pepe hak te e. tsi labs them ‘in, every mt sé ent, is Biography. 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THIRTEENTH STS., PHILA. and AMERICAN ATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED. TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. MANAGING EDITORS: Prors. E. D. COPE, sete AND Sy. S. KINGSLEY, Boston. SSOCIATE EDITORS: WHITMAN, Chicago, Dr. E E BESSEY, Lin , Neb., H. C. MERCER, apeo an WEE DREWS, Baltimore, D, Durbam, N. H., ~ Pror. W.S. BAYLEY, PRALE Mains: Pror. E, A. AN Pror. W. H. HOBBS, Madison, Wis. MARCH, 1894. CONTENTS. TERT PAGE. | hag EVOLUTION. £. D. Cope. 205. | of ~ Madagascar—Antenne in Trilobites — Devel- ATION OF THE ARTHROPO | opment of the Brachial Supports 10 a Geological! News—Mesozoic—Cenozoic. 263 - 3 i go DA. Knet 22 itability of Noctiluca— The e d among the Ants—Zoolo A JOTE ON THE News, Mollusca—Urochorda—Memmalia. . , OF THE Region. ` (Illustrated. ) la seas dame E and the Formation of- ‘ J. B.. 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In considering the dynamics of organic evolution, it will be convenient to commence by considering the claims of Natural Selection to include the energy which underlies the process. - That Natural Selection cannot be the cause of the origin of new characters, or variation, was asserted by Darwin;' and this - opinion is supported by the following weighty considerations. (1) A selection cannot be the cause of those alternatives from which it selects. The alternatives must be presented before the selection can commence. (2) Since the number of variations possible to organisms is very great, the probability of the admirably adaptive structures _ which characterize the latter having arisen by chance is extremely small. (3) In order that a variation of structure shall survive, it is: necessary that it shall appear simultaneously in two individ- uals of opposite sex. But if the chance of its appearing in one individual is very small, the chance of its appearing in two individuals is very much smaller. But even this concurrence : of chances would not be sufficient to secure its survival, since It would be immediately bred out by the immensely prepon- : ` Origin of Species, Ed. 1872, p. 65. 14 206 The American Naturulist. [March, derant number of individuals which should not possess the variation. (4) Finally, the characters which define the organic types, so far as they are disclosed by paleontology, have commenced as minute buds or rudiments, of no value whatsoever in the struggle for existence. Natural Selection can only effect the survival of characters when they have attained some func- tional value. : In order to secure the survival of a new character, that is, of a new type of organism, it is necessary that the variation should appear in a large number of individuals coincidentally and successively. It isexceedingly probable that that is what has occurred in past geologic ages. We are thus led to look for a cause which affects equally many individuals at the same time, and continuously. Such causes are found in the chang- ing physical conditions that have succeeded each other in the past history of our planet, and the changes of organic function necessarily produced thereby. 2 BATHMOGENESIS. If we view the phenomena of organic life from the stand- ‘point of the physicist, the first question that naturally arises m the mind is as to the kind of energy of which it is an exhibi- tion. Ordinary observation shows that organic bodies perform molar movements, and that many of them give out heat. : smaller number exhibit emanations of light and electricity. Very little consideration is sufficient to show that they include among their functions chemical reactions, a conviction which is abundantly sustained by researches into the physiology of both animals and plants. The phenomena of growth are also evidently exhibitions of energy. The term energy is used to express the motion of matter, and the building of an embryo to maturity is evidently accomplished by the movement z matter in certain definite directions. The energy Whi accomplishes this feat is, however, none of those which chat- acterize inorganic matter, some of which have just been men- tioned, but, judging from its phenomena, is of a widely differ- ent character. If we further take a broad view of the general 1894.) The Energy of Evolution. 207 process of progressive evolution, which is accomplished by successive modifications of this growth-energy, we see further reason for distinguishing it widely from the inorganic energies. It is customary to distinguish broadly between inorganic and organic energies, as those which are displayed by non-liy- ing and living bodies. This classification is inexact, since, as already remarked, nearly all of the inorganic energies are exhibited by living beings. A division which appears to be, with our present knowledge, much more fundamental, is into the energies which tend away from, and those which tend towards, the phenomena of life. In other words, those which are not necessarily phenomena of life, and those which are necessarily such. And the phenomena of life here referred to are the phenomena of growth and evolution, as distinguished from all others. I have termed? these classes the Anagenetic, which are exclusively vital, and the Catagenetic, which are physical and chemical. The Anagenetic class tends to upward progress in the organic sense; that is, toward the increasing control of its environment by the organism, and toward the origin and development of consciousness and mind. The Catagenetic energies tend to the creation of a stable equilib- rium of matter, in which molar motion is not produced from within, and sensation is impossible. In popular language the one class of energies tends to life; the other to death. That the Catagenetic energies whether physical or chemical, tend away from life is clear enough. Thus molar motion unless continuously supplied, or directed by a living source, speedily ceases, being converted by friction into heat, which is dissipated. And were we to suppose a case where friction is non-existent, motion would remain molar, and no phenomena of organic life would result, and sensation could not arise. The same is true of molecular movements under the same con- ditions. Chemical reactions, which are fundamental in world- building, result in the production of solids and the radiation of heat. The most familiar example, that of oxydation, Presents us with the case of a gas becoming a liquid *The Monist Chicago, 1893, p. 630. 208 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, or a solid with the evolution of heat. The endothermic reac- tion, where matter undergoes a change of molecular aggrega- tion the reverse of that just mentioned, with the absorption of heat, as in the case of several hydrogen compounds, is rare in nature, where free from organic complications, and is generally soon reversed by further reactions. Finally cosmic creation involves the perpetual radiation of heat into space, and the gradual reduction of all forms of matter to the solid state. In the anagenetic energies, on the other hand, we have a process of building machines, which not only resist the action of catagenesis, but which press the catagenetic energies into their service. In the assimilation of inorganic substances they elevate them into higher, that is more complex compounds, and raise the types of energy to their own level. In the devel- opment of niolar movements they enable their organisms tọ escape many of the destructive effects of catagenetic energy, by enabling them to change their environment; and this is espe- cially true in so far as sensation or consciousness is present to them. The anagenetic energy transforms the face of nature by its power of assimilating and recompounding inorganic matter, and by its capacity for multiplying its individuals. In spite of the mechanical destructibility of its physical basis (protoplasm), and the ease with which its mechanisms are destroyed, it successfully resists, controls, and remodels the catagenetic energies for its purposes. The anagenetic power of assimilation of the inorganic sub- stances is chiefly seen in the vegetable kingdom. Atmospherlé air, water and inorganic salts furnish it with the materials 4 its physical basis. Then from its own protoplasm it elaborates by a catagenetic retrograde metamorphosis, the mostly non nitrogenous substances, as wood (cellulose), waxes, oils ani alkaloids, and it may take up inorganic substances and deposit them without alteration in its cells. Many of the compounds elaborated by plants and animals have been manufactured © latter time by chemists. The discovery that the living organit is not necessary for the production of these substances has Jed to the hasty conclusion that the supposed distinction b “organic” and “inorganic” energy does not exist. But the 1894,] The Energy of Evolution. 209 elaboration of these substances is not accomplished by anage- netic or “ vital” energy, but by a process of running down of the higher compound protoplasm, which is catagenesis. No truly anagenetic process has yet been imitated by man. All forms of functioning of organs, except assimilation, repro- duction and growth, are catagenetic. That is, functioning consists inm the retrograde metamorphosis of a nitrogenous organic substance or proteid with the setting free of energy. The proteid is decomposed in the functioning tissue into carbon dioxyd, water, urea, etc., and energy appears in the muscle as contraction, in the glands as secretion, and in all parts of the body as heat. The general result of physiologic research is, that the decomposition of the blood is the source of energy, while the tissue of each organ determines the character of that energy. That the tissue itself suffers from wear, and requires repair, is also true, but to a less extent than was once supposed. In the anagenetic process of the growth of the embryo the case is different. Here the processes of functioning of organs are in complete abeyance, the nutritive substance is not entirely broken down in chemical decomposition, but it is in great part elaborated into tissues and organs. All the mechanisms necessary to the mature life of the individual are constructed by the activity of the special form of energy known as growth-energy or Bathmism. It is the modifications of this energy which constitute evolution, and it is these to which we will hereafter direct our attention. Its simplest exhibition is the subdivision of a unicellular protoplasmic body into two or more individuals or structural units of a multicellular organism. Further division of the latter does not abolish theindividual, but extends it, and we now observe the elaboration of different structural types to become a conspicuous function of this form of energy. In other words a once simple energy becomes specialized into specific energies, each of which, once estab- lished, pursues its mode of motion in opposition to all other modes not more potent than itself. Besides the evident truth ` of the proposition than a mode of building is a mode of motion, we have another very good reason for believing in the existence 210 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, of a class of bathmic or growth-energies. This is found in the phenomena of heredity. The most rational conception of this inheritance of structural characters is the transmission of a mode of motion from the soma to the germ-cells. This is a far more conceivable method than that of the transmission of particles of matter, other than thé ordinary material of nutri- tion. The bathmic theory of heredity bears about the same relation to a theory of transmission of the pangenes of Darwin, or the ids of Weismann, as the undulatory theory of light and other forms of radiant energy does to the molecular theory of Newton. I have therefore assumed asa working hypothesis the existence of the bathmic energy, and will enquire how far the facts in our possession sustain it. In doing so it will be neces- sary to elaborate the theory so as to render clearer its applica- tion to specific cases. The fact to be accounted for is its spe cialization into so many diverse specific forms. A further indication of the existence of the bathmic energy is the quantitative limitation to which growth is obedient. Thus the successive stages of embryonic growth are limited in number in each species. The dimensions of many species are limited within a definite range. The duration of life, or of the functioning organic machine, has a definite limit in time. Al this means that a certain limited quantity of energy is at the disposal of each individual organism. In “ The Origin of the Fittest,” I have endeavored to show what causes have been and are efficient in the production of different types of organic life, through the modifications of the bathmic energy. We will now briefly consider to the question of the origin of the living substance, protoplasm or sarcode, which exhibits bathmism. m vital should spontaneous generation of living organisms from inorganl¢ matter. Further, the principle of continuity leads us W ins that the energy which produced organic matter must y _ tical with or allied to that which is the efficient agent in PF 1894.] The Energy of Evolution. 211 gressive evolution of organisms, and is, therefore, anagenetic. Such a conclusion may seem to lead to a dualism which is itself opposed to the principle of continuity or uniformity, and which is opposed to experience of the phenomena of energy in general. How is uniformity to be harmonized with the hypothesis of two types of energy acting in different directions, apparently in opposition to each other? Since facts and logic do not support the derivation of the anagenetic from the inorganic energies, can the reverse process, the derivation of the cata- genetic from the anagenetic be and have been the order of nature? In support of this hypothesis, we have the universal ~ prevalence of the retrograde metamorphosis of energy in both the inorganic and organic kingdoms. Phenomena of structural degeneracy are well known in the organic world, and purely chemical phenomena in both organic and inorganic processes are all degenerate. It appears then much more probable that catagenesis succeeds anagenesis as a consequence, and does not precede it as a cause. In other words, it is more probable that death is a consequence of life, rather than that the living is a product of the non-living. I have therefore given to that energy which is displayed by the plant in the elaboration of living from now living matter the name of anti- chemism! ‘Thus while the heat of the sun is necessary to the building of protoplasm, within a certain range of temperature, this form of energy has its opportunity. In order to present more clearly the views enunciated in the preceding pages, I give a synoptic table of energies. I Anagenetic Organic gree ge Exclusively | Neurism. 3 organic Myism. II Catagenetic ons Sino PoP Inorganic 4 Cohesion. \ Gravitation. 3 Tue Forms or BATHMISM. The innumerable structures which are due to the activity of Bathmisms may be supposed to result from the composition of American Naturalist, 1884, p. 979. Origin of the Fittest, 1887, p. 431. 212 The American Naturalist. [March, this energy with others which are present in the organism or in the environment, or both. Ryder has called the exhibition of growth energy Ergogenesis,‘ and he calls attention to the fact that it appears under two aspects. In the first, Ergogenesis is due to mechanical causes resident in the organism exclusively, and it expresses the sum of the bathmic energy inherited from the parents of the growing organism. To this conservative ex- pression of Bathmism he gives the name of Statogenesis. In the second aspect of Ergogenesis, the course of growth (onto- geny) is determined by motion from sources external to the germ cell. It is this which modifies ontogeny and produces those changes of structure which constitute Evolution. To this aspect of growth I have given the name Kinetogenesis’ As Statogenesis expresses simple growth force, and Kinetogenesis the additional growth, which is evolution, the latter is chiefly considered here. Kinetogenesis is of two kinds; viz., the changes in growth which are due to the interference of molecular energies only, and those which are due to molar movements. The former type of evolutionary growth I propose to call Physiogenesis; and I propose to restrict the term kinetogenesis to the latter class. To the total evolutionary energy or energies due to external interference, the Kinetogtnesis of Ryder, I propose to apply the term Bathmogenesis. The relation of these modes, an their corresponding names may be expressed as follows: Statogenesis Bathmogenesis. Physiogensis. Ergogenesis { Kinetogenesis. Statogenesis, I shall hereafter endeavor to show, is an auto- matic product of Bathmogenesis. ` h The first step in the order of Bathmogenetic action 1s ie effect of stimuli on an animal which is no longer protected bY the parent or by parental products (egg-shell) as an a Changes may be effected in the weight, color, and in function * Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc. 1893, p. 194. es ° Origin of the Fittest, 1887, p. 423. Statogenesis and Kinetogenesis are eq valents of my Growth Force and Grade Growth Force, Proceeds. Amer. 1871, p. 258. 1894.] _ The Energy of Evolution. 213 capacity by temperature, humidity, food, ete., thus exhibiting physiogenesis. Or changes in the size and form of parts of the body may be produced by movements of the organism, or of its environment, so displaying Kinetogenesis. So long as these modifications of structure should be confined tothe individuals thus modified, there would be no evolution. A second genera- tion, if not subjected to the same stimuli, would not possess , the modifications; and their possession of them would depend entirely on the amount of stimulus. In other words there would be no accumulation of modification. It has, however, been generally believed that these modifications are inherited, and I think it can be shown that this belief rests on a solid basis. Meanwhile I call the Bathmogenesis which does not extend beyond the generation in which it appears, auto- bathmogeny. The quantitative relation which necessarily exists between Bathmism and its sources may be expressed as follows, with due recognition of the fact that such expression does not rest upon any experimental tests. Statogenesisis work done in the construction of tissues like those of the parent and without inter- ference. Here we have the molecular energy of the parent (either as protozoon or odsperm) temporarily converted in part into the molar movements observed to be concomitants of seg- mentation; to be represented in the completed tissue by the mutual tensions by virtue of which each structural element maintains its integrity. It is evidently a process of metamor- phosis of energy in which there is less waste than in any other known tous. Embryonic growth is accompanied by a very slight dissipation of heat, though a slight rise of temperature is noticeable in the eggs of cold-blooded animals and in flow- ers, when reproduction is active. The products of breaking down are equally rare in embryonic growth, and both this and the dissipation of heat are evidently largely due to the changes wrought in non-cleavable nutritive substances with which the yolks are sometimes charged. It is probably to accomplish this process that the oxygen necessary for the embryonic growth is used. How much loss is due to cell division itself 214 ` The American Naturalist. [March, is not known, but it must be very little if any. We have here a nearly perfect conversion of energy. Theoretically we have anagenesis wherever the up-building exceeds the down-break- ing. The attempt to realize in the imagination the modus oper- andi of bathmic energy in embryo building takes the follow. ~ ing form. It is to be supposed that movement which has been most frequently repeated, and for the longest period, is prepo- tent, and takes precedence of all others. This is clearly sim- ple cell division, which follows the nutrition supplied by the spermatozo6n, and which represents the first act of animal life. Hence, segmentation of the odsperm is the first movement of bathmism. Each subsequent movement appears in the order of potency, which is, other things being equal, a time order, or the order of record. The cause of the localization of tissues and structures is much more difficult to understand than the cause of the order of their appearance. The more energetic part of the process naturally requires the greater space for its products. The ectoderm, which becomes the seat of the ner- vous axis and its muscular adjuncts, occupies the superficial portions of the yolk. Hence, we may regard this expression of the structural record of these functions as more energetic than that of the record structure of the nutritive functions, which displays itself below the ectoderm. In meroblasti¢ and amphiblastic embryos, the segmentation which develops the nutritive tissues is evidently more sluggish, for the cells are larger and fewer in number than those of the ectoderm. Can this difference in the segmentations which produce the ectoderm and the endoderm be due to a certain polarity; the male or energetic tendency predominating in the former, an the female in the latter? External stimuli modify the course of statogeny above de- scribed, and by producing new structural records cause à es form of energy, due to composition of the new with the mp and the process of growth then becomes bathmogeny: ~., external stimuli are molecular or molar, determining physic: bathmism or kinetobathmism. 1894.] The Energy of Evolution. 215 The effect of motion or use on the soma may be conven- iently termed autokinetogenesis. Moderate use of a muscle is known to increase its size. Irritation of the periosteum is known to cause deposit of bone. - Friction and pressure of the epithelium increases its quantity or changes its form. Increased activity of the functions of nervous tissues increases their relative pro- portions, as in the enlargement of nerves which replace others which are interrupted by mutilations, etc. On the other hand, it is equally well known that disuse produces diminution of muscular tissue, and through it, a reduction in the quantity of the harder tissue (bone, chitin, etc.) to which it is attached, (as muscular insertions, etc.). It was the observation of such well-known phenomena as these that led Lamarck to advance his doctrine of evolution under use and disuse, and which has led many others to give their adherence to such a view. Thus much for cell-growth. Another class of modifications of a similar kind may be found in the parts of an organism which consist of a complex of cells, or tissues. Thus the lumen of a small artery is enlarged under the influence of pressure when it is compelled to assume the function of a larger vessel through the interruption of the latter. A part of an internal or external skeleton which is fractured will form an artificial joint at the point of fracture, if the adjacent surfaces are kept in motion. Marey (Animal Mechanism pp. 88-89) says “ After dislocations the old articular cavities will be filled up and dis- appear, while at the new point where the head of the bone is actually placed, a fresh articulation is formed, to which noth- ing will be wanting in the course of a few months, neither articular cartilages, synovial fluid, nor the ligaments to retain the bone in place.” I have given some illustrations of this fact,’ which have come under my observation, and which have an important bearing on the origin of the articulations of the vertebrate skeleton as I have traced them throughout geolog- ical time. I have as I think conclusively shown that these varied structures have been produced by impacts and strains, which are concomitants of the movements of the animals, act- ing through long periods of time” I have also proposed the Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc. 1892, p. 285. Te age Origin of the Hard parts of the Mammalia, Amer. Journal of Morpho- Origin of the Fittest, 1887, pp. 305-373. 216 The American Naturalist. [March, hypothesis, that such Kinetogenetic organic energies as are not under the control of the organism, are the product of the cata- genesis of energies which were at one time under such control. 4 MNEMOGENESIS. The above term is employed by Prof. Hyatt’ to characterize the manner in which kinetogenesis is supposed to produce re- sults in inheritance. I have suggested that the phenomena of recapitulation, characteristic of ontogeny (Amer. Naturalist, Dec., 1889), are due to the presence of a record in the germ cells, having a molecular basis similar to that of memory. This view is adopted by Professor Hyatt. I have already re- ferred to it in the preceding pages. The stimuli which are thus recorded are those which produce growth effects in the body or soma, so that each stimulus may have a double influ- ence. For this reason I have termed this theory of the distri- bution of energy, Diplogenesis (loc. cit.). The first statement of the mnemonic theory of heredity which I can discover, is that made by Hering in 1870? Itis concentrated in the following paragraph: “ The appearance of properties of the parental organism in the full-grown filial or ganism can be nothing else but the reproduction of such pro- cesses of organized matter as the germ when still in the germ- inal vesicles had taken part in; the filial organism remembers, so to speak, those processes, as soon as an occasion of the same or similar irritations is offered a reaction takes place as for- merly in the parental organism, of which it was then a and whose destinies influenced it.” In explanation of this the- ory Hering says: “ We notice, further on, that the process of development of the germs which are destined to attain an in- dependent existence, exercises a powerful reaction upon ° the conscious and unconscious life of the whole organist. And this is a hint that the organ of germination is o and more momentous relation to the other parts, especially t the nervous system, than another organ. In an inverse Ta o the conscious and unconscious destinies of the whole organist 8 Proceeds. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 1893, p. 73. Address before the Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vienna, Edwald Hering. s ¢ purer Weert = N 1894.] The Energy of Evolution. 217 it is most probable, find a stronger echo in the germinal vesi- cles than elsewhere.” i It is evident that evolutionists are reaching greater harmony of opinions on the question of inheritance, for both sides are adopting the doctrine of Diplogenesis. In fact, the discussion is beginning to be a logomachy dependent on the significance which one attaches to the term, “ acquired characters.” Thus, Vom Rath, who says he does not believe in the inheritance” of acquired characters, remarks: “there is nothing in the way of the opinion that by the continual working of such external influences and stimuli, the molecular structure of the germ- plasma also experiences a change which can lead to a trans- mission of transformations. Above all, it ought not to be for- gotten in this case that the somatic cells are in no way the first to be modified by the stimulus, ‘and that then by some sort of unexplained process (pangenesis or intercellular pangenesis) this stimulus is transmitted. generally by these cells to the plasma of the germ cells. The influence on the germ-plasma is rather a direct one, and if by continued influence a trans- formation of the structure of this plasma takes place and transmission occurs, we have then simply a transmission of blastogenic and by no means of somatogenic characters, and therein is not the slightest admission of the transmission of acquired characters.” This surprising paragraph contains an admission of the doctrine of Diplogenesis, and does not regard the phenomena as including a transmission of acquired characters. Never- theless, the stimuli traverse the soma in order to reach the germ plasma. Such an energy is evidently then not of blasto- genic origin, although it is such in its effects. Moreover, Vom Rath omits to mention the fact that in traversing the soma, the stimulus frequently, if not always, produces effects on the lat- ter similar to those which it produces on the germ plasma. I should call this process the inheritance of an acquired char- acter, even in the case where no corresponding modification appears in the soma, since the causative energy is acquired by the soma, and is not derived from the existing germ plasma. Berichte der Naturforsch. Gessel. zu Freiburg Baden. Bd. VI, H. 3. 218 The American Naturalist. [March, Romanes" says, in revising the opinions of Weismann, “(1) Germ Plasm ceases to be continuous in the sense of having borne a perpetual record of congenital variations from the first origin of sexual propagation. (2) On the contrary, as all such variations have been originated by the direct action of external conditions” (italics mine) “the continuity of the germ plasm in this sense has been interrupted at the commencement of every inherited change during the phylogeny of all plants and animals, unicellular as well as multicellular. (3) But germ plasm remains continuous in the restricted though highly important sense of being the sole repository of heredi- tary characters of each successive generation, so that acquired characters can never have been transmitted to progeny, ‘ rep- resentatively,’ even though they have frequently caused those ‘specialized’ changes in the structure of the germ plasm, which, as we have seen, must certainly have been of consider- able importance in the history of organic evolution.” Here the inheritance of characters acquired by the soma 18 admitted, and the process is after the method of Diplogenesis. According to Romanes, Galton originally propounded this doc- trine. Galton’s language” is as follows: “Tt is said that the structure of an animal changes when he is placed under changed conditions; that his offspring inherit some of his change, and that they vary still further on their own account, in the same direction, and so on through succes- sive generations until a notable change in the congenital char- acteristics of the race has been effected. Hence, it is con- cluded that a change in the personal structure has reacted on the sexual elements, For my part, I object to so general a conclusion for the following reasons. It is universally admitted that the primary agents in the processes of growt®, nutrition and reproduction, are the same, and that a true the- ory of heredity must so regard them. In other words, they are all due to the development of some germinal matter varl- ously located. Consequently, when similar germinal -a is everywhere affected by the same conditions, we sho "An Examination of Weismannism, Chicago, 1892, p. 169. “Contemporary Review, 1875, pp. 343-4; Proceeds. Royal Soc., 1872, no. 136. 1894.] The Energy of Evolution. 219 expect that it would be everywhere affected in the same way. The particular kind of germ whence the hair sprang that was induced to throw out a new variety in the cells near- est the surface of the body under certain changed conditions of climate and food, might be expected to throw out a similar variety in the sexual elements at the same time. The changes in the germs would everywhere be collateral, although the moments when any of the changed germs happen to receive their development might be different.” This is the first state- ment of the doctrine of Diplogenesis with which I have met and it appears to me to furnish the most rational basis for the investigation into the dynamics of the process. 220 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARTHROPODA. By J. S. KINGSLEY. (Continued from page 135, February, 1894.) Sup-Crass [I—Evucrustaceka. Crustacea, with filiform, plumose or lamellate gills, in either thoracic or abdominal region; mouth parts never ambulatory in the adult, but modified for the prehension and comminution of food. Nauplius stage either free-swimming or passed in the egg. T is difficult, with our present knowledge, to find good diagnostic points separating the true Crustacea from the Trilo- bites, and it may be that further research will show that the latter are to be regarded as a division equivalent to some 0 those mentioned below. At present, the arrangment of the gr of the cephalic region in a circle around the mouth, the use i their basal joints for the comminution food, and the apparel functioning of the distal joints as locomotor organs, together with the peculiar gills, must serve to differentiate the two groups, it being understood that the ideas here expressed are merely provisional. eo che In the sub-division of the Crustacea I am inclined to 4 a the recent “sub-classes” of Grobben (’92) as super-orders ; follows : Super-Order I, Phyllopoda. Order I, Euphyllopoda. Order II, Cladocera. Super-Order II, Estheriæformes. Order I, Ostracoda. Super-Order ITI, Apodiformes. Order I, Copepoda. Order II, Cirripedia. : Super-Order IV, i sive Branchipodiforme 1894.] The Classification of Arthropoda. 221 I, Leptostraca. Order I, Nebaliade. I, Eumalacostraca. Order I, Stomatopoda. Order II, Thoracostraca. Order III, Arthrostraca. On the whole, I accept the conclusions of Grobben as to the relationships of the various groups, and have, like many other zoologists, regarded the Phyllopods as the ancestral stock. I think that this is shown by, among other points, the structure of the appendages, regarding which I fully accept the conclu- sions of Lankester? (81). I do not regard the nauplius stage as indicative of a naupliform ancestor, but as an introduced feature, for which view the arguments adduced by Claus and Dohrn, seem valid. The ancestor of the Phyllopods must have been an elongate poly-somitic animal with lamellate append- ages, the basal portions of one or more “legs” serving at the same time as both locomotor and manducatory organs. In short, my views as to the ancestral form are much like those adopted by Bernard (’92), although I cannot accept all of his conclusions as to the steps of the evolution. Crass J[I—AcERATA. Branchiate Arthropods, in which the branchial folds, de- veloped from the abdominal appendages function as gills, as: lungs, or as trachee. The body is divided into cephalothorax and abdomen, the line passing behind the sixth pair of ap- pendages. The genital ducts open upon the first abdominal somite. The anterior postoral ganglia unite to form a gan-- glionic ring aronnd the esophagus; the median eyes are in-- 1I regard ig s (’87) Syncarida as a group of Amphipoda s scarcely more’ than family ues mat not accept Lankester’s views, and claims that sbieyldes shows that Lankester’s sixth endite is the endopodite and the flabellum the exopodite, in Support of which he cites the observations of Claus (’73, p. 20). I cannot find there or anywhere else in Claus’ paper any evidence which is not capable of being inter- Preted in full harmony with Lankester’s view that the 5th and 6th endites of the Phyl- lopod limb are endopodite and exopodite respectively, while the flabellum is the ho- Mologue of the epipodite cf the “typical” Crustacean limb. 15 222 The American Naturalist. [Mareb, vaginate. The entoderm (at least in several types) arises by delamination ; there is a large mid-gut, with well-developed glands (“liver”) while the proctodeum is short. The genital glands are reticulate and the spermatozoa are motile. There is little to be said upon the foregoing points, to which many more, applicable to both Xiphosures and some Arachnids, might be added. The exact seria] correspondence of the re- spiratory metameres in Limulus and the Scorpions have been enlarged upon by Lankester (81°), and considerable emphasis must be placed npon the fact that in all Arachnids the stomata are ventral, and are, in all instances, except in possibly the Solpugids and a few mites, are confined to the abdomen. These exceptions need new study. In the Scorpion, as in Limulus, the observations of Narayanan (’89) and Laume (90) show that the genital ducts are modified nephridia, and that they open upon the posterior surface of the first abdominal appendages. Delamination has been shown to occur in the Pseudoscorpions, Araneina, Phalangids and Limulus, as well as in the doubtfully Arachnidan Pycnogonids. Sup-Ciass I—GiGANTOSTRACA SEU MEROSTOMATA. Six pairs of cephalothoracic limbs around the mouth, the bases of the posterior pairs being masticatory. Behind e mouth a metastomial plate or pair of plates. Anterior edgè of carapax acute, its upper surface bearing median ocelli an ' a pair of lateral compound eyes. Respiration by mon y lamellate branchiæ (gill books) borne on appendages + the abdomen and protected by the enlarged first pair (oper: culum) which covers them. To these points, which cover both Xiphosures and pike terids, the following, derived from Limulus, : No salivary glands, no Malpighian tubes, no embryon! branes (amnion). In this Sere two orders are to be recognized, the ad terida (fossil) and the Xiphosures. In the latter are inc on the recent and fossil Limuloid forms. The difference ase in these is not readily formulated, but is readily recogni’ the specimens. The affinities of Cyclus are uncertain. may be added: c mel 1894,] The Classification of the Arthropoda. 223 Order I—Xiphosura. Cephalothorax large, metastoma paired, telson elongate and spiniform, Sub Order [-ahitenelides.' Abdominal somites six, coalesced. Sub-Order [I—Hemiaspida. Abdominal somites more than six, free. Order II—Eurypterida. Cephalothorax small, abdomen large and elongate, twelve- jointed, the joints free, telson spatulate, metastoma unpaired. Susp-Ciass II—ARACHNIDA. Respiration by internal lungs or tracheæ, no compound eyes Entodermal Malpighian tubes present; Embryonic membrane (amnion) present in some. I regard the Scorpionida as the most primitive type of Arachnida existing to-day, and the Acarina as the farthest removed from the original stem. This position of the Scor- pions is shown by many facts of structure; and the pulmonate type of respiration—intermediate between the gills of the Gigantostraca and the trachee of the higher Arachnids—occur- ing in these forms is just what we should expect if the line of descent is, as here maintained, from branchiate forms. On the other hypothesis of a common origin of all “ Tracheates” from some Peripatoid form, we should have the strange spectacle of the most primitive of all Arachnids with the most differentia- ted respiratory system. In the Arachnida I recognize the following orders*—I, Scorpionida ; II, Thelyphonida ; III, Araneida, IV, Solpugida ;* V, Pseudoscorpii; VI, Phalangida; VIII, Acarina. It is interesting to note in this connection that Pocock, on morphological grounds points out (Ann. & Mag, Nat. Hist., VI, 3 In this I follow the order of Pocock (Ann. & Mag. N. H., Jan., 1893). His “sub-classes’? Ctenophora, Lipoctena and super ‘ordinal divisions Chaulogastra, Mycetophora and Holostomata are hardly to be regarded as of phylogenetic value. *No group of Pepee will better ii study than this. I do not believe that the distinction between ‘ head” and the “ thorax” with its three distinct somites in- dicates any sacra aot the ik but that the conditions here existing are to be best explained upon the ground of homoplassy. The position of the anterior stig- mata in the first thoracic somite is of great interest, 224 The American Naturalist. [March, xi, p. 2) that “the immediate ancestor of the Arachnida was constructed somewhat as follows: The body was composed of eighteen somites, the anterior of which were provided with large appendages set apart for locomotion and the prehension and mastication of food ; the terga of this cephalothoracic re- gion were fused to form a single shield or carapace, supporting a submedian and a cluster of lateral eyes at each side, and the ventral surface of the carapace [? cephalothorax], at least in its posterior half, was protected by a sternal plate. Each of the succeeding six somites bore a pair of small ventral append- ages, and the generative aperture opened upon the sternal area of the first of these somites. The posterior six somites had lost their appendages, were probably narrower than the rest, and constituted a limbless caudal portion of the body, the last of them being furnished with a single plate, articulated above the anal aperature.” This should be compared with one of the Eurypterida. Sus-Poytum I]—Insectra SIVE ANTENNATA. Arthropods with differentiated head consisting of proceph- alic lobes and four (five’) somites ; head with somites anchy- losed and provided with four pairs of appendages modified for sensation or for feeding ; respiration by means of trache® (mod- ified glands) opening to the exterior on the sides of the body — in the post-cephalic region. Nephridia absent, except as genr tal ducts, which open near the posterior extremity of the body: Ectodermal Malpighian tubes present. Spermatozoa motile. So far as I am aware, the dissolution of the old group Myr apoda and the union of the Chilopoda with the Hexapod ner first proposed by Pocock (’87). At about the same er taught the same view to my classes, and later (’88) ae ft) the same. Subsequently both Pocock (’93) and I (93, r , S it repeated our views within a month of each other‘ pie seems to me, is fully justified. The affinities of the Chile to the Hexapods are most close, while those of Chilopoda 5 See p. 125. sOneof our best students of the Myriapoda, the late C. H. Bollman; m views and they appear in the posthumous collection of his papers ('93). 1894.] The Classification of the Arthropoda. 225 Chilognatha are quite obscure. There has been no greater stumbling-block for morphologists than the attempt to homo- logise the somites of millipeds and centipedes. Attempts to bring other organs into harmony are equally futile. The three groups under discussion may be contrasted as follows, it being of course admitted that we know next to nothing of the somites and serial homologies of either Diplopod or Chilopod, and that possibly future research will modify some of the state- ments below. The Diplopod head bears, besides the antenne, but two pairs: of appendages—a pair of mandibles and a lower lip, composed of a pair of coalesced maxille.” In the Chilopod the condi- tions are as in the Hexapod, two pairs of maxille being pres- ent. In the Chilopods, as in the Hexapods, each somite bears a single pair of appendages, while in the Diplopods the majority of the segments bear two pairs of appendages, and the re- searches of Heathcote (’88) show that each segment is, in reality, composed of two coalesced somites, a condition without parallel elsewhere in the Arthropoda. In the Chilopods there is a wide sternum separating the coxæ of the ambulatory appendages; in the Diplopods the coxe are approximate, and the sternum is exceeding narrow, or even entirely absent. - In the Chilopods the stigmata, a pair to a somite, are lateral (dorsal in Scutigera), and are placed above and outside the in- sertion of the limbs, exactly asin the Hexapods. The tracheæ which arise from them are branched, and the intima is thrown into a well-developed spiral thickening as in the six-footed insects. In the Diplopoda, on the other hand, the stigmata are beneath the body® close to the legs, while the tracheæ (ex- _ 7 The attempt made to show that this Jower lip is composed of the two coalesced lower jaws, or first and second maxill, of the Chilognaths receives no support from the embryology of Julus (Heathcote ’88), where there is but a single somite when the hypothesis calls fortwo. Further the innervation of the sense organs of the lower lip (fF vom Rath, ’86, PI. XX, Fig. 1) shows that but a single pair of appendages is con- cerned in the part. . *In former papers I have said that the spiracles might be even im the coxæ. Ire- call having seen this statement but recently rather rather extensive reading of Myria- pod literature fails to reveal my authority. 226 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, cept in the Glomeride) are tufted and unbranched, and the thickening of the intima is poorly developed. In the Diplopods there are well-developed foramina repug- natoria upon the sides of each somite of the body. Such structures are absent from the Chilopods (as from the Hexa- pods), except in a few Geophilidæ, where repugnatorial glands occur, opening by foramina in the mid-ventral line. In the Chilopods the reproductive organs consist of paired’ gonads situated above the alimentary canal and opening to the exterior by ducts which are at first paired, but which later unite into a common tube which leads to a single external opening situated in the penultimate segment of the body. In the Hexapods the conditions are almost exactly the same; the gonads are dorsal, the genital ducts unite (except in Ephem- eride), and there is a single external opening, always at the posterior end of the abdomen. In both Hexapods and Chilo- pods the spermatozoa are motile. In the Diplopods there 1s & single unpaired gonad, situated beneath the alimentary canal, and the genital duct, passing forward, divides into two, each of which has its own opening at the bases of the legs of the second post cephalic segment. The spermatozoa are quiescent. We know so little of the embryology of the Myriapods that the aid of development can be had to only a slight extent m our comparisons,but the facts which it affords seem importan In the Chilopods the embryo escapes from the egg with a merous ambulatory appendages, a pair to each somite. The same is true of the typical Hexapods, all later observers ag" ing that a polypod precedes a hexapod condition. The a Diplopod escapes from the egg in a Hexapod condition, aM the presence of these six legs has been seized upon as a pre of the near association of these forms. An exact comparison, however, seems to show that the two are in reality very unlike as appears in the following table.” ? Single in Scolopendra. : VAs Sanies is koori of the existence of a tritocerebral segment in the pie the comparison can only be made upon the basis of the appendages of the = prove the tritocerebral segment should prove lacking in the millepeds, the wan yü stronger than it now is. The statement of the Diplopod appendages i Heathcote (’88). 1894.] The Classification of the Arthropoda. 227 HEXAPODA (-++-CHILOpPoD). DIPLopop. Appendage I Antenna Antenna se Il Mandible asd Mandible j Head hs Ill Maxilla 1 Lower Lip + IV Maxilla 2 Foot 1 ny Vv Thoracic Foot 1 Absent ss VI Thoracic Foot 2 | Foot 2 "os NU Thoracic Foot 3 Foot 3 “VIII Abdominal Foot 1 Absent _ IX Abdominal Foot 2 Absent Crass I—CHILOPODA. Insecta with elongate depressed body, no differentiation be- tween thorax and abdomen, all the somites being provided with appendages, those of the thorax-abdomen being locomo- tor in function. Crass II —HEXAPODA. Insecta with body consisting of not over 19 somites, divided into head, three-jointed thorax and abdomen. Thorax pro- vided with three pairs of locomotor appendages, and usually with two pairsof wings; abdominal appendages usually lack- ing from most somites, those of the extremity being usually modified for reproduction and sensory purposes, those of the other somites, when present, being weak. SusB-PuyLUM III—DIPLOPODA SIVE CHILOGNATHA. Elongate, homonomously segmented Arthropods ; head dis- tinct, bearing three pairs of appendages; no distinction be- tween thorax and abdomen; this region with numerous somites, all, except the anterior, having two pairs of append- ages (double somites), sternum narrow. Stigmata two to each somite, tracheæ tufted and unbranched, not anastomosing- Gonads single, beneath the alimentary canal; spermatoza quiescent; genital ducts opening between the bases of the second and third pairs of feet. 228 ; The American Naturalist. [Mareh, I have given above my reasons for the separation of the _ Diplopods from the Chilopods, and need not repeat them here, I do not discuss the relations of the Diplopoda to the other _ sub-phyla, nor the relative position to be accorded the group. The ventral position of the gonads is a mark of low rank, but — in other respects the organization is much higher. ARTHROPODA OF UNCERTAIN POSITION. I—PYCNOGONIDA sIVE PANTOPODA. ‘ Regarding the systematic position of these forms I cannot add anything to the remarks of Morgan (’90), who has shown that not only in adult structure but in certain features of development, notably in the formation of the entoderm by delamination, they present conditions not easily paralled out- side of the Arachnida, and it is not impossible that they may belong there. The appendages are easily homologised in the two groups, and especially interesting is the fact that while most genera in the female retain a primitive condition 1n having the genital ducts open upon several pairs of append- ages (IV-VII), in a few these openings occur only on the seventh appendage, exactly where they occur in the Scorpions. II—LINGUATULINA.”" These forms, frequently associated with the Arachnids, pos sess but few points of similarity with them. Chief among these are the concentration of the nervous centres to a circum- œsophageal ring, and the peculiar arrangement of the ovaria? follicles. On the other hand, neither embryos nor adult resem- ble any Arachnids in more than a few superficial feature The opening of the genital ducts in the female near wae terior end of the body is not Arachnid in character, nor 18 © f absence of “liver” lobes from the mid-gut. Besides, a pa ‘Arthropodan characters, may be mentioned the extensiv? celom and the outer circular body muscles. The spee A Pentastomæ have been so modified by parasitism that 1 1! Upon points of structure and development consult Stiles (’91) and Spa en in addition to the older literature, ies of = 1894,] The Classification of the Arthropoda. 229 difficult to say whether the lack of other structures characteris- tic of Arthropods is due to primitive simplicity or to degener- ation. IiI—Pavropopa. The position of the Pauropoda is, as yet, very uncertain, as we are almost entirely ignorant of their internal structure. In the tendency towards a fusion of somites, in the lack of a sec- ond pair of maxille, and in the positions of the external paired openings of the genital ducts at the base of the second pair of ambulatory appendages and the non-motile spermatozoa they show undoubted affinities with the Diplopoda ; but the pecul- iar triramous antenne and especially the characters of the hexapod young, as figured by Lubbock (67) and Ryder (79) show important differences. The following table compares the somites of Pauropus and the Diplopod: DIPLopop. PAUROPOD. Appendage I Antenna Antenna oe II Mandible Mandible pad a | PS Lower Lip Lower Lip n IV Foot 1 Absent a Vv Absent Foot 1 a VI Foot Foot 2 ~VE Foot 3 Foot 3 IV—TARDIGRADA. Elongate metameric animals with four pairs of appendages, _ each terminating with two double hooks. Mouth and anus terminal, Malpighian tubes present, opening into the hind-gut. Nervous system consisting of a suprawsophageal brain and a chain of four ventral ganglia. No specialised circulatory or respiratory organs. No coxal glands or nephridia. Sexes Separate, gonad unpaired, emptying into hind-gut. Most frequently the Tardigrades are associated with the Arachnida, but this has doubtless been due to the possession of four pairs of functional legs in the two groups. These forms 230 | Ca: S Raita S [Mareh differ from the Arachnids in the absence of all mouth parts,” in the proctodeal excretory tubes, the simple nervous system, smooth muscular tissue, and in the absence of nephridia, and they further differ from not only the Arachnids, but from all Arthropods in the fact that the gonads open into the hind-gut. V—MALacopopa.” The Arthropodan features of the Malacopoda, represented by the single genus Peripatus, are the trachee, the legs terminat- ing in claws, the appendicular nature of the jaws, the exclu- sive use of a pair of nephridia for genital ducts, the reduced coelom; the several ostia of the heart, the heart being enclosed in a pericardium; the lacunar circulation. On the. other hand, the Malacopoda differ from all other Arthropoda and agree with the Annelids in the following particulars: The presence of functional nephridia in each body segment; the presence of well-developed coxal glands; the existence of an outer circular muscular layer in the body wall; the ab- sence of striation from all muscles except those of the mouth parts; the presence of cilia in the alimentary canal and in the nephridia; the situation of the antenne as outgrowths from the primitively preoral region; the muscular nature of the pharynx, unlike that of any Arthropod and strikingly that of certain Cheetopods. The eyes are too unlike the usual organs of any other Arthropod, but, as figured by Balfour, they closely resemble these organs in Autolytus. There is, too, an a es of a well-developed external cuticular skeleton, S0 that the absence of a true jointing in the appendages is noga Judging from figures, the terminal claws of the legs might compared with the setæ of the annelid parapodium. : On the whole, Peripatus cannot be placed beyond qoum in the Arthropodan phylum, and it is doubtful if it W have been placed there were it not for the presence of trache®: 1? The internal acicular teeth as appendages. =, 18] prefer to use the nab NN Areal ass nip the oldest, beng given by Blanchard in 1847. Onychophora of Grube dates from 1853, °™ ts of was given by Mosely in 1874, The failure of Blanchard to recognize all points structure does not invalidate his name. 1894.] The Classification of the Arthropoda. 231 As we have already pointed out the existence of three differ- ent kinds of trachee which cannot be traced to a common origin, it is barely possible that those of Peripatus and the . - other “ Tracheates” are not strictly homologous. LITERATURE CITED. ’52 Barrande, J. Système Silurien du Centre de la Bohéme. Prag., 1852. 71 van Beneden, Edouard. [No title.] Comptes Rendus Soc. Ent. Belg., p.ix. 1871. ; 92 Bernard, H. M. The Apodidæ. London, 1892. ’93 Bernard, H. M. The coxal glands of Scorpio. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., VI, xii, p. 54. 1893. 90 Boas, J. E. V. Lehrbuch der Zoologie. Jena. 1890. ’93 Bollman, C. H. The Myriapoda of North America. Bull U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 46, 1893. ’82 Brooks, W. K. Lucifer, a study in morphology. Phil. Trans. 1882. ’87 Bruce, A. T. Observations on the embryology of In- sects and Arachnids. Baltimore, 1887. 91 Bumpus, H. C. The embryology of the American lob- ster. Jour. of Morph., v. 1891. 90 Carriere, J. Die Entwicklung der Mauerbiene (Chali- codoma muraria). Arch. f. mikr. Anat., xxxv. 1890. 75 Chun, C. Bau, Entwicklung und physiologische Bedeu- tung der Rectaldrüsen bei den Insekten. Abh. Senkenb. Gesell. Frankfurt, x. 1875. 91 Cholodkowsky, N. Die Embryonalentwicklung von Phyllodromia (Blatta) germanica. Mem. Acad. St. Petersburg, VIE, xxxiii. 1891. 73 Claus, C. Zur Kenntniss des Baues und die Entwick- lung von Branchipus stagnalis und Apus cancriformis. Ab- handl. k. Gesellsch. der Wissenschaft zu Göttingen, Bd. xviii, 1873. ’86* Claus, C. Prof. E. Ray Lankester’s Artikel “ Limulus an Arachnid” und die auf denselben gegründeten Präten- sionen und Anschuldigungen. Also “ Schlusswort ” u. a. Arb. zool. Inst. Wien, vii. 1886-7. 232 ' The American Naturalist. [March, ‘90 Fernald, H. The relationshipof Arthropods. Studies Biol Lab. Hopkins Univ. iv. 1890. 79 Grobben, C. Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Moina. Arb. zool. Inst., Wien, ii. 1879. ‘92 Grobben, C. A contribution to the knowledge of the geneaology and classification of the Crustacea. Annals & Mag. Nat. Hist., VI, xi, p. 440, 1893, from Sitzungsbr. k. Acad. Wissench. Wien.; Math-Nat. Classe, Bd. ci, Heft. ii, Jahrg. 1892; Abth. x, p. 237, 1892. 85 Gulland, G. L. Evidence in favor of the view that the coxal gland of Limulus and other Arachnids is a modified nephridium. Quar. Jour. Mier. Sci., xxv. 1885. ’88 Hatschek, B. Lehrbuch der Zoologie, Jena, 1888. ’88 Heathcote, F. G. The postembryonic development of Julus terrestris. Phil. Trans., 179. 1888. ‘92 Hertwig, R. Lehrbuch der Zoologie, Jena, 1892. 92 Herrick, F. H. Alpheus: a study in the development of Crustacea. Memoirs Nat. Acad. Sci., v. 1892. ‘90 Heymons R. Ueber die hermaphroditische Anlage der Sexualdrüsen beim Männchen von Phyllodromia (Blat ). Zool. Anz. xiii, 1890. ; ’93 von Kennell, J. Lehrbuch der Zoologie. Stuttgart, 1893. aie 83 Kingsley, J. S. Is the group Arthropoda a valid one: Am. Nat., xviii, p. 1034. 1883. o aiii ’85 Kingsley, J. S. Notes on the embryology of Limu Quar. Jowr. Micros. Sci., xxv. 1885. : . ’88 Kingsley, J. S. The classification of the Myriapods. Am. Naturalist, xxii. 1888. garis, ’89 Kingsley, J. S. The development of Crangon vulg® II. Bull. Essex. Inst., xxi. 1889. a ER T A E A > a 1894.] The Classification of the Arthropoda. 233 90 Kingsley, J. S. The ontogeny of Limulus. Am. Natur- alist, xxiv, and Zool. Anz., xiii. 1890. 92 Kingsley, J. S. The embryology of Limulus. Jour. Morphol.., vii. 1892. 93 Kingsley, J. S. The embryology of Limulus. Part II. Journal of Morphology. Vol. viii. 18938. ’90 Kishinouye, K. On the development of the Araneina. Jour. Coll. Science, Univ. of Japan, iv. : 91 Kishinouye, K. On the development of Limulus long- ispina. Jour. Coll. Sci., Univ. of Japan, v. 1891. 92 Korschelt, E. and Heider, K. Lehrbuch der verglei- chenden Entwicklungsgeschichte der wirbellosen Thiere Zweites Heft. Jena. 1892. . ’89 Lang, A. Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie. Zweite Abth. Jena. 1889. 81 Lankester, E.R. Limulus an Arachnid. Q./. M. 8., xxi. 1881, 81 Lankester, E. R. Observations and reflections on the appendages and on the nervous system of Apus cancriformis. ©. LMS sx ESSI. ’84 Lankester, E.R. On the skeleto-trophic tissues and coxal glands of Limulus, Scorpio and Mygale. Q. J. M. S xxiv. 1884. 90 Laurie, M. The embryology of a scorpion. Q. J. M. S., xxxi, 1890. 99 Laurie, M. On the development of the lung-books of Scorpio fulvipes. Zool. Anz... xv. 1892. 92 Lebedinsky, J. Die Entwicklung der Coxaldriisen bei Phalangium. Zool. Anz., xv. 1892. ’86 Locy, W. A. Observations on the development of Age- lena nevia. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., xii. 1886. 78 Leydig, F. Ueber Amphipoden und Isopodon. Ana- tomische und zoologische Bemerkungen. Zeit. wiss. Zool. Xxx, suppl. p. 225. 1878. ’86-’87 Loman, J. C. C. Ueber die morphologische Bedeu- tung der sog. malpighi’schen Gefiisse der echten Spinnen. Tijdsch. nederl. Dierk. Vereen, II,i. 1886-1887. 234 The American Naturalist. — [Mareh, 67 Elpbodt, J. On Pauropus, a new type of centipede. Trans. Linn. Socy., xxvi, p. 181. 1867. ’84 MacLeod, J. Recherches sur la structure et la signifi- cation de l’appareil respiratoire des Arachnides. Arch. Biol, v. 1884. 93 Matthews, W. D. On antenne and other appendages of Triarthrus beckii. Am. Jour. Sci., III, xlvi. 1898. ’83 Mickleborough, J. Locomotive appendages of Trilo- bites. Am. Nat., xvii, 1383. From Jour. Cincinnati N. H. Socy. 40 Milne-Edwards, H. Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés. Tome. iii. Paris, 1840. 9] Morgan, T. H. A Contribution to the embryology and phylogeny of the Pycnogonids. Studies Biol. Lab. Johns Hop- kins Univ., v. 1891. ’9 Narayanan, M. Notes on the anatomy of scorpions. @. J M Soati. TSE. ’87 Packard, A. S. On the Syncarida, a hitherto ndeso group of Malacostracous Crustacea. Memoirs Nationa A Science, iii. 86 Packard, A. S. On the class Podostomata, a group €m- bracing the Merostomata and“Trilobites. Am. Naturalist, XX, p. 1060. 1866. '84 Patten, W. The development of Phryganids. Q. J-M: S. xxiv. 1884. ’88 Patten, W. Studies on the eyes of Arthropods. I. The eyes of Acilius. Jour. Morph., ii. 1888. ’90 Patten, W. On the origin of Vertebrates from Arach- nids. Q. J. M.S, xxxi. 1890. ’87 Pocock, R.I. On the classification of the Diplopoda. Ann. and Mag. N. H. 1887. ’93 Pocock, R. I. On the classification of the Tracheate Arthropoda. Zool. Anz., xvi. 1893. : then ’86 vom Rath, O. Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Chilognat™™ Inaug. Diss. Bonn. 1886. d der ’86* vom Rath, O. Die Sinnesorgane der Antenn® w xvii. ‘Unterlippe der Chilognathen. Arch. f. mikr. Anat, * 1886. 1894.] The Classification of the Arthropoda. 235 79 Ryder, J. A. An account of a new genus of minute Pauropod Myriapods. Am. Nat., xiii, p. 603. 1879. ’87 Schimkewitsch, W. Etude sur le développement des Araignées, Arch. de Biol., vi. 1887. ’88 Sedgwick, A. A monograph of the development of Peripatus capensis. Studies Morph. Lab. Cambridge, iv. 1888. From Q. J. M. S., 1885-88. : ’46 Siebold, C. Th. von. Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie, Wirbelloser Thiere. Berlin, 1846. 92 Sinclair, F. G. A new mode of respiration in Myria- pods. Phil. Trans. 183 B. 1892. ’85 Spencer, W. B. The urinary organs of Amphipoda. QJ. M.S. xxv... 1885. ‘91 Sturanay, R. Die Coxaldriisen der Arachnoiden. Ard. Zool. Inst. Wien., ix. 1891. 92 Spencer, W. B. The anatomy of Pentastomum tereti- usculum (Baird) Q. J. M. S., xxxiv. 1892. ‘91 Stiles, C. W. Bau und Entwicklungsgeschichte von Pentastomum proboscideum Rud. und Pentastomum subcylin- dricum Dies. Z.w. Z., lii. 1891. 91 Viallanes,H. Sur quelques points de l’histoire du dé- veloppement embryonnaire de la Mantis religieuse (Mantis religiosa. Ann. des Sci. Nat., xi. 1891. ’81 Walcott, C. D. The Trilobite: new and old evidence as to its organization. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vii. 1881. ’84 Walcott, C. D. Appendages of the Trilobite. Science, iil. 1884. 89 Weldon, W. F. R. The cclom and nephridia of Palæ- mon serratus. Jour. Marine Biol. Assoc., N. S., i. 1889. 91 Weldon, W. F. R. The renal organs of certain Deca- pod Crustacea. Q. J. M. S., xxxii. 1891. 92 Weldon, W. F. R. The formation of the germ layers in Crangon vulgaris. Q. J. M. S., xxxiii. 1892. ’89 Wheeler, W. M. Theembryology of Blatta germanica and Doryphora decemlineata. Jour. Morph., iii. 1889. 93 Wheeler, W. M. A contribution to Insect Embryology. Jour. Morph., viii. 1893. "719 Wood-Mason, J. Morphological notes bearing on the origin of Insects. Trans. Ent. Socy. London. 1879. 236 The American Naturalist. [Marh ON A SMALL COLLECTION OF VERTEBRATE FOS- SILS FROM THE LOUP FORK BEDS OF NORTH- WESTERN NEBRASKA; WITH NOTE ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE REGION. By J. B. HATCHER. The Princeton Scientific Expedition of 1893, besides secur- ing a quite complete series of fossils from the Protoceras beds of the upper White River, was also fortunate in securing small, but interesting collections from the Loup Fork and overlying Equus beds, and in discovering unconformities between the latter. These unconformities made it possible to distinguish sharply between the top of the Loup Fork and the base of the Equus beds; and consequently to separate the fos- sils of the one from those of the other with certainty. : ~ The work in the Loup Fork and Equus beds was done by the writer previous to the arrival of the other members of the expedition. The material collected was found in the adjacent hills on the south side of the Niobrara river, midway between the mouths of Pine and Box Butte creeks in Sheridan Co. Nebraska. The material from the Loup Fork beds has been placed in my hands for description through the kindness of Prof. W. B. Scott, under whose direction the expedition was undertaken. It contains, besides several species already fully described from these beds, the following material representing one new genus, and three new species and presenting interest ing characters not before noticed in species already known AELURODON TAXOIDES, Sp. 0. Among the Loup Fork Carnivora, the genus Aclurodon Yi predominant, both as to individuals and species a ie In size they were propably only equalled among the Me ora of this epoch by the sabre-toothed cats. Inthe we doubtless found formidable enemies. 1Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology of Princeton College. PLATE I. AMERICAN NATURALIST. AE E N R. WEBER, DEL, 1894.] Vertebrate Fossils. 237 The type of this species consists of a very complete and well preserved left mandibular ramus. It belonged to an ani- mal about the size of the black bear. The mandible is long and proportionately slender. Posterior depth but little greater than anterior. Masseteric fossa very deep, its anterior border ending directly below the third molar. Anterior mental fora- men directly below middle of second premolar. Posterior mental foramen directly below posterior root of third premolar. Surface between anterior margin of masseteric fossa and a point below the middle of the sectorial quite concave. Inferior bor- der nearly straight from synphysis to a point directly beneath the posterior border of the second molar, when it rises quite rapidly to the angle, much as in the badger (Meles taxus) thus suggesting the specific name. The angle is considerably expanded transversely for the attachment of the masseter muscle. The exterior border of this expansion is on a line with the base of the teeth. The condyle is strong. The cor- onoid process is quite high and proportionately somewhat slender. Its upper and anterior borders, especially the latter, are considerably expanded transversely to give greater surface for the attachment of the temporal muscle. The inner border of the ramus is a nearly plane surface, except anteriorly where it is strongly convex. The dental foramen is situated about midway between molar three and the angle, and is on a line with the alveolar border. The symphysisis small and triangular in outline, and is extended somewhat below the inferior border of the jaw. Its supero-inferior diameter is about twice that of the antero-posterior diameter. : The Teeth: The incisors are missing, but they are represen- ted by three somewhat shallow alveoli crowded closely together. The internal and middle incisors were about equal in size and quite small. The latter was crowded considerably backward out of line with the external and internal. The external incisor was considerably larger than incisors one and two. The canine is only moderately strong and is oval in cross-section at the base. The first premolar is missing, but the alveole is well preserved and shows it to have been of moderate size and fixed by one root only. There is a diastema between it and 16 238 The American Naturalist. (March, the canine and a shorter one between it and premolar two. Premolars two, three, and four are strong, well developed teeth, they increase regularly in size and are separated by diaste- mata. The sectorial is large as compared with molars two and three, its antero-posterior diameter being almost double that of both these teeth taken together. The. metaconid is exceedingly faint, the talon is low and flat and consists of both an external and internal cone of which the former alone has been subjected to wear. Molar two is quite small, not so large as premolar two. Molar three is missing but the alveole shows it to have been quite rudimentary and implanted by one root only in the slightly rising alveolar border of the jaw. The present species appears to be most closely related to A. wirsinus Cope and A: haydenii Leidy. From the former it is readily distinguished by the nearly uniform depth of the jaw, by the much smaller canine and by the relative and absolute size of the premolar and tubercular teeth. In A. urs- nus according to Cope? the first tubercular considerably exceeds in size the fourth premolar, in A. taxoides the fourth premolar is twice the size of the first tubercular. From haydenii it is at once distinguished by the much less elevated posterior portion of the alveolus, by the somewhat less massive appearance of the jaw and by the diastemata between the pre molars. The following are the more important measurements of the type specimen. . Mt Length of jaw from front of synphysis to middle of con- %1 yle Length of premolar dentition = Length of molar dentition | 034 Antero-posterior diameter of sectorial 012 Antero-posterior diameter of first tubercular 022 Antero-posterior diameter of fourth premolar 039 Depth of ramus below first premolar 040 Depth of ramus below first tubercular a In Plate I, figures 2 and 2* represent the side wee” views of the type and show well the more importan "See U. S. Geogr. S , G. M. Wheeler, part II, Vol. IV, p. 304, 1877. 1894.] Vertebrate Fossils. 239 ters. An atlas vertebra found in connection with the type specimen shows a distinct foramen for the inferior branch of the first spinal nerve, but presents no other distinctive charac- ters. AELURODON MEANDRINUS, Sp. n. This species is by far the largest of the genus yet described. The type consists of the right mandibular ramus, broken off at the canine and just back of the sectorial. It indicates an animal about the size of the grizzly bear. The jaw was exceed- ingly strong and massive in proportion to its length. The crowns of premolars two and three are preserved and the roots of the sectorial and premolar four. The symphysis is quad- rangular in shape and extends backward to below the middle of premolar three, its upper border approaches very closely the alveolar border. The anterior mental fora- men is large and is situated just below the posterior root of premolar two. The arrangement of the teeth is especially characteristic and has suggested the specific name. The sec- ond, third, and fourth premolars are implanted in the the jaw in a zig-zag manner. The anterior end of premolar three is entirely outside of the posterior root of premolar two. Pre- molar four is set quite as much transversely as longitudinally in the jaw, its posterior root being as much outside of as behind the anterior. The anterior root of the sectorial is inside of and overlaps the posterior root of premolar four. This arrangement of the teeth is well shown in figs. 1 and 1*. The canine was very large as indicated by the alveole which is partially preserved. There was a long diastema between it and premolar one. The latter tooth was small and fixed by one root only. Premolars two and three are small and nearly equal in size. Premolar four is much larger than two and three. All the premolars are separated by very small diaste- mata. The sectorial is exceedingly large, its antero-posterior diameter equalling in length the space occupied by premolars two, three, and four. In fig. 1 only about half the posterior root of the sectorial is shown, thus making the tooth appear shorter than it really is. The following are the principal measurements of the type. 240 . The American Naturalist. Length of premolar dentition Antero-posterior diameter of sectorial Length of diastema between canine and P. 1. Depth of ramus below P. 1. Depth of ramus just behind P. 4. [ODES APHELOPs, Cope. Cope has defined the genus Aphelops as follows.’ Denti- tion: I?¥, C4 P 45M ł; post-glenoid and post-tympani? process in contact but not coossified ; digits 3-3; nasals ges - less. To these characters Osborn! has added: “Magnum ney a supporting lunar anteriorly ; absence of the crista and e a able presence of the more or less strongly developed ‘erí an - and ‘anticrochet’ in the superior molars.” The project - referred to by Prof. Osborn as the anticrochetis, 1 think the crista, since it is produced quite as much or more from ©” > “Ball. V, U. S. G. S.. 1879-80. ‘Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, p. 92. aio ` 1894.] Vertebrate Fossils. 241 upper border as from the lateral, and moreover, an examination of material in our collection shows in molar one of Aphelops and molor two of Teleoceras an additional small projection directly opposite the large anticrochet, and which I believe to be the crochet and have so lettered it. See Plate II, figs. 5 & 6. I would therefore amend Prof. Osborn’s dental characters to read as follows: Invariable presence of strong anticrochet and crista and absence of well defined crochet on superior molars. If this projection is not the crista, it is the crochet instead of the anticrochet, as considered by Osborn. APHELOPS FOSSIGER, Cope. I have referred a nearly complete skull in our collection to the above species. It differs from Cope’s definition of that species however by the following characters which may per- haps be considered of specific importance. In molar one the the mediau sinus is obstructed by a large crista and anticro- chet and a very small crochet, in molar two there is no trace of a crochet and at the bottom of the entrance of the median sinus there is a small tubercle. In molar three at the bottom of the entrance of the median sinus, there is an elongated tubercle placed transversely, and just inside this isa second much smaller conical tubercle. At about the middle and on the upper border of the zygomata there are processes curving inward and downward which probably served as attachments for the zygomatico-auricularis muscles. The molar teeth also are extremely large. Below are some of the ee Length of true molars .168 Median length of second molar .062 Greatest length of second molar 075 Greatest width of second molar 07 TELEOCERAS MAJOR, Hatcher. As stated in a preliminary notice,’ this genus is distinguish- ed from all previously known genera of the Rhinoceridx by Am. Geol., March, 1894, pp. 149-150. 242 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, the presence of a median horn on the extremities of the nasals, the presence of a sagittal crest? as indicated by the contour of the outer walls below this region and the presence of a strong anticrochet and crista and the absence of a well developed crochet on the superior true molars. The type consists of a portion of the skull and lower jaw. The superior and inferior molars are preserved and also the fourth upper premolar. The skull is long and proportion- ately much deeper and narrower than in the closely allied genus Aphelops. The nasals are only partially coossified, they are very thick and strong, much compressed anteriorly and strongly convex superiorly. Their extremities are prolonged into a short, stout horn which extends about an inch beyond the extremities of the nasals proper, and is directed upward and forward, it is slightly constricted inferiorly just in front of the termination of the nasals; it is rugose and in life evr- dently supported a dermal horn. These characters are well shown in Plate I, figs. 1, 1°, 1°, 1". The frontals are compar atively narrow and smooth, and their upper transverse surface is gently convex, they are elevated posteriorly so that the me- dian line from the posterior portion of the frontals to the end of the nasal horn is slightly concave. The infra-orbital fora- men is large, opens anteriorly and not laterally directly over the middle of premolar three. The maxillaries are larg® strong and deep. The anterior border of the posterior nares is on a line with the posterior border of the median sinus 0 molar two, there is no median projection. The temporal re- gion is much constricted, the inferior lateral walls of the ga case in this region are exceedingly thin, there were no air ee ities in this region of the skull. The base of the skull sloped upward and forward from the condyles which are missing: The post-glenoid process is strong and triangular 10 ¢ 7 tion, it is confluent but not coossified with the post-tympan throughout the greater portion of their length, thus entre enclosing the meatus auditorius externus. ; The lower jaw is exceedingly strong and massive. 4 ascending portion is very high and broad with the poste o border but slightly expanded transversely. The masse 1894.] Vertebrate Fossils. 243 fossa is very shallow. The inferior dental foramen is large. The coronoid process is wide at the base and narrows rapidly toward the apex. The angleis produced but slightly down- ward. The inferior border is gently convex. The Teeth: Of the superior dentition the true molars and the fourth upper premolar alone are represented. They are larger than inthe recent rhinoceros but much smaller than in Aphelops as shown in Plate II, figs. 5,6, & 9. Molars two and three are best preserved and present the most distinctive characters. The dorsum is very flat, there is no median costa andthe anterior and posterior costae are only faintly represented On the posterior angle of molar three there is a well developed basal cingulum. The median sinus of this tooth is obstructed by a well developed anticrochet and crista. At the bottom and near the entrance of the median sinus is a small tubercle. Molar two has a faint crochet directly opposite the strong anti- crochet and a well developed crista as shown in Plate II, fig. 6. There was a deep posterior sinus with a strong posterior vallum which in the type has been worn down so that the pos- terior sinus now appears as a posterior fossette. There is a very small anterior sinus and the anterior vallum is weak. In molar one and premolar four the teeth are so much worn that the anterior and posterior cross-crests are united through the anticrochet, and the inner portion of the median sinus appears as an accessory fossette. In the inferior dentition the last molar is placed well in front of the ascending portion of the ramus, it is but little lar- ger than molars one and two, and has a basal cingulum on the posterior border. The following are the principal measure- ments of the skull, lower jaw, and teeth. SKULL AND SUPERIOR DENTITION. Length of skull from end of nasal horn to behind post- tympanic process Depth of skull from middle of frontals to crown of teeth 235 Width of skull in front of zygoma | .210 244 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, Length of horn beyond termination of nasals Diameter of horn 041 Length of molar dentition 158. Greatest transverse diameter of molar two 069 Greatest antero-posterior diameter of molar two LOWER JAW AND TEETH. Length of ramus from anterior border of premolar four to posterior border 420 Height from bottom of angle to condyle - -260 Depth below molar three 109 Length of molar dentition 155. Length of molar two 054 Length of molar three hi Teleoceras although presenting several characters appal ently intermediate between Aphelops and existing genera ji Rhinoceridæ, nevertheless cannot be considered as an ancestor of the latter. Neither is it a migrant from Europe. Ka really a horned Aphelops derived perhaps through Leidy’ S Species A. crassus; which latter is not unlikely to be identical with A. fossiger (Cope) and A. acutum (Marsh), all of whi j have been described as possessing compressed, acuminate nasals, thus suggesting a horn at the very place where it appears in Teleoceras. w The discovery of a median horned Rhinoceras in America 18 of interest not as a probable ancestor of existing Old we forms, but rather as exhibiting a remarkable example parallelism in the development of the Old and New Wot _ Species of Rhinoceride from their common ancestral genus Aceratherium of the lower Miocene of this continent. ee present knowledge would indicate, as has been pointed out 9Y Scott,’ that the ancestral type originated in America and foun its way into the Old World in early Miocene times. These — nus Aceratherium which flourished during the lower M pe = was common to both continents, and all the median ho *See Bull. 3, E. M. Museum, Princ. Coll., pp. 1-22, 1883. 1894.] Vertebrate Fossils. 245 and hornless forms of each continent may reasonably be con- sidered to have been developed independently from it. There seems at present no evidence for supposing that there was any interchange of species between the two continents later than early Miocene times. This degree of parallelism is all the more striking when we consider the length of the period of isolation in connection with the marked degree of similarity shown. This similarity is exhibited not only in the develop- ment of a nasal horn, but also in the general appearance of the skull, the complexity of the structure of the teeth and their arrangement in the jaw, and the relations of the post- tympanic and post-glenoid processes, Figs. I-4, Plate II, show the latter in the genera Rhinoceros, Teleoceras, Aphelops and Ceratorhinus. On the same plate, figs. 5, 6, 7, 8 & 9 represent various stages of tooth development from Aceratherium to Teleoceras and recent forms. As regards specialization of parts and complexity of tooth structure, from what is at pres- ent known of Teleoceras, it may be regarded as equalling in these respects any of our recent forms. If we compare it with Rhinoceros sansaniensis (Lartet) from a horizon in France of which our Loup Fork has been considered an equivalent, it will at once be seen thatthe tooth structure of the latter is much simpler and more like Aceratherium. See Plate II, fig. 7 (after Filhol). If these beds be really of the same age we must conclude that the conditions favorable for the develop- ment of the more modern types of the Rhinoceride, existed to a much greater degree in America than in Europe, a condi- tion of affairs not improbable when we reflect that the family was originated on this continent. Technically, perhaps, Teleoceras should not be considered as generically distinguishable from Rhinoceros, and had it n found in Europe it would doubtless have been referred to that genus. Since however it is an American form, found in the same beds with Aphelops, its unmistakable ancestor, which latter as has been shown by Cope, Scott and Osborn, is quite distinct from Rhinoceros, I have decided to refer it to a distinct genus; believing that classification should rest so far as possible upon our knowledge of actual relations, and should 246 The American Naturalist. (March, be an expression of those relations so far as they are under- stood and nota mere set of conveniences, based entirely upon the presence or absence, and similarity or dissimilarityfoi = parts. GEOLOGY OF THE REGION. In the immediate region in which the collections were made, only two distinct geological horizons appear on the surface, these are the Loup Fork and Equus beds. None of the water courses have here succeeded in entirely removing the Loup Fork, and exposing the underlying older strata. The Loup Fork beds consists of light colored, calcareous sandstones, somewhat loosely cemented, resembling in color and friability, old mortar. They are everywhere penetrated by numerous calcareous rods or tubes, probably the casts of root-stocks of aquatic plants. They dip very gently to the southeast which is evidenced by the fact that the southern slopes are gentle, while those looking northward are abrupt. Where they have not been entirely removed by erosion, the Equus beds one formably overlie the Loup Fork beds. This unconformity has been overlooked by all previous explorations in this region: Marsh makes no mention of it in reporting on his expedition into this very place in 1872; and in his subsequent descr tions of vertebrate fossils from these beds, he has not distin guished between them, although their respective faunas are really quite distinct, and the beds themselves are not the result of a continuous sedimentation from the commencement . of the one to the close of the other; but there was sa Ho ant break at the close of the Loup Fork when this ia became dry land, and remained such through a long period time, after which the Equus beds were deposited upo? eroded surface of the Loup Fork. a The Equus beds are composed of loose, incoherent er except for occasional layers of somewhat tough, gritty OT The rapidity with which they yield to erosion, and hed erally incoherent nature has greatly aided in concealing In exact statigraphic relations to the underlying bene 1894.] Vertebrate Fossils. 247 almost all exposures the exact contact is concealed by a tatus from the upper beds. In several instances, however, the true relations were easily determined and one, which presented particularly favorable conditions is represented here in fig. 2. It represents a short section of the east side of one of the main ‘draws’ emptying into the Niobrara river. At this point this small water course has cut directly across the bed of a similar water course eroded out of the surface of the Loup Fork and since filled by the Equus beds. At this same point there enters the main ‘draw’ a small tributary from the east, and the combined currents of these two water courses, although SNN X entirely dry except immediately after heavy rains, have sufficed to keep the actual contact apparent. At lf. appear the nearly horizontal Loup Fork strata with their characteristic fossils, Aphelops, Aelurodon, Procamelus, Protohippus, Mastodon, etc. At eb. the Equus beds are seen resting unconformably upon the Loup Fork beds at an angle of about 15° and containing fossils characteristic of these beds, Equus, Elephas, Mylodon, Canis, etc.; al. represents the recent deposits in the bottom of the “draws,” all below the top of this line is imaginary. On the opposite side of the main draw the same conditions are seen at the bottom, but toward the top the contact is not so apparent, since there is on this side no tributary to aid in keeping the exposure free from talus. The figures in the plates and the text accompanying this paper were executed by Mr. Rudolph Weber. To the various members of the expedition, whose liberality made it possible, the authors best thanks are especially due. 248 Fig. 1. Side view of Teleoceras major, n. end of nasals. ‘i Bottom view of Teléoceras major, n. end of nasals, pe i a F. 2". Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5, Fig. 6. Fig. Fig. 8. Fig, 9. N The American Naturalist. Explanation of Plates. Plate I. posterior nares. Front view of nasal horn of same. Top view of nasal horn of same. Fig. 2. Side view of lower jaw of Aelurodon taxoides, amt, anterior mental foramen, pmf. posterior mental for- men. Crown view of same; pa‘, paraconid, prd. conid Plate II. Side view of temporal region of Rhinoceros sonda- — cus (after Flower), mae. meatus auditorius exter nus, pg. post-glenoid proce, pt. post-tympanie process. Side view of temporal region of Teleoceras major. Side view of temporal region of Aphelops Jaig Side view of temporal region of Ceratorhinus suma- trensis. Second, left upper molar of Aphelops fossiger : es crista, acr. anticrochet, ps. posterior sinus. Second, left upper molar of Teleoceras major, CIS- crista, acr. anticrochet, er. crochet, ms. median sinus, as. anterior sinus, pf. posterior fossette. Second, left upper molar of Rhinoceras er ae Filhol), ps. posterior sinus, pv. posterior ried, left upper molar of Aceratherium cece ue tale ? letters as in fig. 6. Second, left upper molar of Ceratorhinus sumakto - sis, cr. crochet, pv. posterior vallum. conid, hyd. hypoconid, med, metaconid, end. ento- e stat A E a a 1894.) Editorials. AE T EDITORIALS. —THeE postoffice department at Washington adopted last year a new style of letter box for cities, which has generally replaced the old ones. This change has been for the worse in one important respect. While the boxes of the new pattern afford better protection from thieves, they are unfit for the reception of second and third class matter generally. The opening is too small, and the fore and aft diameter is too narrow to receive the greater part of such matter. In the attempt to use these boxes for such matter, it is apt to be injured, but usually it cannot be inserted. As the new boxes were not, we learn, intended to exclude such matter, they show a lack of intelligence on the part of both the designer and the department. The old boxes are much more useful, but a new box of the modern pattern, with a wider gape and deeper throat, would be better still. Editors and publishers would be much accommodated by such a change. This would be an improvement much more important than most of the novelties introduced by the last administration of the postoffice department. —Tue International Congress of Zoologists of 1892, was held at Moscow, and was an occasion of much interest. Many important papers were read, a majority of them naturally having reference to various parts of the vast territory under the dominion of the Czar. A peculiar feature ‘of the volume issued by the Congress, which embraces the papers read or abstracts of them, is that it contains a full page portrait of the Grand Duke Serge Al Jrowitch in military costume, as a frontispiece. Below the portrait is a fulsome expressiom of “ ven- eration and thanks” for aid rendered the Congress by “ his imperial highness.” This strikes us as strangely out of place in a zodlogical work, and not less so because the Congress was “international.” The singing of the Russian national hymn, with which the last session of the Congress was closed, can hardly be regarded as an “ international ” zoological ceremony. —Tue conduct of the authorities of the Chicago Exposition since its close, has not been characterized by that care for the property of the exhibitors and others necessarily under their charge, which should characterize an honorable corporation. The buildings have been left insufficiently guarded, and tramps have had full opportunity to perpe- trate mischief, Among these, incendiary fires have been conspicuous, 250 The American Naturalist. so that damage has been done to the property of exhibitors, and many narrow escapes have been made. The dismantelment of the fire apparatus has rendered the situation all the more dangerous. Finally the quarters for the shelter of the strangers engaged in moving their exhibits have been rendered uninhabitable at an inclement season of the year. Altogether, the hospitality of Chicago to exhibitors and national commissions has been scanty, and this part of the exposition management does not redound to the credit of the city. Itis in marked contrast to that which has characterized the expositions held elsewhere — in both Europe and America. —TueE closing of the Allis Biological Laboratory at Milwaukee, is much to be regretted, but as it is due to the financial stringency, it is to be hoped that, with the return of more prosperous times, it will be reopened by its public-spirited and scientific founder. 1894.) Recent Books and Pamphlets. 251 RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. ALLEN, J. A.—On a Collection of Mammals from San Pedro Martir Region of Lower Californie, with notes on or species, particularly of the genus Sitomys. Extr. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, 1893. From the author. ANDREA. DR. A. a fe osaurus poa H. V. Mey. Sonderabdruck aus Ber. d. Senck Naturf. woe in Frankfort, A. M. 1893. From the author. BEECHER, C. E. AND SCHUCHERT, C.—Development of the Brachial Supports in Ma and ani Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc., Washington, 1893. From the authors Rrexomme, J.—The Production of Iron Ores, 1892. Extr. Min. Resources of the U. S., 1892. From the U. S. Geo BOETTGER, Dr. O. mae iiber die cane in der Herp etologie während des Jahres 1889. From the au Bulletin No. 50, 1893, Massachusets State one Exper. Stat. Bulletin No. 25, 1892, oe Bull. No. 29, 18938, U. S. py Div. a Tovani; Carus, P —The Sica. se the Tool. Chicago, 1893. Le Probléme de la Conscience dui Moi. Paris, 1893 —tThe Religion of Science. Chicago, 1898. From the author. CHAPMAN, H. C.—Observations on the Japanese Salamander. Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1893. From the ge , Cuarman, H. C., AND BRUBAKER, A. P.—The Radius of Curvature of the Cor- nea, Extr. Proceeds Acad. Nat. Sci., reals 1893. From the author. Comstock, J. H.—Evolution and Taxonomy. An Essay on the application of the theory of Natural Selection in the Classification of Animals and Plants, illustrated by a study of the wings of insects and by a Contribution to the Daan of the Lepidoț teria. Reprint from the Wilder-Century Books, 1893. From the author. Davenport, C. B.—On the Development of Cerata in Æolis. mai Bull. Harv. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XXIV,1893. From Alexander Agassiz. C. W.—Note on the Upper Incisor of Phascolonus. Extr. Proceeds. les, ILLE, H.—Revue de Paléontology pour Paie, 1891. Extr. l’Annnaire Gèol. Univ., Tome VIII, 1892-93. From the author —Variaciones de Coloracion en el Giróhenitas imbricatus. Extr. La Nitakaa, 2ad Ser. T. II, 1893. From the author. FAIRCHILD, H. L.—Proceeds. of the Fifth Summer Meeting z = Geol. Soc. Am., = ., 1893. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1893. Fro Ferrier, W. F.—Catalogue of a Stratigraphical Collection of Tiaia Rocks Pa pw the World’s Coiumbi ph Re on, Chicago, 1893. Ottawa, Canada, 1893. From the Canadian Geol. Bur : ——Notes on the Microscopical chassis of some rocks from the Counties of Quebec and Montmorency. No date given. From the author. Fifth Annual Rept. of the Texas Agri. Exp. Stat., 1892. RE 252 | The American Naturalist. Fisu, P. A.—Brain Preservation, with a Résumé of some old and new methods : ab d the Shama nts Meus From the author. a GERRISH, F. H., AND BALLock, E. A.—Uniformity in the Division of the Abdon a inal Tora ee Silica Med. & Surg. Journ., 1893. e EDLEY, C.—The Range of Placostylus; A Study in ee Geography. Ext. Proceeds. of the Linn. Soc. of New South Wales, 1892. m the author. » a . Hotticx, Dr. F.—The Old Quarantine. Its ed sd the Causes that led He to it. Extr. Proceeds. Natl. Science Ass., Staten Island, Oct., 1893. From dhe _ author. eiei Hotes, W. H.—Vestiges of Early Man in Minnesota, Extr. Am. Geol., 1898. ; From the author. ? S Hopkins, G. S.—The Lymphatics and Enteric Epithelium of Amia Calva Reprint from the Wilder A Century Book, 1893. From the author. 3 HYATT, A.—Bemerkimgen zu Schultze’s faia einer descriplives Termeni Sonderabdruck aus Biol Ce naik, Aug., à H ——Biopla-tology and a a: Ban ches: af Biologic Research. Extr. Pro : ceeds. Boston Soc. Nat. His ag. ©. G8 m the author n James, E. J.—Education 7 ce Men in heen New York, 1893. From : the pees oy JuL A.—Suggestions in Te Technique. Extr. Proceeds. New ae York 25 Soc., 1893. From the a KILBORNE, F. u AND OTHERS. ceca SE Investigations concerning Ine tious dua ok Diseases of Domesticated Animals. Bull, No.3, Bureau AP. . Ind. U. S. Dept. ss From the Dep’t. Kinastey, J. S.— neath of spn (Part II). Reprint Journ. a : Vol. VIII, 1893. a the a “a LEBEDEFF, N. ks Foon des Timan. Extr. Mem. de Comité Geel aS Vol. XII, 1892. From the auth < n Locan, W. S.—The Siege of paras An Address before the New York T Soc., April, 1893. From the author -a MacDoNALD, A.— Abnormal sick Cir. Inform. No. 4, 1893, Bureau Bd. Nene the Bureau Ed. a McGuire, J. D.—Art of Working in Stone. Extr. Am. Anthrop, 1893- Je ; the author. B. = communis and B. Ai. abdominalis. Reprint from the Wie Century Book, 1893. From the author. eee Orponez, J. G. ew Dites para la Geolgia de México. Extr. cone ; Costado del Ex. ‘Atsobilepato.s num. 1, 1893. From the author. Na N enit a PENROSE, R. A. F.—A Pleistocene Manganese Deposit near Goleoan” Extr. Journ. of Geol., 1893. From the author. of New vt a eedings of the Second Joint Meeting of the Scientific Alliance in Memory of Professor John S. Newberry, March 27, 1893. sb a Report of the Committee on Classification of Methods of im, Washington, 1893. PLATE Il. AMERICAN NATURALIST. r R. WEBER, DEL. 1894.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 253 Ruoaps, S. N.—The Hudsonian Chicadee and its Allies, with Remarks on the ane Se of Bird Races in Boreal America. Extr. Auk, Oct., 1893. From sie ROCKWELL, By E. —Shorthand Instruction and Practice. Cir. Inf. No.1, 1893, Bureau Ea. From the Bureau Ed. SCHUCHERT, C.—On the Development of the Shell of otsi recurvirostra. Extr. Proceeds. Pie =e Washington, 1893. From the author. SHINN, AN: Leland sao Junior, Unive culty. Extr. Overland Monthly, Oct., 1891. aa the a SLocum, H. A.—A Problem in pene Surgery; Why is the Uterus retained after the Ovaries are removed? xtr. Medical News, Oct., 1893. rom the author. SPENCER, J. W.—The Paleozoic Group. The Geology of Ten wipe of North- ` western Georgia and Resources Atlanta, Georgia, 1893. From the aut STEHLIN, H. G.—Zur Kenntniss der Postembryonalen Ape ia ie sen bei Wiederkauern. Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung der Doctorwürde einer hohen Philosophischen Facultät der Universität Basel. Basel, 1893. From the author. Ten ual Report of the Board of Control of the State Agricultural Exp. ets ng Test, F. C.—The Gopher Frog. Extr. Scí., Aug., 1893. From the. author. Twenty-seventh Annual Report on the Colohial Museum and Laboratory. New Zealan ; WALKER, F. A.—The Technical School aud the University. Extr. Atlantic Monthly, Sept., 1893-——Remarks on the Dedication of the New Science and Engineering Buildings of McGill University, Montreal. Extr. Tech. Quart., VI, From the author Warp, C. J.—Jamaica at en An rang ‘Descriptive of the Colony of Jamaica. New York, 1893. From Mr. EAVES, J. F.—Notes on the pasta of the Trenton limestone of Mani- toba, with a description of one new species. Reprint Can. Rec. Sci., 1893. From the author. Woopwarp, M. F.—On the Development of the Teeth of the Macropodidae.. Extr. Picek Zool. Soc. London, 1893. From the author. 254 The American Naturalist. RECENT LITERATURE. The Canadian Ice Age.'—This volume, an octavo of 300 pages, a is a compilation of observations bearing upon the history of the north- ern half of the North American Continent during the Ice Agere | corded by Sir Wm. Dawson since 1855. The generalizations are not - extended beyond the Canadian border, but the author’s conclusions deny the possibility of large accumulations of land ice on an inter- ` ior continental plain, south as well as north of the Canadian boundary. In fact, at that time, according to the author, there was no interior : plain. An ideal map of Canada during the Plistocene Age, shows - the northern half of the continent to consist of three large mountain- : ous islands, the Cordilleran, the Laurentide, and the Ap ace with Greenland to the north, surrounded by ice ladened seas and a straights, These islands were the gathering-grounds of the snow and ee ice that, in the form of glaciers and icebergs, were such es agents in modifying the topography of the continent. ee ment on these islands appeared to be outward in all directions from & central axis or plateau, analagous to what is taking place in Greenman at the present day. The “Terminal Moraine” of the glacialists repre sents the shore line of ‘the ice-ladened sea where floe-ice and bergt grounded with their burden of boulders and other débris. An oe in the levels of the so-called terminal moraine are due tod r a elevation. The author gives a résumé of the the present knowl | the glacial movements during the Plistocene period, as show? K: striae, and the conditions under which the Boulder-drift of Canada wa deposited as proofs of the above theory. mane The succession of deposits is treated of at length, and the we summarized in tables of succession and correlation. In an ase ay order the strata are (1) a lower boulder clay or till resting on ert | striated rock surface, representing shallow water deposit; $ ee clay, the greater part of which, from the evidence of its! was laid down in water from 20 to 100 fathoms deep; boulders. In regard to the striae, the statement as to the agents producing them: 1 The Canadian Ice Age. Being Notes on the Plistocene Geology of Cal (8) surfs author makes the following gene a . and H R especial reference to the Life of the Period and its Climatal coe o the specimens in the Museum. By Sir J. Wm. Dawson. Montreal, The ice moye fossil contents 1894.] Recent Literature. 255 “In summing up this subject, it may be affirmed that when the stri- ation and transfer of materials have obviously been from N. E. to S. W., in the direction of the Arctic current, and more especially when marine remains occur in the drift, we may infer that floating ice and marine currents have been the efficient agents. Where the stria- tion has a local character, depending upon existing mountains and valleys, we may infer the action of land ice. For many minor effects of striation, and of heaping up of moraine-like ridges, we may refer to the presence of lake or coast ice as the land was rising or subsiding.” Again, “Sea glaciation is always accompanied with much smoothing and polishing, and on very hard rocks the striation is comparatively imperfect, while it is not quite uniform in direction and often presents two sets of striae. The action of true land glaciers, especially when moving down considerable slopes, produces deep grooves, as well as striae, on vertical as well as on horizontal surfaces, and is nfore fixed and uniform.” The summary of fossils given in Chapter VI, comprises 240 species, of which 33 are plants; the rest are distributed as follows: Protozoa, 21 ; Echinodermata, 7; Mollusca, 142; Vermes and Arthropoda, 30; Ver- tebrata, 7. From both flora and fauna the author infers an ameliora- tion of the climate, resulting, in his estimation, from the gradual eleva. tion of the land which threw the Arctic currents from its surface, ex- posed a larger area to the direct action of solar heat, and probably determined the flow of marine currents so that the heavy northern ice was led out into the Atlantic instead of being drifted southwest over the lower levels of the continent. The leading thoughts in this collection of papers is the relative value of land ice and water-borne ice as causes of geological change during the Plistocene period. These two agents, together with the complex ele- vations and depressions of the continent as shown by the deposits and their fossil contents account for the effects observed. This paper is an important one, and will probably correct the extravagancies into which the past glacialists have faller. The Mollusc-Fauna of the Galapagos Islands.’—The mol- luscan forms collected by Professor Leslie A. Lee and his assistants, on the voyage of the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer Albatross, from * Scientific Results of Explorations by the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer Albatross. No. XXV. Report on the Mollusk-fauna of ha Galapagos Islands, with Descriptions of New Species. By Robert E. C. Stearns, Ph. D. Adjunct Curator of the D ment of Mollusks. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., a pas, (1893) pp. 353-450, with plate d map. 256 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, | Chesapeake Bay by the way of the Strait of Magellan to San Fran- cisco in 1887-88, is the basis of this paper which is, as will be seen in the foot-note, a report on the Galapagos material belonging to this division of the animal kingdom. As the author states in the text, it “ refers, so far as the marine molluscs are concerned, with a few excep- tions, to the littoral and shallow-water species only.” The deep sea material remains to be investigated and reported on hereafter, though a few species described by Dall are included in the list, in the later part of the report. , The geographical and physical characteristics of the islands, their climatology and floral aspect, the distances and depths of the water between them, their origin, and the views of Darwin, Hooker, Wall- ace, Agassiz, Baur, ete., hereon are briefly presented. The origin of the fauna and the flora is discussed, and in this connection the distri- bution of terrestrial and marine forms, etc., by oceanic currents, drift | lodgement,.freshets, and the agency of rivers, and the aerial distribu- tion of animal and plant life, as well as the generative capacity i vitality of land snails, their ability to exist a long time without food of which numerous instances are given, and the tenacity of life Bo many species that have been observed, are all referred to and trea at considerable length. The author favors the volcanic theory of the region of these islands 88 held by the majority of scientific writers, rather than that of Dr. Baur and Milne-Edwards, who regard the Galapagos as « Continental Islands | originated through subsidence,” a conclusion based principally T biological evidence, ete.. as exhibited in their peculiar fauna and The number of mollusean species and varieties obtained es re Albatross collectors was 120, of, these 7 species and 9 varieties a terrestrial forms. Four new species are described, and one of these a land shell, Bulimulus (Pleuropyrgus) habelii; the others are © ium lesliei, Nitidella incerta, and Tectarius galapagoensis. As a part of the report, the late Dr. Philip Carpenter’ 8 Galapagos species contained in Reeve’s Monograph’s 38 a Albers’ list of Galapagos Bulimi; the Petrel-Cookson shells, 885 5 y mined by E. A. Smith of the British Museum; Wimmers S Habel’s collection; Ancey’s species, and Reibisch’s list of pe lected by Dr. Theodor Wolf, State Geologist of Ecuador; Dr. Jones’ Chatham Island shells, Dall’s recently described G9 ™ * a a at ; f the Albatro® pecies, including a few deep water forms, a part 0 Se dredgings, and a few land species collected by Dr. Baur. 1894,] Recent Literature. 257 Following the above the author has added a systematic list, sum- marized from the preceeding authorities. This compilation, which will be found very convenient by the student, shows a total of 318 species and varieties; of these 48 species and varieties are terrestrial and the others marine. Of the latter, 61 are Lambellibranchs and 1 Scaphopod ; 205 species and 13 varieties are Gastropods. Of the marine species the author says, “ Less than a half score are in- digenous, of these, some, if not all, may prove, upon a better knowledge of the molluscs of the shores of Central and South America, to belong to the mainland.” A comparison is suggested of Omphalius cooksonii Smith,with the Antillean O. fasciatus. The number of species that exhibit intimate relationship with Antillean-Carribean forms is quite small and in conspicuous when placed side by side with the American types ; the latter include nearly all the species contained in the summarized list. The author observes that the land shells are of a distinctly West South American aspect, and a comparison is suggested with several species named, which occur in Bolivia, Peru and Chili, rather than to the peculiar forms inhabiting Ecuador and other South and Central American States further north. z In several instances the erroneous determination of marine species or varieties of the same, that have been made by various authors resulting in the accrediting of Indo-Pacific forms to the Galapagos Islands, have been pointed out and explained. The report closes with a plate con- taining figures of the species described, and the map of the Galapagos islands.—Cunas. T. SIMPsoxN. ; í An Examination of Weismannism.’—The several chapters comprised in this volume have been written at successive intervals dur- ing the last six or eight years, as Professor Weismann’s works have appeared, so that this discussion by Mr. Romanes presents a clear view of the growth of the Weismannian theories. Three chapters are de- voted respectively to Weismann’s system up to the year 1886—to the year 1892—to the year 1893. Of the two remaining chapters, one is a discussion of Weismann’s theory of heredity (1891), the other is a critical examination of Weismann’s theory of evolution (1891). Two appendices entitled “On Germ Plasm and On Telegony ” complete the volume. . In conclusion, the author refers to the fundamental changes which Professor Weismann has wrought in his general system of theories by 3 An Examination of Weismannism. By George John Romanes, M. A., LL.D., F. R.S. Chicago, 1893. Open Court Publishing Co. r 258 The Amirin Natevelid. the publication of his more recent works, and closes with the following remarks: te “Thus, the Weismannian theory of evolution has entirely fallen to pieces with the removal of its fundamental postulate—the absolute — stability of germ-plasm. It only remains to mention once more the effects of this removal upon the other side of his system, viz., the com- panion postulate of the uninterrupted continuity of germ-plasm, with its superstructure in his theory of heredity.” oe Briefly, these effects are as follows: ie “1. Germ-plasm ceases to be continuous in the sense of having borne a perpetual record of congenital variations from the first origin of sexual propagation. : “2. On the contrary, as all such variations have been originated bythe direct action of external conditions, the continuity of germ-plasm T this sense has been interrupted at the commencement of every inher : ted change during the phylogeny of all plants and animals, unicellular as well as multicellular.” 5 “3. But germ-plasm remains continuous in the restricted, though . still highly important sense, of being the sole repository of hereditary ; characters of each successive generation, so that acquired characters can never have been transmitted to progeny “ representatively,” even although they have frequently caused those “specialized ” changes m the structure of germ-plasm which, as we have seen, must certainly po > been of considerable importance in the history of organie evolution. - “4. By surrendering. his doctrine of the absolute stability of germ: — l plasm on the one hand, and of its perpetual continuity on the other, — : Weismann has greatly improved his theory of heredity. For, e : may be thought of his recent additions to this theory in meee a elaborate speculation touching the ultimate mechanism of heredity, so oe a great gain to have freed his fundamental postulate of the — = of germ-plasm from the two further postulates which have P Fie mentioned, and the sole purpose of which was to provide a basis untenable theory of evolution.” “5. In my opinion, it only remains for : Ake remnant of his theory of Pas am by cancelling his modified pene oe less tenable views on amphimixis, in order to give us ® able” : heredfty which is at once logically intact and biologically P p stirp in “6. The theory of germ-plasm would then resemble w | - all points of fundaniental importance, save that while the mene ee open the question as to whether acquired characters are ves a ue - in any degree, the former would dogmatically close it, chiely him to withdraw the last - A E Rede O a E 1894.] Recent Literature. 259 grounds which I have considered in Appendix II. It seemsto me that ‘in the present state of our knowledge, it is more prudent to follow Gal- ton in suspending our judgment with regard to this question, until time shall have been allowed for answering it by the inductive meth- ods of observation and experiment. “7. Hence, in conclusion, we have for the present, only to repeat what Weismann himself has said in one of the wisest of his utter- ances: ‘The question as to the inheritance of acquired characters re- mains, whether the theory of germ-plasm be accepted or rejected.’ ” “Tt is now close upon twenty years that I have accepted the sub- stance of this theory under the name of stirp; and since that time the question as to the inheritance of acquired characters remains exactly where it was. No new facts, and no new considerations of much im- portance, have been forthcoming to assist us in answering it. fore, as already stated in the preface, I intend to deal with this question hereafter as a question of per se, or one which is not specially associa- ted with the labors of Professor Weismann.” The theory entitled by Romanes by the name of “ stirp,” was tenta- tively suggested by Galton in 1875, and was more distinctly enunciated in the AMERICAN Naturaist for 1889, under the head of Diplo- genesis. An acceptance of it is to be found in the article by vom Rath which is republished in the January Naturatist. It is evident that the diversity in the views of biologists as to the inheritance of acquired characters is becoming more verbal than real. Extinct Monsters.‘—In this book of some 250 pages Mr. Hutch- inson has endeavored to give a popular account of some of the larger forms of extinct animals, and has illustrated the several chapters with drawings of restorations of them. These drawings are commended to the public by Dr. Henry Woodward, who pronounces them, in a pre- face, “ the happiest set of restorations that has yet appeared.” The author devotes seven of the sixteen chapters to the Saurians, drawing upon the discoveries in the United States for much of his material. Under the head of Sea-Scorpions many points of interest concerning Pterygotus and its allies are given. American Mammals are represented by one species from the Eocene, one from the Neocene, and one from the Plistocene. From the varied Sivalik fauna of India, the author chooses Sivatherium and Testudo atlas, and from South America the characteristic Sloths and Glyptodons. The remaining t Extinct Monsters. A Popular Account of Some of the Larger Forms of Ancient Animal Life. By Rev. H. N. Hutchinson, with illustrations by J. Smit. London, 1893, Chapman and Hall, Publishers. 260 The American Naturalist. ATL UERRURIAREUOTER CUALANRNI AUAADAAIODULMALCOANOLRLLOLOROCAO ODULLINABLIN UU NNN UELAUOTAL AA NEREUACRERCLGL ACURA LAAN ACAPE LRG OTA CERUCA SEU RSA CRO CUNTERR ELEC UT CLSG MLPA RU RSLRRE CACAR ANERLAAATEAPATIR ARESE MANEAAAIDAARAD AAA OARA DOODO NO LLOROr OOTA O ONO CA CIARA ONTTO OE ASOA DILA CACAA LACA CANOU CATARA AALLOT RATTAN LCAONT ORURO ARCUATA OTTO NOON LARGER TL | MANAI LALA From Marsh. Skeleton. Fic. 1. Agathaumas fabellatus. From the Laramie of N. America. Recent Literature. Fic. 2. Camarasauru:, from the Juarssic of North America. 261 262 The American Naturalist. [Mareb, chapters describe the Mammoth, the Mastodon and the Wooly Rhino- ceros, Some Giant Birds, the Irish Elk and Steller’s Sea-Cow. In the appendices reference is made to the recent discoveries by Dr. Fraas of the structure of the dorsal and tail fins of Ichthyosaurus tenui- rostris, and to Mr. Henry. Lee’s discussion as to the existence of the great Sea-Serpent. Here also is given a list of British localities where mammoth remains have been found. The book is written in an entertaining style, and it is likely to interest the lay reader in the subject. That it will have considerable effect in extending a knowledge of the extinct forms of animal life there can be no doubt. Meanwhile it is a pity that the author did not consult some one familiar with the subject, who could have given him the correct nomenclature of some of the forms which he portrays. Thus the so-called Stegosaurus was previously named Hypsirhophus; and paleontologists who have seen both, allege that the name Bronto- saurus was given to the reptile previously named Camarasaurus. It is probable that Triceratops is Agathaumas, which was named and described fourteen years before the former name was given. It would have been better to have given a restoration of the Loxolophodon mirabile Marsh, rather than one of the L. ingens; since a skeleton of the former is known, while none of the latter had been obtained at the time the so-called restoration was made. We understand that a second volume is in preparation, which will contain other forms not included in the one under review. There isa fine field yet open in this direction, and we hope that Mr. Hutchinson will be able to take advantage of it. We owe to the courtesy of the publishers the opportunity of presenting two of the illustrations. 1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 263 General Notes. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. Trans-Pecos Texas.—The studies of Mr. Streeruwitz in western Texas have developed some interesting facts from both a scientific aud economic standpoint. The rocks are mostly older and newer eruptives and various metamorphics; the sedimentary, as now known, reach from the Silurian to the Cretaceous period, and Cenozoic deposits are probable. The petrography of the Igneous rocks has been reported upon by Mr. A. Osann in the Ann. Rept. for 1892, Geological Survey of Texas. The results of his examinations show the great diversity of the character of the rocks prevailing in the different mountain ranges and the great difference in time and conditions of their origin. Mr. Streeruwitz finds that the disintegration of the rocks in Trans- Pecos Texas is mostly the result of the rapid changes of temperature and deflation, the same forces active in the desert of Sahara. The rains are also the cause of another source of disintegration causing that pe- culiar shape of granite blocks peculiar to the Sahara called “ Pilzfel- sen.” Chemical action manifests itself in the formation of rows of caves in the stratified granular rocks similar again to the African deserts. The prevalence of ozone in West Texas is explained by the author as the result of the friction of the drifting sand grains among them- selves and along the surface of the soil and the rocks, which creates sufficient electricity to ozonize the oxygen of the atmosphere. In regard to the ores, Mr. Streeruwitz reports that the most of the mountain ranges of Trans-Pecos Texas are ore-bearing. These ores are of excellent quality and exist in paying quantities, along with building stones and material for art and decorative work, not to men- tion agates, sardonyx, opals and other precious stones. The difficul- ties in the way of mining these products are pointed out and ways of surmounting them suggested by the writer. Under existing conditions the mountain land of this region is practically valueless, and for lack of irrigation the flats are becoming less fertile from year to year. (Fourth Ann. Rept., 1892, Geol. Surv. Texas, Austin, 1893.) Estimates of the Duration of the Glacial Epoch.—At a recent : fthe Geol gical Society of America, Mr. Warren Upham 264 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, showed by a comparison of the shore erosion and accumulation of beach gravel and sand by the waves of Lake Agassiz with those of Lake Michigan that the existence of the former might be estimated at not more than 1000 years; the moraines belonging to the area of the later drift were probably formed in twice that time; the recession of the ice from its outermost limit to the first of these moraines a similar length of time, or perhaps, longer. In these conclusions the author agrees with Prestwich, who estimates the epoch of extreme cold at 15,000 to 25,000 years, and the melting of the ice-sheet to from 8,000 to 10,000 years or less. In order to show that his conclusion as to the age of Lake Agassiz is consistent with the known records and inferred conditions of the Ice age upon the central belt of the North American continent, Mr. Upham reviews the series of formations in the Mississippi and Nelson river basins which belong to the times immediately preceding, during and following the Glacial period, especially considering the changes in the altitude and slopes of the land and the probable measures of time demanded by the processes of drift transportation and deposition, by subsequent weathering with soil formation, and stream erosion. Asa result of his investigations, he gives the following estimates of the dur- ation of the three parts of the Cenozoic period under study, arranged in chronological order : “The time of preglacial epeirogenic elevation, with the deposition and erosion of the Lafayette beds, some 60,000 to 120,000 years; the Glacial period, regarded as continuous, without interglacial epochs, at- tending the culmination of the uplift, but terminating after the subsi- dence of the glaciated region, 20,000 to 30,000 years, and the Post- glacial or recent period, extending to the present time, 6000 to 10,000 years. In total the Plistocene era in North America, therefore, has comprised probably about 100,000 or 150,000 years, its latest third or fourth part being the Ice age and subsequent time. The pre-plisto- cenic Cenozoic era appears by changes of its marine molluscan faunas to have been vastly longer, having comprised, perhaps, between hie and four million years, of which the Pliocene period would be a sixth or eighth part, thus exceeding the whole of the ensuing era of great epeirogenic movements and resulting glaciation.” In the discussion which followed the reading of Mr. Upham’s pape Mr. McGee called attention to the unmistakable unconformity betwee the Columbia and Lafayette formations in the Coastal plain series. unconformity represents erosion approaching 1000 feet in depth in pe Lower Mississippi region and from 300 to 500 or more feet in depth 1m 1894] Geology and Paleontology. 265 the embouchures of the other rivers of the Coastal plain. It is repre- sented not only by the removal of fully one-half of the original vol- ume of the Lafayette formation, but by the degradation of an equal or greater volume of subjacent formations of Neocene, Eocene and Cretaceous age beneath. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894.) In a previous publication in the same periodical, Mr. Upham had concluded that the observed volume of the Plistocene glacial erosion and resulting drift had probably accumulated in from 10,000 to 20,000 years. In the general conclusion of a short rather than a long period, Mr. R. S. Tarr agrees, but cannot accept Mr. Upham’s line of argu- ment, with our present knowledge of the rate of glacial erosion. Various complex factors make a time estimate of little value. Mr. Tarr bases his estimate on the following conditions. A glacier is supplied with material for erosive work in three ways: (1) it may carry along the loose material in its path; (2) it may rend rocks asunder whenever a place of entry is found ; (3) it may obtain material from the rock itself by scouring it with cutting tools already supplied. The erosive action of ice is to round, smooth and polish the surface over which it moves, lessening the possibility of obtaining a supply of cutting tools, so that as the period of ice occupancy lengthens the power of erosion diminishes. With these facts as a basis, a young glaciated region should be lit- tered with glacial drift, the products of disintegration. In a later stage the deposits would be composed of fresher rock fragments distrib- uted in greatest abundance near the periphery of the ice-sheet. Dur- ing old age the country would be free from deposits and the topography would consist of polished, rounded hills of glacial erosion. The first stage would be brief, the second longer, and the passage to extreme old age one of slow development. In accordance with these facts, Mr. Tarr concludes that the North American glaciated region is topographically young, or at most not far advanced into maturity. (Am. Geol., Vol. XII. 1893.) Geology of Marthas Vineyard.—Afier a personal investiga- tion of the geology of Marthas Vineyard, Mr. Hollick finds that the ridge of hills consisting of a superstructure of contorted clay strata capped and flanked to the north with till, is composed of material de- rived from cretaceous and post-cretaceous strata. He does not agree with Shaler that the dislocations and elevations of the strata are due to mountain-building forces, but that they can be accounted for by the ‘Same theory that the author advanced for the modification of the strata 266 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, of Long Island and Staten Island which is to the south of former cre- taceous areas, viz., that the clays have been eroded and ploughed up in masses, and the strata folded or squeezed u p and shoved ahead by an advancing ice-sheet, which, upon melting, left them as hills or ridges of dislocated, contorted material covered by the englacial and super-glacial till. (Trans. N. Y., Acad. Sci., XIII, 1894.) Plistocene Birds of Madagascar.—An important collection of bird bones from Madagascar has been received by the Academie! des Sciences de Paris. According to MM. Milne-Edwards and Grandidier these bones indicate that at a period not remote, certaintly contemporary with man, Madagascar was inhabited by 12 species, at least, of gigan- tic birds, incapable of flight, but provided with immense feet. Two types are distinguished : the first, /Epyornis, comprising 8 or 9 species; the second, named by the author Mullerornis, characterized by a lighter body, and a shorter tail than the first, comprises but 3 species. The conditions under which these bones were found shows that the bird lived on the shores of water, with troups of small hippopotami, croco- diles and turtles. (Revue Scientifique, Jan., 1894.) Antenne in Trilobites.—In the American Journal of Science, August, 1893, Mr. W. D. Matthew puts on record the important dis- covery of antenne in Triarthrus beckii, and gives illustrations of a number of this species showing these appendages. The specimens were collected by Mr. Valiant in the Hudson River shales near Rome, N. Y. Walcott suspected an antennal system in the Trilobites, and looked for it by means of sections, but failed to find a trace. In discussing this valuable addition to biological knowledge, Mr. H. M. Bernard (Nature, Oct. 12, 1893) refers to the appearance and posi- tion of the antennæ as described by Mr. Matthew and draws the fol- lowing conclusions: “(1) All trilobites had antennæ, which except, as far as we know, in the case of Triarthrus beckii alone, remained shut in under the head shield. “ (2) These ventrally placed antennæ were inserted, approximately, one on each side of the labrum. “ It seems to me that these natural conclusions from the facts go far to establish the relationship originally maintained by Burmeister, and recently elaborated by the present writer (The Apodidæ, Nature Series, 1892). But however weighty the arguments (amounting, it seemed to me, to a proof) in favor of this relationship, the inability actually to 1894,] Geology and Paleontology. 267 demonstrate the existence of the antenne was a felt weakness. That weakness has now been finally removed, and my arguments have been fully confirmed by the finding that the Trilobites had antenne in prac- tically the same position as the anterior pair in the Apodide. “The Trilobites may, therefore, take a firm place at the root of the Crustacean system, with the existing Apus as their nearest ally.” Development of the Brachial Supports in Dielasma and Zygospira.—Some interesting results have been obtained by Messrs. Beecher and Schuchert in studying the development of the brachial supports of the Terebratellidz. Some of the latest are embodied in a paper published in the Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Washington, 1893, in which the authors show that the most primitive form of the loop in the An- cylobrachia is centronelloid and that therefore Centronella represents a larval or immature condition of the higher genera. For demonstra- tion the authors use the paleozoic species, Dielasma turgida and give drawings of six sections to show the development of the loop. It is also shown that in Zygospira recurvirostra the primitive arm support is a terebratuloid loop having a Centronella form, which under- goes several modifications before the growth of the spiral lamellæ, in so far resembling the development of Dielasma. The spirals then de- velop as two slender converging lamellæ, curving toward the ventral valve, originating from the outer pointed ends of the loop. When maturity is attained there are about three volutions in each spiral cone. Sectional drawings illustrate this series of changes. Zygospira is the earliest spire-bearing genus known, and from the study of the ontogeny and phylogeny of its species the authors con- clude that the Ancylobrachia are older and more primitive than the Helicopegmata. According to the authors these results throw doubt on a number of Lower and Upper Silurian species described as having recurved loops and previously referred to Macandrevia or Waldheimia. The facts indicate that Waldheimia mawii, described by Davidson, is the young of Davia navicula Sowerby. Geological News.—Mesozoic.—Inm a recent journey across the plateau of Shan-si, China, Mr. Obrucheff discovered some fossil plants in the middle parts of the series of deposits which cover in China, the carboniferous formation, and which Richthofen had described under the names of Meberkohlen-sandsteine or Plateau-sandsteine. These Plants indicate that the middle portions of this formation belong to the Mesozoic age, and are Triassic or Liassic. (Nature, Jan., 1894.) 268 The American Naturalist. {Mareb, In a report on the Cretaceous area north of the Colorado Mr. J. A. Taff shows the detail of stratigraphy in four sectional views which give a concise view of the variations in thickness and structure and the rela- tions of each division and formation to its associate divisions or forma- tions, from the Brazos river on the south to the Red river valley on the north. Some attention is given to the soils of this region, and consid- erable definite information concerning the artesian water supply. The stratigraphic work is largely based on the paleontological determina- tions of Prof. F. W. Cragin. : Prof. Cope recently described two new species of Plesiosauroids from the Pierre formation of the Upper Cretaceous of South Dakota, under the names Embaphias circulesus and Elasmosaurus intermedius. The first named represents a new genus allied to Pliosaurus, having a short neck and strongly biconcave vertebra. He also described the con- struction of the posterior part of the skull in another Plesiosauroid, the Cimoliasaurus snovii of Williston, showing that the supratemporal and supramastoid bones are both present and distinct. (Proceet Amer. Philosoph. Soc.). CexNozorc.—As to the origin of certain hydrocarbons of Utah, Mr. M. E. Jones considers the theory of an animal origin advocated by Newberry to be the only tenable one. The}deposits with one possible exception, are all either Eocene or Miocene, and their source, according to the author, being the overlying or adjacent bituminous beds. These remarks apply only to the deposits situated near the coal beds of Utah in the neighberhood of Pleasant Valley Junction. (Science Dec. 1893.) 1894.] Zoology. 269 ZOOLOGY. The Irritability of Noctiluca.—M. Jean Massart has been conducting a series of experiments to ascertain to what stimulants the Noctilucæ respond, as shown by their phosphorescence, and to what extent the phosphorescence is modified by exterior agencies. The au- thor finds that these organisms are sensitive (1) to a slight agitation of the water, (2) to sudden variations in the temperature and density of the water, and (3) to a great number of chemical substances. As to the first stimulant mentioned, the author discovered, by an ingenious experiment, that the agitation of the water produces a deformation of the body of the Noctiluca, and it is this deformation which causes the phosphorescence, and not a vibration transferred to the animal from the water in motion. The experiments testing the effect of certain volatile substances upon the organisms are exceedingly interesting. Amyline produces hyperesthesia, the light is more intense than in normal indi- viduals. This condition lasts for five minutes, then all is dark. At a slight blow on the vessel the phosphorescence reappears, showing that sensibility has not been lost. Bromoform acts as an anesthetic. For about five minutes the Noctiluca subjected to its influence emit a feeble light which slowly fades out. At the end of twenty-five minutes the light-is almost imperceptible ; anesthesia persists. After twenty hours the normal state is recovered. The effect of acetone is similar, but more rapid in action. At the end of five minutes the phosphorescence disappears entirely, and at the end of twenty-eight minutes a slight tap on the vessel causes a diffused light, which persists for some seconds showing a return to the normal state. Some substances produce anesthesia immediately, without any dis- play of irritability (alcohol, methyl and paraldehyde) ; others result in the death of the organism without any luminous reaction (piperidine). lorhydrate of morphine and metaphosphate of sodium appear to ave no effect upon the Noctiluca, which is astonishing since the latter sudstance is considered an energetic coagulant of the albuminoids. While a slight agitation of the water containing Noctiluca increases the phosphorescent light, a violent shaking destroys it: This the au- thor believes, is due to a blunting of the sensibility of the organism to the shock. A few minutes in quiet and darkness restores the animal to its normal irritability. 18 270 The American Naturalist. [Mareb, In general, the Noctiluca responds more readily to stimuli at night than in the day-time, and this is true even under artificial conditions, For instance, the record of one set of animals kept in the light from the beginning to the end of the experiment, and that of another kept in the dark is almost identical. M. Massart is inclined to attribute this regular variation of sensitiveness to memory on the part of the animal rather than to the influence of light, and his experiments would appear to prove his theory. That the irritability of the Noctiluca varies with the temperature and density of the water is demonstrated in a few carefully conducted experiments, the results of which are given in tabulated form. Inci- dentally, M. Massart observed that the normal specific gravity of the the Noctiluca is 1.014, but that this is increased or lessened with the varying density of the water. In conclusion, the author calls attention to the analogy between the irritability of the Mimosa pudica and that of the Noctiluca, the one manifesting itself in movement, the other by the emission of light. (Bull. Sci. de la France et de la Belgique, T. XXV, ler Partie, 1893.) The Production of Sound Among the Ants.—That ants have some means of communicating with each other is well-established. The experiments of Landois and those of Lubbock suggest that this communication is carried on by means of sounds produced and heard by these small creatures, but which the human ear is incapable of appreciating. The observations of M. C. Janet, published in Ann. En- tomol. de France (Vol. LXII, p. 159) show that certain species of the Formicidae, notably Myrmica rubra L. and Tetramorium cæspitum L., are in the habit of making a stridulating noise, probably by reciprocally rubbing superficial parts of the body. A demonstration of this fact 1$ very simple. Ona small pane of glass put a ring of soft putty, and after carefully dropping in the middle of the ring, by means of a fun- nel, a mass of ants freed from bits of earth or vegetable matter, quickly cover them with a second pane of glass and press it down until there is just barely room between the two pieces of glass for the ants to move. If provision has been made for renewal of air the imprisoned ants will live for several days. On holding this little box of ants to the ear and listening attentively, a murmur is heard very similar to that made ih a liquid boiling gently in a closed vessel, and before long distinct stridulations can be heard in the midst of the murmuring. These sounds are heard only when the ants are disturbed. 1894.] Zoology. 271 M. Janet concludes that the numerous rugose surfaces which are found on the body of ants in such places that two of them can be rubbed together, are probably the organs which produce the stridulat- ing sounds of the Formicidae. These rugosities have other uses. For instance, those about the articulations serve to hold the body stiff at will at that particular point, an advantage to the animal in pushing or carrying heavy weights up steep slopes. (Revue Scientifique, January, 1894.) Zoological News—Mo ttuvusca.—Mr. J. I. Peck’s report on the Pteropods and Heteropods collected by the U. S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross, during the voyage from Norfolk Va., to San Fran- cisco, Cal., 1887-88, is published in the Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI. The material is the result of both dredging and surface collection. The Pteropods belong almost exclusively to the family Cavoliniidae, representing all the species except one of the genus Cavo- linia, the species of Cuvierina, as also six of Clio. The Heteropods are included in the three genera Atlanta, Carinaria and Ianthina. Accord- ing to the author, results show that there are no marked distinctions between the kinds and distribution in the Atlantic and Pacific waters of northern South America. i UrocHorDA—A new Tunicate from the Pacific Coast is described by Mr. W. E. Ritter, who assigns it to the genus Perophora. The new Species presents an interesting character. In very many, though not all of the colonies, the ascidiozooids are as completely imbedded in a common test as they are in Botryllus or Goodsiria. In recognition of this transitional character the author proposes for it annectens as a Specific name. (Cal. Acad. Sci., Vol. IV, 1893.) Mammatta—Two new Neotome from the Plateau region of Ari- zona are described by C. Hart Merriam. One of the new species, N. arizonæ, presents a remarkable combination of the external characters of the bushy-tailed wood rats with the cranial characters of the round- tailed species. The other, N. pinetorum, is a round-tailed species allied to the N. fuscipes group of California. In this connection Mr. Merriam calls attention to an important cranial character, heretofore over- looked, which serves to distinguish Teonoma from Neotoma. In the skulls of the round-tailed wood rats there is a long open slit on each side of the presphenoid and anterior third of the basisphenoid. These openings the author designates the spheno-palatine vacuities. (Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Wash., 1893.) 272 The American Naturalist. ; [March, EMBRYOLOGY. Cleavage and the Formation of Organs.—An important ad- dition to the accumulations of experimental embryology has been re- cently made by Oscar Hertwig’ in the hope of clearing up the fogs that envelop the important subject of the relations of the cells of a cleaving ovum to the subsequently formed organs of the adult. While His, Roux and Weismann have seen in the ovum or germ a preformation of parts or organs and looked upon the cleavage cells as different in quality from the first, regarding the process of embryo for- mation as an evolution (in the old sense), Driesch and Hertwig, from experimental studies, now regard the ovum as isotropic, its first cells are qualitively alike, the embryology is an epiginetic formation of organs. The process is one of inter-relation of the cleavage cells. ; In the present paper the author describes a Jong series of experi- ments made upon frogs’ eggs and applies them to the overthrow of Roux’s main position, meeting that investigator upon his own grounds. The methods used are: the compressing of the eggs between glass slides placed horizontally, vertically or inclined; the com pressing of the eggs by drawing them into narrow glass tubes placed horizontally or vertically ; the partial separation of the first two cleavage cells (in the Triton) by means of a loop of fibre from a cocoon tied about the the egg; the injury of one of the first two cells by the insertion of a needle; and the same result by the use of an electric current, continu- ous or interrupted. oa We will first give some of the chief facts obtained by each meth . and then the author’s conclusions, : When the eggs lie in the normal position upon a glass slide but are compressed by the slide that rests upon them so as to be no ~~ spherical but considerably flattened, the main axis from the black tot light pole being thus made the shorter, by a third or a fourth, the pal cleave in an abnormal manner.. The third plane is not horizontal a more nearly vertical so that the first eight cells form a bilaterally < i metrical set of four on each side the second cleavage plane. me the pressure is exerted upon the sides of the egg, which is done by p ; be * 3 a _ ‘Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom communications mY se nt. 2Archiv fr Mik. Anatomie. 42. 29 Dezember, 1893, pps. 662-794, sda 1894.] Embryology. 273 ing the slide vertical and allowing the eggs to take up their normal position before the second slide is pressed upon them, the cleavage is abnormal. The second plane is not a vertical one but is horizontal so that two black-pole cells and two light-pole cells are formed. The two former cells are very small and divide up by somewhat vertical planes parallel to the first. Thus the second, normal, plane remains long absent. When the plates are inclined to 45° a still different modifica- tion of cleavage results. The eggs that are drawn into narrow tubes are distorted into cylin- drical or barrel-shaped masses that cleave abnormally. When the tube rests horizontally the first plane is vertical or normal but always at right angles to the axis of the tube, the second is normal, that is, at right angles to the first, but the third is also vertical and not horizon- tal: the fourth is horizontal. When the tube is placed vertically the black part of the egg is up- permost and the cleavage is again altered by the pressure of the tube. The first plane is oblique and variable, but divides off a smaller upper cell from a larger lower cell. All these abnormal modes of cleavage may, the author maintains, be explained upon his principle that the cleavage plane is at right angles to the axis of the nuclear spindle and that the position of the spindle-axis is dependant upon the shape and character of the proto- plasm about it; the poles of the spindle lie in the directions of the greatest masses of protoplasm. Pressure acts by changing the shape of the protoplasmic mass and thus inducing a new direction for the nuclear spindles. That in the frog different forms of cleavage result when the egg is pressed from the side or from above downward is to be explained by the quality of the protoplasmic masses, the nature of the Protoplasm, admixture of yolk, etc. being a factor as well as its mass in regulating the direction of the nuclear spindle. This explanation is thus more fundamental than the principles of surface tension and rectangular intersections of cleavage planes, which follow in part from this action of mass upon nuclear arrangement. If the eggs remain under pressure between the plates or in the tubes they continue to develop, form gastrulas and, in some cases, larve. This furnishes a good means of confirming the contention of Pfluger and of Roux that the medullary folds really are formed upon that side of the egg which is at first the light colored lower side though they © normally appear upon the upper side and would hence be naturally regarded as formed from the black or animal-pole side. 274 The American Naturalist. [March, Between horizontal glass plates the gastrulation takes place so that the crescentic blastopore lip appears upon the edge of the lower side of the disk-shaped egg, at any point of this periphery. It then travels, in some way not observed, across the lower, flat surface, and closes ata point of the periphery diametrically opposite to that whence it started. Now in sections it is found that the yolk mass is at first at the end near the first position of the blastopore, then shifting, lies at the other end. If the egg were free and not held fast by the pressing plates this shifting of the center of gravity would tend to revolve the egg so that its lighter colored part would become uppermost. Meanwhile the head fold and medullary folds come in near and along the region traversed by the blastopore (they are found upon the flat under side of the com- pressed egg) and hence would normally appear upon the upper side if this rolling of the egg took place. Passing over some other interesting observations we may mention those made upon eggs that were forced to develop up-side-down. This was done by turning them over, under pressure, after the first or second cleavages. The light colored part of the egg thus remains uppermost The eggs develop normally at first but finally when gastrulation begins the blastopore is irregular in shape and the yolk is asymetrically dis- tributed so that very imperfect and monstrous gastrulas result. An attempt to separate the first two cells of tritons by drawing à loop of fine silk about the constriction between them did not succeed, since the two cells remained connected by an isthmus. Yet as they were held partly apart some curious modifications in the development resulted. The results are, however, very diverse. Each cell may cleave anda dumbell-shaped blastula result and eventually a monstrous embryo formed half upon one side of the thread, half upon the other or chiefly upon one side and partly upon the other. The nervous sy% tem may be outlined altogether upon one of the parts kept apart by the thread. is What may be considered the most important part of the paper 18 that treating of Hertwig’s repetition of Roux’s experiments upon the development of frogs eggs in which one of the first two cells is destroyed or injured by needle thrusts. Such eggs continue to develop, but produce abnormal embryos. Roux maintained that the uninjured half of the egg formed @ half blastula, half-gastrula, ete. Hertwig claims that this is not the case and figures many sections that support his claim very convincingly. 1894,} Embryology. 275 The development of the uninjured half of the egg is not as it would be in an entire egg but is so modified by the presence of a partly dead mass adjacent to it that it produces what may be called rather an ab- normal blastula with an inclusion of inactive or dead yolk than in any sense a half-blastula. Later, abnormal gastrulas are formed. These, however, are not Semigastrule laterales, anteriores or posteriores as Roux describes, but gastrule checked and distorted in their formation. It seems, moreover, that only the presence of the inactive or dead yolk of the injured cell prevents the living cell from developing into a complete small gastrula as in the echinoderm experiments of Driesch. This dead or injured mass remains intimately attached to the live cell and hence is incorporated as a part of the embryo which it modifies somewhat as the yolk of a meroblastic egg modifies the part that forms the embryo. Some eggs develop even the medullary folds and the notochord and form parts of larve. These are, however, very incomplete and also much varied in character; since, apparently, the injured cell is killed, coagulated, only in the part near the needle hole and may become, else- where, utilized as part of the embryo, this embryo will be more or less perfect according as the needle thrust has destroyed more or less and even according as it has destroyed one part or another of the cell, for thus the dead part will come to occupy a ventral or a dorsal position, etc., in the embryo. This description of the formation of embryos that are more or less complete, according as the mass of inert substance is less or greater, is strongly opposed to the conception of Roux that, namely, the half egg first formed a half embryo. Yet Roux allowed that a more complete embryo was subsequently formed from the half by a process of revivi- fication of the inert half, by what he called postgeneration. The ulti- mate result is thus the same according to either investigator. Moreover Hertwig concedes that some process of “ postgeneration ” takes place to convert part of the inert mass into active cells; the in- jury to the cell having been in part but temporary so that it may later take part in forming the embryo. : While Roux insists upon the power of one cell to develop by itself as a half embryo and then to coerce the inactive half into the subse- quent formation of the complete embryo, Hertwig lays stress upon the continuity and uniformity ot a process that is from the first a forma- tion of a whole embryo by the half-egg, subsequently, in part, assisted by the slow acting injured half. 276 The American Naturalist. [March, With an omission of a critique upon Roux’s conceptions ot develop- mental processes we pass to the general conclusions that end the paper Pressure that changes the shape of the amphibian egg induces great changes in the directions and sequence of the cleavage planes and in the size of the cells. l The direction of the planes results from the form of the cell and the distribution of its protoplasm. : 'Fhere is no causal connection between the first planes and the axes of the body ; the main axis of the body is not determined by the posi- tion of the first or second cleavage planes. In the various induced forms of cleavage the nuclei that are formed become, in the different cases, distributed to very various parts of the yolk; they may be vicariously distributed to all parts of the yolk, As the cleavage does not separate parts of the yolk predestined to form definite parts of the animal, so also the nuclei are not qualita- tively divided into different kinds of nuclear material for the various cells. Yet normal embryos with normally placed organs arise from such mixed up or unnaturally distributed nuclei. The egg contains no definite subst t apart to form special organs (liver-, skin-, retina-forming material) but it is isotropic. The contents of the egg ceases to be isotropic and becomes more and more specialized and organized in the process of cell multiplication with its important chemico-physical transformations (such as increase in the nuclear ma- terial In spite of this isotropy the egg is a definitely organized cell with _ yolk, protoplasm, etc., of different specific gravity. This specific nature of the egg contents and also the shape of the egg exercises a directive influence over the process of development; the embryo at first must be adapted to the form of the egg. The shape and position of the egg determine the position of the first cleavage planes. : As no rearrangement of heavy and light portions takes place In cleavage the distribution of mass in the egg corresponds to that in the blastula. : When the walls of the blastula are not uniform the gastrulation can take place only in a special zone which is below the equator when there is less yolk, as in the amphibian egg, and above when there is very much yolk, as in meroblastic eggs. From an oval or elongated egg there is formed an elongated blas- tula, gastrula, ete. (in triton and insects, ete.). 1894.] Embryology. 277 ` As many eggs have elso a bilateral arrangement of their component substances there must follow a bilateral blastula in which the place for formation of the blastopore will be more sharply defined. The chief axes of the embryo may correspond approximately to the first cleavage planes in eggs that are bilaterally symmetrical or that have one long diameter, since the character of the egg determines both. In the gastrulation of the amphibian egg there is a revolution about an axis cutting the plane of symmetry and the plane of equilibrium. Eggs of complex consistency are acted upon by gravitation so that they are oriented and if bilaterally symmetrical stand with the plane of symmetry vertical since this is also the plane of equilibrium. If such eggs are forced to develop in a constrained position they form asymmetrical embryos so that gravitation is, in a sense, one of the in- fluences determining structure. If one of the first two cells of the egg is destroyed the other devel- ops into a tolerably normal embryo having, however, some of its less important regions defective. When one cell is but partly destroyed it may later form cells that are added to the uninjured half to help form the embryo. This secon- dary formation of cells in the injured half may be from the uninjured nucleus of that cell, or sometimes, by the migration of nuclei from the uninjured egg-half into the injured egg-half. The development of the uninjured half, by itself or with the aid of part of the injured half, follows the same laws as the natural ontogeny of the species. The injured yolk acts in the development of this half of the egg as the ” nutrient material does toward the formaitive in a meroblastic egg. The process of postgeneration described by Roux does not take place nor is there a revivification of the destroyed egg-half. Embryos with cleft blastopore cannot form double monsters by the process of postgeneration that Roux brought in to explain such a formation. We cannot form at will half-anterior, -posterior or -lateral blastulas or embryos by destroying one of the first two cleavages cells. : In these cases of injury complex processes of adjustment may result in the formation of a normal embryo under changed circumstances. : The results obtained by these pressure experiments as well as the ery to one of the cleavage cells demonstrate the untenability of the Mosaic theory, the theory of specialized germ areas and Weismann’s theory of germ plasm. 278 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, The egg is a specifically organized one-celled organism that develops epigenetically by process of multiplication of cells with subsequent dif- ferentiation. : Since each cell comes from the first (the egg) by division it likewise contains the beginnings of the whole and becomes differentiated and specific during process of development according to the position it oc- cupies in the whole at any period (gastrula, etc.). The reasons leading up to this position may be put under the following seven heads: 1. A complete organism may be formed from one of the first two or four cells.; accordingly in different cases cells of like origin must be put to forming different organs. 2. As the gastrula mouth may appear at various parts of the periphery the cells concerned must have different ates in different cases. 3. The same is true in the abnormal cases of formation of multiple gastrula mouths; then there may be formed four instead of two eyes, ears, ete. 4. Frog’s eggs that develop when held up-side-down must have the material utilized in a different way from the normal. 5. Thus also the triton larvee show various ways of using the similar cells when the first two are partly separated by a thread. 6. When the frog develops up-side-down cases occur in which the lip of the blastopore is rolled outward and unites with the other lip so that the line of union is not between the edges of the lips but between the edge of one and the turning out surface of the other. Then the notochord and the medullary plate would be formed from cells quite other than those normally acting. 7. Changes in the cleavage process that so mix up the nuclear substance that it is assigned to different parts of the yolk in different eggs have no influence upon the normal result of development. Thus in place of the mosaic theory of Roux and the germ-plasm theory of Weismann we may substitute the theory of the controlling inter-adjustments of the embryonic cells and later of the tissues an organs. 1894 ] Entomology. 279 ENTOMOLOGY ' The Four-lined Leaf-bug.—Another satisfactory monograph of a hitherto little-known injurious insect comes from the Cornell Univer- sity Agricultural Experiment Station.? Mr. Slingerland „reports that Pæcilocapsus lineatus has been destructive to currant foliage in New York for several years, sometimes rivalling, in damage done, the common currant-worm. Bushes on the university grounds “ looked as though a fire had swept over them, leaving the prominent topmost leaves brown and dead.” Such injury checks the growth of the bushes and materially lessens their productive capacity the following season. The past history of the insect is reviewed at some length, the discussion showing that it has been recognized as a destructive species for many rs. The four-lined leaf-bug shows an extraordinary range of food-plants, 54 species being listed as attacked by it. “ Botanically considered, these lists are of interest, as they show an exceedingly wide range of’ food-plants for a single species of insect. Rarely do we find an insect attacking indiscriminately so many different plants with such widely different characteristics. The fifty-four species of plants represent forty-nine genera in thirty-one different families of the Flowering Plants. The Gymnosperms, like the pine, etc., are not represented, and but one genus (Hemerocallis) of the Monocotyledons. Fourteen of the plants are useful for food or medicine; twenty-nine are orna- mental; while but eleven are wild species. Thus the beneficial results from the attack, rarely severe, of the insect upon the weeds, so termed, is slight compared with its frequently very injurious attacks upon the cultivated plants.” “ The insect usually makes its first appearance in New York about the middle of May on the newest, tenderest terminal leaves. The in- sects are then so small and active in hiding themselves that they are not apt to attract attention. Their work, however, soon becomes apparent. Minute semi-transparent darkish spots appear on the ter- minal leaves. These spots are scarcely larger than a commonpin’s head, and are round or slightly angular in shape, depending upon the direction of the minute veinlets of the leaf which bound them. The insect has inserted its beak into the leaf and sucked out nearly all of the opaque green pulp or parenchyma of the interior within a small area bounded by the little veinlets.’ These spots later turn brown ‘Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham . H. ? Bull. 58. The Four-lined Leaf- bug. By Mark Vernon Slingerland. October, 1893. 280 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, and die; and, eventually, as the insects increase in size and destructive power, the leaves become withered and dead, as repre- sented in Fig. 2 of the ac- companying plate. “ When all the tenderest leaves hava succumbed, the insect contin- ues its attack on the older leaves lower down. During its lifetime a single insect will destroy at least two or three currant or gooseberry leaves. This accounts for the fact that the injury wrought often seems Fic. 1.—The adult insect; its natural size Terre neh out of proportion to the number of insects at work. “ When the insects are very numerous, the growth of the shoots is often checked, they droop, wither, and die. Some have thought that this blasting of the growth was caused by a poisonous saliva which the insect injected into the wound made by its beak. However, it is more probable that the shoot dies or its growth is checked on account of the death of its breathing organs—the leaves. On the currant, gooseberry, and many other plants the insect confines its attacks to the leaves, but on some ornamental plants, as the dahlia and rose, the most frequent point of attack seems to be the buds.” ç Mr. Slingerland has, for the first time, traced the annual cycle of this pest. He finds that “the nymphs appear in the latter part of May upon shrubby plants where they continue to sented in small figure at the right. appear early in June and often spread to differ- ent surrounding succulent plants. Egg-laying begins in the latter part of June; the eggs being laid in slits cut in the stems of shrubs near the tips of the new growth. The adults disappear in July and the insect hibernates in ‘the egg. Only one brood occurs each year in our State.” The eggs are deposited in the stems, several sy ea side by side in a longitudinal Tow (Fig. 2). The egg cl ya aa paria a: altar as they appear tion; z, egg, greatly E. } F i i 3 l 1894,] Entomoiogy. 281 ted in the upper figure of the accompanying plate. After much experimenting, Mr. Slingerland finds that “there are three practi- cable methods by which this pest can be controlled: kerosene emulsion for the nymphs ; destruction of the eggs by pruning; and the capture of the nymphs and adults by jarring into receptacles where they are destroyed. Circumstances will largely determine which method will prove the most practicable in specific cases. The bulletin concludes with an extended bibliography and syno- nymy, and is represented by 13 figures, four of which are reproduced herewith. . Indiana Orthoptera.—Two important papers, by Mr. W. S. Blatchley of the Terre Haute High School, have recently appeared.’ The first is entitled the Locustide of Indiana, thirty-nine species being catalogued, while a list of twelve others that are likely to be found in the State is given. Concerning the musical powers and general habits of these katy- dids and their allies, Mr. Blatchley writes: “ The stridulating or mus- ical organ of the males is quite similar to that of the male cricket, being found at the base of the overlapping dorsal surface of the tegmina, and usually consisting of a transparent membrane of a more or less rounded form, which is crossed hy a prominent curved vein, which, on the under side, bears a single row of minute file-like teeth. In stridu- lating the wing covers are moved apart and then shuffled together again when these teeth are rubbed over a vein on the upper surface of the other wing cover, producing the familiar so-called * katydid °’ sound. Each of the different species makes a distinct call or note of its own, and many of them have two calls, one of which they use by night and the other by day. Anyone who will pay close attention to these differ- Fig. 3. A Locustid. [after Bruner]. ent calls, can soon learn to distinguish each species by its note as readily as the ornithologist can recognize different species of birds in the same * Proceedings Indiana Acad. Science, 1892, pp. 92-165. 282 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, manner. The ear of these insects, when present, is also similar in structure and position to that of the crickets, being an oblong or oval cavity covered with a transparent or whitish membrane, and situated near the basal end of the front tibiz. “The young of the Locustide, like those of the other families of the order, when hatched from the egg, resemble the adult in form, but are wholly wingless. As they increase in size they molt or shed their skin five times, the wings each time becoming more apparent, until after the fifth molt when they appear fully developed, and the insect is mature or full-grown, never increasing in size thereafter. Through- out their entire lives they are active, greedy feeders, mostly herbivorous in habit; and where present in numbers, necessarily do much damage to vegetation.” Mr. Blatchley’s other paper is entitled “ The Blattide of Indiana.” Seven species belonging to five genera of cockroaches are catalogued. “From the other Orthoptera the Blattide differ widely in the manner of oviposition, as the eggs are not laid one at a time, but all at once in a peculiar capsule or egg case called an odtheca. These capsules vary in the different species as regards the size, shape and the number of eggs they contain, but they are all similar in structure. Each one is divided lengthwise by a membranous partition into two cells. Within each of these cells is a single row of cylindrical pouches, somewhat similar in appearance to those of a cartridge belt, and within each 2 d Fic. 4.—Croton Bug : a, first stage ; 4, second stage; c, third stage; d, fourth stage; e, adult; f, adult female with egg-case; g, egg-case —enlarged ; 4, adult with wings spread—all natural size except g- pouch is an egg. The female cockroach often runs about for several days with an odtheca protruding from the abdomen, but finally drops it in a suitable place, and from it the young in time emerge.” An introduced tropical species, Panchlora viridis, is viviparous. 1894.] Entomology. 283 “All young cockroaches resemble the parents in form, but are wholly wingless, the wings not appearing until after the fifth or last molt. The young are often mistaken for mature individuals.” The stages of the common “Croton Bug,” as represented by Dr. Riley, are shown in Fig. 4. A Curious Hemipteron.—About the middle of January I re- ceived a curious looking specimen of Hemiptera which was taken in an agricultural implement warehouse. Owing to the extremely warm weather, the creature was quite active, and at first glance resembled an animated bit of rusty metal upon legs. It proved to be of the family Reduviidae, recognized according to Latrielle by the elongated head which is free from the thorax, promi- nent eyes and two ocelli, antennæ of moderate length, filiform toward the ends and stout incurved beak. ‘The tarsi are three-jointed, and the legs long and fitted for running. This insect could probably be classified with Reduvius personatus, although of a reddish-brown rather than black, as members of this genus are said to have a habit of enveloping themselves in a thick coating of dust. This particular specimen was entirely covered with iron-dust and rust, possibly the only material at hand, and even the first joints of the antenne and the densly hirsute limbs were thickly encased. The fourth hair-like antennal joints and the tarsi were clear of dust. Under the microscope numerous sharp, shining particles of steel and iron filings were to be seen, and the back, wingless and very concave, was heavily weighted. The insect moved rapidly, but with a peculiar creeping and halting gait, and proved to be very hard to kill. I first experimented with sulphur smoke, which had no perceptible effect. Then I placed the specimen in a prepared insect bottle, containing cyanide of potassium so strong that almost any soft bodied insect would become motionless instantly, and in this Reduvius lived several hours. Whether this was owing to the season of the year or to its unique coat of mail, I am unprepared to say—LAURENE HIGHFIELD, Quincy, Iinois. North American Membracide.—Dr. F. W. Goding has pre- pared a very useful catalogue of North American tree-hoppers.‘ Nearly three hundred species are included in the list, a considerable number of them being here described for the first time. Dr. Goding “Bibliographical and Synonymical Catalogue of the Described Membracide of America. By F. W. Goding, M. D., Ph.D. Bull. Ill. St. Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol, An. XIV. Champaign, Ill., 1894. 284 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, has had access to ample collections and literature, and has filled nearly one hundred pages with the bibliography of this comparatively small family. , Colors of Lepidopterous Larvz.—Prof. E. B. Poulton hasan ` abstract of a memoir’ entitled “ The experimental proof that the colors of certain Lepidopterous Larve are largely due to the modified plant pigments derived from food.” He divided into three lots one batch of eggs laid by Tryphena pronuba, and fed them in darkness on green leaves, on yellow etiolated leaves and white midribs of cabbage. The last, whose food contained neither chlorophyll nor etiolin, were entirely unable to form the green or brown ground color.—Journal Royal Microscopical Society. Effect of Arsenites on Caterpillars.—Professor C. H. Fernald reports’ that in a series of experiments with various insecticides it was found that “gypsy caterpillars, when half-grown or larger, are not destroyed by any proportion of Paris green in water that can be used on fruit trees without injury to the foliage.” A new insecticide— arsenate of lead—was tried with satisfactory results. “It did not in- jure even the most delicate foliage, however large a proportion was used. In one case, 24 pounds to 150 gallons of water were used with- out injury to the leaves.” Life-history of the Mole Cricket.—Some interesting details of the life-history of the European mole cricket (Gryllotalpa vulgaris) were recently communicated by M. F. Decaux to the Societé En- tomologique de France. i In some specimens under observation copulation took place April 19; the eggs were deposited by the end of April, and hatched May 16. At first the young are gregarious. All the young of a given brood do not ‘mature at the same time; those maturing earliest reproduce 25 months after hatehing, others 28 months, and a few even 35 months. : These insects, M. Decaux says, are essentially carnivorous—feeding on insects, worms and slugs—but they accommodate themselves very well to a vegetable diet. He believes that the galleries are made not to pursue insects, but as places of defense and concealment. News.—Prof. Charles Robertson has issued another instalment of his valuable papers on Flowers and Insects. ê Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1893, pp. 255-265. - ê Thirty-first Rep. Mass. Agr. College, p. 28. * Bull. des Seances, No. 20, p- CCCXEI, PLATE III. Fic. 2. Injuries of Four-lined Leaf-bug. 1894.] Entomology. 285 In his address as retiring president of the Cambridge Entomological Club, Mr. Wm. H. Ashmead discussed “ The Habits of the Aculeate Hymenoptera.” The address is being printed in Psyche, and is a paper of unusual biological interest. Mr. F. J. Buckell discusses, at some length, the proper name for the butterfly, variously known as Danais archippus or Anosia plexippus, and concludes that the insect should be called Anosia archippus. Mrs. A. T. Slosson publishes’ an interesting list of insects taken in the alpine region of Mt. Washington. Mr. Howard Evarts Weed issues, as Bulletin 27 of the Mississippt Experiment Station a valuable discussion of insecticides, and their application. . In Bulletin No. 23 of the Maryland Experiment Station, Dr. C. V. Riley treats of some Injurious Insects of Maryland. Mr. H. F. Wickham records” some interesting observations on the habits of oceanic Hemiptera. His observations indicate that Halobates may be drowned by submergence; and open up again the question as where these insects remain during stormy weather. In his annual report on the gypsy moth, Prof. C. H. Fernald says: “Tn 1891, some experiments were made to determine what could be done toward entrapping the male moths by exposing females. In the spring of 1893, Prof. Shaler recommended that the monitor trap be tried on a large scale. This was done by enclosing the females in boxes ` eovered on two sides by fine wire netting, and attaching to such boxes two sheets of paper covered with a resinous coating to which the male moths adhered. Fifteen traps were exposed in Malden, and 1,771 male moths were caught. The fact that so many moths were destroyed at a . small expense, seems proof that trapping will prove an effectual and inexpensive method of preventing the increase in the numbers of the moth, especially as the males now seem to be comparatively scarce.” * Ent. Record, V. 1. *Ent. News, V. 1. Ent. News. V: 33. 286 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Indiana Academy of Sciences.—The Indiana Academy of Sci- ence held its ninth annual meeting in the rooms of the State Board of Agriculture, at the Capitol, Indianapolis, Dec. 27 and 28th, 1893, as stated in our last issue. The following officers were elected for 1894. President, Prof. W. A. Noyes, Rose Polytechnic Institute, Terre Haute; Vice President, A. W. Butler. Brookville; Secretary, Prof. C. A. Waldo, De Pauw University, Greencastle; Ass’t. Secretary, Prof. W. W. Norman, De Pauw University, Greencastle; Treasurer, Prof. W. P. Shannon, Greensburg. Boston Society of Natural History, January 3, 1894.—The following papers were read :—Mr. Leon S. Griswold, A brief descrip- tion of the physical geography of Arkansas. January 17.—The following papers were read: Mr. T. A. Jaggar, Experiments in the formation of ripple-marks. (Specimens were shown); Prof. N. S. Shaler, The topograpic evidence of ancient earth- quakes. SAMUEL HENSHAW, Secretary. The Biological Society of Washington, January 27 +The following communications were read: Mr. J. N. Rose, A Botanical Trip to Northwestern Wyoming. Mr. B. T. Galloway, A consideration ‘of the Anatomical and Physiological Processes involved in Leaf F all; Dr. Theo. Gill, The Segregation of the Osteophysarial Fishes as fresh water forms; Dr. C. W. Stiles, An Interesting Cestode from India. The Annual Address of the President of the Biological Society was delivered by Prof. C. V. Riley, in the lecture room of the Columbian University, at half past eight o’clock on Monday evening, January 29, 1894. The subject was Social Insects from the Psychological and Evolutional Points of View. Freperic A. Lucas, Secretary. New York Academy of Sciences, Biological Section, si uary 29.—A paper was read by title, “ A Case of reversed cleavage ™ a Sinistral Gasteropod,” by Mr. H. C. Crampton, Jr. Drawings were exhibited by Bashford Dean, showing original restor ations of Dipterus valenciennesii S. & M., and of Coelacanthus elegans Newb. 1894,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 287 Dr. J. L. Wortman exhibited an almost entire skeleton of Patriofe- lis, recently acquired by the American Museum of Natural History, and discussed its probable relationships. From structural characters of limbs he regards this creodont as nearest the ancestral form of the seals. Its spreading digits appear to have been webbed, and its copro- lites show that its food material included turtles. Dr. A. A. Julien read a paper on a newly discovered fungus from the petrified forest near Cairo, Egypt. Its genus is probably Peronos- porites, and owing to remarkably perfect preservation its life history is to be determined. BasHrorp Dean, Rec. Sec. SCIENTIFIC NEWS. P. J. Van Beneden.—Professor Van Beneden, whose name is as- sociated with the history of zoology, died recently, at the age of eighty- five years. One of his many contributions in aid of scientific work was the establishment, at his own expense, of a maritime laboratory at Ostend, which has since served as a model for others. His work extended throughout Zoology from the Protozoa to the Mammalia. At the time of his death he was one of the faculty of the University of uvain. . Arthur Milnes Marshall, Professor of Biology in Owen’s Col- lege, Manchester, England, who was as mentioned in our last issue killed recently by an accident, was both an investigator and a teacher of much ability, and was the author of many valuable biological papers, and of a text-book of Embryology. He is remembered in the United States, which he visited in 1884, for his activity ot both mind and body. His loss is greatly regretted. It is proposed now to erect a suitable memorial. Paul Henri Fischer.—The Museum of Natural History of Paris has suffered a great loss in the person of Dr. Paul Henri Fischer, the Well-known zoologist and paleontologist, who died on November 29, after a long and painful illness. Born at Paris, on July 7, 1835, he received his early classical and medical education at Bordeaux. He became Tuterne des Hopitaux de Paris, in 1859, and obtained his degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1863. The study of medicine did not pre- vent him from devoting himself also to that of the natural sciences; 288 The American Naturalist. ‘[Mareh, for in 1861, he had entered as Demonstrator in the Laboratory of Paleontology of the Museum of Paris, under the direction of M. d’Archiac. His researches concerned above all the living and fossil Mollusea. Since 1886, he directed the Journal de Conchyliologie, in collaboration with M. Crosse. From the position of demonstrator he rose to be aide-naturaliste (assistant), and studied with great suc- cess the marine animals of the coast of France, their geographical and bathymetric distribution. He indicated the depths at which a large number of Foraminifera, Ceelenterata, Echinodermata, Mollusca, Bry- ozoa, etc., can be collected on the coasts of the west of France. In col- laboration with the Marquis de Folen, he undertook the study of the animals dredged in the extremely interesting region of the Gulf of Gas- cogne to which the name “ Fosse du Cap Breton” has been given. The: two savants discovered a large number of form hitherto unknown, and many which recalled species only known in the fossil condition. With M. Delesse, he made researches on the submarine sediments of the French shores. He was elected member of the Commission of Dredging, and took part, from 1880 to 1883, on board the “ Travailleur ” and the “ Talisman” in the celebrated expedition directed by Professor Milne- Edwards. In the course of these expeditions, he noted the enormous extension of a cold fauna characterised by boreal and Arctic species, and reaching as far as Senegal, where it lives beneath a superficial fauna with intertropical characters. ° Among the writings of Fischer, which number not less than 300 titles, including books, pamphlets and memoirs, we may cite: Paléon- tologie del’ Asie Mineure (in collaboration with M. d’Archiac and. M. deVerneuil) ; Mollusques du Mexique et de l Amérique centrale (in col- laboration with M. Crosse) ; Species général et inconographie des co- quilles vivantes; Animaux fossies du Mont Léberon (in collaboration with . Albert Gaudry and M. Tournouer) ; Paléontologie de lile de Rhodes ; Cétacés du Sud-ouest de la France; Catalogue et distribution géographique des Mollusques terrestres, fluviatiles et marins @ une pa de l? Indo-Chine ; Sur les caractères de la faune conchyliologique terres- tre et fluviatile récemment éteinte du Sahara ; Sur la faune conchyliologr- que de Vile d Hainan (Chine); numerous memoirs on the malacologi- cal fauna of Lord Howe Island (Pacific Ocean) ; of Cambodia, of the Caledonian Archipelago Islands, of the Bay of Suez, ete. In collabor- ation with M. E. L. Bouvier, he published papers on the anatomical peculiarities of certain groups of Molluses. Finally he wrote a re markable treatise on Conchology, which has become classical. In this manual, the author shows that the classification of Mollusks ought to 1894.] Scientific News. 289 be based not alone on the form of the shell, but primarily on anatomi- cal characters. : Dr. Fischer was Chevalier de la Légion d’ Honneur since 1871; Offi- cier del’ Instruction Publique since 1881. He had obtained several prizes at the Académie des Sciences de Paris, and had been President of the Zoological and Geological Societies of France. He possessed deep erudition, was a charming talker, and after having treated a sub- ject belonging to the domain of natural science or of medicine, he was far from embarrassed if he had to discuss philosophy, literature or esthetics. The death of this savant who was as affable as he was mod- est, has been a cause for general regret and for deep mourning among his large circle of friends—EpmMonp BORDAGE. Dr. Samuel Lockwood, of Freehold, New Jersey, Died in Jan- uary, 1894, at an advanced age. Dr. Lockwood was a frequent con- tributor to the scientific journals, and was well-known as an enthusias- tic observer. His animal biographies will always be read with pleasure. They are scattered through various periodicals, but the NATURALIST probably published the majority. Such were the History of the Mock- ing-bird in New Jersey; the Singing Mouse; The Pine Snake; The Coati, ete. Dr. Lockwood was, for many years, a clergyman at Key- port, N. J., and subsequently became superintendent of the public schools of Monmouth Co., N. J. His interest in education was as great as it was in scientific research. He saved many valuable specimens for scientific study, among which was the type of Plesiosaurus lockwoodit of the Cretaceous beds, and the bones of the huge Dinosaur, Ornitho- tarsus immanis. Mr. Samuel N. Rhoads, of Haddonfield, New Jersey, announ- ces that he has discovered a perfect copy (2 vols.) of the long lost “Second American Edition” of Guthrie’s Geography, published in 1815. This edition is the one which contains the part on American Zoology, by the celebrated naturalist, George Ord, where, for the first time, binomial scientific names are imposed upon several species of American Mammals and Birds. The article on Zoology is Mr. Ord’s private annotated copy, and is intact within the second volume. A reprint of this copy is now being prepared for publication by Mr. Rhoads, to be ready for distribution in February. The reprint will be an exact reproduction of the original, and will include also com- ments on the marginal annotations, which, there is no doubt, wer made by Mr. Ord himself. 290 The American Naturalist. [March, - Science Prizes.—At the recent annual public meeting of the Academy of Sciences, Paris, M. de Lucaze-Duthiers in the chair, after some commemorative words on the deaths of Sir Richard Owen, Kum- | mer, and DeCandolle, foreign associates, and those of Chambrélent, Admiral Paris and Charcot, members of the Academy, by the presi- dent, M. Bertrand, one of the secretaries announced the names of those to whom prizes had been awarded. It will be seen that American scientists were not forgotten. In Geometry, the Prix Francoeur was awarded to M. G. Robin for mathematical physics, and the Prix Poncelet to M. G. Koenigs, for geometrical and mechanical work. ; Mechanics. The extraordinary prize of 6,000 francs offered by the Department de la Marine for contrivances increasing the efficiency of the navy, was. distributed among M. Bourdelles (for lighthouse illu- mination), M. Lephay (compass with luminous index), and M. de Fraysseix (system of optical pointing); the Prix Montyon, of 700 francs to M. Flamant (hydraulics) ; the Prix Plumey, of 2,500 francs, to M. Lebasteur (steam-engine appliances); the Prix Fourneyron, of 500 francs, to M. Brousset (fly-wheels). Astronomy.—The Prix Lalande, of 540 francs, to M. Schulhof (comets) ; the Prix Valz of 460 francs, to N. Berberich (minor plan- ets); the Prix Janssen, of a gold medal, to Mr. Samuel Langley (astronomical physics). Physics.—The Prix La Case, of 10,000 Francs, to M. E. H. Amagat (gasses and liquids). Statisties. —The Prix Montyon, of 500 francs, to Dr. Marvand (dis- eases of soldiers): . Chemistry—The Prix Jecker, of 1,000 francs, to M. D. Forerand and M. Griner in equal parts, with a special prize to M. Gautier; the ‘Prix La Caze, of 10,000 francs, to M. Lemoine (phosphorous com- pounds). Mineralogy and Geology—The Grand Prix to M. Marcellin Boule (the central plateau of France); the Prix Bordin, of 3,000 francs, was distributed among MM. Bourgeois, Gorgen, Michel and Duboin for their researches in mineral synthesis; the Prix Delesse, of 1,400 francs, to M. Fayol (Commentry strata); the Prix Fontannes, of 2,000 francs, to M. R. Zeiller (paleontology). ` Botany.—Phe Prix Desmazieres, of 1,600 franes, to M. C. Sauvagean (Algae) ; the Prix Montague to MM. Cardot (mosses) and Gaillard (Fungi). i Agriculture—The Prix Morogues to M. Millardet (mildew). : * stituent pa 1894.] Scientific News. 291 - Anatomy and Zoology.—The Prix Thore to M. Corbiere (Muscinez) - Medicine and Surgery.-The Prix Montyon was distributed among M. M. Huchard (heart diseases), Delorme (army surgery), and Pinard and Varnier (pathological atlas); the Prix Barbier, 500 francs each to MM. Sanson (heredity) and Dr. Mauclaire (osteoarthritis; the Prix Breant, being the interest on the sum of 100,000 francs, offered for a eure for cholera, was distributed among MM. Netter and Thoinot ~ (French cholera, 1892), and MM. Grimbert and Burlureaux (treat- ment of tuberculosis by creosote injections) ; the Prix Godard, of 1,000 francs, to Dr. Tourneux (physiological atlas); the Prix Serres, of 7,500 francs, to M. Pizon (blastogenesis), with small portions to MM. Sabatier (spermatogenesis) and Letulle (inflammation); the Prix Bellion, of 1,400 francs, to Dr. C. Chabrie (physiology of the the kid- ney) and Dr. Constan (fatigue) ; the Prix Mege to Dr. Hergott (history of obstetrics); the Prix Lallemand, of 1,800 francs, to M. Trolard (venous system). ` Physiology—The Prix Montyon; of 750 franes, to M. Lanlanie (re- spiration), and MM. Abelous and Langlois (renal capsules); the Prix la Caze, of 10,000 francs to M. d’Arsonval (physiological effects of electricity); the Prix Pourat to M. E. Meyer (renal secretion; the Prix Martin-Damourette, of 1,400 franes, to Dr. Gerand (albumin- uria). General Prizes.—The Arago Medal to Mr. Asaph Hall (satellite of Mars) and Mr. E. E. Barnard (Jupiter’s first satellite); the Prix Montyon, for improvements in unhealthy industries, was divided be- tween MM. Garros (porcelain manufacture) and Coquillon (fire damp meter); the Prix Tremont, of 1,100 francs, to M. Jules Morin for his useful hydrostatic and other inventions; the Prix Gegner, of 4,000 franc, to M. Serret ; the Prix Petit d’Ormoz, of 10,000 francs, to M. Stieltjes (mathematics), and another of the same amount to M. Marcel Bertrand (physics of the globe); the Prix Tchihatchef, of 10,000 francs, to M. Gregoire Groum-Grschimailo (the Pamirs); the Prix Gaston Plante, of 3,000 francs, to M. Blondlot (electric interference) ; Mme. De Laplace’s Prize, consisting of Laplace’s works, to M. Bes de Berc, of the Ecole Nationale des Mines. The sixth annual meeting of the Association of American Anatomists will take place Tuesday to Friday, May 29, to June 1, 1894, at Wash- mgton, D. C., the time and place of meeting of the Third Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons, of which this Association is a con- rt . 292 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, The Botanical Club of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at a meeting held Aug. 19, 1892, adopt- ed these principles of Nomenclature: Resolved: That the Paris code of 1867 be adopted except where it conflicts with the following: I. The Law of Priority. Priority of publication is to be regarded as the fundamental principle of botanical nomenclature. II. Beginning of Botanical Nomenclature. The botanical Nomenclature of both genera and species is to begin with the publication of the first edition | of Linnzus “Species Plantarum,” in 1753. III. Stability of Specifie Names. In the transfer of a species to a genus other than the one under which it was first published the original specific name is to be retained, unless it is identical with the generic name or with a specifie name previously used in that genus. IV. Homonyms. The publica- tion of a generic name or a binominal invalidates the use of the same name for any subquently published genus or species respectively. V. Publication of Genera. Publication of a genus consists only (1) ia the distribution of a printed description of the genus named. (2) im the publication of the name of the genus and the citation of one or more previously published species as examples or types of the genus, with or without adiagnosis. VI. Publication of Species. Publication of a species consists only (1) in the distribution of a printed descrip- tion of the species named, (2) in the publishing of a binominal, with reference toa previously published species asa type. VII. Similar Generic Names. Similar generic names are not to be rejected on account of slight differences, except in the spelling of the same word; for example Apios and Apium are to be retained, but of Epidendrum and Epidendron, Asetrocarpus and Astrocarpus, the later is to be rejected VIII. Citation of Authorities. In the case of a species which has been transferred from one genus to another the original author must always be cited in parenthesis, followed by the author of the nee binominal. N. L. Britton, John M. Coulter, Henry H. Rusby, Wil- liam A. Kellerman, Frederick V. Coville, Lucien M. Underwood, Lester F. Ward, Committee. At the meeting of the New York Academy of Sciences to be held on March 5th prox., will. be held a debate between the supporters of the Neodarwinian and Neolamarckian theories of organic evolution. Prof. E. 8. Poulton, of the University of Oxford, England, will open for the former, and Prof. E. D. Cope, of Philadelphia, will reply for the latter. Profs. W. B. Scott, of Princeton, and E. B. Wilson of New York, -will also speak. Prof. W. P. Wilson has brought to Philadelphia twenty-four cat loads of exhibits, mostly of natural objects, which were displayed at the Chicago Exposition. | - , a: ss E, os eee ae Y. Oe ee ee Le, es ae er A ae - A Tonie and Debilitated. Horsford’s Acid Phosphate is without exception, the Best Remedy for relieving Mental and Nervous Exhaustion: and where the system has become debilitated by disease, it acts as a general tonic and vitalizer, | affording sustenance to both brain and body. Dr. E. Cornell Esten, Philadel- phia, Pa., says: el have m met with the RA pamphlet fre ADV en TS. For Brain-Workers, the Weak | Histological Material. MQ? EPTILES and Batrach- ians both alive and in ES ATeOhol. Bird and Mammal Skins. Write for price lists of the above to H. H. & C. S. BRIMLEY, RALEIGH, N. C. 295 The Edwards & Docker Co, Printer ° —->iANDi— Nos. 518-520 Minor Street, Philadelphia, U. S. A. Chemical Works, Provides, R. L | HORACE =e | f Beware of Substitutes and EAEE Doe OO Minerals, Rocks, Fossils, Casts of Fossils, Geological Relief Maps, Stuffed Animals and Skins, Mounted Skeletons, Anatomical Models, Invertebrates. Ward's Natural Science Establishment Mineralogy, Geology, Sona Zoology, Osteology, Anatom Send for Circular. ROCBEGTER, N. Y. en ENTOMOLOGICAL CATALOGUES. ay W. F. Kirby, F, L. . E.S. Assistant in Zoological — British Museum (N: at History), S. Kensington, etc., € 1 Synonymic Catalogue of Diurnal Lepidoptera with S pp- VIII, 883 whi £1.9.6 ONLY 200 COPIES PRINTED. London: Gurney & Jackson, 1 Paternoster Row, (Wm. Van Voorst’s Successors.) . THE POPULAR SCIENCE NEWS. Read what our publication is, and then become one of its regular patrons. tion of scientific facts and themes. Have they been successful? Not a single issue has failed to appear during that period, and for a quarter of a century the new Science News has met with the appr wove and support of a large and cul- tured list of subscribers in every State of the Union he Popular Science News, as its name eaten is a popular ee of pro- gress in the entire range of the physical and eerie sciences. Familiar papers on Scientific, Sanitary “and Hygienic Topies, fill the pages of each mpi and cause it to be recognized as a “ guide, philosopher aa friend,” wherever it is known. The News is now edited by Austin P. Nichols, S. B., and Wm. J. Rolfe, Litt. D. It is the only low-price scientific paper published i in the country, and is especially devoted to presenting the latest facts and discoveries in science in a simple and popular style that all can understand. | Each issue is illustrated. Price, $1.00 per Year. POPULAR SCIENCE NEWS CO., 298. BOSTON, MASS. The AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN and ORIENTAL JOURNAL. Published at 175 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ill. Edited by STEPHEN D. PEET*’Goop Hore, ILL. Bi-Monthly. Side: $4.00 Per Year. The First Magazine Devoted to Archaology and Ethnology established in America. It has now reached its Sixteenth Volume, which promises to be the Best of the Series. Among the Attractions for 1894 are the following A series of Sais accompanied with maps, orf the early migrations and locations of I under the title of “ Footprints of the Aborigines.” By Rev. Senne P te es te f. A. F. Chamberlain, Dr a William Wallace Tooker, Mr. TA. Watkins Hee Geo other specialists. Also a series articles on the sym mbols and myths of the M Pueblos and cl it Dwelle rs, by J. Walter Fewkes, of the Hemingway Expedition, Y1; - Brinton, eae Ed. Seler and others. Beng on the M ‘he s and Folklore, by Mr. James Deans pai McLean. Mr. A. Perry, of London, England, ine. Zelia Nuttall "and G. A. Dorsey will es Sla and yee au Anti iqui ities. There will be articl on the ASIATIC or PoLYN ames s American Indians, and on Prehistoric Contact with Other Contine paka by Dr. Cyrus Thomas, Be ae s Stani ake and a i J Seeve! r, and $. “ ndian tribes, meen = to light, be: Dr. J. D. Butler, J. R. Sutter, eT. Smith, William R. Discoveries in Palestin and Egypt. by Prof. T. F. Wright, of Harvard College, and Rev. W Lands. re Vision. D. a Ba lo orations in Polynesia, Assyria, net lonia, India, China, and in Classic competent sch The editor of the American Antiquarian is publishing’ a series of books on PRE COLUMBIAN TIMES, and now offers the following to the public l, The Mound-Builders—their Works and Relics, . - Price, R a ‘H. Animal Effigies and Emblematic Mounds, . . . e a HI. Native Myths fr Symbols—Unfinished, u p00 IV. Cliff Dwellers and Pyramid Builders with the Antiquarian, i Price per Vol. $4.00 or with American Naturalist $6.00. a The American Antiquarian will be furnished with The Americal i Naturalist for $6.00. Pe a oD let), s ML Sea ange | Sate eee ee Sey me ADVERTISEMENTS. ttt AMERICAN MONTHLY MICROSCOPIGAL JOURNAL 14TH YEAR, 1893. PRICE INCREASED TO $2.00. Beautifully Illustrated. —e a ORIGINAL ARTICLES by the best writers. Descriptions of Mieroscopical Methods, pictures of new apparatus, a department of Medical Microscopy revealing what the instrument is doing to combat disease, Bacteriology or the study of Bacilli, Diatoms or Nature’s Jewels, Biological Notes upon the progress in botany, entomology, agriculture and the study of all life by the aid of the grandest of instruments, Recreative Microscopy or the entertain- ment of people who exclaim “Oh! My!” when they look through the golden tube, Mi icroscopical News, the Detection of Crime, Societies and their proceedings, Notices of Books, the Exchange and sale of Slides, etc. THE MICROSCOPE A Dollar Magazine Devoted Strictly to Elementary Microscopy. Price $1.00. This periodical, now in its 14th year, recently edited by Dr. A. C. Stokes, of renton, has been made a magazine for beginners and amateurs and will seek to supply every need of those entering upon this fascinating study. lts Query DEPARTMENT alone, conducted by Dr. S. G. Shanks, of Albany, N. 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NEW SUBSCRIBERS FOR THE YEAR 1503 will be sent. gratis the two Octobe taining a powertul story by Fran Harris, itr of FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW, entitled PROFIT AND Loss. ur vivacious other of 0 Americ seribet wel ins ayer in command of the whole ati . Bu or the SZ. i ‘ _ Rates for clubbing THE LIVING AGE with 5 Hore x Bor ape a of ee LIVING AGE, 15 cts jeet ELL & CO., Boston, Happy y A be es D on AMERICAN ATURALIS A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE, GING EDIT Prors. E. D. ove aan AND x = KINGSLEY, Boston. ASSOCIATE EDITORS ase Dr. C. E, BESSE ee Neb., H. C. MERCER, Philedelphia. _ Pror W.S. BA AYLEY, Waterville, Maine, fod. E. A. ANDREWS, Baltimore, Pror. W. H. HOBBS, Madison, Wis. APRIL, 1894. CONTENTS. PAGE. THE CULTIVATED Marys ? and ek Relations with the recent Fauna of the: . Meg Nenad —Coasts of Bering Seaand Vicinity- PROTOZOA FOUND IN CANCEROUS —The hve teh ne Mamma alian Fauna Sel ‘te Ds a Baliko, OWARD FOREIGN = (iwtrated) ) gt Sparen Edith 7. Claypole, ie S. es Yevon O of F atio CED Tussock-MoTH. (ORG y.—The Coaules of Herbivorous < MITH AND Napor) IN Cities se pais, eph. L. Pamori. ETS. 1 ; £—Cha bn dhe, Bardi ; : mf 3 er an pt the Embry esa! } par mbr yogy Cyclas co Ethn logy Progress i of Fi eld ork o gn Department of Am rican and Prehis korik Are he ulaey of the U nivereee of. Pennsy vane a Trenton Gravel Discus- | Bio Mer coari enting Small Objects for See- ee cp va čred them, when Mounted a ioning, an : in Cells. The Peen of a | PROCEEDIN 3S OF ScuENTIFIC SOCIETIES.. ; e Beds ar Zagreb, | SCIENTIFIC NEWS. PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. JARDS & DOCKER o 518 AND 520 MINOR STREET. A WorldsTribute to o Chas. Marchand’s Glycozone Highest Award, sore and Bae cae . C2 Modal a i Diploma EIS S awarded to En |- Marchands Glycozone — y THIS uae REMEDY PREVENTS FERMENTATION A. D IN: THE STOMACH. ; "IT IS THE MOST POWERFUL AGENT’ FOR HEALING : PURPOSES. IT CURES: DYSPEPSIA ee ULCER OF THE STOMACH, HEARTBURN, 3 ALL INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF THE - 3 ALIMENTARY TRACT. Glycozone is sol ld onl 4-02., S-02- ee bottles, bearing a yellow coe s white and Tineke Siet- T gu Ak WS ters, red and blue border, with si ure. Chemist ond Graduate of the” Ks ma et Manufactures ee e Mention. this publication: LEADING pudors. a 28 Prince St., Newt a A ae ee c= y a Pea See ees i i : . a . a4 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST Vor. XXVIII. April, 1894. 328 WHENCE CAME THE CULTIVATED STRAWBERRY ? By L H. Binar. The strawberry has been extensively cultivated only during the last century, and the earliest attempt at methodical amelio- ration extends back little more than two hundred years. The first horticultural variety of which we have any account is the Fressant, which dates from 1660. The wild species of straw- berries are few, not numbering more than a dozen under the most liberal estimate, and they are well represented in the great herbaria or botanical centers of the world. Only a part of the wild types have been impressed into cultivation, and exact or very approximates dates can be given for the intro- duction of these cultivated species. The strawberry, therefore, is a modern fruit, and its history and evolution would seem to possess no difficulties; and yet, despite all these facts, the botanical origin of the cultivated varieties is unknown, and we have the anomaly of a common fruit, appearing within little more than a century, which the botanist does not refer to any species. Here, then, is a most remarkable instance of the evolution of a new type of plant, taking place under our very eyes: whilst the botanists have written precise histories of its successive progresses, the reasons and methods of its development have escaped them. Perhaps there is no other plant which has so quickly obscured its own Lecture before the Author's class in Horticulture, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, New York. 20 294 The American Naturalist. [April, origin, or in which the speculative evolutionist can find stronger proof of the instability and elasticity of plants. I have said that the history of the strawberry is well known. There has been a careful record from the time Casper Bauhin and his contemporaries wrote their voluminous her- bals. We cannot expect, as this time, therefore, to add any- thing to this long and consequential record. We must accept the history essentially as we find it. Butit is possible that we shall be able to elucidate the evolution of the strawberry by the application of some of the principles of plant variation, the knowledge of which is now sufficient to warrant a con- structive retrospect. At all events, if these laws cannot solve the general problem of the evolution of the strawberry, we must continue to remain in ignorance of its birth and depart- ure.’ This inquiry will be all the more interesting, also, from the fact that the first monographer of the strawberries, Duchesne, in 1766, made an attempt to explain the origin of known species from the Alpine or Everbearing strawberries of Europe, and this essay, which has apparently not attracted the attention of modern philosophers, is one of the earliest efforts to account for the origin of organisms by means of a course of development. It is necessary at the outset to eliminate the so-called European types of strawberries from our inquiry. These belong to three or four species native to Europe, chiefly to Fragaria vesca and F. moschata (F. elatior), and the botanical characters are sufficiently clear and uniform to allow of little doubt as to their origin. The first strawberries, like the Fres- sant, are of this type. These European types are mostly small and delicate fruits which are grown in France and some other parts of continental Europe, but which are little more than curiosities in England and America. It is the class of large American and English strawberries to which I now wish to direct attention, a type which, while grown in all temperate countries, seems to have first come to great prominence in Eng- land and which is the only market strawberry of America. The first foreign strawberry to reach Europe was the com- mon small species of eastern America, and which is known t° 1894] Whence Came the Cultivated Strawberry ? 295 botanists as Fragaria Virginiana. The first distinct record of itin Europe is in 1624, when it was mentioned by Jean and Vespasien Robin, gardeners to Louis XIII. For more than a century it appears not to have taken on any new or striking forms. It bore a small bright scarlet berry, with a distinct constriction or neck near the stem and slightly acid flesh. It was in no way very different, probably, from the common wild strawberry which we now pick in the fields. It was never greatly esteemed on the continent, but in England it found greater favor. Duchesne writes of it, in 1766, that “they still cultivate it in England with favor” (avec honneur). The original form of the Scarlet or Virginian strawberry was still highly esteemed in England less than three-quarters of a cen- tury ago, at which time Barnet? wrote enthusiastically of it. “This,” [the Old Scarlet Strawberry] he says, “ which has been an inhabitant of our gardens nearly, if not fully, two hundred years, was doubtless an original introduction from North America. It is singular thata kind of so much excellence, as to be at present scarcely surpassed by any of its class, should have been the first known. It continued in cultivation con- siderably more than half of the period of its existence as a garden fruit, without any variety having been produced of it, either by seed or by importation from America.” Yet Barnet knew twenty-six good varieties of the species and describes them at length; and four of them seem to have come directly from America, probably from wild plants. A considerable progress had been made in the amelioration of the strawberry in England at the opening of the century, therefore, from the Virginian stock or foundation; but the varieties were much alike and contain little promise of the wonderful development In the strawberry varieties which we now enjoy. About 1712, a second species of strawberry reached Europe. This is the Fragaria Chiloensis, brought from Chili to, Marseilles by Capt. Frezier. It reached England in 1727. It is a stout, thick-leaved shaggy plant which bore a large globular or Somewhat pointed late dark colored fruit. In a few places, particularly about Brest, in France, it came to be cultivated “Trans. London Hort. Soc., vi, 152 (1824). 296 The American Naturalist. [April, for its fruit; butin general it met small favor, particularly as the flowers were often imperfect and it did not fertilize itself. It did not seem to vary much under cultivation; at least, when Barnet wrote, about a century later, he knew only three varieties in England which he could refer to it, one of which he considered to be identical with the original plant as introduced by Frezier. The Chilian strawberry grows along the Pacific coast in both North and South America, and it has been introduced into our eastern gardens several times from wild sources; but it always soon disappears. There is little in the record of this species, therefore, of promise to the American horticulturist. In the middle of the last century, a third strawberry appeared in Europe. Some writers place the date of its intro- duction with considerable exactness; but the fact is that no one knew just when or howit came. Phillip Miller described and figured it in 1760 as the Pine strawberry, in allusion to the pine-apple fragrance of its fruit. There were three opinions as to its origin at that time, some saying it came from Louisi- ana, others that it came from Virginia, while there was a report, originating in Holland, that it came from Surinam, which is now the coast of Dutch Guiana. None of these reports have been either confirmed or disproved, although Gay, in making extensive studies of the growth of strawber- ries, may be said to have effectually overturned the Surinam hypothesis in his remark that to find a strawberry growing at sea-level within five degrees of the equator, is like finding & palm in Iceland or Hammerfest !* Duchesne, in his Natura History of Strawberries,‘ 1766, described a Pine-apple straw- berry as Fragaria ananassa, and while he did not know its ori- gin he argued that it must be a hybrid between the Chilian and Virginian species. The pine-apple strawberries of Eng- land and France were found to be different from each other upon comparison, although the differences were such as might arise within the limits of any species or type, and by the end of the century most botanists began to regard the two as šAnn. Sci. Nat. 4th Ser, viii, 203 (1857). ‘Histoire Naturelle des Fraisiers. Par M. Duchesne fils. Paris, 1766. 1894.] Whence Came the Cultivated Strawberry ? 297 variations of one stock. This general type of Pine strawber- ries, comprising the large-hulled type long represented by the Bath Scarlet and erected into a distinct species by Duchesne as Fragaria calyculata, has been collectively known for a century as Fragaria grandiflora, a name bestowed by Ehrhart in 1792, although this name, together with the English name Pine, is gradually passing from use. We may say that thus far there are three hypotheses as to the origin of the Pine strawberry— that it came from North America, from Guiana, and that it is a compound or hybrid of two other species; and we may add a fourth—that apparently accepted by Duhamel and DeCan- dolle and certainly by Gay—that it is a direct modification of the Chilian strawberry, and also a fifth, advanced by Decaisne’® and accepted by others, that some, at least, of the varieties are products of the large, robust native form of our wild straw- berry which is known as Fragaria Virginiana var. Illinoensis. I shall drop the Guianian origin as wholly untenable, and it — will also be unprofitable to discuss directly the question of importation from North America, for we have nothing more _ than conjecture upon which to found any historical argument. I shall now endeavor to discover which of the remaining three hypotheses is best supported in the subsequent evolution of the plant itself: Is it a hybrid, a direct development of the Chilian species, or a form of the native variety Illinoensis? It is first necessary, however, to determine from what ancestral type our cultivated strawberry flora has sprung. Barnet, writing in 1824, referred all cultivated strawberries to seven groups or classes, three of which comprise the small European varieties which are outside this discussion. The remaining four classes comprise all the large-fruited types, and they are as follows: 1. The Scarlet or Virginian strawberries, with twenty-six varieties; 2. The Black strawberries or Fraga- ria tincta of Duchesne, with five varieties; 3. The Pines, with fifteen; 4. The True Chili strawberries, with three varieties. The Blacks and Pines ‘are so nearly alike that they can be classed as one. Although the Pine class is the most recent of the lot, it had already varied into twenty forms, and, moreover, 5Tard: PA : : : Jardin Fruitier du Museum, ix, under ‘‘ Frasier d’Asa Gray.” 298 The American Naturalist. (April, it contained the choice of the varieties. In this class is Keen’s Seedling, which was then coming into prominence. This variety is the first conspicuous and signal contribution to com- mercial strawberry culture, and it marks an epoch amongst strawberries similar to that made by the Isabella amongst American grapes. It was grown from seeds of Keen’s Impe- rial, which, in turn was raised from the White Carolina (known also as Large White Chili), which is regarded by Barnet as a Pine strawberry. Thomas Andrew Knight had made various interesting and successful crosses amongst the Scarlet or Vir- ginian strawberries, but Keen’s varieties so far excelled them, that Knight’s productions were soon lost. From Keen’s Seed- ling the present English strawberries have largely descended. The fruit of this remarkable strawberry was first shown in London in 1821. At this time there were apparently no important varieties in this country of American origin. Prince,’ writing in 1828, enumerates thirty strawberries of American gardens, of which all, or all but one, are of foreign origin. The two important varieties, and the ones which sup- plied “the principal bulk of this fruit sold in the New York market” were Red Chili (referred by Barnet and by George Lindley’ to the Pines) and Early Hudson, probably a variety of Fragaria Virginiana. Keen’s berries arein the list, but these, according to Hovey and other later writers, did not thrive In America. As late as 1837, Hovey wrote? that “as yet the plants of nearly all the kinds in cultivation have been intro- duced from the English gardens, and are not suited to the severity of our climate.” Mr. Hovey resolved to produce an American strawberry, and with a shrewdness which has rarely been equalled in the breeding of plants, he selected parents representing distinct ideals and the best adaptations to Ameri- ean conditions. Four varieties entered into a certain batch of crosses which he made. These were Keen’s Seedling and Mulberry, both Pines, Melon, probably a Pine, and Methven Scarlet, a variety of the Virginian. ‘From these crosses, tWO SA Short Treatise on Horticulture, 72. New York. TA Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden, 487. London, 1831. Mag. Hort. iii, 246. 1894.] Whence Came the Cultivated Strawberry ? 299 varieties were obtained,’ one of which fruited in 1836. These were the Hovey and Boston Pine. Owing to the loss of labels, it is not certain which crosses gave these varieties, but Mr, Hovey was always confident that the Hovey sprung from Mul- berry crossed by Keen’s Seedling. The Hovey strawberry revolutionized strawberry growing in this country. It was to America what Keen’s Seedling was to England ; and it marks the second epoch in eommercial strawberry culture. American varieties now appeared from year to year, and the greater part of them have come directly or indirectly from the Hovey and the Boston Pine. With the passing out of the Boston Pine and its immediate offspring, the term Pine has practically been lost to American strawberry literature, and the word is but a memory in the minds of the older men ; but this is not because the class itself has disappeared, but, on the contrary, because it has become the dominant class and has driven out the Scarlet and all other competitors. The Hovey was a true Pine strawberry. Mr. Hovey grew it in his garden till the last, and it was my good fortune to secure a few plants of him shortly before his death. A plant is now before me as I write, and it has all the marks of the old Pine or Grandiflora type— the thick rounded dark leaves, stocky habit, stiff flower cluster, and large spreading calyx. All our commercial strawberries are Pines, and they compare well in botanical characters with the Fragaria grandiflora of the French gardens of a half cen- tury ago and with the famous Bath Scarlet and Pitmaston Black which were important Pines when Barnet wrote, speci- mens of all of which I have before me. Our strawberries, then, are lineal descendents of the old Pine class, known to botanists as Fragaria ananassa and F. grandiflora. Now the question recurs, what is the Pine? where did it come from? how did it originate? Three hypo- theses, as I have said, have been advanced which an evolution- ary review of the subject is capable of considering. Is it (1) a hybrid? (2) a direct development of the Chilian straw- berry? or (3).a modified form of our big wild strawberry, Fragaria Virginiana var. Illinoensis ? *Mag. Hort. vi, 284 (1840). Fruits of America, i, 25, 27- 300 The American Naturalist. [April, 1. Is the Pine a hybrid? The only reason ever advanced for considering the Pine strawberry to be a hybrid was the supposed impossibility of accounting for its attributes upon any other hypothesis. The ideas of hybridity were indefinite in those times, and intermediateness of characters was often supposed to be enough—as it is, unfortunately, too often at the present day—to establish a hybrid origin. In considering this matter, two questions at once arise: (a) Does the Pine bear evidence of being a hybrid? (b) Would hybrid characters perpetuate themselves? I am wholly unable to find, either in herbarium specimens of the plants themselves or in the pic- tures of the plants, any distinct evidences of hybridity. The Pine strawberries differ from the Chilian chiefly in their greater size, less hairiness and better fruit, and sometimes by somewhat thinner leaves, although this thinness of foliage is usually more apparent than real, being due to the larger size and consequently greater flexibility of the leaf without any real diminution in substance; and I have seen as thin leaves in wild Fragaria Chiloensis as in garden berries. But greater size could scarcely be obtained from the smaller or or least more slender Virginian strawberry, and better sweet fruit would not likely result from the amalgamation of the Chilian with the little acid fruit of the other. On the other hand, there is not a character of the Virginian, so far as I know— save possibly some thinness of leaf—which appears in the Pine. The slender erect habit, smooth stems, profusion of early runners, comparatively simple and very weak-rayed trusses, the small calyx, the early, light-colored pitted fruit—noné of these marks of the Virginian strawberry appear in the Pine. Again (b), it is now known that one of the most characteristic marks of hybrids is their variability when propagated from seeds; and yet Phillip Miller declares that the old Pine straws berry came true to seed! A hybrid left to itself almost inv ariably departs from its mongrel type and reverts to one or the other parent; and yet here is a supposed hybrid which has held 18 attributes intact for one hundred and fifty years, and has prè- sented a sufficiently unbroken front to overcome all competi- EP e OTe eee. CLV Es Vee Ree eae eS SEE ET ei elk Sy Std WR EO Se ae G 1894.] Whence Came the Cultivated Strau berry ? 301 tors” There is not only no evidence in favor of a hybrid origin, but there is very much against it; and I have no hesi- tation in discarding the hypothesis in favor of a simpler and more philosophical one. 2. Is the Pine strawberry a direct development of the Chili strawberry? Every feature of the Pine strawberry suggests the Chilian species. It differs chiefly in its greater size and sometimes by aslight loss of hairiness, but the relative sizes of the parts remain much the same as in the wild type. It is now well known that variation induced by changed conditions of life and augmented by subsequent selection, is the common and potent means of the evolution and amelioration of plants. Hybridization rarely effects a permanent evolution of types. To suppose that the Chilian strawberry should have varied into the type of the common strawberry is in accord with all the methods of nature. But there are two considerations which convince me beyond all question that cultivated straw- berries belong to Fragaria Chiloensis: (a) Their botanical characters, which I shall discuss more fully in the next para- graph, (3), and (b) direct experiment. The experiment which I _ now record I consider to be of great importance. In 1890, I sent to Oregon for wild plants of Fragaria Chiloensis. The strawberries which I secured were short, stocky, thick-leaved, hairy, evergreen plants, at once distinguishable from the gar- den sorts. They were planted in a spot convenient for obser- vation. I pressed one of the original plants and have taken specimens from time to time since. A specimen taken in May, 1891, is scarcely distinguishable from the wild plants set the year before, but specimens secured in July of the same year, show the longer stalkes and larger leaves of garden strawber- ries; while an average specimen taken in June, 1892, is indis- tinguishable from common cultivated varieties in botanical features! Here, then, isa change in two years, and not by seeds, either, but in the same original plants or their offshoots. This change, while remarkable, is still not unintelligible, for I have seen many cases of as great modification in plants i “For a general discussion of the theory of hybridity, consult Bailey, Cross-Breed- ‘ng and Hybridizing, 1892. he 302 à The American Naturalist. [April, under cultivation ; and the Chilian strawberry is widely varia- ble in its wild state. Barnet hasinadvertently recorded a dis- tinct.departure from the type of the Chilian plant, for he says that while this strawberry usually loses its leaves in winter, the varieties which have been bred from it keep their leaves. This change in my plants is due primarily, no doubt, to a greater amount of food, arising from the greater space which the plants are allowed to occupy ; and itis possible that other environments may have assisted in the transformation. Hav- ing this experimental evidence, which so forcibly supplements , direct botanical evidence and so well emphasizes the known laws of plant variation, I can no longer doubt that the garden strawberries are Fragaria Chiloensis, that the early botanists did _ not recognize the garden type as a departure from this species, and that this type has finally driven from cultivation the forms of Fragaria Virginiana. And I am glad to know that so great an authority as the elder DeCandolle accepted the opin- ion of Seringe (1825) that the Pine, Bath Scarlet and Black strawberries belong to the Chilian species, for the Prodromus makes Duchesne’s Fragaria ananassa, F. calyculata and F. tincta all varieties of the Chilian plant. This was evidently the opinion of the Dutch plantsmen of the middle of the last cen- tury, also, for even before Duchesne described the Pine straw- berry, these merchants sold it under the name of Fragaria Chi- loensis ananæformis, indicating that it was regarded asa form of: the Chilian species. And Duhamel, towards the close of the last century, said that the Pine could be raised from seeds of the Chilian. It is evident, however, that Seringe did not mean to say thatall the large garden strawberries are offshoots of the Chilian species, for he has a variety hybrida of Fragaria Virginiana, which is a supposed compound of this species and the Pine. But if there was any hybridization in the early days, I am confident that it was only incidental and its effect was transitory. Our present strawberries are apparently direct and legitimate progeny of the Chilian species. ; 3. Is the Pine strawberry derived from Fragaria Virginians var. Illinoensis? I confess that I have believed until recently that the garden strawberries are offspring of our native berry; 1894.] Whence Came the Cultivated Strawberry. 303 certainly I have always hoped that such would prove to be their origin. It is with much reluctance that I give up a pleasant and patriotic hypothesis; but everything is against it. I had long thought that the Pine strawberry of last cen- tury was only this robust form of our native species, a feeling to which the early conjectures of an American origin for the Pine lent color. But the Pine and the var. Tllinoensis are so un- like in habit that they could not have been confounded. When the var. Illinoensis was really introduced into Europe in 1852 by Asa Gray, who secured it from the “wild and savage $ country in western New York, it was thought to be so distinct from all other strawberries that it was made a new species, Fragaria Grayana, although it is scarcely different, except in greater size, from the common Fragaria Virginiana. If this plant possessed such eminent and variable qualities as to have made it the parent of our garden varieties, it would certainly have given indications of them somewhere in its wide and varied range. As itis, it has only now and then come into cultivation, when its behavior has been such that it has soon been discarded, as in the well known instance of the recent Crystal City. I have also tried to cultivate it, and its response, like the Crystal City, is mostly in leaves and runners, not in any permanent or striking modification. It is true that the botan- ical features of the garden strawberries and the var. Illinoensis are much alike, particularly in herbarium specimens, and for some time I was not able to separate them readily ; but there are botanical characters, even aside from habit, which distin- guish them. The garden strawberries are lower in habit, pro- ducing runners freely only after fruiting, with shorter petioles and more leaves springing from the crown of the plant, and the leaves are spreading—all of which are striking peculiari- ties of the Chilian plant,—while in the native plant the leaves stand up on long nearly perpendicular stalks and the runners are produced at flowering time; the leaflets are thick and firm in texture, broader than in Jilinoensis and lacking the long narrow base of the native, with mostly rounder teeth, and they are particularly distinguished by the dark upper surface and the bluish-white under surface of the mature leaflets, the 304 The American Naturalist. [April, color of the leaflets in the native plant being light lively green, with little difference between the two surfaces. In these points of difference, too, the garden berries are characteristic- ally like the Chilian. The truss or inflorescence is different in the two. In the garden berries, the truss stands more or less oblique or is often prostrate, and it is broken up into two or three strong, often unequal spreading arms from which the short and stout fruit-stems spring, and this is the distinctive habit of the Chilian species; in the Illinoensis, the truss is erect and it breaks up more regularly at its top and the inflorescence is less strongly spreading in proportion to the number of fruits it contains, and the fruit-stems are weak and slender and more or less drooping. The calyx is very large in the garden ber- ries, a fact which Duchesne recorded in the name’ Fragaria calyculata which he applied to the large-hulled forms like the old Bath Scarlet, of which many are in cultivation at the pres- enttime. The fruit in Illinoensis is small and soft and bright scarlet, usually with a distinct neck and deeply embedded seeds; that of the garden berries still maintains the features of the Chilian berry in its large size, mostly globular-pointed form, dark color and seeds borne more nearly upon the surface. The garden berries are in every way much farther removed from the native berry than they are from the Chilian. From the latter they differ most widely, as I have said, in the taller growth and less hairiness;" but even in these features they do not resemble very closely the Jllinoensis. It may be urged that all these differences might have come about under the influence of cultivation if Illinoensis itself had been the parent of the garden forms, to which I reply that direct experiment does not sustain the assum ption, and that the excel- lent engravings of the early forms of the Pine strawberry show the same differences. It was the study of these pictures which first led me seriously to doubt the East-American origin "Itis often said that the fruit of the Chilian strawberry is erect and that the garden berries differ in a nodding fruit, but this is an error. While the fruit stems of the ï have grown, the fruit has the same drooping habit as in the garden berries. Chilian species probably varies naturally in its fruiting habit, but I have yet to rep instance in which it holds its fruit upright. SE ER Bet es NT eee ee a 2 2 i ‘ 1894.] Whence Came the Cultivated Strawberry ? 305 of our strawberries. No one can examine the excellent col- ored pictures of Keen’s berries,? and other early varieties, without being struck by the thick blue-bottomed leaves and wide-spreading arm-like trusses—indisputable marks of Fra- ‘garia Chiloensis. Yet, despite these important botanical differences, the garden berries and the native Illinoensis are much alike, as I have said; and this similarity is really one of the arguments in support-of a different geographical origin of the two. Similar climates or environments produce similar results, and when old berry fields are allowed to run wild, the plants do not revert to the type of the Chilian species, but are modified rather more in the direction of the indigenous plant. In the fall, when the flower trusses are gone and growth has ceased, it is sometimes almost impossible to distinguish between the leaves of spontaneous garden berries and wild Illinoensis ; but the flower clusters the following spring will be likely to distin- guish the two. As a matter of fact, garden berries probably do not often persist long when run wild. They are unable to contend with the grass and weeds, although Iilinoensis may find in similar circumstances an acceptable foothold. It is not strange, therefore, that those individuals from the old cultiva- ted beds which longest persist should be those nearest like the native berries, for such would fit most perfectly into the feral conditions. There is only one conclusion, therefore, which fully satsifies all the demands of history, philosophy, and botanical evidence, and this is that the garden strawberries are a direct modifica- tiou of the Chili strawberry. The initial variation occurred when species were thought to be more or less immutable, and, lacking exact historical evidence of introduction from a for- eign country, hybridization was the most natural explanation of the appearance of the strangetype. This modified type has driven from cultivation the Virginian berries which were ear- lier introduced into gardens; and the original type of the Chilian strawberry is little known, as it tends to quickly dis- ?, "See, for instance, the plate of Keen’s Seedling in Trans. London Hort. Soc., v 306 The American Naturatast. [April, appear through variation when impressed into cultivation. The strawberry is an instance of the evolution of a type of lant in less than fifty years, which is so distinct from all others that three species have been erected upon it, which was uniformly kept distinct from other species by the botanists who had occasion to know it best, and which appears to have been rarely specifically associated with the species from which it sprung. i Nei Be ia bd ees Se oy ie ree ee t an p ee ee Oe TT : 1894.] The Parasitic Protozoa Found in Cancerous Diseases. 307 THE PARASITIC PROTOZOA FOUND IN CANCEROUS DISEASES. By Arice BODINGTON. In the British Medical Journal for Feb. 26th, 1893, the “steady increase of cancer” is spoken of as a subject requiring serious attention, and as far back as 1887-8, the Council of the Association drew the attention of the Registrar-General to the “steady increase in the deaths from cancer,” out of proportion to the deaths from all causes, and showed that similar condi- tions exist in most civilized countries. The “increasing mortality from this terrible disease, not merely kills nearly twenty thou- sand persons in England and Wales alone ” [the southern part of one small island !] but kills the vast majority of them by slow and cruel torture continued during a long series of months, sometimes of years.” Cancer, like insanity, seems specially to find in the highest conditions of civilization a hot bed in which it flourishes and spreads; and any clue which can guide civilized man to the secret of grappling successfully with this hitherto unconquerable foe, will be one of the great- est boons which science can confer upon mankind. To know where the enemy lurks, and in what form, is, in the case of parasitic diseases, not only half but sometimes all the battle ; as the almost complete immunity from cholera of England has shown. An army of keen observers has endeavoured for many years past to discover, if possible, the exciting cause of cancer, but till lately the prospect of discovering the foe appeared hope- less. The theory which seemed most firmly established, most consonant with scientific theory, was at the same time a singularly hopeless one. It was assumed that at the decline of life, or under conditions of lowered vitality in the whole or part of the body, certain yonic structu especially of the kind known as “survivals ”—took on an abnormal growth, and Tloted in the production of epithelial cells of a low type which 308 The American Naturalist. [April, flourished at the expense of the healthy structures round them. Now any disease arising from degeneration or overgrowth of embryonic survivals, [such as the remains of the Wolffian duct in the female] sets at defiance all human precautions; the embryonic tissue is hidden, and no one can tell either when or why it begins to go wrong. If cancer owed its rise simply — and solely to an overgrowth of embryonic tissue, there was no hope but in an early, a thorough, an unsparing use of the knife; no stamping out of the disease could be hoped for or — thought of. All attempts to trace the disease to the action of bacteria failed. But during the last few months the patient, cautious, untiring labour of years of a number of distin- guished pathologists has enabled them to detect the existence of organisms in cancer, which resemble, in all that is known as yet of their life history, the Sporozoa; and more especially the Coccidium oviforme. (Leuckart), of the rabbit. sm; å shows 1 4 1 Blau ulal PAV eer , } + R M ee Fig. 1.—a, Coccidium g cay condensation of the protoplasm into one sphere, after two days’ growth external to body ; c, division of the single sphere into four daughter spher- ules, after four days’ development; d, an empty ruptured cyst. (From photographs x about 500.) The whole life cycle of Coccidium oviforme is now known; its discovery has been the work of more than thirty years, 5° that there is no reason for discouragement if some stages of the life history of the Coccidium found in cancer still elude research. Dr. Galloway after describing the symptoms of co infection in the rabbit, begins with the life of the pro after it leaves the body. “The organism” he says escapes from the alimentary canal consists of a firm t ccidian toz00D “as it ranslu- PLATE IV Leucocytes of Necturus and Cryptobranchus. PLATE V. d Spleen of Cryptobranchus. ions of Liver an Sect 1894,] The Parasitic Protozoa Found in Cancerous Diseases. 309 cent cyst oval in shape [see Fig. 1, a] enclosing a quantity of very granular protoplasm which fills the whole body. Very x f IESE d Fig.2—Stages in Life History of Coccidium oviforme. a,b. Formation of crescentic spores within the daughter spherules external to the host (after Balbiani); ¢, ¢, sporulation within the host, division of the spores into: numerous crescentic segments. (After photographs by Pfeiffer x 1,000.) From ‘Morton Lectures,’ by James Galloway, A. M.; M. D. Aberdeen- British Medical Journal. Feb. 4th, 1893. 7 soon after expulsion, and often while within the host, the pro- toplasmic contents contract [Fig. 1, 6] and form a sphere lying free within the cell wall. Under suitable circumstances, this: ball of protoplasm sends out projections and at length divides into four distinct smaller spherules [Fig. 1, ¢.]” These four spherules are “ transformed! into four spores provided with a very resistant external covering. Each spore encloses two falciform and very delicate embryos, [Fig. 2.] which give birth to new parasites, and thus engender the terrible disease when swallowed in polluted food. The sporiferous coccidia pene- trate into the digestive canal of rabbits, and the envelope of the spore protects the falciform embryos against the action of the gastric juice. So strong is the protecting capsule that the spores can live for at least six months outside the body [Gallo- way]. The epithelial cells of the small intestine and of the biliary ducts are the seat of the internal activity of the para- site, on reaching which a “new cycle of intense activity is ob- served. The falciform young take ona rounded shape, and probably acquire the power of locomotion. Most of the naked amceboid forms of the organism divide into small crescentic | Carcinomata and Coccidia, Elias Metschnikoff, M. D. Chef de Service, Institut Tau Revue Générale des Sciences Pures et Appliquées. Brit. Medical Journal. Dec. 10th, 1899. 21 310 The American Naturalist. [April, sporules, which, in their turn, also become free, and myriads of young sporozoa are soon formed. These possess the “ power of insinuating themselves into the protoplasm of epithelial cells, where they grow and become transformed into oval para- sites resembling the adult form” [Metschnikoff]. In course of time, the epithelial cell wall is ruptured and the parasite escapes, without necessarily causing the destruction of the pest cell; it passes through the alimentary canal, gains access to the atmosphere, and thus attains the conditions necessary to recommencing its cycle of development. Having been shown the life history of the coccidian parasite of the rabbit,” we shall be better prepared to recognize the [apparently] kindred dis- ease in man and some of the higher vertebrates. “Taking eancer of the breast as an example,” says Dr. Galloway, “if careful microscopic examination is made, there will be found lying, most commonly within the cell body, rounded or oval structures varying in most cases from 2 + to 10 » in diameter, having, when large, a very distinct capsule, and containing a smaller body of variable shape. From the capsule there may be seen passing towards the centre numerous fine radial stria- MONG, e ig. 4 ene processes of a somewhat different char- acter may also be seen passing from the nucleus towards th periphery; they are not so regular and appear to be prolong- ations of the nucleus. “These bodies occur sometimes singly, sometimes in twos and threes, and occasionally to the number of nine or ten—and even twenty,’ of small size—in a single cell. In a successful preparation each of the small ones will be seen to contain the usual nuclear substance (see Figs. 3 and 4). Similar structures of smaller size may be observed lying inside the nucleus of the epithelial cells. In this ease the capsule, so very characteris tic of the intracellular bodies, is very slight, and indeed, ap- pears to be absent in most cases. “The intra-nuclear bodies also occur either singly or in small groups.” Occasionally the *S-:e also Fig. XVII, Sporozoa; Gregarinide article Protozoa, Encyclopedia Britannica, pp. 852-3. i i M. D., ‘‘ I have seen over 20 parasites in the same nucleus.” —M. Armand Rufter, B. Medical Journal, Nov. 5, 1892. 1394.] The Parasitic Protozoa Found in Cancerous Diseases. 811 FIG, 3. Cells from different cancers of the breast, showing various forms of parasites in the cell protoplasm X 1,200. FIG. 4. a and 4, Groups of cells containing intracellular parasites X< about 1,000; ¢ saree’ alveolus from edge of rapidly growing carcinoma of breast, showing numerous parasites X about 400. bodies may be seen partly within and partly without the nucleus in the act of passing through the latter into the cell protoplasm. In certain cases the nucleus seems to become filled up with numerous small parasites which escape into the cell protoplasm after having burst through the nucleus* The * See “Preliminary Note on some Parasitic Protozoa found in Cancerous Diseases.” By M. Armand Ruffer, M. D. and J. Herbert Walker, M. A. B. Medical Journal, July 16, 1892. Also, “Recent Researches on Protozoa and Disease.” By M. Armand Ruffer, M.D. B. Medical Journal, Oct. 14, 1898. . 312 The American Naturalist. [April, nucleus of the cancer cell when it bursts through over-disten- sion with parasites, perishes, but when only one or two para- sites escape, it usually heals up perfectly. For the further life history of protozoa of cancer, we may follow Mr. Jackson Clarke.’ In describing his examination of a myeloid sarcoma, he says: “In the most interesting portion of the neoplasm, its advancing border, the entire peripheral zone of the section could be examined from end to end with- out anything but ameeboid psorosperms and remains of infil- trated connective tissues coming into view. In the centre of the field [Fig. 5] is a psorosperm in the plasmodium stage, in which spore-formation is commencing. Below is part of a giant cell containing one encapsuled and two ameeboid psoro- sperms ; numerous free amceboid parasites, and to the left is part of a large plasmodium, within which are nuclei and fibres undergoing digestion. In this sarcoma, as in all the cancers, I have examined Te- cently, there is, in the advancing zone, an army of ameeboid psorosperms invading and digesting the tissues beyond, and determining new growth in the special tissue with which the parasites have established a symbiosis. For it appears that the curious inter-dependence of two organisms, known as symbiosis, has *Sarcoma Caused by Psorosperms. By J. Jackson Clarke, M. B., FROS 4 Medical Journal, Dec. 24, 1892, and Jan. 21, 1893. 1894.] The Parasitic Protozoa Found in Cancerous Diseases. 313 been established between the malignant parasite of cancer and certain epithelial and mesoblastic tissues. These tissues are ex- cited to enormous overgrowth by the presence of the parasites, whilst the tissues with which they have not established a symbiosis are in- vaded, devoured and destroyed. Mr. Jackson Clarke thus de- scribes the process: “The amceboid parasites make their way between the epithelial cells and pass in vast numbers into the connective tissue spaces beyond the epithelial part of the growth. In their passage they cause the rows of epithelial cells to separate, and thus bring about a multiplication of the points of epithelial ingrowth and detachments of small groups of epithelial cells. A considerable amount of inflammation is caused by the invasion of the vascular tissues by the amæbæ, with the same result as that seen in inflammatory papillo- mata; an extension of epithelial growth, and a formation of new blood-vessels. Most of the amcebe disappear, but a small proportion enter epithelial cells, where, even in the non-nucle- ated stage, they could be detected,” and the evil cycle is car- ried on. >- Messrs Ruffer and Walker, the first pathologists who demon- strated the existence of the cancer parasite in England, state that they found a mixture of Foll’s solution, with 1 per cent. of osmic acid, gave the most satisfactory results as a hardening reagent,’ especiallyin d ting thei nuclear parasites. Biondi’s mixture as a coloring agent brings out the organisms with all the clearness that can be desired. The “ coccidia, stained a light blue, enclose a dark brown nucleus, the can- cerous cell is stained a dirty yellow white, while its nucleus takes a green tint” [Metschnikoff ]. Metschnikoff is of opinion than the coccidiosis of the rabbit is a miasmatic disease of the most typical kind, and that car- cinomata also approximate to the category of miasmatic affec- tions. “Although less pronounced than malaria or goitre,” he observes, “the endemic character of cancer is a fact that has often struck observers. The frequency of these malignant tu- mors is far from being the same in all countries. By the side ê Second Note on Parasitic Protozoa in Cancerous Tumors. 2. Medical Journal, Nov. 5, 1892. 314 The American Naturalist. April, of regions of the globe which are exempt, or very nearly so, from this disease [Faroé Islands] there are others where carci- nomata are very common.” According to Cohnheim’s theory of a simple overgrowth of embryonic survival tissues, the average of victims to cancer should be the same in every part of the world, and liability to its ravages should be common to all the Metazoa. Metschnikoff points out another feature which cancers have in common with coccidian diseases—the exaggerated proliferation of the epithelial cells in the affected organs. How close the resemblance is, the following figures show. FIGs O: Hyperplasia of the biliary ducts of the rabbit under the influence of coccidia. As yet, the study of parasitism in cancerous diseases is w beginning. The coccidia of the rabbit have been know? 1994] The Parasitic Protozoa Found in Cancerous Diseases. 315 half a century, but it is only quite recently that an important stage in their life-history has been made out. There are dif- ferences of opinion between observers; Mr. Jackson Clarke’s amceba-like organisms do not exactly correspond with the var- ious forms of parasites described by some other pathologists. It is thought possible that the whole life-cycle of the protozoon may be passed within its human host; in any case, its exo- genous history is not known, and this stage is the one which it would be the most useful to discover, since we are, at pres- ent, in utter darkness as to the mode in which the contagion is conveyed to the host. Cancer is pronounced to be a disease in which heredity plays an important part. Does it do so in the same way that hereditary predisposition acts in tuberculous diseases; not by a direct transmission of the tubercle bacillus, but by some mysterious lowering of the vital powers of resist- ance? It is hardly possible to imagine that microsporidia, hereafter to develop into the protozon of cancer, can remain dormant for 50, 60, 70, 80 years. The disease [so far as can be ascertained from experiments upon animals, themselves liable to cancer] is not directly trans- ferable from one host to another. There remains, therefore, as a highly probable hypothesis that the exogenous form of the protozodn of cancer, like the flagellate monad of malaria and the coccidia of the rabbit, must be sought in contaminated soil or water. It is because this most important stage of the life history of the protozodn of cancer is unknown, that I have ventured to present a summary of some of the papers which have been appearing for some months in the British Medical Jonrnal to the readers of the AMERICAN Naturauist; hoping that workers skilled in researches among the Protozoa may take up the subject, and may come to the aid of the brilliant band of pathologists who have thrown so much light on a most difficult problem. 316 The American Naturalist. - [Apri THE ACTION OF LEUCOCYTES TOWARD FOREIGN SUBSTANCES: Epiru J. CLAYPOLE, M. S. Among the many problems that yet await solution at the hands of the physiologist and histologist, those relating to the disappearance of so many leucocytes or white blood corpuscles from the animal body have long afforded a fruitful field for work. Under what conditions and by what means they are destroyed is as yet but partly known, and different theories are advanced as to the most probable method of this destruction. ‘The constant relation, normally, that exists between the num- bers of the white and red cells of the blood, in spite of the steady supply of white cells that is poured into the blood from the lymphatics, establishes the fact that somewhere there is as steady a drain on the numbers. The nature of leucocytes as entities in the economy of the animal body is of especial importance in consideration of the second point and a careful study of these cells in a living con- dition helps one to realize their activities and powers. e ability of these cells to take up foreign substances by virtue of their amoeboid movement is very significant to the physiologist especially from a pathological standpoint. The great Russian morphologist, Metschnikoff, has based his phagocyte doctrine on the peculiarity given to these cells by the exercise of this power, giving to them in consequence an additional and aid portant duty. They form, as it were, a guardian army 12 ls animal body, ever alert and watchful for the invading enemy. A constant warfare is being waged between these leucocytes an all foreign material, organie or inorganic, that enters the system. By the process of ingestion the immediate influence * This paper contains part of the results of an investigation carried on in the yas logical Laboratory of Cornell University during last year. I wish to BRT rs appreciation of the abundant material and facilities which were so generously ip my disposal. The whole paper afterwards received the first prize offered by American Microscopical Society for original work in animal Histology. 1804] The Action of Leucocytes Toward Foreign Substances. 317 of the substances is removed from the tissues. The balance of power continually wavers between these two hosts, on the one hand the leucocytes and on the other the different kinds of organisms and matter, injurious or non-injurious, to which the animal body is hourly exposed. If the invaders are too strong the results become evident in the sickness or perhaps death of the animal. But if the leucocytes are victorious, and are able to clear the system of the foreign substances, normal conditions are again established and with them the health of the individ- ual. By no means is it necessary, however, that the conflict become apparent externally. This at least is the story picturesquely put as the founder of the“ Phagocyte Theory A reads it. It may be rather extreme; certainly there are those who consider the protective part played by the leucocytes to be quite small, relatively speaking or merely incidental. That they can and do ingest foreign particles and are subsequently to be found in the various tissues bearing their loads, is how- ever, proved. Itis only the interpretations laid on the facts that differ. Many experiments have been made from a pathological standpoint to prove, if possible, the true part played by the various tissues and cells in diseases, which owe their existence to the presence of foreign matter or foreign organisms in the body. Naturally from the medical standpoint these exper- iments have been made on mammals of various kinds, the only other animal used being the- ever useful frog. In con- trast to this basis of work is the normal physiological condition existing under ordinary circumstances in animal life. All the experiments, of which the results are here given, were made under as purely normal conditions as possible, in every way anything that might produce abnormal results, being avoided. The animals used for these experiments were the two sala- manders, Necturus maculatus or the Mud-puppy and Orypto- branchus alleghaniensis, the Hell-bender. For several reasons these animals afford peculiar advant- ages for an investigation of this kind. Of great importance among these is the large size of the leucocytes and of the vari- ous tissue cells, and also the comparatively simple structure of 318 ; The American Naturalist. [April, the different organs. Another great advantage in the study of the living leucocytes lies in their activity in the ordinary tem- perature of a room, a fact, which affords an opportunity for the close observation of the process of ingestion. By mixing on a slide a small drop of fresh blood or lymph with a small quantity of lamp-black suspended in normal salt solution, the taking up or ingestion of the carbon by the leucocytes can be seen to take place while they pass through their amoeboid hases. In a few hours the cells become filled with carbon particles (P1. IV), which are, however, contained exclusively in the cell body although appearances suggest their presence in the nuclei. ‘These latter parts also exhibit amoeboid forms (Pl. IV). By watching the cells carefully the granules are seen to move across the nuclei and gradually leave it clear, proving beyond doubt that they are in the cell body. In introducing the carbon into the living animals the follow- ing method was used. Into the abdominal cavity of the animals from 4-1 c. e. of a mixture of lamp black, gum arabic and normal salt solution was injected. Here it should be said that in these animals this cavity forms practically a great lymph space, in which the carbon is ingested by the leucocytes, the latter then pass into the blood circulation and from thatto the various organs and tissues. After periods varying from 4- 10 days different animals were killed and the blood and tissues examined. In the case of Necturus, owing to the presence of external gills, the time of the appearance of the carbon-laden cells in the blood could be easily determined. By etherizing the animals and microscopically examining the circulation of the blood in the gill filaments once or twice a day the time of the appearance and also of the disappearance of ingested cells can be noted. The earliest appearance was on the 6th and the latest on the 9th days after injection. After 16 days a few scattered cells still remained. The results now given were chiefly obtained from a specimen of Cryptobranchus killed 10 days after injection. In the microscopical examination of the tissues the ee difficulty encountered lay in the presence of a large amount natural pigment in the tissues. This is confusing both from 1394] The Action of Leucocytes Toward Foreign Substances. 319 the similarity in colour and from the necessary obscuring of structural parts. Caustic potash destroys melanin, but boiling is required and that of necessity injures the tissues. Ether, alcohol, acids and strong alkalies will also remove the colour, but the last two destroy the tissues and the first two decolorize so slowly as to be practically useless. By means of hydrogen dioxide the most successful results were obtained. The sec- tions when cut and fastened to the slide were put in a vial of a 2% solution of the liquid. In from 6-48 hours, depending on the amount of pigment present, the color is reduced from black toa pale yellow without any attendant injury to the tissues. The process of decolourization is materially hastenéd by plac- ing the vial containing the liquid and tissue in the strong sun- light and if desired all traces of the pigment can be removed. Practically it was found to be a great advantage to leave sufficient colour to mark the position of the pigment-bearing cells. By this method the black ingested leucocytes were easily distinguished wherever they oceurred, and no chance for con- fusion remained. : Serial sections were made of the following parts: the spleen, kidney, ureters, liver, lung, stomach, muscle and skin. In all these parts ingested cells were present, but the positions and relations differed somewhat with the different organs. In the kidney (Pl. VI) carbon-laden leucocytes were in the blood capillaries, in the glomeruli, in the lymph spaces surrounding the capsules of the glomeruli, in the urinary tubules and in the nephrostomes. These latter parts are peculiar structures present in the amphibian kidney and are marks of a much more primitive form of that organ than exists in mammals. They consist of small ciliated funnels opening on the ventral surface of the kidney directly into the abdominal cavity. A small tube then unites these funnels with the urinary tubule arising from the glomeruli. The ingested leucocytes were 1n these funnels and by a series of sections they could be found to pass down the tube and into the urinary tubule. No doubt the number of leucocytes that pass from the blood circulation into the tubules is largely increased by additions from this source. No signs of ingested leucocytes in other than these 320 The American Naturalist. [April places were found, or any trace of free carbon. Serial sections ~ made of the ureters (Pl. VI) close to their openings into the cloaca showed masses of ingested cells. This indicated that a considerable number of such cells found their way out of the body in this way. Uningested cells were also found among those containing carbon. In the liver (Pl. V) ingested cells were found in the blood vessels alone. No extra-vascular carbon-laden leucocytes were present. In the stomach (PI. VII) the carbon-laden cells were in the blood-vessels, in the epithe- lial tissue of the stomach and free on the inner surface, show- ing a gradual passage from the vessels to the epithelial surfaces. In the lungs (Pl. VI) practically the same time condition existed and also in the skin (P1. VII). In the latter leucocytes could be traced from the blood-capillaries through the various layers and finally free on the outer surface of the skin. That these outside had not come from accidental external contact was proved by the fact that no red corpuscles were among these leucocytes and with the very rapid coagulation that takes place in amphibian blood it would be impossible for the white cells to be completely isolated from the red. In various parts of the muscular tissue, either in the lymphatics or simply between the muscular fibres, ingested cells occurred rarely. In all these parts there was absolutely no evidence for the presence of free carbon or carbon in any other cells than leucocytes. When, however, the spleen (Pl. V) was examined — some peculiar and very interesting differences were found. The carbon was contained in leucocytes of a similar nature to those in previous cases, but in addition round the malpighian corpuscles there was what seemed at first sight to be a free de- posit of carbon. But when carefully observed the carbon proved to be contained in cells that from their position wet judged to be spleen-pulp cells. The distribution of the carbon in these cells differed exceedingly from that present in the leucocytes. Instead of being massed irregularly the carbon was evenly scattered through the cells, and, owing to the extended condition of the latter, covered a large area. hide the fact of the presenee of carbon in these cells was established the question of the means of the transfer of the carbon from 1894] The Action of Leucocytes Toward Foreign Substances. 321 the leucocytes to the spleen cells at once arose. It was already proved that no free carbon entered the blood circulation. Con- sequently the spleen cells must have obtained their foreign material either directly or indirectly from the already ingested leucocytes in the blood. Two ways are open for this to take place. The leucocytes may in some manner discharge their load, which is afterwards taken up by the spleen cells, or the spleen cells may ingest the leucocytes and consequently the carbon. The latter seems to be the most plausible explanation. Moreover from the amount of carbon contained in the spleen cells the number of leucocytes destroyed in this manner must be considerable. A brief summary of the results of the experiments is con- tained in the following statements: 1. No free carbon was present in any part examined. 2. All carbon was contained in leucocytes except in the spleen, where true splenic cells also contained it. = 3. Ingested cells were both extra- and intravascular, except in the liver. 4. Ingested cells were free on mucous and epidermic surfaces ; in the stomach, lungs and skin. 5. Ingested cells were in excretory organs with waste pro- ducts, kidneys. From the above results it is seen that the number of leuco- cytes in the body suffers a constant loss in three ways, by the wandering out of the cells on mucous and epidermic surfaces, by passing away with waste products and through ingestion by the splenic cells. The large numbers found in all three con- ditions show that the destruction of leucocytes through these ways is by no means insignificant. Moreover as no patholog- ical conditions, so far as could be determined, were induced in the animals by the treatment, there is no reason to believe this loss to be other than a normal occurrence. This method of removing the artificially introduced material by the leucocytes suggests at least the manner of the removal of any foreign matter that may enter the circulation during life. The leucocytes thus perform the duties of scavengers of the body in addition to their other important duties, even if by 322 The American Naturalist. [April the very assumption of this office, they ultimately become waste material and as such pass away from the system. One of the most interesting of the many problems that, even in these few experiments, have presented themselves, remains as yet unsolved. Owing to want of time the ultimate fate of the carbon contained in the spleen-pulp cells remains unascer- tained, nor can any suggestions be offered. Only after more prolonged experiments could it be determined whether the carbon disappeared from the cells or remained permanently in them. After the determination of this point if the first condi- tion was found to obtain, the question as to the method of this removal would remain to be settled. In all the problems con- nected with the blood and circulation this perplexing organ seems to play an important part and when, setting aside func- tion, differences of opinion exist as to structure, it can easily be seen that discussion dn this part of the experiments involves doubtful and difficult problems. As is usual in any investiga- tion many doubtful points have been raised that yet await settlement, leaving an interesting and fruitful field for further work. s Notr.—The author wishes to express her indebtedness to the American Micro- _ scopical Society for the use of plates illustrating this article. i Prate IV. Leucocytes. A. Group of carbon-laden leucocytes showing amoeboid phases. a. b. Leucocytes of Necturus. n. Nucleus. p. Cell-body. c. d. Leucocytes of Cryptobranchus. n. Nucleus. p. Cell-body. Drawn from dried preparations. B. Group of Leucocytes, showing amoeboid cell-bodi amoeboid nuclei. a. b. c. Leucocytes of Necturus. n. Nucleus. p. Cell-body. es and 1394.) The Action of Leucocytes Toward Foreign Substances. 323 b. Shows three nuclei, two in amoeboid movement and one resting. d. e. Leucocytes of Cryptobranchus. n. Nucleus. p. Cell-body. e. Has three nuclei, two amoeboid and one resting. Drawn from stained preparations. PLATE V. A. Surface section of liver of Cryptobranchus. p. Capillaries of blood-vessels. t. Liver-cells. b. Red corpuscles in the capillaries. d. Small intercellular capillaries of bileduct. e. Epithelium of the larger bile vessels. h. Hepatic cell-body. n. Nucleus of hepatic cells with nucleoli. Note the absence of extravascular ingested leucocytes. B. Vertical section of the spleen of Cryptobranchus. I. Part of the section near the surface. . Peritoneum. Layer of fibrous tissue forming the capsule. . Trabeculæ passing from capsule among splenic cells. Carbon-laden leucocytes. . Red corpuscles. Leucocytes, non-ingested. Splenic pulp-cells. II. Ental part of the section. Lettering as above. Note the ingested spleen pulp cells and the different distribu- tion of the carbon particles in them from that found in the leucocytes; also the absence of ingested splenic cells in the Superficial part of the spleen. eS oO WN Re p PLATE VI. A. Vertical section of lung of Cryptobranchus. E. Ectal surface. R. Ental or respiratory surface. 324 The American Naturalist. [April, P. Blood capillary. c. Carbon-laden leucocytes. Note the presence of ingested leucocytes in extravascular tissue as well as on the ental surface of the lung. B. Section of kidney of Cryptobranchus. I. Transection of the ureters and cloaca, showing masses of ingested cells. i a. Ureters. ; c. Carbon-laden leucocytes. l. Non-ingested leucocytes. II. Transection of urinary tubules. 4 ~ ¢. Carbon-laden leucocytes. III. Nephrostomic funnel, showing ciliated mouth. c. Ingested leucocytes. l. Non-ingested leucocytes. IV. Vertical section of the kidney near the ventral surface. . Glomerulus. Capillaries of blood-vessels. Urinary tubules. s. Lymph space around the glomerulus. o. Origin of a urinary tubules, with small ciliated epithelium. b. Red corpuscles. c. Carbon-laden leucocytes. Note the presence of extravascular ingested cells. Bye Prare VII. A. Vertical section of stomach of Cryptobranchus, near the pyloric part. I. Submucosa. II. Muscularis mucose. IIT. Mucosa. c. Carbon-laden leucocytes. eo Note the presence of the extravascular ingested cells. The figure is diagrammatic in so far that the locations of the ingested cells are taken from different sections and put vei one figure. a © 1h gh Mey i] PLATE VI. A Sections of Lung and Kidney of Cryptobranchus. TO Do a y . TOP Daa f 5 A 1% le j a a A RMA i 1394.) The Action of Leucocytes Toward Foreign Substances. 325 B. Vertical section of the skin of Cryptobranchus. G. Large mucous glands. c. Carbon-laden leucocytes. The ingested cells are wandering to the external surface from the blood-vessels, 22 326 The American Naturalist. [April, THE WHITE-MARKED TUSSOCK-MOTH (ORGYIA LEUCOSTIGMA SMITH AND ABBOTT) IN CHICAGO. Dr. Josera L. Hancock. Throughout the months of June and July 1893, there were myriads of caterpillars of the White-Marked Tussock-Moth (Orgyia leucostigma) crawling on the sidewalks, in the grass and in the streets in the section south of the river in Chicago. These caterpillars could be seen constantly changing their positions, drifting from place to place. One need not have searched far to determine the cause of these shifting move- ments—for the White Elm trees ( Ulmus americanus) which are set out in some of the resident portions, on the sides of the streets, at-that time were almost completely defoliated ; show- ing that they were infested by this insect. As soon as one tree became despoiled of its leaves the caterpillars centered their attacks upon other trees adjacent to them. The beauti- ful hairy larva of Orgyia marked with yellow, black, and two little bright vermillion red: spots on the ninth and tenth joints is a conspicuous object. It seems to have few natural enemies and parasites that are menacing its welfare here. Notwithstanding the possible existence of a few deadly foes, it enjoys immunity from these to a larger extent than many other insects, as shown from the fact of the growing prepo™- derance of individualsin the last three years. The Wheel-bug sometimes attack the caterpillars, but the former does not occur in the city, whereas bats, cuckoos and robins | insufficient numbers to make any appreciable impression eee them. In the middle or latter part of August, the male moths are most abundant, flying about at night. Attracted by artifi- cial lights, they frequently are seen on the glass of the shop windows along the streets. One appeared ọn the inside wa of a house (August 28, 1893) and was caught by the writer. The position of the hairy forelegs placed in front of the body, bins are 12 | ! : 1894,] The White-Marked Tussock Moth. 397 with other characteristics which it possesses, are attractive to the entomologist. Natural selection has favored the structure of the legs, the feathery antenne, the subdued ashy-gray color, all to one purpose; to lend in blending its form with the natural environment on the bark of trees. In fact we find ma) Sri A ta y rog sa ht N BIEN ie pista a os ay oe Fig. 1. White-marked Tussock-moth: æ, female moth on cocoon; 4, young larva hanging by thread; c, female pupa; d, male pupa; ¢, male moth. [After Riley]. the caterpillar favored by its very conspicuousness, while nature is effecting good to the same species on a diametrically different line by so modifying the form of the male moth as to deceive its enemies from seeing it. Parasitism may be looked upon as a recent enemy—for nature is strangely unable to cope against their invasion. The female pupa within a frail cocoon may be pierced with ease by the oviposi- tor of a Hymenopterous parasite and is obliged to give up her life’s juices in hopeless submissson to the offspring of the par- asite hatching within her body. Along these lines we are to look forward for a means of extermination. On September 30, 1898, the tree trunks along the streets in the locality above named, were examined with. a view of learning some further facts about Orgyia. A number of cocoons were found as the result of the search, all being near the ground. These were taken home to my study, where on opening them, they proved to be quite old, of a dirty color, and many were deserted. On two of the cocoons there were plastered masses of small white eggs made adherent by some glistening tenacious frothy sub- stance which had become hardened on drying. Inside of others were empty pupas and cast off skins. Some Hymenop- terous parasites had hatched and lived in the old pupa husks, which later had made their exit through an irregular hole cut 328 The American Naturalist. [April out at the forward end. In another cocoon there still lay in store another suprise, for on tearing apart the hairy fibers, out rolled a small undetermined gray spider which was snugly secreted and warmly covered for the winter. The spider was tumbled into a bottle of preserving fluid and now bears testi- mony to the unprofitable experience of tonsa a ram- shackle old dwelling of Orgyia. Ty ee eee Se ee ee ee ee ee je EE EE N, TERE Recent Books and Pamphlets. 329 RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. oem M. A.—Souls. Chicago, 1893. From the Publishers, Donnelly and yt , F. S.—Report on the Microscopic examination of Blood from a patient suf- fering jae Splenic Myelogenous Leukaemia. —— Observations on the development of the Hypophysis cerebri and Processus ase ering in the common cat. Extr. Bull., Lab. Nat. Hist. State Univ. of Iowa, Vol. II, 1893. From the author. Annual Report of the State Geologist a New Jersey for 1892. From the Sur- ADLER, C.—The Shofar. Its Use and Origin. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus. A ais 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution nual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the year TENE 1891. Report of the U. S. Natl. Mus. Washington, 1892. From the Smith- sonian Institution BATHER, F. A. Natural sues at the Chicago Exhibition. Extr. Natural Sci- ence, Nov. 1893. From the EECHER, C, E.—A larval pas of Triarthrus.——On the Thoracic Legs of Tri- arthrus. Larval forms Ke Trilobites from the Lower Helderberg Group. Extr. Am. Jour, Sci., Vol. XLVI, 1893. From the author. Brown, C. T. Maaar of the New Zealand Coleoptera. New Zealand, 1893. From the New Zealand Institute. Bulletin No. 24, Aug., 1893. Agri. Exp. Stat. Rhode Island Coll. Agri. and Mechan. Arts. CLARK, W. R.—A Preliminary Report on the Cretaceous and eat roie of New Jersey. Extr. Ann. Rept. State Geol. for 1892. From the Gace, S. H.—The Lake and Brook Lampreys. Reprint from b ‘Wilder Quar- cau arte 1893. From the author. TEAD, B. D.—Report of the Se Department of the New Jersey Agri- cultural Coll. ees Stat. for pies 92. Harris, G. D.—On the Organic ae from the Deep Well at Galveston, Tex- rv, a A.—A new fossil Palm from the Cretaceous of Long Island.——Some further notes upon Serenopsis kempii. Extrs. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 1893. Homes, W. H.—The World’s Fair Congress of Anthropology, Chicago, 1893. Extr. Am. Anthrop., Oct., 1893. From the author. Hopkins, T. C.—Marbles and Limestones of Arkansas with Atlas. Vol. IV, Ark, Geol. Surv. for 1890. From Mr. J. C. Bra Howes, G. B.—On the Coracoid of the Si Vertebrata. Extr. Proceeds. London Zool. Soc. ae From the author JORDAN, D. S.—Temperature and Vana A Study in Evolution. Reprint 330 The American TaN: [April, ——Description of a new species of Cyprinoid Fish, Couesius greeni, from the head waters of Frazer River in oe a aes Extr. Proceeds, U. S. Natl. Mus. Vol. XIV, 1893. From the a Pa LEK, Pior FR. i leikena über die Fauna der Gewässer Bohmens akh? Me aupin der Trichopteren, Archiv. der Naturwissenschaftl. Lauds ei eier von Böhmen. VIII, Bd., Nrv. 6. Prag, 1893. From the author. AFKA, ns. Die Fauna der Böhmischen Teiche. Archiv. der Naturw. Länts von Böhmen Ki Bd. Nrv. 2. he author. Lyman, B. S.—The Great Mesozoic Fault in New Jersey. Extr. Proceeds. Am. Philos. oe. 1893. From the author. MANN, A.—List of Diatomaceae from a Deep-sea dredging in the Atlantic Ocean off Tene: Bay by the U.S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross _Extr. ceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus. Vol, XVI, 1893. From the Smithsonian Tistité Mason, O. T.—Throwing-sticks from Mexico and California. eae ‘Procdeile U. S. Natl. Mus. Ag XVI, 1893. From the author. MATTHEW, W. D.—On Antennae and other Appendages of 7riarthrus beckii. Extr. a Ney T Sci. xii, Amer. Journ. Sci., 1893. From the author A.—Report on the Rocks of Trans-Pecos Texas. Extr. from the Fourth aa Repat 1892. From the Texas Geol. Surv PARKER, E. W.—Production of Coal in 1892. Extr. Mineral Resources of the U. S. calender year 1892. From the U. S. Geol. Surv RATHBUN. M. J. —Catalogue of the Crabs of the F amily Maiidae in the U. S. Nat. us. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution. Studies from the Johns Hopkins University, Vol. V, No. 2 and 3. Ripeway, R.—Des criptions of some new Birds ppa on the Islands of Aldabra and Assumption, northwest of } Madagascar, by Dr. W. L. Abbott, ——On a small collection of birds from Costa Rica. Extr. Pectiad U. S. Natl, Mus. Vol. XVI, 1893. From tke Smithsonian Institution RILEy, C. V. —Report on the Insecta, Arachinda and Myriaeode collected during the U. S. Ecli pse Expedition to West Africa in 1889-90. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. 3 XVI, 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution ROMANES, G. J.—An Examination of Weismannism. Chicigu; 1893. From the ae by S Rose, C.—Ueber die DENEA der Krokodile. Abdruck aus Verkandl. sm Ges Wien 1892.—Uber die Zahnleiste und die Eischwiele der Sau- n.— Uber die Zahnnentwickelung der PR _——-Uber rudimentäre Zabnalangen der Gattung Manis. Abdruck aus Anat , 1892. Zur n des Säugetiergebisses. Sonderabdruck aus aude ee 1892. From i uthor pen I. C.—Malaspina Glacier, Extr, Journ. Geol., Vol. I, 1893. From z author SALISBURY, R. D.—Surface Geology of tee sees Extr. Ann. Rept. of New Jersey State Geologist for 1892. Fro m the a SCHLOSSER, M.—Ueber die De eutung hes Ma iia der beere handl. d. deutsch. odontol. Gesellschaft. Bd. IV. From the aut Ver | q 1894.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 331 SEELEY, —On a Reptilian Tooth with two Roots.———-Supplemental Note on i Viesbie-rooted Tooth from the Purbeck Beds. Extrs. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.» Further observations on the shoulder girdle and clavicular arch of the Ichthy- osauria and Sauropterygia.— Researches on the Structure, Organization and Classi- fication of the Fossil Reptilia, Part VIII. Oa further evidence of Deuterosaurus and Rhopalodon from the Permian Rocks of Russia. Extrs. Proceeds. Roy. Soc., Vol. 54. From the author. Simpson, C. T.—On some fossil Unios and other fresh water shells from the drift at Toronto, Canada, with a review of the distribution of the Unionidæ of northeastern North America. Extr. Proceeds.: U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893. From the pez Institutio SINGLEY, J. A arene Reports on the Artesian Wells of the Gulf Costal Slope. Extr. Fourth Ann. Report, 1892. From the Texas Geol. S SMYTH, B. B.—Check List of the Plants of Kansas. mgt Kai 1892. From the author. STEJNEGER, L.—Notes on a third installment of Japanese birds in the Science Col- oe Tokio, pem with descriptions of new species. Extr. Proceeds. . l. Mus., Vol. X 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution. UWITZ, A“ H. eee Texas. Extr. from Fourth Annual Report eh for 1892. From the Texas Geol. Sur Transactions SRS Academy of siteiki Vol. XIII, 1891-92. TROUESSA Les Primates tertiaries et L'Homme fossile sud-amèricain. Extr. Lanier, 1892. From the auth TRUE, F. W.—Description of a new Peni Bat, Pteropus aldabrensis, from Aldabra sland. —Notes on a small collection of Mammals from the Tana River, East Africa, with descriptions of new species. Extrs. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XIV, 893. From the Smithsonian Institution. 332 The American Naturalist. [April, RECENT LITERATURE. Chapman on the Birds of the Island of Trinidad.'— During the early part of 1893, Mr. Chapman collected birds and made notes in the Island of Trinidad, and the paper we are here to notice is the printed account of his observations in that interesting quarter of the world. Its author leads off with a brief description of the Island and the various places upon it visited by him during his short stay there. Then follows several pages devoted to “The Faunal Position of Trinidad,” in which he very conclusively proves that that island “faunally, that is naturally, has no connection whatever with the West Indies, but is entirely South American in its affinities.” Further we are informed that an “ analysis of the distribution of the 199 resident land-birds common to Trinidad and the continent shows that it belongs in the Colombian, rather than in the Amazonian subregion. Thus 153 of these birds are found in both Guiana and Venezuela, while twenty-five are found in Venezuela but not in Guiana, and only eleven are foun in Guiana but not in Venezuela.” An interesting table is also given showing the South American element in the avifauna of Trinidad, as compared with the off lying islands of Tobago and Grenada. Mr. Chapman also deals in this paper with the Bibliography of the Trinidad Avifauna, and an entire and very important section of the work is devoted to “ General Remarks on Trinidad Bird Life.” Here the questions of “Number of Species ;” “Migration ;” “ Call-Notes and Songs ;” “Nesting” and “The Colors of Tropical Birds” are dealt with in a manner well calculated to excite the interest, and com- pel the attention of the philosophic student of bird-life in any part of the world where these observations may be read. ; This memoir is concluded by “ A List of the Birds of the Island . Trinidad,” which is prefaced by the following remark by its author : “ While I believe that the most natural order in which to arrange lists of species of any class of animals is to begin with the end with the highest, most writers on South American birds lowed exactly the opposite plan, and any attempt to change would now result in so much confusion that I have decided to follow the system 0 ICHAPMAN, FRANK M., On the Birds of the Island of Trinidad. Authors ext. Bull. American Museum of Natural History, Vol. VI, Art. 1, PP- r ; York, Feb. 16, 1894. 1894.] Recent Literature. 333 previous writers, even though I disapprove of it.” (p. 21). We can- not agree with Mr. Chapman in this theory, and see no real valid rea- son why we should perpetuate the errors of our predecessors in the science of ornithology. The classification of the birds of Trinidad adopted by Mr. Chapman is the only faulty feature of this otherwise careful work by a Natural- ist who has thus far in his career earned a reputation for great pains- taking. ` He divides the Trinidad avifauna simply into two primary ORDERS —the PASSERES and the MACROCHIRES. In the first named the following families are represented, viz: the Turdide ; the Troglodytide [Sic.]; the Mniotiltide ; the Cærebidæ ; the Vireonide ; the Hirundinide; the Tanagride; the Fringillide; the Icteride ; the Tyrannide; the Pipride; the Cotingide ; the Dendro- colaptide ; and the Formicariide. This may answer for the Passeres, but his order Macrochires is very carelessly arranged. In it he retains the “ Humming-birds, Swifts, Goat-suckers, etc.,” and leads off with the family Trochilidw, between which and the Swifts there appears no family dividing line; nor is there between the Swifts and the Goat-suckers. The “etc.” given above seems to include also without dividing family lines, W 00d-peck- ers, Kingfishers, Trogons, Jacamars, Cuckoos, Toucans, Parrots, Owls, Vultures, Hawks and Pigeons, Jacamas, and indeed all the rest of the avifauna of the Island, including all the water-birds. At the close of the “list” some of the birds are enumerated entirely in their wrong places in the system. I refer to the point where Crypturus pileatus follows Colymbus dominicus. The writer of this review has long since failed to recognize the naturalness of the so-called order “ Macrochires,” but here certainly is an application of it that is, at the best, quite unique in ornithological literature—R. W. SHUFELDT. Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. VI, embraces 331 pages, of which the following is the list of contents ;— On the Capture of Comets by Planets, especially their Capture by Jupiter, by H. A. Newton.—Atmospheric Electricity, by Robert Cat- lin, U. S. A—On Certain New Methods and Results in Optics, by C. 8. Hastings —The Proteids or Abuminoids of the Oat Kernel, by T. B. _ Osborne.—A Comparison of Antipodal Faunas, by Theodore Gill.— Families and Sub-Families of Fishes, by Theodore Gill—Human *Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. VI. Washington, 1893. 334 The American Naturalist. [April, Bones of the Hemenway Collection in the U. S. Army and Medical - Museum, by W. Matthews, Surgeon, U.S. A; Dr. J. Li Wortman and Dr. J. S. Billings —Further Studies on the Brain of Limulus polyphe- mus, with notes on its Embryology, by A. S. Packard. . Four of the eight memoirs are profusely illustrated. sort of literature ; technical terms; and all of the important branches of Ornithology ; as flight, migration, extermination, embryology, eggs. color, geographical distribution, ete. Lophopsittacus mauritianus M-Edw. ; the extinct parrot.of Mauritius. ‘ R ‘ rk. The numerous illustrations add to the attractiveness of the wo Many of those representing the bill, wings and feet, are those pe 2 A Dictionary of Birds, by Alfred Newton; assisted by Hans yeaa S ce contributions from R. Lydekker, C. S. Roy and R. W. Shufeldt. Pt. i London, 1893, Adam and Charles Black, Publishers. 1894.] Recent Literature. 335 lished many years ago by Swainson, which have never been excelled for expressiveness. The Dictionary is one which every Naturalist should have at hand, as furnishing in convenient form full information in every department of the subject. The work is critical, and the conclusions of its authors carry with them the weight of their well known mastery of the subject. The treatment of questions of nomenclature is especiall to be commended. As they insist on correct orthography, and discard names published without descriptions, or which are flagrantly incorrect in meaning, they furnish a*much needed corrective to tendencies to pursue an opposite course, which are just now too prevalent in this country. We give some examples of the cuts which illustrate the two volumes already issued. Fic. 1. Odontopteryx toliapicus Owen. English Eocene. Eleventh Report of the State Mineralogist of California.‘ —This report, as originally submitted to the Board of Examiners, con- sisted of over 2,000 pages of manuscript, much of which, while valu- able in itself, would be of no practical use to the miners in whose inter- est the volume was prepared. It was accordingly put in the hands of Mr. Charles G. Yale for revision. By judicious omission and conden- * Eleventh Report of the State Mineralogist, Wm. Ireland, Jr. (First Biennial) Wo years ending September 15, I892. Sacramento, 189: 336 The aaron Naturalist. [April, sation he reduced the copy to 844 pages of manuscript which, together : with the illustrations, makes an octavo of 612 pages. The report is confined almost exclusively to mining in the counties of California, the exceptions being a paper on Hydraulic Ejectors, by Mr. E. A. Wiltsee, and a dissertation upon American mining law, by A. H. Ricketts. The prefatory report of Mr. Ireland includes an interesting synopsis of the results of the geological investigations of the different field assistants. : The engravings for this report add materially to its value. Annual Report of the Canadian Geological Survey, 1890-91. —This volume, of 1,556 pages, consists of 13 separate reports, bound in two parts, with maps and illustrations descriptive of the geology, mineralogy and natural history of the various sections of the Dominion to which the several reports relate. These have been published sep- arately at intervals during the past two years, and abstracts of many of them have been given in previous numbers of this journal Eleventh Annual Report of the Director of the U. S. Geol. Surv.°—This volume contains a report of the work of the divisions of Hydrography and Engineering during 1889-90, the statement of the Director to the House Committee on Irrigation, the report of Mr. A. H. Thompson, geographer, and an account of the dis bursements of money. The statement of the Director comprises a gen- eral discussion of the problems of irrigation in the arid lands of the United States, and a résumé of the larger aspects of the problem, as well as other facts of general interest. : The text is illustrated by several maps and cuts of measuring instru- ments in use by the Survey. . Annual Report of the New Jersey Geological Survey for 1892.'—The investigations carried on in the several departments of the Survey are embodied in the report of the State Geologist under re following heads: Surface Geology, R. D. Salisbury ; Cretaceous an and Tertiary Formations, W. B. Clark; Water-Supply and Water Annual Report Geological Survey of Canada, 1890-91, Vol. V. Parts 1 am du. Ottawa, 1893. * Eleventh Annual Report of the U. S. Geol. Surv. to the Secretary of the In 1889-90. By J. W. Powell, Director. Part II, Irrigation. Washington, 1891. J ‘Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey for 1892. Trenton, 1i: <" 1893. terior, 1894.] Recent Literature. 337 Power; C. C. Vermeule; Artesian Wells, L. Woolman ; The Sea-Dikes of the Netherlands and the Reclamation of Lowlands and Tide-Marsh- Lands, J. C. Smock. In the administrative report, Mr. Smock calls attention to the de- sirability of securing the Highlands for a forest reservation, and a per- manent gathering territory for a water-supply, and refers somewhat at length to the subjects reported upon by the heads of the several divisions. i The illustrations consist of maps, diagrams and plates. Among the latter are three reproductions from the Challenger Expedition Report on Deep Sea Deposit. Marbles and Limestones of Arkansas.™—This report, by T. C. Hopkins, represents Volume IV of the Annual Rept. of the Ark- ansas Geol. Surv. for 1893. Part I consists of an introductory chapter giving a general description of the marble area of the State, followed by a discussion of limestones in general, including their composition and origin, geological and geographical distribution, varieties and uses, and a detailed description of the different limestones of Arkansas. In part II the author states briefly the origin and uses of marble, gives a résumé of the marbles of United States and other countries, and de- scribes in detail those of Arkansas, giving especial attention to their use for building purposes. In order to make the work of practical value in establishing a marble industry in the State, two chapters are devoted to quarrying and the preparation of the stone. The text is illustrated by a number of good plates, and a set of six map sheets. ` 8 Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1890. Vol. IV, Mar- bles and other Limestones. By T. C. Hopkins, Little Rock, Ark., 1893. 338 The American Naturalist. [April eneral Notes. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. The Discovery of a New Fauna in the Cenozoic Beds near Zagreb, and its Relations with the Recent Fauna ofthe Caspian Sea.—For a number of years, Professor Brusina of the University of Zagreb has been studying the Molluscan fauna of that . region. In a recent publication he reports finding a wonderfully rich fossil bed at Markusevic from which he obtained 101 species, over half of which are new. A generic comparison of the fauna of Markusevie with that of Okruljak shows that the Pelecypoda are the dominant ‘type in the latter locality, while the gasteropods prevail in the for- mer. A comparison of the fauna of these two localities in Croatia with the recent fauna is of extreme interest. To quote Professor Bru- | sina, “They seem to have relations with the fauna of Lake Baikal; my ‘new genus, Baglivia, is similar to the genus Liobaikalia Martens (Leucosia Dybowski). Also some of our Valvata recall some species of the same genus which live in Lake Baikal. ` “T have mentioned the genus Caspia. Dr. W. Dybowski, to whom we are indebted for the most important papers on the Gasteropods of Lake Baikal and of the Caspian Sea, created this genus for a series of small species which live in the Caspian Sea. Now, I have discovered near Zagreb several fossil species of the same genus. In a paper pub- lished in 1884, I established the genera Zagrabica and Micromelania for some fossils found near Zagreb; in 1891, in the work referred to ‘on the recent Molluscs in the Caspian Sea, Dybowski describes several species of Micromelania and one species of Zagrabica now living m that sea. Thus, the genera Zagrabica, Micromelania, Caspia and Lim- nocardium (Adacna), fossil in Croatina, are to-day living in the Cas- pian Sea. It is, then, evident that the present fauna of this sea is the remnant of the rich fauna of the Congeria beds of Austria, eed Banat, Croatia, Slavonia, Servia, etc., although, quite recently this fac has been doubted. f “A comparison between the fossil fauna of the neighborhood a Zagreb with the recent fauna of the Caspian Sea destroys the hy p pe eses of Humboldt, Peschel, Middendorf and others, concermng a. origin and relationship of the Caspian Sea and of its present cg ‘While these authors claim the origin of the fauna of the Caspian ‘aia in the Black and circumpolar seas, my studies and my researches po me to look for its origin in the pre-pleistocene Cenozoic beds of Cro bot Pace 1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 339 and in those of the other countries above cited.” (Proceeds. Congrés. Internatl. de. Zool. Deuxiéme Sess. a Moscou, 1892. Deuxième Partie Moscou, 1893.) Coasts of Bering Sea and Vicinity.—Mr. G. M. Dawson’s notes on some of the coasts and islands of Bering Sea confirm the theory of a former land connection of Asia and North America in that region. Soundings in Bering Sea show that the continental plateau of North America extends westward in Bering Sea, meeting with that of Asia in the vicinity of Cape Navarin, north latitude about 60°. The available evidence shows that this submarine plateau, together with much of the flat land of western Alaska, was covered by a shallow sea during the later part of the Miocene period. The formation of the Aleutian Islands began in the late Eocene or early Miocene, continued with vigor during Miocene, and later in an inter- mittent way up to the present time. No traces of glaciation by land ice were found in the Bering Sea region, and the absence of erratics above the sea-line shows that it was never submerged for any length of time below ice-encumbered waters. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. Vol. 5, 1894), The Age of the Pliocene Mammalian Fauna of the Central Plateau of France.—M. Deperet recognizes two distinct and suc- cessive mammalian faunas in the different Pliocene horizons of Italy, France and England. First, an older one, belonging to the lower and middle Pliocene. It is characterized by a great number of old extinct forms, as Hippotherium, Hyaenarctos, Paleoryx, Dolichopithecus, many of the Glires, large Monkeys with Asiatic affinities, Antilopes related to the African species, and by the rarity of the relative sim- plicity of the horns of the Cervide. The absence of Equus, Bos and Elephas constitutes a negative character throughout all Europe, Sec- ond, a more recent fauna, found only in the upper Pliocene. The old genera, except the Mastodon, haye disappeared ; the horse supplants Hipparion; Bovide appear for the first time in Europe; Monkeys Persist in Italy ; Elephas meridionalis is found nearly everywhere with astodon arvernensis and M. borsoni. i In Italy the old fauna is badly represented by sporadic débris, but the recent types are found abundantly in the brackish and fluviatile deposits which overlie the marine Pliocene of Astesan, and in the flu- Viatile gravels in the valley of the Arno. a 340 The Amarican Naturalist. April, In the south of France the older fauna occurs and affords the best means of determining the exact stratigraphic position of the beds in which the fossils are found. In la Bresse the older fauna is found in the lacustrine deposits of the lower Pliocene and in the fluviatile beds of the middle Pliocene; the recent fauna is finely developed in the sands of Chagny. In England the Hipparion fauna is found in the nodule-beds at the base of the red Crag and in the red Crag itself, while the Equus fauna is contained in the fluvio-marine Crag. A comparison of stratigraphic details shows that the older Pliocene fauna is lacking in the Central Plateau region of France, and the hor- izon of Perrier with the Mastodon bearing sands of Puy, of Coupet and of Vialette must be placed in the upper Pliocene not withstan ing the total absence of Elephas meridionalis. The fauna of Sainzelles presents the same characters as that of Per- rier and can be considered only as a simple local sub-division of the same bed. From these’ facts M. Deperet also concludes that the basalts inter- calated in the gravels of Perrier and the Mastodon-bearing sands of Puy, and the breccias which accompany them, belong to the upper Ph- ocene, and, chronologically, are very near to the basalts of the Plateau. (Compte-rendu des Séances de la Soc. Geol. de France, 1893.) Plistocene Diastrophism in the California Coast.—Mr. À. C. Lawson has obtained data which establishes (1) The uplift from the sea of the entire coast of California from San Francisco to San Diego, in Plistocene time, from 800 to 1500 feet. (2) A differential move ment of the crust, to a remarkable degree, in the vicinity of Cat Island, and near the city of San Francisco, also of Plistocene agè. The uplift changed the contour of the coast, which at the close the Plistocene had had the aspect of an archipelago and was well pop plied with harbors. The Channel Islands are remnant of the Phiocen? condition, but the harbors have disappeared with one exception. The orogenic movement resulted in the lifting 0 into its present condition and the upthrust of the which is described as having a central granite mass from via strata of all ages dip quaquaversally. The mass antedates 5 ae est sedimentary strata on its flanks. In his conclusions vet a states that the subdivisions Eocene and Neocene are not su? sian west coast of California. The reversal of the epeirogenle mov" ol from a process of depression to that of uplift is believed to © PLATE VII. ` S ` A 4 Sane) ES lomm. hia ©) TO x, SEEN igi eT we, lw m ell P rA SA See > $ x SSS: p ane oS ae Sections of Stomach and Skin of Cryptubranchus. 1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 341. with the begmning of the Plistocene, so there was no break in the marine conditions throughout the epochs, the Pliocene merging into the Plistocene. Between the Pliocene and Miocene, however, there was an important interval of erosion. (Bull. Dept. Geol. University of California, Vol. 1, 1893.) Geological News.—Pa.eozorc.—Mr. M. R. Campbell’s strati- graphical studies in Montgomery and Pulaski Counties in western Virginia, result in the establishment of two periods of disturbance in the Appalachian system. One folded the limestones and produced basins at the beginning of the Devonian period, the other elevated these basins and brought the period of sedimentation in them to a close near the middle of the lower Carboniferous period. These two periods of disturbance, in connection with other well established periods of overlaps show that deformation in the Appalachian system has been practically continuous since early Paleozoic time. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. Vol. 5, 1894.) Mersozorc—Dr. J. W. Gregory describes two new species of Chilo- stomata (Membranipora jurassica and Onychocella bathonica) from the Jurassic beds of Normandy, France. This is the first description of Polyzoa of this order in the Jurassic. (Geol. Mag., Feb., 1894.) From the evidence of fossil flora and certain stratigraphical facts, Mr. Benjamin Smith Lyman is inclined to put the Newark Brown- stone at an earlier age than Mesozoic. Since the recent researches of Canadian geologists have proved that much of the so-called Trias of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia is really Permian and even Carbon- iferous, the author calls attention to the doubtful determination of the age of the beds in question, and suggests a thorough examination of the paleontological record in order to determine their position. (Pro- ceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc. Vol. xxxiii, 1894.) Crnozorc.—The age of the yellow clay in the eruptive formations of Gravenoire, in which a human skeleton was found in 1891, has been fixed by MM. Girod and Gautier. A study of the stratigraphy and fauna of that region leads to the conclusion that the bed in question 1s oe deposit of the Reindeer age. (Rev. Scientifique, m 894.) The collection of Bird bones from the Miocene of Grive-St. Alban, France, sent by Dr. Forsyth Major to Mr. Lydekker for identification, comprises six determinable species, of which four are new: Strix TR, Paleortyx maxima, P. grivensis, Totanus major. The - 342 The American Naturalist. [April, specimens of Strix sanctialbani confirm Mr. Lydekker in the view that the Strigids must be subdivided into the families Strigide and Bubon- ide. (Proceeds. Zool. Soc. London, 1893.) According to Mr. F. L. Ransome, the eruptive rocks of Point Bon- ita, California, are differentiated into two formations which, from chemical analysis, seem to have been derived from the same basic magma. One is compact, amygdaloidal, does not show crystals to the unaided eye and is markedly spheroidal in structure; the other is dis- tinctly crystalline, traversed by irregular joint planes, and is not spheroidal. The latter is intrusive into the sandstones and is, there- fore, of later age. The spheroidal basalt was probably poured out anterior to the deposition of the sandstone and afterwards elevated to its present position. The author believes the spheroidal structure to be a flow phenomena. The lava issued in a viscous condition, one sluggish outwelling of lava being piled upon another to form the whole mass of the flow. The former center of volcanic activity, as indicated by the character and position of these formations, probably lay to the seaward at some little distance off the present coast. (Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. of California, Vol. 1, 1893.) 1894,] Botany. 343 BOTANY. Holophytes and Hysterophytes.—For some time I have been using in my lectures, an ionally in some botanical writings which have not yet appeared in print, the two words here given. Every botanist has felt the need of a word which should express what we mean when we say “ a green plant,” or a “ chlorophyll-bearing plant,” and he has felt even more the need of a single term to express what he means when he says a “ parasite or saprophyte, ” a “ parasitic or saprophytic plant,” or a “chlorophyll-less plant.” The terms I have used are not strictly new. We already have “holophytic” with precisely the meaning I would give this form of the word. Hystero- phyte has often been used with nearly the meaning I would restrict it to, and its older use has practically become obsolete. The words may well be restricted then as follows: “holophyte,” a chlorophyll-bear- ing plant, which is neither parasitic nor saprophytic, i. e., an indepen- dent plant so far as its nutritive functions are concerned ; “ hystero- phyte ” a chlorophyll-less plant, either a parasite or a saprophyte, i. e., a dependent plant so far as its nutritive functions are concerned. The etymologies are so evident that I need not give them here. _ CHARLES E. Bessey. The Microorganisms of Fermentation.’—The name of Pro- fessor Emil Chr. Hansen is connected with a reform in the industry based upon fermentations. The reform is spreading all over the civil- ized countries, and it is gradually entering into the wine-industry, and, recently, into the manufacturing of vinegar. Hansen’s principle is to work in the brewery with pure yeast, and this principle will doubtless be extended to other manufacturing trades the underlying causes of which are life-activities of microörganisms. The famous Carlsberg Laboratory, where Hansen works, and from where the Kjeldahl nitrogen method sprung, could, a few years ago, not accomodate all of the students that came from all parts of the world. Consequently Hansen’s collaborator, Alfred Joergensen, ‘Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, *Joergensen, Alfred; Microdrganisms and Fermentation. New edition, translated from the re-written and much enlarged third edition in German by Alex. K. Miller, Ph. D., F. I. C., and E. A. Lennholm, and revised by the author. With 56 illustra- ot London, F. W. Lyon, Eastcheap Buildings, E. C., 1893. (pp. VIII + 257, 344 The American Naturalist. [April, established a laboratory for the purpose of giving specialists an oppor- tunity of becoming acquainted with the new system, and, at the same time, supplying cultures to breweries. While Hansen worked mainly in the line of bottom fermentation, Joergensen worked with top fer- mentations. All we who have had an opportunity of working with Joergensen, are well acquainted with his text-book ; it is as thorough as its author and as familiar to us as our catechism. Chapter I treats of microscopical and physiological examinations in the line of lower cryptogams; Ch. II of examinations of air and water, including Hansen’s zymotechnical analysis of air and water ;in Ch. III bacteria form the subject; Ch. IV contains the moulds, Ch. V (pp. 111- 203) contains a full account of the alcoholic ferments, methods of analysis in this special line, and descriptions of the different species of Saccharomyces and their nearest relatives. In Ch. VI the application of the results of scientific research in practice (pp. 204-227) is set forth, and a bibliography and an index have finally been added. Botanists are, asa general rule, too much absorbed by the questions of nomenclature, etc., to look into practical questions; therefore, we often see, in text-books, very singular remarks on the subject of fermenta- tions. A book like Joergensen’s text-book should not be absent from any laboratory, chemical or botanical, because fermentations are subjects of study in both places, and because the work in these lines is very instructive, both to botanists and to chemists. To the special attention of all of oe the book of Joergensen is most cheerfully recom- mended. J. CHRISTIAN Bay. 1894.] Zoology. 345 ZOOLOGY. The Cestodes of Herbivorous Animals.'—Dr. ©. W. Stiles and Albert Hassall have issued a well illustrated list of the adult tape worms of cattle, sheep and allied animals. In this work the authors have had the great assistance to be derived from studying many of the original types. From this paper we learn that the domestic cattle are infested by 8 adult cestodes, the goat by 2, the sheep by 11, etc. The new species described are Monezia oblongiceps from a South American Coassus, M. trigonophora from sheep, and M. planissima from sheep and cattle. In connection with each species is a good anatomical description. Cladoceran Crustacea.’—Prof. E. A. Brige, in the third of his “Notes on Cladocera,” enumerates 63 species of Cladocera as having been found in Wisconsin and Northern Michigan. A table is given showing the distribution of each species in the lakes explored, and four plates illustrate the new or little known forms enumerated. The new species are Moina affinis, Ceriodophina lacustris, Daphinia breviceps, Bunops (n. g. for Macrothrix serricaudata Daday and B. scutifrons nov.) Chydorus faviformis, Anchistropis minor, A most interesting comparison is made between the Cladoceran fauna of Wisconsin and various regions of Europe. Eyes of the Harvestmen.—Dr. Frederick Purcell has just issued an account of the eyes of the Phalangids’ which is rather dif- ficult to understand, on account of the absence of all illustrations. The Phalangids have two eyes which Purcell homologizes, without a doubt, with the median eyes of the scorpions. Like them, they are developed from three layers, the middle forming the inverted retina. The retinulæ each consist of five cells arranged in a circle and each retinular cell gives rise to a rhabdomere so that the rhabdom is five- ‘parted and the longitudinal grooves on the outer surface of each thabdomere give it a star-like section. The retinal cells are pig- mented distally, the nucleus and nerve termination are in the proximal portions. Besides these there are club-shaped pigment cells in the dis- - T.S. Dept. Agric., Bureau of Annual Industry, Bulletin, 4, 1898. "Trans. Wise. Acad. Sci. Arts, 1X, 1893. *Ueber den Bau der Phalangiden Augen; Dissertation. Berlin, 1894. 346 The American Naturalist. [April, tal retinular region. The principal differences between these eyes and the middle eyes of the scorpion lie in the absence of a central cell, in the anatomy of the retinule and in the absence of inter-retinular pig- ment cells from the Phalangids. As a summary Purcell says: “The anterior middle eyes of the spiders, the eyes of Phalangids and the middle eyes of the scorpions, as well as the middle eyes of Limulus, represent a series of homologous structures, which are characterized by an inverted retina with retinule or at least rhabdomes.” Range of Placostylus.—A study of the geographical distribu- tion of the land molluscan Placostylus, by Mr. C. Hedley, leads to some interesting conclusions. According to that author, Wallace's theory of a land connection between Australia and New Zealand is untenable. Mr. Hedley’s theory is that the various islands where Placostylus is found, embracing the archipelagoes of Solomon, Fiji, New Hebrides, Loyalty, New Caledonia, Lord Howe and New Zealand, are the remnant of a continental area to which he gives the name, Melanesian plateau. This plateau was never connected with nor popu- lated from Australia ; its fauna was probably derived from Papua vi% New Britian. New Zealand and New Caledonia were early separated from the northern archipelagoes, while the Fijis remained to a later date in communication with the Solomons, but were severed from that group before the latter had acquired from Papua much of its present fauna. The author calls attention to the fact that not the depth but the per- manence of the ocean is the real limit to the distribution of the forms of life. (Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N. S. W., 1892). The Scales of Lepidosteus.‘—Mr. W. S. Nickerson finds that in Lepidosteus the dermal scleroblasts give rise to three different pro- ducts: (1) calcareous scale material, (2) ganoine, and (3) a ganome membrane. There is no differentiation of the cells, but rather 4 modi- fication of the function of the same cells at different periods of thelr history. The ganoine has been called the enamel layer,, but 1t 18 r enamel, as its development and chemical reactions show. Its secret x on the outer surface of the scale by cells of dermal origin, not by ep! During the development of the scale, spines tipped with an a layer are formed, but disappear before the maturity of he Their number and irregularity of distribution over the scale oppose? *Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XXIV, No. 5 (1893). 1894.] _ Zoology. 347 the supposition that the ganoid scale is a number lof placoid scales used together. There can be no homology between them except in their both being dermal struciures. In the Selachians the basal plate originated in connection with the formation of spines, but in the Lepidosteus the spines have degenerated while the basal plate has devel- oped independently at the same time sinking deeper in the dermis. In the Telosts there is no ganoine, but a modification of the dermis takes place similar to that in Lepidosteus. The same sinking or a ten- dency to reduction of superficial parts and increase of the deeper parts, involving the reduction of spines. In the lower Teleosts the spines are connected with the scale by connection tissue only, thus showing a more degenerate condition than in Lepidosteus. It appears, then, that the Lepidosteus and Teleost scales have been derived from the placoid scale along independent lines——F. C. KENYAN. Mammalia of Mt. Pocono.—Considering the fact that hitherto no systematic collecting of small mammals has been attempted in the Pennsylvania mountain districts the following notes may seem worthy of record. During the latter part of June and first week of July, 1893, in company with Mr. Witmer Stone, I spent about ten days col- lecting birds and mammals in the vicinity of Mt. Pocono, Monroe Co., Penna. The general situation and elevation of the locality warranted a much more northern fauna than that found in the southeastern part of the state, and it is hence not at all surprising that such boreal forms as Zapus insignis, Evotomys gapperi and Tamias striatus lysteri were obtained. None of these, so far as I am aware, have been previously recorded from Pennsylvania. A list of the mammals collected is as follows: Blarina brevicauda.—This shrew was the most abundant of any: spe- cies noted; the specimens secured forming over 30 per cent of the whole number collected. I found them, as Dr. Merriam has said, moving about during the day, and on my afternoon visit to the traps rarely failed to secure one or more. Several were taken in the same runs with E. gapperi. Sorex platyrhinus (Dobson).—T wo specimens of a small shrew were secured which Mr. G. S. Miller, Jr. has kindly referred for me to this species, using the name as a provisional designation. A third speci- men, badly decomposed, was found in the middle of a road through the woods. Of this the skull only was preserved Evotomys gapperi—Five specimens of the red-backed mouse were 348 The American Naturalist. [April, secured, of which four were taken in decayed stumps, and the fifth in a runway under a log. Sitomys americanus.—A young male and female in plumbeous gray pelage, with a narrow streak of brown on the flanks were the only ones collected. Arvicola pinetorum.—T wo specimens were secured under a log. Zapus insignis.—An adult male of this handsome mouse was secured | July 4th, on the bank of a stream in a ravine covered with a growth of hemlocks and laurels. Tamias striatus lysteri-We found this chipmunk quite common among the rocks and young growths where the timber had been recently destroyed by fire. The specimens collected, on comparing them with skins from Maine, were found to be typical /ysteri. Seiurus hudsonius——A tolerably common species. A suckling female, shot on June 29th, is an interesting specimen as showing à peculiar phase of the molt. The long winter coat is considerably bleached on the upper parts and sides; and from the nose toa line drawn across the head just back of the ears, npon the anterior margin and extreme tip of the ears, and for a space upon each shoulder it is entirely replaced by the new growth of shorter yellowish rusty hairs annulated with black. The bright chestnut of the dorsal region, besides being very much worn, is interrupted just behind the shoul- ders, by an irregular patch of the new hair, in which the black pre- dominates. The sides of the head and neck as far forward as roots of the whiskers, the greater surface of the ears, a space on the back of the head, and the entire posterior portion of the body still retain the old pelage.— Wm. A. SHRYOCK. The Mammals of Thibet.—-Several French travellers have explored China, Mongolia, Thibet and Indo-China, and their reports are full of interest. Every naturalist knows of the brilliant discover- ies made 25 years ago by M. ’abbé Armand David; they wer le tions of the richness of the Thibetan fauna. Since that oe M. Dr. Harmand, M. Pavie, M. Joseph Martin, le prince Henri d on and M. G. Bouvalot, M. Dutreuil de Rhins and the French po aries of Tatsi-en-lou, directed by M-go Biet, have contributed muc our knowledge of the natural products of central and eastern eee _ The collections made by le prince Henri d'Orleans mye ] referred to the Museum d’histoire naturelle. They comprise & oo number of mammals and birds, the former of which forms the "i a paper by M. Milne-Edwards. ‘The birds have been studied by $” Dr Oustalet. OR a oe Wht Hee ee 1894.) Zoology. 349 The fauna of Turkestan is very distinct from that of the Thibet region. The Tian-Chan mountains of Chinese Turkestan are inhab- ited by large quadrupeds very different from those of Europe; they are wolves bears, deer (Cervus xanthopygus A. M.-Ed.), roebucks (Cervus pygargus). Tigers and panthers from the south of Asia are seen there frequently. In the sterile and sandy desert which extends from Korla to Lob-Nor the fauna offers different characteristics ; gazelles are abundant there (Gazella subgutturosa). They are seen in small troupes in the middle of those plains covered with a scanty her- , and Tamarisks, where the only trees are stunted and twisted poplars, and where the river Tarim is lost in a great swamp. The color of the skin of these quadrupeds harmonizes admirably with that of the sand. The foxes are light yellow (Vulpes flavescens Blan.) ; Gerbillus psammophilus is common and resembles that of the Sahara; a cat (Felis shaviana) resembles in color and markings Felis margarite of the deserts of the northern part of Africa, Wild camels are found in small herds. On climbing the slopes of the Al-tyn-Tagh, other animals are found ; Ovis poli, Pseudovis burrhel, Pantholops hodgsonii, Gazella picticauda, wild Yaks with large diverging horns, covered with dark brown hair, Equus kiang, and numerous rodents. From the Tengri-Nor to Batang the fauna is stilll more varied. The mountains, covered with conifer forests and thickets of rhododen- dron, afford shelter to many mammals. Travellers report seeing a black monkey with a long tail, which, however, they could not get near; but they captured several rhesus Macaques, remarkable for their large size, their long thick fur, and short tails. These animals, when adult, are comparable in size to the large Cynocephali of Africa; they live in large troops, are seen even in the midst of snow, and hide themselves among the rocks. The natives treat them respectfully and often feed them. A young female, bought in May, 1890, at Kiam Tatie, was sent to Paris, and is now in the menagerie of the museum. Although kept in a warm room, it has not the thick long fur to which it owes its specific name of Macacus vestitus. Neither M. thibetanus nor the snub-nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellane, have been seen from Batang to Tsienlou. Panthers and Ounces are abundant, also Lynx rufus; Felis ser ipta is also found here, and another species with a large body, belonging to the same group as F. chaus, but differing from it, which I have named F. bieti; F. tristis, which attains considerably larger dimensions than it is generally accredited with; F. manul, remarkable for the black 350 The American Naturalist. [April, tint on its chest, and belonging to a variety named by Hodgson, F., nigripectus. Wolves are common, and Cuons with long reddish brown hair, probably C. duchunensis ; Foxes, Skunks and Martens (Putorius davidianus and Martes flavigula) ; large bears, one black with a yellow pectoral spot, the other, brown, shading to bright yellow, identical with the one described by Fr. Cuvier under the name, Ursus collaris. Arctonyx obscurus A. M.-Edw. and Ailurus fulgens. Ailuropus melan- oleucus is unknown in this region. The Glires are represented by Pteromys alborufus, squirrels (Sciurus erythrogaster and Se. fernyi), Tamias maclellandi, Arctomys robustus, different species of Mus, a Siphneus distinct from those already known (S. tibetanus), Lepus hypsibius, the feet of which are colored red by contact with the ferrugineous soil, two species of Lag- omys (L. koslowi and L. melanostomus Büchner). The ruminant species are numerous. Wild Yaks, Ovis nahoura, and a species with compressed horns, believed to be new; Pantholops hodgsonti, a large Nemorhedus with a body like N. bubalinus of India, but having a long mane of white hair, and related to the species Nem- orrhedus argyrobhetus, described by Père Hendes; two varieties of musk, Moschus, one gray-black in color, the other lighter, inclin- ing toward yellow; Elaphodus cephalophus, the same species as that found in the valley of Moupin, but not quite so red; a roebuck simi- lar to the one in the mountains Thian-Chan, but not so robust ( Capreo- lus pygargus); a deer belonging to the group Rusa, but differing from the Sambur of India and Cochin China by its bushy tail which is longer and blacker, by larger ears, its muzzle bordered with black and its feet which are yellowish-white at their extremities. It is astonishing that in such a short time the explorers could have collected such a large number of species. It is evident that fresh research in the same field will bring to light other mammals. Mgr- Biet, Bishop of Diana, and apostolic missionary of Thibet, has kindly given orders to have hunters sent in search of the animals along the upper Yang-tse-Kiang; but with these at hand, we see the resemblance between the animals of this part of Thibet and those of Indo-China, and we also note, at the same time, certain peculiar characters whi are not found elsewhere. (Prof. A. Milne-Edwards in Proceeds. ey Internatl. de Zool, Deuxième Session à Moscow, 1892. Moscow, 1898.) P a Zoological News.—A racunipa.—In two papers,’ Mr. we “i Carpenter enumerates five species of Pycnogonids brought bae! 5Sci. Proceed. Roy. Dublin Socy., VII, 1892: VIII, 1893. : : 7S 1894.] Zoology. 351 Prof. A. C. Haddon from Torres Straits. Of these, three (Parapellene haddonii, Ascorhynchus tenuirostris and Rhopalorhynchus clavipes) are new. Hexapopa.—The last number of the Kansas University Quarterly (Vol. II, No. 3, 1894) contains “ New genera and species of Dolicho- podide,” by J. M. Aldrich, and “ Descriptions of North American Trypetide,” by W. A. Snow. Motuiusca.—The molluscs collected during the United States Expedition to West Africa, in 1889-90, have been made the subject of a report by Mr. R. E. C. Stearns. In all there are 122 species, birds-it uted as follows: Pelecypods, 35 ; Marine Gasteropods, 69; Land Gas- teropods, 82; Cephalopods, 5. (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus. Vol. V, 1893.) Cuorpata.—Balanoglossus has recently been found at Broken Bay and at Jervis Bay, New South Wales. The genus was previously unknown from Australia. Prof. W. E. Ritter describes a new Tornaria from California, the first indication of the existence of Balanoglossus on the Pacific coast of the United States. This Tornaria, like the Bahaman form, pos- sesses tentacles on the longitudinai ciliated bands, and like the form described by Metschnikoff has a second circular band of cilia. In the oldest Balanoglossus obtained by the transformation of the Tornariz, but two pairs of gill slits had appeared, and there is farther a thick- ened cesophageal band of epithelium which -Professor Ritter would compare, in function at least, with the endostyle of Tunicates and Leptocardii. Lastly, the nerve cord does not arise by delamination but by a sinking down of the whole ectodermal nerve layer in a man- ner somewhat like that in Amphioxus. In the stages studied there was no trace of neuropore or neural canal. An important collection of fresh water fishes from Borneo, examined by M. Leon Vaillant, extends the number of species now known from that Island to 322. M. Vaillant points out the strong resemblance of the fish fauna of Borneo to that of Indo-Malaysia. (Revue Sci., Feb., 1894.) According to Mr. F. C. Test, the “ Gopher F rog,” Rana aesopus Cope, is subterranean in its habits, living in the burrows of the Gopher Turtle. It probably feeds on the insects living in the burrows, for holes ss a flourishing insect fauna, to a great extent peculiar tothem. (Science, 1893.) “Zool. Anzeiger XVIII, 24, 4894. 352 The American Naturalist. EMBRYOLOGY. Experimental Embryology.—Two interesting pieces of work employing experimental methods have been recently published by Dr. T. H. Morgan. The first? appears to be but a preliminary account to be followed by more detailed illustration. The second’ is complete and illustrated by figures drawn by the associated author Umé-Tsuda. The former deals with the echinoderm—the latter with the frog-egg. In the sea-urchin Arbacia punctulata minute fragments of the eggs may be fertilized and undergo cleavage, but there is no evidence that fragments develop unless they have part of the female pronucleus. Hence Boveri’s experiments‘ upon the cleavage of e-nucleated fragments are to be regarded with doubt. When the eggs are pressed, after the method of Driesch, there is evidence that the place of formation of the micromeres is pre-determined, and not localized by intersection of the actual first and second planes of cleavage since it may be where the first and third furrows cross. A repetition of Loeb’s experiments’ shows that the action of an increased strength of sodium-chlorid in the sea water is to stop not only the external but also the internal or nuclear phenomena of cleavage, contrary to Loeb’s notion. In the starfish Asterias forbesii it seems that shaking the eggs hastens the maturity processes! Bee he most remarkable part of the paper is the evidence pointing strongly to the conclusion that the eggs of the above star-fish may be fertilized by the sperm of the above sea-urchin, “ two animals belonging to entirely different ‘ Classes’ of the animal kingdom ” ! In the second paper the vexed questions of the orientation of the embryo, the place and manner of closure of the blastopore and the related idea of concrescence are approached not only from direct study of living eggs but from the examination by sections and surface views of eggs that have been injured by needle-thrusts or modlie® retarded, in development by action of certain salt solutions. Many important details hitherto overlooked are made plain and some interest ‘Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore Md: to whom communications may be ddressed. ? Anatomische Anzeiger IX. 5 See American Naturalist, April, 1893. 1894.] Embryology. 353 ing, but unsuccessful, experiments recorded in addition to these of im- mediate value. The general result is that the blastopore begins to form below the equator of the egg, in the white region, and closes in by a peculiar overgrowth from the dorsal lip, so that we cannot speak of a real process of concrescence of two lateral areas. The embryo is, how- ever, formed along this region, that is upon what was the lower white side of the egg. Embryology of Cyclascornea.—Heinrich Stauffacher has recently (Jen. Zeit., II Heft, 1893, pp. 196-246) studied in consider- able detail the development and segmentation of the ova in Oyelas cornea L., in which the ova are developed in a single pair of follicles, the sperm in several pairs. The follicle is a simple tube lined with col- umar epithelium, surrounded by a homogeneous membrane. The primitive ova first appear as small spherical or elliptical cells next the membrane, among the bases of the cells of the follicle. The nucleus occupies almost the whole cell and has its chromatin rather uniformly distributed in the form of granules. As the ovum grows, it projects into the cavity of the follicle beyond the surrounding cells, but remains | attached to the membrane by a constantly narrowing stalk. The egg membrane is formed only over the free projecting portion ; the point of the ovum by which it is last attached by the stalk, persists as the micropyle. The ovum grows in part by the absorption of the surround- ing cells of the follicle. Two Centrosomes were found in the mature ovum. Stauffacher’s description of the earliest stages of segmentation does not differ widely from Ziegler’s account (Zeit. Wiss. Zoöl., Vol. 41). The egg divides into a small primary micromere and a large macio- mere. The former divides into right and left secondary micromeres, the latter into a second primary micromere and a macromere. This pro- cess is repeated, new primary micromeres being formed from the same side of the macromere, so that in these early stages, the secondary micromeres are arranged as right and left rows lying on the macromere- Bilateral symmetry is shown from the first. During the resting period after the formation of the first primary micromere, the proto- plasm of the micromere with its nucleus, becomes arranged around its free periphery, leaving a considerable cavity in the micromere next the macromere. As the second, third and fourth primary micromeres are formed, a cavity is similarly found in each. It disappears from each as the next primary micromere is formed, and is not present after the fourth. 354 The American Naturalist. [April, The true cleavage cavity appears in the 13-cell stage. In the 16-cell stage two mesenchyme cells were found lying in the cleavage cavity, near the macromere, and Stauffacher thinks they are derived from it. At about the 30-cell stage the last primary micromere is formed. Ziegler thought it formed the two large primary mesoderm cells, but Stauffacher thinks it enters into the formation of the ectoderm along with all the previously formed micromeres, The macromere next divides into equal right and left halves, From each of these a large cell is segmented off into the cleavage cavity, one slightly before the other, agreeing with Rabl’s account for Unio. These two cells last formed are the primary mesoderm cells, The two small remaining macromeres form the endoderm.—C. P. SIGERFOOS. TTA 1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 355 ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. Progress of Field Work of the Department of American and Prehistoric Archeology of the University of Pennsyl- vania.—Further search for proof of Man’s great antiquity in North America has led to an exploration, in November, 1893, of the chalk gorges in southern Texas, where rumor reported the discovery of hu- man relics mixed with the bones of the Mammoth and Fossil Horse. But the alleged sites of artificial hornstone chips and of human inter- ments examined in the San Diego-gorge, (Duval County, Texas), belonged not to the fossil-bearing layers but to a talus, which, ming- ling modern surface loam with ancient underplaced chalk, has greatly obscured the record of the freshet-torn ravine. Further negative evidence, again illustrating the difficulties to be encountered in the search for human relics in the ancient layers of these parched water courses, was found in the deeper gorge of Indian Creek, near Berclair, (Bee County, Texas), which, like that at San Diego, had in recent years furnished shelter and stagnant drinking water to roving Indian bands. Here artificial chips and fire-frac- tured stones falling from the loamy crest of a fossil-bearing bluff lay not far from the teeth of the extinct American Horse in an indiscrimi- nate talus below, while the clear, water-eroded cuts, exposing for more than a mile the stratification, (chalk and pebbles, marl and sand 6 to 18 feet and surface loam 2 to 8 feet), showed no human relic in situ to prove that Man in southern Texas had ever been the contemporary of the Mammoth, the Broad-Horned Ox and the Fossil Horse. Turning again to the record of caves for the traces of Man as a possible predecessor of the Indian and contemporary of an older fauna in the Eastern United States, the dry, well-lit and easily access- ble Cavern of Lookout Mountain, on the left Tennessee River bank, below Chattanooga, was examined in December, 1893. Four trenches, 6 feet wide and 5 feet 10 inches to 3 feet deep, dug twice to rock bottom across its floor, proved that Man had lived there. But they surprised us by showing the absence. of distinct layers of occupancy separated by crusts of stalagmite, clay, sand or breccia, marking lapses of time between his comings and goings. Here, where the cave’s shelter must have been forced upon the notice of primitive people by the narrow- ness of the river path and the height of the overhanging cliff, but a Single bed of refuse, homogeneous throughout and showing no evolu- 356 The American Naturalist. [April, tion in the form, material or grade of relics discovered, rested on the cave earth and limestone. No trace of “ Paleolithic Man” or “ Mound Builder,” “Pigmy” or “ Welshman” underlaid the familiar black band 3 feet 8 inches at thickest, that betrayed the well-known maker of shell-mixed pottery, bone awls, chert arrowheads, shell beads, drilled sandstone and clay pipes. The Indian, as known to the white discoverer, bringing with him a neolithic culture learned elsewhere, coming as high in the scale as he departed, and who had, as I found, laid the bones of his dead upon inner ledges of the cave and cast them dried and clean with arrowheads, potsherds, and broken perforated gorgets upon mortuary fires in a subterranean chasm 250 paces from the entrance, had alone inhabited the cave. Paleontology would assert no antiquity for his occupancy as judged by the 29 living and 2 extinct species of fauna found with the refuse Some animals, traced by their bones in the fire places, like the Spade- Footed Toad, the Bat and the Tortoise, though the contemporaries or successors of the cave inhabitant, may have found their way into the midden heap to die, while the remains of the Unio, (7 species), To, (2 species), Trypanostoma and Paludina, (2 species), and of the Catfish, Sucker, Drumfish, Land Tortoise, Water Tortoise, Soft-Shelled Turtle, Wild Turkey, Marmot, Lynx, Opossum, Squirrel, Raccoon, Otter ef Deer, sometimes split and scorched, generally disassociated with sige and but.once showing traces of rodent gnawing, inferred the hunter $ capture of food in river and forest and his carrying of larger animal trunks decapitated to the cave feast. : A bone of the extinct Peccary lying in the refuse repeated the dis- covery madein Queen Esther’s chamber of Durham Cave, Penis nia. But the teeth of the Tapir (Tapirus haysti), and the "o ramus ofan extinct Edentate of the family of Megatheriidæ kindly ete fied with all the other bones by Professor Cope, found by us 1m pee 5 (8rd foot) and close to the bottom of the layer of occupancy, une a new species and another genus to the list of (northwardly) see American mammals thus far observed in like association with ‘i af remains. Still we had not positively. found that the Indian ha “Pe this gentle South Americanherbiyoreandan animal like the giants? Megalonyx or Mylodon, in the mountainous region of the pile Tennessee, for 1 foot 9 inches of the original red cave earth ae undisturbed and free from bones when examined, under the 7 a refuse. The Tapir teeth and edentate jaw lying where found, : the bottom of the refuse and close to this lower stratum, may if been imbedded in the latter before the Indian came, so that ! PLATE VIII. Alca impennis L. From The Dictionary of Birds. 1894,] Archeology and Ethnology. 357 encountered them in scratching his wonted oven hole he might have mixed them with what was to grow by degrees into the present fire- blackened layer. The awe-inspiring entrance of the Nickajack Cave, (left bank of the Tennessee River, Marion County, Tennessee), though subject to partial invasion by river freshets that back the water of the cave creek sév- eral hundred yards into its channel, showed traces of aboriginal habitation as far as light penetrated. But the human refuse lay in a scattered talus on an uneven and craggy floor, about 250 feet wide, which, sloping steeply into the cave stream, was buried under masses of leached earth thrown upon it by nitre diggers in 1863-64. Where the remains of old fires were caught in hollows in the slanting ledge underlying this nitrous deposit, a trench (12 feet 10 inches long by 6 feet wide, by 2 feet 10 to 3 feet 5 inches deep), revealed again a single homogeneous layer of human occupancy continued on an undisturbed shelf clear of the nitre heaps and containing the remains of Unio (5 Species), Paludina, Trypanostoma, fresh water Drumfish and Deer, and with its bone awls, arrowheads, chips, hammerstones and pottery repeating the record of the Lookout Cave. Again all trace of more ancient human presence betokened by underplaced deposits was want- ing. Earlier peoples, if they existed, had avoided the Nickajack Cay- ern, and it is only pre-Columbian inhabitant had been the Neolithic Indian, who, strewing the alluvial meadows at its mouth with arrow- heads and hornstone chips, had left potsherds, pebble hammers and a perforated ceremonial stone, along with the remains of the cave mid- den Mollusca and the Deer, Tortoise and Rabbit, at the river-side shell heaps a mile away. Throughout the above investigation we have owed a grateful acknowl- edgement to the suggestion and kind encouragement and assistance of Professor Cope.—H. C. MERCER. The Trenton Gravel Discussion has thrown light upon Man's antiquity in North America, but has not settled it. » We know that geologically, modern Indians chipped the rude leaf shaped outlines which we may as well call “ Turtlebacks, ” but we do hot yet know who else made them. The “ Turtleback ” exists without the Indian in Europe, and the more we study it the less—unhelped by associated evidence—we care to call it “ Paleolith” or “ Implement on the one hand, or “ Reject ” “ Unfinished Implement ” or “ Failure’ on the other. 24 358 © The American Naturalist. (April, It was the quarry “Turtleback ” of the pot making stone polishing Indian, that first fairly roused attention, and troubled us with the fear lest the Trenton “ Turtlebacks” resembling it, had slipped down into the glacial gravels. Some of the quarry “Turtlebacks” (viz., the spade like outlines from Garland Co., Arkansas), were big. Some (as the 4 inch long specimens from Macungie, Pa., and Flint Ridge, Ohio), were little Some were made of pebbles (Piney Branch), some of native rock, some of Jasper, some (Gaddis’ Run) of argillite, some were tolerably thinned before they left the quarry (Piney Branch and Flint Ridge). Others (Gaddis’ Run) were not, some were leaf shaped, some rather triangular, others discoidal. Still there was a family resemblance, and it seemed after examining thirteen American quarries east of the Rocky Mountains, that certain universal laws for blade chipping in the stone age had been ‘discov- ered, for instance, that as the Indian quarrymen were yet Indians though they left no “ Indian Relics ” at the diggings, so the Drift Man (if he existed), though he left nothing but “Turtlebacks” in the Drift, might really have been a stone polisher and potter after all. But to find arrowheads close by the pits at Flint Ridge, Macungie, and Saucon Creek, pitted hammerstones at Gaddis’ Run, polished stone tools at Durham, and pointed wooden billets at Macungie, limi- ted the ground for such inference, and as we may hope to find a rot- ting fuse or rusty iron drill under a heap of belgian blocks at a modern quarry, so there seems a chance of finding polished stone tools, arrow: heads and pottery in the Drift, if the Drift Man made such things. The fact that the Indians had quarried the stone, blocked it out into blade forms, rejected some of these, worked others into oft buried “blanks” and specialized the latter into spears and knives, seemed at first to indicate that an implement to be finished, and therefore to fairly represent the culture of its maker ought to be specialized. But the rule would not work always. The “Turtleback” Y j neglected brother of all chipped stone tools. What at Fort on. Dakota, (as seen by Dr. Leidpin 1870) were serviceable ine (Teshoas) chipped by Indians from pebbles at a single blow, T pn Washington quarry refuse chips. The flakes that were rubbish a Macungie and Flint Ridge, were hoarded together and carefully a f in Florida Mounds. If we went abroad we found in the Easter z e knives, Admiralty Island, spears and Australian gum-mounted ae ters, implements which were finished but yet unspecialized ; an a Ernest Volk showed us that “Turtleback” labelling might 8° oo 1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 359 at the very heart of the question where the ground seemed surest, when he found two hoards of rough argillite “Turtlebacks” which by all quarry experience ought to have been “ rejects. ” A whole new class of pros and cons were introduced into the study when we discovered in June at the argillite outcrop and indian blade quarry in the Delaware Valley, 20 miles above the hunting ground for the Trenton Turtlebacks; that there were twoclasses of Indian Turtle- backs—those of the quarry and those of the river-side. The evidence of these latter river-side specimens made from surface material, and that of Jasper pebbles found flaked by Indians at sea shore camp sites in New Jersey and Maryland, suggested strongly that “quarries” were comparatively modern and that rules of stone chipping derived therefrom: would not cover the whole ground. . It seemed that the Indian must have been for atime a chipper of erratic stones on river beaches before the status of culture involved by quarries was reached, and that “Turtleback” work shops of what might be called a pre-quarry age, probably existed in the United States older than Flint Ridge, Durham, Gaddis’ Run and Piney Branch, whose products remained to be compared with the alleged work in argillite of the Drift Man. It was important to note that of the recorded argillite Trenton specimens, 29 were of this Delaware Indian “ river-side” type, but against the case that one (Peabody Museum, No. 33,168, labelled as found 9 feet below the surface in the Penna. R. R. cut) had the stamp of the Gaddis’ Run Indian quarry strongly upon it.—H. C. ERCER. -860 : The American Naturalist. [April, MICROSCOPY." Orienting Small Objects for Sectioning, and “ Fixing” them, when Mounted in Cells. I. In one of the recent “ Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Museum of Comp. Zoology,” Vol. XXV, No.3, Dr. W. McM. Woodworth describes a method of orienting small objects for the microtome. His method was developed, he states, from one first used by myself. To avoid any misunderstanding, I will say that in answer to a letter from my friend Dr. Woodworth, asking permission to use or describe my method, I replied that he was at liberty to make what use of it he saw fit, or words to that effect. I refer to the subject here, partly because Dr. Woodworth does not state what the original method was, or how he has modified or added to it, but mainly because I believe the original method is much simpler and better adapted to the purpose than his. My method, which is especially useful when one desires to orient accurately large numbers of small and similar objects, is as follows: Small strips of glazed writing paper marked with.two sets of raised parallel lines running at right angles to each other are cut, and at uitable | intervals a very small drop of thick collodion and clove oil, about the - consistency of thick honey, is added. The drops are arranged close together along one of the ribs that run lengthwise of the paper. The object to be imbedded is cleared in clove oil, or oil of bergamot—not turpentine. The latter dries too quickly, so that air bubbles are likely to form in the object ; and besides it does not mix readily, as it should, ‘with the thick collodion. It is then raised on the point of a knife, and after the excess of oil is drawn off, transferred to a drop of the thick collodion. It may then be adjusted at leisure under the compound or the dissecting microscope, and will stay in any desired position. When half a dozen or more objects are oriented in reference to the cross lines (which are to be parallel to the section planes) the whole thing is placed in turpentine. This washes out the clove oil and fixes the objects very firmly to the paper. When submerged in turpentine, if desirable, the relation of each object to the orienting lines ean be redetermined under the compound microscope with greater preci’ than before. If any one of them has been inaccurately placed, 1t ie still be moved to some extent, but it is better to note the fact, an ‘Edited by C. O. Whitman, Chicago University. TPS ae AE ae RRR Se ee OO may eds aE eee Tee 1894.] ; Microscopy. 361 make the necessary deviations from the section lines when that particu- lar object is sectioned. : The paper with the attached objects is now placed in the paraffine bath, and finally removed and covered with paraffine in the usual way. After cooling in water, the block is trimmed and the softened paper peeled off, leaving the objects in the paraffine, close to the under surface of the block. This surface is now marked by the orienting lines of the ribbed paper and also by the record numbers, which, before imbed- ding, were written with a soft pencil on the paper. The block is now fixed in the microtome, and the objects cut one after the other, as though a single object had been imbedded; or a number of them may be cut together, if they have been arranged with that object in view. For example, we may use a thinner collodion, and arrange a large number of insect embryos, or small worms in a compact bundie, like a package of cigarettes, and cut them all at once. Although I have not tried Dr. Woodworth’s method, it seems to me that he has merely added to what is described above, several complica- tions, which might in most cases be omitted. He gums the paper toa glass slide, dries it, covers the exposed surface first with a layer of gam and then with a collodion film, each of which must dry separately. The objects cleared in turpentine are then placed in position in the film which is softened and rendered adhesive by exposure to ether vapor, then slide and all are placed in the paraffine bath. Finally after imbed- ding, the slide is soaked in water to free it from the paper and the paper from the paraffine. In most cases I find it quite unnecessary to gum the paper, as it comes away from the collodion and the paraffine very well without it. It is, moreover, very inconvenient and unnecessary to imbed the paper attached to a glass slide in the paraffine bath. The paper alone can be handled with perfect ease, and it does not curl up or warp in the bath. If any warping occurs, I should say it was due, for obvi- ous reasons, to the use of a collodion film in place of minute drops of collodion and clove oil. I should suppose also that any object of con- siderable size, say the egg of Limulus,.could not be easily fixed in the manner suggested by Dr. Woodworth, for it is merely the adhesiveness of the small amount of turpentine on the object which must be depended upon to hold it in place. But as the turpentine evaporates rapidly, this would tend to free the object, or else fill it with air bubbles before the requisite number could be oriented, preparatory to softening the collodion in the ether vapor. re The advantages of the method, as I use it, are many ; ease, rapidity (although we need not hurry) and accuracy of orientation ; time saved 362 The American Naturalist. [April, in imbedding and sectioning a considerable number of objects as one; and above all when many objects much alike are to be imbedded, there is no danger of confusion, since each one is plainly marked with its appropriate number. a oe e * *& * o II. Asevery one knows, itisag t tund : a large number of objects that tend to roll about into undesirable posi- tions. Itis often necessary to mount each one separately and then roll it about at great risk, till it is is just where we want it. And after all it is impossible to roll some things into place. I have used a modifica- tion of the method described above in mounting large numbers of objects under one cover, in perfect order, and in any desired position. In mounting the eggs of Limulus, or heads of insect embryos, etc., I construct a cell of the requisite dimensions, and place in it small drops, close together in rows, of the thick collodion and clove oil. An egg is taken out of the clove oil, drained, and placed in a drop of lodion in the desired position. A great many eggs may thus be arranged like serial sections under one cover glass. Before adding the balsam, the slide is immersed in turpentine, which serves to wash away the clove oil and leave the eggs firmly fixed in the collodion. The only precaution necessary is not to use too much collodion. It is surprising to find the small amount necessary, and the firmness with which the objects are held by it in place. I have recently used, with a class of beginners, the above method of imbedding, with satisfactory results—merely as a matter of convenience in manipulating small objects easily soiled or broken in handling. Any glazed paper, or glazed tracing cloth will do, provided the collodion and clove oil is thick enough. The raised ribs may be replaced by fine black lines drawn with a soft pencil. These lines like the numbers are transferred to the paraffine when the paper is removed. WiiraM Parren, Hanover, N. H. aR A E dese 1894.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 363 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Natural Science Association of Staten Island.—January 13.—The Secretary read an invitation to attend the funeral of the Rev. Samuel Lockwood, of Freehold, N. J. Also the following extract from a communication by Mr. Ira K. Morris, which was adopted as the sentiment of the meeting, ordered spread upon the min- utes and a copy transmitted to the family of the deceased : It is with profound sorrow that we learn of the death of Professor Samuel Lockwood, of Freehold, N. J., on Tuesday last. By this sad event our Association has lost a very warm friend, and we shall feel most keenly the absence of his kindly encouragement and intelligent criticism. For years past he has taken a deep interest in all our pro- ceedings. Mr. Wm. T. Davis exhibited specimens of and read the following paper on Staten Island Harvest Flies. Dr. Harris, writing of harvest flies, or locusts, in his “ Insects Inju- rious to Vegetation,” says of Cicada canicularis Harris: “During many years in succession, with only one or two exceptions, I have heard this insect on the 25th of July for the first time in the season, drumming in the trees, on some part of the day between the hours of ten in the morning and two in the afternoon. It is true that all do not muster on thesame day; for at first they are few in number, and scattered at great distances from each other ; new-comers, however, are added from day to day, till in a short time, almost every tree seems to have its musician, and the rolling of their drums may be heard in every direction. ” This Cicada is much less common on Staten Island than in Massa- chusetts, where Dr. Harris heard it sing so regularly on the 25th of July. It is plentiful, however, up the Hudson River, in northern New Jersey and in partsof Pennsylvania. On our Island its place is taken in point of numbers, by Cicada tibicen L., (C. pruinosa Say), a larger insect with a much more impetuous song. The species first appears about the second week of July, and I have recorded its song in the past as follows: : July 15, 1879, July 17, 1885, July 12, 1887, July 14, 1888, (three individuals), July 9, 1889, July 9, 1890, July 11, 1891, July 11, 1892. icada tibicen L., also sings after dark on warm nights, but itis a lazy, languid song, as if the insect were tired, and it totally lacks the 364 The American Naturalist. [Apr ) impetuous vigor of the noon-day outburst. In the warm nights during the first part of August; 1887, it was no uncommon occurrence for this insect to give a short z-ing. Up to 8 p. m., they often sing, and I have heard a Cicada and a katy-did in adjoining trees. On Aug. 17, 1888, long after the sun was down, they kept up their songs, each one desir- ing apparently, to be the last singer, for their voices are raised in envy and the males have no love for one another. They often sing while flying about a tree in wavy lines, and once I detected another Cicada fly out of a tree and join the singer. It was no doubt a female. - They continue musical as late as the end of September, occasionally in considerable numbers I have heard them as late as October 3rd, both in 1885 and 1886. In the first mentioned year, they were exceed- ingly plentiful. When singing loudly the abdomen vibrates quite fast, but gradually lessens as the song subsides. The dry pupa shells of this insect may be found attached to the bark of a variety of isolated trees, upon the roots of which the larve have apparently fed. On the 26th of July, 1889, at eighteen minutes to 5 p. m., I saw a harvest fly come from its pupa case. The legs (tarsi excepted) the prothorax and folded wings, were of a grass green color, the wings being particularly bright. The eyes were also green, the ocelli golden and the mesothorax and abdomen of a brassy appet® ance. In twenty minutes the wings were of full size, but flimsy, bend- ing with the breeze. The wings were held out flat, on the same plane with the dorsal surface, when drying, and the genitalia are protruded. The third and largest species of Cicada that has been found on the Island is C. marginata Say. The wings of a specimen, spread in the usual way, expand nearly five inches. This insect has also been taken at Yaphank, on Long Island, by Mr. A.C. Weeks; and Mr. Wm. H. Ashmead, who kindly examined my Cicadas, says that the insect 0- curs in Pennsylvania and about Washington. On our Island but onè : 4 i 4 ; y i F A s d i $ a ESN specimen has been found. It was discovered on a small past oak on sand dune, near Mariners’ Harbor, on July 19, 1892, while Mr. ae tenmuller and I were looking for galls. It was late in the afternoo and the insect had evidently but a short time before emerged from pupa-case, which we found at the base of the tree. In the sam der mer a second pupa-shell was found on a black-jack oak, grow!Pe in ory sandy ground at Watchogue. The only other harvest fly that has been collected on t the red eyed periodical Cicada, or “Seventeen year Locust, -a more detailed account, in connection with this locality, W! at some future meeting. 7 ” of whi i he Islandis Il be give 1894,” Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 365 Mr. Thos. Craig read a paper on A New Dictyospherium. In Wolle’s description of this genus he describes the cells as green, and egg or kidney shaped, united in a globose hollow family, involved in a gelatinous integument. He describes four species: D. ehrenbergianum Naeg., D. pulchellum Wood, D. reniforme Bulnh., and D. hitchcockii Wolle. The one under consideration does not agree in description with any of the above spe- cies. It was found along with other algae, tangled in the roots of water cress in a pond in the woods back of the Moravian Cemetery. Mr. Walter C. Kerr exhibited a carefully prepared drawing of the trunk of a red maple tree and read a paper on Aerial Roots on Acer rubrum, L. Near the brook flowing from Logan’s spring swamp east of Silver Lake stands a red maple, about fourteen inches in diameter, and on its north side the bark has been stripped, probably by splitting from a wound received while young, forming a bare triangular space extend- ing nearly across the base of the tree and having its apex thirty-six inches from the ground. The wounded bark has healed and its edges are covered with a smooth, gray, corky layer presenting the rounded appearance common to the edges of such scars. The wood being unin- jured remains in a good state of preservation, while the entire tree is in vigorous growth. It stands on a slight rise, about twenty-five feet south of the creek, ta rich, rocky, moist ground, within eight feet of a low spot, which, though swampy in the wet seasons, is never overflowed. The nearest trees are white oak and hop hornbeam, nine and fifteen feet distant, with no others within forty to fifty feet. Undergrowth is absent, and there is no reason to suppose that earth or stones have ever been heaped about it. It branches twenty feet from the ground and thus there are no conditions of darkness or exceptional moisture to encourage the development of aerial roots. About six inches below and to the right of the apex of the triangular wound there springs from the cambium of the healed bark two roots, each one-half inch in diameter. They extend downward across the “sear at an angle of about forty-five degrees; the upper being twelve inches and the lower seventeen inches long. They have decided root form and are covered with rootlets, the upper bearing about twenty and the lower about fifty, The development of rootlets proceeds almost wholly from the lower surface of the roots, their length being from two to twelve inches, many being about six inches long, and all profusely branched, while 366 : The American Naturalist. [April, from the upper surface only a few stunted rootlets rise, sparsely branched. The whole appearance of these roots presents a strong con- trast to the branches or young shoots of the red maple, leaving no doubt as to their character. Their tendency toward the earth is mark- ed, though not reaching it by some eighteen inches. What should cause these aerial roots is by no means evident, unless the scar has at some time been covered with a loose layer of bark un- der which the roots have grown. They serve no purpose and it would seem as though they could scarcely survive. As they are now alive, it seems best not to molest them for the purpose of determing their exact character and mode of growth until after further development has been observed. Mr. Arthur Hollick presented specimens of fossil leaves from Arro- char. Mr. L. P. Gratacap remarked upon a series of lower Helderberg and Hudson fossils, found in drift bowlders by Mr. Hollick at Arro- char. They included finely preserved specimens of Spirifera per lam- ellosa Hall; Strophodonta beckii Hall; S. woolworthiana Hall; Stro- phomena rhomboidalis Wahl.; Cælospira concava Hall, and Leptena sericea Sowerby, besides fragmentary remains of a Pterinea and bryo- 20008. Boston Society of Natural History.—February 7th—The following paper was read: Prof. Edward B. Poulton: Theories of Evolution. A discussion upon the subject of Professor Poulton’s paper followed. ; February 21.—The following papers were read : Professor Charles Professor R. Cross: Physics of color mixture, with experiments ; ; E. S. Morse: A recent advance in color printing by a photo-mechani- cal process. SAMUEL HENSHAW, Secr etary. New York Academy of Sciences, Biological Section, Feb. 12.—The following papers were read: 1. “The Morphology and Sig- nificance of the Variations of the Biceps flexor cubiti,” by a Geo. S. Huntington. 2. “Our Conception of a ‘ Species’ as mod i by the Theory of Evolution,” by Professor N. L. Britton. 3. ier : sal of Cleavage in a Sinistral Gasteropod,” by Mr. H. E. Cramp w Jr. 4. “On the History of the Archoplasm in the Spermatogene* and Fertilization of Lumbricus,” by Mr. Gary N. Calkins. - Pa Basurorp Dean, Fee. 1894,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. ` 367 The Biological Society of Washington.—Feb. 10.—The fol- lowing communications were read: Dr. C. Hart Merriam, A Remark- able New Rabbit from Mexico; Dr. C. W. Stiles, A Parasite of Man New to the American Fauna. February 24.—The following communications were read: Mr. M. B. Waite, The Structure and Method of Opening of the Anthers of the Pomee; Mr. B. T. Galloway, The Winter Coloration of Evergreen Leaves; Mr. L. O. Howard, Further Notes on Spider Bites. FREDERIC A. Lucas, Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NEWS. From the Annual Report of the Essex Institute for 1893, wé learn the following facts. The library has increased during the year by the addition of 3,317 volumes, 8,348 serials, and 7,416 pamphlets. These include the library of the late Dr. Henry Wheatland and the foreign ` exchanges of the Peabody Academy of Science, the libraries of the — two institutions being now united. The total investments of the Institute now amount to $100,188.44, and the membership amounts to 325. : Giovanni Passerini, Professor of Botany in the University of Parma and well known for his studies on Aphides, died April 17, 1893. Francis P. Pascoe, an English Coleopterist, died at) Brighton, Eng- land, June 20, 1893, in his 80th year. Dr. Robert Ritter von Schaub, who has studied the anatomy of the Mites, died in Vienna, Oct. 21, 1893. Dr. A. K. Edward Baldamus, the ornithologist, died in Wolfenbiit- _ tel; Brunswick, Oct. 30, 1893, aged 81. Robert Bentley, the botanist, died January, 1894. He was born at Hitchin, Herts, March 25,1821. For many years he was professor of botany in the London Institution and examiner in botany to the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons of England; lecturer on botany at at the medical colleges of the London, Middlesex and St. Mary’s 368 The American Naturalist. Hospitals, and for twenty years dean of the medical faculty in Ki College, London. For ten years he was one of the editors of the Pharmaceutical Journal. He wrote a “Manual of Botany,” which has reached the fifth edition. He was the author of a series of man- uals of elementary science, also “Student’s Guide to Structural, — Morphological and Physiological Botany.” And was the joint author with Dr. Trimen, of a four-volume illustrated work on ee Plants.” Mr. E. B. Poulton, who has recently been lecturing in various cities of the United States, has been elected Hope Professor of Entomology A in the University of Oxford, as successor to the late John Obadiah — Westwood. S The summer school of Cornell University announces courses in Physical ve alan Geology and Economic Geology, by Professor — R. S. Tar x The following appointments have been made at Cornell University. a here. Mr. G. D. Harris, Assist. Professor of Paleontology and Dr — A. C. Gill, Assist. Professor of Mineralogy and Petrography. ae i ATonic For Brain-Workers, the Weak and Debilitated. |Horsford’s Acid Phosphate is without exception, the Best Remedy for relieving Mental and Nervous Exhaustion; and where the system has become debilitated- by disease, it acts as a general tonic and vitalizer, affording sustenance to both brain and body. Dr. E. Cornell , Esten, Filas phia, Pa. , says: “I h ave met with t nervous systems, causing debility and exhaustion.” Descriptive pamphlet free. Rumford Chemical Works, Providence, R. L Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. Histological Material. e Benen and Batrach- aie ians both alive and in “Alcohol. Bird and Mammal Skins. Write for price lists of the above to H. H. & C. S. BRIMLEY, RALEIGH, N. C. The Edwards & Docker Co, P ri nte rô D re agape (J ———+AN Dim Nos. 518-520 Minor Street, Philadelphia, U. S. A. HORACE BINDER, MANAGER. Minerals, Rocks, Fossils, Casts of Fossils, Geological Relief Maps, Stuffed Animals and Skins, Mounted Skeletons, Anatomical Models, Invertebrates. Ward’s Natural Science Establishment Mineralogy, Geology, Paleontology, Zoology, Osteology, Anatom Send for Circular. my > ROCHESTER, N. Y. ENTOMOLOGIGAL CATALOGUES. By W. F. Kirby, F, L. S., F. E. S. Ass (Na renal History), S. Ken rynonymic > sper of Diurnal Lepidoptera with Supplement, e Su upplement separately, VIII, 691-883 (1877), 2 Denia optera, Heterocera, Vall. Sphinges and Bom- c Catalogu e, of Lepi = XII, 951 (1892), i marr istant in Zoological prai British Museum sington, ete., € pp- VIII, 883 8s. 6d. ymic Bowne of Noo Odanata, pp. X, 202 (1890), 16s. ONLY 200 COPIES PRINTED. London: Gurney & Jackson, 1 Paternoster Row, ( Wm. Van’ Voorst’s Successors.) 42 ADVERTISEMENTS, THE MONIST. 3 A QUARTERLY MAGAZINE Editor: Dr. PAUL CARUS. Associates : EDWARD C. HecELER, Mary Carus. Vol. IV. APRIL, 1894. No, 3. CONTENTS. THREE ASPECTs OF MONISM, aoe C. Lloyd Morgan, Chics Nei THE PARLIAMENT OF RELIGION » Gen. M: M. Trum bull, Chic MODERN PuysIo.ocy, Prof. ax x Vernon Jena, German Kant’s DOCTRINE OF THE SCHEMATA, H. H. Williams, University ni pe. re THE EXEMPTION OF WOMEN FROM ive ow Lester F. Ward, Washin NOTION AND DEFINITION OF NUMBER, Prof. Hermann Sante ikia Germany ETHICS AND THE COSMIC eos Editor, eon AND NIRVANA, Edito: RARY Chetan “Fr rance, Lucien Arré: Sn AND Discussions, Logic as Relation po Rejoinder to M. Mouret. F.C. Book REVIEws. EPITOME OF CONTENTS OF PHILOSOP PERIODICALS CHICAGO: : THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO. Price, 50 cts.; YEARLY, $2.00. London; WATTS & CO.,17 on Court, Fleet St., E. C. Price in England and U ; Yearly, Bdr ee The AMERICAN AA and ORIENTAL JOURNAL. > | Published at 175 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, IIl. Edited by STEPHEN D. PEET, Goop Horeg, ILL. Bi-Monthly. Price, $4.00 Per Year. The First Magasine De to Archeology and Ethnology established in America, It has u0 reached its roth ane Volume, which promises to be the Best of the Series. Among the Attractions for 1894 are the following: a A series of articles, accompanied with mye on the early migrations and locations of Indian r the title of hamberlain, Dr. of “ ‘ Footprints of the Akori nes.” By Rev. Wi liam M. engres. Prof. A. F. C pA William Wallace T . A. a tr ; oter ipee T fet exican si 1 "Eo Wickersnam and C. Staniland Wake and a certain ““ Bronze, Copper and Rare Stes e pale recently come to light, Ps Dr. J. D. Butler, J. R. Sutter, H. I. Smith, William tgomery. Note: College eand Re Discoveries in Palestin ne and Egypt. rof. T. F. Wright, of Harvard reg: Winslow, pte a Explorations in Polynesia, y Be i Babylonia, India, China, an mpetent scho! cecal i PRE The editor of the American Anti iguarian is publishing a series of g COLUMBIAN TIMES, and now aes the following to the public ice, $3.50 I. The Mound-Builders—their Works and Relics, > > mn ae ll. Animal Effigies and Emblematic Mounds, e oao ee IHi. Native Myths and Symbols—Unfinished, « 6.00 IV. Cliff Dwellers and Pyramid Builders with the Àntiquar ian, „Price per Vol. $4.00 or with American Naturalist $6.00. The American Antiquarian will be furnished with The Naturalist for $6.00. Americal AMERICAN MONTHLY MIGROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 14TH YEAR, 1893. PRICE INCREASED TO $2.00. Beautifully Ilustrated. ORIGINAL ARTICLES by the best writers. Descriptions of Microscopical Methods, pictures of new apparatus, a department of Medical Microscopy revealing what the instrument is doing to combat disease, Bacteriology or the study of Bacilli, Diatoms or Nature’s J ewels, Biological Notes upon the progress in botany, entomology, agriculture and the study of all life by the aid of the grandest of instruments, Recreative Microscopy or the entertain- ment of people who exclaim “Oh! My!” when they look through the golden tube, Microscopical News, the Detection of Crime, Societies and their proceedings, Notices of Books, the Exchange and sale of Slides, etc. THE MICROSCOPE A Dollar Magazine Devoted Strictly to Elementary Microscopy. Price $1.00. This periodical, now in its 14th year, recently edited by Dr. A. C. Stokes, of Trenton, has been made a magazine for beginners and amateurs and will * seek to supply every need of those entering upon this fascinating study. Its Query DEPARTMENT alone, conducted by Dr. 8. G. Shanks, of Albany, N. Y., will be found worth the price. ?weSAMPLE COPY FREES 8@-Price for the two, constituting the only microscopical periodicals in Amer- ica, $2.50 per annum. A treatise on elementary microscopy supplied free to every new subscriber. CARPENTER ON THE MICROSCOPE.—Latest and finest edition $5.00. CONSTANTLY OW HAND. Beautiful objects mounted in ingenious covers by an English Chemi ready for use. Would cost 50 cents each if made in America. Catalogue of 170, White’s objects, mostly botanical, and a sample for 10 cents; 20 for $1.00. Dr. Stokes says: “They deserve to be boomed.” Address, CHAS. W. SMILEY, Wasuincton, D. C. st, and all tv ADVERTISEMENTS. |. Harper Bonnell Go. FHINE aa . PRINTING.. ya INKS 11 & 13 K PVanderwater St., NEW YORK. HES; PHILA., 13 S. 7th St., TORONTO, 3 Jordan St. CHICAGO, Bort BOSTON, 156 isonet St., Our Inks used on the NE: New bT ET arper & Bros’. periodicals; Mrs. ank “weed s periodicals ; Arkell Week- y: Robert Bonner Sons, Police Gazette, NR ublic Ledger, ygi Inquirer, : item and Speo Night, Chicago—1 r Ocean Times, Ta Journal | Mail, Stas Zeitung, etc. Also on this publication. | S aa “THE SANTTARIA Is THE BEST Sanitary publica- tion in America ” (Mississippi Valley Medi cal Monthly); ‘‘. Easily maintains its superiority over all similar publi- cations” (Medical World); and “Has accomplished more good than all | of the other Sanitary papers put to- gether et (Hydraulic and Sanitary Plumber), “ The Editor, Dr. A.N. Bett, is well known to the mercantile community for his co-operation with the mer- chants in quarantine reform, andto his profession as a leader in Sanitary Science ” (New York Journal of Commerct). 96 PAGES TEXT MONTHLY; TWO VOLUMES YEARLY. $4.00 a year, in advance; 35 cts. a Number. Sample copies, 20 cts. ( p g ps) E All r an AEAT be addressed to the Editor, _e ree Send 10 Cents Sample Copy; We'll do the rest. E, F. BIGELOW, PUBLISHER, PORTLAND, CONN: SE a an re E E ee i ; i ADVERTISEMENTS. v The International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science. EDITOR ALFRED ALLEN, Bath, England. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: Pro DD. STF R M po ao A T _ S. A, FREDERICK GAERTN ER, A. M., M. D., etc., Pittsburgh, Ù. . STEVENSON BROWN, President, Montreal Micro Soc., Me ntreal, Rely ILANDRO VICENTINI, M. D., Chie taly. The following are a portion of the Contents = a y, 1893. Polarised Light, and its a Tere the Microscope. (Iilustrated.) G. H. Bryan, M. A. Reichert’s Hæmometer. (Ilus li} F: Caarit. M. D. Microscope and Its flesio (Illustrated.) The Edi A Device to take the place of the Camera Lucida in Microg: sare, amen 1. G. Piffard, M. D. A reader Month by the erie a co Brya ues and Sections of ‘lissues in Wa LW 7. Pla xton, M. D, — Pr r. ring Section of Teeth for Huila and Battlers Prof. V. A. ‘Lat ham he Bot-Fly of Man ataa Techni Half an hour at the Momoi with the late Tuffen West, F. R. M.S., F. L. S (Illustrated 4 Litho. hie) eng Notes from the Postal Micro. Soc. say: os (Illustrated. ) Queries. Correspondence. Reviews, Subscription, United States and ane $2.75 the year, post free. Aea M. A. BOOTH, F. R. M.S. LONGMEADOW, MASS. 1399 PLASTER CASTS OF THE FOLLOWING MAMMALIA with dentition in good preservation, made under direction of Professor E. D. Cope may be had by application to Jacob Geisman, 2102 Pine St., Philadelphia. Phenacodus primaevus Cope, (Wyoming) $100.00. “Zy- racotherium venticolum Cope, (Wyoming) $50.00. Protohippus micabilis Leidy, skull $7.00. Protohippis pachyops Cope, skulls of adult and young, and P. fossulatus Cope, skull, $5.00 each. Letrabelodon shepardii Leidy, mandibular ramus and symphysis with two molars, $20.00. Dibelodon tropicus Cope, do., $15.00; Mastodon precursor Cope, last molar $5.00. The horses and Mastodons from the Cenozoic beds of Texas, are uncolored. v ADVERTISEMENTS. PROSPECTUS FOR 1894. $4.00 per Year. $4.60 per Year (Foreign.) 35 cts. per Copy. TAE MERICAN TURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. M AGING EDITO Prors. E. D. COPE, Philadelphia, Pa., and J. e EE Boston, Mass. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Pror. W. S. BAYLEY, of Colby beatega Waterville, Me., Dept. of Petrography. Pror. W. H. HOBBS, 7 ison, Wisc , Dept. of Misteate Dr. C. E. BESSEY, of T e University of Nebraska, Liktnle: Ti are of Botany. Pror. C. M. WEED, of Cage of New Hampshire, Durham ee: t. of Entomolo Pror, E. A. ANDREW of Johns Hopkin Sala, aie, Ars na of Embryology. H. C. MERCER, of the ple of Pennsylvania, Dept. of Anthropolog Dr. C VO. WHITMAN, of Chicago University, Chicks; Ill., Dept. of stag Technique. = 1867 28th YEAR. 1894. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST differs fr to keep its readers informed as to the peira most other Journalin the extent and efficiency | ings ha scientific societics and other te of its elitorial corps, which embraces nine e promotio waar on men, mostly professors in well kn Univer. indep- neten of official ies, and ps th sities in Maine : umpshire, Boston, admini-tration of trusts held by In ass., Philadel hia. and Ba timore, wet | 1 ‘he benefit of sci and i ppe Chicago, Madisor I neoln, | performing this service it stands alone ak Nebraska, This e titorial supervision secures he sci: ntific journ ts ase sound competent criticism of iJ ct matter, as Ge he support f the face he in so well as headth of scope. in thi- way is | adm tration, in view of the fact or less secured also the principal aim of T AT- doing y incurs the hostility of more URALIST, the presenta ion to the public of the | influential persons. latest resul } was ults of ~crentific p ogress in readable THe AMFRICAN page an asocie kers while the m relations of authors to | menced TWEN rY-SEVEN em a y at s pay * re especially able to present | Cambridge. 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No. 329 SCHULZE’S SYSTEM OF DESCRIPTIV % a Hyatt. 369 OF Monn Pog Frederic 5. Lee. 380 HOLOGY oF NEw. Gur oe “A Species OF SIMOCEPHALUs. trated EF ity ete: s—Madagascariensis— in a National Parks — The Civil B: , 399 | AND Pea’ 4 x TA T Sida son the Cigsaities tien: of f idia—Stiles’ and Hassal’s Ces- k's Dora cai Methods — iology. 4 =the Geol © Eh 3 Cretaceous Trituberculates the e Tapir— Geological News— Ìe— Cenozoic. pe SEL i and P techie amie! Eruptive T orge S. Mead. 389 | ra CONTENTS: PAGE. Rocks of Cape Bonita, Cal—Lamprophyres near the Shap Granite Mass—The Geology of Conanicut Island, R. I—Petographbical News —Alurgite and Violan from St. Marcel—Zonal Plagioclase — Hereynite in Gabbro — Optical Constants of cee eee: News— | Miscellaneous : Bota what is Avord L The So- ca Ted « ‘ ¿i | i | . 442 ME . 452 460 PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. EDWARDS & DOCKER CO., 518 ano oec MINOR PERRET: LAS — forld sTribute to y . oy Chas. Marchands Peroxide of Hyd rogen Medicinal : “Highest. Award, 3 Both Medal and Diploma. _ Oraon 7 World's Fair Eas N PEN Porc Hydros gel : H0, (Medicinal ) ; 1 CURES ALL DISEASES CAUSED BY GRENE. ar P DIPHTHERIA, CROUP, SCARLET FEV ER, SORE THE ROAT, Panie RH OF THE NOSE, OZŒNA, HA ASTHMA WH NG COUGH.. CONSUMPTION, CATARRH OF THE S$ J iih FEVER P AN i NESSES: ETA LEUCORRH(&A, ETC. i gen eaten 4 Chas. ips wher eomrele Peroxide of Hydro ttles, sold only in 4-0z,, 8-oz., and 16-02. bottles aan 2 ae “white letters, red and g ole signature PREPARED ONLY BY f the * t2 Mention this publication, — “emist grate etree TS. SOLD BY LEADING pRUGGIS' ! IS i y amS S Laboratory, 28 Prince St, New Yi AMERICAN NATURALIST Vout. XXVIII. May, 1894. 329 REMARKS ON SCHULZE’S SYSTEM OF DESCRIPTIVE ERMS.' By ALPHEUS HYATT. One cannot systematically describe a number of species or in fact properly record observations especially upon isolated species or groups without the aid of a convenient nomenclat- ure and a generalized, topical scheme of work. The invent- ion of such a system obliges one to make a more or less com- plete classification of the parts of any form, and this is a most efficient aid to thorough observation and a check upon hasty, inconsequent or unsystematic description. Such remarks are apparently superfluous and even super- cilious, but no one can work with new methods or try to find in scientific literature reliable data with regard to any of the invertebrates without being continually confronted with posi- - tive evidence that in the effort to place new species on record, many naturalists have lost sight of the main aim of descrip- tive work. The fixed habit of considering a new species as a discovery of such importance, that the describer’s name must forever remain attached to it, is perhaps necessary, but it has loaded scientific research with an enormous mass of badly constructed records. . This paper with the exception of the introductory remarks was published in Bio- logisches Centralblatt, XIII, Nos. 15-16, August, 1893, as Bemerkungen zu Schulze’s System einer deskriptiven Terminologie. It has been thought advisable to have it — in English. 370 The American Naturalist. [May, One of the most remarkable characteristics of the literature of this century in zodlogy and paleontology is the great con- trast between the careless, inadequate, descriptive text of many large costly works and the excellent plates and other accom- panying illustrations. There are a number of these books in which there is a wide difference between the scientific record made by the author and his artistic efforts or those of his draughtsman, the former being often inconsequent and unworthy of companionship with the latter. I refrain from giving examples for the simple reason, that they are within the experience of every student, and there would be no com- pensating advantage in exciting useless antagonisms. An attempt to construct a properly systematized topical scheme of work would have forced such authors to name and describe most of the principal regions and parts of the anatomy and to follow out a similar scheme in the description of each species, thus minimizing the irregularity and vexatious incomplete- ness of their observations. One of the marked characteristics of the day in natural science is the effort to give greater accuracy to descriptive nomenclature. Professor B. G. Wilder’ was the pioneer m America, and although his efforts were for many years unap- preciated, they are now beginning to bear fruit. Wilder and Gage’s Anatomical Technology (1882) laid the foundation of the movement which has just been reinforced in Germany by a very able paper from Franz Eilhard Schulze? in which z lays down some general principles for the construction ol terms that ought to be carefully read by every naturalist. The details of his scheme are in brief as follows: He divides organic bodies into ; (I) die Synstigmen, stigma: of Haeckel (rypa meaning point) having 4 imaginary centre to the body. This point he proposes ee 6 “centrum, ” parts in the centre“ centran, ” approximate Uns are “central” or “ proximal,” those which lie toward th ce to that of Centro- *A partial revision of anatomical nomenclature, with especial efan ae the brain. Science, II, 1881, pp. 122-126. 133-138. II, No.1, 1898 *Bezeichn. d. Lage u. Richtung im. Thierkdrper. Biol. Centralb., XIM, ™ ocen 1894.] Schulze’s System of Descriptive Terms. 371 tre “centrad ” or “ proximad,” those lying away from the cen- tre “distal” or “ distad,” parts external or on the periphery “distan.” Any part at right angles to the imaginary radii of the body or to the surface, he proposes to call “ tangential ” as long as they are external or “ paratangential,” when they are internal. Thus there may be tangential parts or distan, distal, proximal and central, paratangential parts, and they may be distal from the centrum or proximal when not central or centran. 3 Professor Simon Gage of Cornell in a letter to Dr. Wilder comments upon the use of “centran” as follows. “One of Schulze’s principal points over what is ordinarily given is the suggestion of the termination “an” for the absolute centre, ventral surface, dorsal surface or aspect, ete. Barclay in his book, pp. 168-173, considers this and uses for this purpose the ending “en” as “ centren, dorsen, dextren, sinistren, ” etc. “The natural development of these ideas would have been to make a distinction between internal and external, using the termination “an” for internal parts which are centran or axian and leaving “en” for the designation of such as are peripheral. It is, however, evident as suggested by Dr. Wilder, that the termination “en” is more suitable for the designation of internal parts, on account of its derivation and common use, whereas “an” is in line with the terminations “ al, ” “ad” and not in conflict with usage. It seems to me that Schulze is not wholly consistent in his use of the termination “an,” and that following Wilder’s suggestion, it would be much better to Say centren and use centran for any external points which might be established in the polar axis of the body.” The class of bodies referred to as Synstigmen are to be found exclusively among Protozoa or their corresponding cellular elements among Metazoa, and Schulze’s term is defective in that it takes no notice of the large numbers, especially among Infusoria, which have a spiriform arrangement of parts or of the entire body, often also more or less complicated with ilateral asymmetry. Although it is obviously desirable that the assumption of an imaginary centre should be made in cases which have no 372 The American Naturalist. (May, organic centrum, it will be considered questionable in the description of tissue cells or the bodies of the Protozoa, whether the nucleus should not be considered as the centrum. ‘Schulze thinks that in such cases a distinction should be made and an additional compound term framed which would express the difference between the artificial and natural points ‘or axis, etc. Thus the nucleus would be the “ nucleo-cen- trum” however excentric its position. | Undoubtedly in this, as in other cases, it is of advantage to make comparisons between the imaginary morphic centre and the organic cen- tre, since while these are often the same they are not coincident in many forms and the use of a double set of terms will oblige observers ‘to note such phenomena in their descriptions. Nevertheless one cannot say without experience in practical . application whether a double set of terms would be advanta- geous or merely burdensome. (2). Die Syngrammen (ysa meaning line) the Centraxonia of Haeckel, bodies elliptical cylindrical, étc., pyramidal, etc., which may be considered as ‘having their parts arranged around an imaginary central sey but having all sidesequal. This axis he calls “principal axis “both ends are styled “termini,” the surfaces immediately around the termini are “terminan” and the direction towa ‘them “ terminad.” | Centrum, centran, centrad, are used as before for esi lying in the principal axis or in that direction. “Ax@n” 18 employed for parts in the principal axis, when near to that line o“ proximal, ”* when directed toward it “axiad,” the region away from the principal axis is “distal,” the direction 18 “distad” and the surface or periphery is “ distan.” = All planes or parts lying in planes going through the pr pi cipal axis are “ meridian, ” all parallel with these “ paramen™” ian.” The parts lying in the plane passing through the cen : i ” and ; tre at right angles to the principal axis are “transversan, © is open ose 1894.] Schulze’s System of Descriptive Terms. 373 the planes parallel to this are “ paratransversan.” If the suggestion were adopted, all parts lying internally in these planes would be meridien and transversen, and the points on the periphery also in these planes would be meridian and transversan. He intimates that there are oral and “aboral” planes in the paratransversan planes, but does not advocate the use of the terms oran, orad, and aboran and aborad as desirable for those bodies having the mouth in what may be called the terminan paratransversan plane, and the anus or base in the opposite plane. Among Porifera one can assume a central axis, and it is possible to distinguish the oral and aboral ends or what may be considered as corresponding to them, the excurrent aper- tures (or so-called oral openings) and the attached base. But the incurrent apertures, the digestive sacs, the tissues and the spicules of the skeleton are normally arranged in concentric layers, which cannot be referred to any system of imaginary planes parallel with the principal axis. There is in these forms no organic element by which a meridian plane can be determined, they are exclusively concentric. The same remarks apply also to the Hydrozoa and Actino- zoa and more or less to all of the animals included under the _ old term, Radiata, whose parts are normally arranged in con- centric layers cut by radiating lines and planes. If Schulze’s system had taken note of such general morphic characters 1t would have been more complete: The meridian plane can be organically determined in most of these organisms, but this primitive division of the body is not carried out in the struct- ures of the sides, these have no organic lateral parts which van be advantageously compared with any supposed parameridian planes. They and the tissues of the body all lie in concentric tubular conical or spherical surfaces secondarily intersected by radiating lines and planes. . Schulze’s system of planes takes no notice of these facts, but his meridian and transversan planes can be used with advantage to indicate the existing bilateral elements in these structures. The main objection to his system appears to be that it is better fitted for use among 374 The American Naturalist [May, “ Bilaterien, ” that is for Mollusca, Worms, Myriapods, Insects and especially Vertebrates, than for the simpler organisms Protozoa, Porifera, Hydrozoa, Actinozoa, in which this ele- ment of symmetry is absent or more or less obscured. Professor Wilder has already used “ peripherad” as the antithesis of “centrad” and according to Schulze’s system peripheran could be used for the distan surface in general. Thus the mesenteries of the actinozoa extend peripherad from the principal axis or the median plane. It is also questionable whether a good topical classification of such animals as Actinozoa and Echinodermata ought not to recognize an intermediate region between the central and distal regions. There would be just as great a difficulty in defining a central region and a distal or peripheral one as in limiting the use of these terms to two regions separated by a third, which might be termed the extra-central with reference to the axis or extra-median when used with reference to the corresponding plane. (3). “Die Sympeden oder Bilaterien,” Zeugiten oder Cen- . trepipden of Haeckel. These bilateral bodies have three axis. The “ perlateral ” axis is described as “isopolar” by Schulze, probably in allusion to the organic similarities of its poles. “ Equiradial” would be equally good description on account of the equal lengths of the radii of the axis. The other 18 _— the dorso-ventral axis and is what he calls “ heteropolar : and this is apt to be also inequiradial. The principal axis 1$ the longitudinal axis, also described as “ heteropolar” and apt to be also inequiradial, estimating from the supposed organie centrum. Allin the principal axis is “ axian, ” the neighbor- hood is “ axial, ” the direction “axiad,” or one may slop ae proximal, proximad, farther from it everything is “distal,” an the direction away from this axis is “ distad.” The two ends of the principal axis are respec instead of “ cephalic” or “ oral ” or “ proral” (Prora, PPO”, r vessel) and the tail end or the other end, whether distinguish by a tail or not, “ caudal” instead of “ aboral.”” ” tively “rostral ora, prow of & ; ik ăç ®Schulze subsequently gave his nomenclature with illustrative figures y ga eutsch. Zool. Verhandl. d. Anat. Gesellsch., May 1893, and Verhandl. d. a this last * Gesellsch., May 1893. In this paper and in the discussion following 1894.] Schulze’s System of Descriptive Terms. 375 The surface of the rostral end is “rostran” and the surface of the caudal end is “caudan.” The direction toward these are respectively “ rostrad” and “ caudad.” In a letter from Prof. Gage to Dr. Wilder which has been forwarded to me, the former very justly observes that “Schulze discards ‘ cephalic’ although he adopts caudal. Cephalic is certainly a more natural opposite of caudal than is rostral, the word he proposes in its place. Then cephalic has been and is used a great deal in English and considerably in German, and the use is increasing.” The main objection to this in my opinion, is that it applies to the vertebrata better than any other type and fails with the simplest forms of these. Among Ascidia, for example, there is perhaps a rostral extremity, but there is no caudal extrem- ity in the adults. There is an aboral region, but the oral region is central orcentran. While one therefore might make rostral, rostran and rostrad work well, some other term than caudal should be employed for the opposite pole. It seems contrary to all rational usage to employ terms having a defi- nite meaning like cephalic and caudal to bodies that have no head, nor representative oral opening, and no tail. Whenever in bilateral animals the mouth is at the extreme pole of the principal axis, I can see no objection to the use of oral, oran, orad, but when it is not there rostran, rostral and rostrad are highly appropriate. When the mouth is external and ventran, or lies out of the principal axis on any surface, as it is ina number of types, additional accuracy may possibly be given to the terminology if both rostral and oral planes or regions were recognized. At any rate this suggestion might be tested. Schulze uses “dorsal” and “ ventral” for the entire halves of the body respectively, the extreme surfaces are “ dorsan ” and “ventran,” the direction toward them “dorsad” and “ventrad.” The perlateral axis has “ dextral” and “sinstral” number of other terms synonymous with rostral and caudal, viz. atlantal and sacral, oral and aboral, proral and prymnal, actinal and abactinal were brought forward, even “Alpha ende” and “beta-ende” and the accompanying “alphal, alphan, alphad,” “betal, betan, betad” were proposed for the two ends of the Principal axis in bilateral animals. 376 The American Naturalist. [May, halves, the ends are “dextran” and “sinistran,”® the direc- tion toward them “dextrad ” and “ sinistrad. ” d The intersection of the axis is as before “centrum,” the neighborhood “ central,” the direction “centrad.” All the parts lying in the imaginary plane passing through the prin- cipal and ventro-dorsal axis are “ median,” the neighborhood is “medial,” the more distant region on either side is “lat- eral.” The direction toward the median plane is “ mediad,” direction toward the’side is “laterad.” Medial does not appear to be any improvement upon Barclay’s term “ mesial” or Wilder’s modification “ mesal” for the same plane. The latter in fact is preferable both on account of prior use and brevity. The extreme outer lateral parts or surfaces are “dextran” and “sinistran” like the ends of the axis, the direction toward these “dextrad and “sinistrad.” Thus the two halves of the body are dextral and sinistral but the hands and feet are dextran and sinistran, the arms and legs extended dextrad and sinistrad of the dextran and sinistran surfaces of our bodies, and the right elbow is dextrad of the shoulder but mediad of the wrist. This statement according to Wilder and Gage should be that “the right elbow is distad of the shoulder but proximad of the wrist, ” mediad and mesal being restricted to the trunk or used only for the general statements with regard ua limbs. Usage derived from Barclay would apply proximal and distal wholly to the appendages, distal being toward the free end and proximal at or toward the attached end. Wilder and Gage use these terms in this restricted sense and Com- stock gives them an identical meaning. Butschli in the discussion quoted above in note also maintained that viet terms should be applied only to appendages and parts outs! of the mass of the body. That Schulze had no such ere tions in mind when framing his terms seems to be settled y his suggestion to use proximal as a synonym for central, sie ®Wilder and Gage use the term “ aspect” in the same sense as Schulze words | AY oat ae . * i and ; ingin “an,” or Barclay's ending in “en”; thus there is the cephalic @ gir an ventral dorsal, lateral and sinistral aspects. The strongest objection Lid p require- a the fact that they are not mononymic, wher:as Scbulze’s terms fulfil this wo ment. 1894.] Schulze’s System of Descriptive Terms. 377 his application of distans to the peripheral parts and the similar use of terms ending other in “an.” Comstock in his “ Guide to Practical Work in Entomology” says that dorsad, ventrad, cephlad, ete., indicate direction in parallel lines having infinite extension. “In other words these terms must be used in a way analogous to that in which we use right and left.” Lines which converge according to small explanatory wooden model kindly sent me by Prof. Wilder, are described by him as“ caudo-laterad” when directed from the head end to the sides, cephalo-mesad when in the opposite direction, “ dorso-latero-cephalad” when diverging from the caudal extremity toward the dorsum and side and so on. The plane passing through the principal and perlateral axis is termed by Schulze the “frontal” plane (a poor word as acknowledged by Schulze). This divides the ventral from the dorsal regions, but Schulze seems to get into trouble here and omits the usual list of terms for neighborhood. These must be dorso-frontal and dorso-frontad, very awkward terms and about as inconvenient as ventro-frontal or ventro-frontad, but dorsan, dorsad, and ventran, ventrad for the outer parts, come into line again without difficulty. It would appear more natural to designate this as the perlateral or lateral plane or the tergo-frontal plane. This would enable one to designate the neighborhood on either sides as frontal and tergal and the directions toward the plane as frontad and tergad, any part in the plane itself would then be tergo-frontans or frontens, ete. Tergo-frontal would not interfere with the normal use of these terms’ on either ‘side of it and: be also: in accord with dorsal, dorsad and ventral, ventrad, for the ventral and dorsal regions respectively, and would designate the duplex relation of this plane passing as it does between two distinct regions of the body. The third plane passing through the dorso-ventral and per- lateral axis, is the “ transversal” dividing the rostral from the caudal regions of the body; the parts lying in this plane are “transversan ” and the direction “ transversad” ; rostral, ros- "Ithaca, University Press, 1882, p. 9. 378 The American Naturalist. [May, tran, rostrad, caudal, caudan and caudad also work well for the remoter parts. All planes lying parallel to any of these within the body are distinguished by the prefix “ para.” Wilder and Gage have already recommended and now habitually use many of the terms also adopted by Schulze, but their system was tentative and did not aim at complete- ness. They, however, have used effectively “ental” and “ectal” terms not noticed by Schulze. Thus “the dura (ma- ter)” is “ectad ” of the brain but “entad ” of the cranium. A part may be divided by cutting either ecto-entad or ento-ec- tad.” There is also another application of words derived from ézroe and évtég which seems an obvious advantage. Ectal, ectans and ectad can be of great use if limited exclusively to parts that protrude from the surface of the body, like the appendages in Vertebrata, Crustacea, the spines of Echinoidea, the arms of Crinoidea, the tentacles of Actinoza and the like. Parts that stand out from the distan or terminan, rostran or caudan, dorsan or ventran surfaces of the body. If this were done the limbs would all be described as ectal of dextran and sinistran surfaces, the articulations of the body would be “ectad” or “entad ” of those surfaces or their origin, if pene- trating deeper might be designated by an appropriate term according to the topical terms already employed, central, proximal or distal. All the minor divisions of the ectal parts — 2 could then be referred to the surfaces of the body. Thus the bases of the spine in Echinus would be ectad of the body but proximad of its surface, while the termination would be dis- tan with relation to the same surface, and it would have its own centrum and central region, principal axis, and 80 0n. In applying these words to a deeper seated part as to the radiating spines of Radiolarian or the threads of the stalk of a Hyalonema the use of “ental” to designate the part inside of the distan surface of the body would not entail confusion, = since it would be used in direct connection with the descrip- tion of the spine or threads. The stalk of Hyalonema most complicated example would be ental in origin, "a a in the distal. It would be better to say the oral or a? io rum ane . part of the central axis, pass through the cent in the 1894.] Schulze’s System of Descriptive Terms. 379 aboran regions and extend ectad, spreading out during its progress into a support suitable to anchor the body of the sponge in the mud below. The spines of Xiphacantha would be ento-ectal (extending from the centrum to the distans” surface and then ectad) having their origin in a central mass, possessing radiating spines on the distan surface and passing ectad of these to a variable distance. y Professor Gage objects to this in the following words “ It seems to me the suggestions with reference to ectal, etc., are not happy. Proximal and distal seem to me to express near- ness and remoteness of appendages to tbe part from which they arise. That may be reference toa limb or the trunk taken as the origin. For example, the arms and legs are appendages of the trunk, their distal ends being the hands and feet and the attached ends the proximal. So just as prop- erly, in accordance with the established use of proximal and distal, the attached end of the hair is its proximal end while the free end is distal. This is true whether the hair is on the trunk or an appendage. I think the use originally made of ectal and ental by yourself (Wilder) the best one, the funda- mental idea is in the compounds Ectoderm and Entoderm.” These criticisms coming from such a source and appealing to the derivation of the words are consistent with the Bar- clayan system and would be very convincing but for one thought that makes me hesitate to abandon this suggestion until I can learn more from experience. If the terms ectal and ental are to be applied to parts without reference to their origin, but simply because they are external and internal, it is obvious that they cannot be restricted any more than the words, outside and inside. If one is describing a spine or appendage of any sort the surface is ectal, the inner part ental, but if one is describing the body with reference to its appendages, the spines are ectal or they may have parts within the body and these are ental. The limbs of the Vertebrata and Crustacea may be considered either with reference to the surface of the body or to the skeleton, but the stalk of a hya- lonema and the spine of Radiolarian may originate from the centrum itself. 7A better word here is peripheran. 380 The American Naturalist. : ‘[May, THE SCOPE OF MODERN PHYSIOLOGY! By Freperic 8. Ler. A review of the present aspect and tendency of a rapidly growing science in the light of its history may not be without profit. It may help to clearer vision and more exact orienta- tion; and it may direct and stimulate investigators. These thoughts, together with the prevalence of an apparent mis- conception regarding the true aim and scope of Physiology, have led to the following paper. fd To one who is acquainted with modern biology, it will seem, unnecessary to repeat that physiology is the science of func- tion or action ; that it is to be contrasted with morphology, the _ science of form or structure; that these two form the grand divisions of the science of living things, or biology; that, just as there is an animal and a vegetable biology, so there 18 an, animal physiology and a vegetable physiology ; that, further, every species has its physiology; that every portion of living pst ney Ee nt eee matter, be it organism, organ, tissue, cell, or simplest group a molecules deserving the name protoplasm, Weismanns — biophor, has its physiology; that, for whatever functions of acts, there must be possible a science of function or action. All this seems self-evident and trite to the biologist. By i non-biologist its truth is being overlooked constantly. +? him, forgetting that botany and zoology exist, the term phys: ology means merely human physiology, a most narrow signi; cance and one that is productive of evil results. Undone the animal physiologists themselves have been responsib i, unintentionally and unwittingly, for this common and ra g cally false notion of the relatively narrow field of their ages In their zeal to penetrate the mysteries of that most wona ful and most interesting of all protoplasmic structures, ation human body, and in their desire to perfect a strong foundatio! oe of Sciences, : Read before the Section of Biology of the New York Academy November 20, 1893. Ta Pi aS wits 1894] The Scope of Modern Physiology. 381 for the science and art of medicine, it was to be expected that ‘their investigations should have an “anthropocentric” bias and that physiology and medicine should be born and grow old together. Let a union so intimate be once established, let centuries of tradition surround and strengthen it and the sep- aration is not an easy process. With special reference to this question and at the risk of treading upon well-known historic ground, what has been in brief the history of animal physi- ology ? It is convenient to divide it with Preyer into five periods; the first four ending approximately with the dates 350 B. C., 160 A. D., 1628, and 1837 respectively, the fifth extending to the present time. The last four periods are characterized by one or more prominent investigators, the second by Aristotle, the third by Galen, the fourth by Harvey and Haller, the fifth by Johannes Miiller. The beginnings of animal physiology were contemporane- ous with the speculations of the earliest natural philosophers and the labors of the earliest physicians. In Egypt, in China, in India, in Greece, the origins of the science are necessarily indefinite and, with the help of occasional fragments of his- torical fact, must be left to our imagination. The inclination toward self-study is an innate human characteristic and the more obvious facts of man’s bodily functions could scarcely have failed of notice. Something was doubtless learned from the bodies of men killed or wounded in battle, and from the “slaughter of animals for food. More precise observations were made upon sacrificial animals for purposes of divination. But facts thus obtained were necessarily isolated, and abundant Speculation was the distinguishing characteristic of the whole period. From its shadowy beginnings down to the death of Hippocrates and Plato, the theories that were held regarding the origin and nature of life, unsupported, as they T by observation and experiment, could not establish a science of vital action. Even Hippocrates himself, skillful as he was in the treatment of diseases, was no physiologist. ~ At the beginning of the second period was Aristotle, the first systematic observer of natural phenomena. His knowl- 382 The American Naturalist. [May, edge of physiological fact was derived, as is well known, in greatest part from his own observations on man, the lower animals, and plants; and to a large extent it forms the basis of all subsequent development of the science. His pupil, Theophrastus, founded the science of vegetable physiology. Contemporaneous with Theophratus was the development of the great school of medicine at Alexandria, and here, under Herophilus and Erasistratus, animal physiology, along with anatomy and pathology, as a part of medicine undoubtedly , made great progress. The extent of that progress can be inferred only imperfectly from later writers. The loss of the Alexandrian records is most lamentable. Aristotle had dis- sected animals; the Alexandrians dissected the human body and, more important for our science if true, it is possible that they performed experiments on animals. The facts made known by Aristotle were added to; physiological material accumulated. Thus, while the first period had been specula- tive, the second was descriptive. But not yet was there a science of function. Then came Galen, the great physician, investigator, and writer, and if was he who organized the mass of knowledge that through the centuries had been growing. From Galens time animal physiology has had a recognized position as& branch of natural science. A modern writer? says of him: “In the midst of contending factions he alone and for ae first time shaped physiology into an independent science. Ta established physiology as the doctrine of the use of organs; he experimented upon animals * * * ; and he suggested ques- tions which he answered by the aid of such experiments. | opposition to all his predecessors and contemporaries, he main- tained physiology to be the foundation of medicine. Further he, first of all and so far as it was possible at his umé, described and explained the functions methodically : pletely. Upon the one side he sought to refer vital gener! ena to natural causes, and upon the other he lauded their pt poseful character, with expressions of admiration dom of the Creator, while their fitness aided him 1 *Preyer, Allgemeine Physiologie. and com- — for the WS 1894.] The Scope of Modern Physiology. 383 ing them. * * * The fact that the Galenic physiology, where- ever it was known, prevailed for fifteen hundred years is due to its two-sided development. For physicians accepted it because of its materialism, and the clergy because of its teleology. Since Galen was an extraordinarily sagacious thinker, an uncommonly learned man, an industrious, systematic, truth- loving worker and skillful physician, never neglecting prac- tice for research nor research for practice, of all the medical fraternity he seemed best fitted to lay the corner-stone of phys- iology asa science in itself. And it testifies to his genius that, in the whole thousand years following him, Galen’s physiolog- ical system, constructed through his originality and the power of his logic, endured as law, seriously opposed by no one. The history of no science can show the like. Faith in the author- ity of Galen’s name finds its equal only in the history of religions.” It is to Galen’s influence, doubtless, more than to that of any other, that the intimate union of physiology and medicine, continuing even to the present day, is due. And to him likewise we must ascribe the present prevailing idea, already spoken of, of the essentially human character of the science. Galen’s physiology was in essence a human physi- ology; and the newscience fully born became the handmaid of medicine. Galen’s authority was supreme until the age of the Renaissance, and throughout the long mediaeval period ani- mal physiology was at a standstill. Toward its close the Ital- ian universities were established and men began to think for themselves, to read nature in addition to the books, and gradu- ally to learn that nature and Galen did not always agree. The elaborate and ill-founded hypotheses of the spirits, the ele- ments, the qualities, and the humours did not accord with the progressive, investigating spirit of the Renaissance and rebel- lion against the master gradually grew in strength. Paracel- sus burned in public at Basel the works of Galen. More destructive than fire were the anatomical investigations of Vesalius and Fallopius. And in physiology Colombo and Caesalpinus prepared the way for the most important single discovery of the times. This event, which more than all else demonstrated the ineffectiveness of pure speculation and the 384 The American Naturalist. [May, need of a rational method of observation and experiment, was none other than the discovery of the circulation of the blood. | With the announcement of this to the world in 1628, what we have called the fourth period of physiological history begins. Harvey’s book, “ De Motu Cordis,” is a model record of an ideal scientific investigation. The accumulation of an abundance of the essential facts, obtained by a most careful and systematic study of nature, the clear understanding of their logical positions and their mutual relations, and then, unhampered by scholastic systems and a priori considerations, but guided only by a regard for truth, the orderly arrange- ment of the accumulated material into the one possible rational system—such was Harvey’s method. The result was incontrovertible. The full title of Harvey’s work is “ Brerei- tatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus,’ bat Harvey himself, being a physician, and his contemporaries and followers naturally enough considered more especially the human bearings of the established facts. For two hundred years after, discovery followed discovery, and the permanent foundations of the various subdivisions of physiology were laid—circulation, respiration, animal heat, the functions of the central nervous system and of the peripheral nerves, movement, animal electricity, reproduction, optics and acous- tics. Haller’s well-known contribution was that of the inde- pendent irritabilitv of muscle. Of perhaps as much value were his complete knowledge of physiological literature and his activity in writing. In 1747 he published a text-book, the “ Primae Lineae Physiologiae,” and in 1757 the large and n plete “ Elementa Physiologiae Corporis Humani.” These books were widely circulated and the entity of the science a for- ever established. The title of Haller’s larger work, por ments of the Physiology of the Human Body,” indicates K its “ anthropocentric ” character was stamped firmly aain By its independent growth, its subordination to medicin? ae however, already weakened: ` To enumerate its advances during the past fifty the fifth period, would be a task of great proportions. -SİX years 1894.] The Scope of Modern Physiology. 385 man to whom it is customary to give the credit for hav- ing outlined the path that was to be followed during his life- time and for the generation that has elapsed since his death, the teacher, either personally or by his writings, of the vet- erans, Ludwig, Du Bois Reymond, Briicke and Helmholtz, was Johannes Müller. Miiller’s name will at once suggest the one important principle that he formulated, that of specific herve energies, but his writings and discoveries cover a wide field. His extraordinary knowledge, energy, enthusiasm and stimulating power were all-important during a period so rich with biological achievements. It is perhaps a fair question, whether Magendie, with his marvellous activity as an experi- mentalist, may not dispute with Müller the honor of having given to the physiology of the past fifty years its character- istic trend. Certain it is that he fathered the science in France (Claude Bernard was his pupil); that his writings were read much across the Rhine; and that the labors of the Germans have been, like his, the collecting of facts rather than the constructing of systems. Within this half-century . the establishing of the two great doctrines of physics, the mechanical theory of heat and its greater corollary, the con- servation of energy, were of indispensable aid to the develop- ment of physiology. The idea of vital force had taken on many forms and the controlling principle of life had played its part under many titles. But, when it was shown that in the inorganic world the various kinds of energy are mutually interchangeable, physiologists, long hampered by and impa- tient under the old ideas, eagerly siezed upon the new, in fact, aided not a little in their discovery, and proved that they applied to living things as well as to the not-living—and, with this, freedom from unscientific speculation was won ; the ani- mal is a machine in a sense more complete than the Cartesian one. On the purely physiological side of biology, this is undoubtedly the greatest achievement of the present century. Until the substance of the plant and the animal body could be regarded as subject to the same laws that controlled all other matter, much must have remained mysterious and inex- Plicable and physiology could not be reckoned as all in alla 26 386 The American Naturalist. ; [May, natural science. Psychology has always been hampered by the speculations of the system-loving metaphysicians. More actual fact and less conjecture are essential to the scientific method; and the scientific method is the method of progress. Following this freedom from the doctrine of vital force, physi- ology has developed actively along two main lines, the chemi- cal and the physical including the mechanical, and is now often defined as the chemistry and the physics of living mat- ter. An astonishing number of discoveries have been made, and the outlines that were sketched by Galen and Harvey and Haller and Müller and Magendie have been filled in with remarkable rapidity and completeness. _ Let us consider for a moment the prominent characteristics of the work of this period. In the first place, Vertebrates have received more attention and have been the subject of more systematic investigation than Invertebrates. And among the Vertebrates, with the exception of the indispensable frog, which, however, is rarely regarded as a finality in : the Mammals, being nearest to man have been most studied. Second, the number of forms used is very small; it is prob- ably safe to say that the genera employed in four-fifths of the researches could be counted easily upon the fingers of the two hands. Third, adult animals have been used almost exclu- sively. Fourth, the study of organs has prevailed, i. e the investigator has endeavored to discover the chemical, physical and mechanical laws by which the heart, the lungs, the glands, the muscles and the brain perform their respective tasks. These characteristics are the natural outcome of the birth and growth of the science. They indicate that, although the results accomplished are widespread and of the great value, there are left almost untouched still wider fields. The achievement of so much, however, along the lines of the i is stimulating to the student of to-day, for it has made pom ble the more rapid development of the science in the A directions, in which it is now tending. To these we sha return shortly. . : . ‘ail I think that the historian of the present period will not fa! to be struck by the comparative paucity of hypothesis “ fT ey Oe 1894.] The Scope of Modern Physiology. 387 physiological research, especially when our science is con- trasted with the other great division of biology. It is as if men had been nauseated by the vitalistic doctrines and other wild guesses of the past and had resolved hereafter to hold strictly to the Baconian method. At the risk of being misun- derstood and criticised, I cannot help feeling that this is to be deplored. The method of all physical science is truly observation and experiment; facts must be discovered and grouped and the laws formulated therefrom. But, in the search after facts, the inestimable value of hypothesis—of speculation, if you will—cannot be denied. It directs the searcher along a definite path and gives for the time being an encouraging and stimulating coherence to his results. If later his speculation becomes verified, well; if it proves false, its use is not to be deprecated, for it has served its purpose as an aid to discovery. The facts still remain, science is by so much the gainer, and with a new interpretation and a new hypoth- esis nearer the truth further advance will be made. The trouble is to keep the speculation within rational bounds and to know when to give it up. To employ it too sparingly is to retard scientific progress, and it seems to me that just here the animal physiologists of the present period are open to criti- cism. Further, it is to be noted that until far into this period throughout the Continental, the English, and most of the American universities physiology and anatomy have together formed one department. At Bonn from 1826 to 1833, and at Berlin from 1833 until his death in 1858, Müller occupied such a common chair. Helmholtz held a similar position in Bonn from 1855 until 1858. Now, everywhere, animal physi- ology presupposes anatomy, and each science has its own field and its own methods. Further still, physiology usually occu- pies a place in the Medical faculty. This also is the result of its historical development. As I have shown, it is to the med- ical fraternity, more than to any other one class, that 1t owes » its great progress in the past. But a glance at the literature of the present period will show that, largely through the efforts of its medical promoters, it has widely overstepped its early 388 The American Naturalist. [May, medical boundaries. It has long since ceased to be a purely medical and anthropological science; it has become a biologi- cal science. Human physiology, like human anatomy, will necessarily always form one of the foundation stones ofa medical training, and perhaps the most important one. But human physiology is but one branch of a science as broad as are the domains of protoplasm. Man’s body isa machine, but it is a machine that has had a history. It is an achievement to learn to know the mechanical, chemical, and physical laws of this most complex of vital mechanisms. But the task of the physiologist does not end here—I should say it does not begin here. To know the action of the mechanism without | its history is not only short-sighted, it is impossible. Thisis being recognized and a school of general and comparative — physiologists is arising. During the present period, then, — beside its great advance along the older lines, our science has begun a development along broader biological paths. It has . won a place as an independent, pure natural science. More and more are its claims to admission to Pure Science and Phil osophical faculties being recognized. It should be placed and will be placed by the side of chemistry, physics, and the : morphological division of biology. I do not think it mere gerated statement, that the tendency of biological thought at present is toward extraordinary activity along physiol lines. (To be continued.) 1994,] The Ornithology of New Guinea. 389 THE ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW GUINEA. By GrorGe S. MEAD. (Mainly from the French of Meyners @ Estrey.) The Fauna of New Guinea shines almost exclusively in the variety and beauty of the birds, that are dispersed more or less over the islands surrounding the Papuan continent. Among these islands should be cited those more removed, such as Arrou, Adi and Sabouda, Misole, Salawatti, Batanta, Gagi, the isles of Gebe, King William and Waigeou as well as the principal islands of the great Bay of Geelvink. It is calculated to-day that more than 400 species of birds belong to this region and it is probable that this number is very far below the correct estimate. The interior of the con- tinent is certainly reserved for great surprises especially when we have become acquainted with the high plateaus of the country. Of these 400 species, most numerous are those belonging to the families of parroquetts, kingfishers, flycatchers, honey- birds, crows, pigeons and herons. Others more rare, are repre- sentatives of the owls, sparrows, hornbills, bee-eaters, wood- cocks and ducks. Among the birds of prey, should be mentioned for its size— Haliaétus leucogaster, which is found all through the Papuan Archipelago, especially the islands of Arrou; but it seems that it does not come to the Bay of Geelvink. The same is true of Haliattus indicus, while Pandion haliaétus ismet with everywhere. Spizaétus gurneyi is the least common of all the birds of prey in the Indies and one does not meet it as a rule at Gilolo and the islands adjacent. Rosenberg obtained a specimen at Sal- awatti but did not see others. ‘ Astur nove hollandiz is equally rare; Rosenberg killed one of these beautiful birds during his sojourn in Mefore. It strays as far as Java where occasionally it nests, and where the natives know it under the name of Tere. 390 The American Naturalist. — [May, Baza reinwardtii is seen everywhere, especially in gardens in the neighborhood of the huts. The impenetrable forests under which the country is in some degree buried, serves as a refuge for certain kinds of owls, where it is difficult to take them on account of their solitary habits, Yet they are widely dispersed, and their peculiar ery is frequently heard in the silence of the night even near dwellings and in the center of villages. New Guinea is par-excellence in Oceania the land of parro- quetts. There are known to-day more than thirty species. Many occupy a wide extent of territory ; for instance—Cacatua triton, Microglossus aterrimus, Eclectus polychlorus, Trichoglossus hematotus, Lorius scintillatus, Nanodes placens and Nasiterna gmea. ee Others are confined to narrow limits: for example—Lorws 2 cyanauchen fuscatus, Nanodes musschenbreekii, Psittacus brehmii et modestus, Psittacula melanogenia and Dasyptilus pecquetii. The vertical dispersion of these species is very limited. Microglossus alceto, Eclectus westermanii et corneliæ, as also Lorius semilarvatus, whose habitat it was supposed was in New Guinea, have never been seen there. It is surprising to find in the little island of Goram, near Ceram, Cacatua a whereas one might rather expect to see there Cacatua moluccen- sis; it is likely, however, that the former as well as the baboon Cynocephalus niger of Batjan, was brought originally to Goram and became wild again there. r Representatives of very many species of cuckoos are here met with ; among them Centropus menebeckii and sonneratii are p common. Cuculus leucolophus and striatus on the other bant are quite rare. ; Among the swifts that are found everywhere, two ET especially should be mentioned, viz., Cypselus mystaceus an . Collocalia. We may name here also a large species of Be 7 suckers—Podargus papuensis, which inhabits chiefly islands of Arrou, Waigou and Mefore. . . . le— 3 q New Guinea is extremely rich in sun-birds, as for examp > the Nectarinia, Ptilotis, Glyciphila and Melliphaga. The © number of birds of this family as well as of the Mal urus come : q 1894.] The Ornithology of New Guinea. 391 from the blending of the fauna of the Moluccas with that of Australia which are united at it were in New Guinea. Of the family of thrushes one meets here only three species of which Pitta noveguinee is the most widely extended. The specimens which Rosenberg obtained from the isle of Sowek are different from the others in his account and have been de- scribed by Schlegel under the name of Pitta rosenbergii. Flycatchers and analogous species abound in New Guinea and the adjacent islands. They are found without exception on the warm leeward coast. One finds also frequently in these same islands many species of Edolius and Graucalus as well as Eurystomus gularis, which inhabits the entire Archipelago. Artamus was not seen by Rosenberg either on the islands of Arrou or Misole, whereas Cracticus cassicus, Tropidorhynchus noveguines and Lamprotornis showed themselves everywhere 1n great numbers. Of sixteen species of Kingfishers, Dacelo gaudichaudii is the most abundant; Tunisyptera caroline and riedelii are scarce. Alcedo pusilla and solitaria are quite rare, as well as Dacelo torotoro. All these birds frequent the leeward coast to the foot of the mountains. One species only of hornbill is known in New Guinea— Bucerus ruficollis. The family of Crows is well represented. Among them may be specially noticed Corvusorru with its bright-blue eye, and Chalibaeus ater of the color of steel. The Birds of Paradise of which several species are known, are all from New Guinea, and the islands adjacent. The distribution of some of these species presents some sin- gular facts. One finds amongst others Paradisea rubra in Waigeou and Batanta, while at the same time it is not to be found at Salawatti, separated from Batanta only by the strait of Sagevien, which is is not very wide and which these birds could easily cross on the wing. : _ Paradisea papuana is not met in Salawatti, although this island is nearer the mainland (New Guinea) than Misole Where it is said the bird is not lacking. 392 The American Naturalist. [May, Paradisea regia is more widely dispersed, and Paradisea apoda much less so, for it is confined exclusively to the islands of Ar- rou. The former is found not only here, but in Misole, Salawatti, Jobi and the mainland. Paradisea rubra haunts the islands of Waigeou, Gemien and Batanta. . Paradisea magnifica or speciosa makes its home in Misole, Salawatti and Jobi. Paradisea wilsonii is found only in Waigeou and Batanta. All the above mentioned seek the hot coast lands on the leeward side, while the two following keep at least 2000 feet above sea-level, viz.: Paradisea sexpennis and Paradisea superba; the latter is confined to the mountains of New Guinea solely. ` Paradisea wallacei is found only in Halmahera and Batjan. In the countries where the Birds of Paradise live, they con- stitute the bulk of the birds. The work of Wallace gives curious information concerning their habits and mode of life. Rosenberg also writes at length about them in his Notes of a voyage to the islands southeast of the Indian Archipelago. According to his statement the males and females of Paradisea superba were the first undamaged specimens of this rare species ever seen in Europe. - Epimachi (Plume-birds), species that vie in its plumage with the Birds of Paradise, are found only in New Guinea and Salawatti. Neither Wallace nor Bernstein was able to pro- cure the Epimachus speciosus and gularis although the latter offered a reward of 80 francs for fine specimens.’ . Epimachus magnificus and resplendens inhabit the mainland. The last is also encountered in Salawatti, in some places eyen in great numbers. In Ternate Rosenberg met a traveller, who had brought A small collection of objects of natural history from the Nor coast of New Guinea, among them one bird in particular that attracted his attention. It was a new species unkn science, the shape and tints of which resembled th female Epimachus. An offer was made by Rosenberg "a bird in order that he might secure it for the museum of Leyde®, 1 Confined exclusively to the Mountains of New Guinea. own to a ; f f 1894.] The Ornithology of New Guinea. 393 but was refused. The specimen had been somewhat badly pre- pared and was not perfect. In compliment to Professor Veth, the savant who did so much to extend our knowledge of eth- nology and geography of the Netherland East Indies, Rosen- berg named the bird Epimachus vethii. Excepting the head, throat and neck the bird was of a brown color (fuscus) ; the upper part of the head was very dark; the back and upper side of the tail were ferruginous, the latter brown in the center. The breast was of a brownish-white, darker below and trans- versed by arched lines; the beak was curved and black. The length of the bird was about 35 centimetres, of which the tail made 14, the beak 7. The fourth plume was very long. D’Albertis and Meyer when later they visited the district of Arfak and other regions near the Bay of Geelvink, saw this bird which Sclater has named Drepanornis albertisit. We find in Papua only four species of Paradisiers Loriots, viz. Oriolus aureus and xanthogaster that are confined strictly to the continent, Oriolus flavicinctus in New Guinea and the islands of Arrou, and. Oriolus striatus in New Guinea, Waigeou and Salawatti. In museums there are scarcely any perfect spec- imens of these beautiful birds. The Galline are represented by only four families which, with the exception of the Otidiphaps, are found every where. There are great numbers of Pigeons, forty species at least of which are known at present. Some of these are widely dis- persed, others are confined to narrow limits. Three species of Cassowaries live in these parts :—— Casuarius arunculatus which is seen in the islands of Arrou; Casuarius uniappendiculatus found in Salawatti and on the northwest Coast of New Guinea; and Casuarius papuanus inhabiting Arfak and the island of Jobi. These birds seek the flat hot lands but not the marshes. Rosenberg describes a beautiful live specimen of Casuarius uniappendiculatus at Ternate, which was offered to him by the Rajah of Salawatti. This bird was about two years old and had nearly attained full growth although it still wore the rown plumage of its youth. The lovely golden shade of the neck which appears soon after birth, shone in full splendor but 394 The American Naturalist, nee the azure of the head was not so vivid. The bird was very tame, liking men but hating dogs and cats. The Dromalectores, Tullegallus and Megapodius, are found everywhere excepting in the mountains. The Waders frequent the coasts generally, paria Tringa and Totanus. There are also many herons, especially in the Archipelago of Arrou, at the straits of Gallewo and in the island of Waigeou. Aquatic birds are rare, excepting perhaps in Arron some species are Sterna pelecanoides, torresi and dougalii, Podiceps gularis; lastly the ducks, Anas arcuata and radja. . 3 i ee ye ot a ES ee ee 1894.] Notes on a Species of Simocephalus. 395 NOTES ON A SPECIES OF SIMOCEPHALUS. F. L. Harvey, Orono, Me. In a gathering from a spring swamp near Orono, Me., brought into the laboratory by Mr. O. W. Knight, one of my pupils, was found a fresh water crustacean in great abundance. The spe- cies is near ©. vetulus Mueller, but as it differs in several points from the descriptions and figures of that species given by Herrick in his Minnesota’ Reports, the following observa- tions, accompanied by drawings, are made regarding it. The strie in our specimens arise on the ventral margin from triangular or quadrangular spaces instead of hexagonal as stated by Herrick. See Fig. 4. These strie are often anas- tomosing and lost in the dorsal region in fine reticulations. The prominence on the posterior part of the shell is variable ; obtuse, or obtuse-angled and occasionally obsolete, and also variable in position. It is usually near the dorsal region but in one specimen it is located in the middle. Itis always armed with blunt teeth, which extend above and below along the posterior margin of the shell. See Fig. 1. Head often concave in front, though in some specimens rounded as shown in Her- Tick’s figures. Eyes placed near the end of the beak, round, bordered with circular clear cells and bearing on the front, six or seven circular facets darker than the general ground color. What is called the eye seems to be an eye spot bearing dark colored ocelli, reminding one of the eye spot of a Thysanuran. See Fig. 5. Inferior antenne fusiform, bearing in front a prominence armed with a stout spine, which is ‘bulbous at the base and 90x. long. The body of the antenne encircled by about six rows of minute blunt teeth, one row of which adorns the dis- tal margin. From the end arise two series of four slender Sete, bearing small bublets at the end. See Fig. 6. Superior antennæ large. There are three short joints at the base which give great freedom of motion between the 396 The American Naturalist. - [May, long antennal joint and the body. The antenne seem to us to be four-jointed below the rami, and this view is strength- ened by the fact that in the young the three short basal joints are plainly marked. See Fig. 2. The third basal joint bears on the posterior a prominence armed with two slender spines. These spines show alsoin the young. See Fig. 2. The fourth, a long stout joint of the antenna, bears on the anterior distal end, a short spine 45». long. All the joints of the antenne are ornamented with encircling rows of minute blunt spines, one row of which is located on the distal end. Rami of the antenne three. The outer four-jointed, the basal joint short and unarmed, the second armed with a short spine and not bearing a long two-jointed one as shown in Herrick’s figures. The two-jointed setæ arming the other joints of the outer and inner rami are plumose the whole length and not naked below as shown by Herrick. Third ramus short, located at the base and between the others. Composed of three joints, not two as stated by Herrick. See Fig. 7. | The basal joint short and broad, the second joint fusiform, ' the terminal slender and hyaline. See Fig. 7. The prominence in front of the anus armed with eleven spines, the anterior longest, all curving backward. Body back from the anus abruptly angled and not gradually sloping 98 shown in Herrick’s figure. See Fig. 3. There are two long caudal spines at the posterior part of the body not shown by Herrick. See Fig. 3. At the posterior ventral angle of the shell are four, not three, short stiff sete, differing trom the slender plumose sete forward. The seta arise not from the margin, but a considerable distance above the edge the shell and extend below it. The body of our form is muc" broader and deeper in relation to the length than shown m Herrick’s figures. In the body above the abdomen in most females were five oblong bodies. While examining one specimen, these bodies began to show motion, and soon were expelled as living young. One of these young is shown in Fig.2. The eye was two0” and the body filled with spherules of a greenish brown colar. =- 1894.] Notes on a Species of Simocephalus. 397 In all characters not mentioned, this form agrees with 8S. vetulus, Mueller. Whether the above differences can be explained by omissions and oversights by observers is not known. The sharp angle of the posterior part of the body, the caudal sete, the reticulations of the shell, the plumose basal joint of the antenne and the three joints of the third ramus of the superior antenne are enough to characterize a new species near S. vetulus Mueller. I have a supply of alcohol and glycerine specimens, or can get living specimens another season, and will be pleased to send them to any one who has authentic specimens of Simocephalus vetulus, Mueller, for comparison, as I reluctantly make a new species of this form, never having seen S. vetulus, Mueller. We will be pleased to receive specimens of S. vetulus, Mueller from any one who has them. ) Specimens varied in size from 1.5 mm. to nearly 3mm. Below is given measurements of a good sized specimen. Measurements. Total length 2.67 mm. Total breadth 1.47 mm. Head from end of beak to where it joins the shell above, ‘785 mm. Sup. ant. .667 mm.—ratio of joints 10-1-4-3}-3}. Inf. ant. 140s, including spines at the end—long spine in front 90u.—terminal sete 332. Eyes 107». d. Claws at post. end of body 3mm. — Two sete at post. part of body .88 mm. Terminal setz of ant. .59mm. Reticulations on side of shell 35 apart. Plumed sete on interventral margin 115x. Third ramus of sup. ant. 115y, ratio of joints 2:5:7. Longest spine in front of anus 80». EXPLANATION OF PLATE. Fig. 1.—Simocephalus species showing the general outlines of the female. (Original.) : Fig. 2.—The young immediately after birth, showing the two-lobed eye and the basal joints of the antenne. (Original.) Fig. 3.—The posterior part of the abdomen showing the angle back of the anus and the posterior sete. (Original.), 398 The American Naturalist. [May, Fig. 4.—The triangular reticulations on the the ventral pos- terior margin of the shell. The petagonal and quadrangular cells, that sometimes occur above the marginal triangular cells are shown. (On nal. Fig. 5.—The circular eye spot with ake clear cells and the dark colored ocelli upon the face. (Original.) Fig. 6—The inferior antenna showing the spine in front, the two series of bulbous sete at the end and the en- circling rows of teeth. (Original.) Fig. 7—Short three-jointed ramus at the base and between the two large rami of the superior antenna, (Original.) Pn eS Te Sat atta a a eet See Ts cee gS A a ie te Twn sal 1894.] Editorials. i 399 EDITORIALS, —Tuose who hold place in our municipal government are neces- sarily “men of affairs,” and are very rarely possessed of the love of nature. Their idea of a tree is primarily based on its market value, but if it be necessarily ornamental by reason of its position, their idea of beauty consists in truncated branches with a corone of sprouts surrounding their extremities. Forest is in their view only attractive when it is cleared of smaller growth, and grass sown in its stead ; and thickets of shrubs and vines are necessarily to be burned. Hills must be leveled, ravines must be filled up, and nature’s slopes must be replaced by dressed stone walls. At all this the lover of nature rebels for various reasons. Such interference with natural pro- cesses produces utter poverty, and wood and field are robbed of one of their charms, variety. Ina park which receives such treatment, where ten species of trees grew, but one remains. From the hillsides the native shrubs have disappeared, and on the open, which was once a bed of flowers, there remains but the monotonous grass, reduced if possible to asingle species. Such treatment destroys the haunts of bird and insect, and lays open the few venturesome wild things that remain, to the persecutions of the rabble, who would never otherwise know of their Presence. It is important that this official vandalism should never enter our publié parks, or that it should be speedily suppressed when- ever it shows itself. Our parks are for the instruction of the public 48 well as for their relaxation. Stone walls and graded paths abound în the city, and mutilated trees line the streets. Let the parks be Pictures of the great nature with its energies untrammeled and its pro- “esses in view of every citizen who wanders in their shades or repose on their banks. Let its forest teach the lesson of decay as well as of birth and life, and abeste profanes, hands off, of wonders that man Cannot imitate or improve upon. ES iO ola th SI MC Sa i a aca ye ba k= ee ee | _ —Voeur is a form of automatism, and it is natural to man, since it iY iS always easier to imitate than to create. There are vogues in naming, 3 vogues in studying, and some other kinds of vogues to which natural- | ists are liable, as vogues affect other men of other professions. babs are moved to these reflections by the observation of the vogue which i has been enjoyed for three quarters of a century by iho aeg ; ` Adjective madagascariensis. From Daubentonia — © i Megaladapis madagascariensis, a long processon of madagascarienses 400 : The American Naturalist. [May, has filed into place in our nomenclature, there to remain until time and language shall be no longer. To account for this phenomenon we we cannot point viridically to the euphony of the word, nor to the great economy of time and space which we secure by adopting it. That suggestion and automatism have much to do with this custom there can be no doubt, but we venture a hypothesis which may relieve us of the painful suspicion that this ready yielding to ones subliminal self may be due to poverty of classical knowledge or inventive capacity, or both. The originator of the term foresaw the possibilities of the Malagassy language for cacaphony, so to avoid such terms as antanan- arivoénsis, and amboulisatrensis, he set the fashion at madagascariensis, and so it has remained. It is true that there are a few species of ani- mals inhabiting the great island which are not named mad ien- sis, but they must always remain in comparitive obscurity. Butit might be well to place the name on the retired list in view of its eminent se vices in the past, especially as there some new aspirants to publie favor which will give it a competition too serious for its years. The cate. phony mill which produces Propalshoplophorus and Brachydiaste- matotherium is still in motion, and we look for new revelations which will utterly destroy the usefulness of madagascariensis by placing # among the words of one syllable in the nomenclatorial primer. —There is at present no law for the punishment of poachers m "= National Parks. As a consequence the officers in charge Can ` escort men who are detected in this invasion of the rights of the mm to the boundary, and there discharge them. As a consequence poach- ing has become rather a pleasant pasttime than otherwise. The hai detection of some men who have for several years been killing sni in the Yellowstone National Park, will perhaps stimulate ngres remedy the evil. A bill is at present in the hands of the Committe on Territories of the House of Representatives which will i furnish the necessary legislation. We hope that na prevent its early passage by both houses. | —We learn that the Sundry Civil Bill as sent to the House pl Committee on appropriations has not reduced the appropriations Jast scientific work of Government bureaus below the amounts pe year. We should be thankful for this in view of the extremely eC" ic tendencies of the present congress. ae —The legislature of Missouri is hesitating to make an approp ario for the continuance of the zoological survey. It will make ® ` economic mistake if it fails to grant the usual sum. PLATE IX. f | | i j F. L. Harvey, Del. Simocephalus vetulus, Müller. Oe od Le Oe Oe a Se Recent Books and Pamphlets. . 401 RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. Annual Report of the sian of Ethnology for 1886—87. Washington, 1891. From the Smithsonian A Annual 8 Geological ec of Canada, 1890-91. Vol. V. Parts I and II. From the Surv - BOLLMAN € W The Myriapoda of North America. Bull. No. > U. S. Natl. Mus. Wigi. 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution ` Bulletin No. 21, 1893, lowa Agri. Exper. Station. Bulletin No. 92, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, August, 1893. CHAPMAN, F.M —Destription of Two New Races of Mammals from Florida, with Remarks on Sitomys nivelveniris Chapman. Extr. Bull, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. /, 1893. From the author Cummins, W. F. —Notés on the Geology of Northwest Texas. Extr. Fourth Ann. Rept., 1892. From the Author. DALL, W. H.—Land Shells of the genus Bulimulus in Lower California, ss descriptions of several neW species, Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. X 1893. -From the Smithsonian Institution. Dawson, SIR $ Wm. ~The Canadian Ice Age. Montreal, 1893. - From the author Dawso SON, G. M. —Geological Notes on some of the Coasts and Islands of Behring Sea and Vicinity, Extr. Bul]. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. V, 1894. From the Society. AY, D. T.—Mineral Resources of the United States for is. Washington, n. DEPERET, M.—Sur lage absolu des faunes des Mammiféres pliocénes du Plateaw central et des éruptions Volcaniques contemporaines. Extr. du Compte-rendu des séances de la Soc. Geol. de France, Sept. 16, 1893. From the author. DUMERIL, A. ET BOCoUkt.—Études sur les Reptiles et les Batraciens; Troisième Pantie d. Recherches Zoologiques; Mission Scientifiques au Mexique et dans l'Ame ri- que centrale. Paris, 1893. From the authors, Eleventh Report of the California State Mineralogist (First Biennial). Two years ending September 15, 1892.. Fifth Annual Report of the Board of Managers: of the Rhode Island College of Agri. and Mechan. Arts. Part If, 1893. K.—Gedächtnissrede auf Karl von Nägeli gehalten in der öffenli Sitzung der k. b. Akadentie der Wissenschaften zu München am März, München 1893. Im Roe, det k. b. Akademie, From the author. HARLAN, MR. “Opinions at the Conference in Paris of the Behring Sea Tribunal o of PERF Constitüted by the Treaty of Feb. 29, 1892, between Her ic Majesty and thé United States of America. Washington, 1893. í Hoses, Wm. H.—On the Geological Structure of the Mt. Washington Mass of the Taconic Rance. (Extr. Journ. Ceci Vol. I, ness From the author : HoLtick, A.—Observations On the Geology of Martha’s Vineyard. Extr. Trans, N. Y. Acad. Sci. , XIII, 1894. From the author. 27 chen 1893 402 - The American Naturalist. [May, “aus H. von. —Os Mammiferos do Rio Grande do Sul. 1893. From the uth , Jobnson's Universal Cyclopædia, Vol. II. New York, 1893. From the Pub- ge , D. S. AND FESLER, BERT.—A review of the Sparoid Fishes of North America and Europe. Extr. a U. S. Fish Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries aea rom the authors Law . C. AND POSADA, JUAN DE LA C.—The Wisin of Carmela Bay. Extr. Bull am of clea Vol. I, 1893. From the a LEBOUAQ, H.—Anatomie des formes extérieures du me oe Ann. Soc. Méd. de Bi ars From the author Lecue, W.—Studien ~~ Entwicklung des Zahnsystems bei den Saugethieren. Seieicas-AbMrupk aus Morpholog. Jahrb. XIX, Leipzig, 1892. From the author. LYDEKKER, R.—On two ares Teeth from Aylesbury. Extr. Quart. Journ Geol. Soc., Nov., 1898. From the author. cre of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. VI. Washington, 1898. , G. S—Description of a New Mouse from Southern New Mexico and T Ear Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, 1893. From the author, MITCHELL, C. P.—The enlargement of the Sphere of Women. London, From the iha OsBorN, H. F.—The mre and Homologies of the Molar Cusps. Extr. Anat. Anz., 1892. From the au PALACHE, C.—The Di Ryle North of Berkeley. Extr. Bull. Univ. of Cali- ce ah Vol. I, 1893. From the a Prerso., G. A.—Normal His tle gy. aidie an account of the development of the a and of the Organs. Philade elphia, Pa., 1893. From the author. PILLING, J. C.—Bibliography of the Salishan Languages. Issued by the Bureat of Ethnology. aneen 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution. PREsTWI _ E e Evidences sep a Submergence of western Europe and the Mediterranean Coas Spa close of the Glacial or so-called Post-glacial a Dai Sas Neolithic or EN Period. Extr. Phil. Trans. ndon, Vol. 184, 1893. From the RATHBUN, M. J.—Descriptions y new ana es of American Fresh Water Cals, Extr. Proceeds. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution. 5 Report of the Cocniiesicnee of Education for 1889-90, Vol. 2. Washington, : From the Smithsonian Institution. ash Report of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries for 1889-91. Wi ington, 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution. Observa- Report for the year 1892-93, presented by the "e of Managers of the tory of Yale University to the President and Fellow Rıpeway, R.—Description of a new Storm matte from the coast of 1co. ds, U. & Nal western Mex: i ——A Revision of the genus Formicarius Boddaert. Extr. Procee Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution. prophors RITTER R, W. E.—Tunicata of the Pacific Coast of North America. I pase asi n. sp. Extr, Proceeds. Cal. Acad. Sci., Vol. IV, Ser. 2, 1893. author. Recent Books and Pamphlets. 403 STERKI, Dr. V.—Observations on Vallonia., Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad., 1893. From the author. STEVENSON, J. J.—On the Origin of the Pennsylvania Anthracite. (Extr. Journ. l., Vol. I, 1893.) ——On the Use of the Name “ Catskill. ” (Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLVI, 1893.) From the author. Tarr, R.S.—Glacial Erosion. Extr. Am. Geol., Vol. XII, 1893. From the 4 preg —Ueber einige Muriden aus Kamerun. Mitgetheilt der PE “sate det Wissensshaften zu Upsala, 27 Juni, 1893. From the aut Ad ` XVI, $ mit WHIPPLE, L. E.—The Philosophy of Mental Foaling: New York, 1893. From the Metaphys. Pub. Co. , J. F.—Presidential Address. The Cretaceous System of Canada. Extr. Trans. Roy. Soc., Canada, 1893. From the author Wilder aa kay Book: A collection of igén papers dedicated to Pro- fessor Burt Green Wilder at the close of his twenty-fifth year of service in Cornell > shen (1808-1808) By some of his former students. Ithaca, N. Y., 1893. rom Mr. Burt Wilder 404 The American Naturalist. [May, RECENT LITERATURE. On the Classification of the Myxosporidia, a group of pro zoan parasites infesting fishes. (Art. 10, Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1891, pp. 407-420. Washington, D. C., 1893). By R. R. Gur ley. This paper is a communication preliminary to a more extensive report at present in manuscript. Several new terms are introduced, & new classification is proposed, three new species described and twenty ‘Species mentioned by other authors, but not named, are given binomi- al names. All of these species will be figured in the final report. The new terms are as follows: pansporoblast, the plasma-sphere from which the sporoblasts arise; sporoplasm, the protoplasm of the spore; — capsular index, the ratio of the length of the capsule to the antero-pot terior diameter of the shell-cavity ; pericornual nuclei, the two nude (“ granules,” “ globules”) at the antero-lateral angles of the sporoplasm or on the posterior extremities of the capsule. ‘Gurley’s classification is based upon the symmetry of the spore the most important taxonomic criterion and differs from Thélohan s classification in several particulars. Two orders with five families arè recognized. One new genus (Pleistophora) is proposed; Sp Th. and Myzosoma Th. are fused into a subgenus Spherospora “7 genus Chloromycum Ming. The following key, based se cs tables and descriptions will show the plan of his classification. Subclass Myxosporidia ; pansporoblast produces— a I. Many (at least 8) minute spores, lacking distinct symmetry possessing but one capsule Ord. Oryptocyeet: A. Spores numerous, inconstant ; pansporoblast membrane is Th. a. Not subpersistent; myxosporidium present Gen. Glug’: b. Subpersistent ; myxosporidium absent Gen B. Spores constant (8); pansporoblast membrane elohanis subpersistent; myxsoporidium absent Gen. T Heo. II. Few (2 at most) rather lar: ith dis- enocyste® 7 : ge spores with dis tinct symmetry and two or more capsules Ord. By a Spores symmetrical bilaterally ; antero-posterior symmetry F godio | A. Present Ce” 1894.] Recent Literature. 405 B. Absent; capsules in— a. Two groups, right and left wings ; not bivalve Gen. Myzxidium Biit. b. One group, at anterior end; bivalve; cap- sules— a, Four Gen. Chloromy- xum Min. 8. Two; inclination of plane of junction of valves to longitudinal plane *0° ; vacuole present - Gen. Myxobolus Büt **90° ; vacuole absent; sporoplasm uni- lateral Gen. Ceratomyxa Th The family Glugeid@ includes the genera Glugea, Pleistophora and Thelohania; Chloromyxide includes Chloromyrum and Ceratomyrum, while the families Myzxidiide, Myxobolide and Cystodiscide, each include but one genus. As new species are described :— 1. Myzxobolus globosus from branchial lamelle of Erimyzon sucetta ; globose, 7-81 long by 6» broad by 5» thick ; capsular index somewhat more than 0.50. 2. M. transovalis under scales of Phoxinus funduloides; 6-7 long by 8» broad ; cap. ind. 0.50. 3. M. macrurus subcutaneous tissue of Hybognathus nuchalis ; 10-11, by 6-8 by 4»; tail 30-40, ; for further description see origi- nal. The following species have been given binomial names :— 1. Cystodiscus ? diploys from Tortrix viridana, vid. Balbiani, 1867. 2. Myzobolus unicapsulatus from Labeo niloticus, vid. Miiller, 1841. 3. M. inequalis from Pimelodus clarias, vid. Müller, 1841. 4. M. oblongus from Erimyzon sucetta, vid. Müller, 1841. 5. M. bicostatus from branchiæ of Tinca tinca, vid. Bütschli, 1882. 6. M. lintonii from Cyprinodon variegatus, vid. Linton, 1891. T. M. obesus from Alburnus alburnus, vid. Balbiani, 1883. 8. M. eycloides from Leuciscus rutilus, vid. Müller, 1841. 9. M. spheralis from Coregonus fera, vid. Claparède, 1874. 10. M. per latus from Gymnocephalus cernua, vid. Balbiani, 1883. ll. M. ? zschokkei from Coregonus fera, vid. Zschokke, 1884. 12. M. monurus from Aphododerus sayanus, vid. Ryder, 1880. 13. M. strongylurus from Synodontis schal, vid. Müller, 1841. 406 The American Naturalist. May, 14. M. kolesnikovi from Coregonus Jera, vid. Kolesnikoff, 1866. 15. M. linearis from Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum, vid. Müller, 1841. 16. M. schizurus from Esox lucius, vid. Müller, 1841. 17. M. creplinii from Gymnocephalus cernua, vid. Creplin, 1842. 18. M. diplurus from Lota lota, vid. Bütschli, 1882. 19. Chloromyvum mucronatum from Lota lota, vid. Müller, 1854. 20. C. incisum from Raja batis, vid. Müller, 1851. C. W. STILES. preservation result in such differences in external appen specific portions, that no dependence can be placed on these data for p determinations, the only safe generic and specific determination has those based on internal anatomy. Careful study along this ge yielded unlooked for results. The topographical an excretory system was shown in the preliminary already cited mh . great value in separating the genera in the family of the Tæn it forms the basis of the divisi loyed in the present papery , | vision employe Jes recognize In the adult tape-worms of sheep and cattle, Dr. Sti four genera: “A Revision of the adult Cestodes of Cattle, Sheep, and allied anim a pores ept. of Agr. Stiles, Ph. D., and Albert Hassall, M. R. C. V. S. U.S. D J Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 4, Washington, 1893; 103 pp.» 16 plates ee . id : 1804.] Recent Literature. 407 I. Moniezia (Blanchard) which falls naturally into three groups: e Planissima group, with linear interproglottidal glands. b. The Expansa group with interproglottidal glands grouped around blind sacs. c. The Denticulata group, without interproglottidal glands. 2. Thysanosoma (Diesing), single uterus with ascon-shaped egg- sacs. Genital canals pass between longitudinal canals. 3. Stilesia (Railliet), for Taenia globipunctata and, provisionally, T. centripunctata. 4. Species inquirende. In the special part of the genus Moniezia is considered first and most fully. Its three subgenera depend upon the presence and arrangement of the interproglottidal glands first described by Dr. Stiles. These are absent in one subgenus; in the second they form a deeply colored line in the stained specimen near the posterior edge of the proglottids, and finally in the third subgenus they are localized around blind sacs which open between the proglottids. For particu- lars of each species the original paper should be consulted ; it gives under each a full synonomy with a valuable list of hosts and of the geographical distribution so far as known, a bibliography of the spe- cies, a historical review and a detailed account of the anatomy. This is followed by a specific diagnosis based on the anatomical description and a statement with regard to the collections in which type specimens may be found. Among interesting detailsin the genus Moniezia may be mentioned that on the right side the vulva is ventral, the cirrus dorsal, while on the left the reverse position obtains. New are the species M. planissima, M. trigonophora and M. oblongiceps. The systematic position of M. benedeni and M. Neumanni does not seem to have been satisfactorily ascertained since the material at hand failed to yield good preparations; Dr. Stiles refers them, however, to the Planissima group. : By examining some of the original specimens from Rudolphi’s col- lection, the exact limits of M. expansa (Tania exp. Rud.) were deter- mined. It is evident that most helminthologists have included more than one species in their descriptions. The old genus Thysanosoma (Dies.) is reestablished to include the form subsequently named by Diesing Tenia fimbriata, and T. giardii Riv. Of especial interest may be mentioned the presence of two transverse canals in Th. acti- noides. The necessity of a new genus for T. globipunctata and T. cen- tripunctata was pointed out by Stiles in his preliminary ; meantime 408 The American Naturalist. (Ma, Railliet had reached the same conclusion independently and formed for them the genus Stilesia. Its anatomy is discussed here. ` Part IV, the discussion of species inquirend, is followed by a short half page on the life history, and two pages of general conclusions. Here is included a key for the determination of species. It is undoubt- edly more difficult to use than those of Moniez or Neumann, and on that account will no doubt be criticized and perhaps disregarded by some; it is, however, more accurate and allows a determination of the species as well as the genus, which heretofore has not been possible. Part VII is a valuable compendium of species according to hosts with commendable cross references. In the addenda the fact of the gradual failure of the interproglottidal glands to stain as the material macer- ates, and the consequent possible identity of some species are dis- cussed. - The bibliography given is very full and under each title is a word or two of valuable explanation. Yet it is on the whole the least satisfac- tory part of the paper. One could wish that the authors had used a better system of reference than by numbers; these differ of course in the bibliography of each species and in the general list, and the con- fusion could not but lead to mistakes. Had the year system been used, references would have been alike for all lists, and such an error as 18 noted on p. 32, where “my note (26) ” refers actually to a book by Dewitz, would not have been possible. Apart from the system, a ever, some omissions are noted. Thus on p. 26, and again on p. 42, in - the synonomy, Blainville is quoted “after Baird, 1853,” but ne name can be found in the general or in the special bibliogr aphical list. The same can be said of Mégnin p. 87. The habit of scattering refer- ences at the bottom of the page (p. 66), or through the text (p. 12), also seems open to criticism. . These are, however, but slight defects in a work which whole so worthy of high praise. As the first scientific study of ta- onomical helminthology which has been made in this country, 1$ 18 ting that it should have eminated from the zoologist of the Bureau z Animal Industry. It is, to be sure, purely scientific work; but 6 ~ practical and economic value are correctly insisted upon by the Y of the Bureau in his letter of transmittal already quoted. of Bureau is to be congratulated also upon the general appearance work bulletin and especially upon the sixteen fine plates which are the is on the of its artist, Mr. Haines. ` tant : The Bureau does great service in offering to museums and ge: collections well preserved specimens of these tape-worms !P exchange rae See oie RG EAE e a eT a Oe aa pap PEER a Sa a e E ET E ae r ar a a ek oe F 1894,] Recent Literature. 409 Of equal value is the exhaustive card catalogue of parasites and hosts kept by the Bureau. It is freely at the disposal of scientific workers, and by means of it one can refer to a desired species or to the entire literature on any parasite. Such an undertaking would be impossible save in the great libraries of the world, among which those at Wash- ington are rated. Any one who, like the reviewer, has had occasion to refer to this catalogue, will appreciate its value and will join in wish- ing that such work may be long continued under the patronage of our Department of Agriculture. Henry B. Warp. Clark’s Microscopical Methods.’—This volume is hardly up to the times, being apparently the production of a man ignorant of mod- ern methods of microscopical research. Thus we note an utter absence of any reference to such fundamental matters as serial sections, stain- ing on the slide, the use of any fixing and hardening reagents except alcohol. We meet continually sentences like this “ It is to be under- stood that the somewhat complicated processes of imbedding in paraf- fin and colloidin are not recommended for general use.” We can say the same of the book. Dodge’s Practical Biology.’—To the long list of laboratory guides, the new year addsanother. Professor Dodge has had consider- able experience in teaching both high school (Detroit). and college (Rochester Univ.) classes and this work is the outcome of his experi- ence. It is, as its name indicates, a guide to biology. It takes up first, the biology of the cell, treating of unicellular organisms and cells from the tissues of higher forms and then later, not in the sandwich manner but in the sequence which most teachers would adopt, takes up first the animals and second the plants. The directions for laboratory work are well and carefully drawn, and, a point which we note with pleasure, the student is told what to look for, not what he will find. He cannot answer the questions without recourse to the specimens, while the absence of illustrations renders it impossible for him to copy the dia- grams in the book. Not only is structure studied, but, to such extent as is possible with the average student and with average facilities, the physiology as well. *Practical Methods in Microscopy, by Charles H. Clark. Boston, D. C. Heath & Co., 1894, 120 pp., XIV-+219. : “Introduction to Elementary Practical Biology. A laboratory guide for high school pe college students, by Charles Wright Dodge. New York, 1894. 120 pp., xxiii, 410 The American Naturalist. me Aside from some minor slips of no importance, our greatest criticism would be that the work goes too much into detail, calling the students attention as strongly to minute points without any morphological importance as to those facts more pregnant with meaning. of course, is a minor matter where the student has a good course of lect- ures to accompany the laboratory work. It would be even less object- ionable were there good text-books to assist him, but, as yet, the zoological text-book is a matter for the future. Excepting this matter of lack of perspective which the student will in most cases be troubled with, we like the work and we feel confident of its adoption in many schools. 1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 411 General Notes. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. The Geology of the Antartic Continent.—So little is known of the Antarctic polar regions that the résumé of facts given by Dr. John Murray, in a recent address before the Royal Geographical Society is of especial interest. Dr. Murray believes that there is abundant evidence of true continental land within the Antarctic circle, equal if not surpassing in extent the continent of Australia. Ross re- ports gray granite in the neighborhood of Victoria Land, and Dr. Donald secured some Tertiary fossils from the Seymour Island. D’'Urville found both granite and gneiss exposed on an island near Adélie Land, while Wilkes describes an iceberg in the same locality covered with clay, mud, gravel, stones and large boulders of red sand- stone and basalt, 5 or 6 feet in diameter. During the Challenger expedition fragments of granite and quartz were dredged from the bottom of the sea at the fortieth parallel of south latitude and as the vessel proceeded toward the Antarctic circle these fragments of rocks increased in number until they together with mineral particles and mud derived from land made up the larger part of the deposit. These fragment consist of granites, quartziferous diorites, schistoid diorites, amphibolites, mica schists, grained quartzites, sandstones, a few frag- ments of compact limestone, and partially decomposed earthy shales. They are distinctly indicative of continental land, and were undoubtedly transported by icebergs from the South Polar regions. ; Among the numerous maps used by Dr. Murray to illustrate his paper 18 one showing the oceanic deposits around the Antarctic continent. Near the Antarctic land are the terrigenous deposits made of detritus from the continent. Glauconite is found in the blue mud of this area. A little to the north, the bottom is covered with a pure white siliceous deposit, the Diatom Ooze. Still further to the north, where the Diatoms on the surface have been replaced by Foraminifera and Pteropods, the deposit is a pinkish-white Globigerina Ooze. In latitude about 40° S. the sea is about 3 miles in depth, and here the deposit is composed of a fine Red Clay, manganese nodules, zeolitic crystals, spherules of extra- terrestrial origin, thousands of sharks teeth, and the remains of Cetaceans. In this red clay area a trawl brought up in a single hand Over 1500 sharks teeth, some of them not to be distinguished from the 412 The American Naturalist. [May, specimens of Carcharodon, found in the Red Crag of England. (Geog. Journ., Jan., 1894.) Intrusive Sandstone Dikes in Granite.—During the summer of 1893, a peculiar sandstone rock composed of worn quartz grains was discovered in the neighborhood of Pikes Peak in the western side of the narrow Manitou park basin of sedimentary rocks. This rock occurs as the filling of an extensive system of fissures in granite under circum- stances indicating that the sand was forced into the fissures under great pressure. Mr. Whitman Cross discusses the origin of these Dikes with- out, however, coming to any definite conclusion. So far as he is aware no other occurrence of sandstone dikes in granite has ever been de- . scribed. They may be compared with the remarkable occurrences mM California described by Diller. These latter, however, were in $ ales of a great sedimentary complex of Cretaceous age, and they were parallel to a system of jointing planes in the strata. Moreover, Diller noted that below the horizons occupied by the dikes there occurred sandstone strata of a composition identical with that of the dike-rocks. The very plausible theory presented by Diller was that the fissures re- presented by the dikes were formed by earthquake shock, and that the sand wasinjected as quick-sand into the fissures under hydrostati¢ peo ure from unconsolidated water-bearing sand layers below. The Colorado dikes are more difficult to explain than those of Cal- ifornia in that the known facts do not indicate the source of the et yet the physical and mechanical facts do seem to show that the fissures of this dike complex were filled by a fine quick-sand injected ra source containing a large amount of homogeneous material. Ont one hand, it is impossible to suppose that such a system of fissures large and small, with their many intersections, could remain open tobe filled by any slow process, and, on the other hand, it is equally TE possible to believe that the uniformity and purity of the mateni ing the fissures, varying from mere films on cleavage planes i clase grains in the granite to dikes several hundred yards 1m "E could have resulted from infiltration. ‘acent It has been stated above that the belt of observed dikes lies adjacel and parallel to the Manitou park basin of sedimentary r ocks, the ee cipal element in which is the red sandstones and grits of the Paf and ferus (?) or Trias (?). These beds are, however, of much oa more heterogeneous character than the dike-rock, and the o made do not suggest that the proximity is anything more a ci ! Sandstone Dikes, J. S. Diller: Bull, Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I, 1889. A 1894.] Geology and Paleontology. ` 413 al. It is not known that the dikes are younger than the sedimentary, for they were nowhere found in contact. The strata of the basin are now seen at the same level with the dikes, but faulting and a synclinal fold have clearly lowered them with reference to the granite on either side. Finally, it is probable that the dikes are not limited to the vicinity of the sedimentary basin. Neither end of the belt containing the dikes was determined, and an observation by Professor G. H. Stone shows plainly that sandstone dikes do occur in the same general strike line far removed from any sedimentary rocks. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. Vol. 5, 1894.) The Origin of the Vichy Mineral Waters.—M. Dollfus has been making a study of the geology of the environs of Vichy and comes to the following conclusions as to the origin of the celebrated medicinal water of that region. The waters charged with soda derived from the decomposition of porphyry percolate the earth in contact with carboniferous conglomer- ates and the Culm strata flowing in a synclinal. When their down- ward course is checked by the granules or the micropegmatites which are impermeable, they reascend through the tertiary beds. Here their flow is partially impeded by the arkose beds which are topped by the Cusset Marls, and an immense water sheet is formed near the contact of these two formations. Atmospheric waters are here the important factors, and the carbonic acid gas with which they are charged becomes an active agent, displacing even the silicic acid of some of the felds- pathic compounds. In short the alteration is set up at the surface ; decomposition and kaolinization of the porphyrites goes on, under our eyes, at the surface, for, below we see compact, unaltered rocks, in which no chemical activity is apparent. ; The origin of the carbonic acid is more difficult to explain. Since the atmospheric waters do not furnish a large enough supply, some of it, as well as the lime, must be derived from chalks of Vernet and the water-bearing marls of Cusset. The phorphyritic strata are limited around the Central Plateau; the presence of granite, sd vis oar of im- Pervious clay, an abundance of lime, and all the peculiar series of con- ditions which are met with at Vichy and no where else, explain the formation of these peculiar mineral waters and their isolation in the midst of hydraulic basins of which the products are so very different. (Rev. Sci. Mars, 1894.) 4 eo A 414 The American Naturalist. [May, Metamerism in the Skull of Primordial Palzozoic Fishes. —One of the most interesting of recent discoveries is that by Dr. J. V. Rohon' regarding the fossils fishes of the genera Thyestes and Trematas- pis from the upper Silurian strata of the island of Oesel. Both genera belong to the order Aspidocephali. In Thyestes the cartilaginous primordial cranium falls into two distinct regions, anterior and poste rior, the former of which is bilaterally segmented, the latter not. On each side of the anterior region five segments are recognizable, the prox imal being joined to the middle skull mass, the distal portions being discrete, more or less pointed and arched behind. In the region of the second and third segments is the median frontal organ, between the third and fourth is the well marked optic capsule, while the parietal organ is ‘above the fifth segment and between it and the hinder region of the skull. The hinder portion, representing the occipital region, is in form much like the body portion of the skeleton. Ventrally to it are appar- ently the remains of gill arches. Labyrinth and jaw apparatus are not differentiated. From these facts Rohon concludes that the Aspidocephali cannot belong to Cyclostomes, Selachians, Ganoids or Leptocardii. They must belong to a distinct subclass for which he proposes the name ; phali. The paper is a preliminary one and the complete article with plates will be awaited with interest. —K. : Mr. Rohon does not explain what he understands by the term Aspido- cephali. The genera Thyestes and Tremataspis have been hit included in the family Cephalaspide of the order Osteostraca of the sub- class Ostracophori of the class Agnatha. M. Rohon’s observations show that this systematic arrangement needs no modification, except pe the genera Thyestes and Tremataspis must be separated as & famiy distinct from the Cephalaspidæ.—C. The Auriferous Slates of the Sierra Nevada.—Ina recently published paper, Mr. J. P. Smith reviews the opinions of pe Writers as to the age of the auriferous slates of the Sierra hes after giving a brief statement of recent discoveries and determin? i of fossils from the beds in question, embodies the results of his! tions in the following conclusions : “The Auriferous slates are known to consist of Silurian, ous, Triassic and Jurassic strata.” Kim- 7 The Mariposa slates are of Upper Jurassic, pr obably 10w =i meridge age.” Carbonifer- ! Zool Anzsiger XVII, p. 51, 1894. 1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 415 “The uplift and metamorphism of the Sierra Nevada and of the Coast range occurred in late Jurassic time, before the deposition of the Cretaceous.” “ Neumayer’s theory of climatic zones cannot be applied with exact- ness to the Jura of California, which can be understood’ only by the study of the geographic provinces of that time.” (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. Vol. 5, 1894.) Comparison of Jurassic and Upper Cretaceous Trituber- culates.—In a paper on upper Cretaceous Mammals, Prof. Osborn makes the following comparison of the Laramie mammalian dentition with that of the earlier Purbeck, and of the later Puerco. “ In the Laramie the modern placental or marsupial dental formule are established—the teeth behind the canine are usually seven, and do not usually exceed eight. Marsh observes in one jaw what he considers five premolar alveoli. Second, out of the high crowned upper molars of the Jurassic, such as those of Amblotherium and Spalacotherium, a relatively low-crowned or bunodont tritubercular molar has been evolved ; as this is a possible parent form of the ungulate and primate upper molars, it is an essentially Tertiary type. Third, the lower molars have evolved a broad talonid or heel, which in many cases pre- sents three cusps, whereas in Jurassic types the talonid is a spur or a narrow simple basin. Fourth, the trigonid, which is always very elevated in the Jurassic types, sinks in some cases to the level of the Talonid—another modernization looking toward ungulate and primate “ Two features make the Laramie fauna appear more ancient than the Puerco : first, the non-development of an internal cingulum, which is common in the Puerco; second, the entire absence of the hypocone, which is quite strong in some Puerco mammals. On the other hand, the upper and lower molars of Types represented in figs. F, G, I, Cl, respectively, are analogous to Ectoconus, Dissacus, Diacodon, aud Haploconus of the Puerco.” “The zoological affinities of this fauna are at present hard to deter- mine. Ptilodus and Meniscoéssus are still provisionally referred with the Multituberculates to the Monotremes. Thlæodon exhibits a jaw Without an angle, and with a surprising resemblance to that of Poly- mastodon ; the jaw is certainly neither of the typical placental nor of the marsupial type; this animal may therefore be provisionally con- Sidered a trituberculate Monotreme.” = 416 The American Naturalist. [May, “The placentals and marsupials, and the question whether oneor both of these orders is represented in this fauna, is still unsettled. Not a single jaw has been found or reported sufficiently complete in the delicate region of the angle to determine positively its placental or marsupial structure. Portions of the jaws which are preserved indicate the presence of the marsupial type of inflection, while others point to distinct placental angulation.” (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 5, 1893.) Ancestors of the Tapir.—In describing two new species of Pro- tapirus, P. obliquidens and P. simplex, from the Lower Miocene of Dakota, Messrs. Wortman and Earle take occasion to discuss the phy- logeny of the Tapiridæ and thus summarize the points brought out by the descriptions : “1. We consider the genus Systemodon as standing m ancestral relation to the Tapiridæ. “2. Isectolophus latidens is probably the line leading to the true Tapirs. “3. If further discovery shows that J. annectens has both egas two premolars as complex as the true molars, it must be removed the main tapir line. i k “The earliest member of the subfamily Tapirinæ, or true huva found in the Phosphorites of France, there being a consider val between the latter formation and the Oreodon Beds of the River Miocene. nee “5. In contrast with the other Perissodactyla of the White = formation, the premolars of Protapirus have not assumed the plexity of the true molars. tal “6. The foot structure of Protapirus is nearly as far advanced pi evolution as that of the existing American tapir.” (Bull. Am. Nat. Hist., Aug., 1893.) Geological News,.-ArcnEan—According to Prof.G.H. Witt voleanic rocks are widely distributed through the crystalline effusive eastern North America. The writer limits the term voleame om or surface igneous rocks, in contrast to such as have solidified afl the surface. The areas of these ancient volcanic rocks now pe roughly in two parallel belts; the eastern embraces expe ae foundland, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Bay of Fundy, oae pe Boston Basin and the central Carolinas; the western belt ¢ pent- Eastern Townships and follows the Blue Ridge through Southern 1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 417 sylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina to-Georgia. (Journ. Geol., Vol. II, 1894.) PaLEozoric—A remarkably well preserved Lepidodendron from E’snost near Autun is described by M. B. Renault under the name Lepidodendron esnostense. ‘The specimen shows the stem, leaves, fructi- fication and roots. Attached to the rootlets are small ovoid bodies sup- posed by the author to be the eggs of an aquatic insect, to which he gives the name Arthroon rochei. These same bodies have been observed upon L. rhodumnense, found near Combres (Loire), and described by M. Renault some fifteen years ago. (Rev. Sci., Feb., 1894.) Mr. J. M. Clarke reports the discovery of a perfect specimen of the extreme apex of an Orthoceras, showing the nature of the protoconch. The fossil was found in the Styliola limestone of the Genesee shales, on Canandaigua Lake, New York, in an association of species which rep- resents the earliest appearance in North America of the fauna of Goniatites intumescens Beyrich. The specimen consists of the apical chamber, to which the protoconch is attached. The upper end of the Specimen shows the first septum to be circular and with a central sipho. The lateral walls of the first chamber taper rapidly to the plane of con- junction with the protoconch, and its depth is about one half that of the latter. The protoconch itself is semi-ovoid in shape, and when pared with those of Orthoceras previously described or figured fin the shrunken condition] is of very large size. It shows no indication of shrinking and its distal extremity is perfectly smooth. The length of the entire specimen is .85 mm.; that of the protoconch, .60 mm.; and the diameter of the first septum 1 mm. (Am. Geol., Vol. XII, 1893.) Mesozo1c.—From a study of the fossil mammalia of the Stonesfield slate, Mr. E. S. Goodrich concludes that the primitive mammalian molar was probable tritubercular, and that the triconodont type was derived from it by degeneracy, contrary to the views of Cope and Os- ™ who assume that the primitive mammalian molar was repre- sented by a simple reptilian cone which subsequently acquired a cusp in front and behind giving the Triconodont type, from which the Tri- tubercular type was derived. (Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci., Vol. 35.) Mr. R. Lydekker figures and describes a new carnivorous Dinosaur from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough. The specimen comprises the anterior and posterior extremities of the left ramus of the mandible, and represents one of the Thecodontosauridæ. Since it differs from the described genera by the marked deflection of the mandibular symphy- 28 418 The American Naturalist. [May, sis, it is referred to a new genus, Sarcolestes, with the specific name leedsii. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1893.) Crenozotc.—The British Museum has lately received an extinct skate from the Lower Tertiary Limestome near Cairo, Egypt. It is described by Mr. A. S. Woodward under the name Mylobatis pentonii. The specimen consists of the jaws, showing the dentition, which, accord- ing to the writer is the largest specimen of Mylisbotis dentition that has hitherto reached any museum. The maximum width of the disk of this extinct species is estimated at not less than five meters. (Pro- ceeds. Zool. Soc. London, 1893.) 1894.) Mineralogy and Petrography. 419 MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY:' The Eruptive Rocks of Cape Bonita, Cal.—The eruptive rocks forming the main mass of Cape Bonita, the northern Cape separ- ating San Francisco from the Pacific Ocean, are spherical basalts and diabases, in addition to basic tuffs. The basalt is remarkable for the great spheroidal masses that characterise it. In many places the entire rock-mass is a closely packed aggregate of large bolster-like bodies, whose cross-section is approximately circular. These consist of a com- pact amygdaloidal rock, made up of lath-shaped plagioclases lying in a glassy base. In all cases the rock of the spheroids is much altered, and is of the same composition in the interiors as on the peripheries of the bodies. In a few cases augite may be detected as small grains that are younger than the plagioclases, but the rock on the whole is very uniform in character. The diabase is more interesting petrographic- ally. It is younger than the basalt ‘and has intruded this rock. Besides the usual constituents of diabase it contains iddingsite in large, rounded, idiomorphic forms. The augite varies in color from nearly colorless to a deep violet red, the latter varieties possessing a pleochroism in yellowish green and violet red tints. A qualitative test showed the Presence of titanium. Sometimes the augites of different colors are intergrown, when they are optically continuous, and not infrequently the mineral is intergrown with brown hornblende. The outlines of the iddingsite are strongly suggestive of olivine. It was one of the earliest Separations from the magma, being included in the augite and in the hornblende. Its own enclosures are magnetite and chromite or pico- tite. In some phases of the rock both green and brown hornblende are Present, Both of these are regarded as original and as of the same age as the augite, for they are frequently intergrown with the pyroxene as well as with each other. In one place the diabase is variolitic, with Variolites composed of tiny brushes and crystallites of various minerals, ying in a microlitie diabasic groundmass. Iddingsite occurs both in the groundmass and in the varioles. The pyroclastic rock associated with the basalt and the diabase is probably an ash of a basaltic charac- ter. Some of its component fragments resemble closely the material of the spheroidal rock. Analyses of the rocks discussed are given by Mr. me,’ in a recent number of the University of California n. - ' Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me. Bull. Geol. Dept. Univ. Cal., Vol. 1, p- 71. 420 The American Naturalist. [May, Lamprophyres near the Shap Granite Mass.—-Near the Shap granite in the North of England there are numerous dykes of minette and kersantite that are believed by Harker’ to be the dyke facies of the granite, just as fourchite and ouachitite are regarded by Rosenbusch as dyke facies of eleolite-syenite. These lamprophyres_ contain many rounded blebs of quartz and corroded crystals of orthoclase, both of which appear to owe their present shapes tu resorption processes, since both minerals are surrounded by resorption borders. The dyke rocksare thought to be genetically connected with the granite because of their age and distribution, and because of the fact that they contain the quartz and orthoclase above referred to, and also sphene, which is a characteristic component of the granite. A study of the literature of the lamprophyres shows that these rocks are often associated with — granites, and hence Harker believes that the group may be discovered to be genetically related to this group of plutonie rocks. A $] feature of the lamprophyres pointed out by the author is that while the total alkalies in them is about equal in amount to the sum of the alka- lies in the associated granite, the potash in the former always bears# larger ratio to the soda than it does in the latter rock. It issu that the granite and the lamprophyres are portions of the same magma that became differentiated by gravity. From the supernatant layer, which was acid, quartz and orthoclase separated and then settled down into the lower basic portions of the mass. These were then partially dissolved, the solution of the orthoclase accounting for the large pr% portion of potash in the lamprophyres. In a later paper the argues against the view of Diller and Iddings that the sporadic quartzes in certain basalts and other basic rocks are the result of ¢ a tion under other than the normal conditions. He thinks that in all these cases the quartz may have originated as outlined above. The Geology of Conanicut Island, R. I.—The carboniferous Phyllites of Conanicut Island in Narragansett Bay are cut by “a of coarse-grained muscovite granite porphyry that has produced € effects in the surrounding sedmentaries.» The granite, whl a many evidences of its intrusive nature, was regarded by bedded 4 metamorposed clastic rock, forming the lowest member of the series at this place. The phyllites near the contact with the granite ] * Geol. Magazine, 1892, IX, p. 199. *Ib. IX, p. 485. = V. Pirsson. Amer. Jour. Sci., 1893, XLVI, p. 363. Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1883, XXII, p. 179. ch exhibits 1894.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 421 have been changed into hornstones and knotty schists. Besides the granites the only other intrusives cutting the slates are two dykes of minette, both of which show the effects of pressure. One of the dykes consists essentially of orthoclase and two generations of biotite. It contains also apatite and zircon and large quantities of plagioclase and calcite. In the squeezed phase of the rock the biotite has been changed to chlorite. The material of the second dyke differs from that of the first one, only in that it has been more thoroughly squeezed and con- sequently has suffered greater alteration. Petrographical News.—Sears’ finds that the porphyritic feldspar in the rock from Marblehead Neck, Mass., called by Wadsworth? trachyte, are anorthoclases, and that much of the feldspar of its groundmass is of the same nature, consequently the rock is a kerato- phyre. Analyses of the rock and of one of its phenocrysts follow : SiO, TiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO MnO CaO MgO K,O Na,O P,O, H,O Rock 70.23 .03(?) 15.00 1.99 . 24 33 38 499 4.98 .06 2.19 Felds. 65.66 20.05 tr. tr. 13 67 .18 6.98 6.56 41 The report of the State Geological Board of Michigan’ contains brief microscopie descriptions of certain eruptive, sedimentary and schistose rocks of the Upper Peninsula by Drs. Patton and Lane. Among the former are described granites, syenites; serpentine and lam- prophyres. Among the sedimentaries graywackes, quartzites and slates, and, among the foliated rocks, amphibolites and hornblende schists. e amphibolites are principally altered diabases. Quartz diabases are mentioned by Lane as existing in dykes cutting graywackes and slates that are sometimes changed on the contact into spilosites, and quartz- ites that are altered near the intrusive into Lydian stone. Dr. Wads- Worth, in the same volume, gives an outline scheme of his classification of rocks (eruptive and sedimentary), the principles of which were first ennunciated at length in his Lithological Studies.” Graeff" has found, in an old hand specimen of tephrite from Hor- berig in the Kaiserstuhl, a holocrystalline basic concretion with a Structure approaching that of theralite. ‘Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XVI, p. 167. , Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., XXI, p. 288. „Eep. State Board of Geol. Survey for 1891-92. Lansing, 1893. „Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., 1884, XI. Versamm. Oberrh. Geol. Ver. Ber, XXVI, 1993. 422 The American Naturalist. [May, A modification of the microchemical method for determining ironin minerals is given by Lemberg.” It consists in producing Turnbull’ blue from the ferrous sulphide precipitated on the mineral in question. Alurgite and Violan from St. Marcel.—Among the minerals from the Manganese mines of St. Marcel, Piedmont, alurgile and violan haae always excited considerable interest because of their rich color and their variety. The alurgite was described by Breithauptas a deep red mica. Penfield" has recently obtained a sufficient quantity of the material for study. He describes it as monoclinic in crystallization and micaceous in habit. Its cleavage plates are flexible and somewhat elastic. It is biaxial with 2 E,, — 56° 32’ (average) and its dispersion is ¢ > v, but often plates show a uniaxial optical figure, due, as the author supposes, to twinning. The mica is one of the first order, andin spite of its dark color, its pleochroism is very slight. Density = 2.836 —2.849. H==3. Composition: SiO, AlO, FeO, Mn,O, MnO MgO K,O NaO H,O Tod 53.22 2119 122 87 18 6.02 11.20 34 5.75—=900 In the formula H R, (Al OH) A1Si,0,,, R = K and Mg OH. Alurgié is thus a distinct species, which is more nearly allied to lepidolite hes to muscovite, although it is a potash mica. The alurgite is as with a jadeite composed largely of a soda-rich pyroxene that is pleo- chroic in pale rose and pale blue tints. Its density is 3.257 3.882, and composition (mean of two analyses) : SiO, ALO, Fe,O, Mn,O, MnO MgO Ca,O Na,O K,O Ign r 54.59 9.74 11.99 1.06 .58 5.03 7.24 9.32 .24 OT corresponding to Na R(SiO,), in which R= Al, Fe”’,Mn”. The mineral occupies about the same position in the pyroxene group asgi f does among the amphiboles. In composition it agrees oa with the chloromelanite from Mexico analysed by Damour. alysed For purposes of comparison with this pyroxene, the author an : a specimen of violan whose density was 3.272 — 3.237, with this . K otal SiO, Al,O, Fe,O, Mn,O, MnO MgO CaO Mn,O K,O im a 5394 1.00 86 88 .36 186.63 23,80 1.22 05 =" The figures indicate a mixture of the diopside, jadeite and acmite me | “ Zeite d. deuts. geol. Ges., 1892, p. 823. "8S. L. Penfield. Amer. Jour. Sci. SUVA, p- u : 288. te No. 30: Bull. Soc. Min. d. Franc, IV, 1881, p. 157. Cf. also foot-note 1894,] Mineralogy and Petrography. 423 cules in the proportions 90.8 : 4.1 : 2.4, with the addition of 2.7% of the molecule Na Mn (SiO,),. The mineral is essentially a blue variety of diopside, differing from the anthochroite of Igelström” and from the blue pyroxene of Merrill and Packard.” Zonal Plagioclase.—Herz" has shown by a study of the position of axial planes in successive zones of zonal plagioclase, and by the values of the respective cleavage angles, that the zonal banding in this mineral is due to the concentric growth of envelopes of different com- position. The axial planes and the cleavage angles always correspond with the extinction angles in the corresponding band. It had been suggested by Grosser that the regular decrease in the extinction of the shells of a zonal plagioclase is due to difference in the orientation of the successive envelopes and not to a difference in their chemical com- position, Herz’s work proves conclusively that the decrease in the value of the extinction is not due to differences in orientation of the same chemical substance. Hercynite in Gabbro.—Small octahedra and large irregular masses of the green spinel hercynite occur in an altered gabbro at Le- Prese, in the Valtellina, Switzerland. According to Linck,” it is found as irregular granular masses within the rock, and as small octa- hedral crystals enclosed in its plagioclase and associated with corundum sillimanite and biotite. The spinel includes small quantities of biotite, small plates of ilmenite, resembling the plates in hypersthene, a little pyrite, etc. An analysis of tolerably pure material yielded : SiO, ALO, FeO, MgO FeO Total 159 59.62 3.10 9.38 25.30 = 98.99 which corresponds to (Fe Mg) Al,O, in which Fe : Mg = 3:2. Optical Constants of Topaz.—Four Japanese topaz crystals and one crystal of the same mineral from New South Wales are de- scribed by Hahn,” and some of the optical constants of the former have been determined. One of the crystals from Otamjama near 15 AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1890, p. 74. *Ib., 1892. p. 848. Min. u. Petrog. Mitth. XIII, p. 341. Classe -o *Siteb. d. Kön-preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin. Phys.-Math.- = 1898, p. 47. “Zeits. f. Kryst., XXI, p. 334. 424 The American Naturalist. Kioto, has the following refractive indices and optical angles for yellow light: § = 1.6182, y= 1.6252, 2 V = 62° 40’, 2E= 114° 31’. The crystal from New South Wales has 2 E = 113° 18’. Mineralogical News.—Stéver announces the discovery of fine celestites in the Jurassic schists of Brousseval in France. Their axial ratio is .7803 : 1: 1.2826, and index of refraction for sodium light = 1.6235. The crystals are one centimeter in length, and are elongated parallel to 4. Similarly habited crystals occur also in the marl of Ville-sur-Sault. The axial ratio of these is .7806 : 1: 1.2797, and den- sity == 3.991. Rheineck” has made another attempt to calculate from the published analyses general formulas for tourmaline that will not only represe the composition of all varieties of the mineral, but which will also ex press its relationship with micas. He concludes that there are two alkaline varieties, viz.: Al, Si, B H,O, and Al, Si, B, H, Om and two magnesium varieties, Al, Si, B, Mg,O,, and Al, Si, B, Mg, Om by whose intermingling all other varieties are formed. ` Several crystallographic observations of Baumhauer™ areof interest. A yellow diopside from the Canton of Graubünden (Grisons), Bae land, has an axial ratio a:b:e — 1.0918: 1:.5879, with A =" 127 15”. Binnite crystals from Infeld in the Binnenthal are certainly tetartohedrally hemihedral, as the author has succeeded in finding upor - them, well-developed, the planes $ and 222. 4 Oebbecke” mentions the occurrence of topaz with feldspar, apatite tourmaline, fluorite, ete, at Epprechtstein and its existence in the gran- ite of the Gregnitzgrund in the Fichtelgebirge. ich The arsenopyrite of Weiler in Alsace occurs in an arkose from whi Scherer” has obtained crystals sufficiently large for measurement © analysis. These crystals are prismatic in habit, and have. s TT ratio a : b:¢ = .6734 : 1 : 1.1847. A mean of two analyses gave fig: ures corresponding to Fe : S: As — 1 : .9933 :.9751. ‘ Mallard™ has come into the possession of some beautiful pane tals of periclase that were found implanted on a white compact ¢ produced in the culcination of some of the Stassfurt materials. pov Several twins of aragonite from the tunnel of Neussargues 10 ” Zeits. f£. Kryst., XXII, p. 52. E XXI, p. 200. ” Ib., XXII, p: 278. AID, XXII, p. 62. “ Bull. Soc. Franc. Min., XVI, p. 18. 1894.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 425 France, are reported by Gonnard”, and some fine crystals of pinite™ from Issertaux, near St. Pardoux in the Auvergne. Miscellaneous.—In his development of the theory of the consti- tution of the micas, Clarke” has reached the problem of the lithium members of the group. This he solves by supposing lepidolite to be an admixture of the simple molecules Al F, Si, O, R,’, in which R is principally lithium, and Al, (SiO), R,’, in which R; may be either K,H or KH,. Retgers”® suggests molten phosphorus and a solution of phosphorus in CS, as media for use in determining the indices of refraction in highly refracting substances. A tiny fragment of the phosphorus may be melted between two object-glasses, when it spreads as a thin sheet between them, and, upon cooling, remains transparent. Its refractive index is 2.144. That of a saturated solution of the substance in CS, is 1.95. Some time ago, Damour” suggested the name chloromelanite for one of the varieties of jade found in ancient implements. He discovers now that the material contains garnets and pyroxene. It thus resembles the rock eclogite. The pyroxene from a Mexican specimen is composed as follows : SiO, AlO, FeO, CaO MgO NaO Total Sp. Gr. 56.57 1721 886 444 212 10.70— 99.90 3.37 Nordenskjéld” has begun the study of snow crystals. The first con- tribution to his discussion is a series of handsome photographs of a large variety of flakes, including prismatic, stellar and other forms some of which contained liquid enclosures at the time of their fall. z Ib., XVI, p- 10. *Ib., XVI, p. 16. ” Bull. Am. Chem. Soc., XV, May, 1893. * Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1893, II, p. 130. “Bull. Soc. Franc. Min., XVI, p.57. Cf. also foot-note No. 14. Ib; AVL p- 59. 426 . The American Naturalist. [May, BOTANY. What is Mycoderma ?—1. In my papers on the yeasts, I have mentioned the doubtful position of the sprouting fungus Myco- derma which morphologically and systematically stands near to the Saccharomycetaceae. From the latter, it is easily distinguished on account of its high refractive power, the cells being also rectangular, not spore-bearing, and very apt to aggregate in masses, or in a film. When beer, wine, or other sugar-containing liquids are exposed to air, the Mycoderma will very soon form a gray, greasy looking, uneven film on the surface of the liquid. Hitherto, it was supposed that this fungus could not form alcohol; Lasché has, however, found four spe- cies which yield 4 to 2} vol % of alcohol (See Der Braumeister, Chi- cago, 1891, No. 7); Winogradsky found that the morphology of the cells changes according to the amount of organic material given 1m å constant solution of inorganic nutritive matter. (See Centralbl. f. Bak- teriol. u. Paras., 1884, p. 164). Lately, F. Lafar showed that at least one species will produce acetic acid. (Ibid, XIII, p. 684-697 1893, w. pl.). In 1879 Hansen expressed his opinion that there were undoubtedly more than the two species—W. cerevisiae and M. vini—deseribed by Pasteur (Studies on fermentation, pp. 77,110, pl. IV) im existence. ‘hese two named species cannot be distinguished from each other, they must be regarded as synonyms to all the species—at po known. The macroscopic appearance of these fungi was mentio in the January No. of the American Monthly Microscopical Ji "y 2. The name Mycoderma was given by Pasteur to the bai acetic fermentation. As far back as 1834, Kützing determined vegetable nature of this ferment; he named it Ulvina aceti. asteur (See Etudes sur la vinaigre) and Turpin took the question up aga! and studied the morphology of the organism. In 1879, Hansen be a new species which assumes a blue color with iodine or IKa» while f other species became yellow when thus treated. He found, lately,“ another species which is also colored blue with iodine, namely, per cies kiitzingianum. The genus-name was, on the suggestion of Te? changed into Bacterium. (See Berichte der Deutschen Gesellschaft, 1893, p. (69-73). Three species of acetic ‘Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, fermentatio 1894.] - Botany. 427 bacteria are thus known at present, namely, (1) Bacterium aceti (Kiitz.) Zopf, (2) B. pastewrianum Hansen, and (3) B. kiitzingianum Hansen. The cardinal temperatures are: Minimum for (1), 4°-5° C; for (2), 5°-6° ©. Maximum is for all of them 42°-43° C, and optimum 34° Morphologically, these species consist of (1) long cells, (2) swollen cells, and (3) chains of short bacula. By 40° C-40°, 5 C pure cultures were in good development, during which some of the cells of the chains grew very long, and in twenty-four hours, there was a typical vegetation of long cells, totally different from the original culture. If this new culture is exposed to a temperature of 34° C, the original chains are again formed. The long cells measured 200» and more; by 34° C ; they first swell in one or more places, sometimes assuming ball shape (diam. 11), then they are divided into typical chains. Nägeli regarded the long and the swollen cells as abnormal forms. When we speak of the influence of outward agencies upon the life- activity of organisms like those mentioned above, we have generally described the influence in its action only upon one feature of such activity. It is not at all sure that the cardinal temperatures of fermen- tation are identical with those of the life of the yeast, or with those of the cell-division or spore formation of the latter. We know that the cardinal temperatures of germination, transpiration, respiration, assim- ilation, geotropism, heliotropism, hydrotropism, rheotropism, etc., ete., in “higher” plants are not always identical. In the instance men- tioned above, we see that the cell-division hasits cardinal temperatures, a conclusion which we may draw from the observations. We further see that bacteria are more polymorphus than is suspected, and that a new road is open for investigation which doubtless will tend to broaden our knowledge of microörganisms and of many important physiological questions, J. CHRISTIAN Bay. The so-called “ Russian Thistle. ”—It is the fate of few weeds to reach so suddenly such great notoriety as thet corey ly attained by Salsola kali L. var. tragus DC., the so-called “ Russian NG ee ee any of the botanical manuals he finds no plant under this common name. He will find the “ Common Palt- wort.” of the “sandy shore, New England to Georgia ” described in such mild terms as to give no idea of the weed as it appears to the farmer upon the western plains. The species is a native of mountainous regions in both hemispheres. 428 The American Naturalist. [May, In Europe it occurs from Spain to France, Belgium, Holland, Great Britain, Ireland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and along the Med- iterranean coast of France, Italy, Greece and Turkey. Even the sandy tracts of interior countries are not free from it ; thus it is found in Germany, Austria, Hungary and Russia. It occurs also in temper- ate Asia. In America as stated above, it extends from New England to Georgia. The variety is apparently much less widely distributed, but the exact limits of its geographical range are not well defined, most recent authors not regarding it as sufficiently distinet to warrant separate treatment. The technical description of the variety (to which alone the name Russian Thistle is applied) as drawn up by L. H. Dewey of the United States Department of Agriculture, is as follows: “ Salsola kali L. var. tragus DC. Prod. XIII, 2, 187 (1849). Her- baceous, annual, diffusely branching from the base, usually densely bushy at maturity, .5 to 1 m. high and twice as broad, smooth ot slightly hispid ; root simple, dull white, slightly twisted near the apes leaves alternate, sessile; of the young plant deciduous, succulent, linear ; or subterete, 3 to 6 cm. long, spiny-pointed, and with narrow, denticu- late, membranaceous margins near the base; leaves of mature plant peristent, each subtending two leaf-like bracts and a flower, at intervals of 2 to 10 mm, rigid, narrowly ovate, often denticulate near the base, spiny-pointed, usually striped with red like the branches, 6 to 10 mm. long; bracts divergent, like the leaves in size and in all respects but position ; flowers solitary and sessile, perfect, apetalous, about 10 mm. in diameter ; calyx membranaceous, persistent, enclosing the depressed fruit, usually rose colored, gamosepalous, cleft nearly to the base Into five unequal divisions about 4 mm. long, the upper one broadest, the two next the subtending leaf next in size and the lateral ones narro™ each with a beak-like, connivent apex, and bearing midway 0n she back a membranaceous, striate, erose-margined wing about 3 mm. longs the upper and two lower ones much broader than the lateral ones; stamens 5, about equalling the calyx lobes; pistil simple ; styles 2,8 in der, about 1 mm. long; seed 1, obconical, depressed, abou eo iameter, dull gray or green, exalbuminous, the thin seed-coat close 7 covering the spirally-coiled embryo; embryo about 12 mm. long © 2 terete cotyledons.” i Salsola is one of the prominent genera of the family Chenopodiace®, and is the most important member of the tribe Salsolew. Its tag ma 31, Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Nebraske oe SF nw A N k E ae SE RE ee E Oey gen ee E O 1894.] Botany. 429 cies are very widely distributed in Europe, Asia, North and South Africa, America and Australia. The Russian Thistle appears to have come to this country in flaxseed imported directly from Europe to South Dakota seventeen or eighteen years ago. For a while it was popularly supposed that the Russian settlers in South Dakota had purposely brought it for use as a forage plant, but this is now generally discredited. The name “Russian Thistle” is, however, so well fixed that it will continue to be used in spite of its inappropriateness, just as we say “Canada Thistle” for another Old World weed. For a number years after its introduction it attracted little attention, andit was not until seven or eight yearsago (1886) that it began to be troublesome in South Dakota. Since this time it has spread with much rapidity. Both of the Dakotas are now badly overrun with it. A few years ago it invaded Nebraska, coming into the State about Val- entine, and in Knox, Cedar and Dixon Counties. It probably came to the first named place with the United States soldiers stationed at Ft. Niobrara, a few miles east of the town of Valentine. The frequent trans- fers of troops from forts in South Dakota afford ready means of trans- portation to weeds of this nature. For several years it has been spreading from this point. The counties mentioned are separated from South Dakota by the Missouri River, but here and there are ferries over which teams frequently pass, and at these points the Russian Thistles are very abundant. The railroads have aided materially in their distribution, as is shown by the fact that by the end of 1893, Russian Thistles were to be found in nearly all parts of Nebraska, and in nearly all cases they were at first confined to a narrow belt along the track. Year by year they Spread from this belt, moving most rapidly along the lines of greatest travel. The wind, also, is an efficient agent in spreading them, since in many cases, the nearly spherical plants are broken off at the root, and rolled for long distances as “ tumbleweeds,” scattering their seeds throughout -their course. In Minnesota, Iowa and Wisconsin, Russian Thistles have appeared, and here again they have been brought in by the railroads. The rea- son why the railroads have had so much to do with the distribution of this weed, is that finding by the side of the tracks much unsodded ground, they spring up here in great numbers, and in the fall wien they break off by the winds they are caught up the passing trains rea carried away on the trucks or steps of the cars or on the pilot or in the machinery of the engine. 430 The American Naturalist. [May, The states of the Plains, the Dakotas and Nebraska, and those next adjacent, have taken steps to warn their people of this invading weed by bulletins and through the public press. The United States Depart- ment of Agriculture sent an agent to inspect the invaded region, and issued a special bulletin on the subject. The Russian Thistle is a common topic for papers and discussions before Agricultural and Hor- ticultural Societies, farmer’s institutes, farmer’s clubs, alliance meet- ings, ete. It will soon be so well known upon the Plains that it will no longer be allowed to grow unmolested because unrecognized. CHARLES E. Bessey. 1894, Zoology. 431 ZOOLOGY. Reproduction of the Foraminifera.—Fritz Schaudinn has studied this little known subject and presents’ these results: The repro- duction is effected by the division of the protoplasm into, in different individuals, a varying number of pieces which secrete shells and grow into the adult after different methods according to the species. The following modifications of the process are noted : I. The division of the protoplasm, the assumption of form, and the secretion of the shell by the pieces is completed within the shell of the mother. The embryos then leave the mother either, through the mouth, or, when that is too small, by a breaking through the shell. II. The division occurs inside the mother shell and the embryos escape as - naked plasmodia, to develop the shell outside. III. The protoplasm leaves the mother shell as a connected mass and all processes occur outside the old shell. In all cases the mother, before reproduction, is polynucleate, the embryos are usually uninucleate but in some cases 2 or 3 and rarely more nuclei are present. . Schaudinn further calls attention to a peculiar type of nuclear mul- tiplication which he finds common in this group but which has hitherto escaped notice. He has never seen division into two daughter nuclei, but in all forms studied, after a series of changes the mother nucleus divides into many daughter nuclei. Briefly summarized these changes are as follows: Through the absorption of fluid the homogeneous mother nucleus becomes vesicular and then inside this, by means of an achromatic filament apparatus, an equal division of the whole nuclear substance (chromatin and achromatin) into numerous portions follows, and these by disappearance of the nuclear membrane pass freely into the cytoplasm and become independent nuclei. Regeneration in Hydroids.—Dr. C. B. Davenport attacks’ one aspect of the problem of regeneration. One of the fundamental assumptions of theories of heredity is that regeneration, like dev elop- ment from the egg depends upon the pre-existence of embryonic ares but a disputed point is whether embryonic tissue is qualitatively ` j t in different parts of the body, i. e., whether it ean produce = Certain definite and distinct things or whether it is potentially the same Ma. Chblt. XIV, 163, 1894. Anat. Anzeiger 1X, 283, 1884. 432 The American Naturalist. [May, and the different results depend on agencies outside the developing cells. This he applies to the regeneration of lost parts in Obelia, by by cutting off the hydranths and their stalks at different levels. His conclusions are: “First. The regenerative tissue is not differentiated at different levels to produce different things independent of environment; but on the contrary, the embryonic tissue at all levels may produce the same things. “Second. Wholly aside from the production of definite things, there may be acquired in certain embryonic tissues a usual method of devel opment, independent of environment. * * ` “Third. The curves of regeneration bring out a second wholly unexpected series of facts; namely, the tendency of regenerative tis sue at all levels to produce preferably certain forms. * * * ” Closely allied to these observations of Davenport are some by - Albert Lang’ who, working under the direction of Professor Weismann, claims that in certain hydroids, notably in Hydra, Eudendrium and Plumularia, both germ layers do not participate in the formation of the buds but that these structures proceed from the ectoderm alone w by asort of multipolar gastrulation forms the entoderm of the bud, and is to be regarded as the sole foundation of the daughter individ- ual. Accompanying this paper is a note by Prof. Weismann stating that the facts observed by Lang were just such as he had predicted upon theoretical grounds. Shortly after the publication of Lang’s results, his experiments r gone over by an American student who found that while he cou easily duplicate Lang’s figures, the conclusions based upon them bes due to errors of misinterpretation and that in reality both layers i participate in the bud formation. These results have not been p" lished. This is, however, the less to be regretted since Dr. F. Broen of Breslau has recently gone over the whole matter and he anoni that Lang’s account is all wrong. He finds nothing which ae port Lang’s conclusions, there is no fusion of one germ layer W! other and never a proliferation of cells of the ectoderm of sa to form the entoderm of the adult. the The Parietal Eyes.—Those who have kept close igor E progress of our knowledge of the “pineal gland” can p and by ested in some recent papers. Long believed to be a gland *Zeitsch. f. wiss, Zool, LIV, 365, 1892. ‘Biol. Cblt. XIV, 140, 1894. Jee = x 4 PLATI the 8 from one of the streets borderin , ıbout one- istle, ¢ Th asian Ru atural size city park of Lincoln, Nebraska. ixth n S1 1894.] Zoology. 433 Descartes assigned as a proper sized organ for the residence of the soul, this structure was first pointed out by de Graaf and Spencer, almost simultaneously, as a veritable visual organ in process of disappearance. After their papers the literature of the organ grew rapidly until the veteran histologist, Leydig, announced that it was not an eye; and since he had been the first to suggest that the structure was sensory his final dictum, finely illustrated, naturally had weight. Then Ber- anek showed that there were two organs confused, an anterior eye and a posterior vascular or glandular structure. The two recent papers to which we have referred throw no little light upon the matter. Prof. W. A. Locy has described’ the early phases of the eye in the Sela-. chians and he further shows that the early optic pits are but one of three serially homologous pairs of structures which differ in their early stages only in the matter of size. The posterior pairs are traced into the optic outgrowth. In the second paper Klinckowstrém® gives a number of facts regarding the structure of the parietal organs in the South American Iguana and Tejus which in connection with the work of Locy and Beranek tempt one to indulge in speculation. With what Klinckowstrém has to say of the parietal eye proper we have little to do. It is rather with the secondary structures. There are in Iguana two distinct phases to the epiphysial outgrowth. In the first the parietal eye proper is cut off from its connection with the cerebral cavity thus forming the eye and the epiphysis. Next, the distal portion of the epiphysis takes on a histological character closely approaching that of the parietal eye, the deeper portion retaining its. former conditions, and a constriction tends to separate this from the rest. Klinckowstrém naturally considers this as the temporary appearance of a second epiphysial eye. In connection with Locy’s observations and especially when taken in connection with Klinckow- strém’s further observation that there is a second nerve developed in position for this outgrowth, the conclusion is inevitable that the ances- tor of the vertebrates had not three eyes but at least three pairs of eyes. As is well known the parietal nerve is not median but on one side. In some cases he found one on either side, showing that the lack of symmetry is due to a failure to develop on the part of one of the | nerves. One of Klinckowstrém’s conclusions seemsa little questiona- ble. He concludes that the parietal nerve is not strictly comparable to the optic nerve, the point apparently being that in the one case tha nerve follows the optic outgrowth while the parietal nerve does not, ‘Jour, Morphol. IX, 115, 1894. See also Anat. Anzeiger. ‘Zool. i Abth. Anat. VII, 249, 1894. 434 The American Naturalist. [May, but enters the roof of the brain in the region of the habenular gan- glion. This difference does not strike one as forcibly as a little while ago. The recent investigations of Keibel and Assheton have shown that the optic stalk is not the optic nerve, but this stalk merely forms the tract through which the true nervous elements grow inward from the retinal layer. This being the case it is easy to see that possibly in the case of the parietal nerve the outgrowth has been through other tissue. East African Reptiles and Batrachia.—The U. S. National Museum has recently received some valuable collections of Reptiles and Batrachia from Eastern Africa and the adjacent islands and these have now been studied by Dr. L. Stejneger.” Among the interesting facts brought out is a better knowledge of the fauna of the Seychelles. Wallace, in his “ Island Life,” enumerates 11 species as found in these islands of which five are considered as peculiar to them. To-day, fifteen species of Reptiles and Batrachia are known with certainty, plus several more doubtful, as coming from these Islands and of these ten are not known from any other locality. Ten of these species are represented in the museum collections. The new species described in this paper are Diplodactylus inexpectatus (Seychelles), Phe/suma ab- botti (Aldabra), Eremias sexteniata and E. hoehnelii (Tana River, E. Af), Mabuya chanlerii (Tana R.), Ablepharus gloriosus (Gloriosa Is.), Typhlops mandensis (Manda Is.), Simocephalus chanlerii (Manda), Caw sus nasalis (West Africa), Hypogeophis alternans (Seychelles). On the Iguanian genus Uma Baird.—This genus has been hitherto represented by but two specimens, and has been hence = little known. Professor Baird in his original description in 1852 di not adduce any character sufficient to distinguish it from Callisauros Blv., and it was not until 1866 that I pointed out that the difference consists in the possession by Uma of a series of elongate free scales n each side of the digits, and on the external side of the sole, which arè wanting from Callisaurus. I noted the occurrence of the genus a Tucson, Arizona, as represented by a second and adult individua! ; ` the type, a young animal, having been taken on the Mojave jonn i Since that time no additional material has come under my © tion. hat A renewed examination of these two specimens has shown me they belong to two very distinct species. I accordingly name the "Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus, XVI, 711, 1893. 1894.] - Zoology. 435 son species U. scopifera, and give the following differential diagnoses of the two. Uma norata Baird. Femoral pores 17-18; labial scales nearly flat ; fringes of the inferior eyelid longer than those of the superior ; occipital plate larger; digits longer, with shorter fringes of spines; colors pale. Uma scoparta Cope. Femoral pores 30 in one row, with a second row of 12; labial scales strongly keeled; fringes of eyelids equal; occipital plate smaller; digits shorter, with longer fringes of spines ; ground color above black, marked with closely placed discoidal light spots with a black center. (No. 6065 U. S. National Museum). The fringed digits and sole of this genus constitute an excellent example of homoplassy. Similar fringes are present in the same posi- tions in the Asiatic Agamid genus Phrynocephalus, and in the African Gecconid genus Ptenopus. Both of these, like Uma, are inhabitants of deserts. The spines which compose the fringes penetrate the sand, and give the animal a better hold on it than is secured by the ordinary squamation. I give figures of the feet of Ptenopus kd td Smith and Uma scopa- ria in illustration of this point.—E. D. Cor AAAA h L "als OURAN (VV VU VIAAAMATAAAAY 2 Fics. 1-2 Prenopus garrulus ; 1 anterior foot; 2 anterior digit; from Boulenger. Fics. 3-4 Uma scoparia ; 3 anterior ; 4 posterior feet. 436 The American Naturalist. i [May, On the Genera and Species of Euchirotidz.—Professor Alfredo Dugés of Guanajuato, Mexico, has sent me an ms. description of a new Amphisbenian from the state of Guerrero, Mexico, which is allied to Bipes (Chirotes Cuv.), but which possesses but three digits, and presents various other differences from the B. canaliculatus, = = A En a HT = O a ira ZS5E — So ie! = = on Gl me ry = toti uae sseREseoenes ~ oe SEES os yr ; ieee a foe b AR ae EE = DoD veers Fig. 5.—Zuchirotes biporus, Cope. : including a much shorter tail. In endeavoring to determine - relationships with the known species of Bipes, I find that the individ- uals from Cape St. Lucas, Lower California, which I have hitherto assumed belong to the Bipes canaliculatus Lacép. really represe P another species and genus. I now offer diagnostic characters of these forms, preliminary toa fuller notice in my forthcoming Sealed Rep- tiles of North America. Digits five, all clawed ; Euchirotes Cope Digits five, one smaller and clawless; Bipes Lacép. Digits three, clawed ; Hemichirotes Duss Each of these genera includes a single species, which are a ized as follows. Euchirotes biporus Cope sp. nov.. Tail twice 2 long as head; anus ji ceded tranar series of six e re which extend to Nasal plates Fig. 6.—Hemichirotes tridactylus, Day. contact in front. 1894.] . Zoology. 437 St. Lucas, Lower California. U. S. National Museum; G. Eisen. Bipes canaliculatus Lacép. Tail twice as long as head; preanal scuta small, preceded by a transverse row of small scales, each of which is perforated by a pore. Nasal plates well separated in front. Mex- ico. Hemichirotes tridactylus Dugés. Tail but little longer than head. Anus preceded by six plates of moderate size, and these by only two pore-bearing scales on each side. Nasal plates widely separated by contact of rostral and internasal. Guerrero, Mexico; A Dugés. Stejneger has shown that the name Chirotes Cuv. must be abandoned in favor of Bipes Lacép. of much earlier date. As the family name Chirotidae has become engrafted on our literature, I propose to retain the name Euchirotidae in place of it for the family, so as to disturb the existing custom as little as possible. EXPLANATION OF CUTS. Fig. 5.—Euchirotes diporus Cope, twice natural size. Fig. 6.—Hemichirotes tridactylus Dugés, twice natural size. Letters; a head from above; 6 profile; ¢ from below, with fore limbs; d tail from below; e side of body; f profile of tail; g rostral plate from front. . E. D. Cope. Zoological News.—Prorozoa.—Blochmann again replies* to the oft asked question, Does the contractile vacuole empty to the exterior? in the affirmative, F. Schaudinn has studied the Gromia desjardinii of Max Schultze and finds’ that it differs from Gromia in many respects and he pro- poses for it the generic name of Hyalopus. He has studied its repro- duction and finds that transverse fission of both animal and shell occurs, the process requiring about three weeks for completion, the mouths of the new individuals being formed in the cut ends of the shell, Similarly division into three has been noticed. Besides, he has seen in six cases the formation of swarmspores. From five to twelve hours before the formation of the spores the pseudopodia are retracted and the whole protoplasm divides into spherical portions each of which Contains a large nucleus. Each of these becomes amceboid and then develops a large flagellum. After some other phases these swarm- Spores copulate in pairs. ‘The history has not been followed farther. “Biol. Centralblatt XIV, 82, 1894. . Ges. Naturf. Freunda Berlin, 1884, p. 13. 438 The American Naturalist. [May, Mottusca.—Dr. R. E. C. Stearn’s recent paper, “ Notes on recent collections of North American land, freshwater and marine shells received from the U. S. Department of Agriculture,” adds consider- ably to our knowledge of the distribution of several species of Mot: luses. No new forms are described. VERTEBRATA.—H. H. Wilder points out” that in the adults of Desmognathus fusea, D. ochrophæa, Plethodon erythronotus and Giyrino- Philus porphyriticus, lungs and trachea are completely absent, respira- tion taking place by the external skin. Biétrix claims” that in the branchial lamellæ of sharks and Th the blood is contained in a system of lacunz, which, from their m membrana propria and endothelium, cannot be regarded as capillar- ies. Heinrich Ernst Zeigler studied the yolk nuclei of fishes some years ago. He now returns to the subject and brings" new evidence to T port his previous thesis that after the close of segmentation the "E nuclei of the yolk of sharks and teleosts contribute nothing to development of the embryos. : r T H. Bean Aoba a new genus and species of n Fish under the name Plagiogrammus hopkinsii. The type binge lected with other fishes intended for the aquaria at the World a je at Monterey, Cal. ‘In confinement it hides in rock crevices gon dom ventures from its place of concealment. It is about 6 ine length. Dr. L. Stejneger describes a new species of blind-snake from the Congo region of Africa under the name Typhlops preocularis. phi Robert Ridgway records as new Geothlypis poliocep y x is coming from the Lower Rio Grande Valley, the type being tou Brownsville, Texas. resent- r. F. W. True regards Taylor’s mouse (Sitomys tay lori) pE ing such combinations of characters as to warrant its being ae as the type of a new subgenus to which he gives” the apres ee - He also describes (l. c. p. 689) a new species of Sitomys (8. from Honduras, “Proc. U: S. Nat. Mus. XVI, 748, 1894. - “Anat. Anzeiger 1X, 216. 2C, R. Soc. Philomath Paris, Jan., 1894. Ber. Naturf. Gesell. Freiburg, VIII, 192, 1894. “Proc. U. S, Nat. Mus. XVI, p. 699. ™Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. XVI, 709: Proc. Nat. Mus. XVI, p. 691. “Proc. U S Nat. Mus. XVI, 758. 1694] Embryology. 439 EMBRYOLOGY. Development of Sponges.’—Otto Wass in a comprehensive paper describes the egg development and metamorphosis of several representatives of the Cornacuspongiae, including under this head the Monaxonida, with the exception of the Clavulina and the horny spon- ges. For the Monaxonida the embryonic development of Myxilla and Chalinula, and the metamorphosis of Axinella and Gellius, are describ- edin detail. For the horny sponges, the development of Euspongia. and Hircinia is outlined. In addition, there are scattered observations on many other Naples cornacuspongiae, and lastly the author presents the results of a renewed study of Spongilla. A fundamental uniformity both as regards embryonic development and metamorphosis, was found to prevail throughout these sponges. The account of the metamorphosis differs but little from the author’s previous account of the metamorphosis of the Esperia larva, and is very similar to that given by Yves Delage in his last paper (reviewed in the January NATURALIST). In the marine monaxonida described, the segmentation is unequal. Micromeres in an epibolic fashion surround a mass of macromeres, except at the posterior pole. The micromeres become the ciliated epi- thelium of the larva, the macromeres constitute the inner mass. e a thus consists of two layers. In the inner mass some of the cells remain undifferentiated, while the rest alter both in nucleus and cell body, and are collectively known as differentiated cells. Certain of these differentiated cells arrange themselves in an epithelial manner at the surface of the posterior pole. The undifferentiated cells of the inner mass become the amoeboid cells of the adult, from which the reproductive elements aredeveloped. Thus the division into germ and Somatic cells is very early brought about. _ In the horny sponges the segmentation does not lead to a true moru- la which dilaminates into an outer layer and an inner mass, a8 Schulze thought. The segmentation here too is unequal, and the micromeres surround the macromeres as in the monaxonida, the former becoming ‘Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore Md., to whom communications may be addressed, Dag Embryonal Entwicklung und Metamorphose der Cornacuspongien, von Dr. Wass, Zoologische Jahrbücher. Abth. für Anat. und Ontogenie. Bd. VII, 2 Hit, 1893 . 440 The American Naturalist. [May, the ciliated epithelium of the larva, the latter the rer mass. Butin the larva of the horny sponges, as in that of Spongilla, the ciliated epithelium is continuous over the whole surface. This is explained by supposing that in these types the ciliated epithelium (micromere layer) completes its growth around the inner mass, which in the other spon- ges is left bare at the posterior pole. In the metamorphosis of the two-layered larva of the cornacuspon- giae, a complete inversion of the layers take place. The ciliated cells draw in their cilia, and migrate into the interior of the sponge where they form a compact mass, surrounded by the former inner layer. Certain of the differentiated cells of the latter layer unite to form the thin epidermis of the adult. The boundary line between the rest of this layer and the inner mass of once ciliated cells gradually disap- pears, elements belonging to both layers becoming distributed irregu- larly throughout the sponge body (process of “ durchwachsung ”). Groups of the ciliated cells now begin to develop into flagellated cham- bers. Independent spaces or lacunae appear and become gradually lined with an epithelium formed by the differentiated cells of the lar- val inner layer. These spaces are the canals. Connection between them and chambers is subsequently established. In two points Wass differs from Delage, in his account of the metamorphosis. Delage believes a special layer of cells, the epidermic cells, can be distinguish- ed in the larva, which during the metamorphosis, take the place of the ciliated cells as a superficial covering. Wass finds no ground for dis- tinguishing the cells which thus form the adult epidermis, from the other differentiated cells of the larval inner mass. Again Delage be lieves that during the metamorphosis the undifferentiated cells en amorba like, the smaller ciliated cells, subsequently letting them E free to form the flagellated chambers. Wass disbelieves 1m this remarkable process, though he grants the possibility of amoebol occasionally engulfing ciliated cells, which however are never after liberated, but undergo degenerative changes (i. e. are digested). his On going over the Spongilla development the author, aided by m discoveries in marine sponges, finds that a different interpretation many particulars is to be put upon his earlier observations. bore mentation is not equal, but unequal. A true morula is not "e but instead the smaller blastomeres surround the larger. The aa epithelium of the larva is not transformed into the adult paea the inversion of layers described above takes place in Sp m also. The exhalent canals and flagellated chambers are not formed diverticula from a single main cavity, nor are the inhalent canals form 1894.] Embryology. 441 ed as invaginations of the “ectoderm,” but both sorts of canals arise as independent lacunae, subsequently acquiring an epithelium and con- necting together, and the chambers are formed from groups of the immigrated cells. The development of Spongilla is thus brought into accord with that of the marine cornacuspongiae. In a comparative review of the various types of sponge development, the author points out the fundamental similarity between the develop- ment of the cornacuspongiae and that of the caleareous sponges, as exemplified in Sycandra. The ciliated cells are homologous in the two kinds of larva, as are the granular cells of the amphiblastula and the inner mass of the other larva. The difference in the character of the metamorphosis arises from the fact that in the amphiblastula there is a large cavity, while in the larva of cornacuspongiae there is none. In this comparison Wass and Delage agree. The author thinks the development of those sponges (Ascetta, Osco- rella, Plaxira, etc.), which apparently differ from the plan of develop- ment described in this paper, needs to be worked over. A fundamen- tal harmony with the development of cornacuspongidae and Sycandra will be revealed. Touching the relationship between sponges and the other metazoa the author, without dogmatizing, is inclined to believe that they had a common ancestor above the protozoa. This ancestor is represented in the two-layered larva of both. But the community of origin goes no higher than this simple form—the sponges are not coelenterates. In the two-layered ancestor of the sponges, the superficial ciliated cells migrated into the interior, resigning their function of locomotive organs in order to generate internal currents of water, made necessary by the adoption of a fixed habit of life with subsequent increase of bulk. In other metazoa, the ciliated cells continue to form the super- ficial covering of the body. The immigration of the ciliated cells in the larva of cornacuspongiae, and the invagination of the ciliated cells in the Sycandra amphiblastula, are the ontogenetic expression of this chanye of position of the ciliated cells in the early ancestors of spon- ges, and have nothing to do with a process of gastrulation—the two- layered embryo being already formed before the occurrence of this immigration or invagination. H. V. Witson. 442 The American Naturalist. [May, ENTOMOLOGY.’ Shade Tree Insects.—Professor H. Garman’ publishes an excel- lent account of the pests of shade and ornamental trees. The article is chiefly concerned with insect pests, which are roughly divided into three groups: (1) Leaf insects, (2) trunk and branch mining insects, and (3) root infesting insects. To the first group belong the largest proportion of species, the walnut-worm, web-worm, elm leaf-bettle and others being included in it. “Such insects attract attention at once from the nature of their injury, the unsightly appearance due to gnawed leaves, webbing and refuse, taking away at once from trees their practical value as shade, and their esthetic value as ornament. “While their injuries are not at first so apparent, the work of the boring and mining species is not less injurious, and is the more to be feared because its results are not seen until the mischief under the bark is at an advanced stage. The locust borer and the elm bark-beetle are members of this group, both species being common and injurious in Kentucky. The pine bark-beetles and the fruit bark-beetles now be- coming injurious in this State may also be placed here. The greater number of species which attack the trunk are the grubs of beetles. A few are caterpillars (larvæ) of moths. The branches and twigs arè injured by a host of small species, some of which girdle them, others mine them, still other species do serious mischief by placing their eggs in them, while some of the true bugs simply puncture and abstract their p- “ Doubtless the number of insects which feed on the roots of shade trees is large, but the unavoidable difficulties in the way of studying their habits has prevented a very full knowledge of this group.” Mr. Garman treats of the life-histories of the species most destructive in Kentucky at some length. The bagworm is one of the first dis- cussed. This worm “lives in and carries about with it a case made of silk, on the outside of which it fastens bits of leaves, probably to render its detection less easy to birds and other enemies. One may se€ these cases all through the winter adhering to the naked twigs of both decidu- ous and evergreen trees, the worms having taken the precaution t0 fasten them there by wrapping the twigs with silk. The case of à g worm measures 1.75 inch in length and its greatest diameter 18 a ‘Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H. * Bulletin No. 47, Kentucky Agr. Experiment Station. 1894,] Entomology. 443 what more than .50 inch. If cases are examined during the winter a large number will be found empty, these being old ones which adhere to the twigs longer than one season, or else are those which produced males. In every one which produced a female the preceding summer will be found an oblong brown cylindrical object tapering a little at one extremity, but blunt and with a ragged opening at the opposite end through which the adult insect escaped; for these are the deserted pupal skins of the female. Each appears at first to be full of a pow- dery material, but on removing some of this the minute soft whitish eggs will be observed packed closely so as to fill the greater part of the skin. ‘ The bag-worm. a, larva; 4, pupa; c, adult female; g, adult male; ¢, bag contain- ing eggs; f, bag containing larva; g, young larvæ, with conical cases, (From Riley)- a The adult female of the bag-worm is a very singular creature, look- ing more like a worm than a moth, incapable of flight, having no rudi- ments of wings, and with only minute and functionless legs. The very scales of the greater part of her body are abortive, and are rubbed off to constitute the powdery material in which the eggs are packed. Being incapable of flight the most she can do is to wriggle down to the opening at the lower end of her case where she meets the winged mate, and then in the same manner wriggles back to her empty pupa egg in which she carefully placed her eggs for safe-keeping during the Winter. Finally with an astonishing solicitude for the walfare of her Prospective young, she deserts the case, drops to the ground, and dies shortly afterward. Is it possible that this pulpy mass, exhausted, with Nothing more to live for, with death certain and at hand, understands 444 The American Naturalist. [May, that adead and putrid body left in the case would work harm to her precious eggs? Anyway she leaves the case.” Mr. Garman photographed a member of the cases from different trees, as shown on the accompanying plate. ‘Those marked a are from red cedar; b, from maple; ¢, from arbor vite ; d, from spruce; and e from white pine. An extended account of the elm borer (Saperda tridentata) is also given. ‘This insect had done serious la tal injury to some of the largest and finest elms in the city of Frankfort. The nature of the damage is well-shown in the plate reproduced herewith. Wash- ing the bark with a mixture of white- wash and Paris green is suggested as a preventive measure. Elm-borer: larva and adult. Larval Habits of Brachinus.—Mr. H. F. Wickham records (in the’ Canadian Entomologist) finding in northern Iowa the ia Á species of Brachinus parasitic on the pupæ of Dineutes assimilis. T . larva lies in the cell of its host and extracts the juices from an eee made in one of the wing-pads; the maggot-like body is adorned, s not supported by six very soft and short legs, which can be of er service except perhaps as ‘feelers’ in its dark abode. The p animals were carefully watched and examined several tpn ae until finally the larger one, having withdrawn nearly all the juices iy the pupa and become swollen to an unwieldy size, changed after & J or two of resting into a pupa. htin “ How the Brachinus gets into the cell of it host, whether broug s as a young larva clinging to that of the Dineutes, or deposited A egg by the mother isa mystery tome. When small it is more ally than when larger grown, and with advanced age becomes gradu sie more helpless. In any case the complete adaptation to @ m habit is apparent in the whole structure—the soft, julcy pect protected by chitinous scutes, the weak legs quite useless for geo tory purposes, and the lack of strong locomotive bristles. The Es de ance is almost that of some Hymenopteron, not at all resembling strong raptoreal larve of the Adephaga in general.” im- North American Trypetidæ.—Mr. W. A. Snow pA portant addition to our knowledge of a little-studied family © 1894] Entomology. 445 in his descriptions of North American Trypetidæ, with notes. Good „descriptions of a large number of new species are published, together with valuable notes on the distribution of those already known. Two new genera—Polymorphomyia and Xenochæta—are characterized. Two plates illustrate the wing markings of many species. North American Dolichopodidæ.—Professor J. M. Aldrich in his New Genera and Species of Dolichopodidæ* describes five new species, and characterizes two new genera—Dactylomyia and Metapel- astoneurus. He also gives a table of the species of Sympycnus. Entomological Notes.—At a recent meeting of the Entomological Society of London Mr. S. H. Scudder “exhibited the type-specimen of a fossil butterfly—Prodryas persep hone—found in beds of Tertiary Age at Florissant, Colorado. He said the species belonged to Nymphalide, and the specimen was remarkable as being in more perfect condition than any fossil butterfly from the European Tertiaries. He also said that he had found a bed near the White River on the borders of Utah in which insects were even more abundant than in the Florissant beds.” K. T. Nogakushi of the Imperial University, Tokio, publishes* a preliminary notice of his investigations of the Spermatogenesis of Bom- mori. The author distinguishes four zones in the follicles: the formative, growing, ripening, and that of metamorphosis. _Ata recent London sale a specimen of Chrysophanus dispar sold for SIX pounds, ten shillings; and a pair of Noctua subrosea for six pounds SIX shillings, In his report as Dominion Entomologist for 1893, Mr. James Fletcher discusses a large number of injurious insects affecting various Canadian Crops. ‘Kansas University Quarterly, II, 159-174; Jan., 1894. L. c. 151--157. - Mon. M * Zool. Anzeiger, XVII, 20. 446 The American Naturalist. [May, ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY?’ The non existence. of paleolithic culture.—There appeared in the January number of Tar AMERICAN NaTuRALIsT a criticism by Mr. H. C. Mercer of my recent paper “ On the Evolution of the Art of Working in Stone,” which induces me to ask for space for an answer. My paper in the Anthropologist for July 1893 was necessarily restricted, and, although only a preliminary one, had I thought, made some points clear in the discussion of paleolithic man which appeared to me not to have had particular attention drawn to them. Geology, anatomy and prehistoric archeology are all of the greatest value in the study of the early history and development of the human race, but a study of the technology of archeology, I contended is equally important in determining the mechanical status of the race at any period of its existence. (1) Leontend that “ Teshoa or chip-knife ” making at one blow, or making a “turtle back” at twenty blows (if turtle back is all we want), may be as easy as, but is not easier, than hammering and grind- ing. The present status of archaeological information fully justifies the expression of a doubt that either a “teshoa” or “turtle back” is & completed instrument. (2) That Pottery is recorded as found in the lower European cavé strata, (and the authorities who make the assertion are fully sustained) “warrants a review of the French classification.” (3) “ Why ” Says Mr. Mercer “ men who bored, polished and carved bone, sketched realistic designs, and chipped blades equal in make to Mexican sacrificial knives did not polish stone, seems incomprehensible. But the European museums clearly assert that no polished stone tool has been found in the caves. If true, the fact is conclusive against Mr. McGuire.” i One of the chief points which my paper raised was, that the ability to do these things (bone polishing ete.) was sufficient proof of itself a those who did them could and did polish stone tools, and further, S% polishing required less acquaintance with the fracture of stones; *! tools, and less technical ability, than was necessary in chipp™g aking stone, and in scraping and etching bone, etc. ! This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania. Bi Se Re ee ee e 1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 447 I do not deny that the hammer was used for many different pur- poses, but assert that its shape proves it to be intended for stone work- ing, and not for corn bruising. (4) I think that this is answered under No.1. I deny that the “Coup-de-poing ” materially differs from the “turtle-back.” Both are apparently unfinished implements. The “turtle-back” presents its refractory part in a ridge down the center of a proposed implement. The refractory part of a “ coup-de-poing ” is on its periphery, and is generally due to a knot in the stone. No two stones have the same fracture ; the same stone will show a variety of fracture in a given vein, (5) Polished implements have been found in the caves also in the clays, and in the bogs; in localities entitling them to be classed as of the quaternary period with as much claim of right as any chipped stone. (6) Admits that pottery is not to be expected in the drift. The admission that European cave classification requires revision carries with it the admission that it is erroneous. I fully realize that it is considered by a very large class of archeolo- gists as heterodox, to deny the existence of a paleolithic period. The classification of paleolithic periods into those of St. Acheul, Chelles, Mousterian, Magdalenian, etc., is demonstrably inaccurate, and needs revision and simplification. The advocates of paleolithic man assert that his mechanical development was so low, that the only stone work which he was capable of performing, was to knock flakes from stones with afew blows at most and subsequently to use them as cutting implements, by holding them in the naked hand, yet they admit that While he was in this low stage of mechanical development he was pos- sessed of artistic attainments, and that he could and did etch or engrave the representations of animals on stone, bone and ivory and that he could at this time make the gravers and other tools which such Work required. : They further assert that he went through a distinct period extending over centuries, in the gradual development of the art of chipping stone, until finally he made chipped implements of exquisite shape whic cannot now be duplicated. At the time when he had scarcely learned to chip rough flakes on one side, it is shown that Paleolithic man made needles of bone with eyes carefully drilled through them, apr he made bone pins and ground them, that he fashioned spear heads 0 bones with barbs or opposite sides, that he organized Soa ment and recognized in the Batons-de-Commandment the insignia of rank ; these articles being found with an arctic fauna necessitate the 448 The American Naturalist. [May, admission that he was sufficiently clothed to resist the cold, if so, he must have possessed fire and shelter, all of which would require intelligence. It cannot be denied that with such weapons as he possessed, he success- fully attacked a fauna more powerful, and presumably more ferocious, than any now known to man. Man cracked the bones of these ani- mals, and had, it is asserted, a particular shape of spoon with which to extract the marrow, yet it is seriously argued that man in a cultural state such as indicated, had not learned the art of rubbing one stone against another in order to give it a cutting edge, but did rub one piece of ivory on a stone to smooth it for the reception of an engraving on it of a mastodon. Ivory is little at all softer than certain of the stones from which the so-called Neolith was often made. My experi- ments and my reason and every hour’s work I have done, convince me that with our present data no one has the right to divide the stone age into a chipped and polished age, much less to divide the chipped age as has been done. The argument has no reliable evidence to support it. I am sure I will be judged leniently when I claim that an intelligent study of archeology depends for its value upon some different classifi- cation than now sustains it. Whether such classification can be made upon some such basis as was laid down twenty years ago by Prof. Otis T. Mason, or (if the classification is to be confined to stone implements alone,) whether that of DeMortil- let or of Holmes will develop in the most valuable hypothesis, I cannot say. Iam inclined, however, to believe in that of the latter, if there » added to it an arrangement to study the handles of implements, the development of attachment of the same, and the rapidity with which they may be worked, for the working part of most implements show little change in form from the earliest known. J. D. McGuire? Professor W. Boyd Dawkins on Paleolithic Man in Europe —How much Prehistoric Archeology leans upon Paleontology om recently been shown by Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins (Journal of the An : Inst. of Grt. Britain and Ireland, Feb., 1894, p. 242) in a com p by fossils and human remains, of the two great divisions of prehistorie time in Europe. He thus compares them: (a) The earlier period, called Paleolithic, now cold, now hot, Hippopotamus, Mammoth, Rhinoceros, Musk Ox, Reindeer, Hyena, Cave Lion and Cave Bear, with man a nomad hunter lacking all domestic animals, who chipped but could not polish stone, and ? Of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. of the Cave PLATE XL. Bag-worm cases on various trees. PLATE Xi Elm with bark removed, showing injury by borers. 1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 449 (b) The later time, called Neolithic, of still existing species and cli- mate, with man an agriculturist possessor of the dog, goat and hog, who chipped and could also polish stone and make pottery. Prof. Dawkins passes by the questioner who might here ask whether the first described man was really paleolithic, and accepts without hes- itation the two custom honored titles, Paleolithic and Neolithic, as labels for his paleontological periods. But if M. Dupont found the celebrated earthen bowl along with boar, horse, urus, chamois, goat, wildcat, hare, beaver, and reindeer bones, in the Trou du Frontal (on the Lesse near Furfooz) and at the Engis Cave (near Liege), a potsherd at the same spot where Dr. Schmerling had found his “ Philosopher’s” skull along with Mam- moth, horse, hyena and bear bones in 1833; and if a bit of pottery was really found in the layer of cave bear, cave lion, rhinoceros, hyena, bison and mammoth bones, at Surignac Cave (Haute Garrone, France), after a farmer named Bonnemaison had mixed up the layers and lost the human bones; if pottery was found in the alleged paleo- lithic caves of Nabrigas (Prof. Joly), Vergisson (M. Fery), and Trou Rosette; and if MM. de Puydt and Lohest found three burned pot- sherds about nine feet down in the La Biche aux Roches Cave (near Spy, Belgium), under elephant and rhinoceros bones; then the word paleolithic, devised to signify an early non-pottery-making, non-stone- polishing stage of human culture, would lose mnch of its meaning. Sir John Lubbock, when called upon to defend his word and its notion that man chipped a long time before he polished stone, cannot look for support to the flaking Australians, who, in the Kamalarai Country, used a ledge of. sandstone rock as an axe polisher (Frazer's Aborigines of New South Wales, Sydney, p. 76) and often ground tomahawks and grooved axes (Brough Smith’s Aborigines of Victoria, 1, p. 366, figs. 177, 178, 183, 189); though he may, it seems, look to the recently (about 1850) extinct Tasmanians, who never appear to have Polished or got beyond chipping stone tools that resemble what M. de Mortillet calls Mousterian flakes. It is the paradoxical mixing of the fauna of the above named earlier or paleolithic time in Europe that chiefly interests Prof. Dawkins and Would call for such explanations as alternate periods of heat and cold, as hippopotamus and reindeer migrations, and as the preservation of animal carcasses in ice as food for later carnivora; to account for certain caves where, to the confusion of the naturalist, the bones of the boreal Mammoth and tropical Hippotamus are mixed together, 30 450 . The American Naturalist. [May, and heat loving spotted hyenas have gnawed the fresh bones of the arctic reindeer. Puzzles like these may be finally explained by the study of such superposed plistocene layers as those of Abbeville, which, according to M. G. d’Ault du Mesnil, indicate that the fauna grew newer anda warm climate became colder as we approach the latest bed, as follows: SOMME GRAVELS, ABBEVILLE. (a) UPPER TERRACE (oldest). Elephas antiquus, E. primigenius, Rhinoceros merkii, R. tichorinus, Hippopotamus major, Ursus speleus, Cervus megacerus, Hyena spelea, Macherodus cultridens, Trogontherium cuvieri, Equus caballus, Bos primigenius. (b) MIDDLE TERRACE. Elephas antiquus (declining), E. primigenius, R. tichorninus (increas- ing), Equus caballus, Cervus elaphus, Bison priscus, Rhinocerus merkit (declining), Hippopotamus major, Ursus speleæus, Oervus megaceros, Hyena spelea, Macherodus cultridens, Trogontherium cuvieri, Equus caballus, Bos primigenius. (c) Lower Terrace (latest). Elephas primigenius, Equus caballus (dominant), Rhinocerus ticho- rinus (numerous), Reindeer, Cervus elephus, Cervus tarandus, Bos primigenius, Ursus (not determined) and Cyrena fluminalis. Turning to the associated human remains, in Prof. Dawkins’ first period, cave runs into cave and rock shelter into Drift so unclassifiably _ that we had better, he thinks, stop subdividing the epoch into Mousterian, Solutrian and Magdalenian, and call it all by one na™® Paleolithic. (period a) Drift Specimens was enough to call a halt to the gatherer and the labeller by type and, we might add, clear the rs E ENEE a E I E I EE A EET A 1894,] Archeology and Ethnology. 451 museums of Europe of many hastily classified “ paleoliths.” Perhaps this was the same kind of Drift likeness that I had observed in April, 1893, among the ruder incipient forms at the (period b) Neolithic quarry of Spiennes in Belgium (The Archæologist, July, 1893. Am. Narurauist, Nov., 1893). But at Spiennes as at all other quarries that I have studied and mutually compared, it is evident that the results of each blade maker’s workshop, by which alone we can explain the wastrels, must be first understood. Whatever the similarity between Neolithic Cissbury and the paleolithic Drift (and the British Museum specimens show none) neolithic Spiennes does not come much nearer the paleolithic drift workshop of Abbeville, through the similarity of rudest wasters in either case, than it does to Flint Ridge, io. If Prof. Dawkins recognizes no human chipped implement grading out of his Paleolithic period, so he will not with Prof. Prestwich allow the work of a more primitive alleged predecessor of the Drift man to grade into it, holding that the variously nicked flints “ Plateau imple- ments” found by Mr. B. Harrison on the high Kentish downs are of ift and not pre-Drift age. But he does not clearly say whether he thinks that these curious specimens are blade refuse, finished implements or, as Mr. W. G. Smith of Dunstable (who writes me that he has found many in the Drift-blade bearing gravels at Caddington) regards them, the work of nature. Prof. Dawkins showed also at the meeting a good example of a modern “ paleolith,” a North American Indian soapstone quarry pick, and with it a stone tool very modern yet simpler in form than any Paleolith, one of Dr. Leidy’s much ignored and often misunderstood “teshoas,” seen used by Utes, together with a set of Trenton specimens obtained by Prof, Dawkins and which he said should, with their fel- lows collected by Dr. Abbott and Professors Putnam, Hay pom Morse, , and Shaler, be placed, until further proof be furnished, in a sus- pense account. —H. C. MERCER. 452 The American Naturalist. [May, PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. National Academy of Sciences.—This body met in Washing- ton, D. C., April 17th. The following papers were read. I. Histolog- ical Characteristics of Certain Alpine Plants, G. L. Goodale. II. Cor- rosions by Roots, G. L. Goodale. III. An Investigation of the Aberra- tion and Atmospheric Refraction of Light, with a Modified Form of the Loewy Prism Apparatus, George C. Comstock (Presented by $. Newcomb). IV. Biographical Memoir of John Le Conte, Joseph Le Conte. V. The Coral Reefs of the Bermudas, A. Agassiz. VI. The So-called Serpule Reefs of the Bermudas, A. Agassiz. VII. The Bathymetrical Extension of the Pelagic Fauna, A. Agassiz. VIII. New Method of Determining the Relative Affinities of Certain Acids, M. Carey Lea. IX. On the Change of Young’s Modulus of Elasticity with Variation of Temperature, as Determined by the Transverse Vibration of Bars of Various Temperatures, A. M. Mayer. X. On the Production of Beats and Beat-tones by the Covibration of two sounds, so high in pitch, that when separately sounded they are inaudible, A. M. Mayer. XI. On the Motions of Resonators and Other Bodies Caused by Sound Vibrations, with Experimental Illustrations ; abo > Reclamation, A. M. Mayer. XII. On Late Researches on the Varia- tion of Latitude, S. C. Chandler. XIII. On the Infra-red Spectrum S. P. Langley. XIV. The Bacteria of River Water, J. S. Billings. XV. The Influence of Light Upon the Bacillus of Typhoid, and the Colon Bacillus, J. S. Billings. XVI. Recent Gravity Instruments and Results, T. C. Mendenhall. XVII. The Geographical Distribution of Fishes, Theo. Gill. XVIII. Note on a Possible Increase in the Ulti- mate Defining Power of the Microscope, C. S. Hastings. XIX. The Internal Energy of the Wind, S. P. Langley. __ No election of members was had. The Academy discussed a p! division into classes without reaching a definite conclusion. an of NaturalfScience?Association of Staten Island, Februry sn 1894.—Mr. William T. Davis exhibited specimens of the seventee year locust found in various years since 1877, and read the following paper. THE SEVENTEEN YEAR LOCUST ON STATEN ISLAND. : — os ear Our island will resound, with the rattling song of the seventeen be Harvest fly or “ Locust,” during the latter part of next May a? 1894,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 453 the month of June, and it may not be uninteresting in view of the fact, to give a short account of the species in connection with this locality. It must be borne in mind that while Cicada septendecim Linn. appears at intervals of seventeen years, its advent is not in the same year in all of the middle states, or in all the counties of this State, but that there are separate broods or colonies, that emerge in great numbers in districts of varying extent, the limits of which are not sharp or well defined. Thus it happens that while there is a certain brood that appears periodically on our island, and attracts at such times general attention, there are also other years when the Cicada occurs in small numbers. At such times it will often be found that a brood is emerg- ing not many miles away, and that the island lies within the outer margin of the territory. This matter of distribution and much more regarding the seventeen year Cicada, and the more southern thirteen year form, has been recorded by Professor Riley in Bulletin No. 8 of the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Division of Entomology. Professor J. A. Lint- ner, New York State Entomologist, also gives, in his second annual report, the distribution of the Cicada in this State, noting five broods as occurring within its limits. ! In 1826 this Cicada appeared in great numbers on the island, as I have been informed by my grandmother ; in 1843 they came again, a recorded by Thoreau, and still again in 1860 and in 1877. In the latter year I saw many tree trunks and fences brown with their cast pupa skins, and the whir of their flight and monotonous song, could be eard in every direction. Dr. Fitch, in 1855, wrote of the seventeen year Cicada and records this brood as inhabiting the valley of the Hudson River. Since his time, the various broods in different parts of the country, have been numbered for convenience, and the one inhab- an the valley of the Hudson and Staten Island, is known as No. During the visitation of 1877, I noticed that many of the Cicadas me affected by the singular fungus Massospora cieadina Peck. Men the insects were alive and walking about the fences and the ue trunks, if the abdomens of the infected individuals were suddenly jarred, they gave forth a cloud of innumerable spores. It has been stated that Y injured specimens are attacked by this fangus, n d toward the latter part of the season. Since 1877, the seventeen year Cicada has not appeared on tar d in great numbers, and probably but few have been noti : “xcept by those who have looked for them. The facts connected with 454 The American Naturalist. [May, appearance, as far as known to me, may be arranged chronologically as follows: 1881, BROOD xvitt. While collecting insects with Mr. Leng in the neighborhood of Watchogue, we found a red-eyed Cicada pupa under a stone, and on the 5th of June, eight specimens were collected, many of them being wet, having but recently emerged. By the 12th of June, they had become quite numerous, and I counted about one tree near Silver Lake, fifty-two pupa skins. The brood to which these insects belonged does not appear in great numbers in the east, but is mainly located in Wisconsin and the neighboring States. Staten Island, Essex Co., New Jersey, and Germantown, Penna., were apparently, the only eastern localities from which the insect was reported in 1881. 1885, BROOD XXII. I made special search this year for the Periodical Cicada, as one of the most widely extended broods known, was to make its appearance. On the western end of Long Island in the neighborhood of Brooklyn, . they came in some numbers, and also sparingly in New Jersey, the main body in the east, however, occuring in Pennsylvania and thence southwestward. ‘ On the Island the insects must have been quite scarce. Mr. James Raymond and I, were walking along a wood-path in the Clove Valley on the 4th of July, when we found a wing that probably some bird had pulled off a red-eyed Cicada, as they so often do. To those who are acquainted with the character of the wings of this insect, their colors ete., this will constitute ample authority for its presence. In the autumn, an old pupa skin was collected, and the following April, another was found at South Amboy, New Jersey. 1888. On the 16th of June while in the valley of Logan’s Spring Brook I heard a z-ing in the distance like that produced by the seventeen year Cicada. As it stopped shortly and was not repeated the search was abandoned. Eight days later, when by the same brook the song Ma again heard, and this time followed to apparently the same tree werd whence it came on the previous occasion. After some search t insect was detected on the under side of the limb, and captured. 9%; of its fore wings was deformed so that it was unable to fly, and of gue must have been born in the immediate vicinity. This was the ony individual seen during this year. 1804.) Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 455 1889. Brood No. VIII was expected to appear in southern Massachusetts, on Long Island and in parts of Pennsylvania and West Virginia in the summer of 1889. It returned, according toa note in Vol. 1, No. 4, of the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, in considerable numbers in parts of North Carolina and West Virginia, and in less numbers in the District of Columbia, Maryland and New Jersey. The only evidence that the seventeen year Cicada occurred on Staten Island in 1889, consists of a pupa skin found on a grass stem during the summer by Mr. Jos. C. Thompson, and kindly given to me. 1890. During this year the Cicada was not expected to occur in any part of the country. In June and July, I found in a garden in New Brighton, three pupa skins, and my sister discovered one of the perfect insects on the trunk of a pear tree, but it was unfortunately destroyed by the family cat. Mr. Leng also found a red-eyed Cicada on an apple tree near the Moravian Cemetery, while he was “ beating” for Longi- corns, j On the 8th of September 1890, I found, in a hill of potatoes, a live red-eyed Cicada pupa, which I endeavored to rear, but without success. 1892. On June 5th, I heard a seventeen year Cicada at West New Brighton, and the next day Mr. Leng’s children caught me a speci- men, and a few days later a second example. On the 11th of June there Were many of the Cicadas singing in the high trees about Logan’s Spring Brook, and on the 12th, I heard one near Rossville. 1893. On June 11th, the Cicadas were fairly numerous in the woods along low Brook, and later in the month I heard them along Logan’s Spring Brook. Mr. Leng’s children also gave me two specimens from garden at West New Brighton. : {tis well-known that a few seventeen year Cicadas often make their “Ppearance in the year previous to their. general visitation, 50 that those collected in 1893, and even in 1892, may have been precursors a of the general swarm which is to come early next summer, that is, _ “venteen years from the visitation of May and June, 1877. 456 The American Naturalist. - oo March 10.—Mr. L. P. Gratacap exhibited pieces of a drift bowlder containing fossils, and read the following paper : ADDITIONS TO THE DRIFT FOSSILS OF STATEN ISLAND, ' These specimens represent the remainder of one of the bowlders found by Mr. Arthur Hollick, at Prince’s Bay, last autumn, mentioned in our Proceedings for Nov. 11, 1893. The rock is a lower Helderberg limestone, somewhat crystalline and shaly, and affords numerous fossils, conspicuous among which is Stro- pheodonta varistriata var. arata Hall, a fossil brachiopod characterized by a very convex ventral valve and by prominent ribs, which are scored by numerous delicate striae, easily discernible under a low mag- nifying power. This fossil assumes some importance, in its numerical representation, in the lower Helderberg beds of Becraft’s Mountain, east of the Hudson River, in Columbia Co., and the most easterly exposure of the Helderberg series of strata in New York State. It seems safe, from this fact, and a close lithological similarity in the material of the bowlders with the Becraft stone, to conclude that this “wanderer” commenced its travels southward from that distant point. Associated with it are a few lamellibranchs, which are seen less com- monly in our drift material, and were actually less important elements in the Helderberg Sea. These are Pterinea communis Hall, Pterinopee- ten bellula Hall, and Aviculopecten umbonata Hall, all new to the Island. Upon one of these Pterina communis there is the half effaced trace of a pygidium or tail of Lichas digsbyi Hall, a trilobite and one common species, usually found in separated heads and tails. Its iden- tification as Lichas is unquestionable, but in the complete absence of any considerable evidence, from the poor nature of the specimen, It 18 not certainly separated from L. pustulosus. If bigsbyi, as is probable, it also indicates Becraft’s Mountain as its origin. Amongst the brachio- podous remains in these fragments we find Rensselæria mutabilis Hall, Meristella bella Hall, and Orthis eminens Hall, all new in our Island finds. Besides these molluscs there are seen, in these fossil remains plain and broad sheets, or fronds, of the bryozoan Lichenalia, showing both the poriferous and non-poriferous surfaces. The species I J unable at once to determine. Besides this there is a fenestrated poly- zoan, Fenestella œsyle Hall, as far as I can fix on its specific nature. The heteropod Platyceras gebhardii Hall is another new species although this reference may be doubtful, as in this genus of shells ee Species run insensibly into each other and the present multiplication g these specific names seems provisional. 1894,] i Proceedings of Scientific Societies. | 457 Amongst these specimens are two Oriskany sandstone species, Rens- seleria ovalis and Platyceras nodosus, which were detached by Mr. Hol- lick from the same bowlder which yielded the Helderberg fossils. This places the rock in the upper Lower Helderberg strata, probably the Upper Pentamerus beds, and exhibits the faunal emergence of the life of the Oriskany Ocean. This find illustrates still further, if illus- tration was necessary, the paleontological importance of our drift material and provides additional incentives to further investigation. Mr. Thomas Craig exhibited a living myxomycete under the micro- scope and read the following paper : SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF A MYXOMYCETE. In Bennett and Murray’s book on Cryptogamie Botany mention is made of this form of life as the sixth sub-division. It is placed between the fungi and the protophyta; but at the end of their description they say: “We are justified in placing these organisms outside the limits of the vegetable kingdom.” Dallinger, in his edition of Carpenter on the Microscope, places them in the animal kingdom, in close affinity with the rhizopods. Saville Kent, after prolonged investigation placed them in the animal kingdom. All these writers follow DeBary, who in 1859 first pub- lished the result of his researches, and his conclusions that they were ore nearly allied to animals than plants. DeBary’s conclusions were fully confirmed by Saville Kent, who traces the development as follows: Suppose the existence of a sporangium ; this bursts and lib- -€rates the spores which in presence of water give birth to a globular protoplasmic body, which becomes after a time a flagellate infusorian, capable of ingesting solid food. It then loses its flagelle and becomes an Ameba. Two of these conjugate and attract a number of other like bodies, or become joined to them in some way not understood. These form what is known as a plasmodium, a portion of which I exhibit under the microscope. This plasmodium is capable of sppr ently voluntary motion. It goes forward and retreats by a flowing motion, carrying embedded in its substance various species of algae Which it has captured as food. There is a remarkable resemblance in the mode of movement between the myxomycetes and the proteomyxa. The same flowing motion of the protoplasm and the joining of the fila- ments to form larger ones. he reason for the foregoing prelude is February I have been watching one of the myxomyce developed in some water taken from the Old Town po that during the month of tes—which has nd—into what 458 The American Naturalist. ; [May, may be called its animal stage. In the glass jar in which it isgrowing | it resembles a miniature tree of many branches, flattened against the glass. Before it made its appearance the glass jar was so covered with growth of algae that one could not see through it. As soon asthe myxomycete made its appearance and had travelled a short distance, ‘the glass on that part over which it passed was comparatively clear. Now that the myxomycete has gone several times round the jar, the glass is quite transparent. I took some measurements of its rate of progress, On Feb. 26, from 2.15 p. m. to 8.45 p. m. it had travelled 1} inches. Feb. 27, at 9 p. m. the distance covered was 63 inches. Feb. 28, a 9 p. m. 10} inches, March 1, at 9 p. m. 154 inches. _ So you will observe the rate of progress is not uniform, but the aver- age rate of progress was 5-26ths inch per hour. A curious circum- stance is that while the plant life disappears in all parts of the glass over which the myxomycete moves, it does not seem to interfere with the animal life on the glass. There are a large number of the brown Hydra and numerous small worms, which do not appear to-be affected in any way, although they are surrounded by the plasmodium of the myxomycete. I have not been able to definitely name the species, owing to the absence of the sporangium, but from figures I have seen it resembles Didymium serpula. Of course in the foregoing there is nothing very new, but having been fortunate enough to get so fine an example, r favorably located for examination, I thought it might interest ru , the members to see under the microscope, an object about which 80 many diverse views have been held by botanists and pe Apparently the only reason for the botanical claim to it is the foe that in its reproductive stage it forms sporangia like some of the fung!, while on the other hand, from its first appearance in the water oF damp places it acts precisely like an animal in its mode of progres and its way of taking in and digesting solid foods. MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL EXHIBITED. Mr. L. W. Freeman presented a mastodon’s tooth, obtained from Staten Island Sound by Mr. Seeley Van Pelt, while tonging for °%* ters. Its value was not understood by the finder, who allowed it ps thrown away with the refuse oyster shells, into Old Place Creek, whence it was recovered by Mr. Freeman. 1894,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 459 Boston Society of Natural History, March 7.—The follow- ing papers were read: Mr. F. P. Gulliver, The Newtonville sand plain; Mr. J. B. Woodworth, Some typical eskers of southern New England. April 4th.—The following paper was read. Prof. F. W. Putnam: The department of ethnology at the World’s Columbian Exposition, SAMUEL HENSHAW, Secretary. The Biological Society of Washington, March 10.—The following communications were read: Mr. C. H. Townsend, The Ornithology of Cocos Island in its Relation to that of the Galapagos Archipelago ; Mr. B. T. Galloway, A Hexenbesen of Rubus: Mr. M. B. Waite, The Hexenbesens of Washington and Vicinity. Illustrated with lantern slides. March 24.—The following communications were read: Dr. Theo- bald Smith, On the Significance of Variation among Species of Path- agenic Bacteria; Mr. Vernon Bailey, On some Bones from a Cave in Arizona; Mr. C. D. Walcott, On some Appendages of the Trilobite ; On the Occurrence of Fossil Meduse in the Middle Cambrian Ter- rane. April 7,—The following subject was discussed. What is a Living Cell? FREDERIC A. Lucas, Secretary. 460 The American Naturalist. [May, SCIENTIFIC NEWS. Agriochcerus and Artionyx.—Mr. Hatcher has lately collected and sent to me from the White River bad lands of South Dakota a number of specimens of the genus Agriocherus Leidy. This material demonstrates the fact that the genus Artionyx of Osborn and Wortman is a synonym of Agriocherus and very probably, that the specimens which I described under the name of ? Mesonyx dakotensis from the same horizon, should be referred to the same or to some closely allied animal. A description of this extraordinary type will very soon be published. W. B. Scort. The Haeckel Celebration.—On the 16th of February, Ernst Haeckel completed the sixtieth year of his life. On the 17th, the little town of Jena, in whose University Haeckel is Professor of Zoology, was thronged by a great crowd of his friends, pupils and admirers, among whom may be specially mentioned the Hertwigs (Oscar and Richard), Waldeyer, Arnold Lang and Hermann Credner, besides many well known professors of Jena itself. The chief ceremony of the day was the uncovering of the marble bust of the great scientific worker and writer, from the chisel of the eminent sulptor, Professor Kopf of Rome. At noon the lecture-theatre of the Zoological Institute, in which the greater part of Haeckel’s life work has been carried on, was crammed from floor to ceiling, and Professor R. Hertwig, of Munich, the pupil, friend and colleague of Haeckel, was called upon to unveil the bust. In an admirably-worded speech be alluded to the main facts of Haeckel’s life, and especially to his labors in the cause of science and scientific freedom. The unveiling of the striking bust was the signal of a great outburst of applause, and when this had subsided, a deputa- tion from some societies, the Medicinishe-naturwissensch 5 Ge- sellschaft of Jena and the Geographische Gesellschaft of Thüringen, world; he especially alluded to the gratifying fact that many r tions had come from France. As a consequence of this, the to ENEN NESE E TE ET EES - 1894.) Scientific News. 461 amount exceeded the cost of the bust by at least £300, and this sum he had pleasure in placing in the hands of Professor Haeckel, for him to devote to such purpose as he might think best in the interests of science. After the ceremony, and after Professor Haeckel had, not without emotion, acknowledged the honors showered upon him, the elect among the visitors adjourned to a banquet in the Hotel Zum Biren, where covers were laid for about 120 of both sexes. The day concluded with the characteristic German institution, a “ Commers,” in which almost all the students in Jena seemed to be taking part. Cheers for the Pro- fessor, songs and speeches in his honor, mingled with the clinking of glasses, enlivened the old university till a late hour at night—Natural Science, March. Mr. Henry O. Forbes, well known for his interesting account of his travels through the Eastern Archipelago, has been appointed Curator of the Liverpool Museum. Dr. J. Boehm, the botanist, of Vienna, is dead at the age of 62. Richard Spruce, the botanist, died at Coneysthorpe, England, Dec. 29, 1893, at the age of 76. He traveled extensively in his younger years and accumulated one of the most valuable herbaria in England ; he also published numerous botanical papers, but he will longest be known from his successful efforts in introducing the Cinchona plants into India. Dr. Friedrich Zschokke has been made ordinary professor of zoology in the University of Basel, in the place of Prof. Dr. L. Riitimeyer ired. retire _ Dr. J. Vosseler, formerly of Tübiugen is privat-docent of Zoology in the technical high school of Stuttgart. Dr. W. Migula, formerly docent, has been made Professor of Botany and Bacteriology in the technical high school at Karlsruhe. _ Dr. Saposchnikoff has become Professor of Botany at the Univer- sity of Tamsk, Siberia. Mr. R. T. Günther is to be science tutor in the Magdalen College, Oxford. 462 The American Naturalist. [May, The library of the late Prof. A. Milnes Marshall has been given to Owens College, Manchester, by his friends and executors. The Sixth Geological Congress will meet in Ziirich from August 20 to September 2, 1894. Dr. Justus Karl Hasskarl], the botanist, who introduced the cultiva- tion of Cinchona into Java, died at Cher, Prussia, Jan. 5, 1894. Edmond Frémy, Director of the Museum of Natural History at Paris, is dead. Alexander Theodor von Middendorf, the Arctic explorer, died Jan. 28, 1894. He was born in St. Petersburg in 1815. Dr. K. Zelinka of Graz has been appointed extraordinary professor of zoology in the University of Vienna. The list of literature in the current volume of the “Zoologischer Anzeiger” has been greatly improved, not only by being brought out more promptly than heretofore but by the addition of abstracts of a few lines stating the substance of the article. It may be that editors and publishers were spurred up to this by the announcement of the “Zoologisches Centralblatt,” the first number of which bears date Feby. 1, 1594. This new publication is designed to furnish abstracts of the principal articles at the earliest possible moment. Tt is edited by Dr. A. Schuberg of Karlsruhe, with the assistance of Professors Biitschli of Heidelberg and Hatschek of Prag. The first number, containing 40 pages, is not remarkably strong. The San Francisco Microscopical Society extends a cordial invita- tion to those interested in microscopy to visit its rooms, 432 Montgom- ery St., San Francisco, Cal., and to attend its meetings the first an third Wednesday of each month. The officers for 1894-95 are Prof. W. E. Ritter, president; W. E. Loy, vice-president; F. E. Crofts, recording secretary; G. O. Mitchell, corresponding secretary ; C. C. Riedy, treasurer. : The following is the list of officers of the Zoological Sociéty of Philadelphia: President, Charles Platt; Vice-president, J. Vaughn Merrick; Corresponding Secretary, Prof. H. C. Chapman; Treasure", William Hacker ; Directors, W. H. Merrick, I. J. Wistar, c. W. Trotter, F. S. Fassitt, G. C. Morris, F. W. Lewis, M. D., C. M. 1894.] Scientific News. 463 C. C. Febinger, D. S. Sellers, S. G. Dixon, M. D., J. B. Henry, J. B. Leonard. Hon. Walter Rothschild proposes to publish a periodical in connec- tion with his museum at Tring, under the title of “Novitates Zoologicæ.” It will contain papers on mammals, birds, etc., and also discussions on questions of zoological or paleontological interest. Descriptions of new species will be confined almost entirely to those of which the types belong to the Tring Museum, and the other articles will, for the most part, be founded on work carried on at that museum or on speci- mens sent by Mr. Rothschild’s collectors. From the March number of Forest and Stream we learn that the buffalo in Yellowstone Park are again being harassed by hunters. A year ago this winter several buffalo were killed; last spring and the spring before, a number of calves were captured ; this winter ten buf- falo have been slaughtered at a single killing. At this rate it will not be long before the last shall have been shot down. It is for the people to say whether or not they desire this. Dr. Robert Lamborn has presented a valuable library of archeology to the University of Pennsylvania. The Zoological Garden of Philadelphia purchased the orang-outang which was on exhibition in the Javanese Village at Chicago. Itis a very intelligent and cheerful animal. Subsequently it acquired a pair of Cheetahs, and the rare Felis egra and F. jaguarondi from Mexico. Extracts from examination papers: . “ The meganucleus breaks up, the micronucleus breaks down.” “I don’t quite understand the differ- ence between Bacterier and posterior.” 464 The American Naturalist. [May, TO ep Subscribers. te YeSAs a great many subscribers are in ARREARS we would be much obliged to them if they ‘Se would kindly and promptly remit, knowing that ®° in many instances it has been merely through an oversight that it has not been done before. The Edwards & Docker Co., 518 Minor Street, eee PHILADELPHIA. os O ADVERTISEMENTS. 7 A I ° Histological Material. on IC Q EPTILES and Batrach- For Brain-Workers, the Weak sae Nath inlie ana and Debilitated. be ge ila Horsford’s Acid Phosphate Bird and Mammal Skins. is without exception, the Best Remedy for relieving Mental and Nervous Exhaustion; and where the system has become H. H. & C. S. BRIMLEY, debilitated by disease, it acts | ‘RALEIGH, X. O. as a general tonic and vitalizer, | = Write for price lists of the above to affording sustenance to both The Edwards & Docker Co., brain and body. . AE phate naee $ Dr. E. Cornell Esten, Philadel- Printers ier: phia, Pa., says: “I have met with the ANDi greatest and most satisfactory results . in dyspepsia and general derangement e „1 PUL gherg, of the cerebral and nervous systems, | - causing debility and exhaustion.” Nos. 518-520 Minor Street, eel pamphlet free. Philadelphia, U. S. A. mical Works, Providence, R. I. r TOVEZOnS®, ™ = | TORACE BINDER, Beware of Substitutes and Imitations. MANAGER. AE ae Minerals, Rocks, Fossils, Casts of Fossils, Geological Relief Maps, Stuffed Animals and Skins, Mounted Skeletons, Anatomical Models, Invertebrates. Ward's Matura! Science Establishment Mineralogy, Geology, Paleontology, Zoology, Osteology, Anatomy, ; Send for Circular. ; ROCHESTER, N. Y. ENTOMOLOGICAL CATALOGUES. By wW. F. Kirby, F. lL. S., F. E. S. Assistant in Zoological Dept. British Museum (Natural History), S. 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NOTION AND DEFINITION OF NUMBER, Prof. Hermann Schubert; Hamburg, Germany. itor. f z al wm 7 > ba] < Qo P Fad pi n a) Zz 0 w Z France, Lucien Arrèa CRITICISMS AND Deoa] Logic as Relation i. Rejoinder to M. Mouret. F. C Rus ae Book aay S. EPITOME phe oe OF PHILOSOPHICAL PERIODICALS. CHICAGO: THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO. t PRICE, 50 cts.; YEARLY, $2.00. London: WATTS & CO.,17 ward s Court, Fleet St., E. C. Price in England ne U. P. U., 2s 6d.; Yearly, 9s 6d The secs cata ANTIQUARIAN and ORIENTAL JOURNAL. lished at 175 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, il. Edited by STEPHEN D. PEET, Goop Horeg, Itt. Bi-Monthly. Price, $4.00 Per Year. The First Magazine Devoted to Archeology and Ethnology established in America, Ithasn0¥ reached its Sixteenth Volume, which promises to be the Best of the Series Among the Attractions for 1894 are the follo — dian tribes, A series of articles, accompanied with maps, on the Bor: "E and locations of In under the title : 'hamberlain,, Dr. William Wallace Tooker, Mr. A: ‘Watkins, Rev. George Patterson, and other s * Footprints of the Aborigines.” By Rev. William M. Beauchamp, Prof. LA Chan Sa series of M. Ste Pueblos and Cliff Dwellers, by J. Walter Fewkes, of the Hemingway Rag pee sO y Deb D. phens, of Keam’s Canon, and others. Also on the * Characteristics of the Amelin eens and aiae E wrie of the FA = 3 = a = i] r F r Qa i=] N 2 z g 5 eS w z] a quities. Th b have Ameri ans, and on Prehistoric Contact with Other Continents, Wa “Gone Relics” which H. Wieland a ae nd C. Stani u Wake and Ka : amber wi grer e EAT are Sto R. Seever, and S. recently come to light, by Dr. J. D. oe Hi Smith, William oou ev. W.C a huee ar ai tu Palestin e and t. by Prof. T. F. ERE Co lege, and Peras. by ime D.D, F Exp! “aor sii in roe Tiagra Babylonia, Índia, China, and in © £ books on PEF The ted of the American Antiquarian is ee a series © COLUMBIAN TIMES, and now alles the following to the p i; e Mound-Builders—their Works and Relics, - . Pric 1. Animal Effigies and eee ee. ee : ou Vol. $4.00 or with American Naturalist 4000 The American Antiquarian will be furnished with The Naturalist for $6.00. ADVERTISEMENTS. ttt AMERICAN MONTHLY MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 14TH YEAR, 1893. PRICE INCREASED TO $2.00. Beautifully Ulustrated. ORIGINAL ARTICLES by the best writers. Descriptions of Microscopical Methods, pictures of new apparatus, a department of Medical Microxcopy revealing what the instrument is doing to combat disease, Bacterioloyy or the study of Bacilli, Diatoms or Nature’s Jewels, Biological Notes upon the progress in botany, entomology, agriculture and the study of all life by the aid of the grandest of instruments, Recreative Microscopy or the entertain- ment of people who exclaim “Oh! My!” when they look through the golden tube, Microscopical News, the Detection of Crime, Societies and their proceedings, Notices of Books, the Exchange and sale of Slides, etc. THE MICROSCOPE A Dollar Magazine Devoted Strictly to Elementary Microscopy Price $1.00. ) This periodical, now in its 14th year, recently edited by Dr. A. C. Stokes, of Trenton, has been made a magazine for beginners and amateurs and will seek to supply every need of those entering upon this fascinating study. Its Query DEPARTMENT alone, conducted by Dr. S. G. Shanks, of Albany, N. 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E, F, BIGELOW, PUBLISHER, PORTLAND, CON eS oge ADVERTISEMENTS. v The International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science. EDITOR: ALFRED ALLEN, Bath, England. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: Pror. V, LATHAM, D. D. S., F. R. M; S., etc., Chicago nett er a U S A: AE ere EN EENT Se PE FREDERICK GAERTNER, A. M., M. D., etc, ag Pittsburgh, U, : . STEVENSON BROWN, President, ewe l Micro Soc., eai, Canada IL ANDRO VICENTINI, , Chieti, Italy. The following are a portion of the Contents a gee” 1893. , Polarise d Light, and its Application to the Mic ra { Illustrated.) G. H. Bryan, M. A. Reichert’s Hemometer. _( LIlustrated.) i The acto and Its Accessories. inira, F The A Device to take the place of the Camera Lucida in ren (Illustrated.) H. G. Piffard, M. D. A Midwinter Month by the Mediterranean. a bs Bryan, M. A. | ing Tissues and Sections of Tissues in V J: W.P laxton, M. D., Jamaica. i g. orn of Teeth for Histology Bi acti Prof. V. A. Latham. l The Bot f Man Microsco: sAd cal Techn ; Half an hour at the ccs with the late Tuffen West, F. R. M. S., F. L. S., 3 ( ieskai 4 Litho. plea) : Selected seas ma the Postal Micro. Soc. i Books. (Illustrated.) Notes, Queri Correspondence. Revie a United States and Cak $2.75 the year, post free. l Agent: M. A. BOOTH, F. R. M. S,, e. LONGMEADOW, MASS. PLASTER CASTS OF THE FOLLOWING MAMMALIA with dentition in good preservation, made under direction of Professor E. D. Cope may be had by application to Jacob Geisman, 2102 Pine St., Philadelphia. Phenacodus primaevus Cope, (Wyoming) $100.00. AZ» racotherium venticolum Cope, (Wyoming) $50.00. Protohippus micabilis Leidy, skull $7.00. Protohippus pachyops Cope, skulls of adult and young, and P. fossulatus Cope, ‘skull, $5.00 each. Tetrabelodon shepardit Leidy, mandibular ramus and symphysis With two molars, $20.00. Dibelodon tropicus Cope, do., $15.00; Mastodon precursor Cope, last molar $5.00. The horses and Mastodons from the Cenozoic beds of Texas, are uncolored. = he Cad SS ee cicet v ADVERTISEMENTS. PROSPECTUS FOR 1894. $4.00 per Year. $4.60 per Year (Foreign.) 35 cts. per Copy. FFE AMERICAN NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. MANAGING EDITO Prors. E. D. COPE, yond, Pa., and J. he AOL Boston, Mass. ASSOCIATE EDIT Pror. S. BAYLEY, of Colby stag Waterville, a ., Dept. of Petrography. Pror. W. H. HOBBS, Madison, Wis of iindrate Dr. C. E. BESSEY, of The ~ pita ae ie No Traks Dinin; Neb., Dept. of Bota Pror, C. M. WEED, of berea of New Hampshire, Durham, N. H, Dept. of Ento logy. Pror. att A. ANDREWS, of Johns ipa pkins ag ee Baltim ess Dept. of Hackeyolit. R: G, RCER, of the University of Pennsylvania, Dept. of Ao De Ci; D WHITMAN, of Chicago ae. hide. Ill., Dep Sot ge saan Technique. 1867 28th YEAR. 1894, E AMERICAN NATURALIST differs from | to keep its readers informed as to the proceed- l TH most aker Journals in p oe and oer ings of scientific societies and other ese of its editorial corps, which embraces nine | tions for the promotion of science. “t A men, mostly professors in ge rane Univer- | independent of official bodies, S rat e | Sities in Hampshire, Boston, | proper administration of trusts held by t px ass ne a sg hott re, and west | for th nefit of sc nd educatio s to Chicago, Madis Wisc. and guts performing this service it stands alone ar : well as breadth of scope. In this way is | administration, in view O secured also the principal aim of THE NAT- | doing it incurs the hostility of more URALIST, the presentation to the public of the | influential persons. < com- ; latest results of scientific progress in readable T RICAN NATURALIST WaS ~. form, while the just relations of authors menced TWENTY-SEVEN years ago by an ssiz, af | their work and to her are strictly main- | tion of the students of Professor ie for- t - We are especially able to present | Cambridge. 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Among other things recently added to sie secre pe se? are fine Gray Epidote, anere greatly resembling na site, an entirely new type. vontile in beautiful crystallizations fro Hungary. Brillia dlen egg and Angled ia ‘Sardinia, and many others which we be glad to send rate inspect Minerals for apitia or class purposes at the lowest rates. Lists of our systematıc collections or quotations on specially arranged series application. ALOGUEB FREE- (In ordering book A please mention subjects you are interested in.) furnished on DR. A. E. FOOTE, 1224-26-28 North 41st Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U. 8. A w. H. HORN. JOHN J oa) ESTABLISHED 1842. WM. H. HORN & BRO, MANUFACTURERS OF HORN’S STANDARD HARD RUBBER, LEATHER COVERED AND ELASTIC =T TRUSSES,- Abdominal Supporters, Shoulder Braces, Suspensories, Elastic Hosiery, Crutches, Pile Pipes, Ete. Nos. 451, 453 and 455 North Third St., PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. THE YORK ROAD, OLD AND NEW, FOX CHASE AND BUSTLETON, PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. BY Rey. S. F. HOTCHKIN, M. A., Author of “ Mornings of the Bible; “History of Germantown,” etc. This historic highway from Ris- ing Sun Philadelphia to New Hope on the Delaware is carefully treat- ed by the author whose wide ex- perience in historical work renders him particularly fitted for the purpose. The volume contains about 500 pages with numerous photo-cuts, illustrating the points of historic interest and of natural E arti- ficial beauty. a ‘Sold only by subscription, price an half morocco, $5.00 per volume. The Edwards & Docker Co., 518 Minor St... Philadelphia, Pa. AMERICA'S VENERABLE AND ONLY WEEELY ECLECTIO, ENTERING ITS YEAR OF JUBILEE FOR PRE tapaa YEARS Littell’ s Living Age TE ite It selects ‘rom Sn Whole sat field of PETENTE MIRA ae ot ERATURE THE ABLEST “LIV ING WRITERS | i Hep ds department, Biography, H whee A Poeun area Art, ** Only the best fas ever filled its pages the best thought rendered in the pures poor or anwar ha of THE LIVING AGE.’ — The oo. ph £3, 1892 Presbyterian, Phila- S KLY MAGAZINE, it gives more than d . e and a Quarter Tho Pm umn jnas yerik f of matter “Unequalled i in n Quality and "Quantity ; by any other publicatio n the counti J: Ss e coming year THE Lrvinc AGE will con- “— o be Tet REFLEX OF THE AGE IN WEICH IT LIVES. The quirk interest in things historical, has enabled the publishers to make a Most Happy Aerengemes. « t whereby shey can pe one ot ERAL 0 FERS ever aan e ages ie gg econ nan of an patos class of American ani viz.: a $5.00 c RIDPATH’S HISTORY OF F THE U . 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E t ituation: — -< Ev. in For $1 E LIVING any the American $4 monthlies (or Harper s Weekly or r) will be sent for a year, pep or, for $9.50, THE kome AcE and Scribner's Magazine or the St. Nich Rates for prees Tue Lrvine AcE with more then ts Te peri riodical will be erie on application. Sam ag of THE LIVING A LITTELL y ‘American monthlies, a stb- d hole z, 15 cts. each. Be $4.60 per Year (Foreign). SS ete gee Coe THE AMERICAN NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL S DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES ; IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. NG EDITORS: Prors. E. D, COPE, Philadelphia, anp J. S. KINGSLEY, Boston, hy SS eee EDITORS: č CL WEED, Dur iicago DR C BESSEY, Lineoin, Neb., ..€ MERCE ee LEA i ED, Durhani, N. Hy sa a S.. BAYLEY, Waterv. ie, Maine, fas KA; EWS, Baltimore, i . W. H. HOBBS, aai Wis. JUNE, 1894. No. 330 CONTENTS: 3 | AGE. UNG OF FREE-LIFE. Henry L. Clark 7 ABB oF Mop ODERN PHYSIOLOGY. . (Concluded. 5 ederié 5. Lee. 473 LIGHTS | OF THE GROUSE LOCUST (T PAG the Belgian Cretaceous—Geological News— Gen pk — Archean — Paleozoic — Mesozoic — Cen Trcka ont RERA T Roio LATERALIS Say,) IN NortH EASTERN | from. Trans-Pecos Texas—The Differentiation > _ Mlustrated. ) Joseph L. inak 483 | of Rock Magmas—The Old Volcanics of South Ice Dam AND A LIMIT To THE ICE . Mountain, Pennsylvania—Another Occurrence pe erat OHIO. Tri | of Websterite—Pettographical News — Pied- OA, m 488 | TE U. . Dione Academ of | American Minerals—Mineral Syntheses. ~ . 514 ee be CO 40 isd baa t5 AND Parant. LITERATI Zoological Ne sie O R ane RE +The Wooda Holl Lectures Hexapoda—Hemichorda. T Lim max maximus. ¿ 1889-91—Mineral Resources 5 e Fauna—New Polyzoans from apie T ge a ete iary Tipulide—Dr. Packard SCIENTIFIC NEWS... - United States, 1892, - 500 rispata—Miss s Ormerod’s Re bsg ; EN oe York Gir orib- News ees 1532 nd Travels —The Grand Falls of — |- Psychology—The Rëcidivist- . 537 i 3 | Microscopy — Marine Planar fang => Breeding Paleonibiogy.= Continuity of the | Habits of the Three Triclads of Limulus 544 The Colorado Formation and | PROCEEDINGS. OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. ~ - sir : | PHILADELPHIA, U.S. A. 7 a EDWARDS & DOCKER CO., 518 AND 520 MINOR STREET. FOREIGN AGENTS: ILLIAM ` DEE & SON, D, LONDON. ENGLAND. aane Highest Award, s “al ane and nae Levit 2 Medal and Diploma | ne Te a awarded to l »Marchands Glycozone © IJA 108 22) THIS HARMLESS REMEDY PREVENTS FERMENTAT / OF FOOD IN THE STOMACH. fd: IT IS- THE. MOST POWERFUL AGENT “FOR PURPOSES. IT CURES: LL INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF THE | | ALIMENTARY TRACT. y Glycozone is sold only in 4-0Z., 8-02 N bottles, bearing a yellow label, white an ną blat ye ters, red and blue border, with signature. : Chemist and Graduate we : Boole ct Manufactures de Paris’ bat k | = Mention this tien BY LEADING mice “Laboratory, 28 Prince St., ae Yi dat ge ae Th ot ~ a f $ 4 i + DE ge A me STT ; By J RA hiz: pe N Te , AALAN a l >. 4 = e X Aa ANS ~ i N z a ‘ ae a S ANNE fe Fpi . aA A ae ome end wire egy {i -jij TE WON E as wr, : é PEASE pe ee I CS Se ee eM EEE ee ee E TEE hag HEALING _ DYSPEPSIA, GASTRITIS, ULCER OF THE STOMACH, HEART BURN AND taz “iae 1er AMERICAN NATURALIST VOLS VEIL June, 1894. 33° THE MEANING OF TREE-LIFE. By Henry L. CLARKE. Few there are, even among thoughtful botanists, who “seem to clearly realize how broad a lesson on the life-history of plants is written in the trees that make the great forest regions of the world. Whether we stand among the palms of the tropics, or the pines of the north, or the congeners of the poplar and oak, we feel instinctively that there isan impressive depth of meaning in the very aspect of a tree. And itis no deception of the fancy. Tree-life represents the culmination m the work of one of the two great factors, reproductive energy and vegetative energy, that together shape the course of plant-development. The history of plants records a con- stant two-fold struggle; on the one hand the effort of plant- life as a whole to perpetuate itself by improving its methods of reproduction; on the other, the stand for self-preservation made by each distinct individual or species or group,—a Stand that can be taken only through sheer force of vegetative luxuriance. But these two phases of the struggle for existence ve by no means been independent of each other; they have acted together in varying ratio in the making of - every type, though their respective influences have culminated _ M widely separated forms. As the highest outcome of evolu- _ onary progress in the character of floral organs we point to 3 "University of Chicago. 31 466 The American Naturalist. [June, the orchids, among Monocotyls, and the kinsmen of the golden- rods and asters, among Dicotyls ; as the monarchs of vegetative energy stand the tree-ferns and towering palms of the tropics, the Red-Woods of California, the Eucalyptus of Australia, and our forests of mighty oak. Thus the classification systems of modern botany that review in the clearest scientific light the evolutionary relationships of species, genera, orders, and classes, present to us only one side of the problem of plant-life; the dynamics of vegetation is the other. We may know that the Coniferae are among the most primitive of flowering plants, and the Orchidacese and Composite among the highest; but why do we find our orchids and composites growing as stunted herbs in the very shadow of conifers that are giant trees? Which is master of the situation? Systematic botany has not fulfilled its mission until it has grasped both sides of the two-fold relation that the contrasting types bear to one another. ; Far back in geologic time the dawn of tree-life came almost with the beginnings of vegetation. What the earliest of those beginnings were we can scarcely even conjecture, but going back as far as fossil botany will carry us with certainty, we may conceive something of the conditions under which the primitive plant-world was fostered. Consider the probable con- ditions of the Cambrian and Silurian Ages. However, scant the records that we hold, they are yet sufficient to give us some suggestions of inestimable importance. Past question the earliest forms of plant-life were denizens of the water, developed in the seas and lakes of Pre-Cambrian times. From their aquatic habitats they must have first gradually emerged, a8 the cooling of the primordial continents permitted, and the strengthening of their own anatomical characters favored, into the swamps and marshes, and then step by step mounted the higher regions of the dry land. The oldest fossil types We with certainty know of were far from the beginning of the scale; they could only have been products of ages of develop- ment that must forever remain to us almost a total blank. The world of Silurian times was probably a torrid zone from pole to pole, a condition traceable in large part to the insular 1894.] The Meaning of Tree-Life. 467 character of its continents. : The surcharging of the atmos- phere with water-vapor meant excessive precipitation, and the shallow-water conditions obtaining around the continental islands, together with the probable lowness of these isolated landmasses favored the existence of extensive swamps and marshy flats, in which the water may have been either fresh or brackish. Here jn these primordial swamps the vegeta- tion destined to cover the earth made its determined struggle for existence. On the higher land there was too much heat; in the seas there was too much water; in the swamps was the : requisite combination of water, heat, and heavy carbon-laden ; air. Under such conditions the first types that took possession : must have spread and multiplied with incredible rapidity- ; What followed? Inevitably the primitive low-growing plants a crowded closer and closer together and became a rank tangle of growth; where there had been at first plenty of room for q every individual to spread, there were how maby struggling 4 for the mastery of each square foot of swamp. All hada foot- hold in the earth but only the few that stood the highest could | drink in the feeble rays of the cloud-bedimmed Silurian sun- = shine. Then the real battle for the light began in earnest, the stronger against the weaker, the older established types against the newer ones whose foot-hold was less certain; higher and higher the rank swamp-growth rose, all its members struggling together for the light and open air. And so in the wierd gigantic club-mosses of those far-off times wesee the prophetic beginnings of the tree-life of to-day; and to trace the development of the majestic forests of the present from those dank swampy jungles of the past is the problem before us. It would seem at first glance that in the primeval jungle “ might made right,” if ever it made it anywhere. But no! the “ survival of the fittest” worked in two directions. Vegetative luxuriance was a tre- mendous factor in determining the survival of types, vastly more so then than now; but wherever an improvement in the character of reproductive organs increased the certainty with which any plant could perpetuate its race, that gain could often far outweigh the superior vegetative. luxuriance of all com- petitors. This second factor in the “survival of the fittest” hs We ey E STER SA 468 The American Naturalist. [June, has been steadily waxing in importance from primeval times, while the other has begun to wane. In the midst of the Silurian jungle, where the energy of plant-life was strained to the utmost limit of activity, new forms originated. What was their fate? They could not overpower the strongly established older forms crowding all about them, so either they must per- ish or push outward toward the open margin, where there was room to fight. Thus the swamp-margin became the tension- line between the uninhabitable higher land and the old strong hold of the jungle, and on this tension-line stood the vanguard of the world’s future vegetation. On its outer edge the tension- flora faced a new and untried habitat, and then, as now, & highly specialized habitat meant highly specialized inhabit- ants. The untried ground could not be conquered by sheer force of vegetative luxuriance, for by their very nature the new conditions were physically opposed to the established order of things in plant-life. The all-powerful factor in accomplishing the conquest was increased capacity for variation and the adap- tive evolution of oldstructural types into higher stages of organi- zation. Clearly, this tendency predominated and pervaded the whole tension-line flora, but its maximum was toward the outer edge. So here were ranked the low-growing herbaceous fore- runners of coming ages,—forms that were humble in- their growth, because of the physical obstacles opposing them ; and highly specialized, because their structure did not possess the obstinate stability of the patriarchal tree-life behind them. For the same reasons the character of the undergrowth in the jungle must have always been ages in advance of the arboreal monarchs towering overhead. But on the inner side of the tension-line, vegetative luxuriance was not only possible and potent but also obviously a necessity, for there could be no abrupt demarkation between the marginal and central region Here, then, where the jungle-flora merged into the tension-flora, was the stronghold of the rising generations, the newer higher types, of tree-life. Here, in early Silurian times, must epi stood the ancestral types of the great tree-ferns and calamites and conifers that were. to be supreme in the Carboniferous and early Mesozoic. 1894.] The Meaning of Tree-Lafe. 469 The history of plant-life through the later Silurian and the — Devonian Age records the first strong establishment of a truly dry-land flora, a substantial foreshadowing of the Mesozoic. The changes in physical conditions of course furthered this i result no less truly than did the adaptive evolution of organic forms. In the dry-land forests of the Devonian rose the vege- tation whose future developments should hold dominion when the primordial swamps had disappeared from the earth. But these terrestrial forests evidently had the effect of removing an immense part of the pressure upon the old swamp-jungles by : becoming the main refuge and stronghold of the new types crowded out at the old tension-line. This, together with the physical changes recorded im the rock-systems of the i times, gave full vent to the gathering vegetative energy that reached such a stupendous culmination in the mammoth swamp-flora of the Coal Age. Here was a turning point in plent-history. With the dawn of the Mesozoic came the clear prophecy of modern conditions. The dry-land forests of the : Reptilian Age were the full realization of the conditions fore- a shadowed in the Devonian. Out of the swamp-forests of the 7 Carboniferous came some of the highest Lycopods, great Tree- eee Ferns, and giant Equisetums. Down from the Devonian came the Conifers of the yew-family; and as reminders of the old genus Cordaites the new order Cycadacew appeared. Un- doubtedly it is impossible to believe that the swamp-flora of the coal seams represents anything like the whole flora of the Carboniferous Age. There must of necessity have also existed then a great transitional dry-land flora between the terrestrial forests of the preceeding Devonian and- the succeeding Jura- rias. Much of the strata called Devonian or Mesozoic prob- ably represents this transition and was synchronous 1n its formation with the accumulation of the coal. Part of the transition is clearly observable in the nonearboniferous forma- tions included between the coal-seams. While the prep- _ arations, begun in the Devonian, for the great Mesozoic forests _ were slowly and surely progressing, the old vegetation of the _ S8wamp-jungle swept up to its culmination, and marked by its _ decline the close of the Paleozoic Era. The early Mesozoic 470 -~ The American Naturalist. -[June, becamg the age of Gymnosperms. Vegetation had come upon a new battle-field, the terrestrial forest-ground, and only the - most highly organized types of preceeding ages were fitted to enter the struggle. Many of the Tree-Ferns and Equisetums were still powerful, but the supreme dominion passed over to the Conifers and their allies, the Cycads. The great forests of Conifers had their undergrowth and their tension-lines, and here the development of new types was progressing with prob- ably even greater activity than in the tension-floras of earlier times. The greater complexity of the conditions confronting a terrestrial flora over those confronting a swamp flora would necessarily mean more elaborate specialization. While the ancient coniferous tree-forms were mounting to the fulness of their power the first types of the higher flowering-plants were beginning to appear; and with the opening of the later Mesozoic, the Cretaceous, two new groups of tree-life came upon the stage as worthy competitors of the old established Gymnosperms. One was the order Palmacee, representing the Monocotyledonous Angiosperms; the other was the amenta- ceous hardwood tree-families, representing the Dicotyledons. The opening chapter in the history of these two groups is à matter of peculiar interest. j It is probable that the two groups were almost, if not quite, synchronous in their rise; though there is some reason to believe that the Palmaceæ, or at least their forerunners, the Pandanacez, are slightly the older. As has been indica the central strength of the Mesozoic foresis was undoubtedly held by the coniferous trees; and probably by far the greatest strength was vested in the near allies of the Cypresses, P mP -and Firs,—representing the tribes Cupressineæ, Taxodieae, Abietineæ, and possibly also Araucarieæ,—while the older sub- order Taxineæ, the broad-leaved Conifers of the Yew family, _ were rather crowded out toward the tension-line margins along . with the Cycads and Tree-Ferns. Among these last the im low-growing Tree-Palms probably rose, as the products ofa long course of elaborate specialization. It is more than pos : _ sible that the Pandanacew represent at least in part @ trapt : _ tional stage between some of the higher Gymnospermsand the a 1804] ) The Meaning of Tree-Life. 471 Palmacew ; and it is well worthy of note that the aerial roots of the Screw-Pines, the Pandanacew, are a living memorial to the position they originally held on the shore-margin of a forest tension-line. The habit of growth of the Palmacez most strikingly suggests that their first competitors were Tree-Ferns and Cycads, even as they are in many regions to-day. It seems as ifthe first Palms had met the Mesozoic Tree-Ferns and Cycads on their own ground,—the forest margin,—with their own weapons—the tall aspiring trunk topped with a crown of leaves. And by their general higher character of organization the Palms ultimately asserted their preeminent superiority. The wide constrast between the floral characters of the Palm- aceæ and those of the Gymnosperms presents a difficult prob- lem. There is a strong likelihood, however, that the spadice- ous inflorescence of the Screw-Pines and Palms is a highly specialized development from the cones of some aberrant Cycad or Conifer. At least all the probablities indicate that the spadiceous Monocotyls approach much nearer the Gymno- sperms than do any of the non-spadiceous ones. All this has evidently a most significant bearing on the question before us, of the Palms’ place in Nature. We have seen that the vegeta- tive character of the Palms was widely different from that of the dominant Conifers; and now we note that their floral organs were also widely different, and in fact far more decidedly unlike the cones of the Cypresses and Pines than are the “ cat- _ kins” of the hardwood dicotyl trees. There are a half-dozen or more tree-orders among the Dico- tyls that should really stand apart as forming a small sub- class quite decidedly distinct from the rest of the Dicotyls. As the principal orders of this group may be named the Juglan- aceæ, Myricacez, Salicaceæ, Betulaceæ, Fagacex, Ulmacez, Platanaces, and a couple of others. These have been called the Amentaceze, or the Dicline, and might be regarded as a subclass. Except in the approach of Ulmacew to the Urtica- ceæ, the Diclinæ stand clearly apart as a distinctive highly Specialized alliance of trees and shrubs. Their relation to re Mesozoic Gymnosperms is an interesting question. In general habit of growth and in the character of their wood they evidently make a close approach to the Confers. 472 The American Naturalist. [June, The amentaceous inflorescence predominating in the group bears a decided likeness to the cones of the Pines and Cypresses. Obviously then, the Dicline were the trees best fitted to battle with the central stronghold of the Mesozoic coniferous forest, and probably they were first fully developed on the inner portion of the tension-line, face to face with the strongest of the Conifers. Behind them, toward the outer edge stood the Tree-Ferns, Cycads, and Palms; but which, we may ask, were the Conifers that stood closest round about, among and before them? Probably the sub-order Taxinez, the frater- nity of broad-leaved Taxites and Gingkos. The power of this most ancient group of Conifers had, as we have seen, waned, and they must have been driven toward the outskirts of the forest by the stronger Cupressinez and Abietineæ. Here they must have met the early Diclinæ. Where did the Dicline develop the broad flattened leaf-blades that so strikingly distin- tinguish their foliage from that of our living Coniferee? Where, if not in a competitive struggle with the broad-leaved Taxinee of the Mesozoic forest-margin? he ancient Taxinez had re- produced in their foliage something of the character of the fern- fronds; the newer Pinaceæ had rather imitated and exagger- ated the scale-leaves of the great Carboniferous Lycopods. And finally, the broad leaves of the Taxines were perpetuated, under greatly improved and elaborated forms, in the Dicline. Through the Cretaceous the Coniferse rose to the zenith of their power; the Tree-Ferns and Cycads weakened ; the Palmace® » and Diclinæ, more particular] y the latter, fast gath ered strength toward the dominion they claimed in the succeeding Tertiary- Meantime, in the undergrowth and on the open margins of the forests, and on the open country that did not support a growth of trees, the evolution of the higher types of Monocotyls and Dicotyls was rapidly progressing. Many of the stronger forms became shrubs, and here and there a peculiarly favored type rose from lowly herbaceous to arborescent habit, and thus founded a new tree-group. Such, for instance, were the ‘al nolias and Tulip-Trees and Maples and many others. In : this we read an increasing complexity in the conditions pre sented to onward struggling plant-life, and here a vitally 1 - portant point rises for our consideration. (To be continued.) a ipsa Pa a A na Eee ep eo a hs, Sees Oe ee ern ee apy eye ae Se ee ee Lge 4 a 1894.] The Scope of Modern Physiology. 473 THE SCOPE OF MODERN PHYSIOLOGY. By FREDERIC S. Ler. (Continued from page 388.) Three achievements of the present period have shown inves- tigators how broad their science really is. First, the establish- ing of protoplasm as the physical basis of life, and of its sub- stantial identity in plants and animals by Dujardin, Von Mohl, and Max Schultze, showed that the really fundamental prob- lems of life and action had heretofore not been grasped; that the essential laws of protoplasmic activity apply to the whole organic world ; and hence that any physiology which confines itself rigidly to either plants or animals to the exclusion of the other is a one-sided science. Second, the cell-theory of Schlei- den and Schwann demonstrated that sooner or later many functions must be traced back to the cell, and that a cellular physiology is the key to a large proportion of the problems aris- ing in the biological world. Third, the work of Darwin, based, as it was, upon physiological principles, showed that the action of the environment upon the individual and upon the species, as well as the action of the organism upon the environment, was an almost unworked field of the richest promise; that all physiology, in order to be complete, must be comparative ; that there is an ontogenetic and a phylogenetic evolution of function ; and that the physiological laws of heredity were yet to be discovered. ` Let us examine these ideas briefly. The necessity of under- ` Standing the physiology of undifferentiated protoplasm is ob- vious, for there we find function in its simplest and most generic form. The phenomena of projection and retraction of Pseudopodia in the Amoeba are doubtless the key to the com- Plex processes of contraction and relaxation of striped muscu- lar tissue. It is not at all improbable that the action of light =~ upon the retina is a specialized derivative of the heliotropic Phenomena of the simplest plants and animals. Four years 474 . The American Naturalist. [June, ago, the well-known Oxford physiologist, Burdon Sanderson, wrote concerning the nature of the physiological inquiry, “The work of investigating the special functions, which, dur- ing the last two decades, has yielded such splendid results, is still proceeding, and every year new ground is being broken and new and fruitful lines of experimental inquiry are being opened up; but the further the physiologist advances in this work of analysis and differentiation, the more frequently does he find his attention arrested by deeper questions relating to the essential endowments of living matter, of which even the most highly differentiated functions of the animal or the plant organism are the outcome.” Again, “ No one who is awake to tendencies of thought and work in physiology, can fail to have observed that the best minds are directed with more concen- tration than ever before to those questions which relate to the elementary endowments of living matter, and that if they are still held in the background, it is rather because of the ex- treme difficulty of approaching them than from any want of appreciation of their importance. * * * * If we really understood them, they would furnish a key, not only to the phenomena of nutrition and growth, but even to those of re- production and development. * * * * It is in the direc- tion of elementary physiology, which means nothing more than the study of the endowments of living material, that the advance of the next twenty years will be made.” Regarding the need of a cellular physiology, it is only nec- cessary to review our knowledge of any one of the complicated organs to perceive that aside from the principles, often chiefly mechanical, involved in the work of the organ as 4 whole, the essence of its activity lies in the activity of its component cells. The work of the muscle, e. g., is the sum of the activities of its constituent physiologically similar fibres. A single gland ce illustrates the principles of secretion as well as, or eve? better than, a thousand grouped together into a compact gland. The complexity of brain operations is due to the complexity i brain strueture, but the active agents are the comparat ti simple nerve-cells. Huxley sets forth as the first three of t ° five chief ends of modern physiology: “ Firstly, the ascertain 1894.] The Scope of Modern Physiology. 475 ment of the facts and conditions of cell-life in general. Sec- ondly, in composite organisms, the analysis of the functions of organs into those of the cells of which they are composed. Thirdly, the explication of the processes by which this local cell-life is directly, or indirectly, controlled and brought into relation with the life of the rest of the cells which compose the organism.” Now that the structure of protoplasm is fast be- coming disentangled, a rational cell-physiology will be possi- ble. In urging the need of investigating cell-function, I do not mean to imply that the cell is necessarily the ultimate unit, and that the organism is to be regarded as substantially a colony of physiologically independent cells. Much of the recent cytological work indicates that ere long the cell may be deposed from its hierarchical position.’ Cellular interactions are to form an increasingly prominent place in the researches of cell-physiologists. But, whether or not we grant with many that the cell is of secondary significance, we must allow that, in many respects at least, it may be regarded as a physiological unit; and from this standpoint it demands investigation. In these days of comparative science, it seems superfiuous to urge the necessity of a comparative physiology. No one, who thinks seriously of the matter, will doubt that along with the morphological distinctions between different species, genera, orders, or classes, and even in cases where gross morphological distinctions are not apparent, there must be physiological dif- ferences. Beyond the obvious facts of simple observation, these -are almost wholly uninvestigated. De Varigny, in hissugges- tive little book on Experimental Evolution, has collected a number of the known facts. Ina garden in the south of France, were growing, side by side, a number of plants of the same spe- cies. There appeared to be no morphological diflerences be- tween them, but some were indigenous to the soil in which -they were growing, while others had been imported from the Canary Islands. When they were attacked by frost, all the Canary Island forms perished, while the French forms were _ untouched. There was evidently some obscure physiological difference between them. The two common European species ‘Cf. Whitman, Journal of Morphology, VIT, No 3, August, 1893. 476 The American Naturalist. [June, of frogs, Rana temporaria and Rana esculenta, behave very dif- ferently toward certain drugs, as Schmiedeberg, Monnier, Vul- pian, Harnack and Meyer, and others have shown. In R. tem- poraria, caffeine causes a decrease in excitability ; in R. escu- lenta an increase; in R. temporaria pilocarpine causes paraly- sis; in R. esculenta tetanus. The venom of onesnake is harm- less for its own species, but poisonous for others. The spinal cord of the fish is differently endowed from that of the frog, though the differences have never been properly investigated. The muscle of the Insect is far removed functionally from that of the Crustacean, though how far remains to be discovered. I do * not overlook the fact that already much excellent work upon the physiology of the Invertebrates and lower Vertebrates has been done, but too often such work has not been comparative. Fit- ness for the object of the research is the usual determinant of choice—and hence the frog has taught us most of our physt- ology of muscle. Sooner or later this must all be changed, the functional differences must be made known, and the exact position of each plant, each Invertebrate, and each V ertebrate, in the physiological series, together with the exact position of his organs and tissues and cells must be understood. For we must recognize the fact that function in any one species has come to be—an evolution of function is as much a reality asan evolution of form. The adult body and its organs, tissues and cells are the functional derivatives of the germ-cells—in the growth of the individual there has been a physiological onto- geny. Soin the growth of the species there has been a ant gressive or retrogressive development of function ; and one 0 the most attractive fields for our future work will be the trac- ing out of the phylogeny of function, now a practically un- . known subject? The difficulty of such an undertaking 1 great, for the rich palaeontological series is beyond the tea of the experimentalist. Yet this should be no bar to the sys- tematic investigation of existing forms. Such a phylogeny will vary with each functional part (organ, tissue oT cell); @9o | y netional part (organ, poretory if, in one genus, certain brain functions and certam $ p functions are always found, the presence of the same * Cf. Dohrn, Das Princip des Functionswechsel. eae 1894,] The Scope of Modern Physiology. 477 functions in another genus does not necessarily indicate the presence of the same secretory functions. Nor will the line of functional descent of a part necessarily coincide with the line of morphological descent of the organism. A natural system of classification is based and, justly so, on morphological con- siderations. In thus tracing out the genetic relationships of function, lie the attractiveness and the utility of the compara- tive method in physiology. And I venture to assert that, if all investigators would bear in mind the fact of an evolution of function, surprising advances would result in our knowledge of the working of adult organs. i What is it that makes an individual physiologically what he is? There are two agents—heredity and the environment. As to heredity, the active discussion now going on around Weismann as a centre, serves to show what a vast amount we do not know, on both the morphological and the physiological sides as regards the general phenomena of heredity and the nature and behaviour of the hereditary substance. No one recognizes this more fully than Weismann himself. He con- fesses that his own theory is far from complete; that its im- portance consists primarily in its suggestiveness; that the real solution of the problem lies in the future, and that facts are greatly needed. In this connection I may refer to the value of the work of Nussbaum, Gruber, Balbiani, Hofer, Korschelt, Verworn and others on the physiological relations of the nucleus and cytoplasm. : The mutual relations of the environment and the individual are almost as unknown as when Darwin first demonstrated their importance. In a few special lines they have been in- : vestigated. In his earthworm studies Darwin himself set an as eminent example. The fact of the modification of the viru- . lence of pathogenic bacteria by their treatment during growth 1s well known. Interesting results have been obtained re- _ garding the action of salt-water on fresh-water animals, and vice versa ; the action of salts on starch production in plants; the effect of depriving animals of apparently important salts, _& 9., fowls of carbonate of lime, and crabs of calcium chloride. Maupa ll-known studies on the influence of temperature on Whee eee Sr ae eee OW ae A a ee er ee MO RES ae le Re ee es) ea a ay eS oer K ese ers z SAS ea TEA Se ES 478 ; The American Naturalist. pee the determination of sex may be mentioned here, as well as those of Yung, Mrs. Treat, and others on the influence of foods. If an altered environment is capable of altering function—and we know this to be a fact—and if the altered function reacts upon structure—which is equally undoubted—then we find in these premises sufficient justification for searching after the facts concerning the nature and extent of environmental in- fluence. The value of such researches lies not so much in the isolated results themselves, as in the fact that such results, when sufficiently numerous, will lead us directly not only to a better understanding of the internal physiology of organisms, but, what is of more general interest, to an understanding of the causes of variation, and thus to a better comprehension of the relations of species to one another. Too much cannot be said upon this phase of our subject. Whether the direct action of the environment is to be considered as a factor in organie evolution or not, the causes of variation must be investigated experimentally, and the physiological side of the work must not e neglected. Semper says, “Although the morphological sec- tion of animal biology* teaches with much probability that this species or that organ has undergone this or that course of mod- ification in the animal series, and that in the process of modi- fication it has passed through a whole series of various forms, still it is only physiological research that can elucidate the necessity for their existence by revealing their causative con- itions.” . i One word regarding the relations of physiology and mor phology. In the broad way in which I have outlined the former science, it may be charged that I have trespassed upon the morphological preserve. I do not deny the charge. It seems to me altogether unnecessary, undesirable and moreover impossible to draw a sharp line of distinction between the two : * Siete . re E sciences. With a common origin, mutual independence was, in time, necessary to the growth of each, yet this is in ent = harmony with the fact that they have a common meeting” ground. In these days, as always, the morphologist must s something of a physiologist; the physiologist something ° E *He might justly have omitted the word “animal.” -i 1894.] The Scope of Modern Physiology. 479 morphologist. The current researches and discussions on evo- lution, heredity, and other fundamental questions make this constantly more evident. Like zoology and botany, each has - its special field of labor, its special methods, and its special problems; but the fields are constantly overlapping, the one learns methods from the other, and the ultimate problems of both are the same. Let us now draw together the main lines of our thesis. I prefer to conceive of physiology as the science of the dynamics of living matter. Its tasks for the future seem to comprise the following classes of investigations. First, the functions of adult organs, tissues and cells in plants, Invertebrates and Vertebrates. The greatest interest at present appears to center about the phenomena of heredity, the central nervous system, and general cell physiology. Second, the ontogeny of functions, or embryological physiology. Third, the phylogeny of functions. Fourth, the physiology of organisms, comprising the mutual relations of organisms to each other and to their environment. It would be superfluous here to discriminate between the opportunities for research offered in these four classes of prob- lems. Each covers a wide field of rich promise. Each is largely worked—in reality, as we have shown, research in the past has been confined almost wholly to the first group. Each -will lead the investigator to fundamental problems. In considering these tasks it will be perceived that I have viewed the organism in two aspects, in its internal and its ex- ternal relations. The problems of the first three groups may be regarded as belonging to internal physiology, those of the fourth to external physiology. Nearly twenty-five years ago, ae Haeckel made a similar division into Conservations- and Rela- _ lons-Physiologie* Such a classification is convenient and val- uable. But it must be remembered that it is artificial, and . . Must not be taken as indicating a fundamental distinction _ between two sciences. The two are departments of the one Science, physiology, and pass the one into the other. For a fact that becomes the more striking, the longer one studies the | “Senaische Zeitschrift, V, 1870. 480 The American Naturalist. [June, dynamics of living matter, is the utter impossibility of draw- ing a sharp line between the internal and the external. The functional organism is constantly acted upon by the environ- ment, and is incapable of existence apart from it. But the functional organism is but the ensemble of the functional parts, and the parts are linked functionally together, constantly act- ing and reacting upon each other and modifying each other’s work. It follows that the innermost portions cannot free themselves from environmental influence, and the attempt at an essential separation of internal from external physiology is in vain. Nor is such an attempt justified any the more by methods of investigation. For he who studies the action of light upon the retina, is thereby fitted to investigate the helio- tropic phenomena of the organism; and he who is familiar with methods by which the effect of salts or temperature on the organs is tested, is most capable of testing the influence of the composition and the temperature of the surrounding water upon aquatic animals and plants. I speak of this the more especially because of the fact that, since the comple- tion of the greater portion of this paper, the able address of ° Professor Burdon Sanderson, as President of the British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, has appeared.’ In an interesting manner Professor Sanderson reviews the aspects of physiology since the time of Müller. He says, “The distinc- tio * * * * between the internal and external relations: of plants and animals has, of course, always existed, but has only lately come into such prominence that it divides biolo- gists more or less completely into two camps—on the one hand, those who make it their aim to investigate the actions of the organism and its parts by the accepted methods of physics and chemistry, carrying this investigation as far as the conditions under which each process manifests itself will permit; on the other, those who interest themselves rather in considering the place which each organism occupies, and the part which it plays in the economy of nature. It is apparent that the two lines of inquiry, although they equally relate to what the oF ganism does, rather than to what it is, and therefore both have § Nature, September 14, 1893. 1894.] The Scope of Modern Physiology. 481 equal right to be included in the one great science of life, or biology, yet lead in directions which are scarcely even paral- lel.” Giving then a somewhat misleading interpretation of Haeckel’s ideas above referred to, Professor Sanderson proceeds to divide Biology into three parts, Morphology, Physiology, which deals with the “internal relations of the organism,” and Oecology (a term borrowed from Haeckel) “ which con- cerns itself with the external relations of plants and animals to each other, and to the past and present conditions of their existence.” In another place, Professor Sanderson says, “ No seriously-minded person, however, doubts that organized nature, as it now presents itself to us, has become what it is by a process of gradual perfecting or advancement, brought about by the elimination of those organisms, which failed to obey the fundamental principle of adaptation, which Treviranus indi- cated. Each step, therefore, in this evolution, is a reaction to external influences, the motive of which is essentially the same as that by which, from moment to moment, the organism gov- erns itself.” I realize how presumptous it appears in me to differ from or attempt to criticise the views of one who occupies so deserved a place among the foremost physiologists of to-day. Yet I cannot repress the thought that the author of the Nottingham address viewed his subject more in the waning light of a day that is ending than in the brightening beams of a coming dawn. If each “step * * * * im this evolution 1s a re- action to external influences,” why should not the student of the “steps” study also the origin and causation of those steps? I think he would justly be open to the charge of narrowness if he did not do it. And, moreover, as I have indicated above, I believe not only that he of all is best fitted, but that a rational view of his science forces him to do it. The progress of a sci- entific physiology has been greatly retarded by its followers confining themselves too exclusively to “ the internal relations of the organism.” Not the least of the retarding consequences is the fact that thereby the science loses muchtof its attractive- ness. Just as anatomy, illumined and vivified by the theory of evolution, and broadened by the incorporation of embryol- 32 ogy ‘aid paleontology, became the science of mor believe that physiology is destined to undergo, and is going, a similar vivifying and broadening procesis i eane un science of vital phenomena, wherever and 1894,] Unusual Flights of the Crouse Locust. 483 UNUSUAL FLIGHTS OF THE GROUSE LOCUST (TETTIGIDEA LATERALIS SAY,) IN NORTH EASTERN ILLINOIS. By Joseru L. Hancock. At certain times, seemingly without premonitory indica- tions, some insects suddenly change their habitat; although closely allied forms inhabiting the same locality under simi- lar general influences, show no disposition to do so. That there are predisposing conditions which are the ruling causes of these specific migrations is plainly evinced by careful study. Before confining our remarks to a single species Tettigidea lateralis Say, “ The Grouse Locust” as an illustration in point, a sketchy recapitulation of the phenomena of migra- tion in the family Acrididæ, of which the above is a member, may be given to some advantage. The various forms of grasshoppers, constituting this large family, are not as a rule migratory ; as a matter of fact, somewhere near a dozen only are given to making sudden sweeping changes, by flight over a large territory foreign to their hatching grounds. In two species, whose anatomical differences are but very slight, one may be truly migratory while the other is not, as seen for example, in Melanoplus spretus and Melanoplus femurrubrum. The confusion arising from an indefinite interpretation of migration in its truest sense, as distinguished from the shorter “local flights” as appled to insects, is often perplexing. Let us attempt to set at rest, as far as possible, such misconception of terms. Individuals of a species which effeet a more or less regular periodical change in their habitat, are truly migratory. Migrations may be primary, consisting of local flights; such as movements by insects hatched in temporary regions to which they confine themselves to passing to and fro, from point to point, or secondary, asthe repeated periodical changes of resi- - dence covering foreign fields, which virtually establishes a ‘Nomadic habit. We have hinted that there are predetermining 484 The American Naturalist. _ [Sune, conditions effecting these movements, principal among them being a break in the interrelation of food supply, or improper conditions for the carrying on of propagation. The unusual appearance of insects in a given locality, classed under the category of primary or “ local flights,” are met with occasion- ally by observers. One of considerable moment is set forth in the following narration: On the nineteenth of September, 1893, the Grouse Locust, with a few other members of Acridi- de, striking out for more favorable conditions, landed at night in swarms in Chicago. The writer noticed them everywhere in the city. The small size of this locust (9, ¢—12-16 mm.) in length, with peculiar inconspicuous colors, caused them to be overlooked by the people passing the next day who, with- out being conscious of the fact, crushed thousands under their feet, leaving tiny stains upon the sidewalks. Again, two days following their first appearance, on the twenty-first inst., mul- titudes of Grouse Locusts dropped during the night. As individuals, they were comparatively large and vigorous. Many were taken to indicate the range of flights; specimens being recorded at scattered points. A region covering, not only the City of Chicago, but the northeastern portion of Illinois and that part of Indiana including the lower bend of Lake Michigan adjacent, as shown in the accompanying map Fig. 4, was represented. Observations in the city showed that the electric arc lights, to which they were attracted, killed off large numbers, while the stretch of waters in the lake destroyed others. ; Through the streets, in the heart of the city, the writer col- lected in a short time, twenty-seven specimens, comprising thirteen males and fourteen females, showing a remarkably even distribution of sexes. A significant point indicating direction from which they came was gathered from the fact that most, if not all the specimens, when examined, 0n the streets running east and west, were on the north side of the street, showing that they were blown against the tall buildings and then dropped to the ground. Information received from Mr. H. C. Frankenfield, local forecast official, who kindly a ored the writer with a report, giving the direction of the wih fee ee ree gee ees er ale cae 1894.] Unusual Flights of the Grouse Locust. 485 at the time of the flights, is appended below. It is interesting to note that-the preconceived idea of their course was con- firmed. His report indicated that the wind during the twenty four hours which brought in the Grouse Locusts on the night of the nineteenth inst. blew from : Southeast 2 Hours. South 3 Hours. Southwest 19 Hours. Total 24 Hours. The general direction pointing from the southwest. In the second flight the wind blew from: East 1 Hour. Southeast 18 Hours. South 4 Hours. Southwest 1 Hour. Total 24 Hours. Showing a mainly southeastern wind. Nothwithstanding a residence of many years in this local- ity, no other instance of unusual migration of this particular species has been observed, except during the preceding fall, 1893, which was characterized also by flights in very small numbers, marking the first instance of their occurrence here. Of the natural breeding grounds of this species, but little is known in this section of the State of Illinois, beyond the fact of their existence along the Des Plains River at Riverside. In general terms, it may be inferred that the natural habitat is along the border of streams (J. H. Comstock’), about ponds (W.S. Blatchley’), in the vicinity of mud flats and low marshy places. The species is sub-aquatic in habit and widely distrib- uted. (Lawrence Bruner’). The predetermining causes of the singular flights noted above, may have been induced one way or another by the extreme dryness of the fall-seasons of 1892-3. Indeed it is safe to assume that these conditions played a direct part, as will be “Introduction to Entomology *From specimens so labeled in my collection. 5MS. letter. 486 The American Naturalist. | [June, seen from the following observations. On September 16, 1899, it was observed that the large stream at Riverside, a few miles west of Chicago, was so low that in many places one could travel across on the limestone bed, a thing before impossible. Aloug the banks of this stream Orthoptera appeared uneasy and much affected by the heat prevailing at the time. To the southeast and southwest, the directions from which the Grouse Locusts were blown, for miles the broad stretch of marshes, sloughs, small streams, ponds and lakes were dried, changing decidedly the topography of the districts. The effect upon animal life was to cause the shifting about of many kinds. The young grasshoppers, unusually favored, passed on to maturity aided by a scarcity of birds, their natural enemy, moreover, circumstances on every side being favorable, allowed excessive numbers to develop. Multitudes infested the regions where usually a few existed. By late fall the soil was baked by the heat, giving rise to a difficulty in finding a suitable place to deposit their eggs. Later, still further changes were enacted, for those habits ordinarily sedentary, now took on a tendency to be nomadic. Simultaneously, a kind of restless irritation took possession of the insect. Rising in the air 1n short flights to rid themselves of distress, aimlessly they pursued these movements through the day seeking for shelter. Æ long, a wind rushing in to take the place of the rarefied all, moving upward, bears off to distant points those caught up 10 its irresistible powers. Upper air currents may blow from three to twenty miles an hour, so basing an estimate on these grounds, a day’s flight may be approximated at from twenty to one hundred miles. When subjected to a test the Grouse Locust’s flight, ordinarily, is quite prolonged, being swift and noiseless. Referring again to the map Fig. 4, (shaded por tion) an idea may be gained of the local flights of this little locust. If the furthest point be placed at one hund. miles distant from Chicago, the local point of observation, taking into consideration also the specimens found, the section of northeastern Illinois including the Kankakee River and its branches, the outlying marshy districts, various streams, ponds and tributaries of the Illinois River and the section Re ees a hae | 1894.] Unusual Flights of the Grouse Locust. 487 swept as shown on the shaded portion of the map in the north western corner of Indiana, contributed specimens to the flights. While more or less speculative, this paper isa step toward establishing a knowledge of the migrations in the Grouse Locust, of which little has been said by previous wri- ters. ExPLANATION or Prats, No. XIII. Fig. 1, 2 and 3, Tettigidea lateralis Say, all natural size ; from nature. Fig. 1. Female with wings extended. Fig. 2. Seen from above. Fig. 3. Side view. Fig. 4. Map showing flights of T. lateralis in 1893. Clouded area indicating supposed habitat and section covered by the flights. [ec]. Chicago, local point of observation. Chicago, Feb., 1894. 488 _ The American Naturalist. [June, A GLACIAL ICE DAM AND A LIMIT TO THE ICE SHEET IN CENTRAL OHIO. ~ By W. G. TicHt. The great continental glacier of the Plistocene will ever present many interesting problems to the student of those times. Its effects may be grouped under two heads; first, the general and widespread results of glacial action, and second, the local and minor effects produced by the action of local. forces. Believing that a careful study of these limited phenomena will help to illustrate some of the larger problems and enable us to gain a better understanding of the geological history of Plistocene times, the liberty is taken to present a few points of surface geology of a very limited region. Itis hoped, how- ever, that the accompanying map and sections will prove of interest. Licking County lies near the center of Ohio, and is drained by the Licking River, which is formed at Newark by the con- 7 fluence of three streams, The North and South Forks and Raccoon Creek. These streams form a hydrographic basin which is very nearly co-extensive with the county lines. The Raccoon Creek and North Fork rise in the western and north- ern portions, which are rather high lands; they flow through broad and open valleys, ranging from one-half to one mile 1n width, between the Waverly hills. The valleys are filled with drift to a depth of 100 to 150 feet, increasing in depth toward their lower portions until at New ark the gas well borings show a valley filling of over 300 pie These two streams are of rapid fall, ascending 250 to 350 fee : in the 40 to 50 miles of their lengths. The South Fork rises on high ground in the south-west portion of the county, flows south and east to near the Lic ing Reservoir, which lies about 125 feet above Newark, from this point the watercourse is almost due north to Newark. 1894] A Glacial Ice Dam. ; 489 Along the east side of the North Fork, the hills rise rapidly to an elevation of about 250 to 300 feet, as they also do along the east side of the South Fork. Standing on these hills and looking west the country appears to gradually rise, but no very high hills are visible in this direction. A level, however, re- veals the fact that the land to the west is nearly as high, but is so filled in with drift that only the tops of the hills appear above the general level. In a few words, then, the conditions are these: waters flow- ing from the north, west and south, meet at near the center of the county and start due east, flowing a few miles over a broad flood plain, and then plunging directly into the hills of the eastern portion of the county and finally reach the Muskingum at Zanesville. As the Licking River leaves the open plain it enters the hill country in a narrow gorge with perpendicular walls 50 to 100 feet high, and the hilltops, only a few hundred feet back on either side, rise 300 feet higher. This gorge is commonly known as the Licking Narrows, and is the subject of this sketch. For about the first mile of this narrow cut there are two or three large curves, but the gorge is on an average about 500 feet wide, and confines the river in narrow limits. The Balti- more and Ohio Railroad makes many rock cuts in order to get along on the south side, and there isscarcely room for the tow- path of the canal on the northside. The canal is in the river through this gorge. The left-hand margin of the map, plate XIV, represents the river at the center of the last curve of this mile of gorge. The walls at X are 45 feet high and overhanging, showing a large amount of undercutting on the curve. The heavy shaded line represents the outcrop of the Waverly or Logan Conglomerate, ` and wherever exposed presents an escarpment with an eleva- tion represented by the figures on the contour lines.’ he last curve of the gorge referred to above, extends to about O and P, at which point the curve of the next sigmoid ! All vertical measurements are from the water level in the river, which is con- t on account of the dam below. 490 The American Naturalist. [June, begins. The gorge runs on past L m to the center of the next curve at OO, completing the curve at the point n. The river, however, does not follow this course, as will be seen by following the shaded portion which represents the present river course, but turns at a right angle and runs through a rock cut 150 feet wide, with overhanging walls at both g and e. Just south of c’ the railroad has made a rock cut 45 feet deep on a very sharp curve in order to get through the gorge. The rock g, known as Black Hand Rock, stands out with a bold front 45 feet high and 250 feet long next to the river, where the tow-path of the canal had to be blasted out. The rock slopes on its top toward the north, and presents an over- hanging wall about 20 feet high on that side. Within the large open area of the unoccupied curve north of g there is a low mass of rocks presenting the form indicated at m, with a vertical rock exposure 10 feet high on the south side of the mass and gradually falling off into the lower chan- nel OO, which is only 4 to 5 feet above water level. Atn, and between g and m, are ponds of water on a level with the water of the river. The channel, between g and m, is about 70 feet wide, while that between m and L is 200 feet also between 8 and the vertical cliff H, on the east side of the channel, is 290 feet. . Continuing the large curve L, OO, n southward to R, there is, on the east side, a long, straight bluff, SS, 45 feet high at the present river front, and gradually decreasing to about feet at its southern end. On the high ground between X and this channel there is a light drift covering as indicated by the dotted portion. This drift covers the west wall of the channel except at Y, where the rock is exposed. At YY there is no & carpment, but the high hill presents a very distinct curve as 1S shown by the contour lines. Between Y, YY; Z and the double cross, there is a low drift plain with a form shown by the contours. The river does not follow this low gap which 1s nowhere over 15 feet above its present level, but has bee channel through the rocky spur H and S, 300 feet wide eat 45 feet deep to present water level. The river here has abou 30 feet of water. 1894,] A Glacial Ice Dam. 491 At K is a rock with 25 feet vertical front, and at T a rocky projection 45 feet high, through which the river has also cut, while there is an open channel 350 feet wide between K and HH, obstructed only by a gravel trail 15 feet high, extending from K to a low rocky exposure at KK. The rocks S and T are also separated by a channel about 250 feet wide, presenting vertical walls for a short distance back from the river, and indicated farther south by a depression in the drift filling. At FF is a high hill with a rock cliff 25 feet vertical. At uuthere is a low rock wall which is extended to the dam at F. Wells in the drift terrace south of w show a buried channel there 50 to 75 feet deep. By tracing out the curves and sigmoids indicated by these rocky walls, evidence is found for two distinct rock gorges, be- sides the one occupied by the present river, as shown by the heavy, dotted and broken lines respectively. To make these data as clear as possible, five sections drawn to scales are presented in plate XV. These sections are taken along the lines bearing the same letters on the map and inthe - same position. The continuous, interrupted and crossed lines represent the courses of the rocky gorges, while the dotted por- tions represent the estimated depths of the drift-filled chan- nels. The interpretation of this peculiar locality is by no means certain. We venture an explanation which, in the light of Prof. I. C. Russel’s investigations on existing glaciers, seems to me quite possible. There is abundant evidence for believing that the preglacial drainage of Licking County was to the south, and that a great morainic dam backed the water up until it broke over a col into the Muskingum basin? 2 This col was at the point represented by C at the extreme = left of plates XIV and XV. On each side of this low divide there was a ravine cut into the Waverly Conglomerate. __ As the water rose over the divide and began to cut 1t down, _ the gorge produced by this cutting to the west of the point C i “Full description of evidence for these conditions will be found in Bulletin of tific Laboratories of Denison University, Vol. VII, Pt. 2. 492 ` The American Naturalist. [June, conformed exactly to the pre-existing ravine running in that direction, as this ravine would represent continuously the low- est point in the divide, hence we find the upper part of the present gorge showing no marked changes in its position. The ravine on the down slope toward the east, however, whose outline is represented on plate XIV by the dotted line,and on plate XV by the crossed line, fared quite differently. A large volume of water suddenly attempted to occupy a small ravine. The result was that the first curvature was greatly increased and a great undercut made at X. Deflected from this pointit struck the opposite or left bank of the ravine at m, and as it cut farther back into the great curve at OO, it also cut deeper and a small remnent of the left bank of the original ravine was left atm. The outline of this channel is represented by the broken line. After making the curve at OO where considerable under- cutting is also shown, the waters took a straight shoot south in- to the old ravine again. ane At the south end at YY, the old ravine, as shown by the dotted lines, made another sharp curve similar to the one at g, and passed north between S and T to another curve at H H, thus making the next loop of the sigmoid which passed south- east through the point u. Since the rush of glacial waters was not able to make the short turn at Y Y, and since the original surface level was lower than at H, they broke over the divide and made a new cross channel tending north-east in the direction Zu, an chocked up the old ravine between S and T with sediment. As the lower level was reached and the velocity checked, the lower courses of the intersected ravine were filled up with ma- terial cut from the gorge above. Evidence of these buried channels is found in many wells in the village of Toboso, just south of the river dam, which is across the present river ât F. There yet remains the great question, Why the river e left this second channel which it had cut out at such @ great depth and made a new one for itself straight across the gon barriers at gc’, HS, and KT. If these were at the ends oF the loops, or if the old channel was anywhere obstructed wi? 1894.] A Glacial Ice Dam. 493 drift, the explanation would be more simple. As it is, there seems to be but one solution to the problem to suggest, and we believe the facts point very strongly toward its support. This region is just on the eastern border of the Scioto lobe of the ice sheet. No glacial till is reported south or east of this point in Ohio. Does it not seem reasonable then that the great ice front or a local spur of it extended to this point and presented a front along a line represented by the north bank of the river in the line of L, m, g, n, H, K, and F, and remained there long enough for the river waters deflected at X to strike this ice barrier at L m, and, deflected along its front, to cut through the narrow and jointed rocky spurs at KT, then at HS, and last atg œ. If this is true, it will serve asa point in evidence of the probability of ice dams and a point to fix a limit to the ice sheet itself. For fuller elaboration of the data of this region and other facts in evidence of the very near position of the ice front, see Bulletin of the Scientific Laboratories of Denison University, vou Vill, Pt. 2. 494 The American Naturalist. [June, EDITORIALS. —Tue U.S. National Academy of Sciences has been in a state of par- alysis for now two years in the matter of electing nembers, after hav- ing been unable to fill its vacancies for a considerably longer period. This is not due to the lack of suitable candidates, but rather owing to the impossibility of concentrating a sufficient number of votes on any one candidate to elect him. This is in turn due to the fact that there is a disproportionate number of members devoted to the physical sciences, as compared with those devoted to the natural sciences. In the present membership there are, according to a committee of the society, fifty-eight members devoted to the physical, and thirty-one members who represent the natural sciences. It is natural that under. such circumstances, the members of the latter class should refuse to add to the members of the former class. It is true that of the seven candidates presented at the election which has just failed, four repre- sented the natural, and three the physical sciences. But the gentle- men present who represent the physical sciences could not be prevailed on to elect an additional member of the division of natural sciences. This result is probably due to a want of concerted action, rather than to an intentional desire to continue the present disproportion between the classes. It is also due in part to the vote of members who do not attend the meetings, and who thus fail to receive information as to various points at issue. The preponderance of any one class naturally tends to perpetuate itself, and its effect is now so conspicuous that the necessity for some change in the mode of elections is obvious. i It is proposed to meet the difficulty by dividing the Academy e classes, each of which is to have a fixed membership, so that deficien- cies may be known and filled. Such a system exists in the academies of most countries, and it materially aids in securing a just representa- tion. The system should not, however, be too complex, since it is 1m- possible to fix the correct proportion of membership of any of the special branches of science, which shall, be always applicable. A few large divisions, whose cultivators for obvious reasons stand in a gener- ally definite proportion to each other, or to the Academy, is about as much as is practicable in this direction. ‘The committee already "° ferred to, proposes that the Academy be divided into six classes, three of which embrace physical sciences, and two natural sciences, and oa includes sciences which cannot be classed under either head. This 1894.] Editorials. 495 classification tends to perpetuate the disproportion already referred to; omits reference to some sciences; and makes no distinct division for applied science. We now refer to a letter addressed to the committee, which appears in the department of Scientific News this number of the NarurA.tst, in which the following division is proposed: Class I.—Physical Sciences, 35 members; Class I1—Natural Sciences, 35 members; Class I1[.—Anthropological Sciences, 15 members; Class IV.—Applied Sciences, 15 members. The sciences included in each of these classes are enumerated in the letter in question. —A bill has been recently introduced into Congress, providing for the establishment of a “ National Academy” of twenty-five members. Of these Congress is to appoint the first five members, and these are to appoint the other twenty. These twenty-five are to represent “ litera- ture, science, fine arts and invention.” We understand that Gen. Lewis Wallace has drawn up the bill. The sponsors of this project appear to be unaware of the existence of the National Academy of Sciences of one hundred possible mem- bers. They also display an extraordinary exclusiveness in entertain- ing the supposition that the departments of human effort mentioned in the bill can be properly represented by only twenty-five men. Taking the National Academy of Sciences for granted, it might be supposed that an Academy of Arts might be similarly constituted. In such a case, membership, as in the Academy of Sciences, would. be awarded on account of original work done. Literature, Music and the Fine Arts would be encouraged by such an organization, were the qualifica- tions for membership and the number of members strictly defined. The difficulty in doing this, and in applying the rules in the concrete, would be greater in the case of the arts, we apprehend, than in the case of the sciences. It is also quite probable that fifty names, rather than one hundred, would embrace the list available at the present time in this country. It is hardly possible that the bill now before Congress can become a law in its present shape. The scientific element must be eliminated as being already provided for. The best literary men and artists of the country must decide whether such a body could be so constituted as to be truly representative of the best work or not. Geographical claims, 80 dear to the American heart, must be ignored in this matter, as 1t 1s in the Academy of Sciences; and the usual preference of most people - for their friends will be an ever present difficulty to be met and over- come. On the whole, however, we suspect that such a body, properly 496 The American Naturalist, ` - [June protected, would be an encouragement to original production in the arts, as the Academy of Sciences is to those engaged in the p a of scientific research. —Ture recent celebration at Jena, in commemoration of the sixtieth birthday of Professor Ernst Haeckel, was a deserved compliment to a great naturalist. The range of Professor Haeckel’s work covers the — three fields of usefulness possible to the naturalist, viz.: special work, generalization, and popularization. His well known researches on the Radiolaria, sponges, corals and Medusæ are monuments of industry and skill. His generalization of the phenomena of the earliest embry- onic stages is the frame-work of embryology. His speculations as to the phylogeny of the Vertebrata have been often confirmed by paleontology. His delightful Travels in Ceylon have brought him efore a wide and interested public. PLATE XIII. Seale of miles Jo wI 4. (e Q Tettigidea and tts Migrations. ee PLATE XIV. ie eee: * Le New EEREN * Sa ae Yt NS A= gh eters Ss = ia : eo 4 2 2 oie A S Se N A Tight on a Glacial Dam. PLATE XV. TORS Aap PG? gang AFEN IP IJO cps Pee, sabe ca Hevea t m A UMMM S Tight on a Glacial Dam. l 1894.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 497 RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. Borman, C. H.—The Myriapoda of North America. Bull. No. 46, U. S. Natl. Mus. From the Smithsonian Institution. Bean, T. H.—Description of a new Blennoid Fish from California. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus,. Vol. XVI. From the author BEECHER, C. E. AND C. ScHUCHERT.—Development of the Brachial Supports in Dielasma and Zygospira. Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Washington, Vol. VIII, 1893. From the authors. Bulletin No. 26, 1893, Agric. Exp. Station of the Rhode Island College of Agri. and Mech. Arts. Bulletins Nos. 93, 1893, and 94, 1894, North Carolina Agricultural Experi- ment Station. CaMPBELL, M. R.—Paleozoic Overlaps in Montgomery and Pulaski Counties, Virginia. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am, Vol. 5, 1894. From the Society. CHADWICK, J. W.—The Heterodox Hell—Science and a Future Life—Boston, 1894. From the author. Darı, Wm. AND J. STANLEY BRown.—Cenozoic Geology along the Apalachi- cola River. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. Form the First Biennial raii * the Maryian State Weather Service for 1892 and 1893. From the Dire FLEISHMANN, À. ie Oend der Backzähne bei Säugethieren und die Homologie der ee Hocker. (agin te der Königlich preuss. Akad. der Wisse n, 1891. From thea Gipson, A. M. ae on the Coal Pv of Blount Mountain, with Map and Sections. Do, Ala., 1893. From the Alab. State Geol. GILBERT, G. K. AnD B. S. Loi Joint Discussion. The Name “ Wee ark” in American Pes Philadelphia, 1893. From the authors. Goopricx, E. 8.—On the fossil Mammalia from the Stonesfield Slate. Extr. . Journ. soa Sci., Vol. 35. Haines, R.—Examination of Sprig Waters in Fairmount Park. A Re- markable inai Well-water.—Normal Chlorine in Spring Waters. Extrs. . Chem. Sec., Franklin Institute Phila., 1894. HARE, E.—Les Brda & Ossements de Montoussé, Suivi d’appendices sur des Equidés, Rhinocéros, Bovidés, et Marmottes Quaternaires du Sud-Ouest de la ere — Le Repair de Roc-Traiicat, et Notes sur des Mégacéros, Castors, Hy- ènes, Saigas, etc., du Sud-Ouest de la France. Extr. Compte Rendu de la Soc. Eia Nat. de aidons, 1892. From the author. Hoses, W. H.—On a Rose-colored Lime and Alumina-bearing variety of Talc. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci, Vol. XLV, 1893——The Geological Structure of the Housatonic Valley lying east of Mt. Washington. Extr. Journ. Geol., Vol. I, 1893. From the author Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports. Report in Gynecology, II, Vol. IIT, 1894. _ Kemr, J. F.—Gabbros on the western shore of Lake Champlain. Extr. Bull. Geol. “Sa Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the Society. : 33 498 The American Naturalist. - (June, List of Dredging and Shore Stations, S. U. I. Bahama Expedition, 1893. LYDEKKER, R.—On the Jaw of a New Carnivorous Dinosaur from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough. Extr. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Aug., 1893. Lyman, B. S.—Age of the Newark Te Extr. Proceeds, Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. XXXIII, 1894. From the a BARCENA, M.—Informe sobre el Estado ius del Volean de Colima, Mexico, MERRIAM, C. H.—Descriptions of eight new Ground Squirrels of the genera Spermophilus and Tamias from California, Texas and Mexico. 1893 The Yellow Bear of Louisiana, Ursus luteolus Griffith. Tak Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Washington, 1893. From the author. MITCHELL, C. P.—The Enlargement of the — of Women, London, 1892. Williams si Norgate Pub. From the aut Netson, E. W.—Description of a new species of Arvicola, of the Mynomes Group, from Alaska. Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Ww ashington, Dec., 1893. Orr, H. B—A Theory of Development and Heredity. New York, 1893. Macmillan and Co., Pub. From the Pub Proceedings at fis Formal Opening of the Engineering Building of the Penn- sylvania rags College, Feb. 22, 1893. Prosser, C. S.—The Devonian Section of Central New York along the Una- dilla River Extr. Twelfth Ann. Rept. New York State Geologist for 1892. Quimsy, C. E.—The Pneumatic Cabinet in ihe treatment of Pulmonary Phthisis. Extr. Internatl. Med. Mag. Jan., 1893. From the author Ransome, F. L.—The Eruptive Rocks of Point Bonita. Extr. Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. of California, Vol. I, 1893. From the'anthor. Rey, C. V.—Some ajre of Plants:and Insects. Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soe. Washington, Vol. VII, 1892.——The First Larval or Post-embryonic Stage of the Pea and Bean Susan Extr. Canadian Entomol., Vol. 24, 1892. —Is Megastigmus phytophagic ?—Parasitism in Insects. Extr. Proceeds. Entomol. ‘Soc., Vol. If, 1893. niet: the author. Rosertson, C.—Flowers and Insects, Iito XI, inclusive. Extrs. Botanical Gazette, Vol. XIV, 1889, ‘Vor XVII, 1893, andiTrans. St. Louis Acad. Sci, Vol- d VI.—North American Hymenoptera. Extr. Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., 1891 and 1893. From the author. . Ruriever, L.—Die eocänen Säugethiere von Egerkingen. Separata tabdruck aus den Fecha dlangeii der Naturf. Gesell. zu Basel, Bd. X, Heft 1, 1892. From the author. SCHUCHERT, C.—On the development of the Shell of Zygospira pecurvirostra: Extr. Proceed. Biol. Soc. a a Vol. VIII, 1893. From the author. SHALER, N. S.—Plistocene Distortions of the Atlantic Sea-coast. — Relatio! of Morii Growth to Formation of niba. —— Phenomena of Beach and Dune Sands. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the Soc. SHUFELDT, R. W.—On the Taxonomy of the = and Humming Hirde z “eee Èn. Ibis, Jan., 1894. From theiauthor. ‘Stites, C. W. AND A. HAssALL.—A Revision of the adult Cestodes of Cat ss | Š = = TIRA Lee ten A Ah hy Sy PCE a ta aii Fibs. rs p ba i i fi ve a Se ‘| i ii: y We i E a ra E = D 5 (£ RT 3 4 i i 1894.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 499 Sheep and allied animals. Bull. No. 4, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Dept. Agri., 1893. i TayLorR, T.—Report of the Microscopist. Extr. Rept. Sec. Agri. for 1892.—— Food Products, II, III. Reprint Rept. Sec. Agri. for 1890.——Eight edible and twelve poisonons Mushrooms of the United States. ——Improved methods of dis- tinguishing between pure and fictitious lard.——Four edible Mushrooms of the United States. Extr. Rept. Sec. sai 1890. Second revised Ed., Washington, 1893. From the U.S. = Agri TROUESSART, E.—Note sur les ties marins (Halacaride) dragués par M, P, Hallez dans le Pas de-Calais Extr tr. Rev. Biol. du Nord de la France, T. VI, 1893-94. From the author. Wuireaves, F. F.—Descriptions of two new species of Ammonites from the ikii hi of the Queen Charlotte Islands. Extr. Canadian Rec. Sci., Oct., 1893. From the author. Woopwarp, A. S.—On the Dentition of a gigantic extinct species of Mylioba- tis from the Lower Dita formation of Egypt. Extr. Proceeds. London Zool. o Boc, J une, 18 93.—On some Teeth of new ngs Fishes from the Oxford WOODWARD, A. S Ok the genus Anoncita NE ona "Case of Subdi- vision of the Median Fin in a Dipnoan Fish.——Further Notes on Fossil Fishes from the Karoo Formation of South Africa.—On some British Upper Jurassic Fish remains, of the Genera Caturus, Gyrodus and Notidanus. Extrs. Ann. Mag. ‘Nat. Hist., 1873. From the author. Very, F. W.—The Hail Storm of May 20, 1893. Extr. Am. Meterol. Journ., Oct., 1893. From the author. 500 The American Naturalist. RECENT LITERATURE. The Woods Holl Lectures.'—It is with pleasure that we welcome the second of the series of lectures delivered at the Woods Holl Laboratory, for they deserve a larger audience than that for which they were especially prepared. In the present volume we have ten lectures, each adequately illustrated, most of which are devoted to the presentation of the newest thought upon subjects which are most prominent in the biological world to-day. They are, moreover, not résumés of others’ work but actual contributions to knowledge by orig- inal investigators. In his lecture on the “ Mosaic theory of Develop- ment,” Professor E. B. Wilson, admitting that the extreme form of this theory is untenable, endeavors to show that in a modified shape it contains elements of truth, “that we may consistently hold with Driesch that the prospective value of a cell may be a function of its location and at the same time hold with Roux that the cell has, in in some measure, an independent power of self determination due to its inherent specific structure.” Professor E. G. Conklin discusses certain phenomena in the fertilization of the ovum of Crepidula, a form which is especially favorable for the study of the archoplas- matic structures, which he maintains are even more important in the phenomena of impregnation and mitosis than the nucleus, taking as they do the initiative in all the wonderful manifestations of fertiliza- tion and cleavage. Further he advances the thesis that the nucleus and especially the chromatin is not of necessity the sole bearer of. eredity, a position, which if proved to be true, destroys the whole fabric of Weismann’s evolution, as at present constituted. í _ The third lecture by Professor J acques Loeb, of Chicago University 1s upon some facts and principles of what he terms physiological mor phology. First he deals with heteromorphosis, that is, describes his experiments with certain Hydroids, there, by reversing the positions, etc., he was able to make roots produce polyps and the free end sa grow roots. Next he outlines his experiments with other forms m which there was marked polarity. The third subject is the effect upon certain forms of a change in the density of sea water, while the fourth deals with the production of double and multiple monstrosities in se@ urchins, by putting them a short time into diluted sea water and then "Biological Lectures delivered at the Marine Biological Laboratory of Woot Holl in the summer session of 1893. Boston, 1894. 8°. pp. 242, $2.15. ; f $ ; { : 1894, | Recent Literature. 501 back into normal. In the concluding section, all life phenomena are referred back to chemical processes. Under the title Dynamics in Evolution, Professor Ryder reiterates his mechanical ideas, explains the changes in form of an ameba by differences of surface tension and this again by chemical action. He has no sympathy with “ biophores ” and “ gemmules ” and thinks that experimental investigation in embryology will make no firm progress until the mischievous influences of those speculations which deal with “germ plasms” and the like have been entirely eradicated from the present generation. Dr. Watase, treating of the nature of cell organization, thinks it not improbable that in the cell we have a symbiotic structure, the nucleus and the cytoplasm living together in a way analogous to that presented by the alge and the fungus in the lichen. Professor Whit- man’s lecture on the Inadequacy of the Cell Theory of Development is most suggesitve, but is so condensed as to be beyond any adequate abstract. In a word it is that in our discussions of the cell as a unit, especially in the experimental embryological researches, the tendency has been to regard the cell as all in all, while in reality the whole organism is the entirety. The thesis which Dr. Howard Ayers maintains in his study of the Pacific Hagfish Bdellostoma dombeyi, are that this form is very varia- ble and that the number of gill slits cannot be used as a criterion for separating genera and species; further that it is a primitive rather than a degenerate type; and lastly that a study of the ears of this animal show that these organs cannot be considered as organs of equi- libration. The next two lectures touch upon the Botanical side. Dr. W. P. Wilson discusses the influence of external conditions on plant life and presents an essay which goes far toward showing that such striking acquired characters as the knees of the bald cypress are not inherited but will disappear in a single generation with changed conditions, and that the same is true of the remarkable roots of the Black mangrove of Tropical America. The other botanical lecture, by Professor J. Muirhead Macfarlane, treats of irrito-contractility in plants, in which he shows that this phenomenon is much more common than is ordina- rily supposed, but that there is usually a latent period and that in many instances the stimulus has to be repeated before marked mani- festations are produced. The last lecture—upon the Marine Biological Stations of Europe by Dr. Bashford Deane—is familiar to our readers. The volume closes 502 The American Naturalist. [June, by a general statement, by the Director, Professor C. O. Whitman, of the work and aims of the laboratory from which we learn that already 75 papers have been published, the direct outcome of the laboratory in its six sessions. The volume is well printed and we look for a large sale for it, for it certainly should be in the hands of every one who wishes to keep him- self informed of the present tendencies of biological science. Report of the United States Fish Commissioner for 1889- 91. —This volume contains in addition to the official report of the Commissioner, the results of inquiry respecting Food-fishes and the Fishing grounds of the United States, by Richard Rathbun, and a statement of the Methods and Statistics of the Fisheries, by H. Smith. together with six papers published as appendices to the report. Among these is Heckel’s “ Plankton-Studien,” A Comparative Inves- tigation of the Importance and Constitution of the Pelagic Fauna and Flora, translated by George W. Field Mineral Resources of the United States, 1892.’—This vol- ume shows the progress made in the development of the mineral pro- ducts of the United States in 1892. The statistical tables are carried forward from former reports to the close of 1892, but the desetini matter has been brought up to a late date in 1893. *Report of the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1889-91. Washington, 1893 big *Mine esources of the United States for 1892. David T. Day, Geologist m Charge. Washington, 1893. ; Sr es) ot eee ae ga mee FUGA EEE A E T AEEA SENEL A E 2 eee ET EENE PN LER R E ye Ee 1894.] Geography and Travels, 503 General Notes. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. The Grand Falls of Labrador.—For many years vague reports of a great waterfall in Labrador near the head waters of the Grand River have induced men to explore the interior plateau of this region, but no satisfactory accBunt has been given of the appearance of the “Falls” until the recent publication of the results of an exploration undertaken by Mr. Henry G. Bryant of Philadelphia to verify the reports as to the height and location of this natural wonder. In company with Prof. Kenaston of Washington, D. C., Mr. Bryant arrived at Rigolet in Hamilton Inlet, J uly 23d, where they embarked on a small schooner which carried them to the head of the interior basin known as Melville or Grosswater Bay. Here Mr. Bryant tried for Indian coöperation in his enterprise but could not overcome their superstious fears. They firmly believe that death will soon overtake the venturesome mortal who dares to look upon the mysterious catar- act. The party that finally started up the Grand River on August 3d consisted of Mr. Bryant, Prof. Kenaston, John Montague, a young Scotchman, and Geoffrey Ban, a full-blood Eskimo. The trip was made in a strong river boat eighteen feet in length and they took with them a canoe for use in the upper reaches of the river. By noon of the second day the party reached Muskrat Falls, where a chain of hills encroaches the bed of the river, contracting the channel and presenting a rocky bulwark, through which the stream has forced its course. The drop of the falls was ascertained to be thirty-six feet. Here was hecessitated the first carry, a tedious operation which occupied a day and a half. The subsequent advance of about 175 miles up the river was by the method known as “tracking.” That is, a rope was tied to the gun-wale just aft the bow. To the shore end broad leather straps Were attached. This constituted a harness for three of the men who tugged away along the rocky back while the fourth man, by means of an oar lashed to the stern, steered a devious mee pone the meks 5 d clacia ] and shallows of the river. Sandy banks and g i lodged afforded a precarious footing for the “ team,” ms cera io Tagged cliffs exercised their ingenuity in making progress. eases -~ Mn the water was often the only resource. 504 : The American Naturalist. [June, On the fourth day Porcupine Rapids was reached, a distance of fifty- seven miles from the mouth of the river. Here wasa notable increase in the size of the firs and spruces. Deposits of magnetic iron ore were ob- served on the banks of the river. The next day the travellers passed through a widening of the river known as Gull Lake. This is a favorite resort of the Canada goose and its waters contain large numbers of white-fish, pickerel and suckers. Above the lake the valley of the river contracts gradually ; the sandy terraces disappear, and sloping banks, strewn with erratics, are encountered for many miles. The Gull Island, Horseshoe, Minnipi and Mouni Rapids were conquered in turn. In the swollen condition of the river, the stfuggle with these wild rapids was long and stubborn. Mouni Rapids extend over a longer distance than any of the others, and aneroid readings show a greater drop here in the bed of the river than at any other point. It was here that the travellers met with an awkward adventure, which Mr. Bryant relates in the following graphic manner. à “ We were approaching a rocky point past which the water dashed with angry violence. It was our custom on reaching such a place to first detach the canoe, and then shove out the boat obliquely from the still water to allow her bow to fairly meet the swiftercurrent. On this occasion, while Montague and I, facing up stream were waiting on the bank above for the signal to advance, the boat, through some careless- ness, was pushed out from the quiet eddy squarely into the swift water. The full force of the torrent struck her abeam, and away she swept down the stream like a thing possessed. Taken unawares, no time was given to throw off the leather straps from our shoulders, and instantly we were thrown from our feet and dragged over the rocks into the river by the merciless strength of the flood. Most fort unately for me, the circular strap slipped over my head as I was being dragged through the water. Montague’s also released itself, and the runaway sped down stream a quarter of a mile before it was stopped. On clambering up the bank I found Montague stunned and bleeding from a scalp wound. Aside from some abrasions of the skin, I was none the worse for my shaking up, and after a brief delay Montague revived and we resumed our ‘ tow-path’ exercise.” Lake Wanakopow was reached August 20th. This romantic sheet of water, less than a mile in width but 35 miles in length, is surrounded by low mountains of granite and gneiss, from whose cliffs and w headlands cascades leap into the lake, their silvery outlines contrast- ing with the environment of dark evergreen foliage. A sounding taken near the middle shows a depth of four hundred and six feet. Mr. 1894.] Geography and Travels. 505 Bryant considers this narrow elevated basin to be of glacial origin, the presence of great numbers of boulders and the rounded appearance of the hill summits pointing to a period of ice movement. The middle of Lake Wanakopow marks the limit of Mr. Holme’s exploration. On his map he places the Grand Falls thirty miles above the head of the lake, with the river entering the lake from the west. Mr. Bryant found, however, that the river enters from the southwest, and the distance from the lake to the rapids below the fall is fifty-three miles. © Finding it impossible to draw the boat through the wide shallow rapids which they afterwards found extended for twenty-five miles before the fall, the explorers resolved to find an old trail they had heard of from a reliable Indian at the Northwest River Post, which leads from this point on the river through a chain of lakes on the table- land, thence to the waters of the Grand River some miles above the Grand Falls. The plan was to follow the old trail for several days then leave it and strike across country in the direction of the river. . A search of three days for the trail was at last successful and the x party advanced across five lakes and four “carries.” At the north- western extremity of the sixth lake they left the trail and prepared for the tramp across country, which, according to Mr. Bryant, 1s of the most desolate character. Itis undulating, sparsely covered with stunted spruce trees, Labrador tea-plants, blue-berry bushes, etc., among which great weather-worn rocks gleam, while on all sides white patches of caribou moss give a snowy effect to the scene. Shallow lakes reflect : the fleeting clouds, their banks lined with boulders, and presenting a labyrinth of channels and island passages. Low hills rise at intervals, but the general effect of the landscape is that of, flatness and monotony. No living thing was encountered. Just before sunset a column of mist rising like smoke against the western sky proved the accuracy of their reckoning, but it was impossible to reach the river that night. The next day, Sept. 2d, after a rough march over rocks and ial they emerged from the forest near the spot where the river plunge into the chasm with a deafening roar. The following a by Mr. Bryant is so vivid that we cannot refrain from ere it entire. “Standing at the rocky brink of the chasm, a wild and a scene lay before us, a scene possessing elements of sublimity and wit details not to be apprehended in the first moments of wondering aa plation. Far up stream one beheld the surging, fleecy waters a _ pestuous billows, dashing high their crests of foam, all forced a a resistless power towards the steep rock, whence they took their wild leap 506 The American Naturalist. [June, into the deep pool below. Turning to the very brink and looking over, we gazed into a world of mists and mighty reverbations. Here the equisite colors of the rainbow fascinated the eye, and majestic sounds of falling waters continued the pean of the ages. Below and beyond the seething caldron the river appeared, pursuing its turbulent career, past frowning cliffs and over miles of rapids, where it heard ‘no sound save its own dashings’. The babel of waters made conversation a matter of diffi- culty, and after a mute exchange of congratulations, we turned our attention to examining the river in detail above and below the Falls.” ‘A mile above the main leap, the river is a noble stream four hun- dred yards wide, already flowing at an accelerated speed. Four rapids, marking successive depressions in the river bed, intervene between this point and the Fails. At the first rapid the width of the stream is not more than one hundred and seventy-five yards, and from thence rapidly - contracts until reaching a point above the escarpment proper, where the entire column of fleecy water is compressed within rocky banks not more than fifty yards apart. Here the resistless power is extremely ne. e maddened waters sweeping downwards with terrific force, rise in great surging billows high above the encompassing banks ere they finally hurl themselves into the gulf below. A great pillar of mist rises from the spot, and numerous rainbows span the watery abyss, constantly forming and disappearing amid the clouds of spray. An immense volume of water precipitates itself. over the rocky ledge, and under favorable conditions the roar of the cataract can be heard for twenty miles. Below the falls, the river turning to the southeast, pur- sues its way for twenty-five miles shut in by vertical cliffs of gneissic rock which rise in places to a height of four hundred feet. The rocky banks above and below the falls are thickly wooded with firs and spruces, among which the graceful form of the white birch appears in laces. Attempts to secure photographs of the falls did not meet with success, it was difficult to obtain a good point of view, and, besides, a combina- tion of poor light and mist from the falls cause a lack of definition m the photographs. ' Prof. Kenaston found by measurement that the height of the, main fall is 316 feet and the vertical height of the chute is 32 feet; making the total descent from the head of the chute to the surface of the water in the chasm about 348 feet. The Grand Falls are then nearly twice as high as Niagara, and are only inferior to that cataract m breadth and volume of water. 1894.] Geography and Travels. 507 The appearance of the sides of the gorge below the falls and the zigzag line of the river suggests that the falls have receded from the edge of the plateau to their present position, a distance of twenty-five miles. Ifit has taken six thousand years to cut the Niagara gorge where the water acts on a soft shale rock supporting a stratum of lime- stone, what an immensity of time is involved in assuming that the Grand River Cañon has had a similar history when it is remembered that the escarpment of the Labrador Falls is of hard gneissic rock. Among the results obtained by the expedition are the measurement of the height of the Grand Falls; the determination of the altitude of the table-land of southeastern Labrador; map of the lower course of the Grand River, from compass survey ; meteorological observations extending over the six weeks of the journey ; botanical collections illustrating Labrador flora; ethnological collections illustrating life and customs of mountaineer Indians and Eskimos. (Bull. Geog. Club vol. I, no. 2, 1894.) 508 The American Naturalist. [June, GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. Continuity of the Glacial Epoch.—The question of Pre-glacial or Inier-glacial erosion of the rocky gorge of the Ohio River and its tributaries is made the subject of a paper by Rev. G. Frederick Wright inthe Am. Journ. Sci., March, 1894. The writer, as it is well known, maintains the former theory, and gives the following summary of the course of events connected with the Glacial period, stating more fully than has heretofore been done how those who question the long interglacial epoch can account for what has been called the moraine of the second Glacial epoch, and for the river terraces which everywhere, east of the Mississippi River, head near the moraine “Ist. The earlier portions of the Tertiary period were characterized, throughout all the northern hemisphere, by low altitude of land and a warm temperature even in close proximity to the pole.” “2d. A period of slow continental elevations of the regions which are now covered by Glacial drift, extending through some hundreds of thousands of years, was in progress late in the pliocene epoch. During this stage of events, the fiords which characterize the northern portions of both Europe and America, and the extensive rock gorges, like those of the upper Ohio River and its tributaries, were eroded.” “3d. Contemporaneously with this continental elevation at its max” imum stage, and chiefly as a consequence of it, Glacial conditions characterized all the higher latitudes of North America and Western Europe. In eastern North America, the center of Glacial radiation was in the vicinity of James Bay. A land elevation of three or four thousand feet would perhaps have been sufficient to produce the Gla- cial conditions; but the accumulation of the Glacial ice would event- ually raise the surface several thousand feet higher.” “4th. Before the climax of the Glacial period, and perhaps in con- sequence of its burden of ice, the glaciated area began to sink until the land was, north of the Great Lakes at any rate, several hundred feet, at least, lower than it is now. But for some time after the begin- ning of the subsidence of the land, the rate of accumulation of ice would be greater than that of the subsidence, so that the general level of the glacier continued to rise. Thus the maximum extension of the ice field was actually reached but a short time before the decline of the period set in.” * 1894,] Geology and Paleontology. 509 _ “5th. As suggested to me by Mr. Upham, ‘ The frontal slope of the ice surface was then less steep than when the warmer climate, bringing the end of the Glacial period, had begun to melt away the southern border” At the maximum of extent, the slope may be represented as terminating in a very gentle declivity, allowing some transportation of bowlders to the boundary, but not generally so steep as to produce there any well defined moraine. In the glacial recession the warm sunshine and rains were especially efficient, on a belt a few miles or a few tens of miles wide adjoining the boundary, so that when any tem- porary colder series of years caused a halt or slight re-advance, a moraine would be formed.” “6th. From the time the ice first entered the headwaters of the Allegheny, the Susquehanna, and the Delaware Rivers, the silting up of their channels began. This was effected largely by means of the excessive amount of the Glacial debris brought within reach of the streams. But during the earlier retreat of the ice front from its max- imum extent, the silting was facilitated by the differential northerly depression, which existed. During a part of this time, also, it was facilitated in the Ohio Valley by the Glacial dam at Cincinnati.” “Tth. After some thousands of feet of ice had melted off, relieving the land from a large part of its burden, the re-elevation of the continent began ; (and, as probably the most of the sedimentation of the pre-glacial river gorges had been effected during the earlier portion of this period of recession), there was then an indefinitely pro- longed period of reéxcavation by continuous torrents of comparatively clear water, facilitated in the Ohio Valley by the wearing away of the Cincinnati dam, which increased by so much the gradient of the ream.” “8th. When equilibrium had been established again, the land re at about its present altitude, but was still covered to a considerable depth with ice north of the most prominent moraines. The great size of these moraines is partly due to the vast amount of englacial mate- rial held in the lower strata of the ice.” “9th. The deposits of the so-called Champlain epoch near the margin of the glaciated area were considerably earlier in time than those which settled over the Champlain Valley itself, since no deposits could take place there until the ice had retreated from the area ; but these deposits are properly classed together as Champlain, since they belong to one epoch of general movement.” ih ih “10th. So great a complication of causes was connected with e production of all the phenomena connected with the period, that there 510 The American Naturalist [June, were doubtless many oscillations of the ice front, both during the gen- eral advance and the general retreat of the ice sheet. The extent and continuance of these oscillations is to be learned from study of the buried forests and vegetal deposits which lie between the eaplier and later sheets of till, and by such instances of erosion as may be clearly proved to be inter-glacial. But there does not seem to be evidence of any oscillations of the front sufficient to break the proper continuity _of the period.” The Colorado Formation and its Invertebrate Fauna.'— In a study of a collection of fossils from southern Colorado, Mr. T. W. Stanton found it necessary to review, not only the species definitely assigned to the Colorado Formation, but also a number of doubtful ones vaguely referred to the Cretaceous of Utah and New Mexico. The results of his investigations are published as Bull. No. 106 of the U. S. Geol. Surv., an octavo volume of 189 pages, and forty-five plates. In the compilation of the species, the nomenclature and descriptions have been carefully revised in all cases where better col- lections or additional facts seemed to make it necessary. Thirty-nine species are believed to be new to science. Mr. Stanton gives a com- parison of the lists of fossils to show that the invertebrate fauna of the Colorado formation cannot be subdivided into the well defined zones recognized in Europe, but the fauna on the whole may be regarded as the approximate taxonomic equivalent of the Turonian. i New Polyzoans from the Belgian Cretaceous.—Mr. Ed. Bergens is about to publish a descriptive work with plates of the Cret- aceous Polyzoans collected near Limbourg, Belgium. In this work the author figures a score of colonies from the Maestricht formation (Fox Hills) of great rarity. Among the known species is an examp e of Lichenopora diadema Gldfs. with an ovarian cell completely devel- oped ; an entire colony of Camerapora ; a colony of Retecava clathrata Gldfs. with the base rounded, figured in this rolled state as Neuropora cretacea by Von Hagenow. The other forms are new and many of them are referred to new genera. The author recognizes the genus Eschara, although it is com- posed of heterogenous elements, in order not to augment uselessly the synonomy, for a study of the soft anatomy has not yet allowed a defi- nite classification to be made. (Bull. Soc. Belge de Geol. Pal. et Hy- drog. T. VII, 1893). ‘Bulletin United States Geological Survey, No. 106. The Colorado Formation and its Invertebrate Fauna. T. W. Stanton. Washington, 1893. 1894.) Geology and Paleontology. 511 Geological News.—GENERAL.—In regard to the term gneiss, Professor T. C. Bonney remarks that it covers a group of rocks rather different in character and very different in history. One (a common type) is a gneiss in consequence of an original structure, and remains very nearly in its original condition. Another (also conimon) owes its ‘structure to pressure acting on a rock which had already solidified and had become erystalline. The Central Oberland and some parts of the Pennines afford examples. A third (rather rare and exceptional) is the result of the metamorphism of materials which were originally clastic. Such has been the origin of some of the banded gneisses in Sark, and more evidentally in a mass of rock near the base of the Allalin glacier where veins of intrusive granite exhibit a banded 3 structure which can only be explained by a movement of the material i while still in a plastic condition. (Geol. Mag., March, 1894.) ArcHEan.—According to Mr. Robert Bell, many of the long straight valleys in the Archean regions of Canada now oceupied by river stretches, by long, narrow lakes, and by inlets of larger lakes are due to the decay and removal of wide greenstone dykes, together with belts of rocks between them. The writer instances the inlets of the northern part of Georgian Bay, Onaping Lake, Long Lake, Sepi- wesk Lake with Nelson River, Mattagomi River and Lake Temiscam- ing. The latter is from one to two miles wide and has a length of 35 miles, but the channel is continued into Deep River. The writer esti- mates the depth of this excavation to be about 2,600 feet. Mr. Bell presents stratigraphical evidence to show that this valley existed before the date of the Niagara formation, and he believes that most of the valleys which mark the courses of the decayed dykes were formed before the deposition of the Paleozoic strata. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894). Dr. U. S. Grant concludes, after study in detail of the granitic area near the eastern extension of the Mesabi range in Minnesota, that the rocks of this region are not altered sediment as has been thought here- tofore, but that they are truly eruptive in nature and origin. They are sharply separated from the surrounding clasties, and of later date _than those. (Ann. Rept. Minn. Geol. Surv. for 1892). Parrozorc.—Among the Silurian Trilobites described by Messrs. R. _ Etheridge, Jr. and John Mitchell in Proc. L. S. N. 8. W. pee March, 1894, are three new species: Cyphaspis yassensis, C. horani an 512 The American Naturalist. [June, C. rotunda. The first is of interest as being the only Australian Tri- lobite in which the supposed auditory organs have been observed. These pores in C. yassensis are not situated in the facial sutures, but between them and the front rounded border of the glabella. The Illinois State Museum has just issued a Bull. (No. 3, 1894) containing descriptions of new species of Invertebrates from the Pale- ozoic rocks of Illinois and adjacent States, described by Messrs. 8. A. Miller and Wm. F. Gurley. The fossils comprise 4 species of Echin- ida, 49 Crinoidea and 4 Crustacea, referred respectively to 2, 29 and 2 genera. Eight page plates of drawings accompany the text, some of which are not as well executed as one would wish. Mesozorc.—In a revision of the genus Cycadeoidea Buckland, Dr. Lester Ward refers to the collection of six fine cycadean trunks recently found near Hot Springs, South Dakota. All the cycadean remains thus far found in the southern part of the Black Hills occur in the area marked by Professor Newton as Dakota Group. The fact that no cycadean vegetation has yet been found in the extensive col- lections from the Dakota group of Kansas and Nebraska, led to a careful examination of the series thus classed by Professor Newton, which results in the following conclusion. The Dakota group of Newton is much more extensive than No. 1 of Meek and Hayden, and while the upper portion certainly belongs to the true Dakota, the lower portion very probably extends to near the base of the Cretaceous. The cyca- dean trunks belong to this lower portion, and may not differ greatly in age from those found in Maryland described by Tyson. (Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. IX, 1894). A collection of Cretaceous plants from Vancouver Island yields 50 species of which 27 are new. These are described and figured by Sir Wm. Dawson in Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Sect. IV, 1893. In this connection the author points out the value of fossil plants as indicators of climate and time. Cenozoic.—A restoration of Aceratherium fossiger Cope has been made under the direction of Professor Williston for the Kansas Uni versity Museum. The skeleton isa “ composite ” made up, probably, of nearly as many individuals as there are bones. The different ele- ments were selected from among many hundreds of specimens obtained from a fresh water Pliocene deposit near Long Island, Kansas. The i 1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 513 dimensions of the skeleton are as follows: Length, not including tail, 9 feet; height, 4 feet; greatest girth, 9 feet 4 inches. (Kansas Univ. Quart., April, 1894). In discussing the mammoth remains in Canada and Alaska, Dr. G. M. Dawson notes that in the northwestern part of the continent they are abundant in, if not confined to the limits of a great unglaciated area there existing. This area comprises nearly the whole of Alaska and part of the adjacent Yukon district of Canada. No mastodon bones have been reported from this region. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Feb., 1894), A collection of Tertiary Mammals is reported upon by Professor John Eyerman. The most of the specimens were obtained by Dr. Forsyth-Major, in situ, in southern France and Italy. The collection comprises 7 Insectivora; 3 Carnivora; 14 Rodentia; and 5 Ungulata. Of the Insectivora, one represents, according to Dr. Major, a new fam- ily and genus. Also there is one new genus of Murid rodents, closely related to the American Paciculus of Cope. (Am. Geol., Vol. XIT, 1893). Signor G. A. Amicis has just published (Bull. Soc. Geol. Ital., 1898) “J foraminiferi del pliocene inferiore di Trinité- Victor (Nizzardo),’ an important contribution to our knowledge of the Pliocene Foraminifera of Italy. One hundred and twenty-six forms are recorded, to each of which a very full and interesting synonymy is given, while only two forms are recorded as new, an evidence of the extreme care bestowed upon his work by the author, who hasswept away many varietal forms recently described as new by other authors from imperfect acquaint- Ance with the literature. (Nat. Sci., Feb., 1894.) _ In summing up the data concerning the drainage features of a ; upper Ohio Basin, Messrs. Chamberlain and Leverett agree As . e evidence is very strong that the two uppermost sections of sa vend gheny basin, (including also Oil Creek Basin) and the op . r gheny discharged northwesterly; the evidence relative to the at Allegheny and the upper setion of the Ohio River favors no sr discharge, but is too incomplete to justify a firm SPENS eee a hold to the belief that no hypothesis of continuity can exp T. O phenomena of the glacial drift and terraces of the region oon are ia. They offer four hypotheses in explanation of “tf si m observed, all of which agree on the most vital points, an : FA a size the importance and significance of the first glacial "o : Journ, Sci., Vol. XLVII, 1894). 514 The American Naturalist. i [June, MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPY?’” Eleolite Rocks from Trans-Pecos Texas.—In a recent report on Trans-Pecos Texas Osann? gives a few brief notes on the igneous rocks of the region. The most interesting points in the arti- cle, which, on account of the short time allowed the author to prepare it, is little more than a collection of notes, refer to the alteration of limestones by granite and the production of a rock composed almost exclusively of calcium silicates ; to the existence of eleolite syenites and ` phonolites in the Davis Mountains; to the occurrence of a tourmaline ' schist in the Van Horn Mountains, and of altered diabases and squeezed porphyries in the Carriso Mountains. The eleolite syenite is a fine grained, light colored rock with the typical trachytic struc- ture. It contains orthoclase, eleolite and olivine as phenocrysts and ' sodalite, aegyrite, malacolite, hornblende, arfvedsonite and the rare minerals ainigmatite, laavenite and pyrrhite in its groundmass. The olivine is nearly colorless in thin section. It usually plays the part of a nucleus around which the other dark components have crystal- lized. The pyroxene occurs in two generations. The amphiboles are also in two generations, and often these and the pyroxenes are intergrown with their ¢ axes and clinopinacoids coinciding. Ainig- matite is common in the rock, laavenite and pyrrhite are rare. The phonolites fall into two types. Those of the first type are charac- , terized by their fine grain, by the abundance of needles and grains of aegyrite in their groundmass, and the absence from them of amphibole and other accessory components. In the rocks of the second type are a few phenocrysts of feldspar and of nepheline, the latter of which are often bordered by adark corona of bisilicates. The most prominent of these are aegyrite and malacolite among the pyroxenes and among the amphiboles a variety with a strong pleochroism as follows: A=dark greenish blue; B=dark grayish brown; C=light yellowish brown. Cutting the eleolite syenite are dykes of tinguaite, monchiquite, alnoite, ouachitite, and a rock to which the author gives the name paisanite, since it was found in Paisano Pass in the Davis Mountains. This new rock consists of a few phenocrysts of quartz and of sanidine ina dense white matrix spotted with blue hornblende whose optical properties show it to be riebeckite. The white matrix is composed of ‘Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville. Me. Fourth Ann. Rep. Geol. Survey of Texas, p. 123. 1894] Mineralogy and Petrography. 515 intergrowths of albite and orthoclase cemented by granophyric quartz. It is unfortunate that the author cannot further pursue the studies so auspiciously begun. The Differentiation of Rock Magmas,—In a recent number of the Journal of Geology are two contributions relating to the theory of the differentiation of rock magmas. One, by Iddings,° is a simple statement of the nature of the phenomena that have led to the proposal of the theory. The article does not discuss the causes of the differentiation of magmas except in general terms, but it deals with the facts that seem to indicate that such a differentia- tion of a homogeneous magma into unlike parts is alone capable of accounting for the great differences observed in the various rocks emanating from a single volcanic center, and in different portions of the same rock mass, The second article, by Backtsrém‘, was written to call attention to the difficuly of explaining magmatic differentiation upon Soret’s principle, which applies, so far as we know, only to dilute solutions, and effects only the proportions existing between the solvent - and the dissolved body in different portions of a solution. The author prefers to consider rock magmas as mixtures of liquids, some of which _ are less soluble in others at certain temperatures than at certain dif- ferent temperatures. Hence if a homogeneous magma cools to a temperature when some of its constituents become difficultly soluble in the mixture of the others, it will become separated into pori amend ing different compositions—liquation will ensue. Thus basic concre- tions are sometimes formed in acid rocks, and the acid and the basic lavas of Iceland occur in numerous flows, side by side, while interme- diate rocks are absent. The Old Volcanics of South Mountain, Pennsylvania.— Miss Bascom? has examined with great thoroughness the acid volean- ics of South Mountain, Pa., whose existence was made known to the geological public a year® ago, and has described briefly the — of cher study. These volcanics exhibit many of the features of T SF rhyolites in spite of the fact that they have undergone n = alteration since their eruption. Fluidal, micropoieilitic, sp erulitic, axiolitic and lithophysal structures are noticed in the various speci- *Jour. Geol., Vol. I, p. 833. ‘Ib., Vol. I, p. 773. ‘Jour. Geol., Vol. I, p. 813. SAmer. Jour. Sci., XLIV, p. 482. 516 The American Naturalist. [June, mens; perlitic parting is occasionally detected in them; amygdaloidal phases are not uncommon, while taxitic and trichytic structures are frequently met with. The original components of many of the South Mountain rocks have entirely disappeared and in their place are now found only quartz, epidete, magnetite and leucoxene. These minerals are evidently secondary and yet in some specimens they are associated in micropoicilitie intergrowths, thus indicating to the author the secondary origin of this structure in the present instance. The spherelites in the rocks under consideration are often imbedded in a base that was formerly a glass, though it is now a holocrys- talline quartz—feldspar mosaic, which must necessarily be of the nature of a devitrification substance, since the mosaic is crossed by delicate perlitic partings. The rocks of the region are thus compara- ble with the lava flows of more recent age. Some of them were obsid- ian, others were lithoidal rhyolites and others holocrystalline rhyolites. The structure of the obsidians is now microcrystalline in consequence of the alteration or devitrification processes to which they have been subjected. ey are now felsites or microgranites, but their micro- granitic structure is not original. It is the result of devitrification. The author would therefor not call the rock a microgranite, nor an obsidian, but would designate it as an apobsidian or an aporhyolite, indicating that it was once an obsidian which has become devitrified—the prepo- sition signifying that the rock to which it is prefixed has undergone alteration of a specific nature. Another Occurrence of Websterite.—Another occurrence of the basic rock websterite is reported by Harker’ from Fobello, Lom- bardy, Italy. The rock is a dark aggregate of black diallage mould- ing smaller grains of hypersthene. In thin section the diallage is cot- orless. An eclogite from Port Tana, Norway, consists of garnets holding inclusions of ecyanite, omphacite and zircon, imbedded 1m a groundmass composed chiefly of colorless omphacite and quartz, in which lie phenocrysts of idiomorphic enstatite. A garnet amphibo- lite from Sutherland, England, a quartz diorite from Viti Leon, Fig), and a uralitized gabbro from Ena, Tonga Islands, are also described by the same author. _Petrographical News.—The nickel ores of Sudbury, Ontario, like those of Norway and Sweden, are associated with gabbro aP norite, along their contact with other rocks. The ores are supposed by "Geol. Magazine, VIII, 1891, p. 1. 1894,] Mineralogy and Petrography. 517 Vogt? to be cencentrations from the magma that yielded the gabbro since the olivine of this rock often contains small percentages of nickel and other comparatively rare metals. The principal ore is a nickel marcasite with 3—5.5 per cent. Ni. The same author describes a nickeliferous pyrite from Beiern, Norway, whose density is 4.6, crys- tallization regular and hardness 4. It is not magnetic. A peculiar quartz-porphyry consisting of quartz phenocrysts and crystals of apatite and an altered mineral sup to be enstatite imbedded in a very fine grained weakly doubly refracting groundmass, which is water clear in thin section except where bespattered with dust inclusions or amorphous iron oxide, is mentioned by Hornung’ as probably forming a sheet among the diabases and clay slates near Stalberg in the Harz. Since many of the Maryland granites enclose fragments of other rocks that have suffered contact metamorphism, and since their micro- scopic constituents possess the characteristics of substances that have i solidified from fusion, while the roek masses are intrusive in other rocks Keyes” believes he is justified in regarding them all as eruptive in origin, Piedmontite from a new American Locality.—The rhyo- lites" of the South Mountain region in Pennsylvania and Maryland are characterized by their pink or bright red color, which, according ag Williams,” is due to the large quantity of piedmontite in them. This rare manganese epidote occurs as a constituent in the rock mass, as radiating fibres filling veins and as well terminated crystals ones in scheelite occupying cavities in the rock. The latter were we enough developed to afford material for optical study. The se ea of the crystals is parallel to b. Their pleochroism 18 A=y ellow ; Hi amethyst; C=carmine. Optically they are identical with piedmonti from other localities. An analysis gave (after correcting for quartz) : MnO CaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O CuO PbO Totali Šio, Al 2 Al,O, CeO, R,O, FeO; Mn,0, 9 48 .13 .17 =100.05 22.07 .89 ET 3.37 152 478 815 228 18.83 .30 a result indicating that the South Mountain mineral is neei ” : composition between allanite, true piedmontite and mangan-ep . "Norges Geol. Underség., 1892. Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., XIII, p. 373. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. IV, p. 299. NAMERICAN NATURALIST, March, 1893, p. 273. 12 Amer. Jour. Sci., 1893, XLVI, p. 50. 518 The American Naturalist. [June, The mineral, when in the groundmass of the rhyolite is often associa- ted with a pale rose epidote (withamile) and the common green variety, the latter in some cases surrounding the piedmontite. All of the epidotes are supposed to be of secondary origin. Some American Minerals.—The interesting mineral rowlandite from Llano Co., Texas, to which reference has already been made in these notes, has recently been described by Hidden and Hillebrand”. Its color varies from bottle green to a pale drab green shade. It is more vitreous than gadolinite, is transparent in thin splinters and it weathers to a waxy brick red substance. The mineral is isotropic. Its hardness is 6 and its density 4.515. An analysis gave: SiO, X ThO, CeO, La,O, ete. Yt,O,ete. FeO, FeO MnO Cad 26.04 389 59 5.06 4 47.70 09- 439. GTi MgO Alk HO CO, FI PO, . Total—0O—F 162 25 .24 34 387 tr = 101.12—1.68 = 99.99. Disregarding the CO, and CaO and reducing the rare earths to a hypo- thetical one with the molecular weight of the yttrium group the for- mula becomes Si, Yt, Fe FI,O,, or Fe (YtF), Yt, (Si,O,),. Transparent xenotine in small crystals associated with muscovite in a quartz pocket is reported by Hidden from near Sulphur Spring, Alexander Co., N. C., and a green variety of the same mineral from the Brindletown gold district, Burke Co., in the same State. The green xenotine has been found only in the gold gravels, forming the interior portions of some of the rough brown crystals intermingled with the sand. It is thought to be original substance from which the brown material was derived by weathering. An analysis of the green mineral indicates a complicated composition : SiO, ZrO UO, Tho, Al,0O, Fe,O, (La Di),O, (Yt Er),0, CaO P,O, a! $46. 195 418 t 77 65 98 56.81 21 3031 06 AF In a paper entitled “ Minerological Notes ” Moses" describes pyrite crystals from a cavity in limestone at King’s Bridge, N. Y. The crystals are octahedral in habit, with the octahedral faces striated par- allel to œ 0% and «02. On the diploid and pyritoid faces the stria- tions are parallel to their intersections, while the cubic faces are unstri- i Tere Pe 1893, p. 208. Cf. also AmER. NAT., 1893, p. 248. *Ib., XLV, 1893, p. 488. Reg! eS Ae rank “ge pee Oe 1894.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 519 ated. The same author” has analyzed ettringite from the Lucky Cuss Mine, Tombstone, Arizona. The mineral is in aggegrates of radiating fibres resembling in appearance a fibrous pectolite. These fibres are doubly refracting and have apparently a parallel extinction. The analysis of selected material gave: SiO, AlĻO, CaO SO, H,O at 115° Loss at red heat Total 1.901 10.157 25.615 17.675 33.109 10.872 = 99.329 Reduced, these figures. correspond with the formula 2 [((Hut Ca Al,) O,], SO,+8 H,O. ` Pentlandite occurs at the Sudbury Mine in Ontario, intergrown with massive pyrrhotite. Penfield finds" its density to be about 5, and its composition: S =83.42; Fe = 30.25; Ni = 34.23; Co = .85; gan-. gue =-.67. This corresponds to (Fe Ni) S, in which Fe: Ni = 1:1.32, The three supposed new sulphides folgerite, blueite and whartonite described by Emmens from this locality are thought by Penfield to be nickeliférous pyrite (blueite and whartonite) or mixtures of pentlan- dite with some impurity (folgerite). ee Hidden reports" two new localities for gem turquoise. One is in the Cow Springs district of Grant Co., N. M., fifteen miles south of the Azure Mining Company’s claim in the Burro Mountains, and the other is 150 miles east of the Burros in the J arilla Mountains, Doña Ana Co., in the same State. Both localities were formerly worked by the natives. The matrix of the mineral in both cases is a trachyte traversed by fissures filled with quartz, limonite, kaolin, jarosite and other minerals. The kaolin is the result of alteration of the trachyte and the turquoise is regarded as a further alteration product of the kaolin. A list of the minerals known bard.” Among these isa tale which occurs in fibres like those of asbestus, with an index of refraction = 15-16, an optical angle 2V = 60°, and a density of 2.74-2.88 Their composition as found by Packard is: to occur in Michigan is given by Hub- the author calls beaconite. It “CF, also Zeits. f. Kryst., XXII, p. 16. "Ib., XLV, 1893, p. 493. 181b., XLVI, 1893, p. 400. à = Rep. State (Mich.) Board of Geol. Survey, Lansing, 1893, p. 17 1. 520 The American Naturalist. [June, SiO, Fe,0,. FeO MnO MgO Ign Total 59.72 8.67 64 26.42 4.13 = 99.58 corresponding to H, (Mg Fe), (SiO,),. A pink vitreous zoisite found at the Flat Rock Mine, Mitchell Co., N. C., associated with monazite and allanite, has been analyzed by Eakins.” Its composition is: SiO, AlO, FeO, MnO CaO H,O Total 38.98 31.02 4.15 .23 23.80 2.03 — 100.21 Specimens of cacozenite from six localities have been examined opti- cally by Luquer™. All the crystals show parallel èxtinction, and a few of the larger ones appear pleochroic in orange and light yellow ` tints. From a few measurements the approximate axial ratio 1: .75 was calculated. The heulandite” from McDowells quarry, Upper Montclair, N. J., crystallizes in forms agreeing essentially with those of crystals from Baltimore. The material of the pale green crystals of muscovite from the dolom- ite of King’s Bridge, N. Y., is a mica of the first order. Its appar- ent axial angle is 2E = 62° 11’, 2E = 60° 37. Mineral Syntheses.—The ferrous bye-products of aniline facto- ries at Laar, near Ruhort, Westphalia, when dumped upon the ground to dry, are so rapidly oxidized that the heaps soon become too hot to handle. The material hardens and assumes a metallic lustre On the walls of cavities within it erystals form whose habit is that of hematite but whose composition indicates an admixture of hematite with magnetite. Upon heating to 1200° in a graphite crucible for several hours, ie of titanic iron and two and a half parts of pyrite, Michel’ obtained a crystalline mass with the properties of pyrrhotite. This ” filled with vacuoles on whose walls are implanted tiny crystals of rutile with the characteristics of the natural mineral. Monticellite in well developed acicular crystals is reported by von *Amer. Jour. Sci., 1893, XLVI, p. 154. 2Tb., 1893, XLVI, p. 154; “A, J. Moses: School of Mines Quart., XIV, p. 326, . *8Zeits. d. deutsch. geol. Ges., XLV, p. 63. *Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., XVI, p. 37. 1894.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 521 Giimbel” as existing in the slowly cooled silicate slags from the lead furnace at Friehung near Vilseck in Bavaria. V. Goldschmidt” calls attention to the advantage of glass over charcoal in securing sublimates of volatile substances arising during blowpipe analysis. He also gives the description of an apparatus which enables the manipulator to reduce his metallic compounds upon charcoal and collect their sublimates upon ordinary object glasses, *Zeits. f. Kryst., XXII, p. 269. *Zeits. f. Kryst., XXI, p. 329. 522. The American Naturalist. [June ZOOLOGY. Classification of the Nemertines.—There has been a disincli- nation on the part of some systematists to adopt the subdivisions— Palaeonemertini, Schizonemertini, Hoplonemertini and Malacobdellini proposed by Hubrecht. Dr. Otto Bürger has returned to the prob- lem, and he proposes‘ the following divisions : . Protonemertini in which the longitudinal nerve cord lies either in thé ectoderm or between this and the muscular layer; Mesonemertini in which the cords are in the muscular layer, and Metanemertini in which they are found in the body parenchyma. Bürger further calls atten- tion to “ lateral organs” in many species of Carinella. They consist of epithelial discs, sometimes projecting sometimes grooved, richly supplied with nerves, and, although sometimes containing glands, always free from pigment. He halfway expects that some Nemertine will be found in which the whole lateral line is made up of such sense organs. Ceratodus.—At last we are to have an adequate monograph of this most interesting form. Some years ago the Royal Society of London gave a grant to ascertain its history. An English naturalist was sent to Australia, where he obtained considerable material for an account of this and the Monotremes, but this material has been treated in a regu- lar dog-in-the-manger fashion. Some two or three years ago, aided by funds from the Ritter foundation, Dr. Richard Semon went to Aus- tralia with the same object in view, and the results are now beginning to appear.? From the first parts we learn that Ceratodus is confined to the middle portions of the Burnett and Mary rivers; that it cannot g0 upon land, and that it may be caught with a hook baited with almost any animal substance. The native name is given as Djelleh (we had supposed it to be Barramunda). It breathes between 30 and 40 times a minute. The reproductive season lasts from April to the last of No- vember, and is at its height in September and October. The eggs are enveloped in a gelatinous envelope, and their specific gravity is greater than that of water. The segmentation is much like that of Petromyzon and the Amphibia. The development within the egg occupies 10to12 days, and the anterior extremities appear 14 days after hatching, the hinder after 2} months. No fold was observed connecting the anterior ‘Verh. Deutsch. Zoolog. Gesellsch. III Jahresversammlung, 1894, p. 24. *Deuksch. Med. Nat. Ges. Jena. Bd. iv, 1894, also separate. 1894.] Zoology. 523 and posterior limbs. There are no larval gills nor sucking mouth. Young fish are rarely taken, and those under a foot in length, never. Some Proposed Changes in the Nomenclature of the American Mammalia.—The changes in nomenclature herein pro- posed are the outcome of a critical study of the literature and synon- _ ymy relating to the Mammals of Ord’s Zoology, which was published in Philadelphia in 1815, in the second American edition of Guthrie’s Geography. As already announced in Tue Narura.ist (March, 1894, p. 289), a reprint of a recently discovered copy of this extinct work will be shortly issued by the subscriber. In an appendix to this reprint the following emendations are-fully discussed. For several of these no claim of originality is pretended, as they only reaffirm the decisions of others which have not hitherto met with general acceptance, but which, after a very careful examination, appear to merit the endorsement of scientists. The Code of the American Ornithologists Union has been made the basis of these determinations. ; 1. Red, or New York Bat, Atalapha borealis (Müller), “ Der Neu- jorker,’ Natursys. Suppl., 1776 (No. 21) p. 21, antedates -Atalapha noveboracensis Erxl., Syst., Reg. Anim., 1777, p. 155. 2. Hence “ Vespertilio borealis” Nilsson, Illum. Fig. Scand. Fauna haft, 1838, p. 19, pl. 36, being preoccupied, will have to stand as Vesper- ugo nilssoni Keys. & Blas., Wiegm. Archiv., 1839, p. 315. 3. Hang-lip Bat, Noctilio labialis (Turton), Syst. Nat., 1802, p. 25, antedates Noctilo abliventer Spix, Sim. et Vesp. Brasil, 1823, p. 58. 4. Nine-banded Armadillo, Tatusia novemcincta (Linnæus), Syst. Nat., 1758, p. 51. Tatusia peba Desmarest, Mam., 1820, p. 368, is a synonym. e 5. Arctic Walrus Rosmarus rosmarus (Linnæus), Syst. Nat., 1776, pP. 49. Rosmarus trichechus Gill, Johns. Univ. Cyclop., HI, 1877, 633, isin violation of the Code. Odobænus Linnæus (1735) not binominal, was not legally used by Malmgren (Ofver K. Vet. Akad. Forh., 1863, p- 130) until after Rosmarus of Scopoli (Introd. Hist. Rat., 1777, p- 490) i 6. West Indian Manatee, Trichechus manatus Linnæus, Syst. Nat, 1758, p. 34. Trichechus is only applicable to the Manatee. Linnæus type of the genus was the West Indian species. Trichechus inunguis (Natterer) is the eastern South American species, and Trichechus senegalensis (Desmarest), the Old World representative. 7. Northern Gray Wolf, Canis lupus nubilus Say, Long’s Exp. R. - Mts., I, 1823, 169. 524 The American Naturalist. [June, _ Mexican Gray Wolf, Canis lupus mexicanus (Linneus), Syst. Nat., 1766, p. 60. If we consider the American Wolf a distinct species from the Euro- pean, and the Mexican animal a subspecies, their names should stand Canis mexicanus Linneus (sup cit.) and Canis mexicanus nubilus (Say.) (sup cit.). Canis lupus griseo-albus (Sabine) J. A. Allen, is in- admissible. Canis lupus griseus Sab. is antedated by C. griseus Boddaert, Elench. Anim., 1784, p. 97. 8. American Gray Fox, Urocyon cinereoargenteus (Miller), Natur- sys. Suppl., 1776, p. 29. Müller’s name, as in the case (sup. cit.) of Atalapha borealis, has priority over Erxleben’s Urocyon virginianus, Syst. Reg. Anim., 1777, p. 567. 9. American Red Fox, Vulpes pensylvanicus (Boddaert), Elench. Anim., 1784. p. 97. As cited by Gray, Cat. Brit. Mus. Carniv., 1869, 205, this name has long priority over Vulpes fulvus (Desmarest), Mam., 1820, p. 203. 10. Canada Otter, Lutra canadensis (Schreber). The “Mustela lutra canadensis” of Schreber, Saugt., III, 1778, pp. 458, 588, pl. exxvi, 8, has priority over Lutra canadensis (Turton) Syst. Nat., 1802, p. 57, to whom this name has been accredited. “ Lutra hudson- ica Lacepede” is a reference I am unable to find. 11. Ursus americanus cinnamomum Aud. & Bach., N. Amer. Quad., IIT, 1853, p. 125, is a synonym of Ursus horribilis Ord, Guth. Geog., 1815, p. 291. Both are based on the “ Brown” Grizzlies of Lewis and Clark, from the Missouri Valley. These bears should stand as Ursus arctos horribilis (Ord). The Pacific Coast Grizzly (if separable) should be named Ursus arctos horriaeus Baird, U. S. Mex. B’dry Sur., 1859, p. 24. 12. American Black Bear, Ursus americanus Pallas, Spic. Zool., 1780, pp. 6-24. This form, with its brown and yellow variants, is sufficiently constant to remain specifically separable from arctos. Ursus luteolus Griffith (vid Merriam, Proe. Biol. Soc. Washn., 1893, p. 147), if not distinct from it, is a well-defined variety of americanus. Its affini- ties with arctos are much more remote. 13. American Badger, Taxidea taxus (Schreber), Saugt., III, 1778, p. 520, pl. 142, 2. Taxus, in a specific sense, has long been misap- plied to the European Badger. Schreber originally gave it to the American species, and his name antedates Taxidea americana (Bod- daert), Elench. Anim., I, 1784, p. 186. The European Badger will stand as Meles meles (Linnzus). : ares) Zoology. 525 14. “Mexican Shrew, Sorex mexicanus ” Turton, = Tucan, Geomys mexicanus (Turton), Syst. Nat., 1802, p. 72, antedates Geomys mexicanus (Lichtenstein), Abhan. K. Akad. Wiss. Berl., 1827, p. 113. 15. Florida Gopher, Geomys tuza (Ord), Guth. Geog., 1815, p. 292, has unmistakable right of priority over Geomys pinetis Rafinesque, Amer. Mon. Mag., 1817, p. 45. 16. Pennsylvania Meadow-Mouse, Arvicola pennsylvanica (Ord), Guth. Geog., 1815; p. 292 (foot-note), undoubtedly refers to same spe- cies named A. riparius by Ord in 1825. Rafinesque’s Mynomes pra- tensis, Amer. Mon. Mag., II, 1817, p. 45, further necessitates retention of Ord’s first name. 17. “Small Black Squirrel” (=Black Gray Squirrel), Seiurus carolin- ensis pennsylvanicus (Ord), Guth. Geog., 1815, p. 292. Ord, in a foot-note, defines the Western Alleghanies of Pennsylvania as the type habitat of this race. As such it represents the S. leucotis of Gapper, Zool. Jour., V, 1830, 206, over which Ord’s name has pri- ority. 18. Eastern Red Squirrel, Seiurus hudsonius (Erxleben), Syst. Reg. Anim., 1777, 414, antedates S. hudsonius Pallas, Nov. Sp. Glir., 1778, 376. Credit for this name has been wrongly given to Pallas. 19. Hudson Bay Flying Squirrel, Seiuropterus volucella sabrinus (Shaw), Gen. Zool., II, 1801, p. 157. Sciurus hudsonius Gmelin, Syst. Nat. I, 1788, 158, can never stand for any Sciuropterus, owing to Gmelin’s double use of it in the above citation. 20. Columbia Gray Squirrel, Seiurus griseus Ord, Guth. Geog., 1815, p. 292 (Mss. marg. note of author); ibid, Jour. de Phys., LXxxVIU, 1818, 150, antedates Sciurus fossor Peale, Mam. U. S. Expl. Exp., 1848, p. 55. The Californian subspecies will stand S. griseus nigripes (Bryant). 21. Red-Breasted Squirrel, Sciurus rubicatus Ord (same references as above for S. griseus), antedates Sciurus douglasst Bachman, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1838, p. 99. ; 22. Mexican Deer, Cariacus virginianus mexicanus (Gmelin), Syst. Nat., 1788, p. 179, is based on the “ Teuthlalmacame,” Hernandez, Hist. Mex., 1651, pp. 324, 325. The description of the latter does ker apply to the Prong-horned Antelope, Antilocapra americana, $O asser" d by Berlandier (Baird, Mam. N. Amer., 1857, p- 666; Alston, Pom Cent. Amer., 1879, pp, 82, 113)- Hernandez’s figure of the Teu! = macame (p. 324), whether of the Deer or the Antelope {at age both), cannot affect the description, which applies to the Deer, as also Pennant and Gmelin have construed it. 526 The American Naturalist. [June, 23. Black-faced Wood Brocket, Cariacus tema (Rafinesque), Amer. Mon. Mag. I, 1817, 44. Mr. Alston, Biol. Cent. Amer., 1879, p. 118, declares this animal to be the Cariacus rufinus Boure. & Puch., Rev. et Mag. Zool., 1851, p. 561. Reference to the descriptions of Hernandez and Rafinesque confirms this view and seems to justify the retention of Rafinesque’s specific name as above. 24. Mountain Sheep, Ovis cervina Desmarest, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat., 1818, p. 551. Ovis montana Cuvier is preoccupied by Ovis mon tana (Goat) Ord. “Ovis montana Geoff.” is a myth. Ovis canadensis Shaw, Nat. Misc. XV, pl. 610, is undated. 25. American Bison, Bison bison (Linnæus), Syst. Nat., 1758, p. 72. 26. South American Tapir, Tapirus terrestris (Linneus), Syst. Nat., 1758, p. 74. —SamueEL N. RHOADS. è Zoological News.—Worms.—J. P. Moore describes’ four new species of Branchiobdella parasitic upon American erayfishes. These differ from all European species in the character of the vasa deferentia. Louis Joubin has just published a monograph of the Nemertines of France, making an octavo volume of 235 pages, illustrated by four pilates. Rotifers.—H. S. Jennings points out‘ that the genus Plaosoma of Herrick (1885) has, as synonymes, the names Gomphogaster, Gastr 0- pus, Gastroschiza, Bipalpus and Dictyoderma. The species which Herrick described as P. lenticulare may be the same as Euchlams lyn- ceus Ehrenberg ; if not, it is a distinct form. Jennings also states that P. hudsoni, of Europe, inhabits Lake St. Clair, as does Hudsonella picta. _ Mollusca.—P. H. Mason, among other interesting facts states‘ that cases of mimicry and of hybridization are unknown among the shells of molluses, and that these cannot be invoked as playing any part in the evolution of new forms. He would rather believe that the variations are to explained as depending upon the relations of the animal to shell and of the whole to its surroundings. : *Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1893, 419. “Zool. Anzeiger, xvii, p. 55, 1894 * Jour. Conch., vii, 328. 1894.] Loology. 527 Hexapoda.—F. W. Goding catalogues with synonyms 278 species of North American Membracida. The new genera are Evashmeadea and Vanduzea. Joamny Martin has investigated the place of oxygen in insects.’ A solution containing indigo in a colorless condition, but capable of be- coming blue in contact with oxygen, was injected into the body cavity of various larve, and subsequent dissection showed that only in the neighborhood of the finest tracheal branches, where the “spiral fila- ment” is lacking, was the solution colored. Consequently it is only in these regions that oxygenation of the blood can occur. Hemichorda.—In an article “ Who First Found Balanoglosus ? ”®° the Rev. A. M. Norman says that Cavolini figures it in the Atlas of Delle Chiaje. To this Carus replies’ that in the text the figure is said to represent the spiral ovary [the urticating tentacles spirally coiled up] of “Rombo amento,” according to Delle Chiaje Stephanomia uvaria. Norman replies” that Cavolini’s figure refers to the “ ovary of Agal- mopsis cavolinit.” ®Bull. Illinois State Lab. N. Hist., xiv, p. 391. 1C. R. Soc. Philomath, Paris, 24 Dec., 1893. 3 Ann. & Mag. N. H, xiii, 136, 1894. ® Zool. Anz., xvii. Liter. p. 10, 1894. Pet., Sa. p. 216, 528 The American Naturalist. > [June, EMBRYOLOGY.’ Ookinesis in Limax maximus.—The observations here given are confined to early stages of the egg while in the oviduct, and before the expulsion of either polar globule. The article, therefore, deals with stages which, for the most part, preceed any discussed by Dr. Mark in his excellent treatise on L. campestris. Of the following wood-cuts, Fig. 1 is a diagrammatic representation of the oviduct from a laying animal, from which eggs were taken, and studied serially as numbered. The vitellus averaged 156.2 » in diameter. , 4, Various methods were made use < of in fixing—Fols solution : osmic acid, 1 %, followed by Merkel’s faction was as follows: The body cavity of a laying animal was opened by a quick cut of the scis- sors, and the animal plunged into a boiling hot solution of corrosive sub- limate; allowed to remain one minute; transferred to water and eggs removed from oviduct and shelled? Vitellus allowed to remain in distilled water two minutes, then transferred to 35 and 50 % alcohol, remaining three minutes in each grade; then to 70 % alcohol for per- manent preservation. I found that if eggs were allowed to remain in distilled water three hours or more, they shelled better, the vitellus coming out clearer and freer. For examination of eggs in toto, Czokor’s alum cochineal gave, as a rule, good results. ‘Ten minutes’ stay in this dye appeared to give the necessasy differentiation ; but for examination of sections much longer time was necessary, two to three hours or more. Picrocarminate of lithium was also found to be excellent, if anything, better than Czokor, on account of its differentiating nucleus structures. ‘Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore Md., to whom communications may be addressed. 2? “The Maturation, Fecundation and Segmentation of Limax campestris Bin- ney,” by E. L. Mark, Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Anatomy, Vol. 6, parts 11 and 12, Cambridge, Mass, 1881 * In the upper part of the glandular portion of the oviduct there were a number of eggs in which the outer membrane or shell was barely formed, in some, €88 No. 1, for example, there was no membrane at all, and in others only the inner mem” - branous coat was present. 1894.] Embryology. 529 For examination in toto, 24 hours in this stain, and then washing with distilled water and pure alcohol gave good results. Section staining on slide was also found desirable and Safranin was the stain used—2} hours, followed by acidulated (3 % Hel) alcohol of 90 % grade for 7-10 minutes. The Schällibaum should be new, the sections carefully applied to a well smeared slide, and kept at 60° C. for exactly 15 minutes. If Mayer’s albumen fixative is used, only warm, and as soon as par- affine is melted remove slide from heat. A number of sections of the hermaphrodite duct (h. d. Fig. 1) were made. One egg was found, in this duct, near the hermaphrodite gland, containing two polar corpuscles, each surrounded with a faintly stained Hof, and each showing striae radiating from corpuscle through Hof. About 8 chromosomes were observed irregularly grouped in the well-defined archoplasm of Boveri.’ From these sections it appears that the centres of attraction which Garnault® says do not exist in the ovarian egg of Arion and Helix, and which were not seen in the hermaphrodite gland of L. maximus, do exist in the duct very near the gland. They evidently appear imme- diately after the egg has left the ovary. This duct was lined, for the most part, with ciliated epithelium, and contained much mucus. Fig. 2 illustrates an optical section of egg No. 1 from gland- ular part of the oviduct (see Fig. v o . . = oO Ox 1) viewed obliquely to the long POSE 822 Ow axis of the spindl d showi GIS a na 9S axis of the spindle, and showing ARSA] Jo the two polar corpuscles and 3 Do 4 chromosomes, there being about twenty of the latter lying in an irregular cluster in the clear space between the corpuscles: This egg was stained in picrocar- minate of lithium for 30 hours. In its examination a Zeiss Oc 2 and Obj. E were used. A broken membrane, “ membrane rougée,” was seen with apparently chromatic thickenings in it. Observations on this egg coincide closely with those of Garnault on Arion and Heliz, and, in a measure, with those of Vejdovsky on Rhynchelmis.® 1 & Zellen-Studen” von Dr. Theodor Boveri, Jena, 1887. 5 “Sur les phénoménes de la fécundation chez P Helix aspersa et P Arion em- piricorum.”—Zodl. Anzeiger Nos. 297 and 298, Dec., 88 and Jan., ’89. ê Die Entwecklungsgeschicete der Oligochaeten (Rhynchelmis) , 1888. Fic. 2. 35 530 . The American Naturalist. [June, The larger corpuscle is the one nearest the observer. Thestructural peculiarity of one side of the nucleus should be noted—where cyto- plasm and yolk granules are in intimate relation with contents of nu- cleus. This is Garnault’s “ prophase ;” it is the stage just previous to formation of nuclear plate leading to the forming of first polar globule. In another egg, No. 9, from the same oviduct, an optical section showed rays of hyalocytoplasm pushing out fromfclear area through granules of vitellus. Chromosomes irregularly placed in hyaline area. Spindle striae observed in viewing the egg at right angles to spindle axis. Fig. 3 illustrates an optical section of egg No. 11 from oviduct of another animal, oc- cupying the same relative po- sition as No. 11 in the ovi- duct drawn. In an eccentric position, and near the surface, a clear circular area with ra- dial striae was observed, indi- cating the presence of the male pronucleus, A portion of the membrane of the germinal ves- icle still present. Egg No. Fic. 3. 10, in the same animal, also showed circular male area m direction of axis of spindle, and chromatin granules within it. In egg No. 9 the head of spermatozoön was seen in optical section, some little distance from periphery, circular with narrow Hof about it and striae radiating from Hof. Very fine granules were evident within this pro- nucleus. Fig. 4 illustrates part of a sec- tion of egg shown in Fig. 2, cut in such a plane as to show the sperm nucleus near the periph- ery. Drawn with Zeiss Oc 1 and rx oil immersion. Garnaultsays, in speaking of formation of sperm nuclesin Arion and Helix, “the spermatozodn enters just before first kinesis or immedi- ately after. The contracted head Fic. 4. ~ does not begin to change until after the expulsion of the second polar globule. The sperm-head first oo ° O. #90 ə $34; 3. Sie $ op a j ; Es sat aoa aa 0990% 4 A > 1894.] Embryology. 531 .; divides ihto two chromatin spherules, then, by successive divisions, there is formed a great number of spherules which remain inclosed in a clear areole. This clear areole recalls the hyaline centre of attrac- tion when that has received the half plate for the formation of a vesi- cular nucleus.’ ; . —F. L. WASHBURN. 1 The following few not taining to the fixi d staining of freshly laid eggs ££ D o Eggs placed for 5 minutes in Fol 99 (1 % chromic 25 vol, 2 % acetic 50 vol, H,O 25 vol) then shelled in water, vitellus in same solution for 5 minutes, H,O 10 min., and 35 % and 50 % alcohol 5 minutes each, 70 % 30 min. and 90 % ad. lib. gave good results, taking picrocarminate of lithium very well if left long enough in stain. They also took borax carmine very well after the above treat- ment. x Both of these stains did well after the eggs were immersed in chromic + % 10 min., then shelled in large quantity of water, then vitellus in chromic } % 4 min., and H,O and grades of alcohol as above. Whole egg in osmic acid 1 % 5 min., followed by Merkel’s fluid 4 hrs. ; shell, then water and grades of alcohol 2 min. each to 70 % for permanent preservation were quite satisfactory. It gave good results as to nuclei when eggs were left in picrocarminate of lithium for 48 hrs. 532 The American Naturalist. [June, ENTOMOLOGY ' Tertiary Tipulidæ.—Another important contribution to our, knowledge of fossil insects has just been made by Mr. S. H. Scudder, whose Tertiary Tipulidz’ isin many respects one of the most satisfactory memoirs upon a fossil family that we have. It is remarkable that a large proportion of the several hundred specimens of these delicate insects collected in the famous Florissant deposits have not only “ the venation of the wings completely represented, with all their most delicate markings, but also the slender and fragile legs with their clothing of hair and spurs, and to some degree at least the antenne and palpi. Even the facets of the compound eyes are often preserved as in life.” The nine lithograph plates accompanying this paper show very Well the correctness of these statements. Mr. Scudder describes twenty-nine new species belonging to ten genera of Limnobine and twenty-two new species belonging to five genera of Tipuline. The general results of his study are summarized as follows: 1. The general facies of the Tipulid fauna of our western tertiaries is American, and agrees best with the fauna of about the same latitude in America, as far as we are at present acquainted with it. 2. All the species are extinct, and though the Gosuite Lake and the ancient lacustrine basin of Florissant were but little removed from each other, and the deposits of both are presumably of oligocene-age, not a single instance is known of the occurrence of the same species 12 the two basins. The Tipulid fauna of the Gosuite Lake, however, is a8 yet very little known, and it should be added that the few described species are in no instance the same at Green River, Wyo., and White River, Colo., both localities in the same ancient lake basin. 3. No spevies are identical with any of the few described Europea? tertiary Tipulide. » 4. Restricting ourselves to the Florissant basin, from the paucity of material in the Gosuite fauna, it will be noticed that a remarkable pro portion of genera (eight out of fifteen) are not yet recognized among the living, these genera including about one-third of the species. ‘Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H. * Tertiary Tipulide, With Special Reference to those of Florissant, Colorado, By Samuel H. Scudder. Proc. Amer. Phil. Society, vol. XXXII. Reprinted April 4, 1894. 1894.) Entomology. 538 5. With one (American) exception—Cladura—all the exisiting genera which are represented in the American tertiaries are genera common to the north temperate zone of Europe and America, and are generally either confined to these regions or the vast proportion of their species are so confined. A similar climate is indicated, but this latter conclusion should be received with hesitation, since our knowledge of the distribution of American genera is mostly confined to the Atlantic States. There are, however, no certain indications of a warmer climate, such as have been shown from the study of other groups. 6. There are no extinct groups higher than genera, but one or two of these, such as Cyttaromyia and Micrapsis, are of a somewhat strik- ing character. T. The relative importance of the two subfamilies of Tipulidæ though differing on the two continents of Europe and America both in tertiary and in recent times, was much the same, on each continent, in tertiary times as now; while in the relative preponderance of the different tribes of Limnobine, our tertiary fauna shows a somewhat closer agree- ment with the European tertiary than with the existing American fauna. There are, however, no striking generic alliances pointing in the same direction. Dr. Packard on Lagoa crispata.—In an important paper pre- sented to the American Philosophical Society’ Dr. A.S. Packard gives an interesting account of a remarkable moth, accompanied by seven plates of figures. The larva in question is remarkable because it pos- sesses the rudiments of two pairs of abdominal legs in addition to the five pairs usually present in lepidopterous larvæ. In summing up the characters which lead him to consider Lagoa a generalized type the author says: In the superficial characters of the imago and in having in the larva abdominal legs, Lagoa resembles the Liparide, but in all its essential characters, those of the egg, larva, pupa and imago, it = longs with the Cochliopodidæ, except in the matter of the presence 0 abdominal legs in the larva. On this account it seens fairly "a to _be regarded as the type of an independent group. ek mor = regard it as a generalized ancient group of Oone æ, te tee it to a subfamily Lagoinæ, or we may boldly remove it altoge ak either of the two families mentioned and consider the genus s r resentative of a distinct family and designate the group by the E 3 A Study of the Transformations and Anatomy of Tagos crispata, a Bombycine Moth. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., vol. XXXII, pp. 275-292 534 The American Naturalist. [June, of Lagoide. This on the whole seems to us to be the most judicious course to pursue. At all events the insect is plainly enongh an ancient ancestral or generalized form. It is, so to speak, a primitive Cochlio- podid with larval abdominal legs. It lays eggs like those of Limacodes, ete. ; its head in the larval state is concealed from above by the pro- thoracic hood ; its larval armature is more of the Cochliopodid type than Liparid; so are the pupal characters and the nature of the cocoon; and the shape of the important parts of the head and the essential features of the venation are overwhelmingly Cochliopodid. Under these circumstances we feel justified in regarding Lagoa as a most interesting ancestral form, and as affording arguments for con- sidering the Bombyces, as a whole, as a generalized and ancestral group, and epitomizing the other higher Lepidopterous families somewhat as Marsupials do the placental orders of mammals.” In a note Dr. Packard announces his recent discovery that Lagoa is preoccupied by Megalopyge of Hübner, and Lagoide by Megalopyg- idee of Berg. Miss Ormerod’s Report.—Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod’s seven- teenth report on the injurious insects of England which has lately ap- peared forms a volume of 152 pages treating of a great variety of in- sect pests. There are a number of illustrations, several being new. The most remarkable insect appearance of last season was the so-called plague of wasps, already mentioned in the NATURALIST. Concerning this Miss Ormerod writes: “The enormous excess of wasp presence over the average was in many places nothing short of a calamity, inflicting pain, and to some degree danger to ourselves, and to horses exposed to sudden attack, and great loss to fruit-growers. Within our houses in many cases the wasps swarmed to such a degree and especially at meal times as to make their presence on the food a real trouble; the agri- cultural or garden laborers were severely stung where working on crops to which the wasps had been attracted by the presence of aph- ides, or on fruit stocks where budding was going forward. Also pain, risk and delay in farm work were caused by fierce onslaughts of wasps from nests turned up in plowing. Great losses were caused by. the quantity of fruit entirely ruined up to almost wholesale destruction in the grounds of large fruit growers, and to this must added the losses to shop owners dealing in such commodities as find favor in the eyes of wasps for their own consumption, or thievish abstraction for food of the coming on generation still in maggot condition, to be counted by hundreds, in each of the vast number of nests which were the head- quarters of the marauding and troublesome pests.” 1894 ] Entomology. 535 Miss Ormerod attributes the extraordinary abundance of the wasps to the early and long continued drouth which enabled the insects to get an unusual start. New York Reports.—The Eighth and Ninth Reports of Dr. J. A. Lintner, State Entomologist of New York, have recently been pub- lished. They are good sized volumes giving abundant evidence of the pains-taking preparation so characteristic of their predecessors in the same series. The contents of the eighth report include an introductory summary of the important entomological events of 1891; a discussion of a number of injurious insects; notes on various insects and remedies for them; two entomological addresses, and a bibliography of the pub- lications of the entomologist for 1891, 1875 and 1876. The ninth report is equally full of varied and valuable information, and contains besides a reprint of Dr. Asa Fitch’s Catalogue of Homoptera which will be ap- appreciated by many students. Notes.—Mr. Alex. A. MacGillivray of Ithaca, New York, continues his papers on North American Thysanura in The Canadian Entomol- ogist. He advises the restriction of the name Poduride to genera hav- ing the saltatory organ, and includes the genera in which it is absent under the Aphoruridæ. A number of new genera and species are de- scribed. = An interesting colored plate showing the variations of the larve of Arctia caia appears in The Entomologists’ Record, Feb. 15, 1894. Prof. T. D. A Cockerell publishes in Bulletin 10 of the New Mexico Experiment Station a List of Insects found on Cultivated plants in the Mesilla Valley. Two new Deltoid moths—Pseudaglossa forbesii and Pallachira har- tii—are described by Prof. G. H. French in a recent Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History. In a circular recently issued from the Department of Agriculture Mr. L. O. Howard announces the spread of Aspidiotus perniciosus through many eastern states, and gives directions for its destruction. In Bulletins 35 and 36 of the West Virginia, Experiment Station - Mr. A. D. Hopkins continues the publication of his studies of wood boring insects. A large number of fairly good original figures are ublished. In Bulletin 51 of the Ohio Experiment Station, Mr. F. M. daca publishes a number of miscellaneous articles. The one of most gene interest is on “ Some Insect Immigrants of Ohio. 536 The American Naturalist. [June, Professor Herbert Osborn announces the discovery* that Aphis rum- icis is the summer form of A. euonymi, and gives observations confirm- ing the statement. He also reports upon the relations of the Schizo- neura ovipositing on dogwood (Cornus) and the one living on grass. roots. 4 Bull. 23, Iowa Experiment Station. 1894.) Psychology. 537 PSYCHOLOGY. The Recidivist.—In the September Forum there appeared an article on the topic “ Criminals not the victim of Heredity.” On sum- ming up, the writer comes to the conclusion that “a criminal is like any other man.” It is the purpose of the present writer to show, by unimpeachable and incontrovertible evidence, that this last statement is a grosserror. The Forum writer makes an indiscriminate use of the terms professional, habitual, and congenital criminal. A professional criminal is not, necessarily, a congenital criminal, nor is an habitual criminal necessarily a professional criminal. I presume that the writer of the article quoted above, means the recidivist all through his paper, and therefore will endeavor to prove that the congenital criminal and the recidivist is, anatomically and physiologically, entirely different from normal man in many respects. In this paper I do not wish to enter the domain of speculative psychology, nor do I intend to grapple with the grave problems now agitating sociologists and penologists, therefore will content myself with the introduction of facts and facts alone. The statement of the present writer that the recidivist is, ana- tomically and physiologically, an abnormal type of man, is not the conclusion of an hour or day, but is the rational deduction obtained from days, months, and years spent at the dissecting table and micro- scope, and in the study of the criminal, both in a state of freedom and when incarcerated. Thecriminal physiognomy is of so marked a type that most men are able to recognize it ata glance. I borrowed six photographs of criminals from Major Owen, Chief of Detectives, Louisville, Ky., for the purpose of illustrating an article on “ Criminal Anthropology,” (which article appeared in the N. F. Medical Record, Jan. 13), selecting them at random from some fifty or sixty other pho- tographs of criminals. Five of these photographs were recidivists, and one was an occasional criminal. These six photographs were shown to one hundred men with the following statement and request : “ Here are six criminals; five of them are habitual malefactors, and one of them is, comparatively speaking, an honest man—pick out the honest man.” Ninety-five men picked out the photograph of the occasional criminal without a second’s hesitation. The discriminating and exact Maudsley says: “All persons who have made criminals their study, recognize a distinct criminal class of beings, who "ea together in our large cities in a thieves quarter, giving themselves up 538 The American Naturalist. [June, to intemperance, rioting in debauchery, without regard to marriage ties or the bars of consanguinity, and propagating a criminal popula- tion of degenerate beings. For it is furthermore a matter of observa- tion that this criminal class constitutes a degenerate or morbid variety of mankind, marked by peculiar low physical and mental characteris- tics, * * x * * * * Their family likeness betrays them as fellows by the hand of nature marked, quoted, and signed to doa deed of shame.” For obvious reasons, I have taken the liberty of italicizing certain words in the above quotation. A celebrated criminal lawyer of New York once told the writer that he could tell a recidivist at a glance, and that he never made a mistake in his diagnosis of moral obliquity. Professor Enrico Ferri, an Italian anthropologist, tells us that on one occasion he examined several hundred soldiers, and found only one whose face declared him acriminal. He afterwards ascertained that this man had committed murder. Lombroso submitted to thirty-two young girls the photographs of twenty thieves and twenty moral men. Eighty per cent. of these oe recognized the first as malefactors, the second as moral, upright men. Emile Gautier, who was, for a time, . confined in Lyons prison says that “these criminals have a general family resemblance, which makes them a class apart.” A warden of an eastern penetentiary (Sing-Sing) told the writer that there were not only twins in every prison, but there were “twins, triplets, quadrup- lets, ay! even twelvelets” (sic). An interesting point in connection with the criminal physiognomy is that it is to a large extent indepen- dent of nationality. The German criminal is not unlike the Italian, nor isthe French unlike the English criminal. M. Joly remarks, ‘1 should say that in M. A. Bertillon’s’ office I was shown nearly sixty photographs of Irish, English, and American thieves. It would have been difficult in many cases to discern the Anglo-Saxon rather than any other physiognomy.* Now let us analyze the criminal type, feature by feature, and see what constitutes this universal and well-marked physiognomy. The observations of the writer when in pursuit of this analysis, were not confined to any particular class of criminals; he examined all classes. He soon discovered, however, that this distinctive type was to be found in the congenital recidivist alone. The occasional criminal and the criminal by calculation (the true professional criminal), were found to 'Maudsley . Responsibility in Mental Disease, p. 29. Lombroso: L’Uomo Delinquente. *Haveloek Ellis: The Crimi “Havelock Ellis: The Criminal, p. 82 1894.] Psychology. ; 539 be anatomically and physiologically normal. In the recidivist there is marked exaggeration of the cephalic indices. In a dolichocephalic recidivist the long head is very noticeable. The same exaggeration is found in brachycephalic recidivists. Oxycephalism (sugar-loaf head) is very frequently observed. In three hundred drawings taken from live and dead subjects by the writer, one hundred and ninety-eight are oxycephalic. Lauvergne says of this kind of head: “ When it is complete, that is to say, when it ‘presents a prominent base support- ing an inclined pyramid, more or less truncated, this head announces the monstrous alliance of the most eminent faculty of man, genius, with the most pronounced impulses to rape, murder, and theft.” The bilateral elevation of the sagittal suture (Benedikt’s lines’) has been noticed in the three of the six hundred, who form the class from which these deductions are drawn. Professor Benedikt considers these sutural elevations of great importance in criminal anthropology and in his book Kraniometrie und Kephalometrie says “ that, though rare, when present they are significant of great moral obliquity.” There is, generally, marked enlargement in the orbital arches of recidivists, to- gether with receding foreheads. In three hundred and fifty of the four hundred profile and quarter-face photographs of habitual crimi- nals that I have examined, this enlargement of the orbital arches was plainly noticeable. In the two hundred drawings and photographs that form my collection, it is noticeable in one hundred and eighty- two. Tenchini and Lombroso, as well as Benedikt, have pointed out this abnormality in the orbital arches of criminals. In my collection of skulls there are four skulls of recidivists; all of these show this enlargement of the orbital arches. Prognathism is a marked charac- teristic in the physiognomy of the recidivist. The large, heavy lower jaw and protruding mouth strikes the observer at once. This feature is rarely absent in the congenital criminal. It is an abnormality elo- quent in its atavistic suggestiveness. The low receding forehead, the enlarged orbital arches, the progna- thous jaws, and high cheek-bones of the congenital criminal are strik- ingly like those of our pithecoid ancestors.” oe Just here it is proper to state, that, in an article on Effemination and Viraginity which appeared in the N. F. Medical Record, Septem- ber 16th, I have asserted that atavism only attacks individuals of a neurasthenic type; that the phenomenon of reversion is found only in psychopathic aberrants. This, in a measure, is true in all cases of ‘Benedikt: Kraniometrie u. Kephalometrie. °The writer: Criminal Anthropology, N. Y. Med. Record, Jan. 13. 540 The American Naturalist. [June,. reversion, but, in the article alluded to, I then had reference to psycho- sexual atavism alone. Sexual perversion and psychic hermaphrodi- tism are prominent characteristics of the congenital criminal ; I do not. intend, however, to discuss them in this paper. I have examined, macroscopically and microscopically, twenty-three criminal brains. Twenty of these brains were those of recidivists, and abnormalities. were found in all of them. In one of them, taken from a criminal executed for an attempt at rape and murder, there was confluency of the fissures. In several of them the frontal lobe presented four (apparent) convolutions ; in all of them there was deficiency in weight. In others the gray matter was scanty and thin, and the convolutions superficical and few in number. Havelock Ellis says: “The im- portant matter of the vascular supply of the brain in criminals has yet- received little attention, but a variety of pathological features have been found in the cerebral substance and membrance—pigmentation, degenerating capillaries, ete.” ; he then adds in conclusion, “ It must: be added, as a point of considerable importance, that in very few cases have these pathological lesions produced any traceable symptoms during life.” There are two kinds of abnormal ears found in the criminal type; large out-standing ears, like those of the chimpanzee and nshiego-mbouve, and ears, small, and closely applied to the skull, like those of the gorilla. I have found that the small ear is generally pos- sessed by the sneak-thief and pick-pocket, while the large ear is pos- sessed by the burglar with murderous tendencies. In all my experience I have never seen an habitual petty thief with a large ear, while all the murderers whom I have examined had large ears. A prison- keeper said to be on one occasion: “I can tell athief froma mur- derer every time, by the size and shape of his ears.” (sic). I have thirty-six sketches of pick-pockets. These drawings were made from | life, and are drawn to scale, and in all of them the ear is small and, generally, misshapen. One sketch, made of a convict now in ar Indiana prison, shows the strange abnormality of a forked helix. Féré and Segelas present a cut of an ear somewhat like the sketch just mentioned. There are other abnormalities in the ear of the recidivist, such as “a development of the Darwinian tubercle, absence of one of the branches of the fork, absence of the helix, effacement of the anti- helix, etċ., ete.” Most of these abnormalities are, unquestionably, -atavistic attempts, and especially is this true of the small gorilla-like ear and the large, projecting chimpanzee-like ear. "Havelock Ellis: The Criminal, p. 63. ‘Ibid, p. 68. 1894.] Psychology. 541 The criminal has a peculiar, feral stare, which once seen and noted can never be forgotten. A noted detective, (Bligh of Louisville, now dead) called it the “ape-eye.”” “Look,” said he to me on one occa- sion when we were discussing criminals, “ Look at the next ape you see and you will know what I mean.” (sic). The congenital criminal,” when looking at one seems to focus his sight on a point some distance beyond one’s body. It is difficult to describe this look. Bligh’s “ ape- eye” comes nearer to it than anything else I can think of. The special senses are generally very much exaggerated in the con- genital criminal. The hearing of twenty-eight recidivists out of thirty tested with the watch, was found to be more acute than normal. Some of these criminals possessed the microscopic eyesight of birds, describ- ing the appearance of minute objects correctly, the details of which, to be seen by me, rendered the use of a lens absolutely necessary ; and I may add that my eyes are normal. Others were far-sighted, some of them being able to read Snellen’s type at double the normal distance. The sense of smell, that is for some odors, was decidedly more acute than normal. I washed my hands in water scented with a few drops of violet perfume; they were then washed in pure water and carefully dried. Three billiard balls were then held in the hands for a few moments and then deposited on a table with a half dozen others. Thirteen out of the twenty-eight recidivists under observation, picked out the balls which had handled declaring that they could plainly distinguish the violet odor. * kkk I once knew a recidivist in St. Louis who could tell his friends by their personal odors. I had this man’s skull in my cabi- net fora number of years; it was eventually stolen from me, and is now, probably, in some museum of anatomy. It was strikingly like the skull of the Man of Spy,’ and an extraordinary instance of ata- vism in every struetural characteristic. I have now analyzed the phys- iognomy of the congenital criminal feature by feature. When place each part in its proper place I construct a mosaic of a variety in the human race entirely different from normal man. I have shown "The writer: Criminal Anthropology, N. Y. Medical Record, Jan. 13 WI wish to call attention to the fact that I consider the congenital criminal to be the only true recidivist. I make this distinction in order to emphasize the great difference that exists between the gaat occasional criminal, and the true recidivist who is born a criminal. J. W., "The reader is respectfully referred to the eon of Spencer, pie Reclus, Wolfe and others for kindred observations on the special senses of sav "Wright: Man in the Glacial Period, p. 277, 542 The American Naturalist. rye that these abnormalities are anatomically and physiologically irregu- lar. The brain, the seat of the moral function is involved as well as bone, nerve and tissue. I have said nothing of color (pallor) of the hair, of cutaneous insensibility, of the form and shape of the extremi- ties, and of numerous other abnomalities. I think that I have proven that the recidivist is not “like every other man.” I promised in the beginning of this paper that I would not enter the domain of meta- physics. I have, in another article, fully discussed this branch of the subject. I cannot refrain, however, from noticing several of the For- um writer’s statements. His whole paper is made up of assertions, the basis of which are founded on personal beliefs. It is the old story of religion against science ; the old mistake of separating mind and brain matter, when, in a measure, the two are identical. I am not an Aver- roist, nor am I a believer in the doctrines of emanation and absorption. But I do believe, (and this belief can be proven to be correct), that wherever there are receptive ganglia, whether in organisms high or low in the scale of animal life, there this element of the brain, which the Greeks called Psyche, enters in. The Forum writer says that he does not believe that the moral function is an inherited one. Does he believe that man sprang into existence fully endowed with all the men- tal attributes we find in him at the present time? Does he deny the fact that mind has undergone evolution and development since the time of our pithecoid ancestors?, Does he mean to maintain that the brain of an infant born to-day is no further developed than was that of one born twenty thousand years ago? Would he have us believe that the moral function is no further developed in us than it was in the ancient Britons, or than it is in the autocthon of Australia? That morals are, to a certain extent, dependent on education, I do not for one instant deny, but that they are wholly so, no one, who knows the negro and the results of a hundred years of moral education expended on him, will for one instant affirm. I take the American negro simply because he is a convenient example. Morals are the result of evolu- tionary development, of inherited experiences, as much so as any other inherited function. The laws of atavism, of reversion to ances- types, and of inheritance apply to the mind as well as the body. We cannot place morals, a purely mental function, on a pedestal by themselves and write beneath them “Cave! Deus Sum.” Says the Forum writer: “The moment that he understands that ‘ honesty is the best policy * the average professional criminal becomes honest.” As I have said before, in the first part of this paper, the Forum writer does not discriminate when speaking of criminals. Now this state- 1894.] ~ Psychology. : 543 ment may he true in the case of the professional criminal i. e. the criminal by calculation, but it is not true in the case of the recidivist. The recidivist never recognizes the fact that honesty is the best policy, but continues to commit anti-social acts until the end of his life. His moral imbecility, the direct result of atavistic degeneration, is such that he does not consider his anti-social acts criminal in any sense of the word. Dugdale in his remarkable work “ The Jukes” has clearly proven how great a factor heredity is in the production of criminals. The evidence in his book alone ought to be convincing to any unbiased mind, but when it is substantiated by the evidence of such men as Lombroso, Ottolenghi, Ellis, Marro and Segelas it becomes absolute authority. Jas. WIER, JR., M. D. 544 The American Naturalist. [May, MICROSCOPY." Marine Planarians.—In a paper now in press (Journ. Morph., Vol. IX, No. 2), Dr. Wheeler gives a few notes on methods he em- ployed in the study of Planocera inquilina, a Polyclad found in the branchial chamber of Sycotypus. The Biondi-Ehrlich stain proved to be very useful in making the rhabdites conspicuous. Owing to the lack of pigment, the nervous system may be traced without difficulty, especially in young specimens. It agrees closely with Lang’s description and figures of the nervous system of Planocera Grafjii. Remarkably clear pictures of the beautiful plexus and its con- nection with the brain may be obtained by killing in hot corrosive sublimate, staining for 12 hours in Czokor’s alum cochineal, and, after dehydrating, mounting in gum sandarac dissolved in absolute alcohol. In a second paper, l. c., p. 178, devoted to a Triclad (Synceelidium pellucidum) found in the vill-books of Limulus, the method of study- ing the nervous system is described thus: The great transparency of Syncelidium makes it a very favorable object for the study of the nervous system. The brain and main nerve trunks may be readily seen in the living animal, but this method is in- sufficient for a study of details. It is, however, only necessary to stain with alum cochineal, extract as much of the stain as possible with water, dehydrate and mount directly from absolute alcohol in gum sandarac to obtain a diagrammatically clear picture of all but the very finest details of the nervous system. The nerves stand out as white lines on a darker background. Breeding Habits of the Three Triclads of Limulus.—B. can- dida, B. propinqua and S. pellucidum all deposit their egg-capsules on the gill-lamellee of their host, Limulus. The first species seems to show no preference for a particular region of the gill-leaf, but scatters its egg- capsules over the whole surface. B. propinqua selects the basal, or proximal region of the leaf, while Syncelidium prefers a small area near the edge and just lateral to a small marginal callosity which forms a brown line with the callosities of the adjacent leaves when the gill-book is closed. . The egg-capsule of Syncælidium is about .75 mm. long, of an oblong shape and somewhat compressed. It is attached by a slender pedicel, -5 mm. in length, in such a way that one of the flattened sides of the capsule is applied to the surface of the gill-leaf. Usually the capsules ‘Ed. by C. O. Whitman, Univ. of Chicago. 1894.] Microscopy. 545 are arranged with their long axes parallel to one another in a little cluster near the marginal callosity. The chitinous wall of the capsule is thin and transparent, but grows thicker towards the poles. Through it the two opaque white eggs or larvæ may be distinctly seen. I have never found more than two eggs in a capsule. Many of the capsules bear at their outer ends one or more of the deep blue thecæ of an infusorium. ‘These were regarded by Gissler as pneumatic tubes, but Ryder showed that they were the thecz of “ Protozoa of the genus Epistylis or Zoothamnion.” Both Ryder and Gissler figure the egg-capsules of Synceelidium After describing the capsules of Bdelloura, Ryder: says: “The second form, represented in Figs. 5-7, enlarged 16 times, is much smaller, but similar in structural features to the preceding. The capsules measure about 7s of an inch in length and contain usually 2 eggs or embryos. At first the ova occupy each one of the ends of the capsule, as shown in Fig. 5; but after the young worms have developed somewhat, they usually lie alongside of each other lengthwise of the capsule. They frequently change positions, however, at this stage and it sometimes happens that there is but one embryo in a capsule.” Gissler’s Fig. 2° is evidently the capsule of Syncelidium, as shown by its size relatively to the infusorial thecæ attached to its summit. For a description of the egg-capsule of B. candida I would refer the reader to the papers of Leidy (’51), v. Graff (79), Ryder (’82a) and Gissler (’82). What I take to be the egg-capsule of B. propinqua, is considerably smaller than that of the allied B. candida, measuring only 1.25 mm. It appears to contain only one ovum, instead of 2-7 as in B. candida, but on this point I cannot be positive. I am unable to identify this _ form of capsule with any of those described by Ryder (’82a). The three Limulus-infesting Triclads differ also in their time of. breeding. B. candida oviposits during May and early June, when the Limuli return from the deep water to the sandy beaches to breed. ‘The passage of the Triclads from one crab to another must be favored by the prolonged coitus of the latter. Syncelidium oviposits in the lat- ter part of July and the early part of August, when the gills are de- serted by the half-grown young of B. candida for the basal joints of the cephalothoracic appendages. As the Limuli have laid their eggs and begin to return to deep water by the first days of July, it is neces- sary, in order to study Syncelidium and its habits, to collect a num- ber of the crabs early in the season and to confine them in a large fish-box or similar receptacle. B. propinqua appears to breed‘ at the Same time as Syncelidium. 36 546 The American Naturalist. [June, PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. New York Academy of Sciences.—Biological Section.— April 9. H. F. Osborn, in “ A division of the Eutherian Mammals: into the Mesoplocentalia and Cenoplacentalia ”, noted that the radiation of the mesozoic placentals into carnivorous, herbivorous and insectivor- ous types, was analogous to that of recent placentals, or to that of Australian marsupials; Mesoplacentalia would represent a group primitive, as in foot and brain, vel great bide oka inertia; it would include Amblypoda and Condy] , the Creodonta,. Tillodonta and Insectivora as Unginculates and the Lemuroidea as primates. O. S. Strong, exhibited “ Nerve-cell Structures as demonstrated by Golgimethods”, and presented for publication a memoir on the “Origin and Peripheral Distribution of the Cranial nerves of Amphibians.” P. Gibier, “ A note on Glycosuria produced Experimentally.” A. B. Matthews, “ On the Structure and Physiology of the Pancreas. Cell” Bashford Dean, Recording Secretary. Proceedings of the Natural Science Association of Staten Island.—April 14th, 1894 Mr. Chas. W. Leng exhibited living and mounted specimens of beetles, new to or rare on the Island, with the following memoranda: BRYAXIS ABDOMINALIS (AUBE). Three years ago I found a number of small beetles clinging to the: underside of pieces of bark and wood lying on the banks of a salt mead- ow creek near Arlington ; the beetles were first observed by me at the point where the railroad embankment ends and the trestle begins, but- Mr. Davis had previously found the same or a closely allied species at other points on the border of the salt meadow. These beetles proved to be Bryaxis abdominalis, one of the Pselaphide, an addition to the fauna of Staten Island, and, in view of the numbers in which they were found and the rarity of the species of this family as a rule, an addition of unusual interest. During the early spring of 1893 and again this year I have made some careful observations to determine the date of appearance and the exact localities frequently by those beetles. They may be found early 1894.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. | 547 in February and as late as May, but disappear entirely in the summer months. During this brief period the eggs that are to produce the succeeding generation are laid and their life work being ended the beetles die. To determine the localities I examined the border of the salt meadow at various points, usually accompanied by Mr. Davis. South of Oak- wood a narrow peninsula of upland juts out into the meadow and there, on March 18th, the beetles were plentiful; theslight rise of ground was. littered with boards, logs and fragments of bark, carried far inland by unusual tides, and almost every piece sheltered a Bryazis. They did not extend more than ten feet from the meadow and they avoided those boards which were within a few feet of the meadow and con- stantly damp. On March 25th we searched the border of the meadow west of Richmond. The tides reach these meadows only by way of the Fresh Kills and the wreckage is sparse, perhaps becoming stranded be- fore it reached so far inland. No Bryavis were found. On April 1st I visited the strip of sandy upland that stretches into the meadow south of the water company’s wells at New Springville. The conditions existing near Oakwood are here repeated and Bryaxis was found in some numbers. On the same day I crossed the turnpike and visited the meadows east of Chelsea, but there is an absence of any sharp dividing line between meadow and upland at that point; no suit- able shelter is formed and no Bryaxis were found. On April 8th Mr. Davis, Mr. Walter Granger and I examined the meadows at Watcho- gue very thoroughly but found no large number of beetles. The day was, however, unfavorable and may have affected the result. During this period Mr. Davis twice visited the original locality at the trestle and found the beetles in numbers. This locality is particularly favor- able; the operations of the railroad company have caused a quantity of soil to be thrown up in hillocks and ridges which afford the necessary retreat from high water and at the same time a lodging place for the chips and bark that shelter the beetles. As the result of these observations, repeated in different years and at widely separated localities, I think I am justified in stating that Bry- axis abdominalis is abundant from February to May at the border of the salt meadow all around Staten Island ; living not on the meadow or near enough to feel the influence of its dampness, but under wood or bark cast by the tide upon the upland. These beetles are quite small and Mr. Craig kindly prepared a specimen for exhibition under the microscope. The form of the antenne, the single tarsal claw and the sculptured abdomen of the male are the characters specially noteworthy. 548 The American Naturalist. [June, The family to which this beetle belongs comprises a goodly number of minute beetles, found either beneath stones or wood or in ants’ nests. Their habits are but little known; they live on animal substances and their powerful mandibles and long palpal members seem to indicate that they capture fleet and hard shelled prey; some livein pairs while others are gregarious; those living in ants’ nests appear to be true in- quilines ; the ants which support them, by caressing the tufts of hair about the abdomen, cause the exudation of a fluid which they greedily swallow. The larve are unknown. An excellent monograph, by Brendel and Wickham, may be found in the Bull. Laborat. Nat. Hist., State Univ., Iowa, Vol. 1 and 2. It may be noted that two other minute beetles are always found with this Bryawxis, viz: Scydmenus salinator, Lec. and Rhypobius marinus, Lec. They are not confined to such narrow limits as the Bryazis but invariably occur where it occurs. Mr. Leng also contributed the following: Notes on Naias Flexilis. The water plant, Naias flexilis (Willd.), Rost. and Schmidt, reported by Mr. Davis at our last meeting, occurs also at Springville and at Bull’s Head. At Springville sparingly, in a small pool on the edge of the meadow, south of Union avenue in the second large field west of the Morning Star road. At Bull’s Head abundantly, in a ditch running south from Lam- bert’s Lane and about a quarter of a mile west of the Morning Star road. Mr. Arthur Hollick presented a set of three barred owl’s (Syrnium nebulosum) eggs and read the following memorandum: ! In our Proceedings for April 11th, 1891, may be found a short note in regard toa barred owl’s nest having been found by Mr. Chas. Rufus Harte, in the vicinity of Bull’s Head, on March 27th of that year. On March 12th, 1892, it was again visited by Mr. Harte, as noted in the Proceedings for April 9th, 1892. On each occasion he obtained a set of three eggs from the nest. So far as I am aware the owls were not disturbed in 1893. Thad obtained a rough diagram of the vicinity, sketched by Mr. Harte, and on March 11th, of this year, I undertook to search for the nest. With comparatively little trouble I located the tree, which is situated in the patch of woodland between Bull’s Head and Willow B The cavity in which the nest is located faces northwest and is about thirty feet from the ground. The tree is about five feet in 1894.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 549 diameter, and destitute of branches below the cavity, so that I found it impossible to climb up. On March 17th I obtained a pair of climbing irons, and with these readily ascended to the nest, which I found to con- tain the usual number of three eggs, slightly incubated. The tree is not one which would be likely to attract attention, as it is a vigorous living red oak (not asweet gum as originally stated), and the cavity is not conspicuous. The female bird was readily alarmed— a slight tap on the tree being sufficient to cause her to leave the nest and to retire to some distance. I did not see the male bird at any time. In this patch of woods gray squirrels are yet comparatively abundant and one or more pairs of red shouldered hawks nest there every year, besides many crows, but it is doubtful if they can remain undisturbed much longer, as the timber is large and valuable and in several sections the finest trees have been thinned out quite recently. Mr. Wm. T. Davis exhibited a living pupa and mud cone of the seventeen year locust, with the following memorandum : The pupæ of the seventeen year Cicada have made their appearance. While searching for Bryazis, with Messrs. Leng and Granger, on April 8th, I found several under boards on the edge of the meadow at Old Place creek, one of which I am able to exhibit alive. The ground being damp the pupæ had erected their usual towers of earth, the boards not lying sufficiently close to the uneven ground to prevent their con- struction. In the Proceedings for February 10th, 1894, the Cicadas that appeared in 1881 should have been referred to Brood XVII instead of XVIII. Boston Society of Natural History, April 18.—The following papers were read. Mr. Herbert Lyon Jones: Adaptations of fruits and seeds for the purpose of distribution. Dr. Benjamin Lincoln Robinson: Observations upon tropical climbers. Samuel Henshaw, Secretary. 550 The American Naturalist. [June, SCIENTIFIC NEWS. The University of Illinois is to open a permanent station on the Illinois River for the biological study of the flora and fauna of the waters of the state. Havana hasbeen selected as the location and suit- able laboratory quarters have been obtained. Work will be begun in April and the station will be kept open throughout the year. The Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History and the State Fish Com- mission will co-operate and the whole will be under the direction of Professor S. A. Forbes. Professor Forbes has selected in the vicinity of Havana a set of typical situations which will be explored through- out the year and probably for several years in succession. The main object is the thorough investigation of the entire system of the plant and animal life of the waters of that region with principal reference to problems of wcology ; above all to the effect of the periodical overflow and recession of the waters upon the variety, abundance and interaction generally of the various groups of plants and animals represented in those waters. Some students may have the Leitz’s Mechanical Stage. The follow- ing directions copied from the American Edition of Leitz’s catalogue of Microscopes and Accessories published by Richards & Co. of New York may enable them to apply the apparatus to their stands. “The screw on the right must be lost so, that the lever, of the form of an are ofa bow, can turn around the axis at which it is fixed on the left. Afterward, the stage is to be put on the stage of the microscope so, that both angle pieces, opposite to the lever, drives the column of the stand ; after putting the lever to its place, the screw gets fastened again. At last, the stage, must be fixed to the column, by drawing close the other screw, being in the middle part of the lever.” : Dr. Edmund Beecher Wilson has been elected Professor of Zoology in Columbia College. He was previously adjunct professor of biology. Dr. L. Will, well-known for his studies in Hexapod morphology, has been called to the chair of Zoology in the University of Rostock. Dr. F. Ulrich, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in the technical school at Hannover, died Jan. 25, 1894. Dr. C. V. Riley has tendered his resignation as U. S. Entomologist, to take effect June 1, 1894. After that date his address will be U.S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. 1894.] Scientific News. 551 Dr. Alexander Theodor von Middendorff, possibly best known for this Siberian expedition, died at Hellmorm, Livonia January 28, 1894 aged 79 years. Dr. Credner, who had been announced as the successor of Prof. H. B. Geinitz in the chair of Geology in the Dresden Technical school, will remain in Leipzig. The place will be filled by Prof. E. Kalkowsky of Jena, The botanist O. L. Sillén of Gefle, Sweden, is dead. Dr. Leopold von Schrenck, well-known for his explorations of the Amur basin, died in St. Petersburg, Jan. 20, 1894. Dr. G. Linck, formerly docent, has been made Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Strassburg. Dr. George Gordon, well-known to older naturalists. died in Edin- borough, Dec. 12, 1893, aged 92 years. Prof. Edward Zacharias of Strassburg has been called to Hamburg as director of the Botanical Gardens. Dr. A. Knop., Professor of Mineralogy In the technical school at Karlsruhe, died Dec. 27, 1898. Dr. R. Brauns of Marburg has been appointed extraordinarius in his place. Richard Spruce, the student of South American Mosses, died at Malton, England, Dec. 30, 1893. Dr. W. Migula has been called as Professor of Botany and Bacteri- ology to the technical school of Carlsruhe. The trustees of the “ Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund ” have issued their circular for 1894 announcing that the income from the fund, now amounting to $26,000 will be available for distribution in June next. Already nearly $9000 have been distributed in past years to 46 appli- cants, and in 22 cases the results of work advanced by the fund have been published. This endowment is not for the benefit of any one department of science, but it is the intention of the trustees to give the preference to those investigations which cannot otherwise be provided for, which have for their object the advancement of human knowledge or the benefit of mankind in general, rather than to researches directed to the solution of questions of merely local importance.” The Secretary 552 The American Naturalist. [June, of the trustees is Dr. C. S. Minot, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass. Dr. Carl Grobben has been raised to the ordinary professorship of Zoology in the University of Vienna. Dr. George Bennett, an Australian explorer and Naturalist, died at Sydney in October, 1893, aged 90 years. . Mr. August Carl Eduard Baldamus, the ornithologist, died in Wolf- enbiittel, Oct. 31, 1893, aged 82. Juan Vilanova y Piera, Professor of Geology in Madrid, died in the beginning of November. C. von Gumpenberg, a student of the Lepidoptera, died in Bamburg, Germany, Nov. 5, 1893. A. Halfar, Geologist of the Prussian Geological Survey, died in Berlin, Nov. 21, 1893. Prof. "Joseph Boehm, the well-known plant-physiologist, died in Vienna, December 2, 1893. Dr. Tomquist has been made private docent in Geology and Palæ- ontology in the University of Vienna. Professor Arcangeli Scacchi, the student of Vesuvius, died in Napha, Oct. 11, 1893. Dr. J. M. Undset, the investigator of prehistoric Scandinavia, died in Christiania, Dec. 3, 1893, aged 40 years. George Primies, geologist, died in Belénges, Hungary, Nov., 1893. H. J. Rink, whose work on Greenland is the handbook upon all Arctic questions, died in Christiania, Dec. 15, 1893. Dr. Luigi Luciani has been called to the chair of Physiology at the University of Rome as successor to Moleschott. Prof. W. Krause of Göttingen has been given charge of the collec- tions of the I. Anatomical Institute at Berlin. Prof. R. Altmann of Leipzig, has been called to the chair of Anatomy in Halle. Dr. A. Heider, the Bacterologist, died in Vienna, Dec. 26, 1893. : Professor August Wrzesniowski, well-known for his Protozoan studies, died in Warsaw, December last. 1894.] Scientific News. ` 553 The Wollaston medal of the Geological Society of London, has been given to Prof. K. A. Zittel, the Palzontologist of Munich. The Proposed Division of the National Academy of Sciences.—The following letter explains itself. To the Committee appointed by the U. S. National Academy of Sciences, April, 1892, “to report such proposed modifications of the Constitution and By- Laws of the Academy as are likely in their judgment to increase its efficiency ” ete., of which Prof. T. C. Mendenhall is chairman ; Gentlemen: I take the liberty of making some suggestions with reference to the classification of the Academy into divisions, which will in the writer’s estimation “increase its efficiency” ete. This increase of efficiency is, in the writer’s view, chiefly to be accomplished at pres- ent, by electing to membership persons competent in their professions, in such proportionate numbers as to represent properly those profes- sions, as at present cultivated in the United States. At present the dis- proportion of membership in favor of some departments, and to the prejudice of other departments is great, as the following figures show. Of members which represent the physical sciences, we have now, accord- ing to the figures presented at the late meeting, (April, 1894), by your committee, 58; while but 31 represent the Natural Sciences. If the members which represent the proposed section F be added to the divi- sion of Natural Sciences, (which they should not be in a correct classi- fication) the latter will include 39 members as compared with 58. The Academy adopted, at its late meeting of April, 1894, two classes, I and II, those of the Physical and Natural Sciences. The former in- - eludes the proposed sections A, B, and C, of the committees original plan; and the latter the proposed classes D, E, and F, of that plan. This primary division appears to me to be more convenient in practice than a closer subdivision, for the reason that a nearly equal division of membership between those two classes accords more nearly with the relative numbers of cultivators of those sciences in this country and in the world generally, than any other divisions that can be proposed. As a matter of fact the cultivators of the Natural Sciences are more numerous than those of the Physical Sciences, as the relative extent of the literature of the two divisions indicates. I do not suggest that this preponderance of the Natural Sciences shall be represented in the Na- tional Academy, but that there shall be an equality of representation of the two. Ina closer subdivision the relative numbers of members of each division is more likely to be variable, or for various reasons more difficult to ascertain, and thus more likely to cause dissatisfaction from time to time. 554 The American Naturalist. [June The division into the two classes of the Physical and Natural Sciences does not, however, embrace all the sciences, and is hence de- fective.. It does not take into account applied science, which it is necessary that we recognize, owing to our connection with the govern- ment. While we necessarily embrace members competent in this great field, we cannot open our doors to a large representation of it, since pure science is our principal aim. As most human industries are more or less perfectly applied science, we must necessarily strictly limit our membership in this direction. The sciences which you have proposed to include in the class F, are Statistics, Hygiene, Philology and perhaps others. To these might be added the science of mind objectively studied, or Psychology, and also that of human industries treated historically and descriptively. This entire group (excepting Hygiene, which is applied science), differs from those of the Natural and Physical Sciences in that its subjects are penetrated and affected by the interference of the human mind. I would therefore, propose the following division of the Academy’s membership into four classes, two of which have been already adopted. -Crass I—Physical Science ; (Sciences of energy) ; toinclude Physics, Astronomy, Chemistry, Physiology, and Dynamical and Chemical logy. Crass II.—Natural Science; (Sciences of Morphology) ; Structural Geology, Mineralogy (apart from Chemistry)-Biology (including Em- bryology and Paleontology), Crass III.—Anthropological Science (Sciences treating of phenom- eva determined by psychic conditions) ; Anthropology, Statistics, Philol- ogy, Psychology. Crass 1V.—Applied Science. (Applications in the Arts of any of the Sciences previously enumerated); including Hygiene, Engineering, c. It will be observed that in the above classification geology is divided. This is inevitable, as the science is a composite one. Members might in this case choose whether they would prefer as geologists to be referred to Class I or Class II. as I would suggest that the members of each class be fixed as follows: Class I, 35 members; Class II, 35 members; Class III, 15 members Class IV, 15 members; total 100 members, It seems to me that both comprehensiveness and simplicity may be claimed for the above proposition. : Very respectfully, Philadelphia, April 21st, 1894. E. D. Cope. ADVERTISEMENTS, A Tonic For Brain-Workers, the Weak and Debilitated. 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Ithas now reached its Sixteenth Volume, which promises to be the Best of the Series. mong the Attractions for 1894 are the following: A series of articles, accompanied with page tad on the early migrations and locations of Indian tribes, er the title of hid Pea Wal of the warde ines.” pr Rev. William M. beauchamp, Prof. A. F. Chamberlain, Dr. the . A. Watkins, beia George Patterson, and other specialists. Also a series of vell ete by J. Walter Fewkes, of the Hemingway Expedition, Mr. A. M. Ste- thers. Also ae sage * Characteristics of - American Languages,” by Dr, D- e Jonn M c Mr, he ry, of London, eae alrs. Zelia Nurali Purns Dorsey will write upon N American Tadias and o; A Prehistoric Contact her Coi m and C Stamin rera aed on siena i Broaste oa and Rare Stone Relics ” eS si mae ered come to light, by r. J. D: Butler, J. R. Sutter, H. I. Smith, William R. Seever, and S.H- Discoveries in Palestine and Egypt. by Prof. T. F. Wright, of Harvard College, and Rev. W. 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