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Vol. XXIX.

é ‘Mgrs cd r t Characters of: Gems.

Dr. C..0, WHITMAN, Chicago,
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RWIN F. SMITH, Washingtona, D, ©.

JULY, 1895.

No. 343

CONTENTIO.

PAGE

THE SYMBIOSIS OF STOCK AND GRAFT

Erwin F. Smith. 615

= ON A Supposep CASE OF PARALLELISM IN. THE

Genus Pararosyors. (Ilustrated):

Charles Earle...
BIRDS or NEW GUINEA Soy matic: (Con-
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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

M

2. -| Jee
Vout. XXIX. July, 1895. 343

THE SYMBIOSIS OF STOCK AND GRAFT.
By Erwin F. SMITH.

Under the title, Ueber Transplantation am Pflanzenkérper,
(pp. VI, 162, Pl. XI, figs. 14), Dr. Hermann Vochting, Prof.
of botany in the University of Tübingen, has contributed a
study on the relations of graft and stock which is of unusual
interest. After some consideration of the literature of the sub-
ject he discusses (1) Methods of grafting, (a) Grafting of like
parts in normal and abnormal positions; (b) Grafting of un-
like parts; (2) The symbiosis of scion and stock ; (8) Histo-
logical investigations. The author’s conclusions relative to
the mutual relations of stock and graft rest upon careful ex-
periments covering a period of some years. His first exper-
iments consisted in the union of parts of the same and related
varieties of the red beet. The top of a plant recently grown
from the seed but sufficiently large was cut away and young
shoots from two-year old blossoming plants were grafted on.
These cions were taken from the base of recently developed
shoots and bore from two to three vegetative buds. These
buds grew into short, fleshy sprouts plentifully provided with
leaves which resembled those of the first year, i. e. were not like
those on the blossom shoot from which they weretaken. Sub-
sequently the axis also became thickened but to a less degree.
The shoots did not produce blossoms but elaborated food for

42

616 The American Naturalist. [July,

their own use and that of the root. The roots also increased
in circumference in proportion to the amount of their nourish-
ment. This growth was excentric and preponderatingly under
the cion. The following year blossoms were produced in the
ordinary manner and death followed. Conclusion: If these
shoots had remained on the parent plant, they would have
blossomed the same season and died in the fall. Inserting
them on the young root changed them into a vegetative state
and prolonged their life for a whole year. In this case the
young root exerted the controlling influence. In another ex-
periment plants at the commencement of the second year were
divided into two lots. The plants of one set were forced into
a rapid development of blossoms; the others were restrained
from blossoming by being kept in a cool place. The tops of
the retarded plants were cut away and cions from the forced
plants were inserted. The result of this experiment was quite
different. These cions developed blossoms in the normal way.
None of them remained short or formed the tufts of broad
leaves which were peculiar to the sprouts in the previous ex-
periment. In this case the leaves had long petioles and rather
narrow blades as in ordinary blossom shoots. Here likewise
the roots increased in size near the inserts, i. e. around them
and below. Conclusion : Grafting on young and old roots leads
to very different results.

Knight’s law, expressed still more clearly by van Mons,
that only its own nature controls the development of the cion,
is not universally true. Cion and stock mutually influence
each other always. Sometimes one preponderates in in-
fluence, sometimes the other. The control exercised by the
stock in these experiments with the beets is ascribed to move-
ment of assimilative matters (stoffwechsel). The young root
grows and stores up reserve materials, chiefly sugar. The old
root does not grow, gives up its reserve materials, and dies
after it is emptied. “It is plain,” says the author, “that the
manner of growth of the bud, i. e. its development into a
vegetative or floral shoot, depends less upon itself than upon —
the parts bearing reserve substances, especially the roots.”

1895.] The Symbiosis of Stock and Graft. 617

In the middle of June, segments were removed from old
roots, then producing blossoms, and were inserted into young,
actively-growing roots, only recently developed from the seed.
There was union of tissues but no increase in circumference,
no radial growth. When these inserted pieces were examined
the following winter they were, unexpectedly, found full of
sugar. The cells bore abundant plasma, fine nuclei, and
seemed to be in good condition, although at the time of their
insertion they had given up the greater part of their reserve
materials. The only possible conclusion is that the root
inserts had formed new cane sugar out of the materials
brought to them by the young roots. Old beets were set into
young roots and in this way also their life was prolonged, the
_ old parts dying only a little earlier than the young roots. In
this case they showed no such quantity of sugar. Inasmuch
as these old roots did not increase in thickness in spite of their
good nourishment by the young roots it might be inferred
that they are not capable of it, but such an inference would be
wrong. Segments of old roots taken in the middle of March
and inserted into the basal parts of panicles in rapid develop-
ment showed a marked growth, what the author calls,—“ ein
sehr auffallendes Verhalten.” They began a new process of
development, grew up above the surface of the stem on a level
with which they were originally inserted, and ended by form-
ing swellings of various sizes and shapes. When the piece of
reot was inserted upside down it was swollen at the upper end,
when it was inserted right end up the swelling was at the
lower end. Thestem around the insert also finally enlarged,
sometimes only above the insert, sometimes also at both sides.
The growth of these root-inserts was very remarkable. Under
normal conditions the same pieces would have made no growth
whatever. Planted in the blossoming stem they began to
grow, and this growth was so energetic in some cases that the
pieces increased to several times their original volume. Dr.
Véchting is in doubt as to the cause of this behavior, but
concludes from it that there is no necessary relation between
growth and the storing of sugar since he found these growths
very poor in sugar although the cells appeared to be active.

618 The American Naturalist. [July,

Some attempts were made to unite annuals and perennials.
The tomato was used for a stock, the author not being aware,
apparently, that the tomato is not strictly annual but frequently
lives far into the second year and evan longer in green houses
and in warm climates. In the first series of experiments cions
of Solanum dulcamara were grafted on. They made a good
union and more growth than any shoots on the parent stem.
In the fall the plants were removed toa house. Gradually the
leaves fell off, but the sprouts remained fresh for a time. They
died, however, in December or January, the disturbance
beginning below with the stock. It was thought that owing
possibly to the fall of the leaves and the cessation of the activ-
ity of the graft, it had not sufficiently stimulated the stock, so
another experiment was made using as cions Solanum capsi-
cum and S. pseudocapsicum, which hold their leaves over
winter. A good union was secured and the plants developed
fine tops and prospered until winter. In early winter the
stocks became diseased at the root and the tops died quickly.
One plant, however, held on longer and toward the end of
December the part of the stock above ground formed adven-
tive roots. In January the graft turned yellow and died.
Conclusion: These experiments do not show that the life of
annuals can be prolonged by grafting perennials upon them
but it is not certain that such an end might not be reached by
the use of other plants. An experiment was also made on
Mercurialis annua which bears _staminate and pistillate flowers
on different plants. Portions of male and female plants were
united by grafting but the result was negative, the sex remain-
ing distinct. Mention is also made of a staminate Ginkgo tree
in the Botanical Garden at Basle into which a pistillate branch
was grafted many years ago. . This has grown into a stately
system of branches but the sexual parts are just as distinct as
on separate trees. The same result has been reached in the
same garden with Acuba japonica.

Plants of varied color and form were also grafted together.
The more recent discussion of the symbiosis of cion and stock
turns chiefly on the subject of the transmissibility of panach-
ure and on the possibility of graft hybrids. A portion of the

1895.] The Symbiosis of Stock and Graft. 619

white and yellow spotting of variegated leaves is unquestion-
ably pathological and is readily transmitted by grafting.
Since we do not know the cause of this disease, we can form
no definite idea as to its method of transmission, yet the whole
process of transmission gives the impression of an infection.
How this takes place we do not know, but it seems as if it
must be through the wandering of specific material particles
out of the variegated cion into the stock. Concerning the
transmission of non-pathological peculiarities such as colors,
especially those held in the cell sap, the author thinks that
they cannot pass directly into the stock, but that something
must pass that is able to produce them. He saw in Bonn,
Lindemuth’s experimentin which violet color was transmitted
from a potato cion to the green stock, and says it was so.
His own experiments are as follows: Coleus. Many experiments
with characteristic forms. The unions were easily affected
and the plants were kept into the second year and some into
the third year. Conclusion: In no case was there any trans-
mission of color from the graft to the stock, or from the stock
to the graft. Neither was there any influence on the form or
nervation of the leaves. Cion and stock retained their origi-
nal peculiarities unchanged, Tradescantia : The shoots of T.
zebrina and T. quadricolor were grafted on the green T.
Sellowi. The cions reached a considerable length but in
no case was there any transmission of color. Beets (salad,
fodder, and sugar): (a) Union of different colored beets. Dr.
A. Maclean of Colchester, England, was the first to try this
in 1853. He joined the root of a red beet to that of a white
Silesian beet. They united but the red part remained sharply
delimited from the white. There was no transmission of
color or of form. In the author’s own experiments white and
orange, white and red of various shades, and yellow and light
and dark red beets were united. In part of the experiments
= roots were joined to roots; in others shoots, to roots. With one
exception there was no transmission of color from cion to stock
or vice versa. Each part retained its own color. The blend-
ing of colors did not occur even in the region of the union.
Microscopic examinations were made and the place of union

620 The American Naturalist. [July,

could be seen very distinctly. The exception was as follows:
The shoot of a red beet was worked on the root of a white
mangel wurzel? (Futterriibe) and subsequently a red color
appeared in the swelling around the inserted cion. No such
color was visible on the rest of the root, nor could any such be
found on other ungrafted roots of this variety. It would seem
that the color in this root was due-to the influence of the graft
and that this experiment supports Lindemuth’s observations.
Nevertheless this case is not entirely beyond suspicion since
colored beets are apt to develop most color in the vicinity of
wounds, and because all varieties of beets are nearly related
and though apparently constant may possess latent peculiar-
ities. (b) Union of bodies of different sizes. Very large white
beets were grafted on small dark red ones and vice versa, the
parts being about the same size when united. In the first case
the plants grew more than in the second, i. e. because they had
a larger leaf surface for assimilation. (c) Union of varieties
having unlike shapes. Each grew after its own manner unin-
fluenced by the other. M. Gaillard tried grafting Cucurbitace-
ous plants and got the same result. ‘White, green and yellow
colocynths were united but there was no blending of colors.
Several attempts were made to procure graft-hybrids. The
author wholly failed to get variegated hyacinth flowers by a
union of different bulbs. Even when the union took place be-
tween blossom stalks there was no mixture. In experiments
with potatoes his results confirm Lindemuth’s. There was no
mixture. Many experiments were tried using well marked
and constant varieties very distinct in color and form. He
discarded the tubers and worked with young, well-rooted
shoots which were removed from the tubers, set out in the
earth, and grafted as soon as they were a short distance above
the ground. As soon as the cions were healed on, the plants
were put into a hot bed. They remained here until the fall
of the leaves in autumn, care being taken to remove all the
green leaves which appeared from time to time on the stock so
that it should be nourished only by the vegetation of the cion.
At the close of the experiment the tubers were found to possess
all of the peculiarities of the mother plant. The cions did not

1895.] The Symbiosis of Stock and Graft. 621

produce any change either in color or form. In Strasburger’s
experiment of grafting Datura on potato and getting atropin
in the tubers, if the malformation of part of these tubers was
due to the presence of atropin then it is a case of poisoning
and not of a change in the specific nature of the stock due to
the cion, as Strasburger also admits. From the observations
of Lindemuth there can be no doubt that many of the reports
of graft hybrids rest on errors. Master’s reported an exper-
iment made by Maule of Bristol and exhibited a photograph
showing Helianthus tuberosus grafted on H. annuus and the
roots of the latter bearing tuberous growths. This experiment
was repeated by M. Carriere, a very careful observer, and on
the roots of his Helianthus annuus appeared two budless black
swellings with a rifted surface, and in general resembling cer-
tain dahlia tubers. In the vicinity of these were other forms
which more nearly resembled the artichoke. This experiment
should be repeated. Conclusion: Either there are no such
things as graft hybrids or else they are limited to a small num-
ber of plants.

622 The American Naturalist. [July,

ON A SUPPOSED CASE OF PARALLELISM IN THE
GENUS PALAEOSYOPS.

By CHARLES EARLE!

The object of the present paper is to attempt to show that
in the extinct perissodactyle Palaeosyops, the species developed
at least two parallel series, both of which may have lead to
some permanent result. In other words, from a very thorough
study of the known species of this genus, I am lead to the
conclusion that the genus Titanotherium may have had a
polyphyletic origin. This, will be impossible to prove until
we know more of that intermediate form Diplacodon.

Little has been attempted in the construction of the phylo-
genies of species of fossil mammals, although a great deal has
been done in this respect in regard to genera. I attempted it
in my “ Memoir on Palaeosyops,” but the recent acquisition of
new material proves that I made some mistakes in my phylo-
genetie scheme. As our knowledge of Palaeosyops now stands,
we know considerable about the structure of the skeleton in a
number of well defined species, and in some cases the com-
plete osteelogy is known.

Professor Cope was one of the first to call attention to the
phenomenon of the parallelism of genera. Professor Scott? in
his series of valuable papers has placed before us a thorough
exposition of what we have to attempt in paleontological
investigation, and especially the relation of the latter to the
facts of evolution. In the “ Deep River Mammals” he remarks?
“only very rarely can we construct a phylogeny of species as
distinguished from that of genera, and the latter are too vague
for the purpose.”

"American Museum of Natural History, New York.

* Phylogeny of the Tylopoda. Journal of Morphology, Vol. ee
Osteology of Mesohippus and Leptomeryx. Journal of Morphology. Vol. V,

p. 301.
The Mammalia of the Deep River Beds. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 1894.
3 Page 119.

1895.] Parallelism in the Genus Palaeosyops. 623

Quite a large number of species of Titanotherium have been
already described, but as a whole this genus is remarkably
homogeneous in the characters of the species, and it is very
uncertain how many there really are. The deeply concave or
saddle-shaped skull is typical, I believe, of all the known spe-
cies. The case with Palaeosyops is quite different, as this genus
exhibits a great variety in its specific forms, fully as great,
if not greater than Palaeotherium of the Middle Eocene of
Europe. :

Within the past summer some exceedingly valuable material
of Palaeosyops has been collected for the American Museum
of Natural History by Mr. O. A. Peterson of the Museum; and
this has just been described in bulletin form by Professor
Osborn. We are greatly indebted to this bulletin for its im-
portant information in regard to the stratigraphical relations
of the skulls of Palaeosyops. This: material was collected in
the country just south of the Uinta Mountains, and the deposit
which oceurs in this area was always supposed to pertain only to
the Uintaor Upper Eocene. Mr. Peterson discovered skulls of
a species of Palaeosyops in this region, namely, P. megarhinus,
which is typical of the Bridger proper, and, in fact, he found
one skull of this species or a variety of the same, which is the
earliest one known of thisform. Thisskull came from the base
of the beds under the Uinta, which is considered to be the bot-
tom of the Bridger. Mr. Peterson informs me that Palaeosyops
occurs from this position in the beds as far up as just beneath
the Uinta proper. Furthermore, in the uppermost of the
transition beds, between the Bridger and Uinta proper, Mr.
Peterson discovered a number of large skulls of a supposed
new type of Palaeosyops, but I think I can quite safely say
that this form really belongs to the genus Telmatotherium
Marsh (Leurocephalus S. & O.). The characters of these skulls
nearly demonstrate my views as to the phylogenetic relation-
ship of Palaeosyops to Telmatotherium, and in my memoir
on the former genus I remarked “I consider that Telmatothe-
rium is the most highly specialized genus of the Palaeosyopi-
nae approaching more closely in its dental characters (skull
unknown at that time) to Diplacodon than any other genus of

624 The American Naturalist. [July,

the subfamily, Telmatotherium should, therefore, hold an
intermediate position between Palaeosyops and Diplacodon.”

It is interesting to note that these newly discovered skulls of
Telmatotherium are merely greatly enlarged ones of the P. me-
garhinus type (see fig. 2), and that other skulls in the collection
of the American Museum show the transition stages between
the generalized form of P. megarhinus and that of the Telma-
totherium type from the uppermost part of the transition beds
already, referred to. 7

_In the Bridger proper or the area of southwestern Wyoming,
just north of the Uinta Mountains, occur at least three well
defined types of skulls of Palaeosyops, namely, that of P
paludosus, with frontal region strongly convex and occipital
portion broad and heavy (see fig. 3). The character of the
teeth in this species is very primitive, but it has a specialized
form of skull.

2. The type which Marsh called Limnohyops. I recognized
this as a good genus in my memoir, but I now believe that it
should be included in Palaeosyops. In P. (Limnohyops) lati-
cens the skull is saddle-shaped like that of Titanotherium, and
I called particular attention to this fact in the paper already
quoted (see fig. 1).

3. The P. megarhinus type of skull is the most primitive of
all, there is hardly any depression on the dorsal surface, and
the sagittal crest is well defined. The teeth are tending towards
those of Telmatotherium, as they have broad and angular
crescents, with a reduction of the intermediate tubercles (see
fig. 2). I wish to emphasize particularly that in the Bridger
proper, the saddle-shaped type of skull was established, and
contemporaneous with it was the much more primitive skull
of P. megarhinus. I accordingly did not suspect that the lat-
ter was in the direct line leading to Diplacodon. However,
the discovery of the skull,of this species south of the Uinta
Mountains and its relationship to Telmatotherium, has made
necessary some changes in the phylogeny of the species of
Palaeosyops, and I now find that there were two well defined
lines of Palaeosyops tending in the characters of their skulls
and dentition towards Titanotherium, and that these two

1895.] Parallelism in the Genus Palaeosyops. 625

series were parallel in many of their characters, although the
P. megarhinus-Telmatotherium division did not commence to
differentiate those characters which are found in Titanothe-
rium as early as the P. laticeps-P. vallidens series.

In the following table I have arranged some of the species
of Palaeosyops phylogenetically and in three parallel columns,
two of which are supposed to contain persistent types. The
third column contains the more specialized species, which are
are supposed to have died out.

In conclusion I wish to emphasize the following points :—

The first series exhibits transition in the structure of the
the teeth and skull which is quite gradual, although in the
most highly differentiated form of this line, namely, Telmato-
therium sp. nov. (type specimen in American Museum collec-
tion), the dorsal contour of the skull is slightly convex and
not saddle-shaped as in Titanotherium. This series began to
differentiate later, as already shown, than the second series ;
this is proven by the presence in the Bridger proper of the
supposed earliest members of the two lines, namely, P. mega-
rhinus, which has a skull with a nearly straight dorsal contour,
and the ancestor of the second line, namely, P. laticeps, with a
skull which is deeply concave like that of the White River —
genus Titanotherium.

2. The changes from P. laticeps to P. vallidens parallels that
of the first series in many ways, notably the increased height
of the crowns of the molars, reduction of the intermediate
tubercles, increase in size of the skull, and lastly some indica-
tions of the development of horns.

3. The great variety of species occurring in the genus
Palaeosyops indicates progression and advancement towards a
higher type, although we observe that a number of the species
probably left no descendants. In the genus Titanotherium,
which was approaching extinction, we see fewer well marked
species and much closer similarity between them than between
those of Palaeosyops.

The American Naturalist. [July,

626

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1895.] Birds of New Guinea. 627

BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA ERE TT
By G. S. MEAD.
(Continued from page 417).

Considerable uncertainty exists in regard to the different
species of Rectes. The lines of division between them have
not been clearly drawn; accordingly, we are in possession of
more names than birds, the difficulty arising from insufficient
information as to the size, age, locality and even sex of
the specimens described. Passing over two or three doubtful
forms we meet with a species new to science when D’Albertis
and Salvadori first saw it. Itis R. brunneiceps. The back and
scapulars are a bright cinnamon, the head and neck a clouded
brown, the breast, abdomen, under sides of wings and tail
fulvous. The ground color therefore, is not as distinctly laid
as in most, if not all, of the other forms.

Rectes aruensis is a handsome little bird of a very bright
chestnut body, a crested head entirely black, and throat,
breast, wings and tail the same. Under parts are of a deep
tawny buff. The black on the breast is prolonged in a shield-
like figure as far as the abdomen. Length, ten inches.

Rectes jobiensis has a warm reddish brown thoughout except-
ing where, as on the head, the coloring takes a lighter dye.
The under parts are not materially different in coloration, a
paler or deeper shading of the prevailing tint only being
noticeable. Even the bill has the same general complexion.
The female is similar to the male with the advantage of a
somewhat larger size. As indicated by the specific name,
jobiensis comes from the island of Jobie, northwest of the main-
land in Geelvink Bay. He is a handsome bird like most of
his kind, the erectile crest, which, however, is scarcely more
than the head feathers considerably ruffled, adding to his con-
spicuous appearance. Not much is known of his habits or of
any of the Rectes. The total length of the ane: species is
a fraction over nine inches.

Pseudorectes, classed as a separate genus, are so like the
Rectes in most respects as to make special description, if entered

628 The American Naturalist. [July,

upon at all, of obvious necessity. It will be sufficient here,
while pointing out that the differences lie chiefly in the form
of the crests, bill and, in the case of Melanorectes (a third
genus), nasal bristles, to mention a few species and add one
or two details as marks of identification. Pseudorectes cristatus,
now placed in this genus, is noticeable for its crested head.
Its general color is dull red, shading and paling on certain
parts of the body, wings and tail. In size and appear-
ance Pseudorectes ferrugineus is like the other species. Male
and female differ imperceptibly. Above darkish brown
predominates shading off or brightening on the wings and
tail. Beneath is a soft buff. The bill, legs and feet dusky.
Pseudorectes leucorhynchus, or white-bellied wood shrike, is
another species with the customary coat of snuff brown, tail
brighter, head darker, under parts a warm buff as far as the
throat, which becomes tawny. Bill yellow. Tail nearly one-
half the total length, measuring more than five inches. A
synonym is Colluricincla leucorhyncla, sometimes classified as
Rectes.
The third genus, Melanorectes, represented by the species
nigrescens, is fairly well indicated by its name. The general
color of the male is dark, black on the head, black or sooty
on the under parts. Bill black, legs plumbeous. The female
is ruddy and dusky brown, rejoicing in a brighter garb than
her mate, although the tints are neutral rather than positive.
The length is seven inches.

The Rectes, or to be more exact, Rectes dichrous, is the only
bird according to Mr. Goldie, that the natives will not eat.

New Guinea contains several species and sub-species of the
genus Chibia, the native name for the Drongo shrike, birds of
from 10 to 13 inches in length, belonging to the family of the
Dicruridæ. They are black in color with a purplish or green-
ish sheen, rather long, square cut tails, wings somewhat
longer, both reflecting lustre more or less faint, strong, curved
beaks imbedded in bristling hairs, and, in some instances,
long, delicate, flexible hair-feathers on the head. It seems
hardly essential to separate this genus from Dicrurus. In fact,
most travelers in New Guinea have employed the latter name

1895.] Birds of New Guinea. 629

exclusively i in describing these birds, but Mr. Sharpe's deci-
sion is in favor of the first mentioned. Chibia carbonaria is
perhaps the most common member of this genus, being met
with near Port Moresby and elsewhere in New Guinea as
well as on adjacent islands. It is 12 inches long, black all
over, with green or purple gloss sometimes, glittering as from
metal, but on the face of a velvety softness. The bill and
legs are also black. A smaller form inhabiting the Aru Islands
has been called Dicrurus assimilis.

Another variety, Chibia megalornis, belongs to Ke Island, to
the east of Aru. Here the gloss and reflections are about the
same as already recorded, with perhaps an added glint of
blue and darting gleams of steel. Bead-like points show
here and there on the breast as on the other species. Hackles
appear on the neck of a greenish tinge. The bird is about
11 or 12 inches in length with tail about half as long.

A little bird living in Southern New Guinea, though not con-
fined to that region, may frequently be seen flitting about
among the trees in the bush, engaged in a busy search for
food. This is Collyriocincla brunnea of the Prionopide. It is
a brown and gray bird, the brown washed with gray as on the
wings, becoming altogether white on the cheeks, or gray
obtruded upon by brown, as along the the tail and on the
crown; below a muddy tint running whitish and white on
the belly and under tail-coverts. A glow of yellow shows
on the under wing-coverts. The length isonly between 8 and
9 inches. :

Closely related to the foregoing, by some authorities regarded
as of the same class, by others formed into a separate genus,
are small birds termed Pinarolestes ; little shrikes they may
be called. The species P. megarhynchus is common enough
throughout the archipelago. The prevailing color is a dark
brown, streaked on the breast a deeper hue. Total length 8
inches ; the female a trifle smaller.

Near Port Moresby, of recent years so well known a spot
in Southern New Guinea, may be met more or less frequently
a few. species of the Oriolidz, one of which, of the genus
Sphecot heres, is especially noticeable. It is about the average

630 The American Naturalist. [July,

size of the oriole, has some bright color, though the general
tone is sober, and has that bare or bald circlet around the
eye which imparts a singular aspect to the face. The bird in
question is Sphecotheres salvadorii, so named from the eminent
Italian ornithologist. There is much olivaceous, becoming
almost yellow around the body, running into a bluish gray
about the throat and side face, white on the abdomen, yellow
on the upper portion, white in wide patches on the outer tail
feathers, the inner ones black, jet black on the crown as far
as the staring spaces enclosing the eyes. The female is clad
in dusky brown or slate mainly, mottled by darker spots on
the upper surface, the under parts with running spots or irreg-
ular lines of olive or dusky over a pale yellow ground. The
tail is marked similarly with that of the male, only brown
takes the place of black, and dull yellow of white on some of
the feathers. Clear white occurs about the vent and an open
spot around the eye. Mr. Stone collected this bird as well as
Oriolus striatus, a true oriole, common, probably, over the island.
In this case the general coloration is not greatly unlike that of
the female above described, with, however, a purer brown both
above and beneath; but the distinctive feature of the striatus,
as the name implies, rests in the streaks which appear almost
everywhere in narrow or broader lines over the body and
even monopolize the crown of the head. In fact, about the
only parts free from these long black, brown or gray streaks
are the wings and tail, yet these are lined off or margined
with slightly different tints. The female does not show mark-
ings at variance with those of the male. The length is a good
12 inches.

Hattam Thickhead (Pachycephalopsis hattamensis), is a
small bird about 7 inches in length, found in the moun-
ains of Northwest New Guinea. The sexes do not differ
in color or size. Back and wings are a deep olive which
becomes a mere line on the wing-coverts; these are almost
black. The under-wing coverts and tail are a light brown
somewhat varying in shade. The head and nape of neck are
gray, the lores white, as are also the chin and throat. Lower
down this changes into a greenish yellow, shading off on the
abdomen. Bill and feet dark.

1895.] Birds of New Guinea. 631

The-Blue-bodied Lupetes—Eupetes cxrulescens—is a small
thrush-like bird about 8 inchesin length. D’Albertis speaks
somewhat doubtfully about its habits. It runs along the
ground, he says, and does not appear to perch upon the trees.
Gould, however, figures it on low branches. In color it is not
unlike our shrikes, although darker and more uniform, the
prevailing tint being a soft bluish grey. Black is seen on the
face and as a narrow rim surrounding the pure white throat.
A less clear gray is spread on the under tail feathers; other-
wise the gradations of the uniform steel blue are scarcely
observable. The bill is sharp and black ; legs and feet black.
The noticeable feature of this bird is the pure white throat,
the white extending well down on the breast and half way
round the neck. This feature is characteristic of this fine
group of birds and marks them out at once.

The Manucodes form in their several species a beautiful
class of richly plumed birds, sometimes numbered with the
Paradisea, but belonging rather to the crow family. They are
however a glorified crow in their sparkling dress and imperial
bearing. One of the most conspicuous for size and elegance
is the Curl-crested bird of paradise, as he is sometimes styled
—Manucodia comrii. This species is of a wondrously lustrous
black throughout; it fairly blazes out with the very inten-
sity of brightness, so that all the possible combinations
which rays of light fastening upon a gleaming black sur-
face are capable of forming, here display themselves in
changing blue, violet, green, purple, etc. The dazzling effect
is greatly magnified and heightened by the appearance as it
were of beads and spangles of feathers upon the flat surface
of the body. Upon these the reflections of light seize and
glitter with a fitful radiance. To no bird, therefore, can the
term sparkling be applied with as much appropriateness
as to the Manucodes, Especially are these short, crisp, curl-
feathers producing the strange effect abundant on the breast.
In fact, they cover it, while reaching around the sides and
upon the shoulders. The head, too, with its double crest of
compact, thick feathers, is almost as heavily bejewelled. In
addition to the short convoluted feathers, another singular

43

632 The American Naturalist. [July,

feature should not be overlooked: upon the long, heavy tail-
feathers may be seen superfluous feathers, somewhat loosely
laid and extending not quite the length of those below.
These take the shape of the keel of a boat not unlike the tail
of our crow blackbird in flight, though devoid of the
trimness and elegance that marks that fine bird. The habitat
is the D’Entrescasteaux group of islands. The bird has a
strange, low, far-penetrating whistle. The bill and feet of
the comrii are dull black. The bill is long and power-
ful. . The total length of the bird is between 17 and 18
inches. The nest of this manucode has been found
on the lower branch of a breadfruit tree near the end.
It was composed of small vines and twigs rudely heaped
together. The eggs were long and pointed and more than
an inch and a half in length. Their color was buff or
fawn blotched with purple dots and streaks.

Considerably smaller, but quite as brilliantly adorned is the
Green Manucode—Manucodia chalybea—whose habitat is the
mountains near the seacoast. Although green would seem
to be the distinctive color of this species, yet the play of
blue over the basal black is almost as much in evidence; both
these tints are evanescent. The little recurved feathers cover
the head, neck and throat and the breast as far as the abdomen.
The tail is also boat shaped and reflects blue, violet, purple
from a smooth surface. The back is rippled over in blue, green
and lilac waves of light whenever the bird moves or the
angle of vision is changed. But it is on and by means
of the spangled feathers that the most exquisite effects
are produced. At times they seem to dart forth light like
sparks on burnt paper. The length of this manucode is
about 14 inches.

Another species of Catbird besides those already mentioned
- is the Black-naped--Aeluroedus melanocephalus. The resemblance
is close among the several branches of this group of birds.
Here as with all the rest grass green and pale yellow are the
prevailing tints. In this instance the breast, head and neck are
liberaily marked with black spots orstreaks. White with simi-
larly black-tipped feathers takes the place of the yellow on the

1895.] Birds of New Guinea. 633

throat and cheeks. White terminates the tail feathers and is also
found onthe abdomen. There are spots of ochre on some of the
wing feathers. The crown of the head is much dotted with
black while the nape is almost entirely black. The length of
this species is between 1] and 12 inches. The habitat the As-
trolobe Mountains.

Mafoor Island Cuckoo-shrike—Graucalus mafoorensis—has a
breast that is beautiful with wavy horizontal lines of white on
a black ground color ; these lines extend over part of the under
wings. In the female the lines are broader, forming narrow
stripes, thus giving the appearance of being almost equally
and alternately black and white. Otherwise the bird is a soft
drab color uniformly spread. Its local habitat seems to be
Mafoor Island in Geelvink Bay.

A bird met with frequently along the Fly River and else-
where in New Guinea as well as in the adjacent islands is a kind
of starling—Mino or Eulabes dumontii or Gracula dumontii—
often seen sitting on the tops of dead trees, like the Twelve-wired
bird of paradise and the Wattled bird. It is about ten inches
in length, stout and well built. The body is a fine black with
purplish and greenish reflections strongest on the shoulders.
Some gray down feathers appear on the neck; on the wings
a prominent white patch but small when the bird is not in
motion, is to be noted. The under tail-coverts are white
sheathing the black tail. The abdomen is bright yellow, as
are also the bill and feet. The eyes darker, almost brown.
Around the eyes large bare spaces covered with a dull colored
skin only, call particular attention to this Grakle. There are
also bald spaces extending from the roots of the bill to the
chin and throat. The sexes are alike. By some strange over-
sight in Stone’s little volume, this bird is called the Golden
oriole. It may be, however, that this traveler confounded
Dumont’s grakle with an allied genus not altogether unlike
an oriole, namely Gracula orientalis or Melanopyrrhus orientalis,
which is not uncommon near Port Moresby and other parts of
New Guinea. This showy bird has the head of a bright rich
orange. The same deep color marks the rump, lower back
- and upper tail-coverts. Under parts around the vent show

634 The American Naturalist. [July,

almost as deep a hue. All else is a glossy green-reflecting
black, save a few yellow feathers near theneck. Bill, feet and
eyes are light yellow. Length, 10 inches. Another species—
Melanopyrrhus or Gracula anais, has less vivid orange than
orientalis, but is marked similarly excepting on the head
which instead of a rich yellow is glossy black, the bright
color not appearing until a broad collar is seen round the
neck and throat.

D’Albertis in his Journal desea another Mina, very
scarce, which he considered new to science. The male has the
“head, neck and breast of a rich orange golden color;
throat and sides of the head, dark blackish green; abdomen
above and below black, each feather margined with dark
shining green; rump and tail-coverts deep golden orange;
belly yellow, under tail-cover white tipped by a light yellow,
wings and tail black, primaries white spotted, bill, eyes and
feet, yellow.” The traveler named the bird Mina. robersonia.

The Chestnut-backed Eupetes—EHupetes castanonotus, is a
small, noticeable bird found among the Astralobe Mountains
in Eastern New Guinea, and in those of the northwest. The
general color above is a rich chestnut. The lower back,
rump and upper tail-coverts a clear blue. Wing-coverts are a
bright blue with the shaft lines plainly visible. Some red-
dish stains tinge the scapulars while some small black feathers
may also be descried. The tail is of a dull blue cast with
clearer edges. The head is banded by a pale blue stripe
above the eyes. Black markings diversify the face and run
as a narrow rim around the pure white throat and cheeks.

The under parts are a bright blue. At the termination of the © a

under tail-feathers are broad patches of black. The length of
the male bird is 9 inches. The female is somewhat smaller,
differing further in having the entire upper surface chestnut
without any blue. The tone is duller, however, excepting on
the lower back and rump.

Beccaris Scrub Robin—Drymoedus beccarii—is a plain
bird, distinctively Australian in character, found in the
mountainous regions of New Guinea. The general color
above is a lightish brown, wing-coverts ashy brown and black

1895.] Birds of New Guinea. 635

barred with white. Middle tail feathers brown tipped with
white. The head is of a darker brown with a spot of black
beneath each eye. The cheeks and throat are a dingy white.
Under parts are of a paler brown running into ashy along the
sides. Under tail-coverts brown, under wing-coverts dusky
tipped with wide white bars. Bill black. Feet light. Length,
7 inches.

A Moluccan Bulbul—Criniger chloris—is a rather long,
slender bird of a shaded yellow color, about 8.5 inches in
length. The head is dark, almost black, sides of the throat
slightly speckled. Tail is long and broad. Bill long and
black. Feet black. Iris black. Male and female alike.
This graceful bird inhabits Batchian and Gilolo, falling, there-
fore, within the geographical limits of Papua.

Though dull in color the Naked-faced Honey-eater—Melipo-
tes gymnops—is not the least interesting of the division of birds
to which it belongs. Very many of the honey eaters are remark-
able for their rich variegated plumage and the elegance of their
forms. New Guinea contains numerous species peculiar to its
own territory, while sharing with other portions of Malaysia
the possession of many more. The species just noted comes
from the Arfak Mountains. It is a small bird with a total
length of 8.5 inches only. The prevailing color is dark brown
cinereous, deepest on the back and shoulders. The face is bare
and of a dingy yellow or mud color; a tint almost the same
is seen on the thighs and near the vent. These are the only
parts which can boast of any brightness. The abdomen and
lower breast present a slightly mottled or striated appearance
because of the presence of straggling light feathers over the
dark slate ground color. The under tailis also of a slate color
unrelieved excepting by the white quills. Bill and feet black,
the former short and sharp. D’Albertis classified this honey-
eater as a new genus and new species, calling it also a beauti-
ful bird. It hardly deserves this epithet as we have seen.

Among the many Lories of New Guinea, one of the love-
liest in harmonious blending of rich colors is the Red-fronted
Chalcopsitta scintillata, Temm. It is of small size, only a foot
long and of a warm, soft green plumage set off with carmine

636 The American Naturalist. [July,

and black. The forehead is a velvety crimson running into
black on the crown. Crimson appears also on the bend of the
wings, on the under side of the wings intermingled with
yellow, on the thighs and on some of the tail feathers; these
tail feathers, exquisitely tinted with yellow at their extremi-
ties, are rounded and overlapped in a curiously beautiful
fashion. All else the color is a predominating green,
frequently flushed with red or grained with yellow. Bill and
feet black, eyes yellow. The sexes are not easily dis-
tinguished.

ON A NEW CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA.
By A. S. PACKARD.

The taxonomic importance of Walter’s most interesting dis-
covery that Hriocephala calthella has maxille constructed on
the type of those of biting or mandibulate insects, i. e., with an
inner and outer lobe (lacinia) beside the palpi, was apparently
overlooked by him as well as others, though its bearings on the
phylogeny of the Lepidoptera as, however, insisted on by Wal-
ter, are, it seems to us, of the highest interest. The presence
of the maxillary lobes, homologous with the galea and lacinia
of the Mecoptera (Panorpidee) and Neuroptera (Corydalus,
Myrmeleon, as well as the lower orders Dermaptera, Orthoptera,
Coleoptera, etc.), in what in other important respects also is
the “lowest” or most primitive genus of Lepidoptera, the
lacinia being a rudimentary, scarcely functional glossa or
tongue, and not merely a vestigial structure, is of great signi-
ficance from a phylogenetic point of view, besides affording a
basis for a division of the Lepidoptera into two grand divisions
or sub-orders, for which we would propose the names Lepi-
doptera laciniata and Lepidoptera glossata.

Sub-order I. LEPIDOPTERA LACINIATA.

Walter thus writes of the first pair of maxille: “The other
mouth-parts also ofthe lower Micropterygine have a most

1895.] On a New Classification of the Lepidoptera. 637

primitive characteristic. In the first pair of maxille of Micro-
pteryx calthella, aruncella, anderschella and aureatella, cardo and
stipes are present as two clearly separate pieces. The former
in M. calthella and arunecella in comparison with the latter is
larger than in anderschella and aureatella. In the last two
species, the cardo is still tolerably broad, but reduced. The
stipes are considerably longer than the cardo in the two last
species, while it is of the same thickness. From the stipes
arises the large 6-jointed palpus maxillaris, folded two or
three times and concealing the entire front of the head and
all the mouth-parts. Af its base, and this is unique among all
the Lepidoptera, two entirely separate maxillary lobes arise from
the stipes. The external represents the most primitive rudiment
(anlage) of a lepidopterous tongue.” (Fig.1.) It is evident from
Walter’s figures and description that this is not a case of re-
duction by disuse of the tongue, but that it represents the
primitive condition of this lobe or the galea of the maxilla, and
this is confirmed by the presence of the lacinia, a lobe of the
maxilla not known to exist in any other Lepidopterous insect,
it being the two gales which become elongated, united and
highly specialized to form the so-called tongue or glossa of all
Lepidoptera above the Eriocephalide,' which we may regard
as the types of the Lepidoptera laciniata.

Another most important feature correlated with this, and
not known to exist in Lepidoptera glossata is the presence of
two lobes of the second maxille, besides the 3-jointed labial
palpi, and which correspond to the mala exterior and mala in-
terior of the second maxille of Dermaptera, Orthoptera,
Platyptera, Corrodentia, i. e., Perlide, Termitide and Odonata,
and also, as Walter states, to the ligula and paraglosse of
Hymenoptera. In this respect, the laciniate Lepidoptera are
more generalized than Neuroptera, Trichoptera, or Mecoptera.

Walter thus describes the two lobes or outer and inner mala
of the second maxilla: “ Within and at the base of the labial
palpi is a pair of chitinous leaves provided with stiff bristles,

1 In his paper on the larva of Eriocephala, etc. (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1894,
p. 335), Dr. Chapman separates the old genus Micropterya into two families:
Eriocephalide and Micropterygide. His group Eriocephalidx I here regard as
comprising the types of the sub-order Lepidoptera laciniata or Protolepidoptera.

638 The American Naturalist. [July,

being the external lobes of the underlip formed by the consolidation
of the second pair of maxille, and which reach, when extended,
to about the second-third of the length of the second palpal
joint. Itsinner edge is directly connected with the inner lobe
(mala interna). The latter are coalesced into a short, wide tube,
which, by the greater size of the hinder wall, opens externally
on the point, also appearing as if, at the same time, cut off ob-
liquely from within outwards.

“The outer anterior edge of the tube forms a strongly chi-
tinous semi-circle which, becoming thinner, finally passes into
the delicate membranous hinder wall. Also anteriorly a deli-
cate membrane appears to cover the chitinous portion. |

Fig. 1. Fic, 2.

“ We have here, in opposition to the weak, naked under lip
represented by a triangular chitinous plate of the Lepidoptera,
a true ligula formed by the coalescence of the inner lobes of
the second maxille into a tube, as in many Hymenoptera, and
with free external lobes, which correspond to the paraglusse of
Hymenoptera,” :

Walter has also detected a paired structure which he regards
as the hypopharynx. -As he states: “A portion of the inner
surface of the tube-like ligula is covered by a furrow-like band .

1895.] On a New Classification of the Lepidoptera. 639

which extends close to the inner side, is coalesced with it and
in position, shape, as well as its appendages or teeth on the
edge may be regarded as nothing else than the hypopharynx.”

While he refers to Burgess’ discovery of a hypopharynx in
Danais archippus, he remarks that this organ in the lower
Micropteryginæ (Eriocephalidæ) exhibits a great similarity to
the relations observable in the lower insects, adding: “ The
furrow is here within coalesced with the inner side of the
labium, and though I see in the entire structure of the head
the inner edge of the ligula-tube extended under the epi-
pharynx as far as the mandible; I must also accept the fact
that hère also the hypopharynx extends to the mouth-opening,
as in all other sucking insects with a full-developed under lip,
viz., the Diptera and Hymenoptera.”

Another feature of importance, diagnostic of this suborder,
is the mandible (Fig. 2), which, in form, size and the teeth are
closely related to those of the lower mandibulate orders, being,
as Walter states, in the form of true gnawing jaws, like those
of the biting insects. They possess powerful chitinous teeth
on the opposed cutting edges, 12 to 15 on each mandible, and
also the typical articulating hook-like processss by which they
are joined to the gena, and corresponding cavities are in the
latter. In Micropteryx and other of the more generalized
moths, the mandibles in a very reduced form here survive as
functionless vestiges of the condition in Eriocephala.

Turning now to the head and trunk, we find other primi-
tive characters correlated with those just mentioned.

The head is of moderate size, as wide as the body, with
small compound eyes, and with two ocelli. The occipital
region is well developed, as in the epicranium ; the clypeus
and labrum are of moderate size.

The generalized nature of the thorax is especially. note-
worthy. The prothorax is seen to be very much reduced, the
two tergites being separate and minute, not readily seen from
above. The rest of the ERES is very long, exhibiting but lit-
tle concentration.

The mesothorax is but slightly larger than the metathorax,
the mesoscutum is very short, the scutellum rather triangular
than scutellate.

640 The American Naturalist. [July,

The metathorax is but little shorter and smaller than the
mesothorax, and remarkable for the widely separated halves of
the scutum, a Neuropterous character (compare Ascalaphus and
Corydalus) in which it differs from Micropteryx. The slope of
the scutellum is that of a low, flattened triangle.

As regards the abdomen, attention should be called to the
disparity in size and shape between the sexes, also to the male
genital armature, which is very large and completely exserted:
and reminds us of that of Corydalus, in which, however, the
lateral claspers are much reduced, and also that of certain
Trichoptera (Sericostoma, Tinodes, Stenophylax, Hydropsyche,
etc.).

The larval characters of this sub-order it would be difficult
to give, for in the remarkable larva of Hriocephala calthella as
described and figured in Dr. Chapman’s elaborate account, we
appear to have a highly modified form, entirely unlike the
simple apodous larva of Micropteryx, and perhaps quite un-
like the primitive stem-form of Lepidopterous larve. We are
indebted to Dr. Chapman for mounted specimens in a slide
kindly given us by him. The body is broad and flattened, the
segments very short in proportion to their width, the prothor-
acic segment, however, very long in proportion to the others,
but the surface rough and corrugated, not with a hard, smooth
dorsal plate as in many Tinide, Tortricide, ete., since it is not
a boring insect. The eight pairs of abdominal prop-like tuber-
cles, which we should hardly regard as homologues of the
abdominal legs, are, like those of the Panorpide, simple tuber-
cles armed with a curved spine. The tenth or last abdominal
segment is armed with a pair of dorsal spines, arising from a
tubercle. The singular flattened and fluted sete represented
by Chapman are unique in Lepidopterous larve. He also de-
scribes a trefoil-shaped sucker on the under side of the ninth
and tenth abdominal segments, “ very unusual;” though as it
appears to be paired, it does not, as Chapman thinks, seem to
us to indicate “a further point of relationship to Limacodids.”

Chapman states that “the head is retractile, so far, that it
may occupy the interior of the second thoracic segment,”
and he says that “the antenne are remarkably long for a

ah On a New Classification of the Lepidoptera. 641

Lepidopterous larva.” He remarks that there are “ two strong
mandibles, with four brown teeth,” and adds: “two pairs of
palpi are also visible—two- and three-jointed, apparently those
usual in Lepidopterous larvæ, but I have not defined their re-
lations. There is also a central point (spinneret?)”

I add rough sketches of the mouth parts, so far as I could
draw them with the camera from specimens mounted in bal-
sam by Dr. Chapman. The labrum (Fig. 3, lbr.) is less divi-
ded than usual in Lepidopterous larvee, but is not, in this re-
spect, much unlike that of Tineids e.g. Gracilaria (see Dim-
mock’s Fig. 2, p. 100, Psyche, iii). The four-jointed antenne
(Fig. 3A ant.), ending in two unequal seta, are of very unusual

Fic; 8.

size and length, and soare the maxillary palpi (Fig. 3B mz. p.)
which are much larger than in any caterpillar known to me,
and greatly in disproportion to the maxillary lobes; the
maxillary itself differs notably from that of other caterpillars ;
what appears to be the lacinia is palpiform and two-jointed.
The labium and its palpi are much as in Gracilaria, but ap-
pear to be three-jointed, with a terminal bristle (it is possible -
that there are but two joints). Unlike the larva of Micro-

642 The American Naturalist. [July,

pteryx, that of Eriocephala does not appear to possess a well-
marked spinneret; while it is easy to see it in the former
genus, in Eriocephala I can only detect a lobe which appears
to be simply the rudiment (anlage) of a spinneret (unless the
latter is in my specimen bent under the head); but this organ
needs further examination on fresh specimens. It would be
interesting if it should be found that the spinneret isin a
generalized or germinal condition, as compared with that of
Micropteryx.

The pupa.—Unfortunately, we are, as vet, ignorant of the
pupa form. Dr. Chapman has only found the head-piece of
the pupa, but refers it to the “Incomplete,” and thinks it
probable that the pupa has the “third and following abominal
segments free ”

The eggs.—The egg, according to Chapman, is “large and
spherical,” and laid in confinement in little groups, to the num-
ber of twenty-five in all.

Diagnostic characters of the Lepidoptera laciniata.—I add the
characters of this sub-order. Imago. Maxilla with a well-
developed lacinita and galea, arising as in mandibulate in-
sects from a definite stipes and cardo, the galea not elongated,
united and differentiated into a glossa, each galea being separ-
ate from its fellow, and the two not acting as a “tongue.” The
maxillary palpi enormous, six-jointed. Mandibles large,
scarcely vestigial, with a broad, toothed cutting-edge, and with
them apparently functional hinge-processes at the base, as
usual in mandibulate insects. Hypopharynx well-developed,
somewhat as in Diptera and Hymenoptera; second maxilla
divided into a mala exterior, and a mala interior, recalling
those of mandibulate insects; palpithree-jointed. Thorax and
prothorax very much reduced ; metathorax very large, with the
two halves of the scutum widely separate.

Venation highly generalized; both fore and hind wings
with external lobe or a “jugum ” as in Trichoptera, veins as
in Micropteryx and showing no notable distinctions compared
with those of Micropteryx; scales generalized ; fine scattered
setee present on costal edge and on the veins. Abdomen
elongate, with the male genital armature neuropteroid, ex-
serted, the dorsal, lateral and sternal appendages very large.

1895.] On a New Classification of the Lepidoptera. 643

Eggs spherical. Larva, in form, highly modified, compared
with that of Micropteryx, with large, four-jointed antenne and
very large three-jointed maxillary palpi; no spinneret? No
abdominal legs, their place supplied by a pair of tubercles
ending in a curved spine on segments 1-8; a sternal sucker at
the end of the body. Pupa libera?

Sub-order IJ. LEPIDOPTERA HAUSTELLATA.?

This group may be defined thus: Maxille with no lacinia,
the galee being highly specialized and united with each other
to form a true tubular haustellum or glossa, coiled up between
the labial palpi. The maxillary palpi large and fine or six-
jointed in the more generalized forms, usually vestigial or
entirely wanting in the more modern specialized families.
Mandibles absent, as a rule, only minute vestiges occurring in
the more generalized forms. Wings both jugate and frenu-
late, but mostly the latter, tending to become broad and with
highly specialized scales, often ornamented with spots as well
as bars, the colors and ornamentation often highly specialized ;
the thorax highly concentrated, the metathorax becoming
more and more reduced and fused with the mesothorax ; the
abdomen in the generalized forms elongated, and with large
exserted male genital armature.

Pupa incomplete, the abdominal segments 3 to 6 or 7 free,
in the more generalized primitive forms, the end of the maxil-
lary palpi forming a visible sub-ocular piece or “eye collar;”
or à flap-like piece on the outside of the maxille; the labial
palpi often visible ; clypeus and labrum distinct; paraclypeal
pieces distinct; no cremaster or only a rudimentary one in the
generalized primitive forms.

Larva with usually a prothoracic or dorsal chitinous plate;
the armature consisting, in the primitve forms, of minute one-
haired tubercles, the four dorsal ones in a trapezoid on abdomi-
nal segments 1-8, becoming specialized in various ways in the
later families into fleshy tubercles, or spines of various shapes.
Five pairs of abdominal legs, with hooklets or crochets forming

2 If the term haustellata should be thought inapplicable from its frequent use
by former authors, the term Lepidoptera glossata could-be used instead,

644 The American Naturalist. [July,

a complete circle in the more generalized forms (in Hepialide
several complete circles), the hooklets in the latter more special-
ized groups, usually forming a semicircle situated on the inner
side of the planta.

This sub-order may be sub-divided into two series of super-
families and families, the Paleolepidoptera and the Neolepidop-
tera.

I. PALEOLEPIDOPTERA (Pupæ libere).

The characters of this group are those of Micropteryx, whose
larva has a well-developed spinneret; though it has no ab-
dominal legs, the other features are so truly lepidopterous that
the absence of legs may be the result of reduction by disease,
rather than a primitive feature.

The pupa (Fig. 4) has entirely free antenne, mouth-parts
and limbs, and bears considerable resemblance to that of a
caddis-fly. The mandibles are enormous, and, as described by
Chapman, are adapted for cutting through the dense coccoon.
The maxillz are separate and curved up on each side and `
partly concealed by the labial palpi, not extending straight
down as in the Pupx incomplete and obtecte ; the maxillary
palpi situated just in front of the mandibles extend outward
and forward, reaching to the antennw. The labrum is deeply
cleft and strongly setose, as is the epicranium ; the clypeus is
square, with a singular, white, delicate membrane, the use of
which is unknown. The hind legs extend beyond the end of
the abdomen, which is simple, not terminating in a cremaster ;
the sides of the segments bear a single large seta.

The trunk characters are much as in Eriocephala. The head
is larger and squarer, the eyes very small; there are two ocelli
present; the clypeus and labrum short and small.

The prothorax is very much reduced, much as in Erioce-
phala; the metathoracic scuta show an advance over those of
Eriocephala in being united on the median line instead of
separated; the metoscutellum is very large, larger and more
scutellate than that of Eriocephala.

The shape and venation of the wings (Fig. 5) are nearly
identical with those of Eriocephala, being long, narrow and

1895.] On a New Classification of the Lepidoptera. 645

pointed, both pairs nearly alike in size and venation, except
that on the hinder pair there is a “jugum ” or angular fold:
scales are of generalized shape all over the wing. The pres-

ia]

IIa

Fic. 5.
ence of a jugum on both pairs of wings is significant, since in
Trichoptera, they are also present in both pairs of wings.

II. NEOLEPIDOPTERA.

This series may be divided into two sections, corresponding
in the main to the Pupx incomplete of Chapman (the Erioce-
phalide and Micropterygide included by Chapman being re-
moved), and his Pupæ obtectx, for the first of which we would -
suggest the name Tineoids, and for the second, the large broad-
winged forms or Macrolepidoptera or Platylepidoptera.

Tineoids or Stenopterygia.

.

646 The American Naturalist. - [July,

These are Tineoid forms with many vestiges of archaic fea-
tures, usually with narrow wings, of dull hues or with metallic
bars, or with highly specialized shapes of scales and spots, and
the venation generalized in the earlier forms. The maxille
are sometimes aborted (wholly so in Hepialide); maxillary
palpi either well-developed, more or less reduced, or wanting ;
mandibles rarely occurring as minute vestiges; the thorax
neuropteroid in the more primitive forms becoming shorter and
the segments fused together in the later or more specialized
groups.

The pup. are incomplete; the more primitive forms with
the eye-collar and labial palpi visible; paraclypeal pieces dis-
tinct ; abdomen often with no cremaster in the most primitive
forms.

Larve with one-haired tubercles, the four dorsal ones ar-
ranged in a trapezoid on abdominal segments 1-8; usually a
prothoracic dorsal plate; the abdominal legs sometimes want-
ing in certain mining forms (and Cochliopodide) ; larve often
case-bearers or borers; crochets on the abdominal legs in the
primitive types arranged in two or more complete circles ; in
the lowest forms a well-marked spinneret.

Remarks on the Tineina.—It must now be very obvious that
we need to re-examine and revise the Tineina, and especially
their pup and imagines, particularly those of the more gen-
eralized forms, such as the Tineide (Tinea and Blabophanes),
and the Taleporide, comprising all those ancestral forms with
broad wings and a generalized venation which may have given
rise to the neolepidopterous families.

Then careful studies should be made on the Adelidæ, Cho-
reutidee and Nepticulide, and other families and genera in
which the mandibles have persisted (though in a vestigial
condition), and also those with functional or vestigial maxil-
lary palpi, such as Tineidw, Gracilariide, Elachistide, etc.

It is evident that the classification of the Tineina will have
to be entirely recast; instead of placing the Tineide, with
their broad wings and generalized venation at the head of the
Tineina as done in our catalogues and general works, they
should go to the base of the series, not far from the Microptery-

1895.] On a New Classification of the Lepidoptera. 647

gide. On looking over the venation of the Tineide repre-
sented on Spuler’s Plate XXVI, it is evident that the very
narrow-winged genera, such as Coleophora, Ornix, Lithocol-
letis, Nepticula, Gelechia, Cemiostoma and (Ecophora, are
highly modified recent forms, when compared with Tinea and
Blabophanes as well as the Adelidæ (Adela, Nemotois, Cho-
reutidee, Simaethis and Choreutis) and justify Chapman in
associating them with the Pyraloids in his group of Pupæ
obtectx.

Family Prodoxidx.—This group is represented by Tegeticula
(Pronuba) and Prodoxus. The eye-collar (maxillary palpi,
Fig. 6, mx p) is larger than in any of the other Tineina, and
the group is thus intermediate between the
Neo- and Paleolepidoptera. The pupa, as
well as other stages, have been well-des-
cribed by Riley, who, however, has over-
looked the eye-collar, though he figures
and describes the remarkable “ maxillary
tentacles.” I am disposed to regard the
latter organ as the maxilla itself, and to
consider that the “ maxilla ” of Riley is the

Fic, 6. lacinia or inner lobe of the maxilla, but
have had no material for examination. Should this prove to
be the case, it would carry the family down among the Lepi-
doptera laciniata.

(To be continued.)

RECENT LITERATURE.

Some Recent Text-books and Student Guides.—For several
years the crying need of American teachers has been a text-book of
zoology which, in contents and manner of treatment, should be of use
in American colleges and technical schools: All that our publishers
had offered us were books which were far behind the times, and some
were far behind any times unless we go back to that long ago when

44

648 The American Naturalist. [July,

father Adam was posing as a systematist and was giving the animals
their names. So the American student has had to depend on Euro-

an works, Sedgwick’s translation of Claus, notwithstanding its
outrageously high price and its short comings in treating of the
vertebrates has been used extensively. With Dr. MeMurrich’s Inver-
tebrate Morphology’ the demand is partially met—partially since the
work deals only with the Invertebrates. Now the American teacher
can refer his students toa brief and yet modern account of those
animals fortunate enough to lack back bones, with the assurance that
they will find, clearly expressed, the essential facts of structure and
development. In his general treatment Dr. McMurrich follows the
time honored precedent, first dealing with protoplasm and the cell,
next with the Protozoa and the passing to the Metazoa and their
various subdivisions. In these the sponges are retained under the
Cceelenterata (spelled Coelentera) while, rightly we think,the Ctenophores
are regarded as a distinct branch. A bit of conservatism retains the
Nemertines in the flat worms, and the close association of the Sipunc-
culids and Gephyrea. Like von Kennel, one author disregards the
Arthropods, presenting instead three “types” Crustacea, Arachnida,
and Tracheata, and (pace Lankester) treating the Xiphosures as an ap-
pendix to the Crustacea.

In his general treatment the author exhibits a familiarity with recent
literature and discusses at some length such morphological questions
as the origin of metamerism, the iner-relationship of arthropods, affin-

ities of the Mollusca, etc. The illustrations are largely process cuts

‘and while they have, in most instances, a freshness which is pleasing
there is not infrequently an exasperating inaccuracy or vagueness in
many of the diagrams and copies. Thus the student puzzling over
the oviduct of the barnacle will have no assistance as to its termina-
tion from fig. 181, while one looking for the number of cardiac ostia in
Limulus will be misled by fig. 196. But the most serious errror which
we have noticed relates to Peripatus. In fig. 220, which is copied
from Sedgwick, the term ccelom is extended to all the cavities of the
body which Sedgwick shows are pseudocceliac, and the peculiar feature
that the true ccelom is restricted to the gonads, the sac at the inner ends
of the nephridia, and the nephridia and genital ducts is no where
noticed in the text. The typography and press-work of the volume are
good and we are glad to see that the publishers have dropped the fat

. 1 A text-book of Invertebrate Morphology T James Playfair McMurrich: New
York. Henry Holt & Co., 1894 80 pp. vii+660

1895.] Recent Literature. 649

and dumpy style in which they issued the earlier volumes of the
« American Science Series.

At last there is a convenient work on the anatomy of the cat; a
work which is devoted to the cat and the cat alone; which does not
discuss foreordination or total depravity, Grimm’s law or the price of
stocks; which tells the student plainly how to cut up the useful
laboratory animal, tells the names of the various parts, and gets through
when itis through. The little work of Messrs. Tower and Cutter is
handy in size, clear in directions and intelligible in its figures and
diagrams. It is the book we long have sought aud mourned because
we found it not.

Comstock’s Manual for the Study of Insects.°—For several
years teachers and students of entomology have been waiting in eager
anticipation for the completion of the work upon which Professor and
Mrs. Comstock have so long been engaged. Now that it has appeared
they have no reason to regret the delay, for the book is by far the best
manual available to the student. It contains 700 pages, 800 figures on
the text and six full page plates, one of which is colored. Practically
all of the illustrations are original with the authors, the great majority of
them having been especially engraved for this book by Mrs. Comstock.
These figures for the most part are of unusual excellence, and the
plates, especially IV, V and VI are of rare artistic value, and in my
judgment are the finest examples of insect illustrations in black and
white that have appeared in America. Any entomologist would be
glad to frame these for his study or laboratory, and it is to be hoped
that the publishers will see fit to print these plates on large paper for
this purpose.

In the preface the authors state that the book has been prepared
especially with reference to the needs of the student who desires to
determine “ the names and relation affinities of insects, in some such way
as plants are classified in the well-known manuals of botany.” It has
been possible to carry out this idea only with the larger groups, the
number of species precluding the possibility of making keys to species.
The keys go far enough, however, to be of great value to the teachers
and student.

Nineteen orders of insects are recognized, in the following sequence
—Thysanura, Ephemerida, Odonata, Plecoptera, Isopoda, Corrodentia,

2 A laboratory guide for the dissection of the cat by Frederic P. Gorham and .
Ralph W. Tower. New York, Chas. Scribners Sons, 1895, pp. ix-+87.

3 A Manual for the Study of Insects by J. H. and A. B. Comstock. Ithaca, N.
Y. Comstock Publishing Co., 1895. Price $3.75. i

650 . The American Naturalist. [July,

Mallophaga, Dermaptera, Orthoptera, Physopoda, Hemiptera, Neurop-
tera, Mecaptera, Trichoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Siphonaptera,
Coleoptera, Hymenoptera. ‘The first chapter is devoted to zoological
classification and nomenclature, and the second to the near relatives of
the insects—crustaceans, scorpions, spiders, mites and myriapods. In
the third chapter appears a general discussion of the characteristics of
the class Hexapoda, together with a table for determining the orders of
insects. Then follow nineteen chapters, each devoted to one order of
insects.

The Manual must prove for many years to come the sine qua non of
the student of American insects. The authors are to be congratulated
upon the happy completion of so many years of earnest work, and ento-
mological teachers will be heartily glad to be able to give a satisfactory
answer to the query so often asked regarding a text-book for those
desiring to take up the study of insects. The accompanying plate
shows samples of the engravings in the book.— CLARENCE M. WEED.

In Bird Land.*—In this little volume Mr. Keyser has recorded a
series of observations made on the birds about Springfield, Ohio. A
rare descriptive power combined with a warm love for the feathered
tribes makes the writer a most delightful depicter of scenes in bird
life. Domestic and social habits, out-of-the-ordinary conduct, their
schemes for making a living and a -variety of other interesting bits of
information, the result of the author’s personal gleaming in field and
forest, at all seasons of the year, are discussed in an easy, colloquial
style that is extremely entertaining.

A list of birds seen in the vicinity of Springfield during the year,
numbering 134 species is given in the appendix.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Annual Report of the Curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Har.
vard College to the President and Fellows of Harvard College for 1893-94.

ARANZADI, D. T, p—E.—Fauna Americana, Madrid, 1892.

Barnes, C. R.—On the Food of Green Plants. Extr. Botanical Gazette, Vol.
XVIII, 1893. From the author.

BENDIRE, C.—Description of Nests and Eggs of Some New Birds, collected on
the Island of Aldabra, northwest of Madagascar, by Dr. W. L. Abbott. Extr,
Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII. 1894. From the author.

‘In Bird Land. By L. S. Keyser, Chicago, 1894. A. C. McClurg & Co,
Pu blishers,

PLATE XXVIII.

ENGRAVINGS OF INSECTS

FROM COMSTOCK’S MANUAL

1895.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 651

Bulletin No. 28, 1894, Saye Exper. Station of the Rhode Island College of
Agric. and Mechan. Art

Bulletin No. 32, 1894, "Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture. From the Dept.

Bulletins No. 103 and 108, 1894, North Carolina Agric. Exper. Station.

CAMERON G. L.—Tho Geology of Denver and Vicinity. Extr. Proceeds. Colo-
rado Scientific Soc. No date given. From the author.

Coss, N. A:—Host and Habitat Index of the me Fungi. Misc. Pub. -
No. 16, Dept. Agric. New South Wales. From the

Contributions from the Geological sane of paren College, Vol. ITI,
Nos. 14-23, 1893-94. From the Colle

Dubois, E’'—Pithecanthropus ine eine Menschenaehnliche Uebergangsform
aus Java. Batavia, 1894. From the author.

EIGENMANN, C. H. AND C. H. Beeson.—A Revision of the Fishes of the Sub-
family Sebastinae of the Pacific Coast of America. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl.
Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the Smithsonian Institution.

Fisu, P. A.—The Forms and Relations of the Nerve Cells and Fibers in Des-
mognathus fusca. Aus, Anat. Anz., Bd. IX. From the author.

FAIRCHILD, F. L.—The Gedlowical History of Rochester, N. Y. Extr. Proceeds.
Rochester Acad. Sci, Vol. II, 1894.

— The Evolution of the Ungulate Mammals. Extr. Proceeds. Rochester
Acad. Sci., Vol. II, 1894. From the Society.

FAIRBANKS, H. W.—Review of Our Knowledge of the Geology of the Califor-
nia Coast Ranges. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, 1894.

FISHER, G. E. AND I. J. Scuwatt.—Some Thoughts on the Teaching of Math-
ematics. Phila., 1894. From the authors.

GILL, T.—On the Nomenclature and Characteristics of the E DERA Extr.
Proceeds, U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the author.

Haccket, E.—The Cobiteadion of Faith of a Man of Science. Moniin; 1894.
From the author.

Hare, E.—Restes d’ élan et de Tion. Extr. P’ Anthropologie, Juillet, 1894.
From the author.

HERRERA, A. L.—El clima Dell Valle de México y la Biologia de los Verte-
brados. Extr. La Naturaleza, 2d series. mu

HovucHTON, M. E. W.—A Paper on the Michigan Mining School. Lansing,
1894. From the author.

Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia, Vol. I. From the Pub., A. J. Johnson & Co.,
New York, 1893.

LEIGHTON, V. L—The Development of the Wing of Sterna wilsonii. Tufts
College Studies, No. IT, 1894.

Lucas, F. A.—Notes on the Anatomy and Affinities of the Coerebidae and other
American Birds. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From
the Smithsonian Institution.

AN, B. S.—Some Coal Measure Sections near Peytona, West Virginia.
Extr. Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. XX XIII, 1894. From the author.

Maps for the Tenth Annual Report of the State Mineralogist of California,

1890. From the Mining Bureau.

652 The American Naturalist. [July,

MARTIN, K.—Uber seine Reise in den Molukken, durch Burn, Seran und
Benarchbarte kleiners Iseln. Aus den Verhandl. der Gessell. fiir Erdkunde zu
Berlin, 1894. From the author

McGez, W. J.—The ENE of Uniformitarianism to Deformation. Bull.

Society

Mearns, E. A.—Description of a New Cotton Rat (Sigmodon minimus) from
New Mexico.

Memorial rss ta in Honor of President Sadi-Carnot. Phila., June 30, 1894.
From M. L. Voss

MERRIAM, J. C._Ueher die Pythonomorphen der Kansas-Kreide. Separat-
Abdruck aus Palaeontographica, Stuttgart, 1894. From the author.

Moors, C. B.—Certain Sand Mounds of the St. John’s River, Florida. Part
II. Philadelphia, 1894. From the author.

Newton, A. AnD H. GApow.—A Dictionary of Birds. Part III (Moa-Sheath-
bill). London, 1894. From the authors.

Nova Acta Academiae Caesareae Leopoldino-Carolinae Germanice Natural
Curiosorum. Tomi LV et LVI, 1891; LVII, 1892; LVIII, LIX, 1893; LX et
LXI, 1894. In exchange.

Oszorn, H. F.—Fossil Mammals of the Upper Cretaceous Beds. Bull. Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. V,1893. From the author.

Report of the Trustees of the Australian Museum for the year 1892. From the
Museum.

Ripeway, R.—Descriptions of Twenty-two New Species of Birds from the Gal-
apagos Islands. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the
. Smithsonian Institution.

Riccs, S. R.—Dakota Grammar Texts, and Ethnography Contributions to
North American Ethnology, Vol. IX, 1893. From the Dept. of the Interior.

Rosertson, C.—Flowers and Insect., XII. Extr. Botanical Gazette, Vol. XIX.

RussELL, H. L.—Bacteria in their Belation to Vegetable Tissue, Extr. Johns
Hopkins Hospital Reports, Vol. III, Nos. 4, 5 and 6. Baltimore, 1893. From
_ the author.

STEARNS, R. E. C.—The Shells of the Tres Marias and other Localities along
the Shores of Lower California and the Gulf of California. Extr. Proceeds. U.
S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the Smithsonian Institution.

STEJNEGER, L.—On some Collections of Reptiles and Batrachians from East
Africa and the Adjacent Islands, received from Dr. W. L. Abbott and Mr. W. A.
Chanler, with descriptions of new species. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus»
Vol. XVI, 1893. From the author.

True, F. W.—Diagnoses of some undescribed Wood-Rats (genus Neotoma) in
the National Museum. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894:
From the Smithsonian Institution.

Verslag 1893 en Naamlijst van de Leijden der Maatschappij Arti et Amicitiae-
Amsterdam.

WRIGHT, A. A.—The Ventral Armor of Dinichthys. Extr. Am. Geol., Vol.
XIV, 1894. From the author.

1895.] Mineralogy. 653

General Notes.

MINERALOGY.’

Vicinal Planes and the Variation of Crystal Angles.—
Miers’ has measured by means of a specially constructed goniometer®
_ the changes in the form of crystals during their growth. Potash and
ammonium alum is a substance whose apparently octahedral crystals
are subject to noticeable variations in the size of the octahedral angle,
and whose faces are sometimes vicinal in character. Miers began an
investigation to determine whether the angles subject to variation
have different values at different stages in the growth of the crystal,
and if so, whether the faces change their inclination during growth,
provided the crystal is held fixed. He has made the following import-
ant observations :

(1.) The faces of the regular octahedron are never developed on
alum growing from aqueous solution.

(2.) The reflecting planes (which are often very perfect) are those
of a very flat triangular pyramid (trisoctahedron).

(3.) The three faces of this triangular pyramid may be very un-
equal in size.

(4.) The trisoctahedron which replaces one octahedral face of a
crystal may be different from that which replaces another face of the -
same crystal.

(5) During the growth of the crystal the reflecting planes change
their mutual inclinations; the trisoctahedron becomes in general more
acute, i. e., deviates more from the octahedron which it replaces as the
crystal grows.

(6.) This change takes place, not continuously, but per saltum, each
reflecting plane becoming replaced by another which is inclined to it
by a small angle (generally about three minutes).

(7.) During growth the faces are always those of trisoctahedrons;
but, if for any reason, as rise of temperature, re-solution occurs, icosi-
tetrahedrons are developed.

‘Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

? Abstract of paper read before the British Association. Nature, 50 pp. 411-
412. (August 23d, 1894.)

3 See these notes, March, 1895.

4

654 The American Naturalist. [July,

Thus it is shown that, in this case at least, crystals do not grow by
the deposition of parallel layers of substance, but that new faces are
constantly being developed which obey the law of rational (though
not simple) indices. Their mutual inclinations in the case of alum
show that the face to which they approximate is always the octahe-
dron with angle 70° 31%’, hence the faces of this form do not vary
their inclination as supposed.

Determination of the Principal Indices of Refraction for
the most Important Rock-making Minerals.—Zimanyi‘ has
determined by the method of total reflection (using a modified Kohl-
rausch total reflectometer) the principal indices of refraction, and
hence, at the same time, the double refraction, of the more important
rock-making minerals. He has found that methylene iodide, which
has not before been used with the total reflectometer, is a particularly
good enclosing medium, since it was found to suffer scarcely any
change in the course of an entire year. His paper gives the results of
a very extensive series of determinations on no less than fifty-five spe-
cies or varieties, A few of the determined values are given below:

Mineral. Mean index of refr. Doublerefr. Opt. Char.
Albite (Schmirn). 1.5337 > 0.0105 ot
Elsolite (Laurvik). 1.5350 0.0042 —
Nepheline (Vesuvius). 1.5407 0.0050 —
Orthoclase. 1.5222 0.0064 —
Sodalite (Ditro) 1.4834
Nosean (Laach). 1.4950
Hauyne (Latium). 1.5027
Leucite (Vesuvius). 1.5086
Cordierite (Bodenmais). 1.5396 0.0091 —
Muscovite (Buckfield). 1.5861 0.0388 i
Augite (Pojana). 1.7000 0.0250 —?

Biotite (Diff. localities). 1.5600-1.5894
Tremolite (Diff. localities). 1.6117-1.6135 0.0252-0.0270 —
Actinolite (Diff. localities). 1.6150-1.6257 0.0271-0.0280 _
Tourmaline (Diff. loc.) 1.6324-1.6357 0.0184-0.0239

Amphibole (Kafveltorp), 1.6463 0.0163 +
Sillimanite (Saybrook). 1.6641 0.0200 +-
Olivine. 1.6710 0.0359 ES
Zoisite (Tyrol). 1.7010 0.0050 +

t Zeitsch. f. Kryst., XXII, pp. 321-358 (1894).

1895.) Mineralogy. 655

New Minerals.—Igelstrom* describes several supposed new min-
erals from Sjögrube, Gouv. Orebro, Sweden, which are either massive
or so poorly crystallized that their symmetry could not be definitely
determined. Their names and supposed compositions are as follows :

Lamprostibian.—A qualitative analysis showed the presence of much
Sb,O, and FeO, with smaller amounts of MnO, As,O,, PbO, “and
other substances ;” from which the mineral is supposed to be an anti-
monate of iron and manganese.

Elfstorpite—A qualitative determination yielded much H,O, As,O,
and MnO, with traces of CaO and MgO, hence the mineral is sup-
posed to be a very hydrous arsenate of manganese.

Chlorarsenian.—Anhydrous arsenate of manganese (from qualita-
tive tests).

Rhodoarsenian.—Analysis furnished the following formula:

(10 RO As,O,)+10 (RO H,O) in which R—=Mn, Ca, and Mg.

Basiliite.—(Mn,O,), Sb,0;+7 Mn,O,. 3 H,O.

_ Sjégrufvite—2 (RO), As,O,+ Fe, O,. As,O,+6 H,O, in which R=
Mn, Ca, and Pb.

Doelter, The Characters of Gems.—Eight years ago Groth is-
sued a very interesting popular introduction to the study of gems, in-
tended for the general public and also in a special way to inform jew-
elers of the delicate mineralogical methods which may be made use of
by them for the determination of stones. Great stress was laid upon
the optical method of investigation, and a special microscope was de-
signed and constructed for the use of jewelers. Doelter’ has recently
published a more pretentious work, and one of a somewhat more
practical character. The book is essentially a manual and includes
some 260 pages. It contains a great deal of matter and this is very
well arranged. Doelter shows that in spite of the delicate nature of
the optical methods, they can only rarely be applied on cut gems.
The specific gravity test, particularly when heavy solutions are used,
is the most delicate test, and also the one most easily applied. In ad-
dition, the examination with the dichroscope, and chemical and hard-
ness tests, are applied in some cases. The artificial reproduction of the
different gems in the laboratory, and the technical methods of imitat-

5 Zeitsch. f. Kryst., XXII, pp. 467-472 (1894).

ê Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde, Engelmann, Leipzig, 1887.

7 Edelsteinkunde, Bestimmung und Unterscheidung der Edelsteine und
Schmucksteine, die kiinstliche Darstellung der Edelsteine, von Dr. C. Doelter.
Veit & Comp., Leipzig, 1893.

656 The American Naturalist. [July,

ing the valuable gems are given in detail. The greater part of the work
is devoted to the detailed descriptions of the individual types of stones.
In the third part of the work is given a systematic method of examin-
ing a stone, with a key for use in the determination. A chapter is
devoted to the means of identifying the various imitations in use in
the trade. A list of 250 trade names of gems, with the scientific name
of the mineral and the group in which it belongs in parallel columns,
will prove of great value for reference—W. H. Hosss.

PETROGRAPHY?:

Rock Differentiation.—Harker’ contributes an interesting article
on rock differentiation in his study of the gabbro of Carrock Fell, Eng-
land. The hill in question consists of bedded basic lavas, gabbro,
granophyre and diabase in the order of their intrusion. The gabbro
is of especial interest, since it presents a simple example of rock differ-
entiation. In its center the mass is quartziferous. Toward the periph-
ery it passes gradually into an ordinary gabbro, and immediately upon
the border into an aggregate composed largely of titaniferous magne-
tite. In explaining the causes of this gradual transition in chemical
and mineral composition, the author discards the theories usually pro-
posed to explain similar phenomena, and concludes that, in the case
under discussion, the separation Of the magma into its parts took place
during the period of crystallization by concentration of the crystalliz-
ing substances. The concentration is greatest for those minerals belong-
ing to the earliest stages of the rock’s history, hence it is thought that
the differentiation took place by diffusion in a fluid magma, and that
in those parts of this magma richest in basic minerals crystallization
first occurred. As the crystals separated, the supply of the crystallizing
substance was kept up by diffusion from other portions of the magma
into the basic portions.

Another interesting feature of the gabbro mass relates to the con-
tact effects produced by the rock in the surrounding basic lavas, some
of which are enclosed as fragments in the midst of the gabbro. Their
isotropic base has erystallized, and some changes have been produced

' Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, ied has Waterville, Maine.
2 Quart. Journal Geol. Soc., 1894, p. 3

1895.] Petrography. 657

in the composition and structure of their phenocysts. At the immedi-
ate contacts of the different rocks a commingling of their materials
seems to have taken place. Mica has been generated in the gabbro,
and the groundmass of the lavas has disappeared, leaving a plexus of
small feldspar laths imbedded in a clear mosaic of quartz or of quartz
and feldspar.

The Metamorphism of Inclusions in Volcanic Rocks.—
In a memoir presented to the French Academy of Sciences, Lacroix?
gives a very full resumé of the conclusions reached by him in the study
of the action of modern volcanic rocks on the inclusions imbedded in
them. The conclusions are based on the results of late studies as well
as on those reached several years ago.‘ The author finds that the
basaltic and the feldspathic effusives act differently toward foreign
fragments imbedded in them. The former act principally through
their high temperature, fusing the most easily melted components of the
inclusions, while the trachytic rocks act more effectively in producing
mineralogical changes through the aid of the mineralizers, mainly
water, with which they are abundantly provided. The physical and
chemical changes suffered by the material of the inclusions are dis-
cussed separately and fully. Often the fragments in the basalts are
reduced by fusion to a few grains of their most resistant components,
while the fragments in the trachytes have lost only their micaceous
constituents by fusion. Consequently the metamorphism in the latter
cases is supposed to have been produced at a comparatively low tem-
perature, although the new minerals produced in number exceed by
far those produced in the basaltic inclusions at a much higher tempera-
ture. With respect to the effects produced on rocks in situ, it is found
.that basaltic and trachytic lavas act alike—mainly through their heat.
The metamorphic action in both cases is comparatively slight. The
similarity in the effects produced by the two types of lavas in this case,
when compared with the dissimilar effects produced upon their inclu-
sions, is explained as a consequence of the fact that all lavas, when
they reach the surface, lose their volatile constitutents, and so, of neces-
sity, can affect alteration in contiguous rock masses solely by means of
their high temperature. In other words, the alteration of inclusions is
effected at a depth beneath the surface, while the alteration of rocks in
situ is a surface phenomenon,

3 Mémoires présentés à P Acad. d. Sciences de l'Institut de France, xxxi,
tSee American Naturalist, 1894, p. 946.

658 The American Naturalist. [July,

The Petrography of Aegina and Methana.——The lavas of
the island of Aegina and the peninsula Methana in Greece are ande-
sites and dacites that have broken through cretaceous and tertiary
limestones. Washington’ separates the rocks into the two groups
above-mentioned on the basis of the SiO, contents. Rocks containing
above 62% of SiO, he classes as dacites, those containing less than this
amount as andesites. The dacites are divided into hornblende, horn-
blende-hypersthene and biotite varieties, and the andesites into horn-
blende, biotite-hornblende, hornblende-augite, hypersthene and horn-
blende-hypersthene varieties. All the rocks are more or less porphyritic,
and all contain more or less glass. Tridymite is present in the horn-
blende andesites from the Stavro district. The trachyte described by
Lepsius from near Poros is a biotite-hornblende-andesite. Brown and
green hornblendes are both present in the Grecian rocks, but not in the
same specimens. The green variety is characteristic of the pyroxene
free andesites, and the brown variety of those rocks containing an almost
colorless pyroxene as one of its essential components. This association
of the two hornblendes indicates that their formation is dependent upon
differences*in chemical composition of the magmas from which they
separated, as well as upon the conditions under which their separation
took place.

In almost all of these rocks there are segregations of the same com-
position as that of the enclosing rocks, except that they are more basic.
Two classes of segregations are observed. The first are hornblende-
augite-andesites, containing brown hornblende and no glass; the second
class is composed of green hornblende in a glassy base with plagioclase
laths. The brown hornblendes are often changed to opacite, surrounded
by a zone of colorless crystals of augite. In those segregations in which
the hornblende is of the green variety, nosuch alteration is observable.
The glass in these segregations is so different from that of the rock in
which they occur, that it cannot be regarded as portions of the latter.
The author is inclined to regard these bodies as fragments of earlier
lava flows buried deeply beneath the latter ones.

In his discussion on the general relations of the different rocks of the
region, the author states that “in general * * * the more acid the
rock the more vitreous the groundmass, the smaller and more micro-
litic the crystals in it, and the larger and more abundant the pheno-
cysts.”

After remarks on the chemical relations of the different rock types
to each other, and a discussion of the Aegina-Nisyros region as a

5 Jour. of Geology, Vol. II, p. 789, and Vol. III, p. 21.

1895.] Petrography. 659

“ netrographical province,” the paper closes with the statement that
although the lavas of the region under discussion are so similar to those
of the Andes, nevertheless, the original undifferentiated magmas of the
two districts were quite dissimilar.

Maryland Granites.—The granite and associated rocks on the
east side of the Susquehanna River in Cecil County, Maryland, have
been made the subject of study by Grimsley.’ In the northern portion
of the area investigated, the granite is but little sheared, while in its
southern portion the rock is very gneissic. The two portions of the
area are separated from each other by a band of staurolite-schist.
Though the rocks of both areas were originally the same in composi-
tion, it is thought that the northern granite may be the younger, since
it is intruded by dykes of what appears to be a dynamically meta-
morphosed gabbro, while, on the other hand, the southern granite in-
trudes a basic rock that apparently grades into gabbro. Both granites
are biotitic varieties, and both are eruptive in origin. The northern
granite is remarkable for the epidotization of its feldspar, which is pre-
dominantly plagioclastic, and for the occurrence in it of numerous
dark basic segregations. Many rare minerals, such as zircon, magne-
tite, tourmaline, cubical garnets and sphene were found in large quan-
tities in the soil produced by its decomposition. The northern contact
of the northern granite is somewhat abnormal in its characters. The
granite appears to become more basic toward the contact, and the
basic phases are cut by apophyses of the normal acid rock.

An analyses of the granite follows :

SiO, TiO, Al,O, Fe,0, Feo MnO CaO SrO BaO MgO 1e 20 Li,O Hio P,O, Total
66.68 .50 14.93 1.58 3.23 .10 4.89 tr. .08 219 tr. 19 = 100.32

Alabama Cherts.—Hovey’ has recently examined a series of
cherts sent him from Alabama. Those from the Lower Magnesian
series consist almost entirely of chalcedony, with the addition of a little
quartz and opal. The rocks are fine-grained mosaics that are mottled
by reason of variations in the fineness of their grains. The quartz
appears to be secondary, as it fills cavities in the chalcedony. A few
scales of limonites and dust particles are present in almost all sections.
No well-defined organic remains were detected in any. The cherts
from the Lower Carboniferous, on the other hand, contain numerous

$ Jour. Cin. Soc, Nat. Hist., Apr.—July, 1894.

7 Amer. Jour. Sci., 1894, xlviii, p. 401.

660 The American Naturalist. (July,

remains of calcareous organisms, which are cemented together by chal-
cedony exhibiting a tendency to form concretionary granules. In some
specimens, genuine spherocrystals of this mineral were detected. Chem-
ical analysis of both classes of cherts show the absence of opal. The
author regards the rocks as chemical precipitates.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Californian Coast.—A. G. Lawson presents the following as
the sequence of events which have led to the present topography of the
Coast of California north of the Golden Gate:

I. A development in Pliocene time of a great coastal peneplain
with correlative accumulation of marine sediments.

II. The orogenic deformation of parts of this peneplain and folding
of the Pliocene strata.

III. The reduction of the soft upturned Pliocene strata to base level.

IV. The progressive uplift of this peneplain to an-elevation of from
1600 to 2100 feet above sea land, the adjacent mountainous tracts par-
ticipating in the same movement.

V. The advance in the new geomorphic cycle to a stage of early
maturity.

VI. A very recent depression of about 100 miles of the coast ad-
jacent to the Golden Gate, and the consequent flooding of the stream
valleys by the ocean.

- This history is in harmony with the disastrophic record of the coast
south of the Golden Gate presented by Mr. Lawson in a former paper.
(Bull. Univ., Cal., Vol. I., 1894).

Disintegration of Granite.—Of the agencies concerned in the
disintegration of the granite rocks in the District of Columbia, U. S.,
Mr. G. P. Merrill considers hydration the most pronounced and uni-
versal in its effects. During an examination of material from the
region under discussion, both granite and dioritic rocks with smooth
even faces taken from depths of a hundred feet or more were examined,
and many, which under casual inspection showed no signs of decom-
position, were found to disintegrate rapidly into coarse sand after a
short exposure to the atmosphere. The author’s explanation of this
behavior is that the minerals composing the rocks (with the exception

1895.] . Geology and Paleontology. 661

of the quartz) underwent partial hydration, but, held in the vise-like
grip of the surrounding rock, were unable to expand to the full ex-
tent of loss of cohesion. When freed from compression, expansion and
further hydration took place, the mass became spongy, and, freely ab-
sorbing water, fell into sand and gravel. - This idea led to a series of
experiments, and from an average of several determinations, Mr. Mer-
rill obtained an approximation of 1.88, which represents the degree of
expansion which the rock undergoes in passing from its fresh condi-
tion into that of undisturbed soil a foot beneath the surface. (Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895).

Dolomites of the Northwestern States.—The Magnesian
series distributed through southern Wisconsin and Minnesota, extend-
ing into northwestern Iowa have been studied by C. W. Hall and F.
W.Sardeson. From paleotological evidence the authors divide the se-
ries into four alternating formations of dolomites and sandstones be-
longing to the Upper Cambrian and a fifth of dolomite which may be
considered a part of the Ordovician.

As to the origin of the dolomites, the authors do not commit them-
selves to any theory, but point out that the porous condition of the
dolomite and the freedom of the sandstones and arenaceous shales of
the series from the several impurities so universal in recent rocks of
this character suggest that the original rock mass, which was a lime-
stone of the same constitution as those now forming within ocean areas
—that is, a carbonate of lime with a percentage of magnesium carbon-
ate—has become dolomitic through the removal of the calcium carbon-
ate. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895.)

The Silver Mines of Lake Valley, New Mexico.—These
mines are situated about six miles from the old Sante Fé trail, and
fifteen miles from the Rio Grande. The ore deposits lie close to the
surface and are marked by large outcrops of black flint and iron. An
interesting account of the working of these mines was read before the
Amer. Inst. of Mining Engineers by Mr, Ellis Clark, in which he gives
the following theory of the ore-formation:

“Tt has been held, almost from the time of their discovery, by those
familiar with the deposits of silver-ore at Lake Valley, that the one
must have come up in solution from below, that it came along the
‘blanket’ of iron-flint, and that it was in some way dammed up or
stopped by the overflow of porphyrite, which may be said, in a general
way, to. overlie the outcrop of the ‘blanket.’ On the strength of this

662 The American Naturalist. [July,

hypothesis, numerous diamond-drill-holes and shafts have been sunk,
and those that were continued to a sufficient distance (seldom more
than 150 feet) have encountered the iron-flint blanket, but invariably
with its silver-contents lacking.

“ A later and more probable hypothesis is that the silver of the mines
was originally contained in a great overflow of silver-bearing porphy-
rite, perhaps coming from Monument Peak, which covered a square
mile or more in the immediate vicinity of the mines. In the erosion
of this porphyrite, the silver in it was leached out, the greater portion
segregating itself in the Bridal Chamber and the workings connected
with it, and the remainder going to the Bunkhouse and the connected
Incline and Bella workings. The greatest distance that any large
body of ore has been found from the line of the porphyrite is 500 feet,
and most of the workings are within 200 feet of that line.

“ The writer’s own observations have shown him that a distance of
about 250 feet from the porphyrite the ore decreases in grade, and
that at a distance of 300 feet there is little that can be profitably
shipped. The Bunkhouse workings appear to have been in a cavern,
in which the ore was deposited rapidly, and not by the slower process
of a dissolution of the limestone and a synchronous substitution of the
silver-bearing manganese. In many places in this working the man-
ganese is pulverulent and non-adherent to the limestone walls; and
when thoroughly cleaned off by brushing, the face of the limestone has
precisely the same weathered appearance as that of an outcrop, and
looks as though it had been freely acted upon by the atmosphere, pos-
sibly assisted by the rays of the sun. Something of the same sort may
be studied in the Last Chance workings at a depth of 20 feet from the
surface, while the Bunkhouse workings lie at a depth of from 50 to 60
eet.

“ The evidences of a previous cavern or cavity in the blue limestone
at the Bridal Chamber are not so marked, but the indications are such
that in the writer’s opinion a comparatively rapid deposition appears
more probable than a gradual substitution, such as was very likely the
case in the Incline workings, the Bella Chute, the Thirty Slope and
the Twenty-five Cut workings.

“In a property of the extent of the Lake Valley mines, which has
yielded at least $5,000,000, there always remains the possibility of new
finds through the expenditure of small amounts of money. The con-
tact between the two limestones is an established fact ; and there are
but few places on the southeastern portion of the property where this
contact cannot be reached at the moderate depth of 150 feet. Thus

1895.] Geologu and Paleontology. 663

far, the explorations made at a distance from the porphyrite have been
barren of commercial results; but from the occurrence of the one in
chutes, which, although constituting a part of the ‘blanket,’ vary in
width (being generally narrow close to the surface and widening in
depth), it is possible that large bodies, somewhat of the nature of the
Incline or the Bella Chute, may exist stillin the unexplored portions
of the property.

“ The occurrence of new bonanzas, such as the Bridal Chamber and
the Bunkhouse, is scarcely to be expected, as the conditions under
which they appear to have been found, that is, the triple contact of the
Blue and Crinoidal limestones and the porphyrite, are not known to
exist at any points as yet unexplored, and the overflow of porphyrite,
has been so thoroughly prospected as to leave but little unexplored
ground of that class.

The most promising quarter for further exploitation would seem to
be the extension of the Grande chute cut at some point south of the
John’s shaft workings, where, as before mentioned, large chutes of
iron-flint, too low in silver for profitable working, were cut. Other
points which should be prospected are the extension of the Bella Chute
beyond the point where it has been cut off by the Columbia fault.”
(Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Engineers).

Erosion of Submerged Limestones.—The limestones in the
bottom of a certain portion of Lake Huron are undergoing a peculiar
kind of erosion, which, from want of better terms to describe the
process, which may be called honeycombing and pitting. Mr. Robert
Bell has made a study of this phenomenon and after considering the
physical characteristics of the eroded rocks, their age and the possible
origins of the erosions, the author arrives at the following conclusions,
The erosion is due to:

I. The internal structure of the limestone itself.

II. A small quantity of acid in the water acting for a great length
of time.

III. A considerable depth of water, the hydrostatic pressure seem-
ing to promote the dissolving of the rock.

IV. Freedom from sediment during the long time required.

V. The rock must be exposed to the open or free action of the
water.

VI. Shifting currents in the water appear to assist the process,
(Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895).

45

664 The American Naturalist. [July,

Irrigation of Western Kansas.—Prof. S. W. Williston be-
lieves that the cultivation of the western third of Kansas now known
as a semi-arid region can be made possible by the utiligation of the
so-called underflow of the uplands of that region. The gathering
ground of this water, according to Williston, is an exposure of Ter-
tiary sandstone which rests on an impervious marine deposit known as
the Colorado Cretaceous. The dip of the chalks and limestones is
towards the northeast where erosion in the valleys and along the east-
ern border has exposed the contact between the sandstone and lime-
stone, springs are found, and pools of water, and even flowing streams,
which, however, are soon absorbed through the adjacent soil.

The problem then is how to bring the water of this underflow to the
surface economically. The limits of this water-bearing area should be
determined and the amount of water that can be counted upon esti-
mated. (Kansas University Quart., April, 1895).

Plistocene Deposits in Switzerland.—At a recent meeting
of the Geological Society of London, Dr. ©. S. Du Riche Preller read
a paper on fluvio-glacial and inter-glacial deposits in Switzerland. The
former consists of conglomerates and the latter are lignite deposits
near the lakes of Turish, Constance, Zug and Thun, which together
with analagous deposits at the base of the Eastern, Western, and
Southern Alps, constitute further evidence of two interglacial periods,
and therefore of three general glaciations, the oldest being of Upper
Pliocene, and the others Middle and Upper Plistocene age respectively.
As regards the origin, age and the time required for the formation of
several of the Swiss deposits referred to in the paper, the author ar-
rives in several respects at conclusions differing from those recently
enunciated by others. The author also argues that the first inter-
glacial period was probably of shorter duration than the second; and
in confirming his former conclusion that every general glaciation marks
a period of filling-up, and every interglacial period marks a period of
erosion of valleys, he avers that, if this conclusion be correct, it must
needs be destructive of the theory of glacial erosion. (Nature, April,
1895.)

Geological News. Pa.xozorc.—In a memoir recently published
in the Trans. Roy. Soc., Dublin, Messrs. Lavis and Gregory confirm
the conclusions reached by Mr. Mcebius that the phenomenon of
Eozoon is due to mechanical and chemical alterations. In the rocks
examined by the authors the Eozoon resuted from the alteration of

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 665

calcareous rocks enclosed in a magma heated to fusion—a true meta-
morphism. (Revue Scientifique Fevier, 1895).

Mr. Walcott notes the occurrence of Olenellus in the limestone of
the Green Pond mountain series of northern New Jersey. He con-
siders the discovery a positive addition to the data for working out the
stratigraphy of the series. Occurring as it does, in a limestone that
merges above and below inte beds of conglomerate that are essentially
of the Green Pond mountain type, it proves that the conditions under
which this characteristic formation was formed, began in lower Cam-
brian time. (Am. Journ. Se., 1894).

Mrsozor1c.—It is well known that Triassic rocks have yielded large
quantities of good coal in Virginia and North Carolina, but it is only
within the last year that coal in paying quantities has been found in
Pennsylvania Trias. Early in 1894 a vein of anthracite coal of fine
quality, twenty-six inches thick, was discovered at Arcola Station, on
the Perkiomen railroad, about twenty-five miles from Philadelphia.
The rock in which it occurs is red sandstone of Triassic age.

Other instances of the occurrence of coal in Montgomery Co. re-
ported by Mr. Oscar Franklin as follows: In the new red sandstone at
Norristown ; at Gwynedd in the same formation, and at Lower Provi-
dence, Lansdale and Hatboro. A systematic search of the slates ‘un-
derlying the sandstone in Montgomery Co. would, perhaps, disclose beds
of workable coal in more than one locality. (Journ. Franklin Inst.,
1894).

In Colorado College Studies for 1894, Mr. F. W. Cragin notes 2 new
reptiles and 3 new fishes from the Neocomian of Kansas. They are
described under the following names: Plesiosaurus mudgei represented
by a femur, humerus and dorsal vertebræ. Plesiochelys belviderensis
represented by several costal bones, neural bone and a vertebra. Me-
sodon abrasus represented by vomerine teeth. Lamna quinquelateralis
and Hybodus clarkensis based respectively on a vertebra and on a fin
spine. Figures accompany the descriptions.

Crenozoic.—After reviewing the evidence for changes of elevation
of the Atlantic coast of North America, Mr. N.S. Shaler states that
since the beginning of the Glacial epoch the eastern shore of North
America from the Rio Grande to Greenland has, though with many
minor oscillations, been prevailingly lowered. The fauna of the Car-
ibbean District points to a recent subsidence of that region, including
the peninsula of Florida. The flooding of the Amazon and La Plata

666 The American Naturalist. [July>

Rivers, together with a number of lesser streams affords similar evidence
for the eastern coast of South America. Africa and Australia appear
to have been but little, if any, subjected to recent depressions, while
Asia and especially Europe afford clear evidence of extensive subsi-
dence in recent times. On the whole, it would seem that in the dis-
turbances of the relations of land and sea, the tendency is a gradual
withdrawal of the coast line towards the center of the continents. (Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895).

Further evidence in favor of the theory of the igneous origin of the
serpentine of the Coast Ranges is found by Prof. Laplache in the study
of the Lherzolite-Serpentine racks of the Potrero, San Francisco. The
petrographical character of these rocks show undoubtedly their de-
rivation from an eruptive rock in this area. (Bull. Dept. Geol. Cal.
University, 1894).

BOTANY.’

A Protest Against the ‘‘ Rochester Rules.’’—Quite re-
cently, a protest, signed by seventy-four American botanists, has been
distributed, as a contribution to the literature of the nomenclature
question. It protests “ against the recent attempts made in the United
States to change botanical nomenclature on theoretical grounds.”
This rather vague statement evidently refers to the action of the
botanists of the Botanical Club of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science taken in Rochester in 1892, and reaffirmed in
Madison in 1893. Why the grounds of the action taken at Rochester
are considered by the protestants to be theoretical is not made plain;
certainly the protestants do not wish to affirm that the men who are
prominent in the reform of nomenclature are theorists, nor can they
mean that a discussion of nomenclature reform by working botanists
is itself theoretical, since a suggestion is made approvingly of an early
consideration of the whole POT by a representative international
congress.

There is much in the protest with which most botanists will agree,
but much of what is said does not apply to the Rochester Rules. Thus
the proposition that “ one of the most essential features of an efficient

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Led

1895.] Botany. 667

botanical nomenclature is a cosmopolitan character,” is not to be ques-
tioned, and the Rochester movement was intended to be a step toward
such a result. So also the first rule proposed by the protestants, viz. :
that “ ordinal names having long-established usage should not be sub-
jected to revision upon theoretical grounds,” is one with which few-
will disagree, and this again was not referred to in the Rochester
Rules. The rule requiring the retention of “ long-established and
generally known generic names ” is a curious one. Starting out with
the positive statement that they should be retained, we are next told
that ‘‘ the scope of this rule is left to the discretion of writers” !! How
about those whose discretion results in a more rigid scrutiny of such
doubtful names? Under the rule, who shall judge between us when
we disagree? Moreover, it is urged upon writers that generic nomen-
clature should not depart far from Benthams and Hooker’s Genera
Plantarum, Baillon’s Histoire des Plantes, and Engler and Prantl’s
Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien—“ for the present”! No plank relating
to a doubtful question in politics could be more ambiguously drawn so
as to provide that flexibility necessary to meet individual preferences.
After permitting individual discretion, and allowing some departure
(less than the vague distance, “a”) from three somewhat different
standards, and this only for the present, how much efficiency is left in
the rule? ee

The third rule is scarcely less curious than the second. It is that
“in specific nomenclature the first correct combination is to be pre-
ferred.” Of course. Nobody is asked by the Rochester Rules to pre-
fer any other than the first correct combination. The form of the
rule is absurd. The protestants certainly do not wish us to infer that
there may be a second “correct combination”—or possibly more.
That would be a peculiar priority rule, indeed! But this is not what
the protestants wished to say. They probably meant to say that “the
correct specific name of a plant is that which it first bears after it has
been referred to the proper genus,” at least this is what the context
suggests. The argument for this rule of priority under the genus, as
against the third of the Rochester Rules, can not be said to be well
sustained. Many of the earlier references of species to genera from
which they had subsequently to be removed, can not, in justice, be re-
garded as cases of “ description under an incorrect genus.” ` Are we
simply to ignore the fact as of little importance that Linné described a
plant now known as Steironema ciliatum ninety years earlier than the
date of its transfer from Lysimachia to Steironema? It is very diff-
cult to see wherein the binomial has any advantage over the specific

668 The American Naturalist. [July,

name in point of stability, or in certainty as to its origin. The insta-
bility of specific names is greatly exaggerated by the protestants, and
it was to cure the evil so much dreaded by them that Rule III of the
Rochester Rules was formulated. At the end of the discussion, how-
ever, the whole case is surrendered by the protestants in requiring
botanists in the present and future “to preserve scrupulously the
specific name without alteration in transferring species from one
genus to another.”

The fourth rule proposed, which insists upon a sharp line of demark-
ation between specific and varietal names is not unreasonable to those
who hold that species differ radically from varieties. There are still
some people who believe in the fixity and original independence of
species, and hence of varieties, also, and for whom the facts of develop-
ment and evolution have no significance. For such, the rule is a logi-
cal necessity. The final pronouncement (5) that the principle “ once
a synonym always a synonym” is recommended as “an excellent
working rule for present and future use,” is stultified by the adden-
dum to the effect that it “ may not be made retroactive.” The framers
of these rules appear to have a horror of anything which is retroactive,
as if for a rule or law to be retroactive were very bad or very danger-
ous. The word is held up as a sort of bug-a-boo to frighten us. What
do they mean by recommending the present use of the rule “ once a
synonym always a synonym,” but forbidding its retroactive use. What
is there so sacred in the work of the years preceding the appearance of
this protest that it should be spared the application of a principle
which the protestants declare to be “an excellent working rule?”

It is necessary to notice but one more of the many curious things in
this remarkable document, viz.: the statement that “ these rules are
designed to apply only to phenogams [sic] and vascular cryptogams.”
What will the algologists do, and the fungologists, and bryologists?
Are they to be allowed to wander around in darkness and disorder,
when, by a stroke of the pen, their outlying provinces of the botanical
kingdom might have had the benefits claimed by the protestants for their
rules. If these rules are good, there is no reason for restricting their
application so as to exclude any department of descriptive botany.

CHARLES E. BESSEY.

The Missouri Botanical Garden.—The attention of botanists
is called to the facilities afforded for research at the Missouri Botanical
Garden at St. Louis. In establishing and endowing the Garden, its
founder, Henry Shaw, desired not only to afford the general public

1895.] Botany. 669

pleasure, and information concerning decorative plants and their best
use, and to provide for beginners the means of obtaining good training
in botany and horticulture, but also to provide facilities for advanced
research in botany and cognate sciences. For this purpose, additions
are being made constantly to the number of species cultivated in the
grounds and plant houses, and to the library and herbarium, and, as
rapidly as it can be utilized, it is proposed to secure apparatus for work
in vegetable physiology, ete., the policy being to secure a good general
equipment in all lines of pure and applied botany, and to make this
equipment as complete as possible for any special subject on which
original work is undertaken by competent students.

A very large number of species, both native and exotic, and of
horticulturists’ varieties, are cultivated in the Garden and Arboretum
and the adjoining park, and the native flora, easily accessible from
St. Louis, is large and varied. The herbarium, which includes nearly
250,000 specimens, is fairly representative of the vegetable life of
Europe and the United States, and also contains a great many speci-
mens from less accessible regions. It is especially rich in material
illustrative of Cuscuta, Quercus, Coniferae, Vitis, Juncus, Agave,
Yucca, Sagittaria, Epilobium, Rumex, Rhamnaceae, and other groups
monographed by the late Dr. Engelmann or by attachés of the Garden.
The herbarium is supplemented by a large collection of woods, includ-
ing veneer transparencies and slides for the microscope. The library,
containing about 8,000 volumes and 10,000 pamphlets, includes most of
the standard periodicals and proceedings of learned bodies, a good collec-
tion of morphological and physiological works, nearly 500 carefully
selected botanical volumes published before the period of Linnaeus, an
unusually large number of monographs of groups of eryptogams and
flowering plants, and the entire manuscript notes and sketches repre-
senting the painstaking work of Engelmann.

The great variety of living plants represented in the Garden, and
the large herbarium, including the collections of Bernhardi and Engel-
mann, render the Garden facilities exceptionally good for research in
systematic botany, in which direction the library also is especially
strong. The living collections and library likewise afford unusual
opportunity for morphological, anatomical and physiological studies,
while the plant house facilities for experimental work are steadily in-
creasing. The E. Lewis Sturtevant Prelinnean library, in connection
with the opportunity afforded for the cultivation of vegetables and
other useful plants, is favorable also for the study of cultivated plants
and the modifications they have undergone.

670 The American Naturalist. [July,

These facilities are freely placed at the disposal of professors of bot-
any and other persons competent to carry on research work of value
in botany or horticulture, subject only to such simple restrictions as
are necessary to protect the property of the Garden from injury or loss. “
Persons who wish to make use of them are invited to correspond with
the undersigned, outlining, with as much detail as possible, the work
they desire to do at the Garden, and giving timely notice so that pro-
vision may be made for the study of special subjects. Those who have
not published the results of original work are requested to state their
preparation for the investigation they propose to undertake

Under the rules of Washington University, persons entitled to can-
didacy in that institution for the Master’s or Doctor’s degree, may
elect botanical research work as a principal study for such degrees, if
they can devote the requiste time to resident study.

WILLIAM TRELEASE, Director.

A New Astragalus.—On June 25, 1892, I started out for a col-
lecting trip from the village of Long Pine, Brown Co., Nebraska. On
the outskirts of the village, I came across a patch of Astragalus loti-
florus, and mingled with it were plants of similar form and habit, but
separated by their extreme hirsuteness. I collected a few of each,
knowing that the latter form was new to me, at least ; but, not having
in my possession all the Astragali, even of Nebraska, did not know
that it would be new to others. On my next visit, a month later, I
found that a flock of sheep had grazed everything to the ground, eating,
probably, fruit and all. Many subsequent visits have resulted in
determining that the form is very scarce. A few scattered plants have
been found along a roadside 100 rods north; none elsewhere, except
that a few days’ later in the same year, Mr. J. A. Warren found one
plant in Clay County in southeastern Nebraska. This spring I have
been able to find but two plants, the species /otiflorus itself being very
scarce in the same localities. The new plant is undoubtedly a variety
of A. lotiflorus Hook., and is described as follows:

Astragalus lotiflorus Hook., var. nebraskensis.,n. var. Biennial, or
shortlived perennial; the long, very slender tap-root sparsely or not at
all fibrous for several inches above; stems 2 to 5inches long, prostrate-
spreading and scarcely ascending, in the larger forms, nearly erect in
the smaller, numerous from a crown at or above the surface, stouter
than the root ; simple; hirsute throughout with white hairs, the half-
grown fruit being scarcely visible ; leaves 3 inches in length, on fur-
rowed petioles, one inch long; leaflets 7-13, short-petioled, oblong to

1895.] Vegetable Physiology. 671

oblanceolate, very variable, slightly acute to obtuse, less hirsute on the
upper surface; stipules ovate, acuminate, scarious-margined, inclined
to be scarious with green veins; flowers like Jotiflorus, very small,
yellowish-white to pale lilac, one to three in a raceme almost sessile in
the axils of leaves, peduncle lengthening to half an inch in fruit; not
like /otiflorus in equalling the leaves; calyx with lanceolate, acumi-
nate teeth, persistent; legume right-angled from the peduncle, half-
ovate or slightly crescent-shaped, acuminate 1 inch long, 4 lines. deep,
sessile tin the calyx, thick chartaceous, one-celled, sometimes cross-
wrinkled ; seeds in two rows, short-kidney-shaped, numerous.
Specimens have been deposited in the herbaria of the Botanical Sur-
vey of Nebraska, University of Minnesota, and Columbia College.
—J. M. Bares.
Long Pine, Neb., May 20, 1895.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.’

The Action of light on Bacteria.—Under the above title Dr.
H. Marshall Ward contributes an interesting article to the Philosoph-
ical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 185 (1894),
pp. 961-986. While his experiments have not been confined to the
anthrax bacillus, most of those here detailed were made with this or-
ganism. The spores were sown in melted agar which was then poured
into Petri dishes in the usual way. Portions of these agar films were
then exposed to direct sunlight and to the are light. On the shaded
parts of the agar the colonies derived from these spores grew until they
completely covered it, while they wholly failed to develop at first, but
finally did so in small numbers on the parts exposed to direct sunlight
for several hours. After exposure the cultures were placed in an in-
cubator at 20-22° C., only being taken out to examine and photo-
graph. By 3—4 hours exposure to direct bright sunlight and subse-
quent incubation for a few days, figures and stenciled letters were
brought out very distinctly on the surface of the inoculated plates.
That. this effect is dueto insolation has been’shown by various writers
and is now generally accepted, and that the effect is due to the direct

'This department is edited by Erwin F. Smith, Department of AEAT,
Washington, D. C.

672 The American Naturalist. [July,

action of the light on the organisms and not to any indirect action on
the culture medium, has been brought out pretty clearly by Prof.
Ward’s labors. That the agar remains unchanged and is still suited to
the needs of the organism is shown by the fact that some colonies do
always finally appear on the insolated spots. Their appearance is ex-
plained by supposing that some spores were covered by others and
thus partially protected from the action of the light, which might well
be the case, especially when thick sowings were made. The next step
was to determine, if possible, whether one part of the spectrum was
more effective than another, the conclusions of previous experimenters
being very contradictory. First, a fresh culture was covered by a
card board in which five circular holes were cut. One of these holes
was left uncovered, one was covered by ordinary window glass, one
by a dark blue glass, one by a light blue glass, and finally, one by a
peculiar brownish-purple glass which absorbed most of the blue and
violet rays of the spectrum. This plate was then exposed to sunlight
for some hours and afterwards put into the incubator. In 18 hours
there were four distinct white spots on the agar corresponding to four
of the five holes in the card board, and later on that spot correspond-
ing to the uncovered hole became the most distinct. There was also
on the agar at first a fainter spot corresponding to the hole covered
by the brownish-purple glass, but this spot became more and more in-
distinct and disappeared after the fourth day, enough colonies having
developed finally to wholly efface it, thus showing that the light strained
through this glass simply retarded the development of the spores. The
inference was, therefore, quite strong, that the blue-violet rays largely
screened out by this glass must be the effective ones. Two-chambered,
ebonite cells with side walls of glass were then constructed. Into one
of the cells filtered distilled water was put as a standard for compari-
son and into the other cell was put solutions of various substances such
as aesculin, sulphate of copper, bichromate of potash, quinine, fuchs-
in, etc., which cut out certain rays of the spectrum. Infected films of
agar were then exposed to the action of sunlight passed through water
and these solutions. The light which passed through the layer of
water cleared a spot on the plate every time. The result of passing
the light through a solution of aesculin, which cuts out most of the
blue and violet rays, was similar to that obtained by the use of the
brownish-purple glass, i. e. it did not kill the spores but only retarded
their germination, the insolated places being nearly obliterated in 111
hours and entirely soa little later. When sunlight was passed through
a solution of potassium bichromate the result was still more striking, not

1895.] Vegetable Physiology. 673

a trace of any germicidal influence being visible. From the foregoing it
is apparent that the red, orange, yellow, and true green rays of the spec-
trum have no bactericidal action. Finaliy, portions of infected plates
were submitted to the direct action of portions of the solar spectrum,
passed through a grating as narrow as practicable (1 mm.) and through
quartz plates instead of glass. These exposures confirmed the pre-
ceding and show that the infra-red, red, orange, and yellow rays of the
spectrum are absolutely without effect, the spores exposed to these rays
germinating as readily as those on the non-exposed parts of the film.
So far as could be determined by the methods used, the bactericidal in-
fluence begins where the green shades into the blue, reaches its greatest
intensity in the blue-violet in the vicinity of Fraunhofer’s line G, and
fades out in about the middle of the violet, the more refrangible half
of the violet and the ultra violet showing no influence. Subsequently,
in conjunction with Prof. Oliver Lodge of Liverpool, many experi-
ments were tried with a powerful are light. Even 8-12 hour expos-
ures produced only a transient bactericidal effect when its rays had to
traverse the glass covers of the Petri dishes, and in course of the ex-
periments it was discovered that even the thinnest plate of glass is so
obstinate a barrier to the bactericidal rays that it was not possible to
use it and quartz had to be substituted. When this was done, 8-12
hour exposures served to kill the spores of Bacillus anthracis, and
even 6 hours exposure killed great numbers of them. Exposures of
infected films to the spectrum of the arc light gave results in the main
confirmatory of those previously obtained. Here again the infra-red,
red, orange, yellow, and green rays were without perceptible effect, but
the germicidal influence did not begin in the blue-green but just be-
yond it in the blue, and its influence was visible into the ultra violet,
the maximum effect being reached just beyond the violet. With both
sun and arc light there is for a day or two after the colonies begin to
appear a curious blurring of the margins of the insolated spots which
gradually disappears as the colonies develop and which is attributed to
halation. The germicidal etfect of the arc light is so powerful, when
not destroyed by glass screens, that Prof. Ward thinks it might be
turned to practical account in the disinfection of hospitals, cattle sheds
and similar places. In these experiments the distance of the light
was two feet. The author is inclined to think that not only the lower
forms of life but also all protoplasm is sensitive to these rays of the
spectrum and that the higher plants escape injurious effects by having
provided themselves with natural color screens. Among other low
organisms which he has found sensitive to direct sunlight are a violet

674 The American Naturalist. [July,

water bacillus from the Thames, B. fluorescens liquefaciens, a pink
bacterium (probably B. prodigiosus), the hay bacillus, the potato
bacillus, and various yeasts and other fungi.

The role of Calcium and Magnesium.—Bokorny seems to
have proved (Bot. Centrb., 62:1) that Ca and Mg are essential to
the formation of the necleus and chlorophyll bodies. His experi-
ments were with Spirogyra, Zygnema, and Mesocarpus in Aluminum
beakers in distilled water to which nutrient salts were added:
(1) Ca withheld; (2) Mg withheld; (3) Ca and Mg withheld; (4)
Complete. The alge were under observation 6 weeks. In 1 there
was a gradual decided shrinkage of the chlorophyll bands although
starch continued to form. In 2 the nucleus and pyrenoids also shrank,
the former to ł natural size or to complete disappearance. In 3 the
nucleus shrank decidedly and the pyrenoids seemed to become smaller.
In 4 the cell-organs remained normal and the plants continued bright
green.—ERwIn F. SMITH. ;

ZOOLOGY.

The Faunal Regions of Australia.—At the Adelaide meeting
of the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science, Mr.
Hedley gave a brief summary of the views held by leading naturalists
in regard to the Faunal Regions of Australia, and also presented his
own. The substance of his remarks were as follows :

The discrimination of the various provinces into which the Austra-
lian fauna and flora group themselves has been frequently attempted.
To the earlier naturalists, from a study of scanty material and with
little or no personal knowledge of the continent, four divisions of east
and west, temperate and tropical, seemed natural and sufficient. Hor-
ker’s “ Essay on the Australian Flora ” paved the way for a better un-
derstanding of the relations which various localities bore to each other.
Owing to fundamental errors of his interpretation of Australian Geol-
ogy, Wallace’s treatment of the subject in “ Island Life” is of but slight
value. To the writer, the most successful arrangement of the various
biological regions yet proposed is that sketched by Prof. Tate, in his
address to the first meeting of this Association. The author accepts
two main biological divisions—the Autochthonian, developed in west

1895.] Zoology. 675

Australia, and the Euronotian, seated in eastern Australia and Tas-
mania ; a subsidary division, less in value and derivable from both of
the above, is the Eremian or desert fauna and flora.

Taking this disposition as the basis of my remarks, I would observe
that eastern Australia contains two distinct biological populations,
where Professor Tate has located one, the Euronotien. This title, I
propose, should be reserved for that fauna and flora characteristic of
Tasmania, Victoria, and southern New South Wales; while the second
and very distinct fauna and flora developed on the coasts of Queens-
land and northern New South Wales would best be described as Pap-
uan. Indeed, so distinct is this latter, that a separation of Australian
life into Papuan and non-Papuan seems to the writer to be the prim-
ary division to be made of the Australian fauna and flora.

The types encountered by a traveler in tropical Queensland, or
rather in that narrow belt of tropical Queensland, hemmed in between
the Cordillera and the Pacific, all wear a foreign aspect. Among
mammals may be instanced the cuscus and tree kangaroo; among rep-
tiles, the crocodile, the Rana, or true frog, and the tree snakes; among
birds, the cassowary and rifle birds; among butterflies, the Ornithop-
tera; among plants, the wild banana, orange and mangosteen, the rho-
dodendron, the epiphytic orchids, and the palms; so that, in the heart
of a great Queensland “scrub,” a naturalist could scarcely answer,
from his surroundings, whether he were in New Guinea or Australia.
It may be supposed that late in the Tertiary epoch, Torres Straits, now
only a few fathoms deep, was dry land, and that a stream of Papuan
life poured into Australia across the bridge so made.

Sharply defined from the tropical jungle above mentioned are areas
occupied by strictly Australian vegetation, which are left invariably
in possession of the poorest tracts of land. From the rich lands, for-
merly no doubt possessed by them, everywhere have they been ousted
by the invading flora.

Regarding the origin of the Furonien fauna and flora, sundry facts
collected by Mr. H. O. Forbes, in his paper on the Chatham Islands,
would suggest a South American source. Assuming that, in or before
the Miocene, continuous land extended from Terra del Fuego to Tas-
mania, the derivation of the Australian marsupials appearing in the
Pliocene from their South American allies, Prothylacinus and Amphi-
proviverra of the Eocene, would be clear. Mr. Forbes adduces strong
confirmatory evidence from Professor Parker who, on embryological
grounds, does not hesitate to assume as ancestors of certain Australian
crows a form allied to the American Dendrocalaptine birds. The dis-

676 The American Naturalist. [July,

tribution of the parrots and the cystignathous frogs appears also to
sustain the theory. The extinct alligator, Palimnarchus, found in
Queensland and New South Wales associated with Diprotodon,
strengthens the chain of evidence, as does the occurrence in Tasmania
and Australia of Gundlachia, otherwise an exclusively American
mollusc.

As the name implies, the Autochthonian is the oldest member of the
Australian faunas and floras. The date ofits arrival in Australia and
the route which it traversed are lost in antiquity. Seeing that many
resemblances exist between our vegetation and those of Timor and the
southeast Austro-Malayan islands, perhaps these lands afforded the
passage to Australia.

Summary.—Superimposed, one above another, may be distinguished
three divisions of Australian life. The earliest is the Autochthonian.
Possibly this arrived from the Austro-Malayan islands, in or before
the Cretaceous era, and spread over the whole of Australia. The next
is the Euronotian. Probably this reached Tasmania from South
America, not later than the Miocene epoch; many of the original in-
habitants, particularly on the east coast, probably disappeared before
the invaders. Thirdly, a contingent of Papuan forms seized on the
Queensland coast, late in the Tertiary, and likewise largely extermi-
nated their predecessors.

Notes on a Snapping Turtle’s Nest.—On June 16, 1894, I
saw a snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina, in the course of two hours,
dig a hole and in it lay twenty-two eggs.

The hole was dug in gravel and was small at the top, but when an
inch below the surface of the ground, it widened, and when finished
was three inches in diameter and about four inches deep. The digging
was done entirely by the hind feet used alternately.

The eggs were crowded in place by the hind feet, as fast as they
were laid. Then the hole was filled even with the rest of the ground.
The nearest water was a small stream about thirty feet distant.—A.

On some new North American Snakes, NATRIX COMPRESSI-
CAUDA TENIATA subsp. nov.—Scales in twenty-one rows; four series of
longitudinal spots above, those of the median pair forming two lon-
gitudinal stripes on the greater part of the length ; the laterals forming

stripes on the neck only.

Labials ys, oculars 1-3; temporals 1-3. Frontal narrow, not
widened anteriorly ; parietals rather wide. First row of scales keeled.

1895.] Zoology. 677

Gastrosteges 131; anal 1-1; urosteges 82. The lateral black spots
extend as far as the tail. The dorsal stripes are connected by a trans-
verse lighter brown shade for a short distance in advance of the vent.
Belly black with a median series of semidiscoid yellow spots; gastros-
teges with yellow extremities for the anterior two-thirds of the length
of the body. The median neck stripes touch on the nape, and after
enclosing a pale space unite on the parietal plates. Muzzle brown, the
labials with blackish shades. Lower labials, genials and gulars with
yellow spots. Indistinct parietal paired spots. Total length 378 mm. ;
of tail 98 mm.

Two specimens in my private collection from Volusia, Florida.

In this form the striping which appears on the neck of the form com-
presstcauda is extended the entire length. It bears thus a partial re-
semblance to the Natriz clarkii, which is not far removed in affinity
from the N. compressicauda. The form next described (N. fasciata
pictiventris) connects the latter with the N. fasciata.

The subspecies teniata may be synoptically compared with the
typical compressicauda as follows:

Scales in 21 rows; four series of longitudinal spots above, those of
the median pair forming two longitudinal stripes on the greater part of
the length ; the laterals forming stripes on the neck only;

N. c. teniata.

Scales in 21 rows; numerous dark cross-bands which are resolved
into three rows of spots just anterior to the tail, and four longitudinal
stripes on the neck ; N. c. compressicauda.

NATRIX FASCIATA PICTIVENTRIS Cope.—Brown transverse bands
numerous, separated by short intervals and extending to the belly
throughout the length. Gastrosteges narrowly margined at the base
with brown, the margins turning at or before reaching the ends of the
gastrosteges and uniting so as to enclose transverse yellowish spots,
which may cover a part only or the whole of the gastrostege, but which
are always wider than those seen in N. compressicauda. Sides of head
light brown, generally with a black post-ocular band; top of head
black. Scales in 25 rows; in one specimen (No. 19,798) in 27 rows.

No. 5,473 : 25; 8:125; 45:580 mm.; 120 mm.; (tail injured).

No. 19,999 : 25; 8:124; 86:550 mm.; 162mm.

In some specimens (No. 13,729) the transverse bands are very distinct
as in young individuals; in Nos. 19,798 and 11,444, they are connected
by the same color along the median dorsal line.

This subspecies is restricted to Florida, and it approaches the J.
compressicauda in the coloration of the belly. The following specimens
are contained in the U.S. National Museum.

678 The American Naturalist. [July,

5,473 1, Palatka, Fla., T. Glover. Type, 10,449 2, Gainesville, Fla.,
J. Bell; 10,739 1, Clearwater, Fla., S. T. Walker; 11,444 1, Gaines-
ville, Fla., J. Bell; 13833 $2, Georgiana, Fla., G. Wittfield; 13,779 1,
Punta Rassa, Fla., C. K. Ward ; 19,798 1, W. Florida, Dr. Henshall ;
19,999 1, Lake Eustis, Fla., Theo. Holm.

In my private collections are specimens from Volusia, Lake George,
Fla. A specimen now living in the reptile house of the Zoological
Garden of Philadelphia exhibits the following colors. The borders of
the transverse bars, and the markings on the belly are chestnut red,
while the ground-color of the latter is cream colored.

SEMINATRIX PYG£US Cope, gen. nov.— Contia pygæa Cope, Tropi-
donotus pygeus Boulenger. This species has been referred to the
water snakes of the genus Tropidonotous (Natrix) by Boulenger (Catal.
Snakes Brit. Mus. Ed. II, V. 1). An examination of the penial
structure shows that the reference to the Natricine is correct. The
other characters differ, however, from those of the genus Natrix, so that
it appears to be necessary to refer it toa new genus. This I propose
to call Seminatrix, and give the following definition. Sulcus sperma-
ticus and hemipenis undivided; no papilla; scales smooth, without
keel or pits; anal plate divided.

The only known species S. pygea is found in Florida. According
to Dr. Loennberg.’ its habits are aquatic. While the epidermal scales
are smooth, the dermal plates are closely wrinkled and reticulated, a
character which I have not observed in any other Natricine and which
may be an additional generic character.

ZAMENIS STEJNEGERIANUS sp. nov.—This species and the one follow-
ing belong to a section of the genus not represented in my “ Critical
Review ” (p. 622), which must be characterized as follows: Superior
labials eight ; scales in seventeen rows; frontal as wide posteriorly as
the superciliary at the same point. To this this might be added, loreal
much longer than deep.

In the present species the profile is gently convex, and the rostral
plate is slightly prominent. The frontal plate has straight lateral
borders and its anterior angles are well. removed from the preocular
plates. The loreal is twice as long as deep, and its superior posterior
corner is cut off as a separate plate on both sides, and on one, a third
loreal is cut off below. The eight superior labials are regular, and
apparently normal. The parietals are truncate posteriorly, and are
bounded by three temporals and two small scales externally. Tem-
porals 2-2-2. Postgenials shorter than pregenials. Gastrosteges 166;
anal 1-1; urosteges 102. Length 782 mm.; of tail, 229 mm.

1 Proceeds. U. S. Natural Museum, 1894 p. 323.

1895.] Zoology. 679

Above and ends of gastrosteges, light brownish-olive ; top of head,
lips, and inferior surfaces yellow. Skin between scales, black. No.
17,065 U. S. National Museum, Cameron Co., Tex. Dedicated to my
friend Dr. L. Stejneger of the U. S. National Museum.

ZAMENIS CONIROSTRIS sp. nov.—The second species of the section of
the American species of the genus presents the following characters.

Profile of muzzle much decurved ; rostral plate prominent and sub-
conic. Frontal plate with concave lateral borders, and expanded
front, in contact with preoculars. A single loreal which is nearly twice
as long as deep, and is deeper posteriorly than anteriorly. Parietal
plates rounded posteriorly, bordered by three temporals and two or
three scales. Temporals 2-2-2. Superior labials normal, regular.
Postgenials equal in length to pregenials. Gastrosteges 162 ; anal 1-1;
urosteges 85. Length 758 mm. length of tail 200 mm.

The specimen may have been taken near the period of moult, so that
the color is somewhat uncertain. It is now light brown above, and light
plumbeous below ; the top of the head not lighter than the other supe-
rior surfaces. The muzzle is darker in color than the lips and throat.
Skin between scales black. No. 1,763 U. S. National Museum, Mata-
moras, Mex.

This species and the last are founded on a single specimen each,
which were obtained in nearly the same region of country. They re-
semble each other considerably in proportions, size and coloration.
The differences are, however, so numerous and important that it is im-
possible to regard them as belonging to the same species. They differ
equally from all others, the nearest approach to the Z. stejnegerianus
being made by abnormal individuals of the flaviventris form of Z. con-
strictor, which have eight superior labial shields. The very different form
of the loreal plate, and its subdivison, in the latter, together with the
contrast between the color of the head and the dorsum, will distinguish
it.

ZAMENIS LATERALIS FULIGINOSUS Cope.—Bascanium laterale
Hallow. Cope, Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., 1889, f. 147.

Scales in seventeen longitudinal rows; superior labials eight, the
fourth and fifth entering the orbit. Muzzle depressed, narrowed and
rather prominent. Frontal plate much narrowed posteriorly, its width
equal one-half that of a superciliary plate. Seventh and eighth supe-
rior labials about equal, of rather wide parallelogrammic form. Tem-
porals 2-2-2; the last superior large, subquadrate, their posterior
borders continuous with that of the parietals. Gastrosteges strongly
angulated ; tail entering 3°58 times in whole length. Scuta, scutella
and dimensions : 46

680 The American Naturalist. [July,

No. 15,1385; 201; 1-1; ? ; 815 mm.; tail injured.

No. 15,136 ; 205; 1-1; 108; 665 mm.; 258 mm.

Color above blackish-brown anteriorly, becoming lighter posteriorly
to the end of the tail. The dark color extends on each end of the
gastrosteges to the angulation throughout the length, and in the younger
specimen, appears as a row of spots on each side of the middle part of
tne gastrosteges, fading out beyond the middle of the length. Ground
color of belly yellow. In the larger specimen the black-brown predom-
inates on the inferior surfaces, yielding gradually to the ground color,
which predominates on the inferior surface of the tail. A yellow spot
on the preocular; and in the younger specimen on the postoculars and
labial plates. Gular and genial plates yellow spotted in the younger
specimen, nearly uniform dark brown in the older. On the anterior
part of the body of the younger specimen the lateral scales to the third
and fourth row have brown shades, with an obscure trace of cross-
banding. On the same specimen near the middle of the body, there
are two pale half-cross-bands near together. In the same, the center
of each parietal plate is brown.

This subspecies differs widely from the typical form in color char-
acters.

I add here that specimen which strongly resembles this form was
sent to the Philadelphia Zoological Garden from Southern Arizona.
The belly is light red.

Catal. no. | No. specimens Locality | Whence obtained _
15,135 1 oe nde eet? | § U, S, Fish Commis-
15,136 1 gana O sion Albatross

California

—E. D. COPE.

Zoological News, VERMES.—Distomes. Dr. H. B. Ward has
recently published several papers on these parasites to which attention
should be called, since they appear in places where one does not usu-
ally look for zoological articles. In the first’ he records a second
American example of the fluke, Distomum westermannii, this time from
the lungs of a dog, the material being furnished by Prof. D. 5. Keli-
cott, and being that upon which the latter author had already re-
ported.” The second of these papers’? reviews the literature of this

' Veterinary Magazine, Vol. II, p. 87, 1895.
*Trans. Ohio State Medical Society, 1894.
3 Medical News, Mar. 2, 1895.

1895.] Entomology. 681

same parasite and emphasizes the dangerous nature of it when present
in man. Inthe East (Japan, Formosa, etc.) it occurs in a large per-
centage of the population. A third paper* records the presence of
Distomum felinum in the cats sacrificed to science in the University
of Nebraska. Inthis paper, Dr. Ward discusses the value of measure-
ments and concludes that they are of little value; “the topographical
relations alone are fixed and hence are the only points on which spe-
cies may be founded.”

ProrocHorpaATa.—A species of Enteropneustan has been discov-
ered upon the shores of New South Wales. It is described by its finder,
J. P. Hill, under the name Ptychodera australiensis (Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S. Wales, Nov. 28, 1894).

ENTOMOLOGY:

Distribution of Injurious Insects.—In an interesting paper
upon this subject before the Entomological Society of Washington, Mr.
L. O. Howard said: “ It is reasonable to suppose that in many cases
insects will be unable to follow their food-plants to the limits of their
possible range, notwithstanding the fact that the geographical distribu-
tion of animals and plants is governed by the same general laws of
temperature, humidity, exposure, and geological characteristics. The
obvious reason for this is, that purely artificial features are introduced
in cultivating plants, varieties are propagated which develop resistant
powers lacking in the parent stock ; seeds, in the case of annuals, are
carefully collected and selected, the soil is prepared for their reception,
and is artificially fertilized ; while with perennials the same general
care is taken. It follows, therefore, that the natural range of cultivated
species is widely extended in every direction, and in the teeth of the
very barriers which naturally would have held them rigidly in check.
Plant-feeding insects in general follow the natural distribution of their
specific food. Experience has shown that as this natural food becomes
a cultivated crop they increase. As the cultivation of the crop is spread
along natural lines of distribution, they follow it. When, however, by

t Veterinary Magazine, 1895.
1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

682 The American Naturalist. [July,

artificial selection, hardy varieties of the crop plant have developed,
and the range becomes thus extended along what may be termed un-
natural lines, with certain species, at least, and within certain limits
with them, their insect enemies will naturally be unable to follow them.
The result will be, theoretically, natural selection with the insects try-
ing to catch up with the results of artificial selection with the plants.”

An All-purpose Net.—There is no doubt but that a special net
for each kind of collecting will give the best results, but while the net
becomes better suited to one purpose it becomes at the same time less
suited to other purposes. A specialist will adopt a special net, but an
ordinary collector will want an all-purpose net even if not quite the
best for each insect.

The net we have found to meet best the requirements of an all-pur-
pose net is one consisting of a strong but light brass hoop about a foot
in diameter, soldered firmly into the end of a brass or tin ferrule. This
ferrule should be about six inches long to serve as a handle when beat-
ing, when long handle is removed.

The bag of the net should be of strong but light cloth as a good mus-
lin or swiss. It should be about two feet deep, and taper gradually
from the mouth to the bottom where it should be two or three inches
wide. This will enable one to easily remove an insect with the cyan-
ide bottle or with the hand, and facilitates the clearing of the net by
reversing it.— Entomologists Post- Card.

Picobia villosa (Hancock) is Syringophilus bipectinatus (Heller).—
In the number of April, 1895 of Tar American Narura.ist (Vol.
X XIX, p. 382-384, plate X XII), Mr. Joseph L. Hancock describes
and figures as “anew Trombidian” a species of Cheyletine already well
known in Europe. His Picobia villosa does not differ from Syringo-
philus bipectinatus Heller.

Mr. J. L. Hancock is not acquainted with the modern literature on
interesting type. In a communication made, in 1884, before the Aca-
démie des Seiences de Paris’, I have shown how this form is common
on the birds of all orders. It lives in the quill of the feathers of the
wings, and comés out but rarely.

The Syringophilus bipectinatus and its variety major have been
figured by Professor Antonio Berlese, from my preparations, in his great
work entitled: Acari, Myriopoda et Scorpiones Italiani (fase.
XXXVII, n° g et 10, 2 pl.).

* TROUESSART Sur les Acariens qui vivent dans le tuyau des plumes des Oiseaux
—(Comptes-Rendus Acad. des Sciences de Paris, XCIX, (1884), p. 1130).

1895.] Entomology. 683

This Acarid has been found in the interior of the quills of the wings
(rémiges et couvertures alaires) on the domestic hen ( Gallus domesticus),
on the sparrow (Passer domesticus), and on a great number of other
birds belonging to the genera:—Syrnium, Eclectus, Poocephalus,
Chalcopsitta, Picus, Fringilla, (var. major on F. montifringilla), Em-
beriza, Linota, Coccothraustes, Troglodytes, Anthornis, Parus, Orites,
Turdus, Hirundo, Caprimulgus, Trogon, Phasianus, Meleagris, Gallin-
ago, Aramus, Strepsilas, Vanellus, Totanus, Tringa, Anthropoides,
Sterna, Hydrochelidon, Larus, Anas, etc.

From this list, we see that the species may be considered as univer-
ally dispersed and really cosmopolite. If we compare the types of
these various origins, we find no other difference than the size.

The form found by Mr. J. L. Hancock upon the flycatcher (Pheno-
pepla nitens Fer.), is absolutely the same that the typical Syringophilus
bipectinatus from Europe.. It cannot be placed in the genus Picobia
(Haller) which possesses for differential characters :—Pedes dissimiles ;
primi et secundi paris tarsus cirro longo, bifido, terminatus; tertii et quarti
paris tarsus, unguibus binis recurvis et pectine duplici (pulvillo) in-
structus.

On the contrary, the type figured by Mr. Hancock has the characters
of the genus Syringophilus :—Pedes omnes similes, unguibus binis re-
curvis et pectine duplici instructi. This type is then connected with
this last genus.

I must add that, from my observations, the form named “ Syringo-
philus” is not adult and represents only the syringobial and partheno-
genetic form of a species of Cheyletus described by Doctor S. A. Poppe
(from Vegesack) under the name of Cheyletus nörner?, which is found
also in the quills of the feathers of the birds enumerated previously,
feeding on the Sarcoptids (Analgesine) which live there habitually.

I have lately* drawn the attention of naturalists to the habits of these
various syringobial forms, and I have shown that the Cheyletus
nörneri (Poppe), which devoured the Pterolichi and Syringobie which
live in the quill, never touches the Syringophili, doubtless by virtue of
the saying: “ les loups ne se mangent pas entre eux.”

1 38, A. Popper, Uber parasitische Milben (Abhandl. Naturw. Ver. Bremen,
[1887] X, p. 239, pl. II, fig. 4-5)

t E. TROvEsSART, Sur le Mimétisme et (instinct protecteur des Syringobies (Bulle-
tin de la Société Entomologique de France, 1894, p. CX XXVI).—id., Sur
la Parthénogenise des Sarcoptides plumicoles (Comptes-Rendus de la Sociéte de
Biologie, 26 Mai, 1894 :—C.-R. Académie des Sciences, CX VIII, p. 1218).

684 The American Naturalist. [July,

It is not possible to find any differential sexual character between
the two forms disinguished by Mr. Hancock as male and female. The
form figured (plate XXII) is the syringobial nymph, and the other the
parthenogenetic female.

In the interior of the quill, the Syringophili feed, according to the
manner of the Analgesine, on the marrow (or pith) of the feathers.
The transformation into adult Cheyletus takes place likely out of the
quill, which explains why the syringobial form is found, but rarely, in
the plumage, outwardly to the feathers, as in the case observed by Mr.
Hancock. 7 | |

As to the Syringophilus uncinatus Heller, it is a true Cheyletus.

In summary: :

1. Picobia villosa (Hanock)=—Syringophilus bipectinatus (Heller).

2. Syringophilus bipectinatus is a syringobial form of Cheyletus norn-
eri (Poppe).—Dr. E. L. TRoverssart, Paris, France.

Preparing Orthoptera.—In Special Bulletin No. 2 from the
Department of Entomology of the University of Nebraska Prof. Law-
rence Bruner gives excellent directions for collecting and preserving
Orthoptera. Regarding the process of “ stuffing ” he says :—“‘Within the
past few years most of the objections that had so frequently been made
to the gathering and preservation of orthopterous insects, have practic-
ally been removed by the adoption of different and better methods of —
preparing and preserving these creatures. A few of our specialists only
seem to have profited from -the discovery that these insects can be
handled ‘ taxidermically,’ ʻi. e., be stuffed in a similar manner as we
would adopt for birds, reptiles and mammals, and thereby preserved
in collections equally well with other forms. The following directions
for collecting, cleaning and ‘stuffing’ orthopterous insects may, there-
fore, be of much value to those who contemplate making collections of
and studing these insects. Instead of throwing the specimens in spirits
(alcohol, brandy, whisky, ete.), when captured they should be killed in
the ‘cyanide’ bottle from which they should be removed soon after
death, and at once opened, cleaned and stuffed ; or they can be trans-
ferred to a small tin or other box where they may be kept moist and
flexible till arrived at home or in camp. Now take the specimens, one
at a time, in the left hand, and with a fine, sharp-pointed scissors open _
the abdomen by cutting across the middle of the two basal segments on
the lower side, then reverse and cut the opening a trifle larger by
nearly severing the third segment. After this has been done extract
all of the insides (intestines, crop, ovaries, etc.), along with the juices,

1895.] Entomology. 685

using a fine pointed forceps for the purpose, wipe out the inside of the
insect with a small wad of cotton and it is ready to be ‘stuffed’ or
filled up. When this latter is done the insect may be either pinned
into a box prepared for the purpose at once, or it can be wrapped in
paper and packed away for future use. To ‘stuff’ cut some cotton
bat (raw cotton) in short pieces and fill up the insect through the open-
ing previously made for cleaning it, using the same ora similar pair of
forceps for the purpose, taking care not to fill too full nor to stretch
the abdomen beyond its original dimensions, When the filling is com-
pleted carefully draw the edges of the several segments together and
gently press the sides of abdomen into shape with the fingers. This
can all be done, after a little practice, in about four or five minutes
time. The advantage in favor of a specimen thus handled are several.
It will not decay nor turn dark, the original colors will be retained
more nearly perfect, and there is but little danger under ordinarily
careful treatment of its being attacked in future by the museum pests
mentioned. Specimens when thus prepared by an expert and properly
labeled are easily worth three or four timesas much for cabinet spec-
imens as those not so cared for. Especially is this true with reference
to specimens collected in warm, moist climates where decay is rapid,
and where mould is sure to attack specimens that are long in drying.”

Recent Literature.—Mr. H. G. Barber of the University of
Nebraska publishes an interesting list’ of Nebraska butterflies. One
hundred and thirty-seven species are enumerated.

Mr. W. A. Snow contributes three dipterological papers to the
Kansas University Quarterly for January, 1895. Professor S. W.
Williston also contributes a paper on Exotic Tabanidæ to the same
issue.

Mr. G. C. Davis publishes as Bulletin 116 of the Michigan Agricult- _
ural College Experiment Station a 24 page discussion of Insectsof the
Clover Field.

Prof. Lawrence Bruner discusses in 75 pages of the Nebraska Horti-
cultural Report for 1894 the Insect Enemies of the Apple Trees and
its Fruit.

In Bulletin 109 of the New Jersey Station Prof. J. B. Smith discusses
cut worms, the sinuate pear-borer, the potato stalk borer and the
insecticidal value of bisulphide of carbon. In Bulletin 106 the San’
José Scale is treated of.

5 Proc. Nebr. Acad. Sci. IV, pp. 16-22, 1894.

686 , The American Naturalist. [July,

Part IV of the valuable Bibliography of America Economic Entomo-
logy has been recently issued by the Department of Agriculture. It
includes authors from A to K, and shows the same careful compilation
by Dr. Samuel Henshaw as the previous issues of the series.

An important Report upon the Parasitic Hymentoptera of the Island
of St. Vincent by Messrs. Riley, Ashmead and Howard has recently
been issued by the Linnzan Society (Journal Zoology, XXV, pp. 55-
254). The material was collected by Mr. H. H. Smith, and contained

six new genera and 299 new species.

EMBRYOLOGY.

Origin of Twins.—Jacques Loeb of the University of Chicago
contributes to the fourth part of Roux’s new peroidical—Archiv. für

ntwickelungsmechanik der Organismen—an illustrated article in
which the results of his experiments upon echinoderm eggs are set forth
along with a hypothesis of the mechanical origin of double embryos.

He found that when the eggs of the sea-urchin *“ Arbacia” were put
into water less salt than normal the membrane might burst as if from
osmotic pressure and part of the egg protoplasm ooze out from the rent.
In case this extruded part remained in continuity with the rest of the
egg farther development might result in the formation of a double
larva.

Many most interesting double and triple larve so produced are
figured with the abnormal skeletal structures seen in them.

The author then adopts the ideas of Quincke in an attempt to explain
the production of double monster in general and in the higher animals
in special.

Quincke regarded certain protoplasm movements as similar to those
of oil and water when mixing in the presence of soda or of albumen. In
such cases more or less violent “extension currents” are produced:
currents which Biitschli would assume in the movements of the pseudo-
podia of an ameeba on his hypothesis that protoplasm has a vescicular
structure.

Professor Loeb assumes that mechanical currents are normally pres-
ent in the process of cleavage and that in the abnormal process of
double formation there is, for various unknown reasons, an exagger-

1895.] Psychology. 687

ated, violent stage of the same phenomena. When the vortex currents
become violent, watery liquid accumulates between the cleavage cells
so that they are separated and henceforth develop separately to forma
twin.

It is to be regretted that the excellent observations recorded do not
bear more forcibly upon the hypothesis advanced.

PSYCHOLOGY.’

Mental Development inthe Child andthe Race: Methods
and Processes. By,JAmMEs Mark BALDWIN, M.A., Pa.D., STUART
PROFESSOR OF PsyYCHOLOGY IN PRINCETON UNIveERsitTy.’—Prof.
Baldwin’s latest book will prove of no less interest to the biologist
than to the psychologist. There is a growing feeling that biology,
the science of life at large, and psychology, the science of the inner
life, since they deal with facts of the same order, must ultimately
express these facts in essentially the same conceptions. To biology
we must look for the most generalized expression of those conceptions;
it will be the duty of the psychologist to apply them in his narrower
field and to restate them with such additions and limitations as the
facts demand. Yet, just because his field is the narrower, we may
expect of him suggestions which will aid the biologist in his work.
This is what Prof. Baldwin has undertaken to do. While studying
imitation in the infant, he tells us, he was struck by the important
part played by it in the development of the individual. This led him
to read again “the literature of biological evolution with view to
a possible synthesis of the current biological theory of organic adap-
tation with the doctrine of the infant’s development,” and this book
is the outcome. It is full of original and suggestive material and
I think I can do no better than give the readers of the NATURALIST
a fairly complete outline of its contents.

The arrangement of the book is open to criticism. The first six
chapters deal with certain special problems and are intended to
develop inductively the fundamental conceptions of dynamogenesis

1 This department is edited by Dr. Wm. Romaine Newbold, University of Penn-
sylvania.
2 Macmillan & Co., 1895. Price, 2.60.

688 The American Naturalist. [July,

and the circular reaction which underlie the entire book. These
chapters, although of considerable intrinsic value, are superfluous so far
as the main object of the book is concerned, in that their contributions to
it might have been much more clearly put and in briefer compass. It
is in the last chapter, on Suggestion, that the principal of dynamogen-
esis is most clearly stated: ‘The principle of contractility recognized
in biology simply states that stimulations to living matter—the pro-
toplasm of the higher vegetable and animal structures—if they take
effect at all, tend to bring about movements or contractions in the
mass of the organism. This is now also safely established as a phe-
nomenon of consciousness—that every sensation or ingoing process
tends to bring about action or outgoing process.” (P. 166.) The
movements thus produced may simply be repeated, thus forming a
habit. But many of them “seem to beget new movements by a kind
of adaptation of the organism—movements’ which are an evident
improvement upon those which the organism has formerly accom-
plished.” How is this done? This introduces us to the main
problem of the book—that of Accommodation.

The answer is found in the Law of Excess. Of all the stimuli to
which the organism is exposed some are advantageous. These
heighten vitality and thereby increase the amount of motor reaction.
In the case of advantageous stimuli the reaction is expansive, towards
the source of stimulation, but the disadvantageous produce contrac-
tions, away from the source of stimulation. It is evident that the
expansive movements are best fitted to secure the repetition of the
stimulus, and the excessive discharge greatly increases this proba-
bility. If any one of these movements proves successful, there is a
second excess discharge, but the second tends to pass out by the
channels of the successful movement. This gives us the nucleus of a
habit. The law that advantageous stimuli produce expansive move-
ments and disadvantageous contraction is doubtless due to natural
selection. (Pp. 199 et seqq.) The admission or denial of the inheri-
tance of acquired traits would not affect this theory. And, since it
represents selective reaction as part of the original endowment of
life, and since this selective reaction is the organic analogue of pleas-
ure and pain, we may say “that life began with consciousness, that is,
with feelings of pleasure and pain. This position preserves the
criterion of mind, making it also the criterion of life, and so assumes
an absolute phylogenetic beginning of both life and mind in one.”
(P. 213.) From the preceding discussion the relation of Habit and
Accomodation comes clearly to view. “ Habit expresses the tendency

1895]. Psychology. 689

of the organism to secure and to retain its vital stimulus,” (P. 216)
while by Accommodation the organism “learns new adjustments
simply by exercising the movements which it already has, its habits,
in a heightened or excessive way.”

Prof. Baldwin then undertakes to apply these principles to the expla-
tion of the phenomena of life, especially of human life. The first prob-
lem attacked is the origin of motor attitudes and expressions, which
includes the theory of emotion. In the psychophysics of emotion in
general the three factors, Dynamogenesis, Habit and Accommodation
are clearly traceable. By the first every element of content must
have its motor expression, but as no two contents are ever exactly the
same, our reactions are constantly being modified by new motor
elements. Habit, it is true, tends to diminish the amount of con-
sciousness found in the reaction, but on the other hand, by increas-
ing the total motor disturbance, it increases the consciousness of
movement, which is a chief element in all emotion. It is, therefore, a
factor in the genesis of emotion. By virtue of Accommodation such
of the new elements contributed by Dynamogenesis as are useful
to the organism get associated with and modify the old, thus increas-
ing the total content of the emotional state. To this must be added
the pleasures and pains of Attention, itself, as later to be shown, a
form of motor accommodation. When we come to examine the
special forms of emotion we find that the laws of expression formulated
by other writers, such as the principles of antagonism, of direct motor
discharge and of analogous feeling stimuli are readily explained as
varying expressions of the laws above given. But we must note that
in the individual the acquisition of emotional expression depends
largely upon imitation.

Returning now to the fundamental type of reaction, we find that it.
involves: Stimulus—increased vitality—excess discharge ( “ random
movements”) towards source of stimulation—accidental securing of
the beneficial stimulus by some one of these movements, thereby tend-
ing to make the same reaction easier—repetition of the process. This is
best described as a circular reaction, since it tends to repeat itself, and
as its nearest conscious analogue is found in imitation the whole class
may be termed imitative. In the simplest form, as above described,
it may be termed organic imitation. An examination of the
responses to stimulations found in the lower forms of life, both animal
and vegetable, shows that reactions of this type are coextensive with
life itself. But in the higher forms, in which consciousness has been
developed, the reaction assumes new forms. ‘The stimulus produces

690 The American Naturalist. [July,

conscious experience, and its repetition repeats that experience. But
the experience may also be repeated in the form of an idea without
the occurence of the stimulus, and this idea may take the place of the
stimulus and produce the reaction. This is termed conscious imita-
tion, and is the germ of voluntary action. Furthermore these ideas,
or copies, may be associated with one another, so that any one tends
to awaken others and with them their appropriate reactions. Thus
all the higher functions originate from and involve the lower. Some-
times, by the principle of lapsed links, the true stimulus may dis-
appear and the movement be produced, to all appearance, by one of
the associative antecedents of the stimulus.

ASSIMILATION AND RecoenitTion.—The copy image may be so strong
as to assimilate to itself the new experiences, their motor discharges
uniting in one—this union in motor discharge is the basis of associa-
tion by contiguity ; association by similarity is found “when both of
them, by association with a third have come to unite in a common
discharge. The energy of the new presentation process finds itself
drawn off in the channels of the old one which it resembles; the
motor associations, therefore, and with them all the organic and
mental elements stirred up by them, come to identify or unite the new
content with the old.” (309.) Assimilation then is due to the
tendency of a new sensory process to be drawn off into preformed
motor reactions. Some of these reactions are directly useful. Others
constitute a more special kind of motor reaction upon the mental
content. This latter is attention. It consists of three factors. First,
the grosser muscular strains in brow, scalp, etc.; second, the more
special strains of sense accommodation; third, the still more special
strains peculiar to the content in question. When a new experience
is repeated, not only is it assimilated to the memory of the original
experience, but the third factor in attention is facilitated ; these two
constitute what we call recognition. (P. 314.) Upon the first factor
of attention depends the peculiar sense of “ warmth ” or “ ownership ; ”
it is due to the fact that the attention strains constitute a large part
of the sense of self. Recognition is an advanced form of adjustment
to environment and has been of great phylogenetic significance.

CONCEPTION AND THouGuT.—The principles already developed fur-
nish a basis for the evolution of the higher mental processes. Judg-
ment, or the demand for identity, is the conscious representative
of the irresistible tendency to act in one way upon a variety of
experiences. Belief is the conscious representative of the assimila-
tion of new to old tendencies to action. Conception and per-

1895.] Psychology. 691

ception arise together when new experiences are brought face to face
with old memories to whose motor tendencies their own can be but
partially assimilated. In so far as assimilation takes place the concept
arises ; in so far as it does not the respective contents are discriminated
as particulars, and this discrimination is the function of perception.
By the omission of certain motor reactions peculiar to the several
occurences of a common sensory content the latter is abstracted. Thus
we see that the general or abstract “is not content at all. It is an
attitude, an expectation, a motor tendency.” (P.330.) And when
we recognize an object as belonging to a class, we mean that this
object presents, in addition to the motor reactions peculiar to itself,
motor reactions common to it and many other objects.

SYMPATHY is primarily due to imitation—At times a new pre-
sentation is assimilated to memories of past experiences and thus
awakens their emotional reactions—at others the sight of the emotional
reaction in others provokes a similar reaction directly. To imitation
the consciousness of self is also largely due. Its earliest form is found
in a discrimination of persons as moving and especially interesting
objects whose conduct at first admits of no exact calculation. This is
the projective stage. The second stage is initiated by imitation of
these projects; together with other bodily sensations the sense of
effort then emerges and with it comes the vague consciousness of self
as a subject. In the third stage the subjective elements thus gained
are ascribed to the projects and they become ejects or persons like the
subject. (Pp. 333 et seqq.)

Tue Erxtcar FEELING originated in like manner—The child must
accommodate himself to his environment, and especially to that part
of his environment which we term the authority of others. But,
as we have shown, one element of the self owes its origin to this very
factor. Thus the intrinsic or habitual self tends to come in conflict
with the self of accommodation and imitation. Later, from this
external factor, is formed a “ moral ideal of a possible, perfect, regular
will taken over in me in which the personal and social self—my habits
and my social calls—are brought completely into harmony ; the sense
of obligation in me in each case is a sense of lack of harmony—a
sense of actual discrepencies in the various thoughts of self as my
actions and tendencies give rise to others.” (P. 345.)

The third form of imitation, which we may term plastic imitation,
embraces those degenerated forms of reaction, which, having once
been conscious, are now become secondarily automatic and subcon-
scious. They fall under two classes; those that represent habitual

692 The American Naturalist. (July, —

reactions and those that represent the imitative tendency itself become
habitual. The first finds its expression in the community in conserva-
tism ; the second in liberalism. :

VoLirion involves desire, deliberation and effort.—Desire consists
of “(1) a pictured object suggesting associated experiences which
it is not sufficient to realize, and (2) an incipent motor reaction
which the pictured object stimulates but does not discharge.” (P. 368.)
Thus the germs of desire are present whenever a nascent movement is
inhibited, but it is only when the representative element is added
that it becomes typical desire. As desire arises from inhibited
reactions, so does deliberation arise from the competition of reactions
by the addition of analogous representative elements. Effort arises
upon the resolution of a state of deliberation.

In persistent imitation we have the earliest form of volition. The
“copy” is given and provokes a movement which only partially
reproduces it. The apprehension of the movement as actually per-
formed now constitutes a momentum prompting its repetition, but the
original “ copy ” still persists, prompting a slightly different movement
—out of the competition.of these two reactions is formed a third, from
these three a fourth, and so on until the movement as performed and
the persistent “ copy ” prompt to the same movement—that is until
the movement is successful. The sense of effort is due, as above
shown, to the co-ordination or two or more such reactive tendencies.
Thus we find in volition “the point of meeting of two principles,
Habit and Accommodation, and their common function.”

In the highest exhibition of reflective volition there is “ no depar-
ture in type, however wide a departure it be in meaning and implica-
tions for philosophy—from the first organic reactions of organic life.
Habit is formed in the face of suggestion through persistent imitation
and volition, and Habit, made organic in character, is modified in
turn by changed environment, which is reacted to by imitation and
volition.” (P. 388.) Prof. Baldwin then proceeds to present a mass
of special evidence for the doctrines above outlined from the early
life of infants, from some experiments made on students, from the
intimate relation of attention to voluntary movement, from the phe-
nomena of partial or total aboulia, especially as found in hysteria,
idiocy and the various disturbances of speech. This last is of especial
interest but is too technical in character to be given in abstract. Then
follows a chapter on the Mechanism of Revival and Internal Speech
and Song of which the same may be said. It is intended to illustrate
the application of the theory to detailed instances.

1895.] i Psychology. 693

“ ATTENTION is the mental function corresponding to the habitual
motor coordination of the processes of heightened or excess discharge.”
This theory finds a further confirmation in two facts. First, since the
excess discharge is the sole means of accommodation in the lower
organisms, and attention the only one in consciousness, we must con-
nect in theory the function of excess with that of attention. Second,
the excess discharge is also the organic analogue of pleasure and pain ;
attention, then should be the seat of pleasure and pain. This we find
to be the case, especially in the pleasures of emotional and intellectual
life. Since attention is a motor phenomenon, and since by the law of
Dynamogenesis the more intense sensation has the greater effect, we
readily see why an intense sensation tends to attract attention, and
why attention tends to increase the intensity of the content attended
to. It follows (P. 468) that attention is not a single function—there
are as many attentions as there are contents. This fact has escaped
notice because in all states of attention there is a certain relatively
constant element, viz,: tensions in brow, jaws, skin of head, etc.
“ The office of attention is that of fixing the content steadily on the
sensory side, and at the same time of releasing the associated discharge
movements on the motor side. It is a go-between between the copy
imitated and the imitation which copies it and is, therefore, the central
and essential fact in all voluntary muscular control.”

I have gone somewhat at length into the analysis of this book
because it seems to me a most important contribution both to biology
and psychology. It may be'described as an attempt to express all
forms of conscious experience, from the lowest to the highest, in terms
of their motor concomitants. In a sense the attempt is strictly legiti-
mate. All mental states have motor concomitants, and since motion
is the most essential fact in the life of the organism, and moreover, since
movements are often more easily studied and measured than their
accompanying mental states, it may well be that from a study of
movement we may get those architectonic conceptions which all
psychologists seek, but which have not as yet been got from intro-
spection. But in the effort one is apt to exaggerate the genetic
importance of the motor element, to ignore certain definite laws which
introspection reveals, and to rest content with a careless and inade-
quate analysis of the psychoses which are to be explained. Against a
large part of Prof. Baldwin’s book these charges may be brought, and
I think they rob many of his expositions of all practical value. Yet
the book is full of acute observation and insight; one feels upon first
reading it that he has here a mass of material of very unequal value, care-

.

694 The American Naturadist. [July,

lessly thrown together, whose exact value will come to view only after
careful thought and study. Especially does it seem that the concep-
tion of the circular reaction and its genetic importance in the individ-
ual will remain a permanent acquisition of psychology.

ANTHROPOLOGY.’

Surprising Discovery of Ancient Rope and Netting in
Southwestern Florida.—Lieutenant-Colonel C. D. Demford, late
of the English army, has found in the recent months, a piece
_of well-preserved rope, a mass of string woven into the meshes
of a net and several artificially shaped wooden billets, from two
to three feet deep, in a deposit of soft, black mud, in one of
the tide-water sea lagoons near Punta Rasso. These objects were
associated with a necklace of shells and a well-preserved wooden
dish, evidently of Indian make, and lay at a spot flooded daily by
the salt tide, and encircled by one of the narrow ridges of oyster
shells, now familiar to students, made by Indians, who feasted on mol-
luses at the spot. Here, as at other places on the west coast, the
shells seemed to have been so arranged upon the low margins of the
lagoons as to form small canals and water basins, where canoes could
easily pass shoreward, and land on hard bottom when the tides were
favorable. As far as I know, no such discovery as this of Lieutenant-
Colonel Demford’s has come to the notice of students in Florida before,
but it remains to be proven, beyond reasonable doubt, that none of the
objects, which rested on the shell bottom in the middle of the basin,
and completely under the mud, worked their way down in recent times.
Nevertheless, experience in digging out the bottom of drained lakes
_ in Switzerland has shown us the effect of mud in preserving perishable
objects of human make for long periods of time, and there is no reason
why submarine deposits may not restore to us lost details of the past here
as well as there. This brilliant and original work in Florida, directing
investigation into a new channel, leaves us to wonder why no one
thought of it before. The discoverer, while carrying many of the
objects found to England, has kindly deposited a series of them at the
Museum of Archzology of the University of Pennsylvania, to whose

! This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

1895.] a Scientific News. 695

authorities he com icated the discovery more than a month ago,
thus enabling Dr. William Pepper to send Mr. Frank Hamilton Cush-
ing to the spot, and to take immediate measures to follow farther an
entirely fresh line of research. H. C. MERCER.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Indiana Academy of Science.—The Spring meeting of the
Indiana Academy of Science was held at the Wyandotte Cavein Craw-
ford County, May 15-17. The members and friends spent the greater
part of two days exploring this great cave. The party made the three
trips usually open to visitors. The total distance traveled in the cave
was about twenty miles, and the greatest depth reached about 300 feet.
This report must be too brief to enter into an elaborate description of
the long and winding avenues, the grotesque shapes of the many
beautiful stalactites, stalagmites and pillars, the grottoes, the pillared
palaces, the large rooms and massive monuments and the numerous
channels some of the diminutive kind that made it pretty difficult for
some of the party to pass through. It isa fertile field for the geologist.
The cave is made in the St. Louis limestone of the Carboniferous.
Much gypsum was found as well as the various forms of the limestone ;
also magnesium sulphate and occasional layers of flint. In one part
yellow ochre is found. The large white masses of Alabaster is espe-
cially. noticeable in one part.

A few salamanders were found and several blind crayfish obtained
from the guides. Many other animals have been found by previous
investigators. It was a most enthusiastic meeting and also a very
profitable one.—A. J. BIGNEY, Ass’t. Sec.

The fourth session of the Hopkins Seaside Laboratory begins
Monday, June 17, 1895. The regular course of instruction continues
six weeks, closing July 27. Investigators and students working with-
out instruction may continue their work through the summer. The
Laboratory provides for three classes of students. 1. Investigators
who are prepared to carry on researches in Morphology or Physiology.
2. Students in the departments of Zoology, Physiology, and Botany in
the E E who wish to supplement their work under the favor-

696 The American Naturalist. [July,

able conditions of such an institution, and to gain a knowledge of the
methods of research in Biology. 3. Students and teachers not mem-
bers of the University, who desire te pursue biological studies and to
become acquainted with the practical methods of laboratory work. For
this group of workers regular courses are conducted in Zoology and
Botany, accompanied by lectures and by individual instruction at the
work table.

The corps of instructors embraces the followiug members of the
faculty of Leland Stanford University. Dr. Oliver P. Jenkins, Dr.
Charles S. Gilbert, George C. Price, Harold Heath, Charles W. Greene,
Walter R. Shaw.

The following courses have been arranged: A course in Zoology,
consisting of the structure, physiology, and life histories of typical mar-
ine forms. A course in Botany, consisting mainly of a comparative
study of the principal groups of fresh water and marine alg, with
collateral work in other groups of plants. Both these courses will
include instruction in laboratory methods and in microscopical
technique.

More advanced courses in Morphology, Physiology, Embryology,
Histology and Botany will be arranged for students who are prepared
to enter such courses.

Those students who have had sufficient training to take up some
original investigation will be given an opportunity to do so under the
direction of an instructor. :

The original building contains three general laboratories, a store-room,
and seven private rooms for investigators. A new building contains a
general lecture and library room, a general laboratory, ten private
rooms for investigators, and a dark room for photographic work. The
basement is designed for large aquaria. Both buildings are supplied
with running water, both salt and fresh. The library and apparatus
of the University are made use of in the Laboratory. Each student
will be furnished with a good compound microscope. There is a good
supply of reagents and supplies for microscopical work. Apparatus
for work in experimental physiology is also provided. The ‘Labora-
tory also possesses a fair supply of collecting apparatus, and two boats.

Locatton.—Pacific Grove is a seaside resort on the southern shore
of Monterey Bay, two miles west of Monterey. It is reached by the
Coast Division of the Southern Pacific Railway, and is about four
hours distant from San Francisco. The coast line at this point offers
every variety of rocky and sandy shores, and the variety and abund-

1895.] Scientific News. 697

ance of marine life is exceptionally great. In the immediate vicinity
of the Laboratory are exceptionally fine collecting grounds.

ExpeEnseEs.—To investigators prepared to carry on original work
the use of the Laboratory and its equipment is tendered free of charge.

Students in the Leland Stanford Junior University, will be charged
a fee of fifteen dollars.

The fee for other students is fixed at twenty-five dollars for the
term of six weeks.

Pacific Grove, is well supplied with boarding accommodations, with
considerable range in price. Cottages and tents, furnished for light
housekeeping, can be rented at reasonable rates. For further informa-
tion address the Directors: _ :

CHARLES H. GILBERT,
OLIVER P. JENKIN”.

The Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine-Arts of Bel-
gium offers prizes for Memoirs on researches concerning the following
subjects: 1. Original investigations on the intervention of phagocytosis
in the development of invertebrates. 2. Description of mineral phos-
phates, sulphates and carbonates found in Belgium, including the
locality and formation in which the deposits occur. 3. Original in-
vestigations on the peripheral nervous system of Amphioxus, and, espe-
cially, the constitution and genesis of the sensory roots. 4. Original
investigations on the mechanism of the cicatrization of plants,

The next meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science will commence on the 11th of September at Ipswich, under the
Presidency of Sir Douglas Galton, F.R.S. The general secretaries
are Sir Douglas Galton and A. G. Vernon Harcourt, F. R.S. The
Presidents of the Sections are as follows:

Section A, Mathematical and Physical Science, Prof. W. M. Hicks,
M. A., D.Sc., F. R.S.; Section B, Chemistry, Prof. R. Meldola, F. R.
S., For. Sec.C.S.; Section C, Geology, W. Whitaker, B. A., F. R. S.,
F. G.S. ; Section D, Zoology, Prof. W. A. Herdman, D. Sc.. F. R.S. ;
Section E, Geography, H. J. Mackinder, M. A., F. R.G.S.; Section F,
Economic Science and Statisties, L. L. Price, M. A., F.S.S.; Section
G, Mechanical Science, Prof. L. F. Vernon Harcourt, M. A., M. Inst.
C. E. ; Section H, Anthropology, Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, D. C. L. ;
Section I, Physiology. This Section will not meet at Ipswich; papers
on Animal Physiology will be read in Section D; Section K, Botany,
W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C. M. G., C. I. E., F. R.S.

698 The American Naturalist. [July,

Ipswich possesses a fine Museum, founded by Professor Henslow,
which contains a very complete collection of Crag Fossils. Geological
excursions are being arranged to show the Crag Districts and the
Cromer Cliffs. Marine dredging excursions will be made down the
Orwell from Ipswich to Harwich. Excursions are also being organ-
ized to other places of special interest in the district around Ipswich,
including Bury St. Edmund’s, Colchester, the Norfolk Broads, Cam-
bridge, Brandon, Wenham, Dunwich, etc. The seaside towns of Nor-
folk, Suffolk, and Essex are within easy reach.

The undersigned is engaged at present in a compilation of a complete
directory of living botanists of all countries, inclusive of botanical gar-
dens, institutes and societies, as also of their papers and the botanical
publications issued by them. The undersigned, taking a lively interest
in the accurracy of the directory, and in the exact insertion of your
Christian and sur name, with full address, ete., ete., solicits, herewith,
the favor of your kindly filling up the query sheet and returning it.
The Boards of Botanical Gardens and Institutes are requested to send
in a list of all the officials employed by them. Botanical Societies will
kindly please to state their full name, year of establishment, and peri-
odical publications (papers only partially treating on botanical matters
included), and when published (yearly, monthly, etc.). Publishers of
periodicals treating of matters relating to botany will greatly oblige the
writer by their kindly stating the name, date and subscription price of .

-their papers; at the same time the forwarding of proof-copies is re-
quested.— J. Dorrier, I. and R. Technical Officier to the Botanical
Section of I. R. Court Museum of Natural History, (Vienna) Austria,
I. Burgring 7.

The collection of Fossil Mammalia made by Prof. E. D. Cope, was
recently sold to the American Museum of Natural History of New
York. It includes 470 species, of which 402 are types of species first
described by Prof. Cope. The species were collected between 1872 and
1895, and were derived from eleven geological horizons.

Two of our paleontologists had the misfortune to break their arms

during the winter that has just passed. We refer to Profs. Henry F.
Osborn and Angelo Heilprin. Both have nearly recovered.

`

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The Denizens of an Old Cherry Tree with Notes of its Surroundings. (2 Plates.)
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The Development of the gem Theory. H, pee, Browne, F. R. C. S. E.
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Vol. XXIX. AUGUST, 1895.
CONDENS.
PAGE PAGE

INVESTIGATIONS. CONCERNING: THE ETIOLOGY OF

Vegetable Phystology—Woronin on Selerotinia

SARE Pe AR TJ Oo ne cane —Demonstration of Photosyntax by Bacteria
THE AFFINITIES OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS. WING. —Detection of Glukase by = Anna s
(Illustrated.) Vernon: L< Kellogg. 709 } Methods. ~~. >: i SG ee D.

ON THE PRESENCE Oc FLUORINE AS A TEST FOR
THE FOSSILIZATION OF ANIMAL BONES. .{Con-

Zootogý—The Chara acters of the Enchytreid
Genus Distichopus—New Mollusca from the

tinued. ) . Thomas Wilson, 719 | Pacific—Taylor om Box Tortoises—The Genera
CONTRIBUTIONS TO CocciporoGcy.—I. of -Xantusiidze—Occurrence of the Siberian
T. D.A. Cockerell- 725 | Lemning- Vole ({Lagurus) in the United States
RECENT Books AND PAMPHLETS, . 732 | —The Introitus Vagine of Certain Muridee—
GENERAL NOTES Zoological News. . 153
Minerilogy—New Edition of Groth’s Physi- Entomology —A new Tettix ostente On
cal Crystallography—Tables of the Thirty-two the Early Stages of some Carabidz and Chry-
Classes of Crystal Forms... 734 | somelidee -- Cecidomyia atriplicis — Mexican
: Peirography—An Example of Rock Different- Jumping Beans (Illustrated)... ko AT a
tation- The Serpentines of thè Central Alpe—- Embryolegy—Half Embryos yersus Whole
Dynamic Metamorphisin— Miscellaneous 737 Embryos—The Mouse's. Eg 69:
i > gpi
` Geology and Paleontology —Dawson on the Os- RG
cillations of the: Beliring Ser Begiori—Gréen Psychology—The Problem of Instinct. 17S
Pond Conglomerate—Notes on the Osteology Anthropology—Notes taken uponan Explora-
of Zeuglodon cetoides. . 741 | tion of the Lehigh and Susquehanna Valleys
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PLATE XXIX

Bay on Smail- Pox.

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

NOL AKIK., August, 1895. 344

INVESTIGATIONS CONCERNING THE ETIOLOGY OF
SMALL-POX.'

By J. CHRISTIAN BAY.
[With plate XXIX.]

The etiology of small-pox is one of the most interesting
problems in bacteriology, and has been subject of considerable
investigation for thirty years and more. A brief historical
sketch, illustrating what has hitherto been done in this line
should, naturally, precede this preliminary record of my own
work the progress of which may be traced in the Iowa Health
Bulletin published by the State Board of Health of Iowa under
whose authority these investigations were carried out during
the past year.

Numerous writers have investigated the small-pox and
vaccine lymph, and some have recognized specific micro-
organisms, both animal and vegetable, as the primary cause
of the disease, or of the specific eruptions.

One of the micro-organisms, heretofore more or less gener-
ally recognized as the effective agent is the Micrococcus vaccine
and variole ; Bareggi who, among others, studied these, states?

1 Published in abstracted form in the Medical News, January 26, 1895. Pre-
sented to the Iowa State Board of Health, February, 1895, and read before the
Des Moines Academy of Sciences.

? Sul microbi specifici del vajuolo, del vaccino e della varicella. Gaz. med. Ital.
Lomb. a (8) VI, 480, 506, 519, 529, 545; with plate.

700 The American Naturalist. [August,

that the micro-organisms of small-pox and those of vaccine are
identical.*

In 1868, Chauveau‘ proved that vaccine virus is deprived of
its active substance by filtration. Hence, it beeame more than
probable that the contagion was a living organism, and no
gaseous or diffusible product. “ For when he carefully poured
a stratum of water upon a layer of lymph, in tiny tubes, he
obtained a diffusion of the dissolved material into the water,
but this clear solution could not produce pustules like the in-
soluble residue.”

In the same year, Hallier’ described micrococci “ of a sin-
gular appearance from human small-pox, cow-pox and vaccine
eruptions, the diameter of these bacteria being sbs” to tło”;
they exhibited motion except when covering the lymph-par-
ticles.

Previous to this, G. Simon® found, in human small-pox,
round particles which were insoluble in acetic acid. Salisbury’
also claimed to have demonstrated a specific small-pox organ-
ism which he named Jos variolosa ; it was described as quite
polymorphous; its alga-stage was seen in cow-pox eruptions;
“ fructification ” was reached in small-pox eruptions.

Luginbuehl* discovered, in sections cleared with acetic acid
micrococei which formed colonies at certain places in the skin,
near the epidermis, in cases of small-pox eruptions. Beale’
found “vast multitude of minute particles of living matter or
bioplasm ” in the small-pox vesicles, but he did not attribute
to these the name of causa morbi.

Cohn” showed the presence of minute cocci in vaccinia and
small-pox lymph; when the lymph is fresh, the cocci were
moving freely, propagated themselves by division, and, after

* Confer Crookshank, Manual, p. 203; Klein, Micro-Organisms and disease, pp.
79-80

* Comptes Rendus LXVI, 289, 317, 1868.

* Aerztl. Intelligenzbl. XV, 75; Virchow’s Archivy XLII, 309, 1868.
ë Müller’s Archiv, 1846, 185.

1 Schmidt’s Jahrbücher, 1871.

* Verhandl. d. phys. med. Ges. in Würzb. IV, 99, 114; 1873, w. pl.
° Disease-germs, their nat. and orig., 1872, 148; pl. XVIII, fig. 64.
" Virchow’s Archiv LV, 229-238, 1872.

1895.] The Etiology of Small-Poz. 701

16-32 hours of cultivation, aggregated in masses, afterwards in
films the formation of which seemed to be the terminal phase
of their life-history." Cohn named this organism Microspheria
vaccine which was a specific coccus and no representative of
some stage of development of some otherorganism. Thename
was later changed into Micrococcus vaccine which Cohn, in his
system of bacteriology, described in the following way”: “ Cells
ball-shaped, 0.5-0.75 ». in diameter, or united two and two or
more in chains and masses, also forming a zoogloea. In fresh
lymph from cow-pox and small-pox as well as in the pustules
in confluent variola.”

Weigert, a short time before Cohn, found™ “ vessel-shaped,
irregular, often ramified formations of 0.1-0.2 mm. in diameter
with granulated, well-marked contents which was not affected
by acetic acid, sodium and glycerin. He interpreted these
formations as lymphatics filled with bacteria. They were
found in the neighborhood of small-pox pustules, and at their
edges, where also haemorrhagical herds, and arteries with the
same contents were observed. Cohn declared that Weigert’s
granules were identical with his Microspheria.

Thus it was beyond doubt that vaccinia, cow-pox and vari-
ola were caused by attacks of bacteria. Burdon-Sanderson
also confirmed this view. The history of the cases also show
that the disease is caused not only by a contagium fixum, but
also by a contagium halituosum.

Weigert’s observations concerning the lymphatics were
repeated and confirmed by Klein.“

Klebs” set forth the statement that the organism (microcci)
in vaccinia and variola exhibit peculiar physiological and
morphological properties. The cells are placed four and four
together and assume, ontogenetically, no other shape than that

1 The same aggregations had been observed by Keber.

12 Beitr. zur Biol. d. Pflanzen, Vol. I, part Il, 161.

13 Ueber Bakterien in der Pockenhaut. Centralbl. f. d. med. Wiss. IX, 606-
611, 1871. Ueber pockenaehnl. Eruptionenininnern Organen, Deutsche Zeits-
chrift f. prakt. Med. I, 367-369, 1874. Anatom. Beitr. z. Lehre von den Pocken,

part I, 1874.
14 Phil. Trans. Lond., 1874; Micro-Organism and disease, 1886, 69.
13 Arch. f. experiment. Pathol. und Pharm. X, 222, 1879.

702 The American Naturalist. [August,

of the coccus. The size of the cell diameter was 0.5 ». This
organism received the name Microccus quadrigeminus. The
literature on hand does not elucidate whether this bacterium
had, by virtue of its characteristics, any diagnostic value."

In 1883, C. Quist found that vaccine lymph could be artific-
ally propagated in various nutritive media,” but such a dilu-
tion of the lymph had nothing to do with the bacteria, so far
as these experiments went. It is undisputable that Quist
propagated the vaccine virus along with the dilution of the
lymph; the preservation of the virus in glycerin and other
media, as done by practitioners, is, therefore, in spite of Pfeiffer’s
views, no simplification of Quist’s method, in as much as prop-
agation and preservation of efficacy (life activity) are not abso-
lutely identical. Small-pox is unquestionably a bacterial
disease, and we know that bacteria can live without propagat-
ing themselves; the ultimum temperature of propogation is
' lower than that of life, in both directions from zero.

Pfeiffer? found, in 1885, a sprouting fungus which he named
Saccharomyces seu Cryptokokkus vaccine vaccarum. This fun gus
is not very much different from the so-called Saccharomyces
apiculatus, and is no Saccharomyces", as it belongs to the group
Torula in the sense of Pasteur and Hansen. In small-pox
lymph, I have occasionally met a Torula which corresponds to
Hansen’s fifth species.” Pfeiffer’s fungus did not bear endo-
spores, and has no causal relation to small-pox. This Torula
as well as the saprophytic bacteria, and the animaleule which
Pfeiffer reported from pustules will appear in many other
eruptions and ulcerations. It appears that some of Pfeiffer’s

16 Conf. Leeffler, Vorles. ueb. d. gesch. Entwickelung der Lehre von den Bak-
terien I, 132, 1887.

" Finska läk. sällsk. handlingar XXV, 271, 1883. XXV, 341, 1883. Berl.
klin. Wochenschr., 1883, 811-813. Hygiea (Stockholm) XLVI, 194, 203, 1884.
See also Medical News.

18 Correspondenzblatt d. allgem. aertzi. Vereins von Thüringen., 1885. No. 3.
Sep. 12 pp. ;

See my paper in THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, XXVII, 685-696, 1893.

? See Jærgensen, Micro-Organisms and Fermentation, 1893, p. 190, and Bay,
Amer. Monthly Microscop. Journal, XV, 42; 1894.

1895.] The Etiology of Small-Pox. 703

drawings” as well as Beale’s “ bioplasts (loc. cit.) indicate serious
misinterpretations of the microscopic pictures.

L. Voigt described, in 1885,” three different forms of cocci
from small-pox pustules. All of them would liquefy gelatine,
and one of them was considered the probable carrier of the
contagion. No definite results were, however, obtained. There
were two cocci, and a diplococcus.

Pohl-Pincus also studied the micrococci found in specific
eruptions, and showed their passage through the epidermis of
a calf after inoculation.”

Hlava“, Bowen and Garré have succeeded in isolating a
streptococcus (Streptococcus pyogenes). They considered the
united attack by these pyogenic cocci the cause of the disease.
Koch and Feiler were, however, of the opinion that although
some of the saprophytic micro-organisms found in vaccine
lymph are pathogenic, they do not carry the contagion.

_ Protopopoff* succeeded in finding a streptococcus which
corresponds, both macro- and microscopically, to the descrip-
tions of the Streptoccocus pyogenes. Samples from pure cultures
were injected in rabbits, dogs and cats, but without effect.
Although this does not imply that this organism cannot affect
man, it seems improbable that it could have any causal rela-
tion to variola.

Crookshank™ and Copeman” found, in vaccine lymph, great
numbers of common saprophytic and of some pathogenic
bacteria, but no specific organism. |

Rille” observed cocci in the vesicles and blood of persons
suffering from varicella, but did not apply himself to bacterio-
logical studies of these organisms.

21 Correspondenzblatt d. allg. aerztl. Vereins von Thüringen, 1887, No. 2, Sep.
12 pp. 2 plates. Monatshefte f. prakt. Dermatologie, VI, 1887, No. 10. Sep.
13 pp. 2 pl. Die Protozoen als Krankheitserreger. Jena, 1890.

22 Deutsche med. Wochenschrift, XI, 895-897, 1885.

23 Pohl-Pincus, Untersuch. neb. d. Wirkungsweise der Vaccination, 1882.

4 Sbornik Lékarsky, II, 96-105, 1887. Cblt. f. Bakt. II, 688, 1887.

25 Zeitschrift für Heilkunde XI, part 2, 1890. Sep. 7 pp.

*6 Transact. Seventh Internat. Congr. of Hyg. and Dermogr, LI, 326, 1892.

1 Thidem, 319-326.

28 Wiener klinische Wochenschrift, No. 38-39, 1889.

704 The American Naturalist, [ August,

Probably Sternberg was right in stating” that the etiology
of small-pox is still undetermined. Still, some of the investiga-
tions above cited furnish very interesting points which are of
value to those who wish to reinvestigate the matter.

Micrococci of different shape and characters are, however,
not the only bacteria which have been observed in small-pox
and vaccinia. A few statements point towards the presence of
other bacteria, namely, bacilli. Crookshank (loc. cit.) mentions
that he has found Bacillus pyocyaneus, B. subtilis, different
Bacterium-forms (one yellow), and a bacillus resembling
Bacillus subtilis. Martin® has described a bacillus of vaccine
lymph. The ends of this bacillus are round or square, and it
may form micrococci (!) which are arranged in chains of five
or six cells. The author admits the possibility that both a
bacillus and a micrococcus were present.

Coze, Feltz and Baudoin have demonstrated the presence
of bacilli in the blood of variola; upon injections of this blood
into the veins of a rabbit, the typical symptoms of variola were
produced.

Insheep-pox lymph examined by Zimmermann” three bacilli
were found one of which had almost the same appearance as
Bacillus amylobacter. A second investigation showed the pres-
ence of a short-limbed bacillus; Micrococcus vaccine (or variole)
occurred in both series of investigations. All of Plaut’s plates
demonstrate bacilli which he was able to cultivate.

Toussaint’s studies which also resulted in a discovery of
bacilli are mentioned by Plaut (loc. cit.)

In April, 1894, vaccine “points” were procured from Dr.
Hewitt’s Vaccine Station at Red Wing, Minn. A watery dilu-
tion of the lymph adhering to the “point” contained, when
examined by 1160 diam. m. (Bausch and Lomb, Oc. C2, Obj.
rz Oil imm.) a few amorphous bodies which assume a yellow
color with IIKa, a few round bodies and irregular masses
(probably nuclei or fragments of cells), dispersed in a clear
fluid. I could distinguish no micrococci or other bacteria, and

"° Manual of Bacteriology, 1892, 528-529.

* Boston Med. and Surg. Journal, CXXIX, 589, 1893.

*! Fide Magnin-Sternberg, Bacteria, 1884; 410, 464.

* Plaut, Das organisirte Contagium der Schafpocken, 1882; 22.

1895.] The Etiology of Small-Pox. 705

no staining revealed any living organisms. Some of the round
bodies observed in ten different examinations may have been
spores or micrococci, but their nature was not revealed by the
microscope.

A series of plate cultures upon “ Pasteur gelatine ”® was then
arranged, but there occurred no development. These plates
were prepared from 10 parts of gelatine to 90 parts of Pasteur’s
fluid. So, test-tube cultures in Pasteur’s fluid alone, and in
bouillon (beef; one pound of meat to one liter of water) ren-
dered alkaline by Cl Na. were made. The points were grasped
with a forceps, passed through a flame, and dropped into the
medium which had been, previously, submitted to a very
thorough fractional sterilization, as by the usual preparation
of medium supplies. Great care was exerted in order that
no infection from without should take place.

By a temperature of 24°C. the culture fluid would, on the
next day after inoculation, become slightly turbid; on the
second day the turbidity increased, a thin film being formed on
the surface, and on the third day a grayish, highly tenacious
film made its appearance. Microscopic investigation showed
the presence of bacilli. The latter are colorless; they exhibit
no motion, are devoid of cilia; their long diameter measures
0.6-1.0 » and the short diameter .2-.34. During the first and
second days, they seem to develop in colonies of 20-200 cells,
although, under the cover, many cells appear to be free and
isolated.

The zooglea (surface-film) has, to a great extent, the same
appearance as the film-growth of the yeast-like Mycoderma,
being folded, and of a greasy appearance. It is so tenacious
that it resists the weight of the column of the culture medium
which was observed as one of the cultures chanced to be
inverted. Its connection with the culture vessel is quite
intimate. On the fourth days, fragments of the zooglea began
to descend to the bottom, and the macroscopic appearance of
the culture remained, after this, unaltered for three weeks and
more. During this period, however, the microscopic appear-
ance of the bacillus was gradually much modified.

38 See Salomonsen, Bacteriological Technology, pp. 460 and 464.

706 The American Naturalist. [August,

This organism was found, with three exceptions, in 65
cultures from vaccine points hitherto made. Buttersack whose
recent investigations will be mentioned in due time ventures
the supposition that the specific organism of vaccine was not
hitherto detected, because of its index of refraction being
identical with that of the medium (lymph). Isee no reason
for this supposition, and I am prepared to explain Buttersack’s
theory from my own observations.

This bacillus has, to a great extent, the same appearance as
those found by Plaut* and Zimmermann in sheep-pox.

Already at the beginning of the development, while the
medium is well stored with nutrition, the bacilli bear spores.
This being the most conspicuous feature of the organism, I
named it Dispora variole. The systematic side of the descrip-
tion is as follows:

Genus: DISPORA.
Dispora: Kern, 1882.

Kern (Botanische Zeitung, 1882, No. 16) founded this genus
upon one species which was found in kephir and which was
characteristic mainly by having two spores in each cell. The
genus belonged to the bacillus-group. Kern’s D. caucasica has
not been rediscovered by later students of the kephir-organisms
(Beyerinck, M. Ward, Mix), and the genus-name vanished into
Bacillus (Crookshank, Manual, 312).

' Dispora variolæ.

Syn. The spore stage was described under the following
names: Microsphæria vaccinæ Cohn, Micrococcus vaccinæ and
variolæ Cohn, Jos variolosa Salisbury.

Habitat: In vaccine and small-pox lymph constant. Descer.
Bacilli 0.6-1.0 » by 0.2-0.3 =. Two spores in each cell, one at
each end. Aërobic.

On the sixth days of cultivation, free spores begin to make
their appearance, both in the fluid and in the zooglœa. They
are globular, highly refractive, and may be mistaken for what
appeared to me, by a little over 2000 d. m., as vacuoles. The

* Loc. cit. Beilage I-IV b; especially II a.

1895.] The Etiology of Small-Pox. 707

latter are, however, larger, and their shape is oval or rectan-
gular.

The same organism was found also in the lymph of variola
confluens kindly furnished by the small-pox hospital in
Chicago. Out of forty bouillon-cultures made from this lymph,
only two failed to show the presence of the Dispora.

To prove that Dispora variole was not accidentally caught
in the cultures from the atmosphere, gelatine-plates (10% gel.,
90% beef-bouillon) were exposed to the air at the tables and
windows for different periods of time. Among the numerous
organisms thus obtained, none presented the characteristics of
the above named bacillus

When cultures were examined on the eighth day after
inoculation, the cells seemed to be crowded together in sepa-
rate masses, each cell being surrounded by a rather thick layer
of a gelatinous mass, free spores being abundant. As the
cultures grew older, the cells gradually became more and more
lengthened, forming rows, and on the fourteenth and fifteenth
days, the culture presented the appearance shown in fig. 4.
The cells were lengthened and formed long, thin threads. Spores
were abundant, both in the cells and free. The number of
cells was now gradually diminished, and, on the thirtieth day,
very few were seen, the number of spores being altogether
predominating. When traces of this last stage of development
were transferred, with the usual precautions, into new medium,
development promptly followed, as above described.

The following method of staining gave good results: A
small drop of the culture was placed between two covers and
slightly pressed between them. The covers being separated in
the usual way were placed, moist side upwards, under a bell
glass. Wheu some of the fluid had evaporated, the clean side
of the covers were placed three times, for a period of about one-
second, in the immediate neighborhood of a flame. When
completely dried in the temperature of the room, the covers
were placed in alcohol for two or three minutes, and again
dried; then they were floated, film-side down, upon aniline
blue or aniline violet for 24 hours, washed, dred and mounted
in the usual way.

708 The American Naturalist. [August,

While this organism had the appearance of being a specific
bacillus-form, I was not thoroughly convinced thereof until I
had made a fractional culture in bouillon which resulted in
the development of the one form described. ` The Micrococcus
vaccine I have never found in vaccine or small-pox lymph.

Regarding the polymorphism of this species I can state that
I have observed no such swellings at the middle or ends of the
long cells in old cultures as Martin (l. c.) noticed in the bacilli
found by him, or as Hansen” described for acetic bacteria.

From the figures of Micrococcus vaccine and variol# which I
have seen I am inclined to believe that this organism is not
specific, but consists of free spores of Dispora variole. I also
believe that the facts in regard to the spread of small-pox, as
well as the observations stated above point towards the conclu-
sion that the spores are the main source through which the
disease, itself, as well as vaccinia, are reproduced.

The organisms from small-pox and vaccine lymph are mor-
phologically identical. The physiological difference consists
mainly in the attenuation of the form found in vaccine lymph,
so far as has been hitherto ascertained.

Buttersack” published, a short time ago, an account of cer-
tain bodies which occurred, constantly, i in vaccine lymph, and
which may have some relation to vaccinia. He allowed lymph
to dry on covers; having fixed the latter to the slides by means
of bees-wax, he inspected the film by immersion and observed
a net-work of threads wiih small, refractive, round bodies,
Landmann” and Dräer” interpreted Buttersack’s discovery as
threads of fibrin and other albuminates. I would assume that
B. had seen the “ thread-stage ” of the organism found by me.
Having not yet seen B’s illustrations, this is a mere supposi-
tion.

The diagnostic value of my discovery is yet uncertain. I
hope to be able to report upon the progress of the work, espe-
cially concerning inoculations upon animals and the prepara-

% Comp. Rend. Laboratoire de Carlsberg III, 265-327, 1894.

% Arbeiten a. d. Kais. Gesundheitsamte IX, 96-110, 1894.

3 Hygienische Rundschau, 1894, 433-34.

* Centralblatt f. Bakt. und Parasitenkunde XVI, 561-564, 1894,

1895.] The Affinities of the Lepidopterous. Wing. 709

tion of vaccine in the laboratory, at some future time, when
the work now in progress, has reached completion.

‘Bacteriological Laboratory, State Board of Health. Des
Moines, Iowa, February, 1895.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIX.

Fig. 1. +¥°. Dispora variolz, two days old growth in
Pasteur’s fluid.

Fig. 2. “°°. Same; four days old. Specimen from surface
film.

Fig. 3. ca. “P^, Same; eight days old culture in bouillon.
A few spore-bearing cells.

Fig. 4. ca. °°. Same; eleven days old culture in bouillon.
Spore-bearing cells numerous.

Fig. 5. “S°. Same; 25 days old bouillon- culture. Some
free spores; chains.

Fig. 6. *t°. Same; one month old bouillon-culture. Cells
almost disappeared ; free spores in excessive numbers.

THE AFFINITIES OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS WING.
By Vernon L. KELLOGG.

It has long been recognized that the venation of the wings
of the Trichoptera and Lepidoptera is of similar general charac-
ter; and recognized, too, although less popularly, that the
genera Hepialus and Micropteryx display more clearly than do
any other lepidopterous forms this general resemblance to the
trichopterous venation. Speyer,’ in 1870, pointed this out in
his discussion of the affinities of the Lepidoptera and the Phry-
ganide. His too serious consideration of the many mere an-
alogies apparent in any comparison of the groups did much

1Speyer, A. Ueber die Genealogie der Schmetterlinge, Stettiner Entomolo-
gische Zeitung, pp. 202-223, 1870.

710 The American Naturalist. [August,

to discredit the real points of worth brought out in his discus-
sion. In the light, however, of the present association of Hep-
ialus and Micropteryx as a sub-order, the Jugatx, of the Lepi-
doptera, which is recognized as a distinctly more generalized
group than the sub-order Frenatx, which includes all other
Lepidoptera, this trichopterous character of the jugate vena-
tion becomes more conspicuously significant.

Fic 1 Wings of Hepialus humuli ; c. v., cross vein; j., jugum.

Hepialus? (see Fig. 1) and Micropteryx (see Fig. 2) are distin-
guished in point of venation’ from the Frenatz (see Fig. 3) by
the fact that the radial area of the hind wings is not reduced,
although the anal area is, thus causing a similarity in vena-
tion between the fore and hind wings, radius (III) being five-
branched in each. This similarity of the venation of both
wings is not to be found among the Frenate. The persist-

? The venational nomenclature used is that of Redtenbacher (Vergleichende
Studien über das Fliigelgeiider der Insekten, in Annalen der k. k. naturhistor-
ischen Hofmuseums, Bd. I, 1886, Wien) adopted, with modifications, by Comstock.

* The real value of these taxonomic characters presented by the venation of the
Lepidoptera can be fully appreciated after a reading of Prof. Comstock’s essay on
Evolution and Taxonomy; in the Wilder Quarter-Century Book, 1893, Ithaca,
N. Y, !

1895.] The Affinities of the Lepidopterous Wing. 711

ence of the stem of media (V) anywhere among the Lepidop-.
tera is an indication of a generalized condition, as is the per-
sistence of more than two anal veins in the hind wings. At
_ the base of the principal descent lines of moths are found gen-
eralized forms, their generalization indicated in their venation
by the persistence of media (V) and often by the presence of
three anal veins in the hind wings. But the specializing ten-

; V3 vil, Vil, vmi Vile
xr
1x
Fic. 2. Wings of Micropteryx sp. ; Fic. 3. Wings of Chrysophanus
j.jugum. (After Comstock). thoe. (After Comstock).

dency towards a cephalization of flight, resulting in a change
from the racial sub-equality and importance of fore and hind
wings to an inequality produced by a reduction of the hind
wings has resulted in the loss (coalescence) among all living
Lepidoptera, except the, genera Hepialus and Micropteryx, of
the branches of radius in the hind wings.

As pointed out by Prof. Comstock, the Jugate (Hepialus and
Micropteryx) in this respect stand much nearer the racial lepi-
dopteron than do any of the Frenatw. The striking resem-
blance, then, of the jugate venation, standing, as it does, for
the most generalized existing condition of lepidopterous vena-
tion, to the trichopterous type of venation is significant. By
an inspection of the figures, herewith presented, of the venation
of Hepialus (see Fig. 1) and Micropteryx (see Fig. 2) with those of
the venation of Newronia sp. (see Fig. 4) and of an undetermined

712 The American Naturalist. [August,

caddice-fly collected by me in Colorado (see Fig. 5), the reality
of the correspondence is apparent. In the fore wings of all the
simple unbranched sub-costa (II), the 5-branched radius (III,-
III,), the persisting stem of media (V) coalescing at its base
with cubitus (VII), the three branches (four in the Colorado
trichopteron) of media (V), and the reduced anal field, are com-
mon characters. In the hind wings, the general character of
the venational uniformity is only varied by differences which,

Sa vita Vila

Fic. 4. Wings of Neuronia, sp.; c. v., cross Fic. 5. Wings of undetermined
vein; j. jugum. caddice-fly ; j. jugum.

in themselves, are additional evidences of a community of
plan. One of the caddice-flies differs from the other in those
correlated characters which have been pointed out by Prof.
Comstock as characteristic of the tendency of specialization in
the lepidopterous wing, viz., a tendency towards the coales-
cence (or disappearance) of the radial branches and increasing
reduction of the anal area manifested by a loss of anal veins.
In the hind wings of the Colorado caddice-fly (see Fig. 5) there
are but four radial branches (IIL, III,,,, and III, and ITI,),
and the anal veins (VIII, IX, XI, XIII), while two more in
number than in Micropteryxz or Hepialus, are less in number
than in Neuronia.

It is beyond the scope of this paper to attempt any discus-
sion of the lines of specialization exhibited by the wings of the
Trichoptera, but it is an obvious and interesting fact that the

1895.] The Affinities of the Lepidopterous Wing. 713,

general characters of these lines are strikingly parallel with
those exhibited by the Lepidoptera. A more primitive sub-
equality of the wings, shown among the Lepidoptera only by
the Jugate, is retained, but there is an obvious tendency
towards a narrowing of the wings and consequent loss in num-
ber of veins, this loss being first apparent among the anal
veins, and radial branches, and the hind wings being the first
to be reduced. Setodes and other similar forms constitute an
exception to this general tendency, something as do the Sat-
urniina among the Lepidoptera, in that a peculiarly expanded
anal field is displayed, although the venation of the wing is
considerably specialized, the radial branches being largely
reduced. The wing and anal area here are not in a primitive
condition, but display a peculiar sidewise developed specializa-
tion. The tendency towards the disappearance of the base of
media (V) is manifest, the stem of the vein in both fore and
hind wings of Mystacides punctatus and others being represented
by a mere fold.

Of interest in the comparison of the trichopterous and jugate
wings, is the condition of the cross veins. The primitive neu-
ropterous wings are characterized by the wealth of cross veins ;
the specialized lepidopter-
ous wings are characterized
by the almost total absence
of these veins. The Juga-
tæ show more cross veins
than do any of the Frena-
te. The usual trichopterous
wings possess more cross veins than the jugate wing, but the
manifest tendency is towards their fading out and disappear-
ance. The wings of Mystacides punctatus, for example, a highly
specialized trichopteron, shows fewer cross veins than do the
wings of Hepialus or Micropteryz. In the hind wings of Setodes
sp. there are no cross veins and but two or three in the fore
wings. In the disappearance of the cross veins those midway
between base and apex of wing persist longest ; although
there is a cross vein between the basal part of subcosta (II)
and the costal margin of wing which is very persistent (see c.

vu
Fic. 6. Fore wing of Panorpa sp.

714 The American Naturalist. [August,

v. in Hepialus humuli Fig. 1, and in Neuronia, Fig. 4). I pre-
sent a figure of the venation of the fore wing of Panorpa sp.
which should be examined in connection with the jugate and
trichopterous wings for the noting of this tendency of disap-
pearance of the cross veins, and for the persistence of the mid-
wing cross veins. It is worth while, in passing, to note also
the general agreement in venational character of the mecop-
terous wing with the trichopterous and lepidopterous wings.
The more generalized character of the Panorpa wing is mani-
fest in the point of number of radial and medial branches and
in the abundance of cross veins. As I have pointed out else-
where, this disappearance of cross veins in these three groups
proceeds coincidently with the development of the wing-scales,
which serve to strengthen the wing-membrane.

Not alone in character of venation but in character of wing-
clothing, as pointed out in a previous paper, and in the mode
of tying the fore and hind wings of each side together for the
sake of sychronity of movement in flight, do the jugate and
trichopterous wings show obvious resemblances. The well-
known scale-hairs of the Trichoptera are simply the true lepi-
dopterous scale in generalized state. Nor are these trichopter-
ous scales always of so generalized condition as an examina-
tion of a limited number of wings might lead one to believe.
There are many instances among the caddice-flies of the pres-
ence of well developed scales. In Fig. 7 well-specialized scales
from the fore wings of two species of Setodes are shown at c
and d. Ihave been specially interested to note in the wing
clothing of Mystacides punctatus (see a and b, Fig. 7) in addition
to the numerous broad scale hairs, a sprinkling of conspicuous
large, flattened, bulbous, white scales, which present exter-
nally the peculiar characters of the variously modified scent-
scales or androconia of the male butterflies.

The essential structural difference between the Jugate and
Frenatæ on which the two groups were separated by Prof.
Comstock is that displayed by the two methods of uniting the -
wings of each side during flight. The jugate moths have fore

t Author. The Classification of the Lepidoptera, AMERICAN NATURALIST, V.
XXIX, no. 339, pp. 248-257, March, 1895.

1895.] The Affinities of the Lepidopterous Wing. 715

and hind wings united by a membranous lobe, the jugum,
borne at the base of the inner margin of the fore wings.
When the wings of Hepialus or Micropteryx are extended, “the
jugum projects back beneath the costal border of the hind
wing, which, being overlapped by the more distal portion of

the inner margin of the

fore wing, is thus held be-

tween the two as in a

vise.” The frenate Lepi-

doptera have the two

wings of each side united
_ by the familiarly known

frenulum borne at the

Fic. 7. Seales from wings of Trichoptera; base of the costal mee a
a, portion of fore wing of Mystacides puncta- of the hind wings, or by a
renee ag soale hairs and bulbous andreco- substitute for a frenulum,
larged; c, d, scales from fore wings of Seto- an expanded humeral area
om s of the hind wings, by
which a considerable overlapping of the wings is produced.
The common occurrence of a jugum among caddice-flies (see j
in Figs. 4 and 5), which is essentially the same structure pre-
sented by the jugate moths, has already been referred to by
Prof. Comstock as of interesting significance. The jugate
method is, however, by no means the only mode of wing
union among the Trichoptera. The jugum may exist coinci-
dently with other uniting structures, or it may be entirely
wanting, the tying together of the fore and hind wings being
accomplished by the overlapping for a considerable space of
the hind margin of the fore wing and the costal margin of the
hind wing, or by a row of hooks projecting from the costal
margin of the hind wing which fasten to a chitinized ridge
running along near the hind margin of the fore wing. There
seems even to exist the beginnings of the frenate method of
wing tying, as displayed in Hallesus sp. The wings of this
trichopteron present a combination of the jugate and row-of-
hooks methods of wing tying, and, in addition, there are pres-
ent on the base of the costal margin of the hind wing two long
strong hairs (see f, Fig. 8), the very counterpart of the generalized

49 :

a

716 The American Naturalist. [August,

frenulum (i. e., frenulum in which the hairs are not united

into one single strong spine) of the lepidopterous wing. This
- trichopterous frenulum is, however, much shorter than the
lepidopterous frenulum and does not fit into a frenulum hook |
on the under surface of the fore wing, but merely rests against
the jugum of the fore:wing. The jugum is fairly well devel-
oped but can hardly overlap the base of the hind wing much,
The series of tying hooks extends along the costal margin
from near the base of the wing for
about one-third the length of the
margin. I have figured the method
of wing tying for another species
(see Fig. 9) which, however, illus-
trates the method and the function-
ing structures quite as truly for Hal-
lesus sp. In the species figured, the
hooks method, combined with the
overlapping of the opposed margins
of the wings, is the only means of
union, the small, jugum-like structure at the base of the fore
wing being practically functionless. When the wings are ex-
tended a narrow space along the inner margin of the fore
wing, roughened on its under surface by many short, strong,
sharp-pointed bristles, and with the membrane greatly strength-
ened and made less yielding by these bristles, is underlain by
the costal margin of the hind wing for a distance of more than
half the length of the margin. Along the extreme costal bor-
der of this underlying space, which is slightly expanded cos-
tal-wards, there is a regular series of strong, hooked hairs or
bristles, each of which bears on the concave surface of the
curved or hooked portion many fine teeth (see c, Fig. 9).
These toothed hooks are applied to and firmly grasp a strong,
roughened, chitinous line or ridge running along the under
side of the fore wing. ‘This chitinous line is roughened by
the presence of fine ridges for the firmer grasping of the hooks.
By the overlapping and hooking there is formed an effective
tying together of the two wings.

Fic. 8. Base of hind wing of
Hallesus sp.; f, frenulum hairs.

1895.] The Affinities of the Lepidopterous Wing. 717

This method of tying by hooks is a common one among the
caddice-flies. Often there will be no chitinized ridge (chiefly
produced by an extra thickening of one or more of the anal
veins) for the hooks to grasp, but one of the anal veins will
bear a series of stiff hairs or bristles which interlace with the
hooked bristles and project in such a direction that they are
effectually grasped by them. In connection with the hooks
and slight overlapping of the wing margins, there is usually a
well-developed jugum, which makes a firm overlapping con-
nection between the bases of the wings. There are often, too,
small bunches of strong, long hairs, or smaller number of still
stronger hairs borne on the base of the costal margin of the
fore wing, which project forward under the jugum, suggesting,
as shown especially in Hallesus, the beginnings of the lepidop-
terous frenulum.

Raita itive

anita

Fic. 9. e Portions of wings of a caddice-fly; a, anal margin and area of fore
wing; b, basal half of costal margin and area of hind wing; c, hook (enlarged)
from costal margin of hind wing.

A most interesting wing tying arrangement is presented by
Panorpa (see Fig. 10, a, b, c). We have here an arrangement
which is strongly suggestive of what that racial type-structure
may have been from which, on the one hand, the successfully
functioning unaided jugum, and on the other, the perfected
frenate arrangement could have been developed. The pretty

718 The American Naturalist. [August,

strongly developed jugum in this mecopterous form bears on
its free margin four strong backward projecting bristles, while
a basal expansion of the costal margin of the hind wing bears
on its free margin four strong backward projecting bristles,
while a basal expansion
of the costal margin of
the hind wing bears two
long, strong, slightly
diverging bristles, so
projecting that one lies
above the other. When
the wings are expanded
the four jugal bristles
lie between two bristles
of the hind wing (see c,
Fig. 10), forming a
unique tying arrange-
ment.

So far as this organ
is concerned, and for
that matter, so far as
concerns the venation
and the wing clothing,
the trichopterous wing,
and the jugate and fre-
nate types of the lepi-
dopterous wing may

Fic. 10. Bases of wings of Panorpa; a, base all have had a general-
Mad prei ; aa - of hind wing; c, bases of ized prototype very like

the mecopterous wing.
In the beginning the wings were independent and obviously
the frenate type and the jugate type may have arisen, as sug-
gested by Prof. Comstock, as distinct lines from the un-united
wing type. But from the known phyletic relations of the Ju-
gate and Frenatz, and from the conditions presented by the
trichopterous and mecopterous wings, which I have here at-
tempted to indicate, the evidence, though as yet most ill-di-
gisted, suggests strongly, to my mind, the probability of the

1395.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 719

origin of the frenate type from an earlier type which was es-
sentially jugate, but which possessed frenulum-like structures
of a character to be easily developed, by selection, into the ex-
isting highly specialized frenate condition of the wings of the
Noctuide and others.

In conclusion, I may add that every attempt I have yet
made to study, in a comparative way, the morphology of the
three insect groups mentioned in this paper, has afforded in
each succeeding instance stronger basis for a belief in the close
phyletic relationship of the groups, a belief shared with, of
course, and already expressed by many others.

Stanford University, Calif.

ON THE PRESENCE OF FLUORINE AS A TEST FOR
THE FOSSILIZATION OF ANIMAL BONES.

By Dr. THomas WItson.
(Continued from page 456, Vol. XXIX).

Appreciating the importance of the discoveries made in
France in regard to the proportion of fluorine in animal bones
as a test of their fossilization and antiquity, I determined to
make a further attempt in the investigation by analysis of the
bones, human and mylodon, found by Dr. Dickeson at Natchez,
as heretofore described (page 303). Tothat end, I made appli-
cation to Dr, Samuel G. Dixon, Curator of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for specimens of the two
bones to be subjected to analysis with a view to the determina-
tion of their respective proportions of fluorine. Dr. Dixon
kindly presented my application, and it was allowed. In due
course I received the fragments from the two respective bones.
Professor R. L. Packard was engaged in the laboratory in the
U. S. National Museum making a series of mineral and rock
analyses, we had, together, become acquainted with Mons. Car-

720 The American Naturadist. [August,

not’s methods of analysis by having read and studied them,
and he was heartily enlisted in the investigation, therefore
was chosen to make the analyses. His reportfis herewith pre-
sented :—

Wasuineton, D. C., March 20, 1895.

Dr. Thomas Wilson, Curator, Department of Prehistoric Anthro-

pology, Smithsonian Institution. :

DEAR Str: I send you herewith the results of the chemical
analyses of the fragments of bones you gave me for examina-
tion.

One of the specimens, said to be a portion of the mylodon
gave on complete analysis the following composition :

Moisture, ; ‘ j : : ; ‘ ; 3.94
Organic matter, i : : his <a 25.55
Cae eta OL 3.76
Lime (CaO), . ‘ 4 : ; ; ; 4 28.25
Magnesia (MgO), . : i j ; : .06
Manganese (MnO), . : i ; i n K F
Oxide of Iron and Alumina (Fe,0, & ALO), « ; 7.75
Phosphoric acid (POJ) . =- : ; : 26.59
Fluorine (Fl), . å ; i i : ‘ .28
Insoluble matter, i i : ; ‘ : 1.55
98.51

From the nature of the case the determinations were made
on different pieces of bone, and its composition seems to be
tolerably uniform, because duplicate determinations of moist-
ure, carbonic acid and organic matter varied very little.

Arranged to show the combination of the above bases and
acids, for which a separate determination of the iron (and
alumina) phosphate were made, the result is :—

Moisture, . ; s F i ‘ ; è F 3.94
Organic matter, $ $ 5 è j 25.55
Calcium carbonate, . : : ; 4 ` ; 8.54
Calcium phosphate, . i 3 ; i i 42.83

Iron (and alumina) phosphate, j ; ‘ : 12.07

1895.) Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 721

Magnesium phosphate, . ; Peet A 13
Calcium fluoride, Ce et ge -57
93.63

The specimen said to be fragments of the human pelvis con-
sisted of a disk of perhaps an inch in diameter and a quarter
of an inch thick, pieces of what appeared to have been another
disk similar to the first, and a quantity of coarse powder.
That the-two were not identical in composition is evident from
the difference in the loss on ignition, the solid pieces having
given 25.05 and the powder 14.20 per cent.

As the determination of fluorine was a special object in this
investigation, I decided to use only the solid pieces of the bone,
as this would afford a better means of comparison with the
mylodon bone. This was accordingly done, and the following
was the result of the partial analysis which was carried out
on the same sample in which the fluorine was determined :

Moisture, . i 5 : ; ; 3.62
Organic matter, . : : 21.43
Tron (and alumina) phosphate, gone SA
Lime (Ca O), ‘Eo eo. ae
Phosphoric acid P, 0, ; í : 20.77
Fluorine, . $ ‘ ; 38 (=.78 Ca F;,)

It was impossible to determine the carbonic acid. The in-
soluble residue was slight, but was not determined.

Deducting the moisture and organic matter, we should get
- for the composition of the ash of the mylodon :—

Calcium carbonate, . : A ‘ ‘ ; . 13.14
Calcium phosphate, . oea r R
Iron (and alumina) phosphate, a ee:
Calcium fluoride, : i i : : ‘ 88

We have not sufficient data for making a similar complete
-calculation in the case of the human bone, but we can give

722 The American Naturalist. [August,

enough of the constituents to find in it, as well as in the mylo-
don bone, the ratio between the fluorine contained in the bones
and the theoretical quantity which an apatite having the
same proportion of phosphoric acid would contain, as recom-
mended by M. Carnot in the Ann. des Mines, 1893.

Deducting the moisture and organic matter, therefore, we
should have the following partial composition of the ash of
the human bone :—

Iron (and alumina) phosphate, ‘ : : 17.34

Lime (Ca 0O), . ; ; ; : ; 37.25
Total phosphoric acid, i : i : 27.69
Fl (fluorine), . ; $ ; : 0.51
Or Ca Fl (calcium fluoride), . i ; i ; 1.03

The analyses are here re-arranged so as to permit of compar-
ison with those tabulated by M. Carnot :—

| a)
a | E Eri = g% o
2 iy E s |253
E | Se o $ or EB A
Ash o | ae E E 3 Jags
a. | Se Bois 3 gah
T ee es E
o |3 = 5 2
| 3 a =
a) Clee Oe Pe
|
Mylodon 22.55 | 7.75 | 26.59 | 028 | 237 | 9.12
AUSSIE ETA HAE | |
|
Vaan tone 21.43 | 650 | 20.77 | 088 | 1.85 | 0.20

In the present instance the fluorine was determined by the
method recommended by M. Carnot with no essential modifi-
cations. This method differs from others mainly in the com-
position of the precipitate produced. The process, in brief,
consists in decomposing the substance mixed with silica (free
from fluorine) with concentrated sulphuric acid which has
been freed from fluorine by heating with silica, passing the
silicon fluoride gas evolved through dry tubes unto a solution
of fluoride of potassium, and precipitating the fluo-silicate of

1895.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 723

potassium so produced with alcohol, which precipitate is col-
lected on a tared filter dried and weighed. The decomposi-
tion is effected in a dry flask ata temperature of about 100° C
and the current of dry air is passed through the apparatus
during the operation, which lasts a couple of hours or more.
I examined the precipitates under the microscope in order to
be certain of their character, and observed the small isometric
forms—combinations of cubes and octahedrons—under which
silicofluoride of potassium appears.

The analyses of the human bone and mylodon which you
had made formerly and have handed me, show that the speci-
mens differed in several respects from those you furnished me.
The composition of the mylodon bone does not vary so very
much in its essential constituents from that I have analyzed,
but the human bone contained 22.59 per cent. of silica. De-
ducting that figure from the total, and recalculating, we have:

Loss on ignition, ‘ : : i -o 1o
Lime, ; : ee ees . 83.59
Phosphoric acid, : oon i : : 22.57

This makes the proportion of lime about six per cent. greater
than in the specimen I analyzed, while the phosphoric acid is
only some two per cent. higher. In both cases that latter con-
stituent is present in much smaller proportion than is usually
given for phosphoric acid in human bones. (See Fremy,
Encyclopedie Chimique T. IX, p. 603, where phosphoric acid
is as high as 58 per cent. of the ash or total mineral matter).
Moreover, the percentage of ash is higher than is usual in
human bones. A listin Watts’ Dictionary, article Bone, gives
the percentage of ash in such bones as below 70 per cent., rang-
ing from about 50 to 70, while in the present case the ash is
about 75 per cent.

Iam
Very truly yours,
(Signed) R. L. PACKARD.

It is always to be remembered throughout this paper, both
in the investigations of myself and Dr Packard, as well as in

724 The American Naturalist. [August,
those of Mons. Carnot, that the results are comparative and not
absolute. The value of our investigations lies in showing that
if the bones of the mylodon and the man were originally de-
posited together, and were practically the same age, they must
have been subjected to substantially the same chemical influ-
ences, they would show practically the same analyses, and the
comparison between their respective constituents should be
substantially the same. Thus is afforded the great desiderata
of a means of comparison between the human and the animal
bone. As it is known that the mylodon was to a certain ex-
tent an ancient animal, if the human bone, when compared
with that of the mylodon showed an equal amount of fluorine
together with the concomitants of fossilization, it is evidence
that they are of the same antiquity.

The relations between the various chemical constituents of
the two bones are shown in the following table:

Mylodon Man
Fluorine, . i 0.28 0.38
Fluorine énloulated i apatite,” $ 2.37 1.85
Ratio, ; ; j ; ; 0.102 0.205
Phosphoric acid, : i : . 26.59 20.77
Fluorine, . A ; : ; : 0.28 0.38
Ratio, ; , : i : i 94.96 -54.70
Organic matter, : i 25.55 21.43
Oxide of iron and alimi ; é 7.75 6.50

From these tables the following comparisons may be made:
The fluorine in the mylodon was 0.28, in man 0.38, the ratio
between the quantity of fluorine in the bone and to that of an-
apatite having an equal amount of phosphoric acid was, for
the mylodon 0.102, for the man 0.205. A reference to the tables
on pages 313 and 447 will show that for modern bones, the
average as calculated from twelve specimens, is 0.058. By the
same table the Quaternary bones were shown to be 0.36. It
would appear from a comparison, that the bones of the man and
the mylodon subjects of the present analyses are approximately
between modern bones and those of the Quaternary period.

1895,] Contributions to Coccidology. 725

In the present cases the phosphoric acid was in the mylodon
26.59 and the man 20.77, while the fluorine was respectively 0.28
and 0.38, making the ratio between them, for the mylodon 94.96,
for the man 54.70. Referring to page 455, we will see this test ap-
plied to the discoveries of Billancourt. There the two fossil
bones were respectively 23.9 and 19.4, while the human bone
reached the high average of 168.9. Turning again to the table
on page 447, we will see that this ratio was increased in the case
of bones known to be modern to 193.1. This, therefore, bears
out the contention of the value of this test—it shows two
things, (1) that according to the averages made by Mons. Carnot,
the bones under present consideration, the man and the mylo-
don, are substantially of the same antiquity, and (2) by the
same comparison their antiquity is about midway between the
modern bones and those of the Quaternary geologic epoch.

This investigation will be carried further by making analy-
ses of other bones, some of which will be modern, some of
known, and others of supposed antiquity.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO COCCIDOLOGY.—I.
By T. D. A. CocKERELL,

ENTOMOLOGIST, NEW MEXICO AGR. EXP. STATION.

The present is the first of a proposed series of papers on Coc-
cide (Scale Insects); intended to make known some of the
numerous new facts, especially regarding their distribution,
which are constantly coming to light. The ever increasing
traffic in living plants, which is going on in nearly every part
of the world, is leading to the wide dispersal of injurious Coc-
cide. No one who has not given particular attention to this
matter can realize the serious nature of the situation, from an
economic point of view. Not only is the number of harmful
‘Coccide in each locality being greatly increased by importa-
tions, but, as is well-known, the imported species often show a

726 The American Naturalist. [August,

marked tendency to become more destructive than in their
native habitat.

If the naturalist, pure and simple, on reading these lines
should say that the matter does not concern him, but the hor-
ticulturist, he is begged to remember the bearing of these
changes on questions of geographical distribution. If, ignor-
ant of what is going on through man’s energy, he proceeds to
collect Coccide and argue about their distribution, he will ar-
rive at the most extraordinary conclusions, and will, perhaps,
be asking for sunken continents to explain phenomena which
had no existence twenty-five years ago!

The notes given will be placed under sub-heads indicating
the several countries, states or districts. Species marked * are
new to the region indicated by the sub-head. This merely
means that they are first found there, whether on wild or cul-
tivated plants, out of doors or in hothouses. But native and
introduced species will not be placed under the same sub-head
if it can be avoided; when we do not know whether a species
is native or not, it will be assumed for the present to be so.
(N.)=native. (I.)=introduced.

With reference to food plants the following abbreviations
will be used: (n. p.)=new food plant; (n. g. p.)=new genus of
food plants; (n. o. p.)=new natural order of food plants. Coll.
=collected by; com.communicated by ; cp.=compare; used
in indicating useful references.

Types of all new species described will become the property
of the U. S. National Museum. |

ANTIGUA, WEST INDIES.

While we have no positive information to guide us, I be-
lieve the following species have been introduced. They were
all coll. Mr. Barber, Superintendent of Agriculture of the Lee-
ward Institute (cp. Ins. Life, VI, 50-51.)

Aspidiotus destructor Signoret. On leaves of banana at Clare
Hall; also on cocoanut, Jan. 15, 1895.

Aspidiotus personatus Comst. A few on rose leaves, and
many on Ficus sp. near benjamina (cp. Jn. Inst., J amaica, 1892,
54). This isthe fifth Aspidiotus found on rose, the others being
A. fiscus, A. articulatus, A. dictyospermi var. jamaicensis, and A.
perniciosus.

1895.] Contributions to Coceidology. 727

* Ceroplastes floridensis Comst. Several on fern leaves (n. o.
p., but cp. supposed C. vinsoni, in Timehri, Dec., 1889, p. 309,
fig. 3). The fifth Ceroplastes found in Antigua.

Lecanium hemisphericum Targ. A few on fern leaves (cp.
Bull. Bot. Dep. Jamaica, 1894, p. 71).

Lecanium olee (Bern.). Brown variety. One on fern leaf.
(Also found on leaves of a fern in hothouse, Denver, Colo., by
Prof. Gillette, the fern in this case being Platycerium alcicorne).

TRINIDAD, WEST INDIEs.

The first two are certainly, I think, native; the third prob-
ably native, the fourth certainly introduced. All were coll.
Mr. J. H. Hart in 1895.

*Icerya rose Riley & Howard. Sent in quantity, from the
base of a tree of Amherstia nobilis, “ covered up by small cav-
erns of earth by a species of small ant that no doubt was in-
terested in so doing. The scale was not perceived above
ground at all, but on the roots there were plenty of several
sizes.” (Hart in litt.) This was on Jan. 26.

Vinsonia stellifera (Westw.). On Stanhopea (n.g.p.). “ Fairly
common here but causes little trouble.” (Hart in litt.) There
appear to be good reasons for believing that this is properly a
neotropical species. '

Otheria insignis Dougl. In numbers on leaves of lime (n.
p.), “quite a pest.” (Hart in litt.) (Also found by Professor
Townsend on lime and orange in Mexieo, as will be set forth
in a report shortly to be issued. The insect is to be dreaded
as a pest of Citrus fruits in the warmer parts of the U.S.; al-
ready it is well known in this country as a greenhouse species
(cp. Mr. Lounsbury’s paper, lately sent out from the Amherst,
Mass., College), and may very easily be transferred thence to
out-of-door plants in the South. In Ceylon it has also ap-
peared, and Mr. E. E. Green has found the true ¢—the pre-
sumed ¢ of this species, found by Douglas and Lounsbury,
being apparently those of Dactylopius. It is hard to explain
why the true 3 (with caudal tuft) has not been seen in Amer-
ica, unless it is that the insect reproduces parthenogenetically
with us. It may here be remarked that Ortheria edwardsii
Ashmead, described only from the ¢, is pretty clearly no Or-
theria. :

728 The American Naturalist. jAugust,

Chionaspis citri Comst. “ Is the pest of our lime trees here.”
(Hart in litt.) This extremely pernicious species has not yet
spread generally through the West Indies, being still unknown,
for example, in Jamaica. -

Cotorapo (I.).

The following species have lately been sent to me from Col-
orado hothouses by Prof. Gillette. I refrain from giving de-
tails as Prof. Gillette will shortly publish the full records in a
paper on the Hemiptera of Colorado.

*(1.) In greenhouse at Fort Collins: Lecanium hesperidum
(L.), Aspidiotus nerii (Bouché), A. dictyospermi Morg., A. rapax
Comst.

*(2.) In greenhouse at Denver: Lecanium olew (Bern.), L.
longulum Dougl., L. hemisphericum Targ., L. perforatum Newst.;
Aspidiotus ficus (Ashm.), A. dictyospermi Morg., Aulacaspis bois-
dwvalii (Sign.). ,

(Thus, ten species between the two hothouses! The A. dic-
tyospermi is a species originally from Demerara; I found it
last year on a palm in Mr. Boyle’s hothouse at Santa Fe, New
Mexico. A. rapaz is the camelliw of Signoret, but hardly that
of Boisduval, vide Morgan, Ent. Mo. Mag., 1889, p.351. Since
Signoret intended no new species, but only Boisduval’s, by his
name camellic, it is apparent that the name proposed by Com-
stock has a right to stand.)

It may be here added that Prof. Gillette also sent me Aspi-
diotus perniciosus Comst., found on. pears purchased (but not
raised) in Fort Collins, Colorado.

New Mexico (N,).

Lecaniodiaspis yucce Twns. I have lately found several of

this species on Little Mountain, Mesilla Valley, living on Par-
thenium incanum (n. o. p.) mixed with Tachardia cornuta Ckll.
- Coccus confusus Ckll. Mr. A. Holt has found this close to
the Agricultural College, on Opuntia leptocaulis DC. (n. p,), the
plant determined for me by Prof. Wooton. (At Tucson, Ari-
zona, Prof. Toumey finds C. confusus on Opuntia versicolor
Engelm.)

1895.] Contributions to Coecidology. 729

_ * Dactylopius solani var. nov. atriplicis. On Atriplex canescens

close to the Agricultural College, Sept., 1894, living on the
twigs and branches.

ọ. Size of D. citri; pale greenish, sparsely mealy, no lateral
processes; forming no ovisac, but a cushion of white cottony
matter, in which are seen lively young.

_ Mr. Joseph Bennett, who was a student of the college at the
time of the discovery of this insect, prepared specimens of the
ọ,and drew up the following description :

“Derm clear transparent. Form oval, slightly obovate.
Leg: coxa rather short, about as broad as long; trochanter
rather large, about half as long as coxa and two-thirds as
broad as long; femur about one and a half times as long as
coxa, and about two-thirds as broad as coxa; tibia about as
long as femur, and half as thick; tarsus two-fifths as long as
tibia and very near as thick, tapering to half as thick, claw
very small. Anal ring with six hairs. Antenna 8-jointed; 1
short and thick, 2 about as long as 1, 3 much longer than 2;
4, 5, 6 about equal in length, about one-third as long as 3 and
same thickness; 7 a little longer than 6; 8 as long as 3+4.
Formula 83 (21) 7 (654). Each joint emits numerous hairs,
those on final joint being longest.” (J. Bennett.)

3. Mr. Bennett had the good fortune to find the ¢, of

which I noted the following characters:
_ Very small, about 1 mm. long, dark sage-green or greenish-
gray, legs and antennæ brownish; caudal filaments only
about as long as abdomen, thick, snow-white from secretion ;
wings semitransparent milky-white. .

The typical D. solani lives on the roots of solanum under-
ground; and differs from the var. atriplicis in lacking the
greenish color, and in the second joint of the antennæ being
somewhat.longer than the third. (The typical D. solani, hith-
erto known only from New Mexico, is to be added to the
‘fauna of Colorado, having been found on roots of Solanum ros-
tratum (n. p.) at Fort Collins, coll. C. F. Baker, com. Gillette.
Found originally on potatoes grown in the Mesilla Valley, it
was not feared as a potato pest, since the potato is not grown
as a regular crop. It may, however, prove quite otherwise at

730 The American Naturalist. [August,

Fort Collins, where, I understand from Prof. Gillette, the po-
tato is one of the leading crops. Yet it is probable that the
disturbance of the land in the cultivation of potatoes would
prevent the over-abundance of D. solani.)

Atriplex canescens has proved a mine of wealth to the cocci-
dologist. The following species are found on it in the Mesilla
Valley, n. m.: Dactylopius solani var. artriplicis Ckll., Lecanio-
diaspis (Prosopophora) yucce var. rufescens (Ckll.), Ortheria an-
næ Ckll., Mytilaspis albus var. concolor Ckll., Ceroplastes irregu-
laris Ckll.

*Ortheria nigrocincta n. sp. On narrow leaves, apparently
of aspecies of Composite, Gila Hot Springs, N. M., July 20,
1894, coll. C. H. T. Townsend. When Prof. Townsend gave
me this insect, I supposed it was only O. annex, but a careful
comparison reveals the following good distinctive characters:

2. Length, with ovisac, 4 mm., breadth 2 mm. ; ovisae pure
chalk-white, firmer than in anne, longitudinally ridged above.
Body (dried) coal-black, legs dark brown, antennz reddish-
brown. Sides, between dorsal and lateral lamellee, broadly
black from the exposed body, Anterior dorsal lamelle broader
antero-posteriorly than in annex. Posterior lamelle much as
in anne, free from ovisac, but not so rapidly increasing in
length mesad; the innermost one not being greatly longer
than the outermost.

Another allied species is O. sonorensis, which will be de-
scribed in Prof. Townsend’s report on his recent trip in Mex-
ico. The following table will separate the three :

A. Length with ovisae over 5 mm.

1. Posterior lamellz about equal in length ; a small por-
tion of hind-dorsum free from secretion, sonorensis Ckll.
2. Posterior lamellz successively longer mesad, the inner-
most at least twice as long as the outermost; dorsum
covered by secretion, anne Ckll.

B. Length with ovisac under 5 mm., sides of dorsum naked,
; nigrocincta Ckll.

*Chionaspis pinifolii (Fitch). Last December I found this
scale on some pine branches brought from the Organ Moun-
tains. (It is doubtless native on the pines of the Rocky Moun-

1895,] Contributions to Coccidology. 731

tain region. Prof. Gillette has found it at Manitou, Colorado;
the specimens from this locality vary, some having the exu-
vie very pale yellow, as in examples found by Mr. Petit at
Ithaca, N. Y., while others, constituting a mut. nov. semiaureus,
have the exuvie bright orange.)

Jamaica, West Innes (L).

*Ceroplastes ceriferus (Anders). Mr. W. Harris sends me
specimens from Jamaica on burweed, Triumfetta rhomboidea
Jacq. (n. g. p.). They were found at Cinchona on March
15, 1895. These scales differ a little from typical ceriferus,
being very white, yet I cannot separate them specifically.
The derm has very large oval gland pores, and is obscurely
tessellated. The digitules of the claw are very stout, with
large knobs; those of the tarsus long, moderately slender,
with large knobs. (The only West Indian locality before
known for the species is Antigua.)

* Icerya montserratensis Riley & Howd. ‘There were in the
Jamaica museum some fragments of a coccid marked “19
Feb., 1886. No. 740. J. Hart.” I brought away a portion of
this material when I left Jamaica, as it was evidently some-
thing I had never found in the island; and on recently sub-
jecting it to careful examination, I find it to be T. montserra-
tensis. It differs from the type of that species in no important
respect, though the club of the antenne is not as long as the
three preceding joints together. The antenne are very large,
1l-jointed. The ovisac is long, yellowish-white, strongly
grooved. Mr. Hart, now of Trinidad, formerly lived in
Jamaica, and presumably found these specimens there. It is
curious that I never met with the species, if it has been intro-
duced into the island.

New York Stare (N.).

Aspidiotus ancylus Putnam (ep. Comstock, 2d Cornell Rep., p.
59). Dr. Lintner sent me some of this from Albany, found
several years ago on black currant (n. p.) in his garden.

Lecanium ribis Fitch. Dr. Lintner sent me specimens found
in June, 1885 by Hon. G. W. Clinton, in Albany Rural Ceme-
tery, on Ostrya (n. g. p.) and Carpinus (n. g. p.). Comparison

50

732 The American Naturalist. [August,

of these with examples from Ribes showed no valid distinction.
This species may be readily known by its small size (long. 3,
lat. 2, alt. 24 mm., looking a little like L. hemisphwricum), red-
brown color; derm with large gland-pits, frequently in pairs;
antenn 6-jointed, 3 as long or longer than 4+5+6. The
digitules of the claw are remarkably stout, but very little ex-
panded at their ends.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ALLEN, J. A.—Remarks on a Second Collection of Mammals from New Bruns-
wick, and on the Rediscovery of the genus Neotoma in New York State. Extr.
Bull. Am. Mus. Natl. Hist., Vol. VI, 1894. From the author.

Baur, G.—Professor Alexander Agassiz on the Origin of the Fauna and Flora
of the Galapagos Islands. Extr. Science, Vol. XIX, 1892. From the author.

Bium, J.—Formol als Konservirerungsflussigkeit. Aus Stag über die
Senckb. naturf. Gesell. in Frankfort a. M. 1894. From the a

BOULENGER, G. A.—Description of a new Snake, ares pnt) found in
Travancore. Extr. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.,

——On the Herpetological fauna of Palawan sd hip Extr. Ann, Mag.
Nat. Hist. Ser. 6, Vol. XIV, 1894.——Description of a new Siluroid Fish from
Burma. l. c. From the author.

Bulletin Nos. 54 and 56, 1894, Massachusetts State Agric. Exper. Station.

Bulletin Nos. 24 and 25 Iowa Agric. College Exper. Station. 1894.

BUTLER, A. W.—Biological Survey of Indiana.——Notes on Indiana Birds.
—— Bibliography of Indiana Mammals.——Preliminary List of Indiana Mam-
mals. Extrs. Proceeds. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1893. From the author

CALL, E.—A Study of the Unionidae of Arkansas, with incidental reference to
their distribution in the Mississippi Valley.

——A Study of the Unionidae of Arkansas, with incidental reference to their
distribution in the Mississippi Valley. Extrs. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, Vol.
VII, 1895. From the author.

CARLSSON, A.—Ueber die Zahnentwicklung bei einigen Knochenfischen. Ab-
druck aus den Zool. Jahrb. Achter Band. From the author.

Conn, H. W.—The Biological Laboratory of the Brooklyn Institute, located
at Cold Spring Harbor, L. I. Extr. Univ. Mag., 1894. From the author.

Du -on A.—Hemichirotes tridactylus A. Dug. Extr. La Naturaleza, 2d Serie
Tom

le T.—The Range and Significance of Variation in the Human Skele-
ton. The Shattuck Lecture, Boston, 1894.

1895,] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 733

—Methods of Estimating the Height from parts of the Skeleton. Extr. Med.
Record, Sept.,

FARRINGTON, O. c. —An Analysis of Jadeite from Mogoung, Burma. Extr.
Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII. From the author

Fıs, P. A.—A new Clearer for Collodionized Objects. Bre Proceeds. Amer.
Micros. Soc., 1893.

The Petininotdgy of the Nerve Cell. Extr. Proceeds. Sixth Ann. Session
Assoc, Am. Anatomists, 1894. From the author.

FLETCHER, R.— Anatomy and Art. Extr. Proceeds. Philos. Soc. Washington,
1894. From the author.

GEGENBAUR, ©,—Das Flossenskelet der Crossopterygier und das Archiptery-
gium der Fische. Aus Morph. Jahrb., XXII, Bd., 1894. From the author.

GILL, T.—On the Relations and Nomenclature of Stizostedion or Lucioperca.
Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the author.

IHnERING, H. von.—Os Mammiferos de S. Paulo Catalogo. Sao Paulo, 1894.
From the author.

JUNGERSEN, F. E.—Die Embryonalniere von Amia ca/va. Ausdem Zool. Anz.
No. 451, 1894. From the author.

LınELL, M. L.—Description of a new species of Golden Beetle from Costa Rica.
Extr. Projeti. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII. From the author

MILLER, G. S.—The Ground Gaskeu of Andros Island. Extr. The Auk, Vol.
XI, 1894. From the author.

MowLon, M.—Le Service de la Carte Geologique et les consequences de sa
réorganization. Extr. Bull. del’Acad. Ray. des Sciences, etc. Belgique, 1894.
From the autho

Novy, G. pidaia for Laboratory Work in heed logy. Ann Arbor, 1894.
From the author.

Pou.ic, H.—Eine Elephantenhihle Sicilien und der erste Nachweis des Cra-
nialdomes von Elephas antiquus. Aus dem Abhandl. der k. aw Akad. der
Wiss. > ag XVIII, Bd. München, 1893. From the author

RATHBUN, M. J.—Descriptions of a new genus and four new species of Crabs
from the Antillean Region.

e Crabs of the family Inachidae in the U. S. Natl. Mus. Extrs.
Paadi U.S. ead Mus., Vol. XVII. Erom the Smithsonian Institution.

Report of the Council of the Geol. Soc. of Amer. at its Seventh Annual Meet-
ing, 1894.

See.ey, H. G.—Further Evidences of the Skeleton in Deuterosaurus and Rho-
palodon from the Permian Rocks of Russia. Extr. Philos. Trans. Koy. Soc.,
London, Vol. 185, (1894). From the author

SPET Annual Report of the Agric. Exper. Station of Cornell University, Albany,
189

ins H.—Weismannism once more. Extr. Contemporary Review, 1894.
From the author. :

STEJNEGER, L.—Notes on a Japanese species of Reed Warbler. Extr. Pro-
ceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII. From the author

STEVENSON, C.—Address before the General Meeting of the Civic Club, Phila.,
Nov., 1894. From the author.

734 The American Naturalist. [August,

THURSTON, E.—Note on Tours along the Malabar Coast. Bull. No. 2, Madras
Government Museum. From the Museum.

ToLmaN, W. H.—History of Higher Education in Rhode Island. Bureau of
Education, Cir. of Information No. 1, 1894. From the Bureau of Ed.

Traquair, R. H.—Notes on Paleozoic Fishes. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
1894. From the author.

WEIR, J.—Domesticity or Matriarchy, Which? Extr. Amer. Practitioner and
News, Dec., 1894. From the author.

WILLISTON, S. W.—New or Little known Extinct Vertebrates. Extr., Kansas
Univ. Quart., Jan., 1895. From the author.

WRIGHT, G. F.—Replies to Criticisms. Preface to SecondjEd. of Man and
the Glacial Period. New York, 1894. From the author.

General Notes.

MINERALOGY.’

New Edition of Groth’s Physical Crystallography.—The
concluding part of the third edition of this classic work’ has recently
appeared, the entire book having been so largely rewritten as to be
essentially new. The necessity of this shows what remarkable advances
have been made in the science during the past few years. The new work
is divided into three parts, treating respectively physical, geometrical,
and applied crystallography. Unlike earlier editions, the development
of the optics of crystals is not made to depend on Fresnel’s theory of the
elasticity of the ether, but the optical characters are derived by the purely
geometrical methods of Fletcher. Some features of this treatment
have been already referred to in these notes. This treatment of the
subject, which is certainly the more logical and may prove to be easier
of comprehension by the student, involves a considerable change in the
nomenclature of optical directions.

The sections treating the electrical properties of crystals and the in-
fluence of mechanical forces on crystals, as would be expected, contain
a vast amount of new material. In the closing section of this part,

‘Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

* Physikalische Krystallographie und Einleitung in die krystallographische
Kenfitniss der wichtigeren Substanzen von P. Groth. 3d Ed. pp. 783, 3 colored
plates. Engelmann, Leipzig, 1894. `

1895.] Mineralogy. 735

Bravais’s space lattice theory of molecular structure is treated compre-
hensively, with addition of some of the modifications which have been
made to it by Sohfiche, Federow and Schénflies. Professor Groth
states in his preface, that “ the edifice of crystal knowledge is one of
the best founded in theory of any in the entire realm of physics.”

The second part of the work, that treating the geometrical proper-
ties of crystals, bears but slight resemblance to the corresponding por-
tion of the former editions. Instead of the primary classification of
Naumann into six crystal systems with their partial forms, which is in
general use, the differentiation of Gadolin into thirty-two classes of
forms which represent all possible kinds of crystal symmetry, is adopted.
This classification does away with hemihedral, hemimorphic and tetar-
tohedral divisions, which cause so much difficulty in teaching, and is
logically and scientifically superior to the classification in use. Profes-
sor Groth thinks that the simplification of the nomenclature which this
classification makes possible, will make the subject easier for the stu-
dent, but it seems to us that the additional conceptions of symmetry
(centre of symmetry, and 1, 2, 3,4 and 6 zahlige axes of symmetry)
which are used will more than outweigh these advantages in simplicity,
except for students who have what the Germans call raiimliche Vor-
stellungsgabe highly developed. Of the thirty-two classes of forms,
three have now no known representative, but when it is remembered
that since 1887 representatives have been discovered for six classes
which before lacked examples, the probability is great that examples
will soon be found of all classes. The crystal systems are retained as
a sub-classification to indicate relationships, and a seventh system—the
trigonal system—is added to include those classes which have a 3-zählige
axis of symmetry (rhombohedral, pyramidal, trapezohedral, etc., mak-
ing in all seven classes). The word cubic is adopted for the isometric
system. Another important change lies in the arrangement. The
class of least symmetry is considered first, and the others in the order
of increasing symmetry.

The subject of the calculation and drawing of crystals, which in the
former editions of the work was scattered under the different systems
in the geometrical portion, is here brought together and expanded to
over 60 pages in the beginning of part III. It is followed by a descrip-
tion of the methods of crystal measurement, in which is contained what
will be to many, new descriptions of recently devised apparatus. Such
is a modification by Klein and Fuess of the Federow universal attach-
ment to the microscope stage.

736 The American Naturalist. lAs;

The appearance of this edition of Professor Groth’s work marks an
epoch in the history of crystallography, and there can hardly be a
doubt that all the essential features of his treatment will soon be in-
troduced at least in all advanced courses in the science. Crystallo-
graphers will look forward with anticipation to the appearance of the
great work on chemical crystallography on which Professor Groth is
now engaged.

Tables of the Thirty-two Classes of Crystal Forms.—In
1892 Groth’ issued a table giving the stereographic projection to indicate
the most general form of each of Gadolin’s classes of crystal forms, to-
gether with the position of the crystallographic axes and the axes and
planes of symmetry of the class. These differ from those of his later
published text-book only in that the trigonal crystal system is not in-
troduced in the secondary classification. This table has the great ad-
vantage of bringing all the projections together on a single plate so
that mutual relations may be made out. Wiilfing* has very recently
issued a series of seven plates with explanatory text which give not
alone the stereographic projections to illustrate the kind of symmetry
of each class, but also sketches to indicate the character of all the
kinds of crystal forms which can possibly occur with that kind of sym-
metry. They constitute an introduction to or a synopsis of the subject
of geometrical crystallography, much as it is treated by Groth, and
will be of service in making the subject clear to a beginner, particu-
larly one who cannot easily bring his mind to the condition of pictur-
ing geometrical forms. Wiilfing has, however, unfortunately adhered
to the old arrangement, and treats the classes of highest symmetry first ;
and, moreover, has not utilized the abbreviated nomenclature adopted
by Groth. This and the different numeration of the classes which the
old arrangement involves, will introduce confusion, and are the serious
mistakes of the little book. In his preface Wiilfing recalls an interest-
ing passage in Goethe, which brings out so well the difference between
the position now held by the science of crystallography and that which
it occupied at the time the words were written (they were first printed
in 1829) that I am inclined to introduce it here. Goethe wrote refer-
ring to the science of crystallography as follows:

3 Uebersichtstabelle der 32 Abtheilungen der Krystallformen mit Erlaiiterung-
en, Beispielen, und graphischer Darstellung nach Gadolin zusammengestellt von
P. Groth. Engelmann, Leipzig, 1892, 1 Mark.

* Tabellarische Uebersicht der einfachen Formen der 32 krystallographischen.

Symmetriegruppen zusammengestellt und gezeichnet von Dr. E. A. Wiilfing.
Koch, Stuttgart, 1895.

1895.] Petrograp hy. 737

“ Bie ist nicht productiv, sie ist nur sie selbst und hat keine Folgen...
pis pepe Da sie earn nirgends afiwendbar ist, so hat sie sich in dem
hohen grade in sich selbst ausgebildet. Sie giebt dem Geist eine
gewisse beschräñkte Befriedigung und ist in ihren Einzelheiten so man-
nigfaltig, dass man sie unerschöpflich nefinen kanñ, deswegen sie auch
vorztigliche Meñschen so efitschieden und lafige au sich festhält.—Etwas
Ménchisch-Hagestolzenartiges hat die Krystallographie und ist daher
sich selbst genug. Von praktischer Lebefiseinwirkung ist sie nicht ;
deññ die késtlichsten Erzeugfiisse ihres Gebiets, die krystallinischen
Edelsteine, miissen sea oe werden, ehe wir unsere Frauen
damit schmücken könn

Wülfing remarks “Can it not be doubtful if the sentence of Goethe’s’
‘crystallography has something of the bachelor monk about it and is
hence sufficient unto itself; does not belong to a standpoint of the
science already far behind us.”

Ww. H. Hoses.

PETROGRAPHY.'

An Example of Rock Differentiation.—The High wood Mount-
ains of Montana have afforded Weed and Pirrson’ an interesting study
in rock differentiation. The mountains comprise a group of hills com-
posed of cores of massive granular rocks surrounded by acid and basic
lava flows and beds of tuff, which are cut by hundreds of dykes radiat-
ing from the cores as centers. One of these hills, isolated from the
others is known as Square Butte, whose laccolitic origin can be plainly
shown. The Butte is composed entirely of igneous rocks. Its center
is a core of white syenite, and around this as a concentric envelope is
a dark basic rock called by the authors shonkinite. Near the top of
the Butte the surrounding envelope has been eroded off exposing the
white rock, so that from a distance the latter appears to be capping the
former. The black rock consists of biotite in large plates and augite
crystals, in the irregular spaces between which are found orthoclase,
olivine, a little albite and small quantities of nepheline, cancrinte and
the usual accessory minerals. An analysis of the rock gave:

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Maine.

? Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, p 389.

738 The American Naturalist. [August,

SiO, TiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO MnO MgO CaO Na,O K,O H,O P,O, CI Total
46.73 78° 10.05 3.53 8.20 28 9.68 13.22 181 3.76 1.24 151 18=100.97

The rock is. thus a granular plutonic rock consisting essentially of
augite and orthoclase. It is closely related to augite-syenite, bearing
the same relation to it as vogesite does to hornblende-syenite.

The white rock associated with the shonkinite is a sodalite-syenite,
containing as its bisilicate component only amphibole. Its composition
is given as follows:

SiO, TiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO MnO MgO CaO Na,O K,O H,O P,O, Cl Total
56.45 29 20.08 1:31 439 .09 63 214 5.61 718 1.77 13 .43—=100.45

The basic rock is richer in iron, magnesia and lime than the acid one;
since the two rocks pass into each other by a rapid but continuous
gradation, they are believed to be of the same age and to be the com-
plementary differentiated portions of the same magma. The differen-
tiation in this case could not have been due to a process of crystalliza-
tion, in which the first crystallized minerals were accumulated in the
peripheral portions of the cooling magma, since the other iron-bearing
components of the shonkinite and of the syenite are so radically different.
The differentiation must have occurred in the magma while still molten.

The Serpentines of the Central Alps.—Three years ago Wein-
schenck* gave a preliminary account of the serpentines of the East
Central Alps and their contact effects, showing that the former were
originally pyroxene eruptives. In a recent paper he returns to the
subject,‘ and in a well illustrated article gives in detail the reasons for
his former conclusions. He finds upon the examination of a large
suite of specimens that the original rock was an olivine-antigorite aggre-
gate, which he names stubachite, from its most important locality.
The antigorite is believed to be an original component and not an alter-
ation product of the olivine, as it is found intergrown with perfectly -
fresh grains of the latter mineral. The grate structure (“ Gitter-
structur”) of many serpentines is ascribed to such intergrowths, and
not to the alteration of pyroxene along its cleavage planes. ‘The orig-
inal stubachite was a medium grained holoerystalline, allotriomorphic
rock of intrusive igneous origin, which has not suffered much altera-
tion since its exposure by erosion.

* American Naturalist, 1892, p. 767.

t Abhand. d. k. bayer. Ak. d. Wis II, Cl. XVIII, Bd. p. 653.

a

1895.] Petrography. 739°

Becke’ calls attention to the frequency with which a pyroxenic ori-
gin has been ascribed to serpentines of the Alps because of the lack in
therm of the mesh structure, and questions the safety of this conclusion
when based on such scanty premises. He mentions the existence of a
serpentine in the stubachthal in the Central Alps, in the freshest por-
tions of which olivine and picotite can be seen in large quantities, and
in other portions diopside and olivine. In many specimens the olivine
has been crushed into a mosaic, the finer grains of which have been
altered into serpentine, clinochlor, antigorite and what is probably col-
orless pyroxene. The mesh structureis found in the weathered portion
of the antigorite-serpentine. It is thought by the author to be due to
weathering subsequent to the production of the antigorite.

e central mass of the east central Alps consists of granite and
gneiss, of which the former is intrusive in the latter, although both
have essentially the same mineralogical composition, and the former is
schistose on its periphery. The granite contains zoisite, epidote, orthite,
chlorite, calcite, ete., all of which are regarded as original, since the
other primary components of the rock from which they may be assumed
to have come are perfectly fresh. The origin of these minerals is
ascribed to the cooling of the magma under the influence of mountain-
making processes—a condition of crystallization which the author
designates as piezocrystallization. The hydrated components of the
rock are supposed to have been formed with the aid of magma moisture
under the influence of pressure. This theory is believed to account for
the granulation and other pressure phenomena noted in the granite, as
well as for its composition.

Dynamic Metamorphism.—In connection with his work on the
rocks of the Verrucano in the Alps, Milch’ makes a study of dynamic
metamorphism and suggests a number of terms to be used in the
descriptions of metamorphic rocks. Allothimorphic fragments are
those with the composition and forms of the original grains. Authi-
morphic fragments have the forms of the grains changed but their com-
position unchanged. Allothimorphic pseudomorphs have the original
forms but a composition different from that of the original grains, and
authimorphic pseudomorphs have both forms and composition changed,
but with the latter dependent upon the original composition. Finally
eleutheromorphic new products are those entirely independent of the

5 Minn. u. Petrog. Mitth., XIV, 1894, p. 271.

6 Ib., p. 717.

7 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., IX, p. 101.

740 ` The American Naturalist. [ August,
original substances both in form and composition. Of the authimorphic
fragments two classes are noted, first, the authiclastic, those that have
been unable to adapt themselves to the altered conditions and, conse-
quently, which have been fractured, and, second, the kamptomorphic,
embracing those fragments that have been able to adapt themselves to
changed conditions, and so have yielded to these and have bent, or
have assumed abnormal optical properties, such as undulous extinct-
ions. With these terms the author describes some of the rocks studied
and states that in many instances no traces of clastic structure remain
in them, although they must be regarded as regionally metamorphosed
fragmentals. Regional metamorphism, he declares, may be brought
about by pressure alone, or by dislocation—pressure with movement
(dynamic metamorphism). The former may act slowly, deforming the
minerals in rocks, while the latter acts rapidly, shattering them. The
latter process usually forms rocks like the mica-schists, with a fine
grain, and the former coarse grained ones like the gneisses. Of course,
the action of water, which is the agent of transportation of the new sub-
stances added during metamorphism, may come into play in each case.
The Verrucano rocks exhibit the effects of both kinds of regional met-
amorphism. The article contains a great many suggestions of interest
to students of metamorphism.

Miscellaneous.—The conglomerates and albite schists of Hoosac
Mountain, Mass., referred® to some time ago in these notes, have been
described by Wolff?’ in some detail in his report on the geology of
Hoosac Mountain. The conglomerates form gneisses which grade up-
ward into the albite schists. Amphibolites also are described, whose
origin is from a basic intrusive rock. A large number of photographs
of hand specimens and thin sections of the rocks described accompany
the paper.

Van Hise” in the report by Irving and himself on the Penokee iron
district, gives a number of descriptions of sedimentary and volcanic
rocks, illustrated by a large number of plates of thin sections. The
rocks discussed include greenstone conglomerates, crystalline schists,
intrusive greenstones, slates, quartzites, limestones, ete.

Ries" finds that one of the crystalline schists of the series of foliated
rocks forming the greater portion of Westchester Co., N. Y., is a

* American Naturalist, 1892, p. 768.

’ Min. XXII, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 41.

1 Mon. XIX, U.S. Geol. Survey.

" Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIV, p. 80.

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 741

plagioclase-augen-gneiss which the author calls a schistose granite-dio-
rite. Its constituents are quartz, plagioclase, biotite, hornblende and
orthoclase as its principal components, with garnet, sphene, zircon,
apatite, muscovite and microcline as the accessories. The quartz is
penetrated by rutile needles. Nearly all the rock’s constituents show
evidence of dynamic fracturing.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Dawson on the Oscillations ofthe Behring Sea Region.—
Among the recent contributions to a knowledge of the coasts of Behring
Sea are the notes made by G. M. Dawson during an extended cruise in
that region. His paper is supplementary to that of Dall’s relating to the
American shores and islands of Behring Seas, and gives, generally
speaking, the general physographie features of the land to which the
attention of the earlier writer was not directed. We quote the follow-
ing extracts from his general remarks.

“ Behring Sea is a dependency of the North Pacific, marked off from
it by a bordering chain of islands like those which outline Okhotsk
Sea and the sea of Japan. It differs from these two seas by reason of
its connection to the north with the Arctic Ocean, and in the fact that
while the whole eastern part of its extent is comparatively shallow, the
profounder depths of the north Pacific (in continuation of the Tuscar-
ora deep) are continued into its western part. The Aleutian Islands,
regarded as a line of demarkation between the main ocean and Behring
Sea, are analagous to the Kurile islands with Kamtschatka, and to the
islands of Japan. As to the Commander Islands, though these appear
to lie in the continuation of the are formed by the Aleutians, they are
separated by a wide and, so far as known, very deep stretch of ocean
from the last of these islands, and it is wholly probable that they may
represent an altogether independent local elevation analogous to that
to which Saint Matthew and its adjacent islands are due,

“The western part of Behring Sea has as yet been very imperfectly
explored with the deep-sea lead, but the following general facts may be
gathered from the existing charts: The entire chain of the Aleutian
Islands is bordered at no great distance to the south by abyssal depths
of the Pacific. The whole western portion of the chain likewise

742 The American Naturalist. [August,

slopes rapidly down on the northern side into very deep water, exceed-
ing 1,000 fathoms as far to the eastward as Unimak Island: but from
the vicinity of Unimak pass (longitude 165° west) the depths to the
north of the islands are consistantly less than 100 fathoms. Beginning
near the Unimak pass, the edge of the hundred-fathom bank runs
northwestward, passing to the west of the Pribilovs and Saint Matthew
Island and meeting the Asiatic coast in the vicinity of Cape Navarin,
in about north latitude 60°. Thus all parts of Behring Sea to the north
and east of this line, together with Behring Straits and much of the
Arctic Ocean beyond, must be considered physiographically as belong-
ing to the continental plateau region and as distinct from that of the
ocean basin proper, and there is every reason to suppose that it has in
later geologic times more than once and perhaps during prolonged
periods existed as a wide terrestrial plain connecting North America
with Asia.

“ In all probability this portion of the continental plateau is a feature
much more ancient than the mountain range of which the outstanding
parts now form the Aleutian Islands. This range, though to some ex-
tent due to uplift, as for instance in the case of Attu Island, is chiefly
built up of volcanic material. Its eastern part, in the Alaskan
peninsula and as far as the Unimak pass, must be regarded as having
been built upon the edge of the old continental plateau. Its western
part, though certainly the continuation of the same line of volcanism,
runs off the edge of the plateau and rises distinctly from the ocean-
bed.

“ The available evidence goes to show that the submarine plateau of
the eastern part of Behring Sea, together with much of the flat land of
western Alaska, was covered by a shallow sea during at least the later
part of the Miocene period, while the most recent period at which this
plateau stood out as land is probably that at which, according to facts
previously noted, the Mammoth reached the Pribilof Islands and
Unalaska Island across it.

“ Evidence has recently been obtained of an important factor in regard
to late changes of climate in this region, in the observations of Mr. I.
C. Russel, which show that the great mountain range of the Saint Elias
Alps must have been entirely formed in Pliocene or post-Pliocene times,
The crumpling and upheaval of the beds which now form this range
must have relieved a notable and accumulating tangential pressure of
the earth’s crust, the result of which it is yet difficult to trace; but
that it must have brought about extensive changes of level throughout
the region over which this pressure was exerted seems certain, and I

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 743

am inclined to suppose that it may have had much to do with the great
later Pliocene uplift and subsequent depression to which the British
Columbian region appears to have been subjected.

“One of the most remarkable features connected with the Behring
Sea region is the entire absence of any traces of general glaciation.
Statements to the effect that Alaska, as a whole, showed no such traces
were early made by Dall and concurred in by Whitney. The result of
my later investigations in British Columbia and along the adjacent
coasts have been to show that such original statements were altogether
too wide ; that a great Cordilleran glacier did exist in the western part
of the continent, but that it formed no part of any hypothetical polar
ice-cap, and that large portions of northwest America lay beyond its
borders.

“Statements made by Mr. John Muir, in which he not only attrib-
uted every physical feature noted by him in Behring Sea to the action
of glaciation, but even expressed the opinion that Behring Sea and
Strait represented a hollow produced by glaciation, remained alto-
gether unsupported. It might be unnecessary even to refer to them
but for the fact that they relate to a region for which data on this sub-
ject from other sources are so small. No traces have been found of

general glaciation by land-ice in the region surrounding Behring Sea,
_ while the absence of erratics above the actual sea-line show that it was
never submerged for any length of time below ice-encumbered waters.

“ The facts, moreover, connect themselves with similar ones relating
to the northern parts of Siberia in a manner which will be at once
obvious to any student of the glacial period.” (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.
Vol. 5, 1894.)

Green Pond Conglomerate.—In Darton’s paper on the outlying
series of Paleozoic rocks which occupy a narrow belt extending from
the Archean highlands of New Jersey into Orange Co., New York
occurs the following description of the Green Pond Conglomerate.

“ The greatest development of this formation is in New Jersey, where
it is continuous over a wide area, and gives rise to a number of prom-
inent ridges. In New York there are three small outlying areas: Pine
Hill, northeast of Monroe, and two small ridges west of Cornwall sta-
tion. Throughout its course it consists of coarse, red conglomerates
below, and buff and reddish quartzites above, and the characteristics of
these members are uniform throughout. The conglomerates consist of
quartz pebbles from one-half to two inches in diameter in greater part,
in a hard, sandy, quartzitic matrix of dull red color. The proportion

744 The American Naturalist. (August,

of pebbles to matrix is usually large, but there is local variation in this
regard. The pebbles are mainly well rounded, but some subangular
ones occur. They are mostly all of quartz, and white or pinkish in
color. No quartzite pebbles were observed. In this characteristic the
Green Pond Conglomerate differs greatly from the Skunnemunk con-
glomerate, but otherwise they are very similar. The thickness of the
Green Pond conglomerate varies. In New York there are not over 60
feet, but in New Jersey it will probably be found to average about 150
feet in its greatest development in Green Pond and Copperas Mount-
ains. Owing to its extreme hardness and massiveness, it give rise to
high, rocky ridges with precipitous slopesin greater part. Green Pond,
Copperas, Kanouse and Bowling Green Mountains are the most prom-
inent of these, and they occupy an area of considerable size in New
Jersey. South of the south end of Green Pond Mountain west of
Dover there are outliers of conglomerates and sandstones probably of
this age, which are described by book in the ‘ Geology of New Jersey ’
1868.

“ In the vicinity of Cornwall Station the conglomerate lies on Hud-
son shales; Pine Hill, on Cambrian limestone, at least in part; in Ka-
nouse Mountain, on slates possibly of Hudson age, northward, and on
Cambrian limestone southward ; in Green Pond, Copperas and Bowl-
ing Green Mountains it lies directly on the crystalline rocks. The con-
tact with the crystalline rocks is exposed along the upper part of the
eastern slopes of Copperas Mountain, and the surface is a relatively
level one. Small enclosed areas of the crystallines are bared by erosion
of the conglomerate along the two anticlinals south of Newfoundland,
and I find that gneiss extends to within half a mile of the depot in the
western flexure. Along the axis of the eastern flexure, gneiss extends
to and under Green Pond and down the gorge of the outlet of the pond
to the end of Copperas Mountain. Along these anticlinals no actual
contacts were found, but from many exposures in its vicinity the rela-
tive eveness of the floor was clearly apparent. In the Bowling Green
Mountain the conglomerate is wrapped around the northern end of a
ridge of gneiss, but its contact relations were not observed.

“The age of the Green Pond conglomerate and quartzite is approx-
imately the same as Shawangunk grit and Oneida conglomerate, and
probably they also represent all or a portion of the Medina. They are,
at any rate, the representatives of the great arenaceous sedimentation
at the beginning of the UpperSilurian. The evidence of their position
is mainly their intimate relation to the Helderberg limestone through-
out and the fact that they overlie the Hudson shales in New York and

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 745

probably also in New Jersey. Throughout their course in New Jersey
and in New York the upper quartzites grade into the Longwood red
shales, and these into the Helderberg limestone, constituting a series
which overlaps the Archean, the Cambrian limestone and the Hudson
shales. This stratigraphic relation, as well as precise lithologic similar-
ity, served to correlate the Pine Hill and Cornwall Station areas with
those of the Green Pond region in New Jersey. The superposition on
the Hudson shale is unquestionable in the Cornwall region, where the
Green Pond, Longwood, Helderberg and other series present the full
sequence. In New Jersey there are shales underlying the conglomerate
along the east side of Kanouse Mountain near its northern end, but it
is not as yet demonstrated that they are Hudson in age.

“ The estimate of the total thickness by Merrill of 600 feet in the
Newfoundland region is considerably too great. I find that the 500
foot cliff south of the station, on which his estimate is based, contains
nearly 100 feet of crystalline rocks at its base, but probably a consider-
able portion of the original thickness of sandstone was removed from its
summit. The formation appears to attain its greatest thickness at this
locality, for the average amount is considerably less elsewhere.

“The name Green Pond Mountain conglomerate or series has been
applied to the formation by Cook, Smock and others, and, although
originally always used to include the Skunnemunk conglomerate, it is,
I believe, an appropriate name, with proper, restriction, for the Upper
Silurian member. The “ mountain” may be omitted to advantage, as
Green Pond is a typical locality. It is not proposed at present to
separate the quartzite under a distinctive name.” (Bull. Geol. Soc.
Am., Vol. 5, 1894.)

Notes on the Osteology of Zeuglodon cetoides.—Last Nov-
ember Mr. Charles Schuchert of the U. S. National Museum obtained
for that institution portions of the skeletons of two Zeuglodons. These
have since been “developed” and the bones thus brought to light
promise to add some points of interest to our knowledge of this interest-
ing form. :

The lower jaw, like that figured by Miiller, contained six molariform
teeth, showing that the number of premolars plus molars should be
given as five to six, and not limited to five, as in N icholson and Lydek-
kers Manual of Paleontology. The jugals, although slender, are
much heavier than in the toothed whales, and the hyoid was appar-
ently like that of a Sirenian, the basihyal being rather broad and fiat-
tened, the ceratohyal, long, curved, expanded at its distal end, and

746 The American Naturalist. [ August,

articulating directly with the basihyal and not through the interposition
of a long cartilage. The first four cervicals are very curiously inter-
locked; the atlas gives off a process from its ventral surface which
curves back to almost touch the axis; the spinous process of the axis
overlies the atlas in front, and extends backwards until it nearly touches
the spinous process of the fourth cervical, that of the third cervical
being abortive. The fourth cervical sends down a long parapophysis.
The dorsal vertebræ are apparently fourteen in number, and none ap-
pear to have been lost. The last three ribs have no tubercle and unite
with the middle of the centrum by a large head; the 10th and 11th
ribs have a small tubercle although articulating with the body of the
vertebra; the fifth rib is remarkable for its great upward curvature ; the
second to seventh ribs are much swollen towards the distal extremities.

The scapula is thoroughly cetacean in shape, as well as in the length
of the acromial and coracoidal processes. The humerus is, as figured
by Miiller, heavy at its proximal end and tapering rapidly towards the
distal extremity ; the radius and ulna are so articulated with one an-
other and with the humerus, as to permit flexion and extension only ;
the olecranal process is large, wide and flat; the distal ends of radius
and ulna are rough and their epiphyses may have been entirely carti-
laginous ; two or three small bones of irregular form are very likely
carpals, and if so they too were largely cartilaginous. No traces of
hind limbs have as yet come to light. |

The regular articular posterior extremity of the first sternal segment
has led Professor Cope to suggest that the animal was in the habit of
rearing the front part of its body out of water, and this suggestion
derives additional weight from the shape of the articular faces of the
dorsals; they indicate that not only was there movement in the dorsal
region from side to side, but up and down, and show that the inter-
vertebral cartilages were very thick. Many of the lumbo-caudals have
the faces slightly approximated dorsally, indicating considerable vertical
movement in this region. The change from the short centra of the
dorsals to the extremely elongate centra of the lumbo-caudals is very
abruptand the vertebral column doubtless terminated with equal abrupt-
ness, since vertebr a long way from the head are very massive. A
curious feature is the prominence of the anterior zygapophyses in the
Jumbo-caudal region, since the spinous process are from 8 to 12 inches
apart. Above all one is struck with the small size of the head and
thorax when compared with the posterior region of the body, and it
would seem that the head must have had a busy time in order to
capture sufficient food to sustain the huge tail.—F. A. Lucas.

1895.] Botany. 747

BOTANY:

Decades of North American Lichens.—Botanists have lately
received the 16th, 17th and 18th decades of this interesting distribu-
tion by Clara E. Cummings, T. A Williams and A. B. Seymour. An
examination of the specimens shows them to be most satisfactory. The
species included are the following: 151. Ramalina levigata Fr.
(Tex.) ; 152. R. pollinarella Nyl. (So. Dak.); 153. Evernia vulpina
(L.) Ach. (Calif); 154. Theloschistes villosa (Ach.) Wainio, (L.
Calif.) ; 155. Parmelia borreri Turn. (So. Dak.) ; 156. Umbilicaria hy-
perborea Hoffm. (N. H.); 157. U. phæa Tuck. (Calif.) ; 158. Sticta
aurata (Sm.) Ach. (So. Car.); 159. S. anthraspis Ach. (Calif.) ; 160.
Peltigera aphthosa (L.) Hoffm. (Me.); 161. Pannaria lanuginosa
(Ach.) Koerb. (Iowa); 162. Collema pulposum (Bernh.) Nyl. (Iowa);
163. Leptogium pulchellum (Ach.) Nyl. (Iowa); 164. Placodium muro-
rum (Hoffm.) DC., (Mass.); 165a. P. cerinum (Hedw.) Naeg. & Hepp.
(Ohio); 165b. P. cerinum (Hedw.) Naeg. & Hepp. (Iowa); 166. Le-
canora muralis (Schreb) Schaer., a. saxicola Schaer. (Iowa); 167. Le-
canora varia (Ehrh.) Nyl. d. symmicta Ach. (Me.) ; 168. Rinodina ore-
ina (Ach.) Mass. (So. Dak.); 169. R. sophodes (Ach.) Nyl., e. exigua
Fr. (So. Dak.); 170. Pertusaria velata (Turn.) Nyl. (Iowa); 171.
Biatora suffusa Fr. (Iowa); 172. Buellia oidalea Tuck. (Calif.) ; 173.
Opegrapha varia (Pers.) Fr. (So. Dak.); 174. Graphis afzelii Ach.
(La.); 175. G. scripta (L.) Ach., var. serpentaria Ach. (So. Dak.) ;
176. Arthonia dispersa (Schrad.) Nyl. (Nebr.); 177a. A. lecideella
Nyl. (Mass.) ; 177b. A. lecideella Nyl. (Iowa); 178. A. radiata (Pers.)
Th. Fr. (Iowa); 179. Calicium quercinum Pers. (Ohio); 180. Pyrenula

subprostans (Nyl.) Tuck. (No. Car.).
CHARLES E. Bessey.

North American species of Polyg m.—Mr. John K. Small
has done a good work in bringing out his monograph of this interest-
ing genus, which is issued as one of the Memoirs from the Department
of Botany of Columbia College. All told there are according to this
paper, seventy species, and in discussing these, the synonymy is fully
and carefully worked out. The descriptions are full, and leave little
to be desired. The omission of all reference to type specimens, and
specimens examined from different localities and herbaria is to be

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

51

748 The American Naturalist. [August,

regretted, especially as this might have been done very easily. This
monograph will be of much service to students of these widely dis-
tributed plants.

- Notes.—Two valuable papers on embryology have recently ap-
peared in the Botanical Gazette, viz. “ The embryo-sac of Aster nove-
anglie”’ by Charles J. Chamberlain and “ Contributions to the embryo-
logy of the Ranunculacez,” by David M. Mottier. Part III of Murray’s
“ Phycological Memoirs” appeared in April (London, Dulau & Co.).
It contains papers on Pachytheca, calcareous pebbles formed by Algz,
Diatoms (list), Macrocystis and Postelsia, and a Comparison of the
Arctic and Antarctic Marine Floras. Baillon’s Histoire des Plantes
has nearly completed its thirteenth volume, the last part being a
monograph of the Palmaceze. The illustrations are, as usual, of high
excellence, and the general treatment is quite like thatin preceding parts.
Botanists will not be likely, however, to accept his substitution of
Rotang L., Fl. Zeyl. (1747) for Calamus L., Sp. Pl. (1753). We
notice, also, that the author doubts the validity of Sereno Watson’s
genus Erythea, suggesting its identity with either Brahea or Copernica.
From a notice of the London Catalogue of British Plants, in the June
number of the Journal of Botany, we learn with pleasure that our
usually conservative brethren across the water have adopted some of
the “ radical ” views of certain American botanists. The editor of the
the Journal says “ certain necessary alterations in nomenclature have
been made” and then gives without a word of dissent the following:

Nuphar Sm., now Nymphea L.

Nymphæa L., now Castalia Salisb.

Corydalis Ventenat, Choix des Plantes, xix (1803), now Neckera
Scopoli, Introd. 313 (1777).

Capsella Medic. Pflanzeng. i. 85 (1792), now Bursa Weber, in Wigg.
Prim. Fl. Holsat. 47 (1780).

Lepigonum Wahlberg, Fl. Gothob. 45 (1820), now Buda Adanson,
Fam. des Plantes, ii. 507 (1763).

Mertensia Roth, Catalect. i. 34 (1797), now Pneumaria Hill, Veg.
Syst. vii. 40 (1764).

Calystegia Brown, Prodr. 483 (1810), now Volvulus Medic, in Sta-
atsw. Vorles. Churpf. Phys. Oek. Ges. i. 202 (1791).

Leersia Solander, ex Swartz, Prod. Ind. Oce. 21 (1788), Homalocen-
chrus Mieg, ex Haller, Stirp. Helv. ii. 201 (1768).

1895.] Vegetable Physiology. 749

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Woronin on Sclerotinia.—Dr. Woronin who was formerly asso-
ciated with De Bary and whose beautiful studies of the life history of
the smut fungus, Tuburcinia trientalis at once placed him among the
very foremost investigators in a difficult field, continues to unravel in-
teresting life histories of the pleomorphic fungi. Some years ago he
published valuable researches on the Sclerotinia diseases of Vaccinium
berries, and now distributes an important paper on the Sclerotinia dis-
ease of the bird cherry and of mountain ash. This paper (Die Sclero-
tinienkrankheit der gemeinen Traubenkirsche und der Eberesche, Selero-
tinia padi und Sclerotinia aucupariae) is a quarto of 27 pages illustrated
by five superb lithographic plates. It is printed in Mém. de? Acad. imp.
de St. Petersbourg, VIII, sé., Class Physico-Mathematique, Vol. II, No.
1. S&S. padi attacks and kills young leaves, fruit and stems of Prunus
padus, on which the grayish, pulverulent conidia soon appear. On the
host plant these conidia cause a distinct almond-like odor similar to
that of the flowers, but no such odor could be detected when the fun-
gus was grown on artificial media. Growing on the mountain ash the
conidia of S. aweupariae cause an odor resembling that of the flowers
of that tree. The apothecia of S. padi appear in the spring on the
fallen, mummified fruits. Paraphyses and asci are always borne by
distinct hyphae, the ascogeneous hyphae being stronger and thicker.
The ascospores have two envelopes, an outer delicate one which is cast
off in water and subsequently becomes gelatinous to complete disap-
pearance, and an inner, colorless, thick-walled truemembrane. When
germinated in pure water the ascospores soon begin to form chains of
small round spermatia-like sporidia, and the conidia behave in the
same way. Ascospores sown in nutrient media or on the host send out
strong germ tubes, but conidia or ascospores taken from nutrient media
and put into pure water stop the production of hyphae and begin to
form the above mentioned sporidia. In nutrient media an abundant
conidial fructification was developed from ascospores in 3—4 days, and
this was exactly like that observed in nature. Direct experiment with
ascospores showed that the leaves are infected as they emerge from the
bud, the stems being browned and killed by a secondary infection, just
as peach twigs are destroyed by Monilia fructigena, only in case of the:

1 This department is edited by Erwin F. Smith, Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

750 The American Naturalist. [August,

peach the stem infection takes place apparently only through the blos-
soms or fruits, and here apparently only through the leaves. The
striking similarity may be seen by comparing Woronin’s Fig. 23, Table
II, with Journal of Mycology, Vol. VII, Plate V, figs. 1, 2 and 3.
The germ tubes bore directly through the epidermal cells of the host or
penetrate at the junction of two or more cells. In no case were they
found entering through stomata, although most of the infections were
through the underside of the leaf. On culture media long chains of
conidia develop before any septa appear. Finally the ripe conidia are
separated by delicate spindle-form or diamond-shaped disjunctors con-
sisting of two minute cones of cellulose joined at their bases and having
their apices connected with the two adjacent spores. Neighboring
ascospores and conidia as well as germ tubes often fuse, and this is very
striking in case of the infection of the incipient fruit through the
stigma. For this purpose a half dozen conidia may fuse into a sort of
colony or association giving rise to a single, very robust hypha which
grows down the style after the manner of a pollen tube and finally in-
fects the ovary. Fusions of spores and of hyphae are common enough
in fungi, but fusion for so manifest and important an end is certainly
noteworthy. The elongated penetrating hypha usually remains un-
branched until the ovary is reached. In 3—4 days from the time of
placing the spores on the stigma the germ tube has reached and entered
the micropyle, and a day or two later the nucellus is invaded. No
further development of the fungus takes place unless the flower has
been fertilized by a pollen tube. In that case there is a movement of
nutrient substances into the ovary, and on these the fungus makes a
luxuriant growth. First the nucellus is occupied, then the integuments
are invaded, and finally the pericarp, following which the young fruit
browns externally and shrivels, and, if the air is moist enough, conidia
appear on its surface. During early stages of germination 4-10 prob-
lematic bodies resembling nuclei appeared pretty constantly in each
germ tube and then disappeared. The fungus on mountain ash is
smaller than S. padi, but is otherwise very similar. The paper closes
with 5 pages on relationships among Sclerotinia ——Erwin F. SMITH.

Demonstration of Photosyntax by Bacteria.—In Verhan-
delingen d. Koninklijke Akad. van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam (2
Sectie, Deel III, No. 11) Professor Th. W. Engelmann summarizes in
a brief paper (Die Erscheinungsweise der Sauerstoff: heidung chro-
mophyllhaltiger Zellen im Licht bei Anwendung der Bacterienmethode)
what is known on this subject, and illustrates it very satisfactorily by

1895.] Vegetable Physiology. 751

a well executed chromolithographic table. The value of this method
rests on the fact that aerobic motile bacteria cease to move as soon as
oxygen is withdrawn, and again become motile when a trace of it is
added. This method of showing the photosyntax of chlorophyll-bear-
ing cells is very delicate and exceedingly simple. A round green algal
spore is placed on a slide in the center of a drop of water containing
some aerobic actively motile bacterium and imprisoned by an ordinary
cover glass cemented to the slide air tight by vaseline. If this prepa-
ration is now examined immediately, the bacteria will be found uni-
formly distributed through the drop and actively motile. They pay
no attention to the green spore because they find sufficient oxygen
everywhere. If the slide is now placed in the dark the movement of
the bacteria gradually ceases with the exhaustion of the oxygen, and
in this condition also the bacteria pay no attention to the algal cell.
If, however, such a slide be left exposed to the light, the bacteria begin
in a minute or two to swarm around the green spore and continue to
do so as long as it is exposed to the light. Under these conditions
there is a zone close to the spore and about as wide as the diameter of
the latter, crowded with actively motile bacteria, a much wider zone
in which there are only a few organisms swimming about, and a remoter
zone of uniformly distributed non-motile bacteria. If now the mirror
of the microscope be shaded so as to let barely enough light through
for seeing, all self motion ceases and the bacteria which have crowded
into a narrrow zone around the green spore begin to be distributed
through the liquid uniformly by molecular movements. When bright
light is flashed in again, active movement begins immediately, center-
ing around the spore, and the two zones are reproduced, but if only a
moderate amount of light is let in, only a small amount of oxygen is
given off, only a few bacteria become motile, and these crowd back the
rest forming a narrow clear zone of motile organisms, bounded by a
crowded quiet zone, bounded in turn by a clear quiet zone, outside of
which the bacteria are evenly divided. If a little more light be let in
the number of motile organisms around the green spore increases, the
inner clear zone widens, and finally with full light we have immediately
the first condition, viz., a dense swarming mass of organisms around
the algal cell, next a wide zone having in it only occasional rods, all of
which are motile, and farther away a uniform distribution of organ-
isms, which are non-motile because they have not felt the influence of
the oxygen given off by the green spore. The algal cell of course gets
from the bacteria CO, in return for the oxygen. Beautiful results can
be obtained with threads of Cladophora, Spirogyra and other alge, and

752 The American Naturalist. [August,

Spirogyra with the hay bacillus may be used to show that it is not the
colorless protoplasm, nucleus, cell sap, or cell wall, but only the chro-
mophyll bodies that give off oxygen. Light thrown on a chlorophyll
band of Spirogyra causes the bacteria to swarm to it, while light thrown
on any other part of the cell causes no crowding or movement of the
bacteria. Light thrown on a chlorophyll band, after being passed
through an alcoholic solution of chlorophyll derived from Spirogyra,
caused no crowding or movement of the bacteria, while light passed
through red glass, although less intense, caused an active swarming of
the bacteria around the illuminated part of the band. The same
method may be used to show whether red and variously colored cells
contain chlorophyll, and whether the chlorophyll-bearing protoplasm
of a cell is living or dead. The author obtained some of his results
with undetermined bacteria from the surface of slightly foul water, but
fresh cultures of Bacillus subtilis also gave good results. Organisms
which make only a small demand on free oxygen, such as Vibrio line-
ola and Spirillum tenue give somewhat different results. In this case
the motile organisms crowd around the algal spore or thread only when
it is under the influence of feeble light. When bright light is let in,
too much oxygen is given off, and a space is cleared around the green
cell which widens or narrows in proportion to the varying of the light.
With waning vigor of the chlorophyll the same results are obtained in
bright light as with vigorous cells in feeble light, i. e., a crowding of
the bacteria close up to the algal cell. The appended bibliography
includes 61 titles, beginning with the year 1881, when Engelmann first
published on this subject.—Erwin F. SMITH.

Detection of Glukase by Auxanographic Methods. Beyer-
inck has devised a neat method for showing that the enzym, glukase,
first changes cooked starch into dextrine and subsequently into glucose.
Over } the bottom of a Petri dish or similar receptacle, which part we
will designate A, he pours a nutrient gelatine (10 per cent. gelatine ;
$ per cent. soluble starch ; + per cent. asparagin; zs per cent. potas-
sium phosphate) infected with Saccharomyces ellipsoideus or any other
maltose yeast which is able to take nitrogen from asparagin, but will
not react on dextrine. Into the other } of the dish, which we will
designate B, he pours a nutrient gelatine infected with the same yeast
and of identical composition except that the soluble starch is left out.
Of course, no growth occurs in either part, because neither contains any
carbohydrate on which this yeast can feed. A small area on A is now
strewn with glukase powder and at some distance the same powder is

1895,] Zoology. 753

strewn on a part of B. Wherever the glukase powder falls on A, dex-
trine is formed out of the soluble starch, and from this, under the in-
fluence of the same enzym, glucose is produced. ‘The latter is food for
the yeast and growth begins at once, but as glucose is not diffusible
through the gelatine, and as dextrine is not food, the growth of the
yeast is sharply limited to the spot covered by the enzym, which is but
slightly diffusible and is itself not food for the yeast. On B there is at
first no growth even where the glukase falls, but after a time some of
the dextrine produced on A escapes from the enzym spot and, being
diffusible, passes through the gelatine without influenceing the im-
prisoned yeast cells until the glukase spot on B is reached. Here the
fresh enzym immediately converts the dextrine into glucose, as shown
by the production of an S. ellipsoideus auxanogram, the yeast spot cor-
responding in shape not to the area strewn with the enzym, but to so
much of it as has been entered by the diffusion curve of the dextrine.
This method was employed to determine what seeds contain glukase
and to locate it in particular parts. The yeast is much more sensitive
to minute quantities of glukase than chemical tests or polarized light.
Glukase occurs in ungerminated maize principally in the horny part
of the endosperm. It also occurs in abundance in the endosperm of
sorghum and millet seeds, and is present in the seeds of about a dozen
families of monocotyledons, i. e., in those having a mealy endosperm.
Most seeds which are free from endosperm, or in which the endosperm
is fleshy or horny, do not contain it. It does not occur in ungermina-
ted wheat, rye or barley. Fresh starch grains outside the plant are
attacked by glukase just as little as by diastase. Inuline also remains
unchanged. The product of the action of glukase on maltose is glucose
pure and simple. Dextrine is less readily converted into glucose than
is maltose, and soluble starch is still less readily converted. These
notes are from the third part of a long paper, Ueber Nachweis und
Verbreitung der Glukase, das Enzym der Maltose, in Centrb. f. Bakt.
u. Par., Allg., I, 6, 7-8, and 9-10.—Erwin F. SMITE.

ZOOLOGY.

The Characters of the Enchytreid Genus Distichopus.—
In the absence of any information regarding the internal structure
of the Distichopus silvestris of Leidy, European students of the Oligo-

754 The American Naturalist. [August,

chæta have rightly treated this species cautiously, there being no data
to indicate its position in the system. That Beddard, in his recent
Monograph has seemed uncertain even of the Enchytreid nature of
the form, has led me to make a brief statement of its anatomical char-
acters.

Setze, as stated by Leidy, are restricted to the ventral series of bun-
dies. That these are truly the ventral bundles is shown by the posi-
tion of the nepridial openings at the same level, and the relation of the
bundles to the lateral line. ‘There appears to be no glandular replace-
ments of the dorsal sete. The complete, typical seta bundle consists
of two pairs, an outer of larger and an inner of smaller setz, disposed
symmetrically. Such bundles were rarely present in the material ex-
amined, and were confined to the ante-clitellar region. In some speci-
mens they were entirely absent. Behind the clitellum, four, or even
three, setæ were seldom found, two being the rule, and on a variable
number of the posterior segments only one. Often some of the seg-
ments were without sete. This irregularity in distribution, the fre-
quent absence of setæ on a somite, and the fact that the posterior pairs
were usually the outer or larger sets, indicate a retardation in the suc-
cessive production of new pairs of setz, and a consequent tendency
toward a reduction of the number in the bundle.

In form, the setz are peculiar, being very stout, swollen in the mid-
dle, blunt-pointed and slightly curved externally and hooked internally.

A cephalic pore is present between the prostomium and peristomial
ring; but no dorsal pores were observed, though this is not conclusive
evidence of their absence. 7

The inter-segmental septa, from the second to the sixth inclusive, are
very thick and’ muscular, and the last three of these, namely, iv-v, v-
vi, and vi-vil, bear prominent septal glands on their anterior faces.
The bundles of ductules from these glands open as usual on the surface
of a prominent dorsal pharyngeal pad, which was the usual structure.

The testis papillz are united into a transverse ridge of simple col-
umnar cells. The alimentary canal presents no marked enlargements,
constrictions or saccular outgrowths. Its musculature is unusually
powerful, and the two sets of fibres cross in a trellis-like arrangement,
which is complicated at the septa.

The pepto-nephridia (salivary glands) are a pair of branched tubu-
lar structures in somite v, and are similar to those of several species of
Fridericia with which they have been compared.

_ The ante-septal portion of the nephridia is small, and consists mainly
of the funnel; the post-septal is large, with a prominent dorsal lobe,

1895.] Zoology. 755

and aslender ventral portion, from which the terminal duct arises.
The intra-cellular canal is very tortuous, and in part seems to form a
plexus such as has been described for other Enchytræidæ by Bolsius.
Nuclei are prominent, but cell divisions in the granular protoplasmic
mass, not apparent. No spermatheca have been found.

The essential sexual organs occupy the usual positions. The funnel
of the vas deferens is rather small, with an oblique, ventrally directed
mouth. Its duct is slender, closely coiled entirely within the twelfth
somite, and about five or six times the length of the funnel. It termi-
nates in a copulatory apparatus exactly like that of the Fridericia ex-
amined, that is, the duct perforates the muscular sheath of the spheri-
cal prostate gland, which is composed of radiating pyramidal cells, and
opens immediately dorsal to the mouth of the gland into a tabular in-
vagination of the body wall (atrium), which can be everted to serve as
a penis. The oviducts have the usual form and position.

Peritoneal corpuscles are of two kinds, the smaller ones being about
half the diameter of the nuclei of the large ones, elliptical and refrin-
gent.

The supra-cesophageal ganglion is truncate or slightly concave poste-
riorly and varies in relative length.

The dorsal blood vessel arises from the sinus in somites xiii and xiv
and hence is post-clitellian. There is an internal chain of valve cells,
not, however, very greatly developed. The only other peculiarity of
the vascular system is in the structure of the endothelium bounding
the peri-enteric blood sinus, which requires further study.

The above is an abstract of a detailed account which was prepared
with appropriate figures last winter, but which has been withheld in
the hope that an acquisition of fresh material would permit the eluci-
dation of several doubtful points.

The material on which this account was based consisted of several
rather poorly preserved specimens found among the collections left by
the late Dr. Joseph Leidy at the University of Pennsylvania.

The several points referred to above about which I am still in doubt
are the character of the spermathece, if present, the presence or ab-
sence of dorsal pores, the minute structure of the nephridia, and the
number of species, there being indications of the existence of two.
Furthur studies of the variations and distribution of the setz are also
desirable. |

Michaelsen, in his synopsis, has placed Distichopus next to Frideri-
cia, but apparently without any intention of suggesting relationship.
That such a relationship exists, and that Distichopus finds its closest

756 ‘The American Naturalist. [August,

ally in Fridericia, is perfectly evident from the above account. The
form of the setz is easily derived from the straight, internally hooked
type of Friedericia, while their arrangement in the bundles is even
more characteristically of the Friderician plan. The post-clitellar ori-
gin of the dorsal vessel, the colorless blood, the two kinds peritoneal
corpuscles, the large size and branched arrangement (as in some spe-
cies of Fridericia) of the salivary glands, the simple alimentary canal,
the character of the male ducts and of the nephridia are all characters
which these two genera possess in common. On the other hand, Dis-
tichopus is clearly separated Fridericia by the abortion of the dorsal sete
bundles, and perhaps by the absence of dorsal pores.

The absence of dorsal setæ is not to be regarded as allying Disticho-
pus with Anachaeta.—J. PERCY Moore.

New Mollusca from the Pacific.—While the Albatross was en-
gaged in making soundings between the coast of California and the
Hawaiian Islands in 1891-92, some dredgings were made on the archi-
benthal plateau about the islands in water from 300 to 400 fathoms
deep, from which a small collection of molluses and brachiopods was
made. This material is now reported upon by Mr. W. H. Dall. It
proves to be most interesting, and wholly new, not a single species
heretofore described, either from the deep sea or from the Hawaiian
Archipelago, being found among the dredgings. A new subgenus of
Pleurotomide, the hitherto unknown and very interesting soft parts of
a species of Euciroa, regarded as belonging to the Verticordiide, but
now necessarily raised to family rank, and several new Brachiopods,
are described. To these are added a few new species from the north-
west American coast. |

The Hawaiian collection is distributed as follows: Gasteropoda 11,
Seaphoda 2, Pelecypoda 4. The northwest American species have been
described before, but are now figured with a few additional notes, and
13 new species added to the list. (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus. xvii, 1895.)

Taylor on Box Tortoises.—lIn a classification of the Box Tor-
toises of the United States, Mr. W. E. Taylor adopts the species rec-
ognized by Baur, and adds one new one, Terrapene baurii. The
author agrees also with Baur as to the important position in the
taxonomy of Terrapene of the modification of the zygomatic arch, and
gives seven figures, showing that the quadratojugal is well developed in
primitive forms of the genus, rudimentary in intermediant forms, and
absent in T. ornata, the most specialized species.

1895.] Zoology. 757

In regard to distribution, the author has compiled the following facts :
T. major is a Gulf species, and ranges from the mouth of the Rio Grande
to Florida, possibly including southern Georgia. T. baurii belongs to
the peninsula of Florida, possibly including southern Georgia. T. car-
olina is found in northeastern United States, extending from the St.
Lawrence and Great Lakes south to the Carolinas and Tennessee, and
west to the Mississippi River in Kentucky and to eastern Illinois. Con-
_ cerning T. mexicana the data are insufficient to outline its range. T.
triunguis occupies the swampy districts of the Lower Mississippi and
bordering territory. T. ornata belongs to the plains and tablelands
east of the Rocky Mts. from the Rio Grande north to the Yellowstone
River. (Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus. Vol. XVII, 1895).

Although these box tortoises are similar in external appearance, they
cannot be referred to asingle genus owing to the extraordinary differ-
ences in the characters of the zygomatic arch which Baur has shown
to be present. They furnish an illustration of a case where the generic
characters are more conspicuous than the specific. Using the table
furnished by Mr. Taylor, we will have the following :

I. Three digits to the hind foot.

Zygomatic arch complete, l Pariemys, g. n.
Zygomatic arch incomplete, Onychotria Gray.

II. Four digits to the hind foot.

Zygomatic arch complete, Toxapsis g. n.
Zygomatic arch incomplete, Terrapene Merr.

The only species of Pariemys is P. baurii Taylor. Of Onychotria
there are two species, O. triunguis and O. mexicana. Of Toxaspis but
one species is known, viz., T. major; while there are two of Terrapene,
viz., T. carolina and T. ornata.—E. D. COPE.

The Genera of Xantusiidæ.—The interesting additions to this
family of lizards made by Stejneger and Van Denburgh exhibit a large
range of variation in scutellation of the head. It appears to me that
neither of the species added by these gentlemen can be properly re-
ferred to Xantusia, and I would distinguish them as the types of two
genera. The genera of Xantusiidæ appear to me to be five, distin-
guished as follows :

758 The American Naturalist. [ August,
I. One frontal and frontonasal plates.

Superciliary scales, none ; pupil round, Lepidophyma Dum.
Superciliary scales present ; pupil erect, Xantusia Bd.

II. One frontal and two frontonasal plates, pupil erect.

An interoccipital plate ; frontoparietals i in contact; superciliaries,
Zablepsis Cope.

No interoccipital ; frontoparietals widely separated ; superciliaries,
Cricosaura Pet.

III. Two frontals and one frontonasal; pupil erect.

No interoccipital ; frontoparietals in contact; superciliaries,
Amebopsis Cope.

Each genus includes but one species except Xantusia, which has
two. The type of Zablepsis is the Xantusia henshavii Stejneger, and
the type of Amcebopsis is X. gilbertii Van Denburgh. The former is
from Southern, the latter from Lower California—E. D. Cope.

Occurrence of the Siberian Lemning-Vole (Lagurus) in
the United States.—In describing a new vole (Arvicola pallidus)
from Dakota, in 1888, I referred it to the subgenus Chilotus of
Baird, with which it agrees in the number of triangles in the molar
teeth. Two years later, when studying a collection of voles from
Idaho, I found that pallidus and its near ally pauperrimus, differed
from Chilotus in important cranial and external characters, and
the teeth, while agreeing in the number of triangles, differed
materially in other respects. They were, therefore, removed from
Chilotus,’ but a new subgenus was not erected for them because it was
believed that they would be found to fit into some of the numerous
named groups of Eurasian voles of which no specimens were then avail-
able for comparison. Through the courtesy of Mr. Gerrit S. Miller,
Jr., I now have before me a skin and skull of the Siberian Lagurus
lagurus (Pallas) [== Eremiomys lagurus Auct.*], collected at Gurjew on
the north shore of the Caspian Sea, and recently received by him from

1 AMERICAN NATURALIST, August, 1888, 702-705. | :

2N. Am. Fauna, No. 5, August, 1891, 64-65.

° The generic name, Lagurus, of Gloger (1841), antedates Hremiomys Poliokoff

(1881) by forty years. For an article on Gloger’s names see Thomas, in Apa
and Magazine Nat. Hist., Ser. 6, Vol. XV, 1895, pp. 189-193.

1895.] Zoology. 759

the St. Petersburg Museum. At first glance I was impressed by the
strong resemblance of this animal to our members of the pallidus
group; and a detailed comparison of the skulls, teeth, and external
characters of the two serves only to confirm this view. They agree in
the small flattened skull with squarish, depressed braincase and short
nasals; the pattern of the molar teeth (not only the number and rela-
tions of the triangles, but also the distant spacing of the loops poste-
riorly and the appearance of immaturity of the posterior molar in both
jaws) ; the structure of the hinder part of the palate; the short wooly
hind feet ; the short tail ; and even the softness of the polage and pale
coloration. In Mr. Miller’s specimen the audital bulle and occipital
region are broken off, but on comparing these parts in the Amercian
members of the pallidus group with Buchner’s figures of Eremiomys
[—Lagurus] lagurus*, they are found to be essentially identical. The
posterior part of the braincase is not only flattened, depressed and very
broad, but the audital and mastoid bulle are unusually large and the
latter project decidedly behind the plane of the occiput. From the
close agreement in the above mentioned essential characters, and the
absence of important differences, I unhesitatingly refer the American
Microtines described under the names Arvicola curtatus, pauperrimus
and pallidus, to the Eurasian Lagurus. The principal differences are
that L. lagurus has the tail even shorter than our species, and the ear
decidedly smaller. There is also a more or less clearly defined dark
streak down the middle of the back that is not present in the American
forms.

Lagurus is commonly accorded full generic rank, but I am unable
to appreciate more than subgeneric weight in the characters that dis-
tinguish it from Microtus. Why it has been called a lemning instead
of a vole I am not able to understand.

It is gratifying to add another group to the Microtines of Circum-
polar distribution and at the same time lesson the number restricted to
a single continent. Lagurus is a Boreal group, finding its southern
limit in the Transition Zone-—C. Harr MERRIAM.

The Introitus Vaginz of certain Muridz.—A series of ob-
servations made by Mr. G. I. Miller, during the winter and spring
months of 1890 and 1891, prove conclusively that in many of the
smaller American Muride and also in the European Mus sylvaticus,
Evotomys glareolus and Microtus agrestis the vaginal orifice, during
pregnancy, lactation and the period of sexual inactivity, is tightly

_ 4 Przewalski’s Reise nach Central-Asien, Siiugethiere, liefr. 3, 1889, pl. XIII.

760 The American Naturalist. August,

closed by a membrane which resembles a hymen. That this structure
is not homologous with the hymen the author has discovered by a his-
tological examination. A series of sections shows conclusively that the
vaginal orifice is closed, not, as Lataste states, by the mere approxima-
tion of the walls, but by a mass of epidermal cells which is absolutely
continuous across the vaginal region. This peculiar epithelial growth
does not contain the same histological elements, nor does it occupy the
same position as the hymen.

The use of the structure is to protect the vagina from particles of
dust, dirt and sand, and probably originated, according to the author,
as the result of the action of foreign substances in the vaginal orifice,
since mechanical irritation of epithelial tissue causes cell proliferation.
This tendency to cell growth in a definite region once established, the
protection afforded by it, although incomplete, might offer sufficient op-
portunity for the operation of natural selection, whereby the definite
and useful structure now present could be perfected. (Proceeds. Bos-
ton Nat. Hist. Soc., XX VI, 1895).

Zoological News.—A note published by M. A. T. Rochebrune
calls attention to a mollusc with toxic properties. This mollusk is
Spondylus americanus, found by M. Diguet in Lower California. It
emits an odor of sulphurretted hydrogen, strong enough to disgust
even a famished creature, so it is never prayed upon for food. M. de
Rochebrune has isolated the toxic principle by the Stass method, and
has obtained an unctuous olive-green extract with an acrid odor and
bitter taste, which produces a burning sensation, and which burns
with a vivid yellow flame. .001 gr. kills a frog in 12 minutes, after
first producing paralysis. .003 gr. kills a guinea pig in 25 minutes.
Chemical reactions indicate that-in Spondylus americanus there is elab-
orated a product allied to ptomaines and leucomaines, very similar to
muscarine, the toxic product of the mushroom, Amanita muscaria,
and which M. Rochebrune calls Spondylotoxine. (Revue Scientifique,
June, 1895).

The South American Characinide collected by ©. F. Hart, and pre-
sented to Cornell University, comprises 167 species of which seven are
new, four of them belonging to the genus Tetragonopterus. The ma-
terial has been identified by A. B. Ulrey. (Am.N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1895).

A collection of birds made in the Philippine Islands by the Menage
Expedition for the Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences includes
36 new species. These are described by Messrs. Bourns and Worces-

1895.] Entomology. 761

ter (1804) in the first volume of Occasional Papers issued by that insti-
tution. Two hundred and twenty-six species are noted as already de-
scribed, but from localities not previously known. Of these 73 were
were found in the Calamianes Islands—all of them identical with spe-
cies found in Palawan.

M. A. Pettit, having had an opportunity of examining the supra-
renal capsules of two adult Ornithorhyncus (O. paradoxus) makes the
following statements in regard to them. In size and general appear-
ance the suprarenal capsules of Ornithorhyncus resemble those of
mammals, while their position, within the posterior extremity of the
kidney, is an Avian character. (Bull. Soc. Zool. de France, T. XIX,
1894).

ENTOMOLOGY.’

A new Tettix.—In a series of specimens of Tettigids received from
Mr. J. C. Warren of Palouse, Washington, I find a new form, see Fig. 1,
nearly allied to Tettix granulatus but having certain recognizable
differences as here described.

Tettiz incurvatus sp. nov. Resembling Tettix granulatus nearly but
differing as follows: Average length shorter, more robust, pronotum
faintly bulging and deeper over the thorax, lateral angles more pro-
nounced, median carina of pronotum distinctly elevated reaching the
maximal height over the shoulders, a small swollen space here intercept-
ing the base leaves the carina just in front sharply compressed, con-
vexly sloping to the front, with a depression on each side—this is barely
indicated in T., granulatus. Dorsal -front and lateral front margin of
pronotum encroaching on the head. Face broader, cheeks more
swollen. Surface of pronotum densely granulated interpersed with
fewer coarse granulations. Color dark brownish fuscous tending to
black. In the male the wings slightly over reach the pronotum from
4 to 1 mm.; in the female this condition varies, the wings slightly
over reaching the pronotum in some cases, in other individuals the
reverse is true. Specimens of T. granulatus from Indiana, Illinois and

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

762 The American Naturalist. [August,

Massachusetts, in my collection are almost uniformly slender, the
pronotum nearly straight toward the front, and the median carina very
slightly raised. A series of these examples brought together with the
foregoing for comparison are easily separable.

MEASUREMENTS IN MM.

Length. Pronotum. Hind Femora.
@ 14-15 13-134 63-7
$ 11-12 10-104 54-6

This small locust abounds in openings among pines near the Palouse
River, sometimes occurring on moss or white clover. Described from
12 males and 16 females from Palouse, Washington, (collected by J. C.
Warren), in the authors collection.

Explanation of Fig. 1. Side view of Tettix incurvatus Hancock, en-
larged, original, the line above shows natual size.—J. L. Hancock.

On the Early Stages of some Carabide and Chrysomelide.
—-The descriptions of the larve of the species which follow should be com-
pared by the student with those of Chlenius laticollis and C. leucoscelis
as given by Schaupp' and with Dugés’’ figure and account of Lepti-
notarsa lineata. The details of some of the mouth-parts of the larva of
Cychrus elevatus are introduced to show the peculiar armature of the
mandible.

CyYCHRUS ELEVATUS Fabr.

Larva found under a log (in cell, ready for pupation) April 23rd.
Color above nearly black, beneath almost white, form robust rather re-
sembling that of some Silphids. Pupated April 25th,pupa of an ordinary
Carabidous form and without special marks though the deeply emarg-
inate labrum and expanded tips of the palpi indicated its identity before
the beetle was disclosed on the 10th of May. The AN of the mouth

1 Bull. Brooklyn Ento. Soc., III, 17, 26.

2 Amn. Soc. Ent. Belg., XXVIII, 1.

1895.] Entomology. 763

parts of the larva are introduced for comparison with those of other
Carabids. The mandibles are long and curved, with a very strong
tooth near the base, this tooth being pectinate on the inner margin and
provided on the side with many short bristles. Still nearer the base of
the mandible than the tooth is a bunch of long slender hairs. The
maxillz have only the basal joint left in my preparation—this is heavy
and very spiny, bearing near its inner tip a bristle-tipped tubercle.
The mentum is broader at tip, the palpi with bristly basal and naked
second joint.
CHLENIUS SERICEUS Forst.

Larva of a greenish-black color with bronzed luster, head reddish,
feet testaceous becoming piceous in the vicinity of the claws.

Form elongate, slightly convex above, more flattened beneath, taper-
ing to both ends but more distinctly posteriorly. The ninth abdom-
inal segment bears two processes or filaments about equal in length to
the rest of the insect.

Head narrowed behind the eyes and slightly constricted into a neck ;
anterior to and between the eyes the upper surface is concave and with
two very distinct longitudinal impressed lines. Beneath the surface is
convex but with a distinct longitudinal groove and a large anterior tri-
angular impressed space, the middle of which is slightly elevated. The
upper and lower surfaces are both very finely granulate, the former
with some distinct rugæ and punctures in addition. Hairs are visible
only under a strong lens and are few in number.

Ocelli six, about a raised spot back of the antennz.

Antenne four-jointed, bristly, the first joint long, the second shorter,
third a little longer than the second and bent near the tip. The fourth
is scarcely half as long as the third and fusiform in shape.

Mandibles long, curved, armed below the middle with a strong tooth
which is directed inwards and downwards; still nearer the base is a
small bunch of hairs which lie against each other so closely as to
simulate a spine and can only be resolved into components by the use
of a high-power objective. This little bunch is, without doubt, the
homologue of the large brush found in the larva of Cychrus elevatus.

Maxillze with long stout basal joint bearing a few long spines and
numerous more delicate hairs; inner lobe two-jointed, the basal joint
the longer and stouter. Palpus four-jointed, first joint short and thick,
second more slender and about twice as long, third about equal in
length to the second, but more slender, fourth very small. Besides the
palpus and inner lobe, the maxilla bears on its basal joint, just near the
base of the lobe, a small bristle-tipped appendix of a single joint.

52

764 : The American Naturalist. [August,

Mentum broader than long, quite bristly, the anterior margin pro-
duced at middle and emarginate at sides, the process bearing two long
bristles which are approximated at tip and give the appearance of a
single long stout'spine. Palpi with large basal, shorter second and ex-
tremely minute third joint, the basal one alone somewhat feebly
spinous.

Prothorax narrower anteriorly, about one-fourth broader than long,
lateral and basal marginal lines distinct, anterior margin somewhat
broadly depressed, angles rounded ; an impressed median line is found,
on each side, of which, is a less well-defined slightly oblique channel,
deeply punctate at bottom. The whole disk is irregularly punctured,
with intervening smooth spaces, the most evident of which are on each
side of the above-described lateral grooves.

Meso- and metathorax, taken together, shorter than the prothorax,
the impressions similar but broader and less well-defined, the discal
punctures with a tendency to coalesce and form transverse rug.

Abdomen of nine true segments, slowly tapering, the margins of the
first eight paler and apparently somewhat membranous in structure,
the ninth bearing a long tubular anal segment and two processes which
latter about equal the rest of the body in length and are black with a
broad sub-basal orange band. These processes are rather thickly finely
bristled and under high power the dark portions give a segmented ap-
pearance due probably to the surface being roughened by transverse
ridges or scales.

Legs of an ordinary carabidous form—the figure shows a posterior
member.

Pupa 10°5 mm. in length, the thorax narrow, with many dorsal
bristles, the sides of the abdominal segments somewhat produced as
shown in the figure.

The larvæ described were taken in July at Bayfield, Wis., under
pieces of wood near ponds. They are hard to rear and only a small
proportion could be brought to maturity. If the figures given by
Schaupp’ are correct, the larva of my species differs greatly from his
in the immense length of the caudal setz.

DORYPHORA (Mycocoryna) LINEOLATA Stal.

Living larve cream-colored, pronotum with a yellowish tinge, head of
a very light amber, legs black. The mandibles are dark, the tip of the
antennz and a frontal spot in the shape of a broad inverted V are black,
as are also the front and hind margins of the pronotum. There isa
* Tom. cit. Pl. (I), fig. B.

1895.] Entomology. 765
line of more or less confluent black spots along each side of the body
from the base of the pronotum to the penultimate abdominal segment
which is dusky over the most of its surface, while the terminal segment
is shining and of a deep brown (or occasionally castaneous) color. A
black dorsal line extends from near the middle of the metanotum on
to the seventh abdominal segment and all the abdominal sutures are
edged with black. A more or less interrupted line of brown dots and
dashes extends from side to side of each of the first seven abdominal
segments and in some cases a similar one occupies the same position on
the meso- and metanotum, though they may be reduced to a lateral dot.
Form heavy and thick-set much as in the larva of the common D.
decem-lineata; the prothorax is broader and higher than the meso-
- thorax, the abdomen broadest near the middle. The figure I give is of
a specimen in the quiescent state immediately preceding pupation, as
all were full grown when mailed to me and changed soon after recep-
tion. Length, measured on the chord of the curve7 mm.

Labrum transverse, rounded in front and rather deep emarginate,
the bottom of the margination round. The surface is bristled as shown
in the figure.

Ocelli six in number and in two species; the first series, of four, is
placed just behind the antenna, the other, of two, immediately beneath
that organ. ;

Antennæ extremely small, short and thick, joints rapidly reducing
in thickness. i

Mandibles strong, heavy, curved, much flattened, five-toothed at the
extremity. Two views are given to show the appearance under differ-
ent aspects.

Maxillæ about equal to or a little shorter than the mandibles, the
inner lobe short and heavy, beset with many spines around the edge. Pal-
pi four-jointed, the first joint very large, the second narrower and shorter,
the third again longer, the fourth about equal to the third in length
and conical in shape, the tip truncate and beset with very small spines.
The bristles on the first, second and third joints are few in number but
very stout. 3

Mentum with the anterior angles turned inward and partially em-
bracing the ligula which is slightly emarginate in front and bears short
two-jointed palpi and several spines as figured. In this figure the men-
tum is drawn under pressure and the angles are everted from their
ordinary flexed position.

Legs stout and rather short with a moderate number of strong spines
as shown.

766 The American Naturalist. (August,

The pupa is very robust in form and about 7 mm. in length, the disk
of the prothorax bears numerous short bristles, while the sides and dorsum
of the abdomen are armed in the same way. The terminal segment
bears a short, strong horny spine at apex. The eggs were too much
damaged when received to admit of careful description, but were yellow
in color and deposited in elongate masses, each egg attached by one end
to the leaf of the food-plant, Eggs and full-grown larve were sent me
by Professor Theo. D. A. Cockerell who collected them at San August-
ine Ranch on the east side of the Organ Mountains of New Mexico in
August. :

State University of Iowa. H. F. WICKHAM.

May 27th, 1895.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1. Cychrus elevatus Fabr.

Fig. 2. Chlænius sericeus Forst.

Fig. 3. Doryphora (Mycocoryna) lineolata Stil. All the dissections
are lettered alike, ant., antennæ, l. leg, 1b., labrum, md., mandible,
mt., mentum, mx., maxilla.

Cecidomyia atriplicis [Towsend, Am. Nat., Nov., 1893, gall
only] n. sp.— 9 about 4 mm. long, general color grey ; abdomen black-
ish above, slightly reddish at sides, presenting, especially towards base,
scattered silvery hairs, Ovipositor not exserted. Thorax above leaden-
grey, with two distinct longitudinal grooves. Legs and antennæ grey.
Eyes black, joining above, almost covering head. Halteres with the
stem grey and the knob dull white. Base of occiput with the fringe of
hairs. Antenne with the whorls of hair obscure, 13-jointed, 3rd joint
much longer than 4th, but hardly so long as 4-5, which are equal.
Joints 4 to 11 decreasing gradually in length; 12 and 13 very small,
looking like one deeply-constricted joint. Wings greyish-white, hardly
at all translucent, veins grey, costal vein black, ending abruptly at
junction with first longitudinal. Cross nervure slightly oblique, situ-
ated almost at base of wing. The anterior fork of the third longitu-
dinal is very obscure, and there is a wing-fold stimulating a third lon-
gitudinal, so that the wing seems to have four longitudinal veins, all
simple.

Pupa-shell reddish-brown, with the covering of the wings concolor-
ous or rather paler.

Hab. Bred, May 9, 1895, from galls on Atriplex canescens collected
on College Farm, Las Cruces, N. M. The galls are red on one side.

1895.] Entomology. 767

I am glad to have an opportunity of describing this species, since
Prof. Townsend had already named it in connection with the galls.—
T. D. A. CocKERELL, N. M. Agr. Exp. Sta.

Mexican Jumping Beans.—Occasionally one sees what are
known as Mexican Jumping Beans, or Broncho Beans, exposed for sale
in curiosity stores, or displayed as objects of interest in drug-stores, or
other merchantile establishments. They are usually shown upon some
smooth surface, as glass, the face of a mirror, or on the bottom of a
smooth box. These beans are able to execute short leaps forward, or
even turn over by a side-wise movement. If a dozen are placed in a
box, so active are they, that some will be in motion most of the time.
They are interesting objects both to grown people and children. Child-
ren will watch them by the hourand beamused. They appeal strongly
to the sense of the marvelous in older people, who seek a cause for
everything, as there is no apparent explanation of these erratic move-
ments. All the risk of dispelling the charm that gives attractiveness
to the mysterious, the following explanation of the phenomenon is
given.

a l-

These animated curiosities are the product of the plant belonging to
the Spurge Family (Euphorbiaceæ) known to botanists as Sebastiania
bilocularis. To this same family belongs the Castor Oil Bean. There-
fore it would not seem inappropriate to apply the name bean to these
saltatorial seeds, though they bear no resemblance in shape to beans
belonging to the Pulse Family.

The pods of plants belonging to the Spurge family are usually three
lobed, as shown in cut C, and when ripe split up into three triangular
valves with a roundediback as shown in cuts a, dorsal view, b face view,
and e cross section.’ Each valve contains a single seed. It is to this
tripartite form of the pod that the name Jumping Bean is applied. The
plant they are obtained from has quite a wide geographical range, but
the saltatorial seeds are found only in a limited area in Sonora, Mexico.
Some of the seeds do not possess jumping powers and the active ones
have to be selected. They are gathered by boys and find ready sale to
travelers and dealers in curiosities. These diminutive “ Bronchos ” are

PLATE XXX.

Wickham on Coleoptera.

768 The American Naturalist. [ August,.

advertised to continue their antics for about nine months. This is
approximately correct. If some of them are put in a box and examined
the following season their movements will have ceased. Small holes
will be found in the seeds as though something had gnawed out. In
the bottom of the box small moths will be found. Ifthe beans are
opened while still active in each one will be found a worm or larva.
snugly tucked away in the interior. One of these larva is shown in
cut ¢ natural size. The worm is pale yellowish with a brown head,
which has a triangular darker patch in the middle, and black mouth
parts. There are eight true legs, six anterior and a single pair poste-
rior and four pairs of false feet, pale pink at the ends. There is a pale
brownish stripe down the back. Our specimens were examined Nov-
ember Ist. The seed was entirely eaten, the pod only remaining, cut.
e shows a cross section of one of the beans, the dotted portion was eaten.
The worm was plump and fat, evidently having relished the oily seed, a
taste we can hardly appreciate if the oil of these seeds has the some
flavor and properties as Castor Oil. If these larve remain active until
next summer they will have to live a long time on their accumulated
fat, as their food supply was exhausted November Ist. Possibly their
restlessness may be the throes of hunger. They probably go into the
quiescent or pupa state before winter and remain inactive until time to
transform the following summer. The worms do not entirely fill the
space that was occupied by the seed and by suddenly changing their
position they are able to give movements to the light seed pods they
occupy. If the seeds are disturbed the worms become quiet for a time.
This is an inborn instinct for self-preservation, like that of feigning
death, so common among insects.

These worms in due time change to the pupa state and finally emerge
as small moths belonging to the order Lepidoptera, Family Tortricide,
which embraces the Codling Moth and a host of other small moths
many of which are more or less injurious. This species is known to
entomologists as Graptolitha sebastiane Riley.

We presume the moths lay their eggs in the young growing pods, as
their is no evidence in the mature pods of the method of entrance.
The eggs hatch and the young worms feed upon the developing seed
and finally spend the winter in the cavity thus formed. They finally
change to the quiescent stage and in due time transform to moths gnaw
out and are ready to lay eggs again, thus completing the cycle of life.
That which appears marvelous often becomes common place when viewed
by the light of some natural cause. But the life history of this insect.
regardlesss of the movements it causes in seeds is interesting, illustrat-

1895.] | Embryology. 769

ing as it does the wonderful provision made by host plants to entertain
and preserve the parasites that infest them —F. L. Harvey, Orono,
Maine.

EMBRYOLOGY.

Half Embryos versus Whole Embryos.—In a brief contri-
bution to the Anatomische Anzeiger Dr. T. H. Morgan makes an im-
portant advance toward the comprehension of the much vexed question
as to what may arise from part of an egg, a part or a whole embryo.

Roux claimed that when one of the first two cells of a cleaving frog’s
egg was killed by a hot needle, the other cell formed oniy half an
embryo. Hertwig, however, in repeating these experiments obtained
whole embryos of small size. Then Born showed that when a frog’s
egg is fixed upside down, the contents rotate and become differently
arranged. Finally O. Schultze has shown that if the egg is fixed up-
side down in the two-celled stage, it will form two embryos, each of half
the normal size.

With these facts in mind Morgan repeated the experiments of Roux
and Hertwig to see if the contradictory results might not be due to
their having overlooked an important factor, namely, the position of
the cells. |

The results obtained are that when most of the 155 eggs were fixed
upside down, six half embryos and two whole embryos were reared,
eight in all. Of these, the six half embryos came from the few eggs
that were fixed in the normal position, that is, with the black part of
the egg uppermost. The two perfect, but half sized embryos, came from
the large number of eggs fixed upside down, or with the white side
uppermost.

In another set of experiments subsequently undertaken, five half
embryos were formed from 92 eggs kept in the normal position. In
another case from 125 eggs fixed upside down seven whole embryos
and three half embryos were obtained.

It seems that in all the eggs tried, half embryos resulted when the
egg was fixed in the normal position and one of the first two cells killed.
On the other hand, in most cases tried, small whole embryos were

1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and
preliminary notes may be sent. |

770 The American Naturalist. [August,

formed when the egg was fixed upside down and one of the first two
cells killed; in some cases, however, half embryos were formed even
under these conditions.

The advance made lies in recognizing that results obtained are not
final till all the conditions of the experiment are considered, and that
the state of the egg determines the development of half or whole forms
irrespective of theories of post-generation or qualitative-division.

The Mouse’s Egg.—Dr. J. Sobotta, of Berlin, contributes to the
May number of the Archiv fiir Mikroskopische Anatomie a fully illus-
trated account of his researches on the fertilization and cleavage of the
mouse’s egg.

His work has been extended over five years and has involved the
death of 750 mice yielding 1459 eggs, only 57 of which were degener-
ate or not fertilized.

While still warm the ovaries, oviducts and part of the uterus were
killed in mixtures of corrosive sublimate and picrosulphuric acid or, to
even better advantage, in osmic acid mixtures. The entire organs
were cut into serial sections about 10 microns thick, and fixed and
stained by special methods given in detail in the paper, to which the
reader is referred for a full account of the technique employed.

The author discovered that in the mouse there is besides the period
of heat occurring just after parturition, as in many mammals, a second
period twenty-one days later. At this time the young are weaned, and
by permitting fertilization at this second period only the young aresaved
for future experiments, whereas they perish if the mother becomes
again pregnant at the first period. The ages of the embryos obtained
were most accurately determined by reckoning from this second period
of heat, at which time the male was admitted. |

Ovulation takes place at the first period whether copulation is effected
or not. Between the periods of heat copulation is prevented by the
fact that the walls of the vagina are grown together.

The process of copulation lasts but one minute and is difficult to
observe even in the most tame of the white mice that the author had,
as it takes place in the night towards morning, and the animals are
then shy. In this process the uterus becomes very greatly distended
with sperm containing clusters of sperms and also some isolated sperms,
all moving in the liquid. The vagina is distended by a large mass of
a homogeneous secretion of the seminal vesicle of the male. |

Twenty to thirty hours after copulation the vaginal plug softens and
falls out; before this the uterus has become small again and the sperms
are dead, as they live but a few hours.

1895.] Embryology. 771

It appears that only a few single sperms enter the oviducts to meet
the eggs, since when a sperm was found entering an egg no others could
be discovered anywhere near.

When the egg bursts out of a Graafian follicle in the ovary, it is
accompanied by a large mass of cells of the discus proligerus that may
continue to surround it till after fertilization. It is probable that some
of the liquid in the capsule enveloping the ovary and mouth of the
oviduct passes into the oviduct with the egg, for the egg is found i in a
part of the tube distended with liquid.

The egg of the mouse is exceedingly small, only 59 microns in ie
ter, and is again remarkable amongst Mammalian eggs in having a
very thin, flexible zona, only 14 microns thick.

The polar bodies are exceptionally large, as much as 16 microns
through. One is formed while the egg is still in the ovary, it may
divide into two, but this was seldom seen. In fact in nine-tenths of
the eggs observed only one polar body was formed. Without any
other apparent difference some eggs give rise to two and some to one.
Since the size and character of the spindle seen in the formation of the
single polar body is the same as that seen in the second one when two
are formed, it is inferred that most of the eggs omit the formation of
the first polar body. In forming the polar body the egg nucleus
changes into an achromatic spindle, of probably only 12 threads, lying
tangentially near the surface of the egg and bearing probably 12, at
the most 14 or 15 rod-shaped chromosomes. There is no sign of radia-
tions in the protoplasm nor of the existence of a centrosome. This
spindle then turns into a radial position and the chromosomes divide
into two groups of each apparently 12 rounded chromosomes that
move toward the ends of the spindle. One group enters the large polar
body that is pinched off about it. When there is but one polar body
(and is the second if there be two) there are marked thickenings of
the achromatic threads to form conspicuous rounded bodies lying in
the position of an equatorial plate.

When the polar body is formed the remaining nucleus of the egg
forms a dense mass of chromatin about the same size as the male pro-
nucleus. This is formed from the head of a sperm that enters the egg
and becomes a spindle-shaped, dense mass lying tangentially near the
surface. A centrosome is now seen lying near the male pronucleus.
Both pronuclei enlarge and exhibit remarkably large nucleoli or dense
spherules of chromatin; there is but one of these in the male while
there may be several in the female. Finally all differences between
the two nuclei disappear, they lie side by side and each contains a long,
much bent strand of chromatin apparently without a free end.

772 The American Naturalist. [August,

The union of the pronuclei is a summation of separate chromatin
bodies that pass from each nucleus to the equator of a spindle; the
nuclear membranes disappear and the chromatin breaks up finally into
V-shaped loops, apparently 12 in each nucleus ; between the nuclei a
centrosome is seen surrounded by sharp radiating lines, while there are
also radiations in the protoplasm about the nuclei ; two centrosomes
are next found at the ends of a small spindle lying between the two sets
of chromatin loops ; these loops then collect at the equator of the spindle
that enlarges to form the first cleavage spindle ; these chromatin loops
are entirely different in size and form from the chromatin bodies seen
in the formation of the polar body and appear to be not more than
twenty-four in number. s

The first cleavage results in the formation of two entirely equal cells.
The nucleus of each receives some of the above chromatin loops; the
author supposes they split so that each cell receives 24 chromosomes,
but this is not evident from his figures and seems rather an inference
from a general idea supported by his belief that the adult tissues of
the mouse apparently show 24, and the spermocytes as well as the
maturing egg 12 chromosomes.

The subsequent cleavage taking place as the egg passes toward the
uterus is at first unequal in that one of the cells enlarges and divides
into two; there are then three cells, one large, a pair of smaller. The
larger then divides into two smaller than the first formed pair. The
first formed then divide so that there are now six ; then the others
divide and the egg is made up of eight all essentially alike. The egg
has 16 cells about 72 hours and comes into the uterus about 80 hours
after coitus.

If the eggs are not fertilized, either from the lack of copulation or
from the fact that not enough sperm enters the oviduct to fertilize all
the eggs, they degenerate without cleaving.

Interesting cases of polyspermy were seen to result from a second
copulation ; if when the vaginal plug is fallen out a’ second male be ad-
mitted, the usual changes in the uterus take place. In one case when
the second copulation occurred 18 hours after the first, a sperm was
found in an egg having two normal pronuclei, and in another a small
pronucleus in addition to the two normal ones. In another case of
copulation 24 to 36 hours after the first, where the eggs had divided
into two cells, two sperms were found in one cell of one egg and a
large nucleus (apparently a male pronucleus) in a cell of another egg,
in addition to the normal nucleus of the cell.

1895]. Psychology. 773

PSYCHOLOGY.’

The Problem of Instinct.—The works of Prof. Lloyd and of
Prof. Baldwin, which I have recently reviewed in these pages, deal
more at length with this problem, but it seems worth while to add an
account.of a very interesting article which Louis Weber published in
the January number of the ~“ Revue de Metaphysique et de Morale,”
pp. 27-59.

The word instinct may be taken in three quite distinct senses. In
the first sense it is practically equivalent to animal mind or intelli-
gence ; in the second it denotes certain types of conduct, adapted to an
end, constant throughout the individuals of a given species or race, and
although constant, not dependent upon consciousness for their perform-
ance ; in the third it denotes simply unconscious adaptation to an end
—the instinctive act may be conscious but in that conscfousness there
must be no representation of the end to which it tends. The first is
too vague, the second is arbitrary in that it involves the assumption of
a precision that does not exist, the third is preferable to either of the
others, for it embraces phenomena of widely different character and
recognizes instinct as a phenomenon co-extensive with mentality. The
facts accumulated by investigators in this field have been of little value
to science for lack of approved methods of research and the theories
based upon them stand in need of critical revision.

The difficulties of getting exact information upon these points are
great. Unlike physical phenomena, mental phenomena are not objects
of direct perception but must be inferred from external signs. In the
process of inference many errors creep in, springing, in part, from
theological or philosophical prejudices, and in part from our natural
tendency to read our own experiences into the minds of the lower ani-
mals. Among the most misleading of the anthropocentric conceptions
to which this tendency gives rise, is that of the scale of intelligence, in
which the human mind has the first place, every other type of mind
having its appropriate niche below it. ‘ Thus, the conceptions of rela-
tive value, of degree, and of hierarchy are intruded into the study of
phenomena which from their very nature cannot be brought under
any scheme of classification based upon the notions of less or more.”

1 This department is edited by Dr. Wm. Romaine Newbold, University of Penn-
sylvania. 2

774 The American Naturalist. [August,

Their points of difference are essentially qualitative and cannot be es-
timated as quantities or magnitudes.

One convenient method of avoiding such illegitimate interpretations
is found in the careful study of the physiological conditions of con-
sciousness. We are justified in assuming that sense organs of the same
character mediate sensations of the same kind, and if we find any wide
difference in the structure of the organs we must be cautious in our in-
terpretations. It is probable, for example, that the conscious states
mediated by the composite eye of the insect cannot be translated into
any terms drawn from our visual consciousness. It follows, then, that
to the bee or the fish, the hive and the water is not at all like that
which we understand by those words. And the same is true even of
that most general condition of all perception—space. It is probable
that few animals have what we know as space, yet all probably have
some analogue which bears tò their total consciousness the relation
that space bears to ours.

Similar inferences may be die with reference to common or bod-
ily sensation. As it depends upon bodily structure we can scarcely
suppose that the body of an insect yields a sensation-total to its pos-
sessor at all like that which our body yields us, and since emotions de-
pend upon variations in the composition of this bodily sensation, we
cannot assume that the ant, when he attacks or runs away from his
enemy, experiences what we call fear or courage. Yet he experiences
analogous emotions.

A careful description of the phenomena of organization and life from
the biological or external point of view must, therefore, precede any at- .
tempt at an interpretation of their psychological significance, and, as
the former has never been done, the attempts made at the latter are of
little value. Especially must we discard the current antithesis between
“human” and “animal” psychology. As there is no structure com-
mon to all “ animals,” so, too, is there no mind common to all animals:
If we are to draw antitheses at all, it would be better to speak of the
“insect mind,” the “ vertebrate mind,” since the gulf between the
human mind and that of other vertebrates is probably not as great as
that between the mind of vertebrates and that of insects. We must, in
other words, study morphological types of mind, just as we study simi-
lar types of body.

While the method above outlined has not been followed, and the
nature of the sensibility of the lower animals has, in consequence,
never been thoroughly understood, their acts have been very carefully
studied. Unfortunately, the inquiry has been prosecuted from the

1895.] Psychology. 775

more complex te the more simple instead of in the reverse direction,
and consequently we find the characteristics of the more complex types
ascribed to the acts of animals in general. These traits are finality, or
conduciveness to an end, uniformity, and automatic fatality. These,
therefore, have been grouped together and termed instinctive, in the
narrower sense of the word.

At this point philosophy stepped in and brought the problem into
its present shape. The first of the three traits, conduciveness to an
end, seems to show an affinity to intelligence; the other two, uniform-
ity and automatic fatality, would put instinct in the same category
with mechanisms. And the efforts at explanation proposed show the
difficulty of reconciling these conceptions. Thus Hegel terms it an un-
conscious activity tending towards an end; Schopenhauer, the uni-
versal will not yet become clearly self-conscious; Hartmann, instinct
is the Unconscious. Montaigne identifies it with intelligent reason,
while Descartes claims that it has no mental existence whatever. The
most interesting of these theories, however, are those which not only
recognize the existence of mental elements in the instinctive act, but
endeavor to determine their character. All agree in interpreting
them, after the analogy of our own innate and habitual acts, as involv-
ing desires, appetites, a vague sense of discomfort, without clear con-
sciousness of the end or volition to realize it, followed, when the end is
gained, by subsidence of desire and a sense of comfort, repose, equilib-
rium. No detailed criticism of this interpretation is necessary ; it is
- enough to say that it rests upon our own experience alone and must
not be regarded as more than probably correct.

The above theories deal with the nature of instinct. When we turn
to its mode of functioning, we find that the explanations proposed
largely depend upon the theories formed of its nature. The only one
that need engage our attention at present is that which explains in-
stinct by the analogy of habit. Its functioning, then, depends upon
the existence of certain preformed tendencies to act, ingrained in the
nervous system of the animal ; the start is given by appetite, blind im-
pulse, the painful feeling that drives an organism to movement in con-
junction with the external impressions which fire the mental mechan-
ism. Thus, the instinctive act arises as the joint product of nervous
organization and environment.

It is evident that this theory stands in need of some account of the
manner in which the nervous organization has been got. The expla-
nations proposed fall under three captions : those that ascribe the ori-
gin of instinct to more simple phenomena, explicable upon purely

776 The American Naturalist. [August,

mechanical principles; those that admit a mental source; and those
that admit both. According to the first, instinct depends upon habit ;
according to the second, upon selection ; according to the third, upon
both. The common point of departure of all these theories is found in
the generalization of habit and memory and their union in the concep-
tion of heredity. Habit is not limited to the individual but its results
are inherited by descendants.

As the type of the mechanical theories, we may take that of Spencer.
Instincts are due to complications of reflexes, and this complication is
simply an illustration of the most general law of evolution, which in-
volves progressive increase in heterogenity and complexity of corre-
spondence. But this is merely a statement of a fact and not an expla-
nation of it. We wish to know the reason why, and the method in
which this complication takes place.

The mental theories fall into two classes. The one, represented by
that of Lewes, regards the instinct as a degraded form of intelligent
act. This doctrine is discredited by the fact that it would require the
parallel assumption that the nervous system of the lower animals is de-
graded from a more complex form capable of manifesting the higher
forms of intelligence. The second class, represented by that of Fouil-
lée, merely translates into mental terms Spencer’s mechanical notions.
Mind stuff takes the place of Force, but the details are essentially the
same, and again the question arises, how and why can combinations of
mind stuff bring about the new creations which we see?

None of these theories afford any true explanation of the phenomena. -
They bring to view the points of resemblance and difference between
the instinct, the reflex and the voluntary act, but they do no more.

But the most interesting of the questions that arise in connection
with instinct is that of its mode of development. For the solution of
this problem we are indebted to Darwin, who has shown that it is due
to variation and selection. Yet it should be noted that this does not
reduce the development of instinct to a purely mechanical process,
which was Spencer’s error. The variations are not physical so much
as mental, nor are they absolutely predetermined. The conditions that
make them possible must be given, such as antecedent and concomi-
tant mental states, but this does not determine their occurrence, since
they may or may not occur. If they occur, the organism adapts itself
to its environment and survives ; if not, it does not adapt itself and be-
comes extinct. This introduces the last question to be considered, that
is, what is the character of these mental variations that underlie the de-
velopment of instinct ?

1895.] Psychology. 777

In the human being we recognize as instinctive the impulsive acts,
which fail to present any distinctively voluntary character. Some ap-
pear to spring from an unconscious or involuntary tendency, others
exist as elements of which the actor has no knowledge, others seem to
result from some innate predisposition. To this class a large majority
of all our acts belong. When we come to examine it more closely we
find that the class contains two groups: the one includes those acts
which contain no new element, but are mere repetitions of former acts.
These are our habits, innate predispositions, ordinary operations of in-
telligence, a priori intuitions of sense, a priori forms of the understand-
ing, ete. All such processes have somewhat in common with instinct,
and in common speech the word is often used of them. The other
group, while closely akin to these, differs from them in that it contains
a new element. Yet they have little in common with the clear voli-
tions and deliberations with which we associate the notion of a new
discovery. Few discoveries have, in fact, been so originated. They
have rather been the results of a blind impulse, a feeling after the
novel, which we can see throughout the animal world, and which has
little in common with deliberate will. “ Thus, when one says that the
human mind has been shaped and enriched by discovery (invention),
one means that all the modes in which its activity develops are not
primary data, of extrinsic origin, but productions of that very activity.
Discovery is then neither reason, liberty, religious faith nor conscience ;
it is not because we are reasonable, free, religious or moral, that we have
so progressed and distanced the lower animals, but because we have dis-
covered or created reason, liberty, religion and morality. Why? Wedo
not know, and never shall know. How? It is for sociology and psy-
chology to give us partial answers. Discovery is not an entity. Its
concept resolves itself into that of the possibility of real action and of
active mental change, and it simply indicates the point at which be-
coming takes the place of repetition.”

The power of discovery is not peculiar to the human race. It re-
quires no high degree of consciousness or power of reflection. Itisa
blind impulse, found in all animals and the new elements gained by it
are concreted and amalgamated by habit and memory into what we
see and call instincts.

Thus far, Weber. The affinity between his thought and that of
Baldwin is evident; the two classes into which Weber divides the more
vague acts, Aabitudes and invention are clearly equivalent to Baldwin’s
Habit and Accommodation. But Weber contents himself with a sim-
ple nescio at the very point upon which Baldwin has done the best
work, that is, How is Accommodation possible ?

778 The American Naturalist. [August,

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Notes taken upon an Exploration of the Lehigh and Sus-
quehanna Valleys for the University of Pennsylvania, in
the Summer of 1892.—A careful examination of the Susquehanna
region showed that there were no caves available for exploration on
the river side, between Pittston and Harrisburg. Many of the caverns
reported as light, dry and spacious, were rifts, not large enough to
stand in, or did not exist at all. The rocky ravines of the tributaries
of the Lehigh in Monroe County were equally unproductive, and
though there, and along the Susquehanna, the sandstone was not
adapted to the formation of caverns, there seemed at first no reason
why preprecipitous cliffs should not have exposed rock shelters, such
as characterize the sandstone region of the upper Ohio.

A day was lost at the rock shelter in a steep hillside near Stemlers-
ville, Monroe County, Pa., about. 6 ft. long, 8 ft. wide, and 5 ft. high,
though tradition said that Indians had made the place and lived in it.
Forty years ago, a man, having walled it in, had used it as a sheep
pen. Nevertheless, it appeared that beyond a chance night’s lodging
for the passing tramp, it had probably never served as a shelter for
humanity, and when we had removed a large fragment of rock on its
floor and dug down two feet without finding any trace of charcoal be-
low the surface, we abandoned the place.

It took half a day to find Girty’s Cave in the sandstone cliffs along
the Susquehanna, above Klemson’s Island, said to have been the hid-
ing place of Simon Girty, the ferocious Indian renegade of the last cen-
tury. It was the one and only cave on that river, following the east
branch from Wyoming to Harrisburg, after the shelter on the bluff,
under the Shekillemy Hotel at Sunbury, had been blasted away by a
railroad. Mr. McCalvey, of Girty’s Notch, had to go with us to the
cave, and to find it climed up a series of perpendicular ledges, said to
be inhabited by rattlesnakes, overhanging the “river road.” Evi-
dently he had forgotten the site himself, for it took half an hour’s
search to discover it closed by a fallen rock. The evil reputation which
Girty’s name had given the place in the last century had been in-
creased by events in recent years, and our guide, descending the cliff,
told the horrible story of the decomposed body of a murderer long
concealed in the hole, and which he had helped to find a few years

1895,] Scientific News. 779

before. The cramped inaccessible rift, only large enough for entrance
on hands and knees, could have been no fit shelter for man, and even
if animals had chosen it for a den it had no more interest for archæol-
ogy than the so-called “Indian Cave,” on a mountain top near Hun-
lock’s Creek, on the right bank of the Susquehanna in Luzerne
County, Pa. There two spacious caverns were reported, but the man
who led us over the bramble-covered rocks, haunted by rattlesnakes,
could only find one. This was a damp, drafty fissure between large,
loose blocks of sandstone. Perfect specimens of Indian earthenware
have been found hidden in the crevices of rifts like this, and we hoped
to have found a hidden pot, but the place was too far from water and too
difficult of access to have presumably served as a primitive habitation,
and we were not surprised to find no underground relic of man’s oc-
cupancy when we dug down into the black mold of its floor.

A century of weather and original rough usage seems to have played
such havoc with the pottery of the Pennsylvania Indians that scarcely
anything is left but small sherds. If it had not been for the habit of
the white man’s predecessor of placing pots in small caves and rock
rifts for safe keeping, we should have few earthern specimens left per-
fect enough to show what the old forms were. Scarce as Indian graves
are in the east Apalachian region of Pennsylvania those containing
perfect pots are still scarcer. As a great rarity, the Wilkesbarre His-
torical Society shows an almost complete pot, found by John Kern in
an Indian grave on the Susquehanna River at Plymouth, near by, and
another unearthed on the neighboring Kingston Flats, by Millard P.
Murray ; but one of their best specimens is that found on a ledge in a
cave near Tunkhannock, by Asa Dana, in 1858. Mr. A. F. Berlin, of
Allentown, informs us that another perfect pot was found recently, as
if hidden by an Indian in precolonial times, on the shelf of a sand-
stone rift on Indian Mountain, near Kresgyville, Carbon County, Pa.,
by Alfred Keppler.—H. C. MERCER.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Professor Thomas Henry Huxley died at Eastbourne near Lon-
don, June 30th. Professor Huxley was born in 1825 at Ealing, Mid-
diesex, England. He was educated at Ealing School, of which his

53

780 The American Naturalist. [August,

father was one of the teachers. At the age of seventeen he entered the
Charing Cross Medical School, and after three years of severe study he
graduated with the degree of Batchelor of Medicine, taking high hon-
ors in physiology. He entered the navy as an assistant surgeon in
1846, and was appointed to H. M.S. Rattlesnake, Captain Stanley,
which sailed the same year on an exploring expedition in the South
Pacific and Torres Straits. He collected a great number of specimens
and wrote several admirable papers, which he sent home, and which
were published after his return in 1850 on the Philosophical Transac-
tions of the Royal Society. His theories excited much interest among
that scientific body, and he was in 1851 elected a fellow, which, when
conferred on so young a man, was a tribute to talent and learning.

He resigned his navy appointment in 1853, and succeeded Professor
Forbes in the chair of natural history in the government School of
Mines. Besides this he was connected with other institutions as in-
structor and lecturer. From 1863 to 1869 he was Hunterian profes-
sor in the Royal College of Surgeons and served twice as Fullerian
professor of physiology to the Royal Institution. His time was con-
stantly devoted to researches in science, particularly zoology, to ad-
vance which he contributed as much as any other contemporaneous
investigator. He was a warm friend of Professor Tyndall, and travel-
led with him over the Alps in early life. The friendship formed in
early life continued until death.

The name of Professor Huxley came prominently before the pub-
lic in 1870 in connection with the London School Board, to which
he was elected in that year. In the deliberations of the Board he
was especially prominent as the fierce opponent of denominational
education, and was particularly conspicuous by his fiery fulminations
against the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. He retired from
the Board in 1872. In the same year he was elected Lord Rector of
the University of Aberdeen, and was installed in 1874. On the death
of Frank Buckland, in January, 1881, he succeeded that indefatigable
naturalist as Inspector General of Fisheries, a posttion which he filled
with his accustomed energy, ability and zeal.

His essays and memoirs were principally contributed to the Journals
and Transactions of the Royal, the Geological, the Linnean and the
Zoological Societies. He is the author of “ Oceanic Hydrozoa” and
“ Man’s Place in Nature,” 1863 ; “ Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,”
1864; “ Lessons in Elementary Physiology,” 1866; “An Introduction
to the Classification of Animals,” 1869; “Lay Faraons, Addresses and
Reviews,” 1870; “ Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals,”,

1895.] Scientific News. 781

1871, and later of a Manual of the Anatomy of the Invertebrata;
and “Critiques and Addresses,” 1873.

On the death of Mr. Spottiswoode in 1884, Professor Huxley was
elected President of the Royal Society.

Professor Huxley was a skillful taxonomist, and on the whole the
best that England hasever produced. His conclusions in this direction
have in many instances met with general acceptance, and there was
never any difficulty in understanding exactly what he intended to pre-
sent. His mind was clear, and his method of presentation equally so.
He elucidated every subject which he investigated.

The same clearness and logic were apparent in his treatment of
philosophical questions. He was one of that class whose reflective pow-
ers were equal to those of observation. While exposing obscurities
and inconsistencies in popular beliefs, he showed his superior self con-
trol and intellectual honesty in that he did not make assertions as to
matters on which the evidence is insufficient. Hence in theology,
while declaring himself a free-thinker, he did not deny the possibility
that some popular beliefs might be true. For this attitude of mind he
proposed the term “ agnostic,” a word which expresses the ignorance
of the honest thinker with regard to questions, which lack of sufficient
evidence renders at present insoluble. His care not to overstep the
boundaries of knowledge in any direction was admirable, for thus he
left the door open to progress in all directions.

An authorized edition of the works of Huxley, in nine volumes, is
now in course of publication. In this edition his essays are collected
under various heads, each of which gives its title toa volume. The
fourth volume is entitled “Science and Hebrew Tradition,” and has
a preface written for it by the author, in which he gives his statement
of what is the object of the essays and what he supposes they estab-
lish :—

“Tt is becoming, if it has not become, impossible for men of clear
intellect and adequate instruction to believe, and it has ceased or is
ceasing to be possible for such men honestly to say they believe, that the
universe came into being in the fashion described in the first chapter
of Genesis; or to accept as a literal truth the story of the making of
woman, with the account of the catastrophe which followed hard upon
it, in the second chapter; or to admit that the earth was repeopled
with terrestrial inhabitants by migration from Armenia or Kurdistan,
little more than four thousand years ago, which is implied in the eighth
chapter.”

A :
Dr. Lewis Janes, President of the Ethical Society of Brooklyn, with

er fo The American Naturalist. [August,

the assistance of Miss Sarah J. Farmer, of Eliot, Maine, called a con-
ference of evolutionists to meet at the place mentioned. Eliot, Maine,
is situated near the N. bank of the Piscataquay river, and is surround-
ed by white pine forest and cultivated land. The following is the pro-
gram of exercises.

Saturday, July 6, 1895, 3 p. m— Welcome to Greenacre, Miss Sarah
J. Farmer ; opening address, Professor Edward D. Cope, Ph. D., of the
University of Pennsylvania, “ The Present Problems of Organic Evo-
lution”; 8 p. m.—Paper from Herbert Spencer, London, England,
“ Social Evolution and Social Duty ;” to be followed by a symposium
of letters and brief addresses; Monday, July 8th, 3 p. m.—Mr. Henry
Wood, Boston, Mass., “ Industrial Evolution ;” 8 p. m—Mr. Benja-
min F. Underwood, Editor Philosophical Journal, Chicago, Ill., “ How
Evolution Reconciles Opposing Views of Ethics and Philosophy,” let-
ters and brief addresses; Tuesday, July 9th, 3 p. m.—Professor Ed-
ward S. Morse, of the Peabody Institute, Salem, Mass., “ Natural Select-
ion and Crime;” 8 p. m.—Dr. Martin L. Holbrook, Editor Journal of
Hygiene, New York, “Evolution’s Hopeful Promise for Human
Health ;” Wednesday, July 10th, 3 p. m—Rev. Edward P. Powell,
Clinton, New York, “ Evolution of Individuality ;” 8 p. m.—Miss
Mary Proctor, New York, “ Other Worlds than Ours,” (with stereopti-
con illustrations); Thursday, July 11th, 3 p. m—Rev. James T.
Bixby, Ph. D., Yonkers, N. Y., “ Evolution of the God-Idea;” 8 p. m.
—Dr. Lewis G. Janes, President Brooklyn Ethical Association, “ Evo-
lution of Morals;” Friday, July 12th, 3 p. m—Mr. Henry Hoyt
Moore, of the Outlook, N. Y., “ Utopias; Social Ideals Tested by Evo-
lutionary Principles;” 8 p. m—Rev. Jno. C. Kimball, Hartford,
Conn., “The World’s coming better Social State;” Saturday, July
13th, 3 p. m—Professor Jno. Fiske, LL. D., Cambridge, Mass., “ The
Cosmic Roots of Love and Self Sacrifice ;” 8 p. m.—Professor Jno.
Fiske, LL. D., “ The Everlasting reality of Religion.”

The Kansas University will have five scientific expeditions in the
field this summer. One under the direction of Professor Dyche will
go to Greenland to collect natural history specimens. Protessor Wil-
liston will have charge of the second to collect Tertiary fossils in Kan-
sas and Wyoming. Professor Snow will explore the southwestern
States for entomological specimens; while the fifth, under Professor
Haworth, will thoroughly overhaul the Cenozoic beds of Kansas.

The Third International Congress of Physiologists will be
held at Bern, Switzerland, September 9 to 13th, 1895. Titles of com-
munications may be sent to Frederic S. Lee, Secretary American Phy-
siological Society, Columbia College, New York City.

ADVERTISEMENTS. i

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The Denizens of an Old Cherry Tree with Notes of its Surroundings. (2 Plates.)

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NATURALIST |

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RW IN F. SMITH, EE Ð. C

Vol. X XIX.

SEPTEMBER, 1895.

No. 345 —

CONTENTS.

PAGE
THE PRESENT STANDING OF THF FLORIDA MANA-
E, TRICHECHUS Ares (HARLAN)
IN THE INDIAN RIVER WAT
Oak am: Bangs.
A. New CLASSIFICATION THE LEPIDOPT
(Continued.) Illustrated.) AS Atg eri 788
“DEVIATION IN DEVELOPMENT DUE TO THE USE O
PNRIRE SHEDS, Oe ars, fe Gh Apaku, 804
THE EFFECT OF FEMALE SUFFRAGE ON POSTERITY.
f James Weir, Jr.
- Epiror’s. Taste—Coéducation—-Execution py
: Electricity — The kag TE The
Challenger Explorat
RECENT LITERATURE—From the Gia to Dar:
—The PHN ‘Nightmare ~~ the
: Flood. ; 9
Recent Books AND PAMPHLETS. . . =. = + 881

3 GENERAL NOTES.
. Mineralogy me bed Stage for the Micros-
5 onnection Between Atomic Weight of
Contained Metals ine Morphological’ and
_ Optical Properties of Crystals—Boleite and
- Nautokite from Broken Hill, N. S. W—New
> poer from Chili—Miscellaneous. .
z cology. and Paleontology The Protolenus
7 Faunas Form ‘mation of Oolite—The Extinction

Geology of Cuba—Form
Altitu de of Greenland—Age of the Sandstones
of Crowley’s Ridge—Geological: News. . - 839
Botany — itu T Botany
Mountains. .
Vegetable -Physi Boreh ler on Bact a—
The session Gardens of South American See
ae ts.

in the

pias Cair i EREI P epro
Pny of-the Edible Crab—The “Odonata of ;

Skull in the Mosasauridae. (Illustrated.)—
N Xantusia—Bats een Charlotte
s of the

Islands, British Columbia—Migratio ;
Lemming—The Brain of Microcephalie Idiots
—Zoological Eok Birds. . REA
Entomology —Chordeumi dæ or Craspedoso- EEN
matidæ—On the Generic Names Strigami R
Linoteenia and Scolioplanes—Picobia Villoca. 362 as

Embrvolegy — Conjugation in an esis
iar (iit wetted)

Psychol; T Shes Baldwi bon Mental
Developme ychie Factor”—-The

gitar Switch | Tender—Change of Habit in

a - 873
Antropolog Another Andei Hamát Jaw gre
of the Naulette Type--Sandals in So ai ars
Strange Tints for Anthropology. . 876

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vou. XXIX. September, 1895. ,. 345

THE PRESENT STANDING OF THE FLORIDA MANA-
TEE, TRICHECHUS LATIROSTRIS. (HARLAN)
IN THE INDIAN RIVER WATERS.

By Outram BANGS.

The last two generations have witnessed such a destruction
of animal life in this country that it is appalling to look ahead
and see what the future has in store for us. Our larger ani-
mals and birds are going with such rapidity, and the wilder
parts of the country to which they have been driven are being
cleared and settled so fast, that the end of many species, still
common in places, is already plainly in sight.

Man is, of course, the real cause, in almost every case, of the
extermination of a species, although often the end comes by
some natural calamity, as, for example, the tragic end of the
Great Auk.

When a species has become, through the persecution of
man, reduced to a mere remnant that persists either from the
inaccessible nature of the country to which it has taken refuge.
or from the wariness the few surviving individuals have de-
veloped, it takes but a small change in its surroundings to
wipe it forever from the face of the earth.

The winter of 1894-95 has been a most disasterous one and
has shown us on how slight a change in temperature the life
or death of a whole species depends. Two such winters in

54

784 The American Naturalist. [September,

succession would in all probability exterminate the blue-bird,
the snow-bird and many others that winter in the Carolinian
Zone. These birds went into the winter in their full numbers
and strength, and yet this summer they are so rare that I have
not seen a single blue-bird in the Plymouth Co. Mass. country,
where usually they are one of the common breeding birds.
Think what a proportionate reduction in numbers must mean
then to a species already on the verge of extinction.

The cold in Florida of the last winter was unprecedented
and the mortality among the fish in the shallow water was
such as I never thought to witness. The birds suffered very
much, but as far as I could tell few died as far south as where
I was, Oak Lodge on the East Peninsular opposite Micco.
Here, at five o’clock, on the morning of February 12th, the
thermometer registered 20° Far., and on the next morning at
the same hour, only 23°. It was a strange experience to walk
over the frozen sand and see every little puddle covered with
ice, on a trail overhung by the sub-tropical vegetation of a
Florida hammock with a north wind blowing in my face that
chilled me to the bones. The cold of these two days and
nights was intense.

On February 19th, Mr. Walter L. Gibson came across the
river to tell me he had found two manatee that had been
killed by the “ freeze,’ and the next day I went over to take
possession of them. They were both found where they had
floated ashore on the bank of the Sebastian River, one about
four and the other two miles from its confluence with the In-
dian river. I found to my great regret that both were too far
gone to hope to save the skins and the only thing to be done
was to save the skeletons which we began to macerate out at
once. One was an old female of very large size, measuring
from the end of the nose to the end of the tail 11 ft., 4 in.
The other, a young male, measuring from the end of the nose
to the end of the tail 6 ft., 4in? Both skeletons are now in
the collection of E. A. and O. Bangs, Boston, Mass.

1 The Florida Manatee grows but little larger than this female. The two
largest I ever heard of were two caught in the St. Lucie River, by Mr. August
Park of Sebastian, Florida. One in August, 1880, that measured 13 ft., 7 in.

long, and one in June of the same year, that measured 12 ft. long and estimated
at two thousand pounds weight.

1895. Florida Manatee, In the Indian River Waters. 185

These Manatee were two of the survivors of the herd of
eight, which had, for the past year, been living in the St.
Lucie and Sebastian Rivers and that part of the Indian River
which is between these two. For two years the Manatee has
been protected by a State Law and this herd had come to-
gether in consequence and probably consisted of most of the
Manatee of this region that, freed from persecution, had col-
lected into a herd as was their wont in old times when the
rivers were theirs.

‘Mr. Gibson told me that often he has stood on the railroad
bridge that spans the Sebastian, and seen this herd pass under
him and counted them over and over again and knew every
individual init. After the first “freeze” of last winter, in
December, three of the Manatee were found ashore, dead, in
different places and no live ones were seen. Whether any of
this herd pulled through both “ freezes ” is impossible to say
but five out of the eight are accounted for and it seems likely
that more died than were found, as a great part of their range
was not covered and their carcasses might easily have escaped
detection even in places that were visited. It does not take
long for a dead body to disappear in Florida and the Manatee
as they lay half under water would soon have been disposed
of, the crabs doing the business below the surface and the tur-
key buzzards above.

The Manatee is extremely sensitive to a change in the
temperature of the water. This was noticed by Mr. Conklin
to be the case with the one that was kept alive in the Zoologi-
cal Park in New York and Mr. C. J. Maynard told me that
he knew of three large Manatee that were killed in the
“freeze” of 1886 and washed up near Palm Beach. The
1886 “ freeze ” was very mild compared with those of last win-
ter. In 1886 the mangroves hardly suffered at all, while last
winter, 1894 and 1895, nearly every tree along the whole
stretch of the Indian River was killed to the ground.

In both “freezes” last winter the cold came without any
warning and the -change of temperature was so sudden that
the only chance for the Manatee to escape certain death lay in
their being able to reach deep water before they were over-
come by the cold.

786 The American Naturalist. . [September,

The region from the Sebastian to the St. Lucie has, for a
number of years, been the only part of the Indian River
where the Manatee were seen. Here, besides the herd of
eight, now reduced to three at the very outside, there were
some solitary scattering individuals, how many it is impossi-
ble to say, as the Manatee. has become very shy, but it is safe
to assume that the scattering ones fared no better than did the
herd, and that the reduction in numbers from the cold of last
winter was very great.

There are still, however, a few Manatee alive in the Sebas-
tian River. - Ina letter I lately received from Mr. Gibson he
told me that in the end of March he surprised several Mana-
tee lying close together on a mud flat, high up the Sebastian
River. As soon as they heard him they made arush for deep
water, throwing the mud and water fifteen feet high in the
violence of their flight.

I made many careful inquiries among the people who
live along the river and would be in the way of knowing of
the Manatee and its diminution of numbers of late years, but
got surprisingly little information of any value except from
Mr. Gibson, to whom I have so often referred, and Mr. Fritz
Ulrich, a German of more than ordinary intelligence, who has
spent the last fifteen years dreaming his life away among the
birds and animals of the Indian River. They were all his
friends. The panthers knew his voice and answered him
from the wilderness, and the owls came from their hiding
places and flew about him to his call and the little lizards fed
from his hand. But it is all gone now and there only re-
mains of the great life of the river a small terrified remnant,
and in its stead the railroad train hurries along the west bank
and hideous towns and more hideous hotels and cottages have
sprung up everywhere among the pines. It is now eight
years since Mr. Ulrich saw a living Manatee, but when he
first came to the river fifteen years ago they were still com-
mon and he often saw them from the door of his little house
at The Narrows passing up and down the river and occasionally
he saw them at play when they would roll up, one behind the
other, like the coils of a great sea serpent.

1895.] Florida Manatee, In the Indian River Waters. 787

The spring and summer of 1894 were so dry that the salt
water went nearly to the head of the fresh water streams and
killed out the “ Manatee grass,” of which the Manatee are es-
pecially fond and the poor brutes had to fall back on the
leaves of the mangroves, a food not much to their liking,
which they reach by laboriously dragging their huge bodies
half out of water. Mr. Gibson spent a great part of that sum-
mer up the Sebastian where he was catching paraquets, and
on several occasions he saw the herd of eight feeding in this
manner.

The Manatee is an animal of the highest economic value
and one that the Indian River, with its fresh water tributaries,
seems able to support in large numbers and it would be more
than mere sentiment to regret its disappearance should it be-
come a thing of the past. But there is still a chance for it.
There are some Manatee alive now in the Sebastian River and
these have passed through the cold of a winter such as no liv-
ing man in Florida has known before ; they are protected by
law, and the netting? has been stopped; and in spite of the
small annual increase, the female bringing forth but one calf
a year, it should slowly come up again to something like its
old numbers.

2 I regret that I am unable to give a more definite name to this plant, never
having seen it myself, but it was described to me as a tender ribbon-like grass,
the blades of which are about half an inch wide and four or five feet long. It
grows with the ends of the blades and the blossoms resting on the water, and is
found only ina few of the fresh water streams of southeast Florida,

3 For a full account of this most successful method of destroying the Manatee,
see an article in Forest and Stream, XIII, 1880, pp. 1005, 1006, by Mr. J.
Francis Le Baron.

788 The American Naturalist. [September,

OF A NEW CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA.
By A. S. PACKARD.
(Continued from page 647).

Remarks on the Family Hepialidey—This group is assigned
by Comstock, from the venation alone, to a position at the bot-
tom of the Lepidopterous scale, even below the Micropterygi-
de. By Chapman it is more correctly placed above the latter
group. He even places it above the Nepticulide, Adelidæ and
Tischeria.

Since receiving and studying Chapman’s paper, it has be-
come very plain to me that Hepialus and its allies are simply
colossal Tineoids, and that Speyer was right in 1870 in sug-
gesting that the Hepialidæ stand very near to the Tineids.’

These views arrived at independently by these authors are
confirmed by the trunk characters, and also by the larval
characters, as pointed out by Dyar,’ and which I have been
able to confirm by an examination of the freshly hatched
larva of Hepialus mustelinus, and fully grown larve of the Aus-
tralian Oncopera intricata Walk., as well as Hepialus humuli and
H. hectus of Europe.

In 1863 I pointed out? the similarity in the head and thorax
of Hepialus (Stenopis) argenteomaculatus to those of the neurop-

1Tn his suggestive paper (Ent. Zeit. Stettin, 1870), Speyer refers to the similar-
ity of the venation of Hepialide and Cosside and remarks that they resemble
the Trichoptera no less than the Micropterygide, though the Hepialide exhibit
other close analogies to the Trichoptera. He adds that the middle cell of the
wing in the Phryganeide is not fundamentally different from that of the Hepiali-
dæ, Cosside, and Micropteryx, also the hind wings of Pychide. On p. 221 he
associates the Zygenide with the Cossinæ, Cochliopodide, Heterogynide,
Psychide and Hepialidæ, and remarks that all these families are isolated among
the Macros; the Cochliopodide and Zygænidæ alike in the pupa state by the
delicate integument and the partially loose sheaths, the groups standing nearest
to the Tineide with complete maxillary palpi, forming the oldest branch of the
lepidopterous stem, and having been developed earlier than the Macros.

2 A classificationof Lepidopterous larvee. Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci. viii, 1894,
p. 196. ;

1895.] Of a New Classification of the Lepidoptera. 789

terous Polystæchotes, and mentioned the elongated thorax of
Hepialus, especially “ the unnatural length of the metathorax,
accompanying which is the enlarged pair of wings, a charac-
ter essentially neuropterous.” Reference was also made to the
metascutum which is divided into two halves, being separated
widely by the very large triangular scutellum. I also drew
attention to the transverse venule or spur of the costal vein,
and to the great irregularity in the arrangement of the
branches of the median nervure, also to the elongated abdo-
men, and, finally, I remarked, “ The Hepiali are the lowest
subfamily of the Bombyces.” But in those days I did not
fully perceive the taxonomic value of these generalized char-
acters, which have so well been proved by Chapman from im-
aginal and pupal characters, and by Comstock from the vena-
tion, to be such as to place the Hepialide at or near the base
of the Tineoid series. Chapman, unaware of the existence of
mine and of Speyer’s paper, says: “ The metathoracic structure
of Hepialus came as a very unexpected confirmation of the idea
that of the Tortricoid group, it was the nearest to the lower
Adelids, and despite its specialization was near the line by
which Tortrix was derived from some Adelid form.” (P. 113.)

I will now refer to some characters of the Hepialide which
further show that they are colossal Tineoids, and should be
placed very near the base, though still presenting in their bor-
ing larval habits, and in the reduced maxillary and labial
palpi, the entire absence of a haustellum and of mandibles,
that the family (at least Hepialus and Stenopis) have under-
gone a considerable degree of modification, compared with the
Micropterygide.

Beginning with the larva, that of the Australian Oncopera
intricata, when compared with the larva of the colossal Tineid
Maroga unipunctaria of South Australia, is the same in struc-
ture, though less specialized in the colors of the tubercles and
in the sculpturing of the head, but it has the same shape of
the body, the same arrangement of the 1-haired tubercles,
though the setze are smaller and shorter; and the same com-
plete circles of crochets on all the abdominal legs.

3 On synthetic types in insects, Boston Jour, of Nat. Hist., 1863, pp. 590-603.

790 The American Naturalist. [September,

In the freshly hatched larva of Hepialus mustelinus 1.3 mm.
in length, the head is no wider than the prothoracie segment,
whose dorsal plate is well developed. The mouthparts are
quite large, especially the spinneret, while the hairs which are
acute at the end, are in this stage as long as the body is broad.
The abdominal legs appear to have at this stage only ten
-crochets, or at least very few.

1895.] Of a New: Classification of the Lepidoptera. 791

The pupa of Hepialus is said by Chapman to differ from
that of Tortrix “in having the third abdominal segment free,
but in a peculiar and modified manner,” etc. He does not re-
fer to the mouthparts. I have not seen the pupa of Hepialus,
but have examined the pupa of the Australian Oncopera intri-
cata (Fig. 7), and of the Mexican Phassus triangularis H. Edw.,
both of which present some remarkable generalized features.
In the former genus, the labial palpi are visible, the entire
piece is very wide at the base and is divided at the middle
into the two pupal cases. Between it and the deeply lobed
labrum is a piece, unless the two lobes are the paraclypeal
pieces, of the nature of which I am uncertain. It is the homo-
logue of the eye-collar, and if so, are the two lateral portions
the maxillary palpi? The maxille themselves (mz.) are
well developed, but at their base are divided by an im-
pressed line, representing a portion which I am unable to
name. The three pairs of feet (I, II, III) are easily identified.
The outer division of the eye is large; and the cocoon-breaker
consisting of two solid thick ridges on the vertex adapted for
breaking out of its cell in the tree it inhabits, is marked.
Abdominal segments 3-7 are free in ¢, and on 3 to 6 is a row
of spines at each end; on segments 7 and 8 there are four
transverse rows of stout spines, and on 9 two rows of small
spines. There isnocremaster. On the under side of segment
8 isa row of about 15 stout spines. Vestiges of three pairs of
abdominal legs are distinct. The pupa is provided on the ab-
domen segments with a few long setz.

The pupa of Phassus (Fig. 8) is remarkable. The larva
bores into a very hard tree, according to the late Mr. Henry
Edwards, who kindly gave me a specimen of the pupa. The
. head is remarkably adapted for its life in a cell, being broad,
obliquely truncated, the small antenne being protected by the
flaring sides of the head, which is very solid, with numerous
rugosities and small tubercles. The region about the mouth
is remarkable. The clypeus and labrum are very narrow,
_ the eye transversely elongated, with an impressed line in the
middle. The eye-collar (mz. p) is distinctly separated from
the maxillee (mz).

792 The American Naturalist, [September

The two pieces (l p) at the base of the maxilla may possibly
prove to be the labial palpi, if so, is the piece marked / the la-
bium? The two paraclypeal pieces or tubercles (p. ) appear
to be the homologue of those in the Psychide.

The pupe of this family are very extraordinary, but it will
be seen that they are Pups incomplete, and prove that the

Fre. 9.
family should stand much above the Micropterygide, rather
than below them, so far as regards pupal characters.

Fig. 9 shows the front of the head and maxille of the Cos-
sid, Prionoxystus robiniæ, which is more Tortricid than Hepi-
alid ; pe, paraclypeal piece; mx. p, maxillary palpi; l, labial
palpi; mz, maxille.

The very primitive, generalized shape of the thorax of the
Hepialide is noteworthy. In Hepialus mustelinus the collar or
prothorax is very much reduced; while in H. tacomz it is very
long and generalized, as in Sthenopis and the Australian
Abantiades argenteus. The mesoscutum is considerably shorter
than in H. tacome. In the latter species the metascutum is
entirely divided by the large scutellum, while in H. mustelinus
it is only partly divided, the apex of the scutellum passing a
little beyond the middle of the scutum.

It is thus quite evident that Sthenopis is an earlier form
than H. tacomex, and that the latter is more generalized, hav-
ing undergone less modification than H. mustelinus.

1895.] Of a New Classification of the Lepidoptera. 793

The genus Hepialus occurs in Australia, and that continent
appears to be the original home of the family. In Abantiades
argenteus the antenne are tripectinate, and the labial palpi are
very large; in Hectomanes fusca the antenne are bi-pectinated
but the labial palpi are much reduced, being scarcely visible ;
while Oncopera intricata isremarkably modified; though the
antenne are simple, the eyes are very large, nearly meeting
on the front, while the 3-jointed labial palpi are remarkably
long and slender, extending upwards, and the hind legs have
a remarkable broad, flattened, curved pencil of hairs.

It thus appears that in the Australian continent this inter-
esting family, which may be a survival of Jurassic times and
coeval with the marsupials, has branched out along several
lines of specialization, the most degenerate form being Hepi-
alus which has survived also in Europe and in North Amer-
ica, especially on the Pacific Coast. On the whole, however,

SS S

Fra. 10. Fie. 10 A.

794 The American Naturalist. [September,

as we have seen, it is not so generalized a group as the Microp-
terygide, a group common to Europe and North America.

Its relations to the Cosside, including the Zeuzerine, remain
still to be elaborated ; they are rather close, yet the Tortricoid
affinities are very apparent, and need further examination.
The pupa of Zeuzera. pyrina is of the same character as in Pri-
onoxystus, but the maxillary palpi are larger, the lateral palpi
more reduced, while the cell-breaker is very long, being much
more developed.

Family Taleporide—This group, comprising the genera Sol-
enobia and Taleporia, have evidently either directly descended
from the case-bearing Tineide or the two families have had a
common origin. They form a side branch by themselves and
are evidently the immediate ancestors of the Psychide. The
imagines have no maxillary palpi, and the tongue is wanting,
whilst the females are wingless. They are tineid Bombyces.
In the pupal characters (Fig. 10, Talxporia pseudobombycella,
pupa, A, head enlarged ; B, end of body) the group very closely
resembles the Psychide. Perhaps the slight changes in vena-
tion and the much greater breadth of the wings, as well as the
pectinated antenne of the Psychide, are the result of adapta-
tion to the stationary mode of life of the females (Fig. 11, Sol-
enobia walshella, head of pupa; A, end of body).

Family Psychidey.—An examination of the pupæ of several
genera of this family, convinces me that it belongs among the
Tineoids, and that Chapman and also Comstock have rightly
removed them from the Bombyces. I should place them in
the neighborhood of the Tineoid genera Solenobia and espe-
cially Taleeporia, the venation of the latter genus being, as
shown by the figures in Spuler’s* paper, almost identical with
that of Fumea and Psyche. Without, at this time, referring
to the larva of the highly modified wingless female, or to the
characters of the adult male, I will simply call attention to
some points in the structure of the pupa of different genera of
the group, which indicate their very generalized nature.

The pupa of Thyridopteryx ephemerexformis has a close resem-
blance to that of Oncopera intricata, as will be seen by the pres-
ence of a large median piece or area between the base of the

1895.] Of a New Classification of the Lepidoptera. 795

maxillary palpi. In Œceticus abbotii (Fig 12) the maxillary

palpi are separated by the second maxillary (labial) palpi ; the

former (ma p) is subdivided into an inner and an outer small

lobe in another European Psyche; also in Platewceticus gloverii.

In the Psychide the paraclypeal pieces or tubercles, as we
xs eb

FEEL)

mata
\
Ñ

F

Fie. 11. Fig. 12.

might call them, are always present. They are convex and
very rugose. The labium or second maxillary piece in the
Australian Humetopa ignobilis is of the same shape and sculp-
turing as in Psyche graminella, but the large round rugose
pieces on each side, or first maxillary palpi, are single, not
divided into two parts, unless the irregularly trapezoidal
pieces between the maxillary palpi and the eye-piece be the
homologue of the outer portion.

796 The American Naturalist. [September,

In the Australian Metura elongata the short reduced labial
palpi are much as in Psyche graminella, but are more deeply
divided ; the two divisions or lobes I am inclined to consider
as the second maxillary (labial) palpi. In this genus the first
maxillary palpi are also as in Psyche graminella.

It will thus be seen that in the pupa of this family the first
and second maxillary palpi vary very much in form, as they
probably do in the imagines, being more or less atrophied in
the latter, where they need to be carefully examined. On
the other hand, the maxille themselves (for in their pupal con-
dition in haustellate Lepidoptera they have retained the sep-
arated condition of the laciniate Lepidoptera) though short are
quite persistent in form. The pupa of Plateceticus gloverii dif-
fers from that of Œceticus abbotii in the undivided first maxil-
lary palpus (eye-piece), and the elongated second maxille, as
well as the narrower clypeal region, and the lack of a cocoon
or case-opener. |

By an examination of the figures it will be seen that the
outer division of the eye-piece varies much in size; this is due
to the varying width of the male antennz, which, when wide,
as in Pinara (Entometa), Metrua, Thyridopteryx and Psyche,
overlap and nearly conceal it, while it is entirely hidden in
Plateeceticus. On the other hand in male pupæ of Hepialus
and Oncopera, where the antenne are small, narrow and not
pectinated, these pieces are large. The end of the body has
no cremaster, but what is unique, a hook arising from each
vestigial anal leg.

Finally it will be readily seen that from an examination of
the pup, the views of Speyer, of Chapman, and of Comstock,
as to the position of the Psychide is fully confirmed, while I
should go a little further and place them still nearer the Hepi-
alide. They are, however, still more modified than this last
named group, since the females are wingless and limbless. It
is very plain that they are an offshoot from the Tineoids, and
especially from the Taleporide which have no tongue and
whose females are wingless and sackbearers.

Remarks on the Cochliopodide.—Chapman removes this group
from the Bombyces from a study of their larval and pupal char-

1895,] Of a New Classification of the Lepidoptera. 797

acters. We should, after studying the pup of five or six gen-
era, agree with his suggestion that this and the family Megalo-
pygide (Lagoide) should be removed from the Bombyces and
placed near the Tineoids, from which they have undoubtedly
descended. That the line of descent, however, was directly
from the Eriocephalide seems to us a matter of doubt. The
larve of the Cochliopodids present some notable differences
from that of Eriocephala, whose so-called “ eight pairs of ab-
dominal legs” appear to be merely spine-bearing tubercles.
Although the head of Eriocephala is partially retractile, this
adaptation may have no phylogenetic significance.

Figure 13 represents the front of the head of Parasa chloris,
showing the maxillary palpi and a lateral process connected
with it, which I have not seen in any other pup, and may be
internal. I have also observed it in the cast pupal skin of
Tortricidia testacea. The maxille are either shorter or no
longer than the large labial palpi. The paraclypeal tubercles
are well developed in this group.

> (\\\
Fre. 13. Fra. 14.

Remarks on the Megalopygide——The genus Megalopyge
(Lagoa) is remarkable for the shape of the pupa, which is some-
what as in Cochliopodide, confirming the view that the two
families are allied, though still presenting some notable differ-
ences in larval characters. Figure 14 represents the pupal
features as seen in the front of the head of a Megalopyge from.

798 The American Naturalist, [September,

Florida (probably M. crispata or opercularis). The maxille
seem to be aborted ; on each side of the 2d maxillary (labial)
palpi under the eye, are the 1st maxillary palpi, whose struct-
ure needs farther examination.

The last division of Lepidoptera (Pupae obtectee of Chapman)
mostly comprises the specialized broad-winged modern or
macropterous forms, though including many of the specialized
Tineina.

The next series of families begins with the Tortricidx, from
which may have descended the Cosside. As will be seen
by comparing the pupa of Tortrix rileyana with that of the
Cosside (fig. 9, head and mouth parts of the pupa of Prionoxys-
tus robiniæ) Dr. Chapman’s opinion that Cossus has “no char-
acters at any stage to distinguish it from Tortrices,” is well
sustained. The pupal characters of Zeuzera pyrina also show
that it belongs to the same family as Cossus and its allies.
In the Cosside there is no separate pupal maxillary palpi,
the lateral flap (mz. p.) not being separate. The labium and
its palpi are long and narrow, as in Tortrix. The para-
clypeal pieces are distinct.

The point of departure of Tortridide from the Tineina has
still to be worked out; it must have been some generalized
genus in the pupa of which the eye-collar (maxillary palpi)
and labial palpi were well developed.

Here might be placed the two families Thyridide and Ses-
slide. After a reconsideration of the transformations of these
groups, we agree with Dr. Chapman that as regards the latter
“itis a ‘Tineoid’ in spite of some Tortricid characters.” We
should, however, not absolutely place the family in the
Tineina, but should rather regard it as an immediate descend-
ant from some Tineoid genus with a well developed eye-collar
and with a well developed labium. Its generalized nature is
also shown in the large distinct paraclypeal pieces. The two
families have evidently directly descended from some Tineoid,
but they have become much modified and specialized, espe-
cially in the venation, and form a side branch of the Tineoid
series with absolutely no relation to the Sphingide, near which
they are usually placed. We have been unable to obtain the
pupa of Thyris for examination.

1895.] Of a New Classification of the Lepidoptera. 799

Family Zygænidæ.—A nother group supposed by Spuler*(ven-
ation) and also Chapman (pupa) to be closely related to the
Tineoids is the Zygeenide, from which I should separate the
Syntomide. The pupa of Zygæna is said by Dr. Chapman to
possess “ ill-developed eye-collars (maxillary palpi),” and the
dehiscence is typically incomplete. I have been unable in the
specimen kindly given me by Dr. Chapman to detect the ill-
developed eye-collar, but the cast pupa skins examined are not
well preserved, and these pieces may be detected in living or
alcoholic specimens. Comstock places the Zygeenina high up
remote from the Tineina, but at present I am disposed to re-
gard the Syntomide as a distinct group with a different origin,
and more nearly related to the Arctiide. I fully agree with
Chapman that Zygzena is near the Tineina; and I agree with
Comstock that Triprocis and Pyromorpha have “ a remarkably
generalized condition of wing-structure.”

The true Zygenide form a side branch or somewhat paral-
lel group. I should regard Ino (Triprocis) as a more general-
ized genus than Zygena. Judging by the venation, Harrisina
has undergone a little more modification than Ino. Pyromor-
pha also seems rather more primitive than Zygeena. I see no
reason for regarding Pyromorpha as the type of a distinct
family.

I have only the pup of Harrisina americana and of Zygena
to examine, but judging by this scanty material, that of
Harrisina seems to be the more generalized form, that of Zy-
geena the more specialized. As Zygeena does not occur in
America, but is Eurasian, it is possible that in its generalized
Zygenid fauna America, as in other groups of animals, has
lagged behind Europe, Zygeena with its numerous species be-
ing a more advanced or specialized type brought into exist-
ence by more favorable conditions.

Origin of the Lithosiidæ.—It seems to me that the group of
forms usually referred to the Lithosiidz but which are nearest
to the Tineina, is that represented by Enemia (Eustixia,
Mieza), Oeta and Tantura (Penthetria) as the imagines of these

* Zur hee vi beast des Flügelgeaders der OPE Zeits.
wissens. Zoologie,

55

800 The American Naturalist. [September,

genera, whether we consider the shape of the head and body,
antenne and legs, or the venation and shape of the wings, are
the nearest to the Tineidæ and appear to form a family of
Tineoid moths. Indeed Enzemia is now referred to the Tineina
of the family Hyponomeutide, and possibly the Lithosiide
originated from this family or from a group standing between
them and the Prodoxide.

The pupe have the long narrow head and eyes of Tineina.
The eye-collar is wanting, but vestiges of the labial palpi are
present, and also vestiges of the paraclypeal pieces. Judging
by the venation, Enemia is the more generalized, and Tan-
tura the more modified genus. The pupa of Oeta aurea (fig.
15) in the head characters is rather more generalized than
that of Tantura, the labial palpi being a little larger and the
base of the maxilla more flaring, as if forming rudimentary
eye-collars or palpi, but the abdomen and its end ismuch more
specialized than in Tantura, as it is long, slender, conical,
and ends in a well developed cremaster provided with curved
sete adapting it for retaining its hold in its slight cocoon. In
general appearance and markings it is like a Geometrid pupa,
having black longitudinal stripes. In the pupa of Tantura the
shape of the abdomen is more generalized, there being no cre-
master, but hooked sete enabling it to retain its hold within
its beautiful loose, basket-like cocoon.

It is probable that these genera descended from some broad-
winged Tineid and possibly from the same stem-form as the
Prodoxidie, as the venation is somewhat similar. Hypono-
meuta and especially Argyresthia appear to be later, more spe-
cialized forms. This group (Enemia, Oeta, and Tantura)
almost directly intergrades, judging from the venation, with the
Lithosiide, Byssophaga,Cisthene,and Crocota, connecting them
with Lithosia; though the larve of the latter are much more
specialized and arctiiform. Hence the line of descent from
the generalized Tineina to Enemia, Oeta, Tantura, to the
Lithosiide, and from them to the Arctiide, is more or less
direct. It is interesting to note the gradual widening of the
wings, especially the fore-wings, as we pass from Lithosia to
Arctia, also to notice the gradual change in the larval and

1895.] Of a New Classifieation af the Lepidoptera. 801

pupal characters, those of the Arctian pupe being slightly less
primitive than in the more generalized Lithosiide. It is also
interesting to note that in ascending from the Tineoid pre-

cursors of the Lithosiide to the members of the latter family,
we pass from incomplete to complete pupæ showing that the
division into pup incomplete and obtectæ may be at times
artificial.

Family Nolide.—The structure of the pupa of Nola (N.
ovilla), besides its larval and adult characters, convinces me

802 The American Naturadist. [September,

that the genus is the type of a distinct family, and forming a
line of descent somewhat parallel with and near to the Litho-
siide. The pupa has the labial palpi well developed, and the
paraclypeal pieces large. The end of the abdomen is rounded
and unarmed, in adaptation to its enclosure in a dense cocoon.

Family Syntomidex.—The position of the Syntomide is diff-
cult to determine. The pupa is obtected, though it has in
Scepsis retained the labial palpi. Judging by the larval and
pupal characters the family stands much nearer the Arctiide
than the Zygeenide, but yet is more generalized than the
former. In the venation the group stands near the Arctians,
i. e., the venation of the generalized Ctenucha approximates
that of Epicallia virginalis, while in Didasys and Syntomis the
venation is more aberrant and modified; so also in the long
tufted larvee of Syntomis and Cosmosoma, compared with that
of Ctenucha, in which the tufts are less developed and special-
ized.

On the following page is a provisional genealogical tree of
the order, based mainly on the pupal and imaginal characters.

1895.] Of a New Classification of the Lepidoptera. 803
_ Nymphalidae
Lycaenidae
Papilionidae Pieridae
}
Hesperidae
Castniidae Sphingidae
Koctuina Geometridae
|
Agaristidae Hemileucidae
|
E Saturniidae i
| Platypterygidae
Ceratocampidae
| Endromidae
Notodontidae |
l Bombycidae
|
Perophoridae
|
Hypsidae
Lasiocampidae
Liparidae
| Dioptidae Arctiidae
| Syntomidae Nolidae
Cyllopodidae l
N heer AED
Lithosiidae
Chalcosiidae
Z {a
y er ne Sesiidae Pyralidina
eo
; Psychidae Spes
Megalopygidae | Tineina Thyrididae Alucitidae
Talaeporidae (10—15? families)
Cochliopodidae l | Cossidae Tineolidae
| | j
l Prodoxidae Hepialidae Tortricidae | |
; l l l :

|
2. Neolepidoptera (Pupæ incompletæ and Pupæ obtectæ).

|

I. Palaeolepidoptera (Pupae libere. Micropterygide).

|

Suborder II. Lepidoptera haustellata.

|

Suborder I. Lepidoptera laciniata (Protolepidoptera. Eriocephalidæ).

804 The American Naturalist. [September,

DEVIATION IN DEVELOPMENT DUE TO THE USE
OF UNRIPE SEEDS.

5 By J. C. ARTHUR.

There is something surprising in the degree of immaturity
at which seeds will grow. The usual opinion is, I believe, that
seeds not fully ripe will be shrunken and light, and quite
worthless for sowing. To some extent there is truth in this,
and yet seeds will vegetate when taken from fruit not half
grown, and in which the pulp and even the seeds themselves
have the color of fresh, green leaves. Plants from such seeds
may flourish, bloom and fruit, and with a certain moderate
amount of deviation, show all the usual phases of existence in-
cident to the particular kind of plant life.

This is by no means a recent discovery, but was known to
Theophrastus,’ as early as the third century before Christ, who
expressed his surprise at the fact, and says that it is wonderful
that unripe, imperfect seeds should be able to grow. The fact
was established experimentally, however, by several early in-
vestigators, notably by Duhamel,’ in 1760, using flowering ash
and walnut, by Senebier,‘ in 1800, using peas, and by Lefebure,’
in 1801, using radish. In 1822 a successful trial with green
seed was made by Seyffer,’ of Stuttgart, which has attracted
much attention. The Japanese Sophora, although growing to
be a fine tree in Germany, does not often set fruit, and never
ripens any, at least in Wiirtemberg, on account of the cool sum-
mers. Despairing of ever securing ripe seed from which to
propagate the tree, Seyffer took a branch bearing green fruit,
not yet half full size, hung it up until dry, then removed and
planted the seed ina cold frame. In this way he obtained 500

1 Read before the section of botany of the A. A. A. S., Madison meeting, Aug-
ust, 1893.

? De causis plantarum, lib. iv. , Cap. 4.

3 Duhamel du Monceau, Des semis et plantation des arbres, p. 83.

‘Senebier, Phys. végétale, iii, p. 377
“ Š Lefebure, Expériences sur la germination des plantes, p. 27.

/ ®Seyffer, Isis, 1838, p. 113.

1895.] Deviation in Development Due to the use of Unripe Seeds. 805

young plants, many of which still were to be seen as handsome
trees in the grounds of the forestry school at Hohenheim, and
in the vicinity, sixteen years afterward, when the paper from
which we quoted was read. The economic importance of such
a procedure, and its applicability to numerous contingencies,
has brought the incident much well merited attention.

It would be possible to cite many other instances’ of the
successful germination of green seed, but it is unnecessary, for
all doubt regarding the viability of such seed was set at rest
long ago in the very exhaustive treatise upon the subject by
Ferdinand Cohn, entitled, “ Symbola ad seminis physiologiam,”
1847, in which he not only reviewed the previous serie but

1 Waitz, with a glory Sarpi Meare Nil) Bot Zeit , 1835, p. 5

Kunze, with wheat. Bot. Zeit. » pe!

Kurr, with rye (?), ten-weeks- en Bot Zeit., xviii (1835), p. 4.

Seyffer, with peas, kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), English beans (Vicia
Faba), soja beans, lentils, laburnum, Sophora pig Bot. Zeit., 1836, p. 84;
Isis, 1838, p. 5.

“‘Treviranus, with turnips and peas. Physiologie der Gewiichse, ii (1838), p.

Girt, with rye. Bot. Zeit., v (1847), p. 386.

Cohn, with. beans ( Phaseolus CRE lupines, radish ‘Shoke s purse, corn,
sorghum, datura, apple, cucumber, canna, evening primrose, princes’ feather
(Amarantus caudatus’, morning glory, (Ipomæœa purpurea), Salvia verbascifolia,
pinks, squirting cucumber (Momordica Elaterium ), bladder senna : Colutea arbor-
escens), marshmallow (Althæa officivalis), castor bean. Symbola ad seminis
physiologiam, 1847 ; Flora, xxxii (1849), p. 481.

Lucanus, with rye. Landw. Vers.-St., iv (1860), p. 262.

Siegert, with wheat. Landw. Vers.-St, vi (1863),

— Nowacke, with wheat. Untersuchungen über das Reifen des Getreides, 1869,

p. 37.
Nobbe, with spruce (Picea vulgaris). Tharander forstl. Jahrbuch, xxiv (1874),
p. 203; Landw. Vers.-St.,, xvii (1876), p . 277; ; Handbuch der Samenkunde, 1876;

p. 338.
Sagot, with wheat (?). Arch. des. Sci, Phys. et Nat , 1876; Just’s Bot. Jahresb ,
iv, p. 1243.

Tautphöus, with rye. Ueber die Keimung der Samen, 1876, p. 23

Wollny, with winter rye. Forsch. Geb. Agrik.-Phys., ix (1886), p. 294.

ey ant, with maize. Rep., N. Y. Exper. Sta, ii (1883), p. 39.

roff, with tomatoes, peas, turnips, lettuce. Rep. W. Y. Exper. Sta., ii (1883), p.

205; iii (1884), pp. 199, 211, 224, 232 ; iv (1885), pp. 130, 152; v (1886), p. 174,
197.

Atwell, with morning glory (Ipomea purpurea). Bot. Gaz., xv (1890), p. 46;
Bot. Centr.. xlvi (1891), p. 162.
Bailey, with tomato. Bull. Cornell Exper. Station, No. 45. 1892, p. 207.

806 The American Naturalist. [September,

also himself grew plants of more than a score of widely diverse
species from seed in various stages of immaturity.

At the very beginning of the agitation of the subject, a
curious misusage in terminology arose, which at one time led
to considerable controversy, but which gradually disappeared
with the better elucidation of the subject. The confusion was
in regard to the application of the terms viability, or power of
germination, and maturity, or ripeness. The implied reason-
ing of most writers, especially the earlier ones, seems to have
been this: The object of maturity is to render the seed capable
of becoming an independent plant through germination, there-
fore a seed must be mature before it can germinate, per contra,
the seed that germinates has already reached maturity.

In Gertner’s monumental work on seeds and fruits, pub-
lished in 1790, is the statement’ that seeds are ripe as soon as
they can germinate, although from their color, weight and size,
they may not appear so. Senebier, inthe year 1800, held that
seeds must be ripe in order to grow, and yet at the same time
says that he has seen green tender peas, taken from equally
green pods, germinate. The same confusion of ideas is shown
in the defense which Keith made when DeCandolle” pointed
out that it was an error to place maturity of the seed as one of
the conditions for germination, as Keith" had done in his work
on vegetable physiology, published in 1816. Keith” says:
“The seed that will germinate is, physiologically speaking,

“Semen maturum, ut docet, non ex colore suo saturato, nec ex sua in aqua
subsidentia, neque etiam ex duritie sua satis tuto cognoscitur ; sed certior matur-
itatis nota ex ipso trahenda est nucleo; quippe que, si ex gelatinosa sensim factus
sit solidiusculus, si testze suze cavitatem repleat exactissime, atque si intra se ipsum
nullum prorsus contineat spatium vacuum, indubitatissimum prebit seminis ma-
turi signum quia ita conformatum, germinando aptum est, queecunque etiam fuerit
reliqua ejus conditio.” Gzrtner, De fructibus et seminibus plantarum, ii (1790),
I, p. exii.

°“ Les graines doivent être mûres pour germer ; pour l'ordinaire elles ne ger-
ment pas quand on les a cuillies avant leur maturite; j’ai pourtant vu germer des
pois verts and tendres otes de leurs siliques vertes and molles.” Senebier, 1l. c.
iii, p. 377.

” Phys. Veg., ii (1832), p 662.

" Keith, System of vegetable physiology, ii (1816), p. 3.

1? Phil. Mag., viii (1836), p. 492.

1395.) Deviation in Development Due to the use of Unripe Seeds. 807

ripe; that is, its fluids have been so elaborated in the process
of its maturation, and its solids so vitalized in the assimilation
of due aliment as to be now fully and profitably susceptible of
the action of the combined stimuli of the soil and atmosphere.
Hence I contend, notwithstanding the objection of M. DeCan-
dolle, that the maturity of the seed is rightly and legitimately
placed in the list of the conditions of germination.” Trevi-
ranus™ held essentially the same views, and expressed himself
quite as strongly in his work on vegetable physiology, about
the same time. Even Cohn, in his clear and scholarly paper,
did not quite set the matter straight. He came to the conclu-
sion,” that although the proper ripening of the seed is depend-
ent upon the parent plant, yet when prematurely separated it
will still pass through the ripening stage before germinating ;
there is thus an after-ripening for green seeds, which fits them
for continued growth. Although he seemingly held that seeds
cannot germinate until they in some way ripen, yet he asserted
(and it is a most important deduction, correctly worded) that
viability does not usually coincide with maturity, but precedes
it.”

Since the time of Cohn the terminology adopted has agreed
well with the facts. The present usage is presented in Nobbe’s
large and excellent treatise upon séeds. He says: “The
continued life of the embryo is not dependent upon the com-
pletion of the storing of reserve material in the seed ; the power
of germination appears much earlier, even in a stage of devel-
opment of the seed undoubtedly to be designated as ‘ unripe.’

13 « Zum keimen gehort, dass der Same reif sei; das heisst, das der Embryo in
dem Grade entwickelt sei, dass er von der Mutterpflanze getrennt, unter Aneig-
nung des Vorrathes niihrender Materie im Perisperm oder, in den Samenlappen
fiir sich fortleben kann.” Treviranus, l. c., ii, p. 574.

lt Quum maturatio seminis propria non afficiatur a planta, sumendum videtur,
ut etiam processura sit, semine soluto a planta; vel, ut postmaturari possint sem-
ina. Cohn, Le, p. 72.

Lb y le 4 ae oo 4 e ae | Tat pa LE E N 1

illa preecedit Cohn, |. c.p 73.

16 Die Lebensfihigkeit des Embryo ist an die Vollendung der Reservestoff-Auf-
speicherung in Samen nicht gebunden. Die Keimfihigkeit tritt weit früher,
schonin einem unzweifelhaft als “unreif” zu bezeichnenden Entwicklungsstadium
des Samen ein. Nobbe, Samenkunde, p. 339.

808 The American Naturalist. [September,.

Wiesner” has given a concise definition. “The condition,” he
says, “in which a seed loosens itself from the plant in order to
continue its development independently, is designated as ma-
turity.” We are, therefore, to regard maturity as applying to
the seed as a whole, and viability as applying to the embryo,
the physiological processes associated therewith being quite
distinct. After-ripening, which takes place when partly grown
seed is separated from the parent plant, only leads to partial
maturity. :

It is an inquiry full of interest as to the minimum develop-
ment at which a seed will germinate. Goff, in 1884, planted
tomato seed in March in boxes in the greenhouse, saved the
previous season from fruit still thoroughly green, and obtained
only 2 per cent of vegetation. But seed from fruit of full size,
and which had begun to lose its green color, although not yet
showing any tinge of redness, vegetated 84 per cent, while from
fruit with a faint reddish tinge the percentage of vegetation
reached 100. In another experiment he found” that peas
planted in the usual manner in the open ground in April, that
had been gathered when in the condition best suited to table
use, gave only 3 per cent of vegetation, while those just past.
this stage of edible maturity gave 9 per cent. But inall prob-
ability the conditions of growth at the time were not particu-
larly favorable, as fully ripe seed in the same experiment gave
only 54 per cent. of vegetation. In a very carefully conducted
experiment with wheat made by Nowacki, selected seed saved
from grain when in the milk gave 92 per cent of vegetation,
and from grain when turning yellow, as well as when fully
ripe, gave 100 per cent., the seed being sown in the open
ground (see table III.) Nobbe” found that seed of Spruce
(Picea vulgaris Lk.) gathered on the first and fifteenth of each
month from the middle of July to the first of November, and
tested in the laboratory in the following January, gave increased

“ Der Zustand, in welchem ein Same sich von der Pflanze loslést, um sich
selbstiindig weiterzuentwickeln, wird als Reife bezeichnet. Wiesner, Biologie der
Pflanzen, 1889, p. 40.

"Lc, Hi, p. 224.

Bis, ai, p- 232.

»L G

1895.] Deviation in Development Due to the use of Unripe Seeds. 809

percentage of germination according to degree of maturity
(see table I). In experiments performed by myself in 1889 to-

I.—GERMINATION OF SPRUCE SEEDS AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF
MATURITY.

Experiment conducted ey Nobbe.
Spruce seed, gathered July 15, gave O per cent i perhiinations:
Spruce seed, gathered Aug. 1, gave 40.8 per cent germinations.
Spruce seed, gathered Aug. 15, gave 61.2 per cent germinations.
Spruce seed, gathered Sept. 1, gave 75.3 per cent germinations.
Spruce seed, gathered Sept. 15, gave 71.6 per cent germinations.
Sprnce seed, gathered Oct. 1, gave 84 5 per cent germinations.
Spruce seed, gathered Nov. 1, gave 88.2 per cent germinations.

mato seed from green and ripe fruit of the previous season,
tested in April in the laboratory, gave 60 per cent germination
for the immature seed against 100 per cent for the fully ma-
ture. Considerable other data are on record, all going to show
that seeds are more certain to germinate the nearer they ap-
proach to maturity, or conversely, the more immature the seed,
the less number of chances for its germination.

The internal examination of the seed to determine the actual
stage of development, in connection with such studies, has been
rarely attempted. Seyffert and Cohn agree, however, that with
- such seeds as peas, beans, lentils, canna and evening primrose,
the embryo must be sufficiently formed to be detected with a
hand lens, in order that the seed should be capable of growth.
If the embryo is watery and unformed, according to these ob-
servers, the seed will not germinate.

Probably most of us would at first think, as Cohn” did, that
“it is a curious circumstance in this connection, that while in
the ripening of the seed innumerable stages are run through,
passing one into the other without interruption, in germina-
tion, which is as it were a function of maturity, no transition
exists. For evidently a seed can only either germinate or not

21 Es zeigt sich hierbei der eigenthiimliche — dass während bei der
Reife der Same unzählige, ohne Unterbrechung in einander übergehende Stufen
durchläuft, bei der Keimfihigkeit. die gleichsam Fusion der Reife ist; kein
Uebergang existirt. Denn offenbar kann ein Same nur a R, oder
nicht; ein drittes giebt es nicht. Cohn, Flora, xxxii (1849), p

810 The American Naturalist. [September,

germinate; there can be no third course.” But this is very
fallacious reasoning, and is founded upon a misunderstanding
of the nature of the seed. In the first place germination is not,
even constructively, a function of maturity, as it readily occurs
both before and after maturity. From our present standpoint,
in whatever way the earlier writers may have viewed the mat-
ter, a seed is simply a young plant enclosed in a protective
covering derived from the parent plant, and accompanied by
surplus nutriment. The resting condition of a seed is purely
incidental and designed to aid in distribution and in guarding
the plant against injury while very young. From the time of
the first cell division in the forming embryo until the new in-
dividual becomes established as a free growing plant, there
need be no check in the continuous growth, except through
untoward conditions, or inherent tendency to provide for such
conditions. The germination of seeds inside the fruit of
oranges, and gourds, and the ready growth of the mangrove,
are familiar instances where the resting period has been prac-
tically evaded, and development of the plantlet has been nearly
or quite continuous

In the growth of green seed we have a case where an attempt
is made to give the plantlet the conditions for continued devel-
opment without passing through the full protective stage.
There is nothing in the nature of things, except the want of-
skill, to prevent the plantlet being removed from the parent
plant at any point in its early development, even before its
organs can be detected, and by supplying it with the neces-
sary nutriment, heat and moisture, and protecting it against
_ the inroads of destructive organisms (bacteria, molds, etc.), se-
curing to it by these artificial means the conditions for unin-
terrupted growth, with the entire omission of the usual resting
stage.

With this view of the subject it is easy to explain why green
seed generally gives fewer germinations as a rule than mature
seed ; the more exacting conditions for its growth are not well
met. And, further, it is evident that Cohn’s aphorism that a
seed can only germinate or not germinate is saying that a seed
can continue to grow or not continue to grow, and is thus
robbed of all its mysticism.

1895.] Deviation in Development Due to the use of Unripe Seeds. 811

To fully understand the problem before us it will be well to
inquire into the meaning of maturity. In the course of nor-
mal development of the seed the testa becomes more firm and
less permeable, the organic constituents of the cells are trans-
formed into solids or semi-solids, there is a loss of water, growth
finally ceases, the organic connection with the parent plant is
severed, and the seed is ripe. It remains in an inactive, dor-
mant condition a longer or shorter time and then germinates.
Maturity is reached in this metamorphosis when the protect-
ing testa, or pericarp, as the case may be, has become suff-
ciently solid, and the inner parts sufficiently advanced to per-
mit separation from the parent plant without endangering the
life of the embryo.

A most curious thing in connection herewith is the fact that
the seed, and sometimes the associated parts of the fruit, will
continue to develop under circumstances which put a stop to
all growth in the vegetative parts of the plant. Ifa branch is
severed from a tree, all growth in its buds and leaves ceases at
once, it wilts, and shortly dies. But the fruits and seeds at-
tached to it continue to develop, and will so continue as long
as sufficient moisture remains to transport what food material
exists, from the leaves and stem into the fruit and seed. This
process is known as after-ripening. So far as I know, it has
not been intimately investigated, but I am inclined to think
that during this process the embryo continues in actual growth,
forming new cells, and elaborating its organs, but that little or
no growth takes place in the surrounding parts, although great
chemical changes and accumulation of substances do oceur.

It was observed by Cohn,” who was the first to note such
phenomena, that green seeds entirely removed from the fruit
and laid in moist earth or sand passed through the various
changes of color of normal ripening. If very young, they did
not progress far, but if sufficiently grown, although still per-
fectly green in color, they underwent the intermediate changes,
and finally gave every appearance of full, mature seeds. He
experimented with the seeds of apple, pear, beans, lupines,
Amarantus caudatus, Polygonum tartaricum, Colutea arbor-

2 Symbola, pp. 67-70; Flora, pp. 508-510.
p

812 The American Naturalist. [September,

escens, Kcelreuteria paniculata, and Canna orientalis. An ex-
periment in after-ripening by Lucanus,” is very instructive
(see table II). He gathered rye in five stages of maturity,
ranging from very small kernels, not yet milky, up to fully
ripe kernels. Each collection was separated into four lots; in
the first the kernels were removed from the heads at once, in
the second, they were allowed to remain in the heads, but the

II—WetienTt oF 1000 Atr-Dry KERNELS or Rye at DIF-
FERENT STAGES OF MATURITY.

Experiment conducted by Lucanus.

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eft on cut plant 1310

Roots in distilled water... 13790 15440 20220 21070

heads were removed from the stalks; in the third they re-
mained attached to the plant which was cut near the ground,
and in the fourth the plants were pulled, the roots washed, and
set in distilled water. A thousand air-dry seeds from each lot
were finally weighed. In all cases the grain weighed more
when permitted to remain in the head than when removed at
once, still more when all the stem and leaves were attached,
and very much more when the uprooted plant was supplied
with water. After-ripening is thus seen to play a very import-
ant part in the handling of immature seed.

There is a state of over-maturity of seeds, which has impor-
tance in this connection. It is well known that the life of the

"L 6.

1395.] Deviation in Development Due to the use of Unripe Seeds. 813

seed is limited; some seeds will not grow after a few weeks or
months, although most seeds are good for from one to several
years. In all cases the seed gradually loses its vitality, and
sooner or later ceases to live, unless in the mean time given
the means for germination.

In view of these facts we can better appreciate the importance
of the discovery made by Cohn” that there is an optimum for
most rapid germination which falls, as a rule, just before ob-
vious maturity, (or possibly at the end of the resting stage,
where this is very pronounced, a point not yet investigated),
and before and after this optimum the germination is slower.

We are thus led to consider the seed as accumulating energy
up to the approximate time of its maturity, and then gradually
losing this energy so long as it remains an inactive seed ; and
that the measure of this energy is the vigor of its germination.
There is a wealth of data to substantiate this theory of the life
of a seed, but which would be burdensome to further present
at this time.

Turning now to a more detailed consideration of the devia-
tions from normal development in plants from immature seed,
the weakness of the seedlings will be one feature to first attract
the attention of the investigator. In a number of trials with
green seed of tomatoes, made at various times since 1889, I
have found” that the young plants are under size; the stems
being shorter and cotyledons smaller. They have less strength,
and in consequence many perish in the vain attempt to lift the
covering of soil. Some are unable to extricate the cotyledons
from the ruptured testa, and often perish from this cause, even
after having reached the light. If the seeds are germinated
between folds of moist cloth or bibulous paper, such miscarriage
will show even more clearly. Similar effects were observed by
Cohn, in the use of canna seed. Hesays:* “All plants ob-

** Ich selbst habe bei Canna, Œnothera, Lupinen und anderen ein mittleres
Stadium im Reifungsprocesse beobachtet, in dem die Samen sich am schnellsten
entwickelten; von da aufwiirts und abwiirts die reifen und die weniger ausgebild-
eten schienen mir langsamer zu keimen. Cohn, Flora, xxxii, p. 504,

23 The data are recorded in the manuscript records of the Indiana Experiment
Station, and have not yet been published.

% Dagegen waren alle aus den jüngsten Samen gezogenen Pfliinchen hinfällig
und schwächlich und gediehen kaum über das erste Blatt. Flora, xxxii, p. 501.

814 The American Naturalist. - [Septentoer,

tained from the youngest seeds were slender and weak,a nd
scarcely progressed beyond the first leaf.” Goff” who has
made experiments with immature tomato and other seeds at
intervals from 1884 to the present time, early noted this char-
acteristic of the seedlings.

The rate of germination is in general slower for immature
than for mature seeds. This has been observed by Seyffert,
Géppert, Cohn, Toutphéus and others, but this depends upon
many internal and external conditions affecting the seed, and
it is, therefore, not inconsistent with our theory of the process
to find that some observers (Duhamel, Senebier) have noted
an increased rate of germination for immature seeds. In an
experiment by the writer (manuscript record No. 82) in 1890,
tomato plants (24) from the seed of ripe fruit planted in a cold
frame, came through the soil in an average of 12 days, plants
(5) from seed of half-ripe fruit in 12.2 days, and plants (13)
from seed of green fruit in 14.2 days. Other trials with tomato»
as well as with peas, wheat, and other kinds, made in the lab-
oratory, using folded cloth, have also given tardy germina-
tions for unripe seeds. Nowacki” removed seeds from the heads
of wheat when in the milk stage, when turning yellow, and
when fully ripe, and sowed carefully selected kernels in the
garden (see table III). The rate of germination, judging by
the time of appearance of the plants above ground, was much
slower for the immature seed, the number on the eleventh day
after sowing, being respectively 12, 19, 25.

II.. WHEAT FROM UNRIPE SEEp.
Experiment conducted by Nowacki.

ae or | | Germinations. | Stalks.
gree of ripe- No. seeds. |
ness. | “| On bak eck | Ay. No. |Ay.height Product of
| | day * iper plant.| in cm. |No.by
In the milk ...... | w fn 45 4.6 128 589
pan iig 50 19 50 5.4 125 675
Fully ripe........., 50 | 25 50 5.9 121 714

” Lie, ili, p, 225; iv, p 182.
ot e

1895.] Deviation in Development Due to the use of Unripe Seeds. 815

Owing to their weakened condition the plants from imma-
ture seed are less able to withstand unfavorable conditions than
those from ripe seed, the difference being more marked the
younger the seeds. In my own attempts to grow very green
tomato seeds in the green-house, fully eighty-five per cent of
the plants that had unfolded the cotyledons, perished before
reaching the third leaf. Wollny” observed a great loss of
plants from immature seed of winter rye, taking into account
the number of plants growing in the fall and in the following
spring, while the plants from ripe seed under the same condi-
tions experienced no loss whatever (see table IV).

IV.—WinteR Rye FROM RIPE AND UnrRIPE SEED.

Experiment condueted by Wollny.

Degrees of ripeness. planted. spring. per cent.

| Number | Growing in-| Growingin | Wintered
fall. i
|

|
Very gr 100 | 97 40 41
In the milk 100 | 96 88 91
Pale PAUE a reai 100 100 100 100
ully ripe | 100 100 100 100
|
"LG

(To be continued.)

THE EFFECT OF FEMALE SUFFRAGE ON
POSTERITY.

By James WEIR, JR.

The greatest, best, and highest law of Higher Civilization is that which
declares that men should strive to benefit not himself alone, but his posterity.
I. THE ORIGIN OF THE MATRIARCHATE.

In the very beginning woman was, by function, a mother ;
by virtue of her surroundings, a house-wife. Man was then,
56

$16 The American Naturalist. [September,

as now, the active, dominant factor in those affairs outside the
immediate pale of the fireside. Life was collective; “ com-
munal was the habitation, and communal the wives with the
children; the men pursued the same prey, and devoured it
together after the manner of wolves; all felt, all thought, all
acted in concert.” Primitive men were like their Simian
ancestors which never paired, and which roamed through
the forests in bands and troops. This collectivism is plainly
noticeable in certain races of primitive folks which are yet in
existence, notably the Autocthons of the Aleutian Islands.
Huddled together in their communal Kachims, naked, without
thought of immodesty, men, women and children share the
same fire and eat from the same pot. They recognize no im-
morality in the fact of the father cohabiting with his daughter
—one of them naively remarking to Langsdorf, who re-
proached him for having committed this crime: “ Why not?
the otters doit!” Later in life the men and women mate;
but even then there is no sanctity in the marriage tie, for the
Aleutian will freely offer his wife to the stranger within his
gates, and will consider it an insult if he refuses to enjoy her
company. “As with many savages and half-civilized people,
the man who would not offer his guest the hospitality of the
conjugal couch, or the company of his best-looking daughter,
would be considered an ill-bred person.”

This laxity in sexual relations was, at first, common to all
races of primitive men, but, after a time, there arose certain
influences which modified, to a certain extent, this free and
indiscriminate intercourse. Frequent wars must have occur-
red between hostile tribes of primitive men, during which,
some of them (physically or numerically weaker than their
opponents) must have been repeatedly vanquished, and many
of their females captured, for, in those old days (like those of
more recent times, for that matter) the women were the prizes
for which the men fought.

Under circumstances like these, the few remaining women
must have served as wives for all the men of the tribe; and,
in this manner polyandry had its inception. Polyandry
gives woman certain privileges which monandry denies, and

1895.] The Effect of Female Suffrage on Posterity. 817

she is not slow to seize on these prerogatives and to use them
in the furtherance of her own welfare. Polyandry, originating
from any cause whatsoever, will always end in the establish-
ment of a matriarchate, in which the women are either directly
or indirectly at the head of the government. There are several
matriarchates still extant in the world, and one of the best
known, as well as the most advanced, as far as civilization and
culture is concerned, is that of the Nairs, a people of India in-
habiting that portion of the country lying between Cape
‘-Comorin and Mangalore, and the Ghats and the Indian Ocean.
The Nairs are described as being the handsomest people in the
world; the men being tall, sinewy, and extraordinary agile,
while the women are slender and graceful with perfectly mod-
eled figures. The Nair girl is carefully chaperoned until she
arrives at a marriageable age, say, fourteen or fifteen years, at
which time some complaisant individual is selected who goes
through the marriage ceremony with her. As soon as the
groom ties the tali or marriage cord about her neck, he is
feasted and is then dismissed ; the wife must never again speak
to or even look at her husband. Once safely wedded, the girl
becomes emancipated, and can receive the attentions of as
many men as she may elect, though, I am informed, that it is
not considered fashionable, at present, to have more than seven
husbands, one for each day of the week. Of no importance,
heretofore, after her farcical marriage, the Nair woman at once
becomes a power in the councils of the nation; as a matter of
course, the higher her lovers the higher her rank becomes and
the greater her influence. Here is female suffrage in its prim-
itive form, brought about, it is true, by environment, and not
by elective franchise. As far asthe children are concerned, the
power of the mother is absolute ; for they know no father, the
maternal uncle standing in his stead. Property, both personal
and real, is vested in the woman; she is the mistress and the
ruler. “The mother reigns and governs; she has her eldest
daughter for prime minister in the household, through whom
all orders are transmitted to her little world. Formerly, in
grand ceremonials, the reigning prince himself yielded pre-
cedence to his eldest daughter, and, of course, recognized still

818 The American Naturalist. [September,

more humbly the priority of his mother, before whom he did
not venture to seat himself until she had given him permission.
Such was the rule from the palace to the humblest dwelling of
a Nair.” During the past fifty years, these people have made
rapid strides toward civilization, monandry and monogamy
taking the place of polyandry and polygamy, and fifty or an
hundred years hence, this matriarchate will, in all probability,
entirely disappear.

I have demonstrated, I think, clearly and distinctly, that
matriarchy or female government, is neither new nor advanced
thought,-but that it is as old, almost, as the human race; that
the “ New Woman ” was born many thousands of years ago, and
that her autotype, in some respects, is to be found to-day in
Mangalore. A return to matriarchy at the present time would
be distinctly, and emphatically, and essentially retrograde in
every particular. The right to vote carries with it the right to
hold office, and, if women are granted the privilege of suffrage,
they must be given the right to govern. Now let us see if we
can not find a reason for this atavistic desire (matriarchy) in
the physical and psychical histories of its foremost advocates.
I will discuss this question in Part II of this paper.

Il. THE VIRAGINT.

There are two kinds of genius; the first is progressive genius,
which always enunciates new and original matter of material
benefit to the human race and which is consequently healthy ;
the second is retrogressive genius, which is imitative and which
always enunciates dead and obsolete matter long since abandon-
ed and thrown aside as being utterly useless. The doctrines of
communism and of nihilism are the products of retrogressive
genius and are clearly atavistic, inasmuch as they area reversion
to the mental habitudes of our savage ancestors. The doctrines
of the matriarchate are likewise degenerate beliefs, and if held
by any civilized being of to-day, are in evidence of psychic
atavism. Atavism invariably attacks the weak; and individ-
uals of a neurasthenic type are more frequentl y its victims than

1895.] The Effect of Female Suffrage on Posterity. 819

are any other class of people. Especially is this true in the
case of those who suffer from psychical atavism. The woman
of to-day, who believes in and inculcates the doctrines of
matriarchy, doctrines which have been, as far as the civilized
world is concerned, thrown aside and abandoned these many
hundred years, is as much the victim of psychic atavism as

was Alice Mitchell who slew Freda Ward in Memphis several -

years ago, and who was justly declared a viragint by the court
that tried her. Without entering into the truthfulness or

falseness of the theory advanced by me some time ago (vide

N. Y. Medical Record, September, 1893: “ Effemination and
Viraginity”) in regard to the primal cause of psychic herma-
phroditism, which I attributed and do still attribute to psychic
atavism, I think that I am perfectly safe in asserting that every
woman who has been at all prominent in advancing the cause
of equal rights in its entirety, has either given evidences of
masculo-feminity (viraginity), or has shown, conclusively, that
she was the victim of psycho-sexual aberrancy. Moreover, the
histories of every viragint of any note in the history of the
world, show that they were either physically or psychically
degenerate, or both. Jeanne d’Arc was the’ victim of hystero-
epilepsy, while Catharine the Great was a dipsomaniac and a
creature of unbounded and inordinate sensuality. Massalina,
the depraved wife of Claudius, a woman of masculine type
whose very form embodied and shadowed forth the regnant
idea of her mind—absolute and utter rulership—was a woman
of such gross carnality that her lecherous conduct shocked
even the depraved courtiers of her lewd and salacious court.
The side-lights of history, as Douglas Campbell has so cleverly
pointed out in his “Puritan in Holland, England and
America,” declares that there is every reason to believe that
the Virgin Queen, Elizabeth of England, was not such a pure
and unspotted virgin as her admirers make her out to be. Sir
Robert Cecil says of her that “she was more man than woman,”
while history shows conclusively that she was a pronounced
viragint, with a slight tendency toward megalomania. In a
recent letter to me, Mr. Geo. H. Yeaman, ex-Minister to Den-
mard, writes as follows: “ Whether it be the relation of cause

820 The American Naturalist. [September,

and effect, or only what logicians call a “ mere coincidence,”
the fact remains that in Rome, Russia, France and England,
political corruption, cruelty of government, sexual immorality
—nay, downright, impudent, open, boastful indecency—have
culminated, for the most part, in the eras of the influence of
viragints on government, or over governors.”

Viraginity has many phases. We see a mild form of it in
the tom-boy who abandons her dolls and female companions
for the marbles and masculine sports of her boy acquaintances.
In the loud-talking, long-stepping, slang-using young woman
we sée another form, while the square-shouldered, stolid, cold,
unemotional, unfeminine android (for she has the normal
human form, without the normal human psychos) is yet
another. The most aggravated form of viraginity is that
known as homo-sexuality ; with this form, however, this paper
has nothing todo. Another form of viraginity is technically
known as gynandry, and may be defined as follows: A victim
of gynandry not only has the feelings and desires of a man, but
also the skeletal form, features, voice, ete., so that the individ-
ual approaches the opposite sex anthropologically, and in more
than a psycho-sexual way (Krafft-Ebing). As it is probable
that this form of viraginity is sometimes acquired to a certain
extent, and that too, very quickly, when a woman is placed
among the proper surroundings, I shall give the case of
Sarolta, Countess V., one of the most remarkable instances of

-gynandry on record. If this woman, when a child, had been
treated as a girl, she would, in all probability, have gone
through life as a woman, for she was born a female in every
sense of the word. Ata very early age, however, her father,
who was an exceedingly eccentric nobleman, dressed her in
boy’s clothing, called her Sandor, and taught her boyish games
and sports.

“ Sarolta-Sandor remained under her father’s influence till
her twelfth year, and then came under the care of her maternal
grandmother, in Dresden, by whom, when the masculine play
became too obvious, she was placed in an institute and made
to wear female attire. At thirteen, she had a love relation
with an English girl, to whom she represented herself as a

1895.] The Effect of Female Suffrage on Posterity. 821

boy, and ran away with her. She was finally returned to her
mother, who could do nothing with her, and was forced to
allow her to resume the name of Sandor and to put on boy’s
clothes. She accompanied her father on long journeys, always
as a young gentleman; she became a roué, frequenting brothels
and cafés and often becoming intoxicated. All of her sports
were masculine; so were her tastes and so were her desires.
She had many love affairs with women, always skillfully hid-
ing the fact that she herself wasa woman. She even carried
her masquerade so far as to enter into matrimony with the
daughter of a distinguished official and to live with her for
some time before the imposition was discovered. The woman
whom Sandor married is described as being “ a girl of incredi-
ble simplicity and innocence;” in sooth,she must have been !
Notwithstanding this woman’s passion for those of her own
sex, she distinctly states that in her thirteenth year she experi-
enced normal sexual desire. Her environments, however, had
been those of a male instead of a female, consequently her
psychical weakness, occasioned by degeneration inherited from
an eccentric father, turned her into the gulph of viraginity,
from which she at last emerged, a victim of complete gynandry.
I have given this instance more prominence than it really de-
serves, simply because I wish to call attention to the fact that
environment is one of the great factors in evolutionary devel-
opment.

Many women of to-day, who are in favor of female suffrage,
are influenced by a single idea; they have some great reform
in view, such as the establishment of universal temperance, or
the elevation of social morals. Suffrage in its entirety, that
suffrage which will give them a share in the government, is
not desired by them; they do not belong to the class of vira-
gints, unsexed individuals, whose main object is the establish-
ment of a matriarchate. Woman is a creature of the emotions,
of impulses, of sentiment, and of feeling; in her the logical
faculty is subordinate. She is influenced by the object im-
mediately in view, and does not hesitate to form a judgment
which is based on no other grounds save those of intuition.
Logical men look beyond the immediate effects of an action

822 The American Naturalist. [September,

and predicate its results on posterity. The precepts and recepts
which form the concept of equal rights also embody an eject
which, though conjectural, is yet capable of clear demonstra-
tion, and which declares that the final effect of female suffrage
on posterity would be exceedingly harmful.

We have shown, in Part II of this paper, that the pro-
nounced advocates and chief promoters of equal rights are
probably viragints—individuals who plainly show that they
are psychically abnormal; furthermore, we have seen that the
abnormality is occasioned by degeneration, either acquired or
inherent, in the individual. Now let us see, if the right of
female suffrage were allowed, what effect it would produce on
the present environment of the woman of to-day, and, if any,
what effect this changed environment would have on the psy-
chical habitudes of the woman of the future. This portion of
the subject will be discussed in Part III of this paper.

III. THE DECADENCE.

It is conceded that man completed his cycle of physical de-
velopment many thousands of years ago. Since his evolution
from his pithecoid ancestor, the forces of nature have been at
work evolving man’s psychical being. Now, man’s psychical
being is intimately connected with, and dependent on, his
physical being, therefore, it follows that degeneration of his
physical organism will, necessarily, engender psychical degen-
eration also. Hence, if I can prove that woman, by leading a
life in which her present environments are changed, produces
physical degeneration, it will naturally follow that psychical
degeneration will also accrue; and, as one of the invariable
results of degeneration is atavism, both physical and psychical,
the phenomenon of a social revolution, in which the present
form of government will be overthrown and matriarchy estab-
lished in its stead, will be, not a possibility of the future, but a
probability. That the leaders of this movement in favor of
equal rights look for such a result, I have not the slightest
doubt; for, not many days ago, Susan B. Anthony stood beside

1895,] The Effect of Female Suffrage on Posterity. 823

the chair of a circuit judge in one of our court-houses, and, be-
fore taking her seat, remarked that there were those in her
audience who doubtless thought “that she was guilty of pre-
sumption and usurpation,” but that there would come a day
when they would no longer think so. Statistics show clearly |
and conclusively that there is an alarming increase of suicide
and insanity among women, and I attribute this wholly to the
already changed environment of our women. As the matter
stands, they have already too much liberty. The restraining
influences, which formerly made woman peculiarly a house-
wife, have been, in a measure, removed, and woman mixes
freely with the world. Any new duty added to woman as a
member of society would modify her environment to some ex-
tent and call for increased activity. When a duty like suffrage
is added, the change in her environment must, necessarily, be
marked and radical, with great demands for increased activity.
The right of suffrage would, unquestionably, very materially
change the environment of woman at the present time, and
would entail new and additional desires and emotions which
would be other and most exhausting draughts on her nervous
organism.

The effects of degeneration are slow in making their appear-
ance, yet they are exceedingly certain. The longer woman
lived amid surroundings calling for increased nervous expend-
iture, the greater would be the effects of the accruing degener-
ation on her posterity. “ Periods of moral decadence in the
life of a people are always contemporaneous with times of
effeminancy, sensuality and luxury. These conditions can
only be conceived as occuring with increased demands on the
nervous system, which must meet these requirements. As
a result of increase of nervousness, there is increase of sen-
suality, and, since this leads to excess among the masses, it
undermines the foundations of society—the morality and pur-
ity of family life” (Krafft-Ebing). The inherited psychical
habitudes handed down through hundreds and thousands of
years would prevent the immediate destruction of that ethical
purity for which woman is noted, and in the posession of which
she stands so far above man. I do not think that this ethical

824 The American Naturalist. [September,

purity would be lost in a day or a year, or a hundred years for `
that matter; yet, there would come a time when the morality
of to-day would be utterly lost, and society would sink into
some such state of existence as we now find en evidence among
the Nairs. In support of this proposition I have only to in-
stance the doctrines promulgated by some of the most ad-
vanced advocates of equal rights. The “free love” of.some
advanced women, I take it, is but the free choice doctrine in
vogue among the Nairs and kindred races of people.

John Noyes, of the Oneida Community, where equal rights
were observed, preached the same doctrines. It is true that
these people are degenerate individuals, psychical atavists;
yet, they faithfully foreshadow in their own persons that which
would be common to all men and women at some time in the
future, if equal rights were allowed and carried out in their
entirety.

This is an era of luxury, and it is an universally acknow-
ledged fact that luxury is one of the prime factors in the pro-
duction of degeneration. We see forms and phases of degener-
ation thickly scattered throughout all circles of society, in the
plays which we see performed in our theatres, and in the
books and papers published daily throughout the land. The
greater portion of the clientele of the alienist is made up of
women who are suffering with neurotic troubles, generally, of
a psychopathic nature. The number of Viragints, gynandrists,
androgynes, and other female psycho-sexual aberrants is very
large indeed.

It is folly to deny the fact that the right of female suffrage
will make no change in the environment of woman. The New
Woman glories in the fact that the era which she hopes to in-
augurate will introduce her into a new world. Not satisfied
with the liberty she now enjoys, and which is proving to be
exceedingly harmful to her in more ways than one, she longs
for more freedom, a broader field of action. If nature provided
men and women with inexhaustible supplies of nervous energy,
they might set aside physical laws and burn the candle at both
ends without any fear of its being burned up. Nature fur-
nishes each individual with just so much nervous force and no

1895.] Editor’s Table. 825

more; moreover, she holds every one strictly accountable for
every portion of nervous energy which he or she may squan-
der, therefore, it behooves us to build our causeway with ex-
ceeding care, otherwise we will leave a chasm which will en-
gulph posterity.

The baneful effects resulting from female suffrage will not
be seen to-morrow, or next week, or week after next, or next
month, or next year, or a hundred years hence, perhaps. It is
not a question of our day and generation; it is a matter of in-
volving posterity. The simple right to vote carries with it no
immediate danger, the danger comes afterward; probably
many years after the establishment of female suffrage, when
woman, owing to her increased degeneration, gives free rein
to her atavistic tendencies, and hurries ever backward to-
ward the savage state of her barbarian ancestors. I see, in
the establishment of equal rights, the first step toward that
abyss of immoral horrors so repugnant to our cultivated ethical
tastes—the matriarchate. Sunk as low as this, civilized man
will sink still lower—to the communal Kachims of the Aleutian
Islanders.

EDITOR'S TABLE,

— For reasons not fully set forth, a considerable number of persons at
one time adopted the opinion that the coéducation of the sexes possesses
advantages over their separate education, and accordingly that system
has been introduced into numerous schools of various grades. Consid-
eration of certain facts of nature would, it might be supposed, have
suggested that there might be some objections, but it is not the habit of
a large class of persons to consider natural facts in the matter of sex.
Now that the system has been in operation for many years, it is possi-
ble to see more clearly than before, whether the suspicions of the
opponents of the system were well-founded or not. We make no
account of the opposition of persons who think a college or university
education unnecessary for women. Among the best educated men,
such a position probably has few supporters.

826 The American Naturalist. [September,

Experience shows that in classes composed of both sexes, order is
more easily maintained ; boys are less disorderly and girls are less
silly. The natural instinct for the respect of the other sex works won-
ders in this, as in other relations of life. Hence many teachers and
professors think highly of ecoéducation. If we consider the interests of
the students rather than those of the teachers, however, a different
conclusion is indicated, It is well-known that the rate of growth in its
later years is widely different in the sexes; the female becoming mature
several years earlier than the male. This fact is the simple explana-
tion of the natural antagonism which exists between the sexes of iden-
tical age during their “teens.” Neither finds its ideal in the other sex
of its age, the young woman especially and naturally finding it in older
men who are as mature as herself. In mixed classes she will often
excel the boys and take the prizes, a consequence not only of her
maturity, but also of her greater sensitiveness to the penalties of fail-
ure. That women have, of later years,so often taken leading positions
in competitive examinations is not necessarily an evidence of a corre-
sponding superiority of intellectual endowment, but is often the
natural result of the inequality of development between herself and her
male competitors. We would, in fact, look for such a result as a
necessary consequence of the conditions.

The effect of this state of affairs is bad on both sexes. It leads to
mistaken conclusions as to the relative capacities of the two, which may
lead to disastrous results in after life. It is calculated to produce in a
considerable class of boys a distaste for study, and a preference in after
years for uneducated women. To this extent it retards rather than
aids human progress. It is a fact that, in a number of coéducational
schools, the girls largely outnumber the boys, since the latter fail to
become interested in their studies, and prefer to leave school and go
into business. Whether it induces in girls a contempt for the intel-
lectual furniture of the opposite sex we are not in a position to say, but
it has done a great deal towards confirming certain doctrinaires in
their a priori belief in the intellectual equality of the sexes.

It is alleged that there are moral reasons why coéducation is better
than separate education, and this opinion is well-founded so far as it
relates to the mutual benefits of association. But this association
need not necessarily be in classes. A model institution would be one
in which the classes should be separate, but association at other times
easy. Such association could be obtained at meals and on other stated
occasions, so as to represent as nearly as possible the family relation.

1895.] Editor’s Table. 827

In universities, the graduate courses should be open equally to both
sexes, since those who seek them are mature and stand on an equal
ooting.

—EXPERIENCE of the effects of electrical currents on the human
body does not sustain the New York method of executing criminals by
electric shocks as either effective of humane. We have. so far, failed
to find an electrician who can describe the course of an electric current
after it enters the human body. Experience has abundantly shown
that some men may tolerate currents of much higher voltage than
others, so that there is no fixed standard of fatal efficiency. It is not
certain that persons apparently killed by such currents are really dead,
for there are cases of resuscitation from shocks of a strength which the
New York executioners suppose to be fatal. The offer of experts to
rescusitate the victims of the electric chair have been declined by the
New York authorities. The testimony of some persons who have been
resuscitated from apparent death by electricity, is that while all their
motor functions were suspended, their consciousness was active. There
may then be some truth in the assertion that the real execution under
the New York law takes place at the autopsy. We cannot but regard
the enterprise of the authors of this law as premature, and as involv-
ing a trifling with unknown conditions, which is barbarous. The law
should be repealed. As a substitute for this and all other forms of
execution, the guillotine has everything in its favor.

Our hopes of the benefits to science to be derived from the Field
Museum of Chicago have not been realized. Nearly all of the scien-
tific men who originally obtained positions there, have left it with ex-
pressions of dissatisfaction. This was to have been expected as a con-
sequence of the organization which Mr. Field permitted. The most
active member of the management was a successful lumber merchant,
and the appointee as director was of an equally impossible stamp. Amer-
icans sometimes wonder why European Museums of Natural History
are so much superior to our own. The answer is that in Europe com-
petent scientific men manage them; in America they do not, with the
sole exception of a museum which is connected with a university (Har.
vard), and one in New York where exceptional sagacity holds the
reins. Chicago begins, in this matter, at the bottom of the ladder, and
we will live in hopes. Perhaps Mr. Field himself will some day come
to the rescue, and insist that the director of the Museum shall be a
scientific man of proved ability, and that the only function of the

828 The American Naturalist. [September,

trustees shall be to see that the investments are good, and that the ex-
penses shall not exceed the income.

THE Last volume of the reports of the Challenger Expedition has
been published, and English biologists are reviewing the work.
late number of our esteemed contemporary “ Natural Science,” con-
sists mainly of a symposium on the results obtained, and the editors
congratulate their countrymen on the successful conduct and complet-
ion of the enterprise. We join in their congratulations; for English-
men may well be proud of their work; and Carpenter as its projector,
and Moseley and Murray as its managers, will ever be held in esteem
by naturalists the world over. By the way our contemporary in
another number shows that there is eruptive matter in some of its edi-
torial substrata. It comes to the surface in some strong language
anent of a short communication by Dr. Patton to the NATURALIST.
Perhaps the irate editor is not familiar with all the circumstances of the
case. Neither are we.

RECENT LITERATURE.

From the Greeks to Darwin.’'—In a volume of 260 pages
Professor Osborn presents the salient points in the history of the
growth of the evolution idea in the European mind. Beginning with
the Greek philosophers, the author discusses their conceptions and
gives a résumé of the legacy of the Greeks to later evolution. Then
follows an account of the contributions of the theologians of the Mid-
dle Ages, and of the natural philosophers from Bacon to Schelling.
Due credit is given both to the speculative evolutionists, of whom Oken
is a type, and to the great naturalists of the eighteenth century who laid
the real foundations of the modern evolution idea. Several pages are

1 From the Greeks to Darwin. An Outline of the Development of the Evolu-
tion Idea. By Henry Fairfield Osborn. New York, 1894. Macmillan and Co.

1895.] Recent Literature. 829

devoted to tracing the rise and decline of evolutionary thought in
. France, from Buffon to Geoffroy St. Hilaire (Isidore), in which at-
tention is called to the opposing views of what may be termed the
Buffon-Lamarck adherents and those of the Cuvier-Linnaeus school.
The closing chapter is an exposition of the views of Darwin and Wal-
lace and their precursors in the teaching of natural selection.

This review of the history of thought on organic evolution is timely
and will interest a large circle of readers. It is judicial in treatment,
and although the author is known to have decided opinions on the sub-
ject, they do not appear. He reminds us that the early fathers of the
Christian church, and conspicuously Augustine, were evolutionists and
that Suarez was not, although the contrary has been alleged. He
points out the services of Buffon and Erasmus Darwin to thought, and
shows the imaginative genius of the former, and the practical sagacity
of the latter. In discussing Lamarck, while crediting him with clear-
minded sagacity, he shows the superficial character of many of his at-
tempted explanations. Nevertheless he says in closing his review,
“ We must close by placing Lamarck in the first rank. He was the
first naturalist to become profoundly convinced of the great law, and
to place it in the form of a system.” He shows that Lamarck was the
first author to understand the nature of actual phylogeny, and depict it
graphically in true form. Of Darwin, the author says, “The long re-
tention of his theory from publication marks the contrast of his caution
with the impetuousness of Lamarck.” But it must be remembered
that the Recherches sur Organisation des Corps Vivants was not
written until 1802, when Lamarck was no longer young, and had
spent his life in study. Further, “He” (Darwin) “sought a hundred
facts and observations where his predecessors had sought one; his
notes filled volumes, and he stands out as the first evolutionist who
worked upon true Baconian principles. It was this characteristic
which, combined with his originality, won the battle for the evolution
idea.” This is an estimate of Darwin which time will confirm.

The perusal of this book will give a just view of the history of
thought on the doctrine of organic evolution, and will enable the
reader to determine the respective parts which the contributors to our
knowledge have played. The improved means of reaching conclusions
which the additions to the store of facts in later periods placed within
the reach of later authors, are referred to, The vast increase in our
knowledge of facts since Darwin, have thrown so much light on the
subject that it is to be hoped that Professor Osborn will at some future

830 The American Naturalist. ` [September,

time favor us with a volume on the advances made during this period
also. ;

“The Glacial Nightmare and the Flood. ”™—To American
geologists, the title of this work is almost a challenge, and might cause
it to be ignored, but to every student of superficial geology it is an in-
valuable book. It is a well-arranged history of the observations and
growth of the science of superficial geology. To many of the fathers of
this department of science, it is a tardy justice, and impresses a fair
reader with the vast array of facts which were collected at an early
date, not in Europe alone, but also in America, leaving for the later
observers far less new work than our modern writers usually recognize.
Another lesson taught demonstrates that the generalized conclusions of
the greatest idols of science are by no means established, and often retard
progress. The teachings of each succeeding generation replace, to some
extent, those of the preceding, until at last reaction sets in and separ-
ates the chaff and shows us how much the early scientific geniuses did
for their science, though, perhaps, drawn off into erroneous by-ways.

The work fairly sets forth the rise of the doctrine of tloods and its
abandonment; of the growth and limitation of the iceberg theory; of
the origin and culmination of the glacial theory, with Schimper at the
head, and originating the term Ice Age. Thus far the author’s hand is
hardly seen in the book. The treatise is of special value in systematic-
ally bringing together the facts and views and doing justice to the
authors of works, many of which have been overlooked or are not
accessible to American geologists.

On the subject of the unity of the glacial period the evidence is fairly
stated, but the author marshalls an array of data favoring the unity of
the Age in its general aspect, a point upon which American glacialists
differ. The difficulties in accepting the astronomical causes of the Ice
Age are fairly set forth, and these adverse conclusions will be received
by most American geologists. The cause of glacier motions, and the
mechanical effects of glaciers are discussed from their physical aspects,
and appear very satisfactory to most observers. The facts showing the
former extension of glaciers are arranged, and show how the ice-cap
theory has given place to continental glaciers. But here the work is
directed against the extreme views, giving rise to the title of the
book, on the ground of lack of evidence, and challenges the right of

1 By Sir Henry H. Howarth, K. C. I. E., M. P., F. G. S., ete. 2 vol. pp. l-
920. Sampson, Low, Marston & Company, London.

1895.] Recent Literature. 831

appealing to transcendental views. Although some American glacial-
ists will here dissent, yet the treatment of the evidence is very fair, and
from the facts collected the book cannot be overlooked by any scien-
tific observer. .

The work closes with suggestions to explain some difficulties carefully
analyzed, wherein the author appeals to “ waves of translation,” æ.
modification of the old doctrine of catastrophies (as does also Prof.
Prestwich in some of his recent contributions), It is surprising that
the idea of cataclysms in some form, whether glacial or otherwise, has
permeated the views of so many writers, often without their apparent.
knowledge, who are considered good disciples of uniformitarianism.

In spite of the title, the work is just such a volume of condensation
of observations, gathered from the whole world, as is needed for a man-
ual of references, for these are much more prominent than the views of
the author, even in the latter part of the book. It, however, shows
that there may be two views of great problems. From the work, one
is almost surprised to find how much the early geologists in America
had done in surface geology, which has been almost forgotten, yet this
formed the foundation of even the modern science of superficial geology-

—J. W.S.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Abstract of the Proceeds. Linnean Society of New York for the year ending
March 27, 1894.

Batpwin, J. M.—Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods
and Processes. New York, 1895. From the Publishers, Macmillan and Co.

BELL, R.—Honeyecombed Limestones in Lake Huron. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc-
Am. Vol. 6, March, 1895. From the Society.

Benepict, J. E.—Descriptions of New Genera and Species of Crabs of the
family Lithodidae with Notes on the young of L. camischaticus and L. brevipes-
Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894.

BicELow, R. P.—Report upon the Crustacea of the order Stomatopoda col-
lected by tbe steamer Albatross between 1885 and 1891, and on other specimens
in the U. S. Natl. Mus. Extr. Proceeds. U.S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894.
From the Smithsonian Institution.

Biiuines, F. S.—How shall the Rich Escape? Boston, 1894. From the
Arena Pub. Co.

BouLencer, G. A.—A List of the Reptiles and Batrachians collected by Dr-
E. Modigliani in Sereinu (Sipora). Mentawei Islands. Extr. Ann. Mus. Civ. dt

57

832 The American Naturalist. [September,

Storia Nat. Genova, Vol. XIV, 1894.—— Descriptions of a new Lizard and a new
Fish obtained in Formosa by Mr. Holst. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 6,
Vol. XIV, 1894. From the author.

Bull. 30, 1894, Agricultural Experiment Station of the Rhode Island College
of Agric. and Mechanie Arts
Coupin, H.—L’ Amateur di Papillons. Paris, 1895. B. Balliere et Fils, Edi-
rs.

CRANE, A.—Evolution of the Brachiopoda. Extr. Geol. Mag., Feb. & March,
1895. From the author

DALL, Wo. H. TEOR of the genus Gnathodon, Gray (Rangia, Desmou-
lins). o Rais U. S. Natl. Mus. Vol. XVII, 1894. From the author

Dawson, WM.—Synopsis of the Air-breathing bias a the APEE in Can-
ada, up to 1894. Extr. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Sect. IV, 1894. From the
author.

De Vis, C. W.—On the Mandible of Zygomaturus. Extr. Proc. Roy. Soc.
Queensland, Vol. XI, 1895. From the author

Dorey C. S. AnD J. M. CATTELL.—On Reaction Times and the Velocity of
the Nervous Impulse. Extr. Psychol. Rev., Vol. I, No. 2, 1894. From C. 8.
Dolley.
DumMBLE, E. T.—Cenozoic Deposits of Texas. Extr. Journ. Geol., 1894. From
the author.

Dwicut, T.—The Range and Significance of Variation in the Human Skele-
ton. The Shattuck Lecture, Boston, 1894. From the author

Eris, R. W.—Notes on Recent Sedimentary Formations on the Bay of Fundy
Coast. Extr. Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. Sci., Halifax, Vol. I, 1895.——The Pots-
dam and Calciferous Formations of Quebec and Eastern Ontario. Extr. Trans.
Roy. Soc. Canada, 1894. From the author.

Fisu, P. A.—The Central Nervous System of Desmognathus fusca. Extr.
Journ. Morph., Vol. X, 1895. From the author.

GILL, TH.—The Differential Characters of the Salmonidae and Thymallidae.
Extr. Proceeds. U. 8. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the author.

JULIAN, A. A.—Notes of Research on the New York Obelisk. ‘Extr. Bull.
Amer. Geog. Soc., 1893. From the author.

Locy, W. A.—Metameric Segmentation in the Medullary Folds and Embry-
onic Rim. Aus. Anat. Anz. IX Bd. Nr. 13. From the author.

Mac osktk, G.—Common Errors as the Relations of Science and Faith. Extr.
Presbyterian and Reformed Rev., Jan., 1895. From the author.

MARSHALL, A. M.—Biological Lectures and Addresses. Edited by C. F. Mar-
shall, London, 1894. From Macmillan and Co., Pub.

Mason, O. T.—Similarities in Culture. Extr, Am. Anthropol., Vol. VII,
1895.
MINUTES OF A MEETING held in Johns Hopkins University, Commemorative of
G. H. Williams, Oct. 14, 1894. From the Tniv.

Merriam, C. H.—A new subfamily of Murine Rodents—the Neotominae—
with description of a new genus and species and a synopsis of the known species.
Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad Sci., Sept., 1894. From the author.

1895.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 833

Montcomery, T. H.—Stichostemma eilhardii, nov. gen. nov. spec. Separat-a b-
druck aus. Zeitsch. f. wissenschaftliche Zool., LIX, Bd., I, Heft. Leipzig, 1895.
From the author.

OSBORN, H. F. AND CHARLES EARLE. -Pa Mammals of the Puerco Beds,
Collection of 1892. Extr. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, 1895. Poi
the authors.

Owen, R.—Life of Richard Owen. Also an Essay on Owen’s Position in Ana-
tomical Science, by Right Hon. T. H. Huxley. In two volumes. New York,
1894. From the Publishers, D. Appleton and Co.

Paquier, M. V.—Contributions à l’étude du Bajocien de la bordure occidentale
de la Chaine de Belledonne. Extr. Ann. del’ Enseignement supérieur de Greno-

Powell, E. P.—Gott im Menschen. Berlin, 1894. From the author.

Report of the Geological Survey of Michigan, Vol. V, 1881-1893. From the
State Geol. Surv.

Report of the U. 8. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for the Year ending
June 30, 1892. Washington, 1894. From the U. S. Fish Commission.

Ripcway, R.—Description of a new Geothlypis from Brownsville, Texas.
Extr. Pisces. U.S. Natl. Mus. Vol. XVI. From the author.

Sauvace, M. H. E.—Les Reptiles du terrain jurassique supérieur du Boulon-
nais. Extr. Comptes Rendus des séances de l’ Acad des Sci. Paris, 1894. From

SCHLOSSER, M. De.—Ueber die Plistocanschichten in Franken und ihr Ver-
hiltniss zu den Ablagerungen am Schweizerbild bei Schaffhausen. Aus. dem
Neuen Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, etc., 1895. From the author

Suater, N. S.—Evidences as to Change of Sea level. Extr. ‘Bull. Geol. Soc.
Am., Jan., 1895. From the Society.

Spencer, J. W.—Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent. Extr. Bull.
Geul. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895. From the author.

Stearns, R. E. C.—The Shells of the Tres Marias and other localities along
the shores of Lower Nese gin "Me the Gulf of California. Extr. Proceeds. U
S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII. 1

STEJNEGER, ae ens a a a new species of Blind Snake Sen eve
from the Congo Free State. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol
From the author

TROUESSART, E. —Sur les genre Analges (Sarcoptidee) et remarques critiques sur
les especes nouvelles recemment décrites par M. Hugo Zimmerman.—— Note sur
les Acariens des Fosses nasales des Oiseaux. Extrs. Bull. des Seances Soc. En-
tomol. de France, 1894. From the author.

True, F. W.—Notes on some Skeletons and Skulls of Porpoises on the genus
ORTA collected by Dr. W. L. Abbot in the Indian Ocean. Extr. Proceeds.
U. 8. . Mus. Vol. XVII, 1894. From the Smithsonian Institution.

Weoubieh; M. M.—The Free Trade Struggle in England. Chicago, 1895.
From the Open Court Pub. Co.

Very, F. W.--Hail Storms. Extr. Trans. Pittsburgh Acad. Science and Art,
1894. From the author.

Warp, L.—-Recent Discoveries of Cycadean Trunks in the Potomac Formation

in Maryland. Extr. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. 21, 1894. From the author.

834 The American Naturalist. [September,

WINCHELL, N. H—The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota,
Twenty-second Annual Report, for the year 1893. Minneapolis, 1894.

——Annual Report for 1894, Minn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Minneapolis,
1895. From N. H. Winchell.

Woopwarp, A. S.—Notes on Shark’s Teeth from British Cretaceous Forma-
tions. Reprint Proceeds. Geol. Ass., Vol. XIII, 1894. From the author.

——On a Second Species of Eurycormus. Extr. Geol. Mag., May, 1894.
From the author.

— On some Fish remains of the Genera Portheus and ee from the
Rolling Downs Formation (Lower Cretaceous) of Queensland. e Affini-
ties of the Cretaceous Fish, Protosphyraena.—— Extrs. Ann. Mag. Nat. ries Vol.
XIII, 1894. From the author.

General Notes.

MINERALOGY.’

Universal Stage for the Microscope.—Federow has done a
great service to mineralogists and petrographers by introducing instru-
ments based on the universal or theodolite principies. His application
of these principles to the measurement of crystal angles is the gonio-
meter with two graduated circles, which has already been referred to in
these notes. Extending his study to the field of crystallographic-
optical measurements, he has devised the universal microscope stage,’
which increases the usefulness of the microscope by permitting a quite
new class of observations to be made. The microscope stage now in
use permits of only such motions as always retain the slide in a plane
parallel to the initial one. Federow’s universal stage allows the slide
to be moved into any position whatsoever by two rotations about axes
normal alike to one another and to the microscopés axis, He has
described and figured two different types of stage, one better adapted
to ordinary work and also permitting the slide to be immersed in liq-
uids if desired, while the other has the advantage of greater simplicity
and has a convenient arrangement for orienting the slide in its own
plane, so that any line (e. g., a twinning trace) may be brought parallel
to the immovable axis of the stage. In answer to some inquiries,

1Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
_ ? Zeitsch. f. Kryst., xxii, pp. 229-268, pl. 9 (1893).

1895.] Mineralogy. 835

Professor v. Federow has kindly informed the editor of these notes that
he has designed a third and simpler type of stage, specially adapted to
petrographical work, which will shortly be described. All these forms
can be attached to any of the standard types of petrographical micro-
scopes by screwing to the mechanical stage. They require, however, a
special form of slide, which is circular, with a diameter of about 2 em.,
and, when in use, this is held in an ebonite holder with circular open-
ing, in which the slide can naturally be given any desired orientation.

Parallel polarized light is used with this stage, and the presence of
an axis of the ellipsoid of elasticity in any section is indicated by first
bringing the two principal directions of the section parallel to the two
axes of the stage and then rotating the slide about each separately. If
either of the principal directions is an axis of elasticity, the slide will
evidently remain dark when rotated about the axis normal to it,
whereas otherwise it will show interference colors. This affords the
following scheme for determining the symmetry of a mineral from ex-
amination of random sections in a rock slide:

Isometric. Every section is isotropic.

Hexagonal and Tetragonal. Every section has one axis of elasticity.

Orthorhombic. Sections lying in the zones of the three crystallo-
graphic axes contain an axis of elasticity.

Monoclinic. Sections belonging to the zone of the axis of symmetry
contain an axis of elasticity.

Triclinic. Entire lack of such sections.

Some of Federow’s applications of this instrument to the Pen of the
feldspars will be referred to later.

A somewhat different form of stage embodying the same idea, but
adapted to the study of the ordinary form of slides, has been since de-
vised by Klein and manufactured by Fuess for attachment to his
instruments. Klein‘ has also designed a form of this stage (likewise
manufactured by Fuess for his large stand) to be used with convergent
as well as parallel polarized light, and this can be used to find the
position of the optic axes and measure the — angle in crystals as
well as in sections.

Connection Between Atomic Weight of Contained Met-
als and Morphological and Optical Properties of Crystals.
—The relations found by Tutton to exist between the atomic weights

*Groth, Physikal. Kryst., 3d ed., p. 749, figs. 688 and 689 (1895).

‘Ibiden, p. 750, fig. 691. Cf. also Sitzungsber. d. Akad. d. Wiss., Berlin,
1895, p. 91.

836 The American Naturalist. [September,

of the contained metals and the crystal characters of the potassium,
rubidium, and cæsium double sulphates of formula R,M(SO,),6H,O,5
have been found by Muthmann' to hold also for the permanganates.
Continuing his studies Tutton’ has made an equally exhaustive crys-
tallographic study of the normal sulphates of the same alkali metals.
The earlier determinations made on these substances seemed to be in
conflict with the facts brought out by Tutton in studying the double
sulphates, but after most exhaustive and precise observations with
specially-devised apparatus, Tutton is able to show that the recorded
observations on these salts are incorrect, and that the intermediate
position crystallographically of rubidium is established for this series
as well as the other. There isshown to be a progression corresponding
to the increase of atomic weight of the contained metal as regards the
axial ratio, the size of the interfacial angles, and the molecular volume.
The differences in the magnitude of the analogous angles, seems, how-
ever, to be less, the higher the symmetry, approaching, Tutton suggests
the absolute identity requisite to isometric symmetry. The habit of
the crystals seems to obey the same law. In a discussion of the rela-
tive linear dimensions of the crystal elements of the Bravais-Sohnche
space lattice, is communicated a simple method of determining these
values which was suggested by Becke. Becke’s formule are:
a= fav b= PV o= pev
P3 ac a

in which a,, b, and c, (X ¥ Z of Muthmann) are the relative dimensions
of the crystal element in the direction of the correspondingly named
crystal axes; a, b, and ¢ are the unity lengths of the crystal axes ; and
V is the molecular volume. Tutton proposes to call the distances a, b, Co
(Muthmann’s topische axen) distance ratios of the crystal elements, and,
as they are only relative values, to make one equal to unity as in the
case of, axial ratios. When these values are determined for the three
sulphates, it is found that rubidium occupies the intermediate position,
Tutton also finds that these salts follow the Bravais-Sobnche theory in
that the planes of cleavage 4 (010) most perfect and (001) less perfect }
are the planes in which the elementary parallelograms of the lattice
system are respectively smallest and next smallest.

The optical study consisted in the determination of the principal
indices of refraction in prisms prepared with unusual care by the deli-

5 See these notes.

_ *Zeitsch. f. Kryst., xxii, p. 497.
T Jour. Chem. Soc. London, 1894, pp. 628-717.

1895.] Mineralogy. 837

cate apparatus described by him before the Royal Society, and also in
the measurement of the optical angle (in sections prepared accurately
normal to a besectrix by means of the same apparatus) in five different
wave lengths of light. Here again the intermediate position of rubid-
ium is proven by the values of the indices of refraction along corres-
ponding crystallographic axes. Rubidium sulphate is found to be
quite a unique substance optically, having an extremely low double
refraction (small differences between the indices of refraction), but, in
general, a large optical angle (large relative differences between refract-
ive indices), with high dispersion of the optic axes due to the fact that
differences in the magnitude of 2 V for different wave lengths are large
by reason of the extremely small differences between the indices (low
double refraction). . Similarly the changes in 2 V caused by rise of tèm-
perature are abnormally large. Further, since the index of refraction
along crystallographic ¢ increases with rise of temperature faster than
those along the other axes, and more in amount than the difference
between the indices alonge and 6 at the ordinary temperature, the
result is a closing up of the optical angle with a rise of temperature
and an opening out in the plane normal to its first position,

The following figures, which are the ratios of the optical elasticities
along the crystallographical axes, tell this story :

; Co anD
At ordinary temperature a : b: e = 0.9991 : 1 : 0.9999

t b a
At 180°, d: b: e= 0.9993: 1: 1.0006

Somewhat similar changes have been found to occur in heating
potassium sulphate, but only at higher temperatures. The many results
of this elegant and thorough study can not be given ina review of these
proportions, and the reader is referred to the original paper.

Boleite and Nautokite from Broken Hill, N. S. W.—Liver-
sidge® describes boleite from Broken Hill, N. S. W., in cubic-crystals as
much as seven millimetres on an edge and modified by both the octa-
hedron and the dodecahedron. The matrix is hematite and quartz.
The mineral has heretofore been found only at Boleo in Lower Cali-
fornia. From the same locality the same writer describes nautokite,
the lower chloride of copper, in fragments of crystals, and beautiful
crystals of cerargyrite and cuprite.

New Minerals from Chili.—The late Dr. Dietze, of Tantal,
Chili, a few years since studied chemically several new minerals from

8 Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 6th, 1894. (Sep-

arate.
* Zeitsch. f. Kryst., 19, p. 445 (1891).

3338 The American Naturalist. [September,

the salt pampas of that country. Osann” has recently studied three
of these minerals crystallographically and optically. Some of his re-
sults are summarized below:

Darapskite (Na,SO,+H,O, Dietze) from Pampa del Toro near
Pampa, where it occurs abundantly with blédite. Monoclinic with
axial ratio a: b: ¢ = 1.5258: 1: 0.7514. p = 77°5’. Habit tabular
parallel to the orthopinacoid. The observed forms were (100), (001),
(010), (110), (101), (201), (101), (302), (011), (111), (111), and (121).
Twins are common according to (100), and are sometimes polysyn-
thetic. H, 2-3, G, 2.203. Easily soluble in water.

Lautarite 4 Ca(1IO,),, Dietze +} from Calcium Chloride Pampas,
also Pampa del Pique III and in Pampa Grove. Monoclinic with
axial ratio a: 6: e= 0.6331 : 1 : 0.6462. @ =.73°38’.. The prismatic
crystals show the following forms: (110), (120), (010), (001), (011),
(101) and (101). Cleavage parallel to (011). The crystals vary from
colorless to bright wine-yellow, and are difficultly soluble in water.
H, 3-4, G, 4.59 (Dietze).

Dietzite. This mineral occurs in the Chloride of Calcium Pampas, and
was determined by Dietze to have the formula 7 Ca (IO,), 8 Ca Cr O,
It has monoclinic symmetry with axial ratio a: b: e = 1.3826
0.9515. 2 = 73°28’. Crystals tabular according to 100, possessing
the forms: (100), (010), (001), (110), (210), (101), (221) and (223).
H, 3-4, G, 3.698. Soluble in hot, but only slightly soluble in cold,
water. The mineral is named by Osann in honor of the finder, Dr.
Dietze, who perished in a snow storm while on a scientific expedition in
the Andes. Lautarite and Dietzite are interesting as being the first
salts of iodic acid that have been found in the mineral world.

Miscellaneous.—Rinne" determines the symmetry of crystals of
metallic aluminium to be probably isometric from a study of quite per-
fect growth forms. Lacroix” describes well crystallized epidote from
or near Voheimar, Madagascar, which have developed the base, ortho-
pinacoid, the unit positive orthodome, and also (210), (102), (011) and
(111). He also makes a correction to his earlier paper on the pyro-
morphite of New Calidonia, adding the form (1121) and replacing the
described forms (5054) and (10.0.10.1) by the forms (15.0.15.14) and
(9091). Ussing,“ in connection with a mineralogical-petrographical

Thidem, 23, pp. 584-589, pl. 7 (1894).

! Neues Jahrbuch f. Min., etc., 1894, IT, pp. 1-2.

© Bull. Soc. Franç Min., xvii, pp. 119-120, May, 1894.

'SThidem, pp. 120-12

MMfineralagiekopetsumriliske Undersogelser af Gronlandske Nefelinsyeniter og
beslaegtede Bjaergarter, by N. V. Ussing, pp. 220, pls. 7, 1894.

1895.] Mineralogy. 839

investigation of the Greenland nephelene syenites and their associated
rocks, describes nepheline altered to cancrinite, sodalite, analcite,
hydronephelene, natrolite, and potash mica; also sodalite altered to
analcite and natrolite and eudialite altered to katapleite and zircon.
Besides numerous varieties of feldspar, augite and hornblende, he de-
scribes Ainigmatite and Kélbingite from these rocks. The work is

printed in the Danish language.
Ww. H. Hosss.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Protolenus Fauna.—<An important paper based on the
collections made by W. D. Matthews, of fossils from the lower part of
the Cambrian rocks of New Brunswick in 1892, ’93 and ’94, was recently
communicated to the New York Academy of Sciences by G. F. Mat-
thews. From this article the following abstract has been made of the
character of the fauna and the conclusions arrived at from its study.

The fauna described is one of the oldest known. It consists of
Foraminifera, Sponges, Molluscs and Crustaceans. All the Foramini-
fera described are referred to the genera Orbulina and Globigerina ;
the Sponges include Protospongia and others. The Molluscs are mostly
hyalithoid shells of the genera Orthotheca, Hyolithus and Diplotheca.
The Crustaceans are chiefly of the two groups, Ostracoda and Trilo-
bita, of which the former are remarkable for the large number of
genera and species, as compared with the trilobites; two predominant
and characteristic genera are Hipponicharion and Beyrichona, All
the trilobites are of genera peculiar to this fauna, except Ellipsoce-
phalus, which, although one of the dominating types, also occurs in the
Paradoxides beds of Europe. The most characteristic genus of trilo-
bites is Protolenus, which is abundantly present in the typical beds.

The following are some of the salient characters of the fauna as at
present known: All the trilobites have continuous eye-lobes. This is
decidedly a primitive character, and its value in this respect is shown
by the genus Paradoxides of the overlying fauna, which began with
small species having such eye-lobes, and culminated in the large forms
of the upper Paradoxides beds in which the eye-lobe was considerably
shortened.

The important family of Ptychopariidae is absent.

840 The American Naturalist. [September,

The genus Conocoryphe is absent. This is specially a type of the
Lower Paradoxides beds, and under the name of Conocoryphe trilineata
(Atops trilineatus) is claimed as a characteristic fossil of the Olenellus
Zone.

The genus Mierodiscus is absent. This trilobite is especially charac-
teristic of the Olenellus Zone, and continued to live with Paradoxides.

The genus Olenellus is absent. Hence, although this fauna appar-
ently holds the place where we might naturally expect to find Olenellus,
that genus proves to be absent, or, at least, not at all characteristic ;
and, as so many of its associate genera also are absent, we cannot regard
this fauna as the fauna of Olenellus.

In this fauna there is a very primitive assemblage of Brachiopods
and at least one pelagic mollusc, having a helicoid shell and supposed
to be free swimming Heteropod.

The author distinguishes this fauna from that of Olenellus by two
marked features ; it is more primitive and also more pelagic. The former
is shown by the trilobite forms, and the latter by the following facts ;
The absence of forms differentiated for shore-conditions ; trilobites with
fixed outer cheeks are absent; calcareous corals and sponges are rare;
thick shelled Brachiopods and Orthidae are rare: no Lamellibranch is
known, but Foraminifera are common in some of the beds. (Science,
April, 1895.)

Formation of Oolite.—In view of Dr. Rothpletz’s recent inves-
tigations concerning the lime-secreting fission-algae of the Great Salt
Lake, and his own studies of the structure of the Jurassic Pisolite, Mr.
Wethered offers the following explanation of the formation of Oolitic
granules:

Minute fragments of remains of calcareous organisms, such as corals,
polyzoa, foraminifera, crinoids, ete., collected on the floor of the sea.
These became nuclei to which the oolite-forming organisms attached
themselves, gradually building up a crust. Sometimes this growth was
concentric, sometimes at right-angles to the nucleus, or the two com-
bined. When the growth was concentric, other tubules frequently
cropped up in other directions and crossed the concentric tubules. At
the same time, calcareous material was secreted, and the interstitial
spaces between the tubules were filled.

The oolite-forming organisms may be allied to the algae, or they may
be even lower in the scale of life. Girvanella, identified by the author
in the Jurassic Pisolite, the first type of oolite-forming organism dis-
covered, is simply a tubule. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1895.)

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 841

The Extinction of Saurians.—In regard to the extinction of
species, Mr. Charles Morris offers as an explanation of the disappear-
ance of the Cretaceous reptiles, an indirect assault by the placental
mammals, viz.: the destruction of the eggs, and possibly of the young,
of the reptiles. The author points out that the mammals, equipped
with a higher grade of intelligence than their powerful rivals, probably
adopted new methods of attack more rapidly than the reptiles acquired
means of defense, so that the latter eventually found themselves at a
disadvantage in the competition for supremacy. Multitudes of prowl-
ing creatures, small and agile, having become aware of usefulness of
reptiles’ eggs for food, would soon bring about a perceptible diminution
of reptilian life. Only the smaller and most prolific forms would con-
tinue to exist, or those that developed means of hiding or otherwise
protecting their eggs from the assaults of the hungry mammals. (Pro-
ceeds. Phila. Acad., 1895.)

The Geology of Cuba.—The following geological history of
Cuba is given by Mr. Robert T. Hill. The conclusions are based on
stratigraphic and paleontologic data obtained during a personal recog-
noissance made in 1894.

1. In Pre-Tertiary times, an old land existed, almost as extensive in
area as the present Island. Whether this old land was insular, multi-
insular, or connected with other Antillean areas on the mainland, I
will not speculate. The submarine topography indicates that it was
not. Its composition and structure, however, show that it was an area
of active vuleanism accompanied by great metamorphism and eruptive
flows. If there are preserved in it any traces of Pre-Tertiary sedimen-
tation, they are largely overwhelmed and almost obliterated by the
vulcanism, metamorphism and later erosion. Paleozoic, Triassic
Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments have been reported by De Castro in
localities, but their physical history is unknown.

2. It is also certain that during Tertiary times, embracing the Eocene
and Neocene periods, this ancient nuclear land, with all of its geographic
outlines, completely subsided beneath sea-level, and that it was covered
with limestone sediments, which were originally derived from the sea,
not the island itself, for there is no semblance of limestone material in
the rocks of the Pre-Tertiary land which could have furnished material
for the Tertiary rocks. That this subsidence was profound we may
reasonably conclude from the thickness of the older nucleal region, now
visibly covered by the limestone beds, which have been horizontally
elevated to a height of at least two thousand feet. In other words, the

842 The American Naturalist. [September,

Pre-Tertiary subsidence may have been at least to an equal depth.
During this epoch of Tertiary subsidence, a thousand feet of Tertiary
limestone were accumulated over the old nucleal island.

3. After the close of Tertiary times, the Tertiary sediments were
greatly warped and folded, concurrently with an emergence of the land
from the sea. This movement was orogenic.

4. Following this began the epoch of epeirogenic or regional eleva-
tion. During Pleistocene time the island underwent the first of these
upward impulses to its present height, with the exception of about six
hundred feet represented in still later movement. This older Pleisto-
cene or Yunque elevation raised the main area to a height of at least
two thousand feet in its eastern half, and fifteen hundred feet in its
western half. How much higher it extended we cannot tell, so great `
has been the erosion. Thiselevation was so rapid and general through-
out the island that no coastal accumulations are preserved around its
perimeter. This elevation likewise developed the present outline of
the island almost in its entirety, and perhaps in greater area, which has
since been destroyed by erosion.

5. Following this older and greater Post-Tertiary elevation, and in-
tervening between it and the time of the Cuchilla, or five hundred foot
level, there was a long period of erosion, cutting down the country to
the Cuchilla plain, which was at that time marine base level.

6. Renewed and general elevation of the island commenced in recent
times, after the period of rest recorded in the Cuchilla level. The later
terraces, sea cliffs, base levels and modern coral reefs and savanna de-
posits of the south coast were then elevated. It is also evident that in
this later period, elevation was intermittent, accompanied by slight
pauses. It is difficult to exactly fix the time of this latest elevation.
It was certainly very recent, and a considerable period later than the
old Yunque elevation. It cannot be older than the late Pliocene, and
it may or may not be in progress at present. (Bull. Harvard Mus.
Comp. Zool., Vol, XVI, 1895.)

Former Altitude of Greenland.—Recent glacial studies in
Greenland was chosen for the subject of the annual address of the Geo-
logical Society of America, delivered by the President, T. C. Chamber-
lin. In his closing remarks, the speaker referred to the former altitude
of Greenland as follows:

“ There is no ground to question the former elevation of Greenland.
Its plateaus, like its valleys, indicate this; but glacialists are especially
concerned to know whether the former elevation of Greenland was

1895,] Geology and Paleontology. 843

coincident with its glaciation or not. Aside from the contours of the
plateaus and valleys, which seem to indicate a fashioning rather by
meteoric agencies than by pronounced glaciation, the driftless area
appears to afford the most specific ground for induction. Bearing in
mind that this is a small area between the present edge of the ice and
sea-level, which would be overridden easily and completely by an
advance of the ice-edge of less than five miles, it seems necessary to
conclude that at the time of the former greater elevation the climatic
agencies of glaciation could not have been what they are now, but for
the increased elevation would have caused an extension sufficient to
overwhelm the driftless area, If it is safe to conclude that elevation
favors glaciation, then it is necessary to conclude that during any
period of previous glaciation, there was here no elevation sufficient to
cause an advance, unless accompanied by counteracting adverse cli-
matic conditions. The ruggedness of Dalrymple Island bears simi-
lar testimony. The general angularity of the coastal mountains of
south Greenland throw the weight of their evidence in the same direc-
tion. It would appear, therefore, that the former elevation of Green-
land was not coincident with conditions favoring glaciation.” (Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895.)

Age of the Sandstones of Crowley’s Ridge.—Crowley’s
Ridge stretches across north-eastern Arkansas from the Missouri line
to the Mississippi River at Helena. At numerous localities in this
ridge a heavy deposit of cherty gravel is exposed in which are small
(and rarely very large) masses of a compact, fine-grained quartzite.
The gravel is undoubtedly Plistocene, and, until recently, the sand-
stones were supposed to be of Paleozoic age. Dr. D. D. Owen referred
them to the Potsdam from their lithological character. An investiga-
tion by Mr. R. Ellsworth Call, however, results in the discovery that
they are indurated sandstones of the same age, and sharing in the com-
mon history of the gravels through which they protrude, Dr. Branner
has observed similar facts of metamorphosis in Brazil, and these corro-
borate the view suggested by Mr. Call that the metamorphism is due to
weathering.

The facts ascertained by Mr. Call concerning this disputed formation
are summed up as follows:

“ These rocks are of limited occurrence, covering a few hundred acres
all told ; they are found at rather low elevation in the hills, although
they sometimes occur as far as the very tops of the highest points in
the ridge country ; they have yielded fossils of Lower or Eocene Ter-

844 The American Naturalist. (September,

tiary age; they have probably resulted from weathering processes ; are
metamorphic in character, and have no history of dynamic origin or of
present or past dynamic change. Their former reference to the palae-
zoic is no longer tenable, and they stand as a unique instance of the
induration of soft sandstones in the southwest.” (Proceeds. Ind. Acad.
Sci., Vol. IT, 1893-1894.)

Geological News.—The remains of two reptiles are reported from
the Triassic of Shasta Co., California, by J.C. Merriam. The larger
individual is represented by eight consecutive vertebra, a few fragments
of ribs and both coracoids. These present an assemblage of characters
that necessitate the creation of a new genus, Shastasaurus with the
specific name pacificus. The second and smaller individual represents
a very different form from that described above, but the material is in-
sufficient for specific characterization. (Am. Journ. Sci., 1895.) The
figures and description of Mr. Merriam indicate that the alleged re-
lationship to Ichthyosaurus is very doubtful.

A fossil Liverwort is described by Mr. F. H. Knowlton from the
Lower Yellowstone of Montana. The species, which represent the only
extinct form from North America, is allied to the genus Preissia, and a
new genus, Preissites, has been made for its reception. The fossil was
found by Professor Lester Ward, to whom the species is dedicated.
(Bull. Torrey Botanical Club, Oct., 1894.)

Mr. R. T. Hill records the occurrence of Radiolarian earth at Bara-
coa in the island of Cuba. The strata are vertical and over 500 feet in
thickness. The rock is chalky in appearance, with occasional thin
separation-layers of gray-blue clay, and some flint-like siliceous nodu-
les: sponge-like spicules and echinoid fragments are found in it, but
no diatoms. It appears to lie below certain yellow beds identified as
Miocene, (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, 1895.)

Records of well-borings in Iowa show the presence of numerous
buried drainage channels. A comparison of the data indicates that in
pre-glacial time the land surface of the State stood at an elevatlon con-
siderably above that now obtaining. Throughout the driftless area
there is evidence that the region, after being reduced to a base level of
erosion, has been elevated, and is now being reduced to a second base
level. (Proceeds. Iowa Acad. Sci., Vol. II, 1895.)

_ Captain F. W. Hutton publishes a classification of the genera of the

Dinornithide, based on the characters of the axial skeleton, and, in the
absence of illustrations, gives keys to assist in distinguishing the genera.
(Trans. New Zealand Inst., 1894.)

1895.] Botany. 845
BOTANY:'

Summer-School Botany in the Mountains.—It may be of
interest to teachers of botany in schools and colleges to know what has
been found possible to accomplish in a short course in the Colorado
Summer School of Science, Philosophy and Languages the present year.
The school was held in the city of Colorado Springs at the foot of
Pike’s Peak, within easy reach of the vegetation of the plains, the
cafions, foot-hills, and the strictly alpine regions. The numerous
brooks and mountain streams supplied an abundance of aquatic forms,
while the damp cañons furnished all kinds of fungous growths. Lich-
ens, mosses and ferns were found in abundance, so that every section of
the vegetable kingdom was well represented. Good rooms for lecture
and laboratory work were set aside in the High-School. building. The
following outline was followed, with slight variation :

THE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS.

I. (a)—Cells. Protoplasm. Nucleus. The formation of new cells.
Chlorophyll. Starch. Crystals.
II. (6)—Tissues. Rudimentary tissues. Permanent tissues.
III. (¢)—The Plant Skeleton. Epidermis. The Fleshy Tissues.
IV. (d)—The Plant-Body. Homologies and Analogies. Transfor-
mation of parts.
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS.

V. (a)—Water in the plant as a whole; in the protoplasm; in the
cell walls. Source of water; movement of water; evaporation of
water. Plant food; the compounds used ; how obtained ; how trans-
ported in the plant. Starch-making (carbon-assimilation); other
assimilations.

I. (6)—Growth. Effects of Heat and Light on Plants. The sen-
sibilities of plants. The movements of plants.
CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

VEL General laws of classification. Relationship. Distribution of
plants in space and time.

THE LOWER WATER-PLANTS.

VIII. (a)—The simplest plants (Class 1, Schizophycew), Water
Slimes, Nostocs, and Bacteria.

IX. (6)—The Green Algæ (Class 2, Chlorophycee), Green Slimes,
Pond-scums, Green-felts, Confervas, and their near relatives.

l Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska,

846 The American Naturalist. [September,

X. (c)—The Brown Alge (Class 3, Phawophycee), Simple Fruit-
tangles (Class 4, Coleochetew), Red Seaweeds (Class 7, Rhodophycee)
and Stoneworts (Class 8, Charophycee).

THE DEGENERATED PLANTS.

XI. (a)—The Sac-Fungi (Class 5, Ascomycetes) Mildews, Truffles,
Cup-fungi, Black Fungi, Rusts and Smuts.

XII. (6)—The Higher Fungi (Class 6, Basidiomycetes), Puff-balls,
Earth-stars, Bird’s-nest Fungi, Mushrooms, Toadstools and Pore-fungi.
THE MOSSWORTS.

XIII. The Liverworts (Class 9, Hepatiew) and the Mosses (Class 10,
Musci). The undifferentiated plant-body; the Shoot with Stem and
Leaves; Reproduction; Alternation of Generations.

THE FERNWORTS.

XIV. (a)—The Ferns (Class 11, Filicine), The prothallium ;
antherids and archegones; fertilization; growth of the embryo; the
leafy plant; spore-cases and spores; germination of the spores. Alter-
nation of generations. Classification of ferns.

XV. (6)—The Joint-rushes (Class 12, Equisetine). Comparison
with ferns. The plant-body; spore-cases and spores. Extinct joint-
rushes. The Lycopods (Class 13, Lycopediaceew). Comparisons with
ferns and joint-rushes. The plant-body ; spore-cases and spores. Ex-
tinct lycopods.

THE NAKED-SEEDED PLANTS (Class 14, Gymnosperme).

XVI. Cycads, present and past; Conifers (pines, spruces, firs, etc.),
structure of the flowers, fertilization, cones and seeds. Relationship of
gymnosperms to lycopods.

THE COVERED-SEEDED PLANTS (Class 15, Angiosperme).

XVII. (a)—The Flower (stamens, pistils, flower-leaves) ; fertiliza-
tion ; fruits; seeds.

XVIII. (6)—The lower group (Monocotyledons) ; cok sara ae ;
lillies; aroids: palms ; grasses; irises; orchids,

XVIII. (¢)—The higher group (Dicotyledons).

XIX. (1)—Flowers with separate petals. Buttercups, mustards,
pinks, mallows, geraniums, grapes, maples, roses, beans, myrtles, mel-
ons, cactuses and umbelworts.

XX. (2)—Flowers with united petals. Primroses, heaths, olives,
gentians, phloxes, morning glories, figworts, mints, honeysuckles, bell-
worts and sunflowers.

1895.] Botany. 847

The work was divided into an elementary and an advanced course,
the former for those who took up the study of botany for the first time,
and the latter for those who had already made some progress in the
study. The attendance was large, considerably exceeding one hun-
dred, and was composed almost entirely of teachers of maturer years,
in all departments of school work, from the kindergarten to the high-
school and academy.—CuaRr.es E. Bessey.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY’

Fischer on Bacteria.—Under the title Untersuchungen ueber
Bakterien, Dr. Albert Fischer contributes an important paper to a re-
cent number of Pringsheim’s Jahrbücher fur wissenschaftliche Botanik
(Bd. 27, H. 1, pp. 163, T. 5, Berlin, 1895). This paper consists of four
parts: (1) New observations on the plasmolysis of bacteria; (2) The
physiology of the flagella and of the movement; (3) The morphology
of the flagella; (4) Classification. Of the five plates illustrating fla-
gella, four are lithographic, and one is a collotype. The author ap-
pears to have made out pretty clearly for a good many forms that the
contents of the bacterial cell is plasmolyzed even by a slight concentra-
tion of culture media such as takes place on the cover glass in drying
or in the transfer of the organisms from a weaker to a more concentrated
culture medium. This plasmolysis can be avoided by diluting the fluid
very plentifully with water before making cover glass preparations
from it. Only a very slight amount of sodium chloride is necessary to
produce plasmolysis of a cover glass preparation, especially at the edge
of the drop, viz.: 0.01 to 0.05 per cent. The occurrence of this phe-
nomenon can be observed in a hanging drop as it dries. Plasmolysis
disappears when watery stains are used, but is beautifully preserved by
alcoholic stains, Ziehl’s carbol fuchsin, or Delafield’s haematoxylin.
Many false conclusions have been drawn from such plasmolyzed bac-
teria. Here belong De Toni and Trevisan’s genera Pasteurella and
Dicoccia ; the staining phenomena of the cholera vibrio, described by
Rahmer ; the bamboo-like joints sometimes seen in the anthrax bacil-
lus ; the polar bodies in the typhoid bacillus; the various granular
structures in the tubercle bacillus, etc. The unstained, empty places

1This department is edited by Erwin F. Smith, Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C

58

848 The American Naturalist. [September,

in plasmolyzed bacteria have often been mistaken for spores. In weak
salt solutions the phenomena of plasmolysis disappears in an hour or
two; in strong solutions it disappears much sooner. This disappear-
ance of plasmolysis and the reappearance of motility bear no relation
to each other, but depend upon entirely different causes. To obtain
good plasmolyzed cover-glass preparations that will fix and stain in
that condition, the author recommends putting a trace of bacteria into
a drop of a weak salt solution (0.25 to 0.50 per cent NaCl or 0.5 to
1.0 per cent KNO,) and then carefully spreading out the drop so that
it will dry in 3 to 10 minutes. The bacterial cell consists of a mem-
brane, a protoplast in the form of a wall covering, and of cell sap, and
has, consequently, the same structure as any other plant cell. Cell nu-
clei are still to be sought; a “centralkérper” is never present, when
there seems to be one it is a misinterpretation due to the contracted
protoplast, as in case of Biitschli’s observations on Spirillum undula.
In weak salt solutions which cause distinct plasmolysis (2.5 per cent
KNO,; 1.25 per cent NaCl, ete.) motile bacteria continue to move,
often for hours. In stronger solutions (5-10 per cent KNO, etc.), the
movement ceases in a few minutes owing to the benumbing of the fla-
gella, which, however, are never drawn back into the body of the ba-
cillus, being in this respect quite like the motile organs of the Flagel-
lata and unlike pseudopodia. In salt solutions which do not inhibit
growth, but are strong enough to produce rigidity of the flagella, these
organs continue to be produced. The same is true when 0.1 per cent
carbolic acid or picric acid is added. Motility reappears when these
inhibitory substances are removed. As in the flagella of the Flagellata
the cilia of the Infusoria, and the lashes of ciliated epithelium the
movement of the flagella in the bacteria is not independent of the
protoplast, but nevertheless continues when the latter is disturbed by
plasmolysis. Apparently, as in case of crushed infusoria a small frag-
ment of the protoplast remaining attached to the base of the flagellum
is sufficient to continue the movement. Rigidity of the flagella can be
brought about in various ways—lack of oxygen, acid reactions, too
much salt, mal nutrition, or the addition of poisons. On removal of
these injurious influences the motility returns. In case on non-motile
cultures of the hay bacillus the addition of ł per cent asparagin suf-
ficed to induce motility quickly. In the making of cover-glass prepa-
rations various changes may take place in the flagella, they may be
thrown off, or inrolled, or become swollen so as to be unstainable and
unrecognizable. The inrolled flagella never unroll. They often ap-
pear as little foamy heaps of rings around the bacteria (typhoid bacil-

1895.] Vegetable Physiology. 849

lus, hay bacillus, ete.) When the bacillus dies the flagella loose their
power of swelling. The flagella often remain till the last, i. e., after
the membrane and contents of the bacillus has disappeared. This
ready swelling which is always at right angles to the long axis, makes
the flagella in stained preparations always thicker than natural. The
sprouting of the flagella from the body of the cell and their subsequent
increase to full length consumes sufficient time so that its phases can be
fixed and studied. In Spirillum undula it takes place before completed
cell-division and from that end of the cell previously destitute of fla-
gella. Continued cultivation in strong salt solutions, e. g.4 to 5 per
cent NH,C1, prevents motility, but does not interfere with the forma-
tion of the flagella. By movements of neighboring bacilli the flagella
are often twisted into strands which are sometimes very large.

, In Bacillus subtilis the spore is generally found in non-flagellate rods
forming the pellicle, rarely in free swiming flagellate rods. The fla-
gella of bacteria are not drawn back into the cell during spore forma-
tion. Inyolution forms of Bacillus subtilis bear no flagella, but in the
involution forms of some other bacteria they are not thrown off. All
motile bacteria possess flagella, and these are the sole organs of move-
ment. Flagella are polar or diffuse according as they are restricted to
one end of the cell or occur on any part of it. Polar flagella vary in
number from one to several, and this number is characteristic for dif.
ferent species, except when the cells are dividing polar flagella are al-
ways at one end. The flagella of the bacteria are neither threads of
protoplasm which can be thrust out and drawn back, nor dead append-
ages of the membrane moved by the protoplast. The substance of the
flagellum possesses a life of its own, and the power of swelling and self-
contractility. With the protoplast, of which they are a part, the fla-
gella appear to be only loosely connected, yet the little protoplasmic
remnant which in plasmolysis often remains attached to the base of the
flagellum, and sometimes connects it with the shrunken protoplast is
certainly to be regarded as a sign of such morphological union. In
connection with the physiological diagnosis of the bacteria a morpho-
logical basis for classification is to be sought, and this the author thinks
he has found for the rod-shaped bacteria in the number and position of
the flagella and the shape of the spore-bearing cells. The author's
classification is probably a step in the right direction, and will certainly
lead to renewed efforts to determine the number and position of the
flagella on a great variety of microérganisms, but, in the present state
of our ignorance, it cannot be considered anything more than tentative.
It ought not to be adopted until it has been tried thoroughly to see

850 The American Naturalist. [September,

whether it has in it the elements of permanency. It is novel to say the
least to find numerous genera established on purely theoretical grounds
with no known forms to put into them. In Dr. Fischer’s classification
the bacteria are divided into two orders: The Haplobacteriacez, or
single celled bacteria, and the Trichobacteriaces, or thread-form bac-
teria (Cladothriz, etc.). The former multiply by slight elongation and
cross-septation, the cells separating or remaininy attached in small num-
bers. The latter consist of long cells, branched or unbranched, which
finally break up into conidia or motile segments. The Haplobacteri-
aceze consist of Coccaceze, Bacillacez, and Spirillaceze. The author’s
classification of the more difficult group is as follows:

FAMILY BAcCILLACE.

Vegetative body one-celled, straight, with a distinct longitudinal
axis, varying from short ellipsoidal to elongated rod ferm. Division
always at right angles to the longitudinal axis; motile or non-motile;
occuring singly or in chains; bearing endospores or arthrospores.

1. Sus-Famiry BACILLEI.

Non-motile, destitute of flagella.
(a) With endospores.
(1). Bacillus (Cohn). Spore-bearing rods cylindrical.
(2). Paracloster (nov. gen.)* Spore-bearing rods fusiform.
(3). Paraplectrum (nov. gen.)* | Spore-bearing rods clavate.
(b. Without endospores, with arthrospores).
(4). Arthrobacter (De Bary).*

2, Sus-FaAMILY BACTRINEI.

Motile, with a single polar flagellum.

(1). Bactrinium (nov. gen.) Spore-bearing rods cylindrical.
(2). Clostrinium (nov. gen.)* Spore-bearing rods fusiform.
(3). Plectrinium (nov. gen.)*? Spore-bearing rods clavate.
(4). Arthrobactrinium(nov, gen.)* With arthrospores.

(5). Chromatium. Red sulphur bacteria.

3. Sus-Faminy BACTRILLEI.
Motile rods with a tuft of polar flagella.

(1). Bactrillum (nov. gen.) Spore-bearing rods cylindrical.
(2). Clostrillum (nov. gen.)* Spore-bearing rods fusiform.

1895.] Vegetable Physiology. 851

(3). Plectrillum (nov. gen.)* Spore-bearing rods clavate.
(4). Arthrobactrillum (nov. gen.)* With arthrospores.

Sup-FamiLy BAcTRIDEI.

Motile, with diffuse flagella.

(1). Bactridium (nov. gen.) Spore-bearing rods cylindrical.
(2). Clostridium(Prazm. pro. parte.) Spore-bearing rods fusiform.
(3). Plectridium (nov. gen.) Spore-bearing rods clavate.

(4). Diplectridium (nov. gen.) Spore-bearing rods dumb-bell shape.
(5). Arthrobactridium (nov. gen.)* With arthrospores.

According to the author, 8 or nearly one-half of these so-called genera
are founded on purely theoretical considerations, while there is some
doubt as to whether there are any known species to go into two others.
These pseudogenera are here indicated by asterisks.

—Erwin F. SMITH.

The Mushroom Gardens of South American Ants.—Ever
since the appearance of that wonderfully interesting book, The Natu-
ralist in Nicaragua, it has seemed probable that the leaf-cutting ants
do actually grow fungi for food, and use the countless thousands of leaf
fragments which they drag into their nests for the same purpose that a
gardener uses dung. Belt ascertained that the leaves were never used
for food, found the fungus in every nest, observed the solicitude of the
ants when it was disturbed, and in various particulars carried his in-
quiry as far as it was possible to do by simple observation. It remained
for Alfred Möller, a young German, the nephew of Dr. Fritz Müller,
and the pupil of Dr. Oscar Brefeld, not only to confirm Belt’s surmise
by close observation and exact experiment, but also to add greatly to
our knowledge of the habits of these curious little gardeners and of the
nature of the fungi they cultivate. These observations and experi-
ments are embodied in Die Pilzgärten einiger südamerikanischer
Ameisen (pp. VI, 127, Figs. 4, Pl. VII), which forms the 6th part of
Professor Schimper’s Botanischen Mittheilungen aus den Tropen, Jena,
1893. Möller’s observations were made at Blumenau, Brazil, where
he remained two years. The journey was made under the auspices of
the Royal Academy of Sciences, of Berlin, whose wisdom in making
this expenditure of a few thousand marks has certainly been more than
justified by the outcome. During the course of the investigation sev-
eral hundred ant nests were examined, these ants belonging to three
genera, viz.: Atta (4 sp.); Apterostigma (3 sp.), and Cyphomyrmex (2
sp.) All are zealous cultivators and eaters of fungi, but the ants of

852 The American Naturalist. [September,

each genus grow a different sort, one kind only, and stubbornly refuse
to eat any other, preferring to starve. More curious still, under the
zealous attention of these little gardeners a special form of the fungus
has been developed in much the same way that human selection has de-
veloped choice cabbages and cauliflowers out of what were originally
quite ordinary sorts. This form of the fungus consists of groups of
swollen hyphe-ends, called Kohlrabi tufts. The greater part of the
book deals with the fungous gardens of species of the genus Atta. The
garden occupies the center of each nest as a loose, sponge-like mass,
consisting of leaf-fragments held together by fungous threads. These
gardens are often of large size, but between them and the walls of the
nest there is always an open space. In the sponge-like cavities of these
gardens the ants live, place their eggs, and rear their young. Often
the eggs and sometimes the larve are overgrown and fastened together
by the fungus, so that many as a hundred eggs may be seized and car-
ried away by a single ant without inconvenience. The well known
care that ants bestow on their progeny makes it certain that this plac-
ing the eggs in groups and allowing them to be bound together by the
fungus is not simply accidental. When the nest is broken open and its
contents scattered, or when the colony migrates, every tiny fragment of
the fungous garden is gathered up and removed as carefully, and with
as much solicitude as are the young. These fragments are rapidly and
skillfully built into a new garden in the old nest or in some other place.
Leaves are cut from a great many sorts of plants and often in such
quantities as to entirely defoliate them, but are never eaten even to pre-
vent starvation. Their sole food is the fungus which they cultivate,
éven fruits and starchy foods being used exclusively as a substratum
for growing this much-beloved fungus. The leaf fragments brought
into the nest are bitten and trimmed into smaller pieces and these are
squeezed and kneeded into tiny pellets which are then carefully patted
into the walls of the garden, and are overgrown by the fungus in a few
hours. Exhausted fragments are thrown out and fresh pellets put in
wherever needed by the fungus. Old worn-out masses of mycelium are
also thrown out of the nest. Upon a special class of the colony, dis-
tinguished from the leaf cutters by their smaller size, devolves the task
of weeding the garden and keeping it pruned within bounds. When
neglected for a single day, i. e., by the removal of most or all of the
ants, innumerable fungous threads shoot out into the air in every di-
rection, and the well-kept garden soon becomes an unmanagable and
uninhabitable thicket. When only a few ants are left in such a nest they
work desparately, night and day, to keep it in order, but seem to know

1895.] Vegetable Physiology. 853

that something is wrong, and are finally driven out by the too luxuriant
growth of their own culture plant, being compelled to seize their young
and flee for very life in a comical way. Most remarkable of all,
especially to one who has busied himself much with trying to make and
keep pure cultures of various fungi, is the ability of these ants to keep
their gardens free from bacteria and all sorts of intruding fungi. Cul-
tures made from various parts of a great many gardens showed conclu-
sively that in an overwhelming proportion of cases these gardens are
pure cultures of a single fungus. Unquestionably the ants must be con-
stantly busy with the destruction and removal of intruding organisms.
The Kohlrabi, or specially developed bunches of swollen hyphæ ends,
occur as minute glistening rounded specks on all parts of the garden
and are eagerly devoured by the ants. Unswollen, long mycelial threads
push out into the air from all parts of the garden as soon as the ants
are removed, and finally bear two kinds of conidial fruits, but nothing
of the sort occurs while the ants are in undisturbed possession, and it
is pretty certain that they must keep these undesirable shoots in check
by constant biting, although this was not observed. The two kinds of
conidial fruits were also obtained from artificial cultures under special
conditions. In rare cases (only 4 were observed) the fungous garden
pushes up through the top of the nest and fruits in the open air, this
form of fructification being a large, flecked, wine-red, Amanita-like
Agaricus, named by the author Rozites gongylophora, and never found
except on the ant nests, rooted in the fungous garden. Pure cultures
in great numbers and numerous microscopic observations proved beyond
reasonable doubt that the swollen hyphæ, and the various kinds of
fructification belong to one and the same fungus, and establish for the
first time the existence of true conidia in the Agaricineæ. The ants of
the other two genera, while equally diligent cultivators of fungi, build
much smaller nests and are not leaf cutters, but use fragments of wood,
dung, etc., as a substratum for their gardens. The fungi cultivated by
them are believed to be hymenomycetous, but each genus has a differ-
ent species. The different species of these ants vary in ability as gard-
eners. The facts set forth in this book were derived from prolonged
examination of the ants in the open and in captivity, and by hundreds
of patient and painstaking cultures and microscopic studies, and appear
to be worthy of full credence. Mr. Moller’s persistent and painstaking
method of work is especially commendable to those over-ambitious
young men who are content to look into the a ot one day and
publish the next.

854 The American Naturalist. [September,

Norr. Since this was written Mr. W. T. Swingle has discovered
that our own Atta tardigrada has the same habits as its South Ameri-
can relatives, Several fungous gardens have been taken from nests
near Washington, and the writer has seen beautiful Kohlrobi tufts
growing on the dung of leaf-eating insects. Erwin F. SMITH.

ZOOLOGY.

Irish Fresh-Water Sponges.—In a recent number of the Irish
Naturalist (Vol. iv, pp. 122-131), Dr. R. Hanitsch enumerates six
species of Spongillidæ from Ireland, the “ British fauna ” containing but
four species. Three of these occur in Ireland, the other three sponges,
all from the west coast of the latter country, being also North A meri-
can species. Dr. Hanitsch would not solve this interesting distribu-
tional problem by supposing a former extension of the sponges over
the whole northern hemisphere; he believes that their gemmules could
readily have been carried across the Atlantic by winds, ocean currents,
or birds. In some remarks on the European distribution of the Spon-
gillide, Dr. Hanitsch notices their extreme rarity in southern Europe.
Only one species is known from the Iberian peninsula (N. Portugal),
two from the Italian, while none at all have been found in the Balkan.
(Natural Science, July, 1895.)

Reproduction of the Edible Crab.—Through the observations
of Mr. Gregg Wilson, some new facts have been brought to light con-
cerning reproduction in the edible crab (Cancer pagurus) of the North-
umberland coast, England. Crabs that have recently cast their shells
have pale ovaries that show no development of ova to the naked eye.
Hard crabs have brilliant orange or scarlet ovaries, with ova distinctly
visible. Both lots are taken in the catch from October to February.
Spawning seems to take place only every second year of the crab’s life.
At no time were ova undergoing segmentation found within the crab,
so that the old idea that fertilization is internal must be abandoned.
Milt is undoubtedly passed by the male crab into the body of the fe-
male, but it does not affect the roe before extrusion. It is received in
flask-shaped receptacula seminis, that open off the oviducts quite near
the genital apertures. They are well-valved and seem to retain the
motionless spermatozoa for long periods. Spawning was noticed to

1895.] Zoology. 855

take place during November, December and January. The author is
inclined to think that there is a migration connected with either the
spawning act or the hatching out of the ova. The mature female crab
is usually 64 inches in size, while males, are mature when much smaller.
(Proceeds. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, Vol. XX).

The Odonata of Lower California.—Various collections of
Dragon-flies from Baja California have been acquired from time to
time by the California Academy of Sciences, and these form the basis
for a memoir recently published by Dr. Philip P. Calvert. The total
number of specimens examined is 2600, representing 40 species, of which
6 are new. Of these species, 9 are distributed over a considerable part
of temperate America; 18 are neotropical, and 18 nearctic in distribu-
tion, while 3 of the species described as new are, according to present
knowledge, restricted to Lower California. One of the objects of the
paper is to determine the amount of variation in structural details, es-
pecially in the venation of the wings, assumed to be of generic charac-
ter. These variations are to be found under the respective species.

Three page plates, containing 125 figures, accompany the descriptions
of the species. (Proceeds. Cal. Acad. Sci. (2) IV).

Baur on the Temporal Part of the Skull,’ and on the Mor-
phology of the Skull in the Mosasauridae.’—In the first paper
Dr. Baur reviews the work which he has done in the difficult analysis of
the temporal region of the reptilian skull, in former years, and what
has been done since by other authors. His results may be summed up
as follows. The question relates principally to the determination of
the three elements that connect the quadrate bone with the skull su-
periorly and anteriorly. These have usually, says Baur, been termed
the squamosal, supratemporal, and quadratojugal. He adopts this no-
menclature for the first and third, but wishes to replace the second by
“prosquamosal”’ of Owen. This is because the name supratemporal
was used previously for a different element peculiar to the Teleosto-
mous fishes. The present reviewer has called the three bones in ques-
tion, the parooapital, ald ta acre and sJgomane, after earlier au-
shoes Baur t which he,with some other authors
calls the squamosal, is not homologous with the paroccipital of the tor-
toises and Ichthyosaurs, as I have supposed. He agrees with those au-

' Remarkungen ueber Die Osteologie der Schliifengegend der höheren Wirbel-
thiere. Anatomischer Anzeiger, X, 1894, p. 316.
? The American Journal of Morphology 1894, p. 1.

856 The American Naturalist. [September,

thors who think that the paroccipital of the Squamata, Crocodilia, etc.,
is fused with, and undistinguishable, in the adult skull, from the exoc-
cipital. As proof that this is the case, he cites the opinion of various
authors, and especially that of Hallmann, who, he alleges, demonstrated
this to be the fact in 1837. On this essential point it may be remarked,
first, that most of the authors cited have simply supposed this to be
the case without making any attempt to demonstrate it. Second,
although I have repeatedly examined crania of lizards from the
first appearance of ossification, I have never observed a distinct
center in the position of the paroccipital of tortoises and which Hall-
mann and others regard as the representative of that bone; nor have
I observed it in the Crocodilia. W. H. Parker has not seen it, nor
does Baur say he has done so. After having announced his dis-
covery of it in Sphenodon, he afterwards changed his mind and con-
cluded that he had been misled by appearances. Until the presence of
such an element in the Squamata is demonstrated, I must continue to
regard the element called by Baur in that order, the squamosal, as the
paroccipital. In the Mosasauroids the element has more nearly the
position of the paroccipital of tortoises than in any other of the Squa-
mata. I may say that I have not been able to see Hallmann’s mem-
oir, and that [ am entirely open to conviction when the evidence shall
be produced, though I suspect that it will not be forthcoming.

In stating his disagreement with my conclusion on this point, the au-
thor does not make it clear that he has come to agree with me in two
points on which we formerly differed. Thus he now agrees with my
view of 1871, that the single postorbital bar of the Lacertilia is homol-
ogous with the superior bar of Sphenodon, and not the inferior, as he
has recently maintained, though he at one time agreed with me. He
also agrees that the suspensorium of the quadrate of the Ophidia is the
paroccipital (squamosal Baur), and not the supratemporal (prosqua-
mosal Baur); an opinion in which I have been alone hitherto.

If the element which I have identified with the paroccipital in the
Squamata, is not that element, it is not thereby proven that it is iden-
tical with the squamosal of the Mammalia. Moreover it cannot be ho-
mologous with the element in the Ichthyosauria, Cotylosauria and
Stegocephalia with which Baur identifies it, since it is a brain-case
bone, while the latter is a temporal roof-bone,a fundamental differ-
ence. For this reason I have called the latter the supramastoid. (See
my paper on the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,
1892, p. 11). :

1895.] Zoology. 857

The student who desires to become acquainted with the opinions of
authors on the points involved, cannot do better than consult Dr.
Baur’s paper. His references to the literature are full, and his method
in this respect is a model worthy of imitation.

Having seen that Dr. Baur now agrees with me that the bone which
supports the quadrate in the Ophidia is not the supratemporal (pro-
squamosal) I will take up his older, but above last-mentioned paper on
the Pythonomorpha. Like Owen, Marsh and Dollo, he does not per-
ceive that this group is essentially distinct from the Lacertilia, and
concludes with them that I have erred in alleging it to present affini-
ties to the Ophidia. He places it in the order Lacertilia and in close
proximity to the Varanide as did Cuvier.

In order to determine this matter, it is necessary to know, in the
first place, what the characters are that distinguish snakes from lizards.
The superficial characters given by systematic writers generally as dis-
tinguishing the Lacertilia and Ophidia, are quite insufficient for that
purpose. Johannes Miiller’ first placed the distinction on a sound
basis by showing that in the Ophidia the frontal and parietal bones
descend to the basicranial axis as in no other vertebrates, thus closing
the brain case in front, while in the Lacertilia this does not occur,
and as the ali- and orbitosphenoid bones are rudimental or wanting,
the brain case is without osseous wallin front, Some lizards present a
distinct approximation to the Ophidian type in the strong decurvature
of the parietal bones at the sides: these are the Annulati and the Anni-
elloidea. These groups display a similar approximation in the continu-
ous sutural union of the occipital and parietal elements, a condition
universal in Ophidia, and rare in Lacertilia.

I have pointed out’ another distinction between the two divisions,
viz., that the supratemporal (* squamosal,” ‘ prosquamosal ”) is pres-
ent in the Lacertilia and absent in the Ophidia. As it is, however,
absent in the Annielloidea and Amphisbenia, I have not included
it in the definition of the former suborder. This definition has not
been adopted by those authors who erroneously regard the suspensor-
ium of the quadrate bone in the Ophidia as identical with the supra-
temporal of the lizards, but my view has now received the assent of
various anatomists, as e. g., Prof. Baur.

A third distinction is that the quadrate bone is supported by the
paroccipital in the snakes, and the exoccipital in the lizards. Baur

! In Tiedmann u Treviranus Zeitschrift f, Phisiologie, IV, 233

? Proceeds. Amer. Assoc. Ady. Sci., 1871, p. 221; Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc.,
xiv, 1869, p. 29.

858 The American Naturalist. [September,

and some others do not, however, agree that the suspensorium in the
snakes is the paroccipital, but call it squamosal and other names. I
was led to identify it with the former element of the Testudinata, etc.,
by a consideration of its structure in the Pythonomorpha,’ where it is
much more largely developed than in the Lacertilia, and where it sup-
ports the quadrate bone as in the Ophidia. The accompanying fig-
ures make this more clear, The paroccipital bone is received deeply
between the exoccipital and the petrosal in the Pythonomorpha in the
same manner as in the Tortricine snakes: a structure which does not
occur in the Lacertilia. This structure is somewhat masked in some
genera of Pythonomorpha by the extension of the exoccipital over the
paroccipital as a thin lamina on the posterior side ; in that case its true
relation to the petrosal can be seen on the anterior side, In the Lacer-
tilia the quadrate merely touches the paroccipital bone, whose distal end
has a convex surface (Figs. 1, 1a), but it articulates with the exoccipital
bone. This it never does in the Ophidia and Pythonomorpha. This isa
fundamental difference between Lacertilia and Pythonomorpha to be
added to those which I have already given.

For this reason, and in view of the various important differences from
the Varani, it is necessary to believe that the Pythonomorpha form a
line distinct from the Lacertilia, and that their resemblances to the
Varani are the result of a parallel evolution rather than an indication
of near affinity.

The failure of Cuvier, Owen, Dollo, Baur and Marsh to perceive
this fact is due to their want of information as to what the differences
between the Ophidia and Lacertilia really are.

From this point of view the Ophidia and Pythonomorpha must be
traced to some type in which the paroccipital bone is less remote from
the brain case than is seen in the Lacertilia, where it has become a
mere rudiment. Such a phylogeny could be expressed as follows. An
investigation of ths Dolichosauria of the Cretaceous might yield inter-
esting results.

Lacertilia Pythonomorpha Ophidia

Sp
tin oe

Common ancestor with ambulatory
limbs and sessile paroccipital.

3L. c., and the Cretaceous Vertebrata of the West, U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs,
Vol. II, 1875.

‘pyouonhy mpyday fo mosuadsny

TXXX ALVId

1895.] Zoology. 859

The characters of the three suborders of the Squamata are then as
follows:

Quadrate bone articulating with exoccipital; paroccipital external to
bones of brain case ; parietal bones not closing the brain case in front ;
generally an epipterygoid and sternum; teeth with dentinal roots;
phalanges with condyles ; Lacertilia.

Quadrate bone articulating with paroccipital, which is embraced by
bones of brain case; parietal bones not closing brain case in front ;
epipterygoid and sternum present ; teeth with osseous roots; phalanges
truncate ; honomorpha.

Quadrate bone articulating with paroccipital ; parietal and frontal
bones closing brain case in front; no epipterygoid or sternum; teeth
rootless; no phalanges ; hidia,

I cannot agree with Boulenger that the Chameleontide represent a
division of equal rank with these three, as most of the characters may
be found in one Lacertilian or another, and the group isin many ways
related to the Agamide of the Pachygloss division. For me it repre-
sents a superfamily for which the name Rhiptoglossa is available.—E.
D. Corr.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Views of suspensoria of quadrate bone of Squamata. 1. Varanus
griseus from above; b, from below and forwards. 2. Mosasaurus de-
kayi from above; b, from below. 3. Ilysia scytale from above; b,

from below. SỌ, supraoccipital ; E O, exoccipital; PaO, paroccipi-
tal; Pe, petrosal; P, parietal; B O, basioccipital ; Sp, sphenoid. The
dotted surfaces represent the articular surface for the quadrate.

A New Xantusia.—A specimen sent me by Dr. J. J. Rivers of
Berkeley, Cal., taken at Tejon Pass California, indicates a new and
handsome species of Xantusia. It is allied to the Zablepsis henshavii
of Stjeneger (see last number of the Naturauist where the genera of
Xantusiidae are defined), but differs in generic characters. It has longer
limbs and a longer tail than in either of the Xantusie known. The
hind leg extended forwards, reaches the shoulder, and the tail is twice
the length of the body. There is but one row of superciliary scales,
and there is but one frontoparietal on each side. Seven superior
labials, not separated by scales from orbit. Four inferior labials, the
fourth separated from the third by the large third infralabial, which
reaches the lip border. Fourteen to sixteen longitudinal rows on the
belly. Ten femoral pores. Color above light reddish-brown, marked

860 The American Naturalist. [September,

with two or three rows of large maron spots. Head above maron,
the plates pate bordered. Inferior surfaces pale reddish-yellow.
Dength 124 mm. ; of head and body, 51 mm.

This species is nearer to the X. vigilis than to the X. riversiana, but
differs greatly in its proportions, and in numerous details of scutellation
and in coloration. It is nearer to the Zablepsis henshavii Stjen., but
besides the generic characters, that species has a shorter hind leg, a
continuous series of lower labials, and a different coloration.—E. D.
Cope.

Bats of Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia.—
During the past two or three years several small collections of bats,
numbering in all 12 specimens, have been sent me from the Queen
Charlotte Islands. They were obtained at a place called Massett, at
the north end of Graham Island, by the Rev. J. H. Keen, and were
transmitted through the courtesy of Mr. James Fletcher, of Ottawa.
All of these bats belong to the genus Vespertilio. They represent three
very distinct specific or superspecific types, namely V. subulatus, V. lu-
cifugus and V. nitidus. In each case the specimens differ in color from
the typical form, being decidedly blackish instead of brownish. The
ears, feet and membranes, are nearly black, and the color of the fur is
very dark.

The Queen Charlotte Islands representative of V. lucifugus differs
further from the typical form (from the eastern United States) in hav- |
ing decidedly larger feet and in the form of the ear conch, which is less
emarginate posteriorily. It may be worthy of subspecific recognition.

The representative of the big-eared V. subulatus is so different from
the eastern animal that I am forced to describe it as new, and in so
doing it gives me pleasure to associate with it the name of its collector,
the Rev. J. H. Keen. It may be known by the following description :

Vespertilio subulatus keenii subsp. nov.—Type from Massett,
Queen Charlotte Islands, B. C.

Type No. 72922 9 ad. U. S. National Museum, Department of Ag-
riculture Collection. Collected by Rev. J. H. Keen, in summer of
1894.

General characters —Similar to V. subulatus, but with shorter, nar-
rower wings, and larger ears; color blackish instead of brownish. Ears,
feet, and membranes black except the under surfaces of the wing bones,
leg bones, and tail vertebræ, which parts are flesh colored. Fur, black-
ish, slightly washed,with brownish. Ears very long: laid forward they

1895.] Zoology. 861

project 3 mm. beyond the nose. Tragus long, slender, and slightly
arcuate. Wings attached to feet near base of toes.

Measurements (from alcoholic type (9 ad.) in good condition).—
Total length, 82 mm.; head and body, 42; tail, 41; head, 17.5; ear
from inner basal angle, 16 ; tragus from inner attachment, 8 ; humerus;
23; forearm, 35.5; thumb, 7; third finger, 57; fifth finger, 46; tibia,
17; foot, 8. C. Harr Merriam.

Migrations of the Lemming.—A valuable account of “ Myodes
lemmus, its Habits and Migrations in Norway,” has been published
by Prof. R. Collett, of Christiania. The nature and habits of the lem.
ming are described, and their suicidal migrations discussed on a basis
of the author’s personal knowledge of the lemming. The migrations
seem to be due to over-population. During certain years an abnormal
fecundity takes place among these creatures, and the consequences of
this multiplication is given by the author as follows :

“The enormous multitudes require increased space, and the individ-
uals, which, under normal conditions, have each an excessively large
tract at their disposal, cannot, on account of their disposition, bear the
unaccustomed proximity of the numerous neighbors. Involuntarily
the individuals are pressed out to the sides until the edge of the moun-
tain is reached. In a short time they enjoy themselves there, and the
old individuals willingly breed in the upper region of the forests, when,
at other times, they are entirely wanting. New swarms, however, fol-
low on; they could not return, but the journey proceeds onwards down
the sides of the mountains, and when they once reach the valleys they
meet with localities which are quite foreign to them. They then con-
tinue blindly on, endeavoring to find a home corresponding to that
they left, but which they never regain. The migratory individuals
proceed helplessly on to certain death. The writer thinks it probable
that the wandering instinct developed in migratory years is of distinct
service to the species in reducing surplus population.

The Brain of Microcephalic Idiots.—A paper embodying the
results of a thorough examination of the brains and skulls of two typ-
ical microcephals, by Prof. D. J. Cunningham and Dr. Telford-Smith,
has just been published in the Transactions of the Royal Dublin So-
ciety. The authors accept the view arrived at by Sir George Humph-
rey, from the examination of microcephalic and macrocephalic skulls,
viz.: “ There is nothing in the specimens to suggest that the deficiency
in the development of the skull was the leading feature in the deform-
ity, and that the smallness of the bony cerebral envelop exerted a com.

862 The American Naturalist. [September,

pressing or dwarfing influence on the brain, or anything to give en-
couragement to the practice lately adopted in some instances of removal
of a part of the bony case, with the idea of affording more space and
freedom for the growth of the brain. In these, as in other cases of man
and the lower animals, the brain-growth is the determining factor, and
the skull grows upon and accommodates itself to the brain, whether
the latter be large or small.” (Nature, 1895.)

Zoological News, Birds—During the recent visit of Messrs. Brew-
ster and Chapman to the island of Trinidad, the observations of Mr.
Chapman on the song habit of the Rachette Hummingbird (Pygmornis
longuemareus) were confirmed by the discovery of a locality to which the
birds evidently came to sing. This resort was frequented also by Phae-
thornis guyi for the same purpose. The latter, while singing, spreads
the tail feathers to the fullest extent, pointing them forward over the
back until the tips of the long central feathers nearly touch the back
of the head. The effect is most striking, the birds suggesting diminu-
tive turkey-cocks. All the specimens killed at these haunts were males.
(The Auk, XII, 1895). .

The family name of Macropterygide is proposed for the Tree-Swifts
of Malaysia, by Mr. F. A. Lucas, instead of Dendrochelidonidae, which
is preoccupied. To the differential characters described in a previous
paper, the author adds the following three important ones;

Micropodidae. Macropterygidae.
Hypsotarsus, simply grooved, with an tendinal foramen.
Shoulder-muscles, strictly Cypseline, Passerine.
Deep Plantars, strictly Cypseline, characteristic.

The author states that the differences between the Macropterygidae
and other Swifts are as great as those existing between any two fami-
lies of Passerines with which he is acquainted. (The Auk, Vol. XII,
1895).

ENTOMOLOGY:

Chordeumidz or Craspedosomatidz ?—This family of Diplo-
a has been classified by different authors under the Iulidæ, Poly-

t Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

1895.] Entomology. 863

desmidz and Lysiopetalidx,’ but if we acknowledge its distinctness a
choice is still necessary between the names mentioned in the heading.

The weight of more recent usage is clearly on the side of “ Chordeu-
mide,” indeed this name seems to have been almost exclusively em-
ployed since it was taken up by Latzel in his great work on the Aus-
trian Myriapoda (1884), after having been entirely disregarded since
its publication by C. L. Koch (1847). The alternative is thus between
ten years of usage or five years of priority.’ For those of us who may
have used “ Chordeumide” on the supposition that Latzel must have
had some good reason for neglecting an earlier name, it may save the
trouble of reference to a comparatively rare book to state that in Gray’s
arrangement “Fam. 2 Craspedosomide” includes the four genera
Craspedosoma Leach, Cylindrosoma Gray, Reasia Gray, and Cambala
Gray,in the order named. Evidently the author did not base his
family on characters now recognized as important, but no more did
Koch, who included in “ Chordeumide” Campodes and Callipus, mem-
bers respectively of the Iulide and Lysiopetalide.

It would seem that there was less warrant for Latzel’s course from
the fact that Humbert and Saussure had recognized and described® the
family “ Craspedosomide,” though still including the Lysiopetalide as
one of two tribes or sub-families ; indeed, it is entirely possible that the
preference for“ Chordeumide ” was merely on the ground of brevity.
There is, at least, ample justification for such a supposition in the fact
that Latzel had previously changed the names of the families Pauro-
podide and Eurypauropodide, alleging as a reason the similarity of
the former with the ordinal name Pauropoda, and the “ horrible diffi-
culty of pronunciation” of the latter. Priority aside, these reasons
seem hardly sufficient to justify such family names as “ Pauwropoda
agilia ” and “ Pauropoda tardigrada,” which Latzel offers as substitutes.
But even if the improvement had been more marked there must still

? Tulide : Leach, Berlese.

Polydesmidæ; Newport, Gervais, Porat, Meinert.

Lysiopetalidæ: Wood, Cope, Harger, Ryder, Packard.

3 System der Myriapoden, pp. 49 and 119

*The family “ Craspedosomade ” was published by J. E. Gray in the article on
Myriapoda by T. Rymer Jones, in Todd’s Cyc. Anat. and Physiol., III, p. 546
(1842). The author of the article specifically states that the arrangement of the
Myriapoda there proposed was the work of Gray, published from his manuscripts
and with his consent. Hence there is no apparent reason for citing the authority
of Jones as Latzel and others have done.

> Rev. et. mag. d. Zool. 2d series, XXI, p. 153 (1869).

Mission Scient. au Mexique, Zool. VI, 2, p. 56 (1872).

59

864 The American Naturalist. [September,

be grave doubts of the advisability of changing family names whenever
more brief or euphonious substitutes are offered. True, the winding
polysyllables seem a useless infliction, and doubtless frighten many
short-breathed people away from scientific study ; but if there had been
no dodging on “ Craspedosomatidae,” it might have stood as a warning
which should have saved us such names as Paradoxosomatide, Archi-
spirostreptus, and Pseudonannolenide. These are longer than the pre-
Linnean descriptions, and may further endanger the popularity of the
binomial system, already threatened in other ways.

Let us hope that before the nomenclatorial agitation entirely sub-
sides, we may have a rule limiting scientific names to reasonable length.
Their authors might then have the time and strength to make a service-
able description, possibly a plate! If this suggestion is not received
favorably by the “ cloth” it will be quite easy to secure enough “lay”
votes to pass it by large majority. —O. F. CooK.

On the Generic Names Strigamia, Linotænia and Scolio-
planes.—The genus Strigamia, was proposed by Gray, in 1842, in the
article by T. Rymer Jones, in Todd’s Cyclopeedia, as cited in the pre-
ceding note. The description is as follows:

“ Gen. H. Strigamia ( Geophilus). Eyes none, antenne 14-jointed,
moniliform, rather elongate. Body linear, depressed. Feet, fifty pairs
or more.”

It is significant that Strigamia stands as the fourth genus of the Sco-
lopendridæ, the other three being Lithobius, Scolopendra and Cryp-
tops. The most natural inference from the above quotation is that
Gray for some reason preferred Strigamia to Geophilus. This seems to
have been Latzel’s idea, for he places Strigamia Gray, as a doubtful
synonym under Geophilus. Whatever may have been the intention of
Gray, however, there would seem to be an insurmountable obstacle to
the use of his name, in the fact that he published no species under it,
the case not being parallel with that of Fontaria. Neither is there any
mention of a species of Strigamia in what purport to be complete lists
of the Chilopoda of the British Museum. Indeed, in the list of 1856,
in the preparation of which Gray himself assisted, Strigamia appears
only as a synonym of Geophilus! It should have rested quietly there,
but names were too scarce, and so Strigamia was again brought out by
Wood, in 1865, and applied to Geophilus Newport, not Leach, The
type of Geophilus Leach, is carpophagus, but this species had been se-
questrated by Newport and put into a new genus, Arthronomalus, leav-
ing Geophilus as the name of another genus whose type was acuminatus,

1895.] Entomology. 865

Leach. Thus Wood’s proposition was to assign to Strigamia a type
species acuminatus, and Latzel is in error in citing Strigamia Wood, as
a synonym of Geophilus. If we allow that aborted names and syno-
nyms can be thus resuscitated, Strigamia Wood, must have stood as a
valid genus had it not been for the fact that ©. L. Koch had in 1847
established the genus Linotænia on Geophilus crassipes. C. L. Koch, a
congener of acuminatus, so that Strigamia Wood is a synonym of Lino-
tænia C. L. Koc

Neglecting the claims of Linotænia, Bergsoe and Meinert, in 1866,
described Scolioplanes on Geophilus maritimus Leach, also congeneric
with acuminatus and crassipes. The only ground on which Scolioplanes
could be considered valid is that Linotænia as described by Koch was
not a natural group, but this criticism would destroy a large majority
of the older genera. It may be that the establishment of Scolioplanes
was wise at the time, for the identities and relationships of even the
European Geophilide were uncertain. At present, however, the
European authors seem to be agreed that acuminatus, crassipes and mar-
itimus are members of one genus, and while this view is held it would
seem that the genus must stand as Linotznia C. L. Koch, with Scolio-
planes Bergsoe, and Meinert as synonym.

Still another complication has been introduced by Sseliwanoff.® He
uses Scolioplanes Bergsoe and Meinert, but recognizes Strigamia Gray
as distinct, describing it at length and giving figures of Strigamia par-
viceps Wood, from California, also placing Strigamia Wood as a syno-
nym of Strigamia Gray. To judge by the descriptions and diagrams
of Meinert, Latzel and Daday, the European species as represented by
crassipes are to be distinguished from parviceps by apparently good gen-
eric characters. That the American forms which have been referred
to Strigamia, Scolioplanes and Linotenia are all congeneric is improb-
able, but Sseliwanoff has assumed the responsibility of separating par-
viceps and its allies from Linotænia (Seolioplanes), and his distinctions
should not be ignored, even if Strigamia is no longer available as a
generic name.

Dissections of Strigamia bothriopus Wood, S. chionophila Wood, and
S. parviceps Wood, show that the mouth-parts of all three are very much
alike, and that they differ from Linotænia in having the labial sternum
divided, and the labial palpus two-jointed, the basal joint with a pro-
cess, as in Sseliwanoff’s figure of parviceps. Hence it seems probable
that the other American species are more likely to be related to a genus

ê Geophilidæ museja imperatorskoi Akademii Nauk, p. 12 (1881). T. I, figs.
1-8. i ;

866 The American Naturalist. [September,

founded on parviceps than to the European genus Linotznia.

It is proposed, then, to end, if possible, the confusion which has long
attended the use of these generic names by the following arrangement
of synonomy :

Genus Geophilus Leach (1814), type carpophagus Leach.

Syn. Strigamia Gray (1842), no type.

Syn. Arthronomalus Newp. (1844), type longicornis (Leach).

Genus Linotænia C. L. Koch (1847), type crassipes (C. L. Koch).

Syn. Strigamia Wood (1865), type acuminatus (Leach).

Syn. Scolioplanes B. & M. (1866), type maritimus (Leach).

Genus Tomotænia nom. nov.

Syn. Strigamia Ssel. (1881), type parviceps (Wood).

The genus Linotænia is distributed over Europe and Northern Asia.
The species are: acuminatus (Leach), crassipes C. L. Koch, maritimus
(Leach), pusillus Ssel., sacolinensis (Meinert), sibiricus (Ssel.), sulcatus

e.

The genus Tomotænia, including species which must be provisionally
referred to it, is distributed over temperate North America. The genera
of Chilopoda, however, do not appear to be confined by continents, so
that a further modification of generic lines and distribution is to be ex-
pected. The species which, pending further investigation, should be
referred to Tomotenia are: bidens (Wood), bothriopus (Wood), bran-
neri (Bollman), chionophila (Wood), exsul (Meinert), fulva (Sager),
lævipes (Wood), longicornis (Meinert), maculaticeps (Wood), parviceps
(Wood), robustus (Meinert), rubra (Bollman), walheri Wood.
—0O. F. Coox.

Picobia Villosa (Hancock).—A response to Mr. E. L. Troues-
sart. In the April number of Tar American Naturaist, p: 3882-
384, I described and figured“ a new trombidian ” under the above name.
In a more recent issue of the same magazine, July, p. 682-684, Dr. E.
L. Trouessart, of Paris, takes exception to the species claiming it to be
a form of Cheyletin, already well known in Europe, not differing from
Syringophilus bipectinatus Heller. This writer has contributed some
valuable articles upon the Acarina with which I was perfectly conver-
sant at the time, notwithstanding he says I was “ not acquainted with
the modern literature on this interesting type.” Thinking it neces-
sary to mention only those papers which bore a classical relation to the
species described, these were omitted. In adopting the genus Picobia,
I was not alone, for there are others who dissent from the classification
Mr. Trouessart lays down, notable among these being Newman,’ who

' Treatise on Parasitic Diseases, p. 235, 1892.

1895.] Embryology. 867

maintains, that “ the cheyletinz, parasites of birds, comprise the genus
Cheyletus, Harporhynchus, and Picobia; and in regard to Heller’s
genus, Syringophilus, the same writer says, p. 236, “ for these Acarina
he (A. Heller) created the genus Syringophilus which evidently enters
into the genus Picobia, and he has described two species in it which
ought to be named Picobia bipectinata and P. uncinata.” The various
immature stages and the unsettled condition of this group of Acarina,
together with an almost total absence of American literature has made
it an unusually difficult field for students taking up this line of work.
However this may be, we are thankful for the timely discussion, or I
may say criticism, raised by Mr. Trouessart on my species, and the ex-
pression of his views upon a subject which he is conceded to be an emi-
nent authority. If the form Picobia villosa from the black flycatcher
is what he claims namely: The same as the European species above
mentioned, we are pleased to have the matter straightened, also the point
emphasized of the caution necessary in presenting as new, immature
stages of these Acarina, sometimes so very different from the adult,
and with shades of individual differences, even from localities as widely
separated as Europe aiid America. —Dr. J. L. Hancock.
Chicago.

EMBRYOLOGY.’

Conjugation in an American Crayfish.—The following obser-
vations upon the breeding habits of Cambarus affinis show how much
difference there is between the American crayfish and the European
form, Astacus, and serve to clear up some important structures of
hitherto unknown use.

Some specimens brought from Washington, D. C., in November,
1894, immediately united in pairs when put into a shallow vessel of
water, The same specimens and also others received in February
paired during February, March and April. About a dozen cases were
carefully observed with the following results:

In captivity the entire process of conjugation lasts from two to ten
hours and may be repeated by either animal with some other.

1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and
preliminary notes may be sent.

868 The American Naturalist. [September,

When a male is put into a vessel with a female he seems ere long to
become aware of the presence of the female and does not act as he does
when males only are present. The female generally retreats and may
even resist the attacks of the male, but generally this is not done with
much vigor, and very soon after being seized by the male the female
passes into a state of passivity, resembling death. The male advances
eagerly to the female and grasps her with his large claws, sometimes
gently. When the female struggles to escape, the male holds very
firmly by one of his claws that grasps a claw, or an antenna, or any
projecting part of the head region of the female, and eventually suc-
ceeds in turning her upon her back ; if there is no struggle, the same
result is also accomplished more directly and methodically. The male
now seizes all the claws of the female in his two large claws, three in
each on each side and holds them firmly as seen in Figs. 1 and 2. He

Fic. 1. re

moves forward over the supine female into the position shown in the
figures. This process has lasted ten to twenty minutes. It is followed
by a most unexpected move: the male stands up away from the female,
holding the claws as before, and deliberately passes one leg across under
his body so that it projects from the opposite side. He then settles
down again close to the female. The leg that is passed over is one of
the fifth, most posterior, pair of walking legs. In the figures it is the
left leg; it seems to be absent on the left side, Fig. 1, but projects
straight out and backward between the fourth and fifth on the right
side, Fig. 2. In many cases the right leg is used: in one case the leg
projected between the third and fourth instead of between the fourth
and fifth as usual.

1895.] Embryology. 869

This unusual position of the leg secures the proper position and di-
rection of the intromittent organs. These are the first and second pairs
of pleopodes, or abdominal appendages. They normally lie forward in
a horizontal groove beneath the thorax, but now they are depressed at
an angle of about 45°, and are held so by the transversely placed leg,
as may be seen from Fig. 1, which shows the white tips of the intro-

E. 2.

mittent organs of the left side. When the organs are thus held they
may accomplish their purpose, which is to transfer the sperm to the an-
nulus of the female.

As seen in Fig. 2 the abdomen of the female is bent up, and that of
the male partly surrounds it. At times the male relaxes the abdomen
and moves forward upon the female. Ultimately the two are so accu-
rately adjusted—and this is a difficult problem in two such irregular,
rigid masses with so many appendages—that the tips of the first pair
of pleopods are thrust into the annulus.

The two are now firmly united and cannot be readily separated, in
fact it was found possible to kill and preserve them in this position, and
thus obtain the photographs from which the illustrations are taken.
When thrown into actively boiling water for a moment, the crayfish
are fixed in the normal position with no observed change, and may then
be preserved indefinitely.

e firm union of the two is accomplished by the use of the hook-
like spines that characterize the male of many species of Cambarus.
In C. afnis there is one spine on the third segment, ischiopodite, of
the third walking leg on each side of the body. When the male applies
himself closely to the female, he fastens these two hooks to the base of
her fourth walking legs, on each side.

870 The American Naturalist. [September,

The hooks depress the soft membrane between the coxopodite and
basipodite on the dorsal-lateral aspect and catch firmly against the
chitinous ridge formed by the hinge-like union of the chitinous edges
of those same segments, coxopodite and basipodite. By this means the
two animals are held together against the force necessary to introduce
the male pleopods into the resistant annulus.

The animals now remain united for several hours, during which time
sperm is transferred into the annulus or seminal receptacle of the fe-
male.

The annulus is a well known descriptive character found in the fe-
males of Cambarus, but not in Astacus: hitherto its use has not been
known.

It varies in shape in different species.

In C. affinis its development varies, but in general it isa transversely
elongated, ellipsoidal, chitinous elevation on the ventral side of the
thorax between the bases of the fifth pair of walking legs. On this
raised area are smaller, more prominent rounded elevations, bounding
a transverse groove or pit. One of these is a gentle transverse ridge,
forming the posterior lips of the groove; the other two are rather prom-
inent bosses on the anterior lip of the groove.

Between these last is a longitudinal cleft on the middle line, opening
posteriorly into the transverse groove, and not straight, but curved as
it passes between the two bosses. Sections of this organ show that the
longitudinal cleft leads into a small pouch or sac that, when seen from
a dorsal view, projects upward into the body as a curved ridge. This
sac has firm walls that are of calcified chitin and presents no discov-
ered opening except the external slit. It is regarded as simply a pit-
ting in of the chitinous exoskeleton.

After conjugation has taken place the annulus of the female has pro-
jecting from its groove a small plug of whitish substance that may re-
main for many weeks,

The same material fills the cavity of the sac in the annulus. It isa
compact, paste-like substance forming a tubular sheath around a cen-
tral axis or mass of granules that on examination prove to be the pe-
culiar, radiated sperm-cells of the crayfish.

As the crayfish may be roughly handled and removed from one dish
to another during the process of conjugation there is no difficulty in
observing with a lens the means by which this sperm-plug is made. At
this period of sexual excitement the terminal part of the vas deferens of
the male is turned outward from the opening at the base of the fifth
walking leg of each side and projects horizontally as a short, bent, con-

tege Mineralogy. 871

ical nozzle or penis-like organ. This organ fits exactly into the begin-
ning of a long groove that extends along the first pleopod. The tip of
this appendage is sharp and hard and is seen to actually penetrate into
the cavity of the annulus. The sperm that issues from the vas deferens
passes along the groove of the first pleopod to its tip and so into the
annulus.

The second pleopod piays some part in the process of transfer, but
this is known only by inference, not by direct observation. It has a
peculiar triangular spoon at its end which is held applied to the first
pleopod and it also has a terminal filament that fits nicely into the
groove at the tip of the first pleopod. It may easily act to shove the
sperm masses down along the groove of the first pleopod as well as to
protect them from contact with the water and from going astray (which
rarely happens.)

Apparently both sides of the body are active in this sperm transfer,
but this is not certain.

The process of sperm transfer continues, with interruptions, for sev-
eral hours, and then the male separates from the female. He first
moves backward, and rising places the crossed leg back again into its
normal position, and then releases the female.

During the entire conjugation the male is obviously excited as is
shown by the vibrations of the anterior maxillipedes and by the very
strong current of water cast out from the gill chamber by the exhalent
apparatus. The female, on the contrary, is remarkably inert and shows
no sign of any activity even in the respiratory organs. At times there
is, however, a slight convulsive twitching of the base of the abdomen,
possibly connected with sensations during sperm transfer.

The eye-stalks were also seen to move when disturbed by the claws
of the male.

In two instances the dexterity and skill of the male were well shown
after the first stages of grasping the female had been imperfectly ac-
complished. In these cases the male mounted upon the dorsal surface
of the female and seized her claws with his, having failed to turn her
over in proper sequence. In this unusual position the male attempted
to adjust his appendages to the female and then became aware of the
fact that the conditions were unusual. The male depressed the first an-
tennz so that they were firmly applied to the dorsal surface of the
thorax of the female and bent forward by the pressure. The sensation
so obtained seemed to initiate the almost intelligent action that followed.
In one case the exopodites of the third maxillipede were also used in
feeling the female. In about ten minutes the male turned the female

872 The American Naturalist. [September,

over and assumed the usual attitude seen in the figures and then con-
_ tinued the conjugation normally.

ai accomplishing this feat the male first removed his left claw from
the left claws of the female, and seized her rostram and head region.
By this means he turned her to lie on her left side while he was on her
right. Next, the right claw let go its grasp of the female’s right claws
and seized her left claws. He was now able to turn her on the dorsal
surface, and by then changing his left claws from the rostrum to her
right claws succeeded in moving forward over her ventral surface as
normally takes place. Ten minutes later sperm was passed and conju-
gation continued for some hours.

While there can be little doubt that the sperm so elaborately trans-
ferred to the annulus is subsequently used to fertilize the eggs as they
are laid, this is, as yet, not demonstrated. One female deposited eggs
in confinement towards the end of March, but these eggs did not develop,
and part of the process was no doubt abnormal, This female wasin a
peculiarly sensitive state for four or five days prior to laying. During ~
this time any approaching object, though ordinarly causing no reaction,
would excite the female to active movements and the raising of the
claws in an aggressive attitude. During this period the female most
assiduously and diligently cleaned oft the foreign deposits from the ex-
oskeleton over the ventral surface of the abdomen and from the pleo-
pods so that this region was conspicously white.

The fifth walking legs are employed in this function, being bent back
under the abdomen and rubbed against the pleopods with an unexpected
amount of precision

During this period also the female may be found at times lying on
the side or on the back, and actively moving the pleopods back and
forth in a rhythmic way once in about one second. The endopodites
of the third maxillipedes and the chelæ and the first and second walk-
ing legs are likewise, slightly, swung back and forth.

The actual laying of the eggs took place during a night and a day.
At this time a large mass of slimy material extended like a veil from
the tip of the bent abdomen to the ventral side of the thorax anterior
to the third walking leg. Some of the eggs were enclosed in this mass
and some in a similar mass attached to the pleopods. It would seem
that the eggs could pass from the oviducts under protection of this se-
cretion to their destination on the abdominal appendages.

This mass of secreted material disappeared entirely within two days.
The eggs then remained attached to the pleopods.

1895.] Psychology. 873

The sperm-plug that was present in the annulus also disappeared a
day later than the secretion, As this crayfish was alone, it seems certain |
that she removed the sperm-plug. It remained for weeks in cases where.
eggs were not laid.

The eggs, however, seem not to have been fertilized: they gradually
fell off and burst from osmotic changes. . A, ANDREWS.

PSYCHOLOGY.’

Professor Baldwin on ‘‘ Mental Development.’’—It gives
me pleasure to insert the following note which Professor Baldwin has
recently sent me, with reference to the review of his book on “ Mental
Development in the Child and the Race,” which was printed in the
July number of the NATURALIST:

“The very cordial and appreciative review of my book on Mental
Development by Dr. Newbold in the July issue of this journal contains
one remark which a word from me may serve to throw light upon.
Dr. Newbold says that I sometimes ‘rest content with a careless and
inadequate analysis of the psychoses which are to be explained.’ This
is no doubt just, as far as the actual contents of my book are concerned,
and as far as the word ‘inadequate’ goes. But I may say that the in-
adequacy is due to the fact that I have already devoted my large
Handbook of Pyschology—especially the second volume on Feeling and
Will—to the detailed analytic treatment of the same functions which
are treated genetically in the present book. I did not feel justified in
doing that a second time. And moreover many of the analytic results
which my Mental Development assumes are, I venture to think, such
common property of psychologists to day that they are largely outside
the arena of debate: at least, whenever my developments in this book
seemed to me to turn on points in dispute, I tried not to leave the jus-
tification of them in an inadequate state. I hope it is not too much to
ask of readers that they bring their general psychology with them. It
is really not the psychology that I fear the inadequacy of as much as
the biology of the book, but however that may be, the omissions are
well-considered and not ‘ careless. ”—J. Mark BALDWIN.

1 This department is edited by Dr. Wm. Romaine Newbold, University of Penn-
sylvania.

874 The American Naturalist. [September,

In light of so explicit a disclaimer I must withdraw the objection-
able word and ascribe the omissions in part to fundamental differences
.between Professor Baldwin’s thought and my own, and in part to the
limitations of space. I need only say that after writing but before
printing the review in question I carefully reread those portions of
Professor Baldwin’s larger work which dealt with the topics I had in
mind and failed to find what I sought. And while most of us, I fancy,
bring our general psychology with us when we attempt to master a
technical treatise like Professor Baldwin’s, we do not all feel justified
in ascribing to an author doctrines which his words, taken in their
most obvious sense, would seem to exclude, however important those
doctrines seem to the reader, or however widely they are accepted by
others.— W. R. N.

«'The Psychic Factor.” By CmarLeEs Van Norpen, D.D,
LL. D.’—Tbis is a somewhat disappointing book. At the outset it
challenges interest. The author finds the justification for its appear-
ance “in the unsettled condition of the metaphysical world, in the mar-
velous strides of biological and psychological discovery, and the utter
demoralization of the old psychology,” and endeavors to cover in 217
pages the whole field of comparative and analytic psychology, with a
glance aside at supernormal and pathological phenomena. The book
is written in a vigorous and attractive style and the author betrays an
enviable command of fact and illustration. Furthermore, it is of in-
terest as being one of the earliest attempts to incorporate the tentative
results of current psychical research into a textbook on psychology.

The earlier chapters sketch in a few words some of the more inter-
esting manifestations of consciousness in lower forms of life, and trace
the evolution of the nervous system. In the second section on con-
sciousness in general, the author endeavors to escape from current
psychological conceptions and to deal with attention, with the “en-
chaining and grouping function of consciousness ” and with the influ-
ence of mental states on organic functions from a point of view more in
harmony with the newer psychology. The third section, on subcon-
sciousness, endeayors to bring the phenomena of hypnosis, secondary
personality, ete.. into line with the phenomena of normal sleep. But
telepathy and clairvoyance, although acknowledged, remain patches
on the garment of the author’s thought. His treatment of sensation
calls for no especial comment, and in his analysis of the “ cognitive
powers,” of feeling and of will, Dr. Van Norden frankly relapses into
the old psychology which he regards as so utterly demoralized.

2? New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1884.

1895.] Psychology. 875

On the whole, “The Psychic Factor” is written in a candid and
scientific spirit, yet occasionally one finds traces of the theologian and
instructor of youth which would be more in place elsewhere. We are
hardly yet in a position to say that the phenomena of telepathy make
divine inspiration “ no longer even an unlikely phenomenon;” but
“one of the most feasible and natural of religious processes.” Nor can
we point to the still more contested phenomena of “ lucidity ” as estab-
lishing on the part of the Hebrew prophets a “ prophetic insight,” or
as proving that they “surely saw visions and dreamed dreams,” that
“the present and the future appeared to them as a shifting panorama.”
The question of possibility is one thing and the question of fact
another ; the possibility might be established and the fact remain highly
improbable. And when, in the chapter on hallucination, we find the
hallucinatory properties of opium used as a pretext for a diatribe
upon tobacco, we feel that there is a form of zeal that is not edifying.

The Baboon Switch Tender.—Some years ago a statement ap-
peared in the newspapers that a baboon had been trained to open and
close the switches on a South African railroad. The following extract
from a letter from Klerksdorp, S. Africa, of March 31st, 1895, con-
firms these accounts :

* x * “you can state that until lately, when the nervous public
made such a fuss it had to be stopped, a South African monkey, like
those I wrote to you about from Mooit Gedaert, was tamed by a
switchman just out of Maretsburg, our college town here, to turn
switches for passing trains, etc. He would wait until the engine was
in sight, then run and open the switch, jump on the cowcatcher, have a
short ride, then jump back to turn it off again, but passengers grew so
frightfully hysterical, especially the strangers, that it was stopped
This is honestly true.’”—Joanus STUBBS.

Change of Habit in a Parrot.—A letter addressed to Natural
Science by M. S. Evans, Natal, S. Africa, calls attention to a change in
the food habit of the parrots (Psittacus sp.) in the valley of the Upper
Umkomanzi River. Until last year (1894) the parrots, which are
quite common in the bush, had not foraged in the gardens and or-
chards, when for the first time since the place had been settled by the
Europeans—a matter of twenty-five years—they attacked the fruit.
‘Their somewhat timid nature seemed quite altered, and they flew into
the orchards in large numbers. They seemed unable to carry off the
fruit alone, so broke the small branches below the joint, and were seen

876 The American Naturalist. [September,

flying off with branches with apples attached in their bills. The ex-
citement among them seemed intense, the discovery of such an abun-
dant and new food-supply apparently much agitating the parrot world.
As the change of habit may be permanent, Mr. Evans thought a record
of the date of the change worth making.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Another Ancient Human Jaw of the Naulette Type.—In
the Pyrenean cave of Estelas (department of Ariége, Commune of Caz-
aret, near St-Girons), associated with cave bear, horse, an ox, Cervus
elaphus, and Ursus arctos, an interesting lower human maxillary has
been recently found. This presented to the Academy of Sciences of
Paris (see Revue Scientifique, 27th of July, 1895) by M.M. Louis Roule
and Felix Regnault should cause considerable comment in view of the re-
cent European diseussion for and against the so-called ancient types of
human skulls. While late observation in craniology has seemed to
undermine the value of cubical measurements of brain contents as tests
of age, the peculiar jaw traits of certain old skulls have apparently
held their significance. This complete child’s jaw is said to present
manifest characters of inferiority, together with a strength and adapta-
bility for muscular insertion remarkable for so young an individual.
Moreover it has a striking resemblance to the celebrated jaw of Nau-
lette and to that of Malarnaud (Ariége).

Sandals in Yucatan.—I asked the Bishop of Yucatan the ques-
tion propounded by Mr. Otis T. Mason in Science for August 2d, 1895.
whether the sandal now in common use among the Mayas, strapped
across the instep and fastened further by a single round thong between
the first and second toes, was an inheritance from pre-Spanish times.
He was unable to answer the question more particularly than to show
me from his collection, the foot of an earthen statue from Izamal,
moulded with a sandal fastened by two toe thongs instead of one.
These passed between the first and second, and third and fourth toes.
to reach astrap on the instep. I question whether the existing san-

1895.] Anthropology. . 877

dals have been attentively studied in Central America. Some Indians
may wear the double toe strap still, but given the existence of the san-
dal with double toe straps in ancient America, we might reasonably
suspect that the old Mayas sometimes used the simpler single thong be-
tween the first and second toes, now so common.—H. C. MERCER.

Strange Hints for Anthropology.—Schiaparelli, who observed
in 1877, the markings called canals on Mars, not yet discerned by
the Government telescope at Washington, still hesitates to call them
trenches dug by intelligent if not human creatures. Since his obser-
vations, the existence of the markings has been verified by astronomers
at Nice, at Arequipa and at Mr. Percival Lowell’s observatory at Flag-
staff, Arizona, where the air medium is good for seeing, and where many
more lines have been discerned and named and new phenomena stud-
ied. The theories advanced and some of the results of Mr. Lowells’
original observations have been interestingly summed up by him in
the Atlantic Monthly for May, June, July and August, 1895.

Mr. Lowell states the remarkable probabilities to be as follows:
That the long lines, because straight and regular, are artificial; that
they are visible because, as Prof. W. H. Pickering first suggested, belts
of irrigated vegetation about 30 miles wide fringe them and show dark
against the desert face of the planet; that they fade out in the Mar-
tian autumn and become visible in the spring because their leaves fall
off and reappear ; that they are dug straight because no mountains ex-
ist to obstruct them; that, granted an intelligent water drinking in-
habitant, they are necessary, because Mars is waterless save for the
yearly melting of a polar ice cap; that round, oasis-like areas at their
intersections still further indicate methods of artificial fertilization ;
that, by our own standards of need, intelligent creatures could exist
on Mars because Mars has an atmosphere and that owing to a less hos-
tile gravity its inhabitants might perform more work at less pains than

we do.

Meanwhile the investigation of what appears to be the handiwork of
a Martian intelligence must excite wide interest. As yet no explan-
ation is offered for the strange fact that sometimes certain canals show
double. And there are other doubts. Distant trees on the earth do
not always lose color. The Yucatan forest, where I have seen it from
hilltops, had a distinct dark blue appearance to the naked eye in Feb-
ruary and March, though, to a great extent, leafless, and we are left to
wonder what light observations of the ocular effect of patches of

878 The American Naturalist. [September,
woodland upon the earth’s surface from mountain heights may throw
upon one of the vital points of the theory, namely, that belts of vegeta-
tion, when leafless, observed through a telescope against a bare back-
ground, would be invisible.

H. C. MERCER.

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Vol. XXIX. OCTOBER, 1895. No. 346
CGCONLENFES
AGE PAGE

PA

THE First FAUNA oF THE EarTH, (Illustrated).
Joseph F James. 880
ORGANIC VARIATION Chas Morris. 888

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

Von. X XIX. October, 1895. 346

THE FIRST FAUNA OF THE EARTH.
By Josera F. James, M. D., M. Sc., F. G. S. A., ere.

One of the most interesting questions with which the geolo-
gist has to deal is the age of the earth. There is, how-
ever, no subject that is wrapped in more profound obscurity,
and yet probably none to which more attention has been
given. Perhaps it may never be settled positively; but, as
years roll on, and more and more facts come to light, specula-
tions may be made with a greater amount of certainty. It
may be possible, in the future, to say approximately how many
centuries have elapsed since the earth assumed its present
form, but, of course, it can be on/y approximate. Estimates
vary now between one hundred million and five hundred
million years, since the first rocks were laid down.

While this matter still remains uncertain, there is another
which was formerly, and still is, in much the same state. It
is the beginning of life upon the earth. Geology is a young
science, but her sister, Paleontology, is younger. Both are
taking rapid strides forward, and, working hand in hand, they
will eventually be able to tell us much of interest about this
globe of ours.

60

880 The American Naturalist. [October,

The steps required to bring any science from a state of chaos
to one at all approaching precision are innumerable. The
records of these steps are mostly buried in official reports of
governmental surveys, technical periodicals, or in the ponder-
ous proceedings of learned societies. It is especially so with
geology. To those familiar with these records there is much
to excite wonder and surprise. There are romances hidden in
them. There are wordy wars and fierce intellectual combats.
There are charges and counter-charges. There are victories or
defeats, equal in one sense to those of Austerlitz or Waterloo.
It needs but the mention of the Darwinian combat to call one
of these wars tomind. Another, but more obscure one, relates
to the first forms of life upon the earth, and it is the intention
here to call attention to this.

It is only a little over one hundred years since the first
scientific observations upon stratified rocks and fossils were
recorded. It was natural that, in the early part of this cen-
tury, the crudest ideas should prevail regarding these subjects.
The origin and cause of stratification were unknown. The
nature of fossils and their value as: indices to pre-existing
forms of the animal or vegetable kingdom had not been
thought of. Some few of the shrewder heads, Rafinesque
among them, had begun to see the value of fossils as early as
1818, but the general opinion was probably that expressed by
Amos Eaton in that year in the first edition of his “ Index to
the Geology of the Northern States.” Here he announced it
as his belief that the land inhabited by the first human beings
was supported by two segments of granite, beneath which was
an immense sea. The North American Continent, he said,
“may now be supported in the same way: and the meeting of
the edges of the segments may be near the granitic ridge which
extends from Georgia to the Frigid Zone.” He further sup-
posed that, during the Deluge, all animals, except those pre-
served by Noah, were destroyed, and the petrified remains we
now find are some of the species overwhelmed by that catas-
trophe. “ Noah,” said he, “ took into the Ark the land animals
of the island or continent whereon he resided. This is now

1895.] The First Fauna of the Earth. .

covered with the ocean, and we know nothing of the remains
to be found there.” He rightly believed it would have been
most interesting to have some account of the researches of the
patriarch and his family “ among the recent ruins of former
grandeur. But we have no account,” he says, “ of any discov-
eries nor of any attempts to search out their former inhabi-
tants. It was doubtless well known to Noah that not one foot
of the ancient continent remained above water.” That Prof.
Eaton did not long retain his belief in the-theory advanced,
seems evident from the fact that these speculations are omitted
from the second edition of the “Index,” published in 1820.
They have since faded from the public mind, and have taken
their place with the still older ideas that fossils were fallen
stars and Belemnites were solidified thunderbolts.

The rapid advance in public opinion as to the value of geo-
logical studies is shown by the organization of numerous State
surveys. The first of these was of North Carolina. Prof. Olm-
stead reported on its geology as early as 1823, and this survey
was followed by one in Massachusetts, where Hitchcock re-
ported in 1831. Between that date and 1838, the States of
Maine, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky,
Ohio, Indiana and Michigan had published reports. The
general government, too, had sent expeditions to the north-
west, and had published the results. It is true many of the
State surveys ceased after the issuance of a few documents, but
their existence, even for a short time, was evidence of the be-
lief in their value. Some of the States organized second sur-
veys at a later date, and published numerous volumes. Among
these are especially to be mentioned New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Kentucky, Ohio and Indiana. Of all the States mentioned,
New York possessed the greatest vitality ; and, while there
have been changes in it as in others, the work there has been
more nearly continuous than in any other. Remarkable as it
may seem, the present honored head of the survey, the veteran
Prof, James Hall, was one of the original corps in 1887.

Although designed primarily to report upon the general

882 The American Naturalist. [October,

economic and mineral resources of the respective States, these
surveys necessarily became concerned with other work. It
was soon found that in order to intelligently describe the rocky
strata, it was essential to give the rocks distinct names. These
were, at first, taken from mineralogical characters, and such
terms as “ metalliferous” and “ geodiferous limerock ” were the
result. Or the name was given from some special physical
aspect, and then “cliff limestone” and “ marlite” were ap-
plied. Finally, however, the plan of giving the formations
the names of localities where the rocks were either best devel-
oped or had been first observed was adopted, and then such
names as “ Potsdam,” “ Trenton ” and “ Niagara ” were used.

Another matter, too, which soon became one of the promi-
nent features of the geologists’ work, was the study of the
organic contents of the rocks. It was early observed that cer-
tain species occurred constantly in certain strata, while above
or below them, other and different species were found. When
once this fact was established, geologists availed themselves of
it to place in one horizon, or to consider as of one age, the beds
containing the same species of fossils, even when found in dis-
tant parts of the country.

The lack of any method of coöperation between the mem-
bers of the various State surveys, led to great diversity of
nomenclature. In New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Virginia,
the formations were known by numbers; in Ohio and Indiana
they received names from lithological features, while in New
York it early became the plan to give the various formations
names of places where they were best exposed. Perhaps it is
to be considered fortunate for the science that so many of the
State surveys ceased early, else the nomenclature might have
been as varied as the different States had rocks. It was the
vitality or persistence of the New York Survey that enabled
her geologists to establish a system of names for almost the
whole North American Continent, so far, at least, as the rocks
lying within her borders were capable of doing. Thus the
“ New York System” became a standard to which was referred
strata of similar character occurring in all parts of the coun-
try.

1395.] The First Fauna of the Earth. 883

None of the rocks of New York are of later age than the
Devonian. Most of them, indeed, are far older, and so com-
plete is the series that there is no formation from the Archean
or metamorphic rocks to the latest Devonian lacking. A por-
tion of the scheme, as finally adopted, is as follows:

Lower Sree gs
Onondag
Upper Naa
Silurian } Clinton

Oneida
Hudson River

er | Trenton
Silurian } Chazy
Calciferous
Potsdam
‘Archean

All of the formations lying above the Archean are stratified,
and contain a greater or lesser number of fossils. Each forma-
tion is generally separated from the one above and below by
some unconformity, indicating a time during which deposi-
tion was not going on. These time breaks are also character-
ized by changes in the organic forms. In other localities than
New York, these breaks in sedimentation and life do not
always occur. Sometimes the change in physical features is
so gradual that it is impossible to say where one group ends
and the next one begins. Fossils, too, pass from one into the
other with little or no change. In all such cases there is great
difficulty in drawing any line of demarkation, but, in general,
it can be readily done.

In the early years of the existence of the New York Survey,
Dr. E. Emmons noted the occurrence of a sandstone in the
northern part of the State, lying directly upon the metamor-
phic or igneous rocks. From its proximity to the town of
Potsdam, he gave it the name of “ Potsdam sandstone.” Its
position in relation to metamorphic rocks caused it to be con-
sidered the oldest formation in the State, and the organic re-

884 The American Naturalist. [October,
mains found in it were regarded as representing the earliest

life on the globe. These remains were scanty, consisting chiefly

of a species of Lingula as then understood (Fig. 1), and of some

tahli

4

mii

xy
>
Ed

Ej
yi

Fig. 1. Lingula antiqua.
The species for a long time
supposed to be the oldest
fossil on the globe,

Fig. 2. Scolithus. A worm
boring.

straight, vertical tubes, at first regarded as seaweeds, but later
on as the burrows of marine worms (Fig. 2
Continuing in western Massachusetts the studies begun in
northern New York, Dr. Emmons, in 1842, announced his be-
lief that the Potsdam sandstone was not the oldest, stratified,
fossil-bearing rock in North America, but lying beneath it,
and therefore older than it, was a great series of sedimentary
rocks for which he proposed the name “ Taconic.” It was not,
however, until two years later, in 1844, that he described some
fossils from this older series. Among these were two trilobites,
and it is probable that more has been written regarding
these two fossils than almost any others in the world, and in
Figure 3 is shown one of them. These specimens were, of

1895.] The First Fauna of the Earth. 885

course, regarded with great interest, as they carried life on the
globe further back in time than had ever before been supposed
possible. The evidence adduced by Dr. Emmons as to their
great age was not, however, accepted by the geological world.
Geologists were loath to believe that so highly organized an
animal could have existed at so
early a period. Some believed
the rocks containing the fossils
were younger than the Potsdam,
instead of being older, considering
that even if they were really lying
underneath the Potsdam sand-
stone, that it was by reason of a
fault or dislocation which had re-
versed the original position of the
two formations. In fact, the ex-
istence of the possibility of a series
of sedimentary deposits below the
Potsdam was denied, although
this has long since been admitted.
Fig. 3. Ptychoparia (Atops); trili- Yet long and bitter has been the
neata. The first trilobite known from controversy Over this Taconic sys-
the Cambrian rocks. tem ; and while it is now known
that Emmons included rocks of various ages in his new terrane,
no one disputes the fact that he was the first to record evidence
of the existence of animal forms in what are, at present, re-
garded as the oldest fossil-bearing rocks of the globe.
Previous to Emmons’s work in North America, Sed gwick and
Murchison had been studying the formations of England and
Wales; and in 1835, Sedgwick proposed the name “ Cam-
brian” for a series of rocks in Wales, supposed by him to be
without life. A little later, about 1837, Murchison proposed
the name “Silurian” for another and a higher series, which
he thought contained the earliest forms of animal life. A con-
flict soon arose between the adherents of the two systems.
Murchison extended his Silurian downward as fossils were
found at lower and lower horizons, against the vigorous oppo-
sition of Sedgwick. It was not until the characters of the

886 The American Naturalist. [October,

fossils were studied that a definite understanding was reached
as to the lower limit of the Silurian. These studies were made
by Barrande in Bohemia. He announced, in 1846, his dis-
covery of trilobites with peculiar features. To the fauna, as a-
whole, he gave the name of “ Primordial.” He pointed out
various differences between it and the English Silurian, call-
ing this last the “Second fauna.” Barrande did not know at
this time of Emmons’s name “ Taconic,” nor had he heard of
the fossils that had been described. Had he known of the
work of Emmons, he would doubtless have adopted the name
Taconic, instead of proposing Primordial.

Continued investigation in North Ameri soon brought
new facts to light. Owen, in 1847, reported many fossiliferous
beds in the upper Mississippi Valley that he compared with
the Potsdam of New York. Roemer found in Texas, in 1848,
fossils similar to those of Owen; and when Barrande, in 1853,
heard of and saw the fossils from these two localities, he an-
nounced that they belonged to his Primordial period. In 1856,
Prof. W. B. Rogers called the attention of the Boston Society
of Natural History to the discovery of a trilobite in the slates
of Braintree, near Boston. He thought it the same species as
that described in 1834 by Dr. Green as Paradozides harlani,
and noted, at the same time, the resemblance it bore to a
species of the genus from Bohemia, called by Barrande, P.
spinosus. When he sent a photograph of the new specimen to
Barrande, this authority, too, concluded the two specimens
were identical. Thus the presence in America of the “ primor-
dial” fauna of Barrande was at last firmly established, and
the work to come was the filling in of the outlines, closing the
gaps and bringing order out of the chaos that had before
reigned.

One of the most intricate problems to be settled was that re-
lating to the age of certain rocks in northern Vermont, occur-
ring near the town of Georgia. It was in this region that the
fossils described by Emmons had been found. Their age had
been variously estimated as Medina, Hudson River and Pots-
dam (see table of formations on a previous page), but, without
going into the details of the controversy, it must suffice to say

1895.] The First Fauna of the Earth. 887

that it was at last decided that these “ Georgia slates” were
older than the Potsdam, but not as old as the Braintree, Mass.,
beds, in which Paradoxides had been found. Prof. Hall had
established the genus Olenellus to include the Vermont trilo-
bites, and the idea prevailed that this genus succeeded Para-
doxides in time. It was in 1868 that the first reference was
made of the Potsdam rocks to the top of the Primordial period,
instead of to the base of the Silurian where they had pre-
viously been placed. So that at this time the Braintree beds
were supposed to contain the oldest fossils on the globe.

Meanwhile, geologists had been studying the fauna in rocks
occurring about St. John, New Brunswick. Noting the re-
semblance the trilobites there bore to those from Braintree,
they concluded the two deposits were of the same age. In
Canada, Logan, in 1864, taking cognizance of all the discover-
ies in New York, Vermont, Massachusetts, New Brunswick
and Newfoundland, published a scheme of classification which,
for twenty-four years, perpetuated an error. This scheme in
its lower portion is as follows:

(3) Upper Potsdam, including the rocks of the upper Missis-
sippi Valley, northern New York and adjacent parts of Canada.

(2) Lower Potsdam, including the rocks of Georgia, Vermont,
and some of Newfoundland.

(1) St. John Group, including the rocks at Braintree, Mass.,
St. John, New Brunswick, and St. John’s, Newfoundland.

This view of the succession of the oldest fossil-bearings rocks
of North America was held until 1888, except that the three
divisions were called respectively, (3) Upper Cambrian, (2)
Middle Cambrian, and (1) Lower Cambrian. Of these divi-
sions the Upper was also called the Dikellocephalus zone, the
Middle the Olenellus zone, and the Lower the Paradozides zone,
from the three genera of trilobites confined to the rocks of each
terrane.

(To be continued.)

888 The American Naturalist. [October,

ORGANIC VARIATION.
By Cumas. Morris.

The recent paper in Tue Naruratist, by Prof. Osborn,’ on
variation in organisms, and the seeming presence of certain
unknown factors in development which give rise to phenom-
ena not included in the accepted theories, suggests the desira-
bility of further consideration of this topic. The problem is a
most intricate one, the final result being affected by every ex-
ternal condition to which the organism is exposed throughout
its whole career, and by various internal influences which are
far more difficult to trace, yet are, perhaps, the leading forces
at work.

The effects of environment have been abundantly dealt
with and are somewhat fully understood. It is not necessary
here to state the principles of Lamarckism and Darwinism. It
will suffice to say that they do not embrace the whole problem.
Darwinism does not attempt to do so, since it takes the great
fact of variation for granted and works from that as a basis.
Lamarckism attempts to explain variation, as due to use and
to the resulting strain upon the organism. But it evidently
does not reach the great class of individual variations which
are opposed to heredity, and whose cause lies deep in the organ-
ism and must be sought in the conditions of the germinal cell
itself. .

Of the two great underlying principles involved in organic
evolution, heredity and variation, the former seems much the
most comprehensible. It is but natural to expect that the
germ should unfold.in the manner of that from which it was
derived. Such native tendencies as exist in it must be derived
from the parents, and bear a resemblance to those that have
been active in the parental organisms. As a result, if parthe-
nogenesis prevailed, we should naturally expect every offspring
to repeat all the peculiarities of its parent—all variation being

1 May, 1895.

1895.) Organie Variation. 889

due to subsequent influences of the environment. In the case
of two parents, the offspring might be expected to possess
characteristics of each, now being strictly intermediate, now
approaching one parent more nearly than the other. In this
method of variation, which is nearly all that Weissmann ad-
mits, the steady tendency must be to swamp all distinctions,
the differences between parents continually diminishing. In
short, these differences could never have arisen were heredity
the only force at work. Darwinism has a similar tendency,
since varying and ill-adapted organisms tend to disappear,
and only those with close similarities of adaptation to be pre-
served. The changes due to Lamarckian influences must tend
also in the direction of uniformity, through a general move-
ment of adaptation to fixed conditions.

Yet this fixed tendency towards uniformitarianism is not
what nature displays. Marked individual variations con-
stantly appear, the seeming efforts of nature to produce similar
forms being checked at every point by individual peculi-
arities of constitution. These variations are in opposition to
the influences of heredity, natural and sexual selection, use and
effort, all of which tend to uniformity. To what are they due?
Can a parent transmit to its offspring characteristics which it
does not possess itself? This does not seem possible; the
natural conclusion being that the offspring should repeat the
peculiarities of the parent or parents existing at the period of
its birth.

Yet has heredity as overmastering an influence as many
ascribe to it? Even if we decline to accept the Weissmann
hypothesis, and hold that every portion of the organism, in
some way, exerts a direct influence upon the developing germ,
it is not impossible that this influence may differ in energy in
different organisms, in some cases controlling almost abso-
lutely the constitution of the germ, in others permitting foreign
influences, external or internal, to operate to some extent, with
consequent variations in germinal constitution.

Several hypotheses have been advanced in explanation of
heredity, none of them based sufficiently on discovered facts
to be quite satisfactory, and all of them leaving it possible

890 The American Naturalist. [October,

that the germinal cell may not be rigidly controlled in its de-
velopment by hereditary influences, but may have a degree of
independence and susceptibility to the action of minor and
local influences. As variation cannot well be due to influen-
ces proceeding from the parental organisms, it certainly seems
as if it must arise from conditions existing in the environment
of the developing germ and embryo, or to internal molecular
forces, left free to produce variations by a degree of weakness
in the hereditary influences.

Much certainly depends on the inherent conditions of the
reproductive cells. These may vary in developmental energy,
through excess or deficiency of nutrition. They may also vary,
through position or otherwise, in the quantity of nutriment ob-
tained during development. In consequence, there is probably
an active struggle for existence at this low level of life, the num-
bers involved being considerable, while—in the case of the high-
er animals—only one ora few can survive. This early competi-
tion would seem simply to be one of comparative cell vigor, or
of advantage in propinquity to the store of nutriment; but it
is, perhaps, not quite so simple. The germinal cell is, to out-
ward appearances, a largely homogeneous organism, but the
facts of development prove that it is heterogeneous in constitu-
tion, its tendencies and powers being not single but multiple.
It probably is made up of various groups of molecules differ-
ently arranged or organized, each of which is destined, in its
development, to produce a special organ or variety of tissue in
the mature form. What we can see very poorly indicates
what exists. The compound of organs‘into which the cell un-
folds indicates that conditions preliminary to those organs
existed in it, each perhaps located in some definite region of
the cell, which may thus be made up of distinct groups of
differently organized molecules.

If this, as we have much reason to believe, is the case, the
field of competition may be a much more extended one than
has been supposed. In addition to competition for nutriment
between cells as wholes, there may be an internal competition
in each, between its different molecular groups, while differ-
ences in original strength may give some of these an advan-

1895.] Organic Variation. 891

tage over others. Such a difference in original power of
absorbing nutriment would, perhaps, grow more declared as
development proceeded, and the several molecular groups
differentiated into embryo organs.

If such a competition existed, what would be its natural re-
sult? Here we have the principle of survival—or, at least, of
precedence—of the fittest active within the germ itself, and pro-
ducing an effect on the constitution of the individual. Certain
organs of the embryo might be better supplied with nutriment
than others, and, in consequence, become larger or more vitally
active in the resulting body. And it may be that this differ-
ence in nutrition would have some influence upon heredity ;
perhaps the weaker, perhaps the stronger, molecular groups
being most under control of hereditary influences, and develop-
ing accordingly.

If the possibility of such a state of affairs as this be admitted,
it may aid to explain the peculiarities of variation. Wecould
understand, for instance, why, in two brothers—even two twin
brothers—one is more vigorous in this, one in that, organic
function; one has this weakness, one that. Here the heart
may be specially strong or weak; here the lungs may be
specially active; here the muscular, here the nervous, tissues
may be particularly well-developed; here there may be a
powerful bodily frame, there a large brain and superior intel-
lect. Similar variations may occur in the digestive and ex-
cretory organs, the glandular activity, the deposition of pig-
ment, and other organic conditions. Or one brother may
have a general advantage in nutrition over the other, becom-
ing larger and stronger throughout. Differences in the gen-
eral form of the body, in its fat-making proclivities, in its
degree of vital energy, might arise from similar differences in
powers of assimilation of the molecular groups of the germinal
cell.

The above is offered as a suggestion of a conceivable cause
of organic variations. It, unfortunately, belongs to that wide
category of hypotheses which are not open to proof. It is not
the only suggestion that presents itself. Another influence at
work—perhaps a secondary result of that described—is what

892 The American Naturalist. [October,

is known as atavism. As the influence mentioned is a varia-
tion in growth force, atavism seems due to a check in develop-
ment, the organism not attaining its full unfoldment. Atavism
is usually considered as applying to the whole organism, but
it may confine its action to certain parts of the organism while
the others attain full development, thus producing conditions
whose atavistic origin is not evident, and which are accepted
as results of ordinary variation.

Two conditions are probably concerned in atavism, one
being deficiency of nutriment, the other the influence of en-
vironment. In truth, there is good reason to believe that two
parallel, and, to a certain extent, mutually exclusive, processes
are at work in the organism—those of growth and develop-
ment. The developmental powers only proceed actively under
certain conditions. They differ from growth, which is simply
increase of tissue, in being changes of tissue, due to chemical
or other influence, and set in train by inherent tendencies in
the organism.

There are abundant evidences that energetic nutrition acts as
a hindrance to development, and yet is preliminarily necessary
to it. The two cannot be active at the same time. While
nutrition is active, development is latent, and it cannot set in
actively without a marked cessation of nutritive energy. Yet
it must be preceded by a period of nutritive activity to provide
the tissue within which the developmental forces act, and in
which a degree of chemical reduction would seem to precede or
accompany the re-organization of tissue into new forms. If the
preliminary nutrition be wanting, development may be slight
and imperfect, or not appear at all, through lack of the quan-
tity of tissue necessary to the changes in organization.

As regards development, or rearrangement of organic tissue,
a question arises as to what influences set it in operation, so that,
at fixed intervals, nutrition is checked, growth ceases, and ac-
tive organic change sets in. Inherent tendencies to such change
seem to exist in the tissues, their molecular constitution being
such that a series of successive rearrangements take place, re-
producing conditions which successively appeared in the
phylogenetic evolution of the form, and were gone through

1895.] Organic Variation. — 893

ontogenetically by the parent. Continuous nutrition, and,
apparently, also continuous bodily activity, act to check this
process of development, which appears to need cessation of the
assimilative process and of physical or nervous activity, all
the organic powers being concentrated upon the event about
to take place.

Nor is this all that may be necessary. Stimulation from
without seems often requisite to start the developmental pro-
cess. Stimulation from within is perhaps equally necessary, a
psychic influence it may be, arising in the inherent instinets of
the central ganglion of the nervous system. External stimu-
lation may, in some cases, be necessary to set these instincts in
action, while in other cases, they may act involuntarily at a
certain stage of ganglionic growth or development. It is ap-
parently due to such influences of instinct, that nutrition is
checked and the inherent tendencies to changes in the tissues
are permitted to act, the action of instinct being thus perhaps
secondary ; though it may be that a direct stimulation from the
ganglion to the tissues is necessary to set the powers of develop-
ment in operation. The action of the mental powers may, there-
fore, be confined to checking nutrition and activity, but may
also concentrate the physical energies upon the region of coming
change, and set in train the necessary chemical action. All
the further powers and tendencies requisite exist in the tissues
themselves.

We possess abundant evidence that, in the lower animals,
development will not proceed if the surrounding conditions be
unfavorable, whatever be the inherent tendencies. The life-his-
tory of intestinal parasites furnishes marked examples of this.
Such creatures may continue a larval existence for an indefi-
nite period in one host, the development to the mature stage
being accomplished only after the second host is entered.
Possibly, in the first host, nutrition continues active, and is
checked on reaching the second host; but the influence of the
new environment may have its special stimulating effect. The
development of insects present many cases in point. They
often continue long in the larval state, in which nutrition is
active, growth rapid, and development checked. Then, during

894 The American Naturalist. [October,

a period of pupal rest and non-nutrition, a rapid development
to the mature stage takes place. Adventitious organs, useful
to the larva, often develop, and are discarded in the pupal
stage, as having no place in the phylogenetic order of develop-
ment. This isstrikingly the case in Echinoderm development,
the adventitious organs sometimes forming so large a part of
the larval animal that they have the power of swimming and
taking food after being discarded, though incapable of digest-
ing it. In this case, the developing portion of the animal is
confined to the central life organs. In other instances, the
adventitious organs are absorbed and utilized in the process of

change. ;

As an instance of marked retention of the larval conditions,
may be mentioned the Aphis, in which no further develop-
ment takes place through many generations, nutrition being
active, and reproduction going on by gemmation. In the
autumn, when nutriment begins to fail, the long repressed in-
stincts and developmental powers come into play, and mature
insects are produced. The seventeen-year Cicadæ furnish anoth-
er striking example,they continuing as larve during a very long
period of underground nutrition, and developing to maturity
only when unfolding instinct induces them to seek the surface.
Numerous examples of a similar kind may be found in the
Hydrozoa, in which development is checked at several larval
stages, in each of which a different environment or kind of
activity exists.

The ants and bees, among insects, are of high interest in
this inquiry. The bees, for example, seem to have worked out
the whole problem for themselves, and can produce workers,
queens and drones at will. It seems a simple question of
nutrition whether queens or workers shall appear, the worker
larvæ being underfed, the queen richly fed and with fuller
space for growth. They all pass through stages of pupal de-
velopment, in a state of rest and non-nutrition, but the fully-
fed larva becomes a mature female, the illy-fed ones become
immature females. During the subsequent life of the latter,
no opportunity for complete development occurs, activity and
nutrition being incessant. In the ants, somewhat similar con-
ditions exist.

1895.) Organic Variation. 895

Certain of the Amphibia present marked instances of the
influence. of environment as a stimulus to development. A
tadpole kept forcibly in the water does not become a frog.
The Axolotl, a gilled salamander, seems to have a power of
choice in this particular. It continues a water breather while
it elects to remain in the water, but loses its gills and develops
into the lung-breathing Amblystoma if it leaves the water for
a land life. Another interesting instance of this appears in
the Leptocephali, peculiar larval fishes, small, pellucid and
cartilaginous, which are found floating far out in the ocean.
Gunther considers them the offspring of various marine fishes
which have been swept away from their normal environment
and their development in consequence arrested. This is, per-
haps, due to deprivation of the requisite nutriment.

Many examples of a check to the full development of the
higher animals, through insufficient nutrition, might be given,
were it advisable to extend this examination. In the lower
animals, so far considered, there would seem to be a competi-
tion between two instincts, one the instinct to devour food and
move actively, the other the instinct to cease eating and entera
state of rest. External conditions are, perhaps, only influen-
tial in giving the precedence to one or the other of these in-
stincts, though, in most animals, the latter instinct in time
seems to gain a controlling influence, and development in
consequence proceeds.

The instances here given are extreme ones, and are of much’
value from their bearing upon the question at issue. Doubt-
less there are many minor steps of development which need
no special preparation, and which take place during the ordi-
nary activities of life. Such steps might be pointed out in the
invertebrates, while vertebrate development is generally of this
character, its stages appearing successively without need of
marked cessation from food or activity. Yet the examples
adduced are probably exaggerated instances of what always’
takes place, a period of nutrition of the organ involved, a tem-
porary check to nutrition, a diversion of energy to that organ,
and a more or less rapid developmental change. If this
change is a considerable one, as in the casting of their shells

61

896 The American Naturalist. [October,

by crustaceans, a physical weakening results, and new tissue
must be built.up before the new shell can appear. A similar
weakening is apt to appear in man during the development of
puberty, and various other instances might be given.

All this leads back to the question of atavism. The changes
indicated may not be solely due to nutrition and stimulation,
but may be controlled in a measure by the original germinal
conditions, the degree of developmental vigor which exists in
each of the molecular groups of the germ cell. If any of these
is weakly constituted, or imperfectly organized, its general de-
velopment may cease before the ultimate phase is reached, or it
may be imperfect, and the resulting animal lack some part, asin
the absence of a hand or arm. This may be the ordinary
cause of the phenomena of atavism, the original weakness of
the germ causing a cessation of development before the final
stage is reached. This check seems often to occur at the level
of some immediate ancestor, but occasionally acts at a consid-
erably more remote stage. Again, weakness in a special region
of the germ may check development of some organ at an.
ancestral stage, while the remainder gains full development.
Such a result, while due to atavism, would yield no evidence
of it. To this class of influences may be due many of the vari-
ations in offspring which so commonly occur.

There is a further possibility to be considered: that of a
condition the reverse of atavism. While defects occasionally
appear in the mature body, an excess of development also at
times appears in certain regions. This may be a duplication,
as in the fingers and toes, the development of some limb or
organ to a larger size than in the parents, or the appearance
of an exerescence which has no paternal counterpart, yet, per-
haps, may prove of advantage to the individual. If defects
are due, as here suggested, to deficiency of energy of develop-
ment, or partial formation in some molecular group of the
germ, excess may, perhaps, be due to the opposite influence, a
superabundance of energy, or excess of molecules in the group.
The molecular groups from which the organs, tissues or mem-
bers of the body are supposed to be derived, may possibly vary,
as above-said, both in energy and in formative conditions, and

1895.] Organic Variation. 897

minute variations in the germ may yield marked variations
in the adult.

All this is offered as conjectural. If it be based on fact,
some important conclusions follow. To atavism, partial or com-
plete whether due to original germinal weakness or subsequent
lack of nutrition, degeneration may be due. The imperfect or
poorly developed offspring, if it should prove fitted to some
other mode of life than that of its race, might survive and yield
descendants like itself. Through such a process, long contin-
ued, the extreme degeneration occasionally seen might appear.

On the other hand, if the molecular groups can possess ex-
cess of energy or superfluous material, the result may be seen
in some unusually large organ or greatly developed tissue, or
a general superiority of the whole body; or, again, in the ap-
pearance of some duplicate part or excrescence. Such an
excess, if advantageous, might, as in the opposite case of de-
generation, induce new habits in the animal, and, in time,
lead to marked differences in species. If the excess appeared
in the nervous system generally, or the brain particularly, an
important psychical advance might result. It is certainly not
impossible that the extraordinary intellectual powers which
occasionally appear in the offspring of parents of ordinary
mental development may be due to this cause, and that the
gradual advance in mental ability in the animal kingdom,
with the superior powers of attack and defence thence arising,
have a similar origin.

The problems here dealt with are very obscure ones. In
considering them we are, perforce, confined to hypothesis,
since facts are beyond our reach, other than such phenomena ~
of organic nature as have been adduced. Certainly the causes
of individual variation lie low down in the process of develop-
ment, and while, perhaps, due in a measure to environmental
‘forces at work on the embryo or larva, are probably due in a
much larger measure to conditions connected with the organi-
zation and early development of the germinal cell.

898 The American Naturalist. — [ October,

ROOT TUBERCLES OF LEGUMINOSAE.
By Erwin F. SMITE.

Among those who have contributed to our knowledge of
this subject are Beyerinck, Frank, Ward, Hellriegel, Prazmow-
ski, Nobbe, Schlossing, Laurent and Windogradski. The ques-
tion of the symbiotic relationship of the bacilli, which are cer-
tainly present in the tubercles, has received rather more
attention from these investigators than have the bacteria
themselves. The latter are the subject of an interesting paper,
“Die Bakterien in den Wurzelknéllchen der Leguminoseen,”
by Mr. Gonnermann in Landw. Jahrb., XXIII (1894), Heft., 4,
5, pp. 649-671. The first part of the work was done at the
Agr. Exp. Sta. in Rostock, and the rest in the Hygienic Lab-
oratory at Danzig, and the internal evidence of the paper indi-
cates a careful, competent man. The one question which the
author at first set out to solve by means of purely bacteriologi-
cal methods was, What bacterium causes the tubercles? Pure
cultures were made from the bacteria occurring inside the
tubercles and their behavior first studied on ordinary culture
media—gelatine, agar, potato, bouillon, etc. Subsequently,
lupine gelatine was used, and proved very suitable, the germs
growing in it about equally well, whether slightly acid, slightly
alkaline or neutral. The colonies which appeared on this
gelatine were then inoculated into various media, from the
plates to stick cultures, from these to potato, from the latter to
agar, from agar into hanging drops, from these to plates once
more, and so on, to insure purity and absolute certainty of the
final results. To obtain material for making infections, unin-
jured tubercles were washed in ordinary water and the earth
rubbed away with a tooth-brush, then washed several times in
distilled water, and finally put for several minutes into 1-500
solution mercuric chloride. They were then thoroughly
washed 3-4 times with sterile water, placed under a bell-jar on
a glass plate previously heated to 150° C., cut open with a

1895.] Root Tubercles of Leguminosae. 899

flamed knife, and crushed out in a little sterile water, which
was then used for cover glass preparations and for the inocu-
lation of culture media. All staining fluids and all culture
media were examined for the presence of germs before they
were used, and before commencing this investigation the
author made a preliminary one of the air of his laboratory to
determine what germs were present and might be expected to
appear in some of the cultures. The microscope used was a
Leitz, which was provided with apochromatic lenses, giving a
very clear, sharp field, up even to 2,250 diameters. The root
sections were made in the Pathological-anatomical Institute of
Dr. Thierfelder, and mostly by Dr. Thierfelder, himself. Several
hundred plants were investigated, including Pisum sativum,
Lupinus angustifolius, albus, luteus, Lathyrus tuberosus, Vicia
faba, cracca, Phaseolus vulgaris and Trifolium incarnatum, and
more than 300 permanent preparations were made. The in-
vestigations finally covered the following subjects: (a) Pure
cultures; (b) Search for the organisms in the soil; (c) Germi-
nation of sterilized seeds in sterile sand and subsequent infec-
tion of the plants. Cover-glass preparations, made from great
numbers of cleaned, sterilized tubercles of Lupinus albus and
angustifolius showed the well-known Y-shaped bodies and
gelatine plate cultures gave two sorts of colonies, both bacilli.
Cleaned and superficially sterilized roots were then wrapped
in freshly sterilized cotton, put in turn into sterile netting, and
finally covered by a fine-meshed sterile wire netting, buried
in sterile sand and watered with sterile water. After eight
days the plants were pulled up. Many of the tubercles were
ruptured and the enveloping cotton was stained brown and
swarming with pure growths of the bacteria. The sand was
also contaminated. From this infected cotton, and also fre-
quently from the sand, cultures were made into gelatine,
bouillon, etc., and from these, plate cultures. The author can-
not agree with Frank that the Y-form consists of broken down
mycoplasma, for, upon being placed in hanging drops, these
Y’s break up into motile bacilli and their compound nature
can also be demonstrated by proper staining. Beyerinck,
Prazmowski and Frank speak of one organism designated

900 The American Naturalist. [October,

variously as Bacillus radicicola, Bacterium radicicola, and Rhiz-
bium leguminosarum. Gonnermann thinks that there are
several germs capable of causing these galls. He calls his
organisms Bacillus tuberigenus, 1, 2, 3, etc., having isolated no
no less than seven varieties, not including two micrococci. All
of these are characterized, but not as fully asthe present state
of bacteriology requires. Beyerinck’s B. radicicola was not
found. Soil examinations were begun at Rostock. Earth was
scattered on gelatine plates, and soil from lupine fields was
washed with sterile water and cultures made from this. By
these methods four of the kinds already isolated from the
tubercles made their appearance and were cultivated out and
their identity established. The most abundant organism in
the Rostock fields was Bacillus fluorescens non liquefaciens, then
followed B. tuberigenus, No. 3. This is a motile organism, 0.3
by 0.6, united in 2’s or more, bright red-brown on potato,
yellow-brown or brownish and fine granular on gelatine plates,
and able to liquify gelatine rapidly. Winter examinations of
earth were made for spores. In soil taken from Rostock, in
February, not a living bacterium could be found, but there
_were numerous spores. This soil was shaken up with sterile
water, and the coarsest parts allowed to settle as sediment I.
The cloudy fluid was poured off into a sterile test-tube and
allowed to settle for a minute to get sediment II. Sediments
III and IV were obtained in the same manner, the latter con-
sisting of the finest silt. Cover-glass preparations were made
from each sediment and stained with gentian violet for the
identification of bacteria, while for spores a corresponding
series was dry-heated to 150°C., and then exposed for an hour
to boiling carbol fuchsin, washed in alcohol, and afterward, in
some cases, faintly stained with methyl blue. Finally, plate
cultures were made from each sediment. Sediment I contained
numerous bacilli, 4-9, by 0.5-0.6z, each bearing 2-6 spores. No
bacteria free from spores could be found, but plate cultures
gave many colonies. No such large bacilli were found in the
earth in summer. In sediment II, spore-bearing bacilli were
few, but plate cultures yielded many colonies, thus showing
the presence of spores. In sediment III, dead Y-forms first

1895.] Root Tubercles of Leguminosae. 901

appeared. These stained faintly with ordinary reagents, but
distinct round bodies appeared in their interior when they
were subjected to the spore stain. In sediment IV, no bacilli
were found, but there were small stained bodies which might
well be spores, and plate cultures gave numerous colonies.
The plate cultures from these sediments yielded unquestion-
able B. tuberigenus 1, 2,3. The remaining forms appeared to
be ordinary soil bacteria, and were not followed further.
From the results of these cultures and the examination of a
great many cover glass preparations, the author thinks it is
established that the tubercle organisms pass the winter in the
earth in the form of spores. Sand cultures and infections were
made at Rostock and again at Danzig, the following method
being employed. The sand was spread out in an oven and
heated for five hours at 150° C. It was then put into 3-litre
pots, previously washed many times in boiling distilled water,
then several times in 1-500 solution of mercuric chloride, and
finally in sterile water. The pots were then covered tightly
with sterile cotton and set aside. Subsequently they were in-
fected with organisms directly from the tubercles and also with
pure cultures of the same. In the Rostock experiments the
pots were watered with Frank’s salt mixture and in the others
they received only sterile water, bacteria being added from
time to time to each watering fluid. The seeds planted in
these pots were first soaked ten minutes in 1-500 sol. mercuric
chloride and then washed thoroughly in sterile water. The
plants grew slowly, but on the whole satisfactorily. When
they reached a height of 20 cm., one which had been infected
directly from a tubercle was pulled and examined. The rest
of the plants prospered and no more were pulled until they
were in bloom. Close together on the roots of the plant first
pulled there were 5 tubercles. On cutting they showed the
rose red color, and the Y-forms were clearly visible on micro-
=- scopic examination. Similar results had been obtained by
previous investigators. More important, therefore, is the result
of the infections with cultures known to be pure. Plants
grown in pots infected with B. tuberigenus No. 3 from Rostock
and others grown in pots infected with B. tuberigenus No. 5

902 The American Naturalist. [October,

from near Danzig developed a considerable number of tuber-
cles in which it was very easy to demonstrate the Y-shaped
bodies, and from which pure cultures of Nos. 3 and 5 were
again obtained. Since these two forms behave differently on
culture media, the author insists that it is no longer a question
of one tubercle bacillus, but thinks that there are at least two
and probably more, the form varying with the locality. Water
cultures were carried on along with the sand cultures, using
peas and lupines, but with negative results. Some of the roots
decayed and none developed tubercles. Hellriegel first ad-
vanced the hypothesis (1886) that the bacteria in these tuber-
cles are capable of taking nitrogen from the air and turning it
over to the host plant. This striking hypothesis at once came
into favor and was accepted as proved by many writers on agri-
cultural topics. Frank, however, in dry material, found no
increase whatever of nitrogen when his Rhizobium grew with
the plants. His many experiments show that the garden bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris) which always bears tubercles under nat-
ural conditions never becomes any richer in nitrogen than do
beans grown in sterile soil and free from tubercles. This cer-
tainly looks more like parasitism than symbiosis. Other ex-
periments made by Frank show that lupines and peas can
assimilate nitrogen when grown in sterile humus, and free
from tubercles and bacteria. Consequently leguminous plants
are able to store nitrogen and enrich the soil without the action
of bacteria, and it is not settled how the nitrogen is taken up
by the plant. _Gonnermann reasoned that if the bacilli really
assimilate free nitrogen and turr it over to the host plant, then
when they are grown in an artificial medium the latter ought
finally to become somewhat richer in nitrogen. Following
out this idea, very careful experiments were made with potato
broth of a known nitrogen content, but although the bacteria
grew luxuriantly for 14 days there was absolutely no increase
of nitrogen. The cultures were made in 12 150 ce. flasks and
every 24 hours the air was changed, being passed through cot-
ton, strong sulphuric acid, and strong potash liquor to free it
from dust, microdrganisms, ammonia and carbon dioxide:
The analyses were made by Dr. Meyer of the Rostock Agricul-

1895.] Root Tubereles of Leguminosae. 903

tural Experiment Station. Experiments by the author con-
firm Hellriegel’s view that the tubercle bacilli are not capable
of changing ammonium salts into nitrate, and the evidence is
very good that these organisms are not the same as the nitrify-
ing ferments of Windogradski. The Y-form occurs sparingly
outside of the tubercles in various parts of the plant. The
author also isolated B. tuberigenus from tubercles found on
the roots of the rape plant. His general conclusions are as fol-
lows:

(1). The root tubercles of the Leguminosae are not caused
_by a single specific bacterium but rather by several, one in one
locality, another in another locality.

(2). The Y-forms are zoogloea (Gebildkomplexe) which arise
in the plant during the symbiotic or parasitic relations, and
later when the tubercles rupture, they break up into the indi-
vidual bacteria. These pass into the soil, form spores, and in
the spring, as bacilli, once more enter the plant to again be-
come Y-complexes during its growth.

(3). The symbiotic relations are not yet known with certainty,
tor of themselves the tubercle bacteria of the Leguminosae are
not capable of rendering free nitrogen useful to the plant ; much
rather is the plant in condition of its ownself to take up and use
elementary nitrogen without fungous symbiosis. The bacteria
aid the plant in doing this and may contribute in part toa
higher nitrogen content. Finally, it appears to be established
that in spite of the presence of the bacteria the plants do not
take up any excess of nitrogen. From the many sided experi-
ments which have been made, it follows also that not merely
symbiotic but also parasitic influences are at work, and that the
function of the bacteria as well as the method of assimilation
of free nitrogen is not yet known with any certainty.

904 _ The American Naturalist. [ October,

DEVIATION IN DEVELOPMENT DUE TO THE USE
OF UNRIPE SEEDS.

j By J. C. ARTHUR.
(Continued from page 815.)

Such deviations as have been mentioned are readily seen,
and are more or less to be anticipated. But what shall we say
about the final recovery of such plants? Even if plants are
feeble while young, will they not eventually become firmly es-
tablished and outgrow all traces of early weakness? I think
we would say a priori, that such would doubtless be the case-
It looks reasonable; and yet from both experimental and the-
oretical data it can be shown that rarely, and only by accident,
does the entire restoration of the vigor of the plant under such
circumstances take place. I am aware that the majority of
observers and writers have held the contrary view, and pes
Cohn in his admirable treatise came to the conelusion that “i
general plants raised from unripe seed are not weaker ne
those from ripe seed.” It is undoubtedly true, that as the
plants grow, the differences, which were at first readily detected
by the eye, largely or quite disappear. Eventually it is nec-
essary to resort to careful weighing and measuring to bring
out the actual facts. This does not mean that the differences
are slight and immaterial, but only that the eye cannot detect
small variations distributed throughout large objects having
irregular surfaces, baton? 3 in the aggregate they may be con-
siderable.

In the experiment with tomato plants from seed taken from
green, half-ripe, and fully ripe fruit, already referred to, (man-
uscript record No. 82), no essential difference could be detected
between the plants after they came into bearing. But weigh-
ing exposed the fact that the ripe fruit of the plants from green
seed averaged ten per cent lighter than those from ripe seed
(see table V).

1895.] Deviation in Development Due to the use of Unripe Seeds. 905

V.—Tomators FROM RIPE AND UNRIPE SEEDS.

Experiment conducted by Arthur.

Degree of ripe- | Number of | Number of ee hv ieg gi og serge of
ness. plants. ripe fruit. of fruit in singie ruit in
gra grams.

| | = on

Frait green......-+- Ree T 18304 17.5

Fruit half ripe..... 5 439 7858 17.9

Frait fully ripe...|- -24 | 1889 36622 19.4
| |

The experiment with wheat, conducted by Nowacki, and
already referred to (see table III), shows a larger number of
stalks from ripe than from green seed; and although not so
tall, the total growth of stalks in length is greater for the plants
from ripe than from green seed. Without going into further
details, the general principle may be stated, that plants from
green seed will, asa rule, attaina smaller development in both
vegetative and reproductive parts than those from ripe seed.

It is furthermore to be pointed out in this connection, that
not only are all parts of the plant smaller and less vigorous,
but that the different organs bear a different reciprocal pro-
portion. We may classify plant organs roughly as reproduc-
tive (fruit, seed, etc.) and vegetative (leaf, stem and root.) The
use of immature seed increases the reproductive parts at the
expense of the vegetative, and thus it comes about, that there
is more fruit formed in proportion to the amount of foliage
than normal. In an experiment, or rather a series of experi-
ments originated by Goff,” and continued by the originator
and the writer, in which the changes due to the use of unripe
seed have been made more than ordinarily prominent by the
cumulative effect of repetition through several generations, it
was found by the writer (see table VI) that a tomato plant, se-
lected as representative of the series grown from unripe seed,
bore 34 pounds of fruit to one pound of the vine (leaves, stems
and roots taken together), while a plant of the same variety

% For history of these experiments, see Bot. Gaz., xii (1887), pp. 41-42; Rep.
Wis. Exper. Sta., viii (1891), pp. 152-159. i

906 The American Naturalist. [October,

grown each year under the same conditions, but always from
ripe seed gave only 14 pounds of fruit for each pound of the
vine. In this case we have an enormous relative increase of
fruitage from unripe seed, which in fact was quite apparent to

VI—Tomators FROM RIPE AND UNRIPE SEEDS.

Experiment conducted by Arthur.

: Weight of | Weight of | Ratio of vine
Degree of ripeness. vine. fruit. to fruit.
Jb, 02, 1b, OZ. i
es series. i 2 10 9 2 1 : 3.475 (34)
ature se E id 6... 9.:| 154497,

the casual observer npon looking at the plants of the two se-
ries as they grew in the garden, although it required the scales
to disclose how surprisingly great the difference really was.
With this increased fruitfulness i also associated an increase
in the number of fruit, although they are individually smaller,
as also are theseeds. It is stated that von Mons,” of Belgium,
has applied this method of using green seed to the raising of
apples, in order to check too vigorous growth and to increase
the fruitfulness.

In connection with the increase of the number of fruit borne
by a plant, there is also a tendency to increased earliness in
ripening the fruit. In the cumulative trials with tomatoes by
Goff, which have just been referred to, the strain from green
seed ripened from ten days to four weeks earlier in different
years, than the corresponding series from ripe seed. In an-
other experiment with tomatoes by Goff,” seed saved from
fruit of the same variety, in different stages of maturity, de-
scribed as very green, pale green, tinged red, light red, deeper
red, and fully ripe (see table VII), gave an advantage in earli-
ness of nearly three weeks for the plants from the very green
seed compared with those from the fully ripe seed, and of two

* Williams, E., Rural New-Yorker, 1890, p. 798.
a L, c., iii (1884), p. 224.

1895.] Deviation in Development Due to the use of Unripe Seeds. 907

weeks compared with those from the half ripe seed; and there
was also about two-thirds as much gain in the ripening of the
first ten fruits upon the same plants respectively. But such
marked difference in earliness, or in fact any difference at all,
in favor of plants from immature seed does not always occur;
and several observers have noted the reverse results.

VII.—Tomators FROM RIPE AND UNRIPE SEEDS.
Experiment conducted by Gof.

‘ Number | Vegetated ` First ripe | First ten ripe
Degree of ripeness. | 5f seeds. | per cent. fruit. fruit. .

VELY BTCC. osrssis sorters 50 2 126 days. 137 days.
Pale groei is. ca cui e.. 50 84 143 days. 157 days.
Tinged Red .......... 50 100 140 days. 151 days
Light red 50 96 141 days 147 days
Deeper red 50 88 141 days. 147 days.
Fully ripe 50 96 146 days. 152 days.

This is not surprising in view of the fact that it is the weaker
plants from which the greater earliness in fruiting is expected,
and such plants must necessarily be most affected by the con-
ditions of weather, soil and cultivation, and so their uniform
development be most interfered with. It was noted by Goodale,”
in 1885, and since by Goff,* that some early market varieties
of vegetables indicate that they may have been originated
through the use of green seed.

I have now stated the principal deviations from normal de-
velopment in plants due to the use of immature seed, which I
have myself observed, or for which I find authentic recorded
data. They may be grouped and briefly summarized as fol-
lows: (1.) There is a loss of vigor, shown in the smaller per-
centage of germinations, the weakness of the seedlings, and the
greater number of plants which die before maturity; (2) the
full vigor of the plants is never recovered, although they may
and usually do, produce an abundant harvest, and one accept-
able to the cultivator, in case of economic plants; (8) the re-

33 Physiological Botany, 1885, p. 460.

3 Bot. Gazette, xii (1887), p. 41.

908 The American Naturalist. [October,

productive parts of the plants are increased in proportion to
the vegetative parts, resulting in a greater number of fruits and
seeds (although individually smaller) and more rapid ripen-
ing of them, than in similar plants from mature seed.

In explanation of these changes, and to bring the phenom-
ena into proper relation with other phenomena of plant and
animal life, I venture to assert that the deviation in development,
which comes from the use of unripe seed, does not differ in kind
from that resulting from any other method of weakening the organ-
ism, and is to be considered as only a special instance of the
effect of checking the uniform normal growth of the individual.

I have in my possession a large amount of data with which
to substantiate this proposition, but it would be tiresome to
present it here, and I shall content myself with a bare refer-
ence to a few facts, and trust to your being able to further con-
vince yourselves of its correctness by recalling facts from your
own researches or observations.

Imperfect seed of any kind germinates poorly and produces
weak plants. This is true of seed shriveled because of injury
to the parent plant from insects, fungi, drouth, etc., of seed in-
fested with fungus, of seed that is too old, or of seed deprived
of part of its nutriment or otherwise seriously mutilated. That
weak seedlings from any cause, as a rule, are likely to remain
weak and produce a poor crop, I think is a statement that will
be generally accepted without elaboration. It is in reference
to the third general feature of the deviations due to immature
seed that the chief interest rests; an interest that has sprung
up very largely in consequence of the numerous experiments
by Professor Goff, extending over the last ten years, and now
very widely known, more especially his long series of experi-
ments with tomatoes, in which notable results have been ob-
tained, suggestive of wide economic application, but to which
I have been able to make but brief reference in this paper.”

% Goff’s work upon unripe tomato seed and resulting strains is recorded as fol-
lows:

Rep. N. Y. Exper. Sta., iii (1884) pp. 224-226; iv (1885), pp. 182-183; v
(1886), p. 174.

Bot. Gaz. xii (1887), p. 41-42.

Garden and Forest, iii (1890), p. 427; (see aliè: pages 355 and 392). Cited by
Hunn, Bull. N. Y. Exper. Sta. No. 30 (1891), p. 478.

Rep. Wis. Exper. Sta. viii (1891), pp. 152-159.

1895.] Deviation in Development Due to the use of Unripe Seeds. 909

While the use of immature seed brings about greater activity
in reproduction, and a tendency to early maturity, the same is
also true of plants from very old seed, as has been recognized
for a very long time. It is probably best known in reference
to melons,” which are generally believed to give more and bet-
ter fruit when the seeds are five to twenty years old,” although
the plants will be weak. Observations have not, however, been
confined to melons, but are recorded for pears, beans, lentils,
ete.

The retardation of the germination due to age is well shown
by the tests of tomato seeds made by Lovett, in which seeds
from 2 to 6 years old showed the first germination in 10 days,
7 years, in 11 days, 8 and9 years in 12 days 10 and 11 years,
in 14 days, and 13 years,in 18 days. It will be observed that
the effect of over-maturity is the same as results from imma-
turity (cf. table III). The similarity of effect is even better
shown by a test of red clover seed made by Nobbe® in 1874,
in which mature and immature seed of the crop of that year
was compared with that of the crop of 1870, the trial being
made in December, 1874. The germination of the immature
seed was slower than that of the mature seed which had been
kept four years, while the total number of germinations for
both immature and over-mature seed was much decreased by
four years’ keeping (see table VIII).

It is evident, therefore, that aging as well as immaturity of
seed leads to weakness of the seedlings, and a general lowered
vitality.

Some of the same characteristics which we have seen in the
plants from immature seed may also be observed when plants

%6 « Es ist behaupted worden, dass Melonenkerne nach mehrjähriger Aufbewah-
rung Pflanzen liefern, welche weit weiniger ¢ Bliithen bringen, als Pflanzen aus
frischen Samen ; nach 5 Jahren sollten angeblich gar keine € Bliithen gebildet
werden. Verf. siete 1878 Melonensamen von 1876 und von 1870. Von den
älteren Samen keimte eine geringere Zahl; die daraus hervorgegangenen Pflanzen
waren etwas weniger kräftig.” Baillon (Bull. mens. soc. Linn. de Paris, No. 23,
1878) Justs Bot. Jahresb. vi (1878), p. 328.

31 Fleischer, 1. c., p. 17; Schulz, quoted by Cohn, Symbola, p.,9.

3 Rep. N. Y. Exper. Sta., ii (1883), p- 267.

39 Samenkunde, p. 346. :

910 The American Naturalist. [October,

VIII.—Gerrmination or RIPE, UNRIPE, AND OLD SEED OF
RED CLOVER.
Experiment conducted by Nobbe.

Degree of ripeness, Per cent of total ages Total germination.
Soon after | 4 yearsafter Soon after | 4 years after
gathering. gathering. | gathering. | gathering.

pecans! mee
Immature seed..........+++ 63 0 48 6
90 | 24 88 58

grown on good and on poor soil are compared. It has been
noticed by tomato growers that more seed is obtained on poor
than on rich soil,” which accords with the record for imma-
ture strains.“ The difference in fertility of soil need not be
especially marked to secure the effect, if other conditions are
reasonably uniform, even good soil compared with yet richer
soil produces the characteristic results. In some experiments
on wheat made by Latta,” the yield on good wheat land was
one pound of straw to .55 of a pound of grain, but the same
land richly fertilized gave one pound of straw to only .48 of a
pound of grain (see table IX); that is, the poorer soil brought
about a greater development of the reproductive parts of the
plants, as compared with the vegetative parts, than did the
richer soil, without regard to the mode of fertilization. This
phase of the subject might be extended to great length and
many statistics given, but it will suffice for illustration to ap-
peal to common observation of the remarkable size of the
flowers and seed pods of depauperate weeds and other plants,
and on the other hand, the tendency of plants in rich soil to
produce foliage shoots rather than fruit.

It has been recognized by zoologists* that “ checks to nutri-

* Allen, Amer. Gard., xi (1890), p. 358.

“ Goff, Rep. Wis. Exper. Sta., viii (1891), p. 157.
“ Bull. Ind. Exper. Sta., No. 41 (1892), p. 94.
“Geddes and Thompson, Evolution of sex, p. 218,

1895.] Deviation in Development Due to the use of Unripe Seeds. 911

TX.—WHEAT ON Poor anp Ricau Sort.
Experiment conducted by Latta.

Plat unfertilized produced 1 Ib. of straw to .56 lbs. of grain.

bone black,
Plat with < ammonia, | producea 1 lb. of straw to .45 lbs. of grain.
potash,

potash,
Plat unfertilized produced 1 lb. of straw to .55 Ibs. of grain.
Plat with horse manure produced 1 lb. of straw to .49 lbs. of grain.
Plat with horse manure produced 1 Jb. of straw to .51 lbs of grain.

bone black,
Plat with ammonia, } produced 1 lb. of straw to .47 Ibs. of grain.

Plat unfertilized produced 1 Ib. of straw to .52 lbs. of grain.
Plats unfertilized averaged 1 lb. of straw to .55 Ibs. of grain.
Plats fertilized averaged 1 lb. of straw to .48 lbs. of grain.”

tion, especially in the form of sudden scarcity, will favor sex-
ual reproduction.” I think I may safely enlarge this state-
ment, and say that any cause which retards uniform progress in
the development of an animal or plant favors reproduction. By this
is meant that after such a check occurs the organism will de-
velop the reproductive parts of its structure faster and more
fully than the other parts, and in the case of crops the yield of
seed will be greater proportionately, than of the leaves and
stems.“

Enough has doubtless been said to show that the deviations
in development, which arise when unripe seeds are used, drop
into a general category of changes dependent upon the avail-
able energy of the plant and the uniformity of its development.
In general, the change is a tendency toward reproduction at
the expense of the vegetative parts of the plant.

Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The following are the chief works treating of the subject of
the growth of unripe seed. Additional citations have already

“I haye developed this proposition more fully, and shown its application in
another direction, in an article entitled: “A new factor in the improvement of
crops.’’ Agric. Sci., vii (1893), pp. 340-345.

62

912 The American Naturalist. [October

been made to brief or incidental references to interesting in-
formation in this connection.

Arthur, Earliness with unripe seed. Garden and Forest, iii
(1890), p. 392.

Arthur, Variations of plants from unripe seed. Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci., 1885-91, p. 14. Title only.

Bailey, Products of mature and immature fruits. Bull. Cor-
nell Exper. Sta., No. 45, 1892, p. 207.

Cohn, Symbola ad seminis physiologiam. Inaug.-Diss., 1847,
pp. 12-72, where many references to the older literature are to
be found.

Cohn, Beiträge zur Physiologie des Samens. Flora, xxxii
(1849), pp. 481-512.

DeCandolle, Phys. Vég., ii (1832), p. 662.

Detmer, Vergleichende Physiologie des Keimungsprocesses,
1880, pp. 537-538. i

Fleischer, Beiträge zur Lehre von dem Keimen der Gewächse,
1851, pp. 1-17.

Goff, Report of the horticulturist. Rep. N. Y. Exper. Sta., ii
(1883), p. 205 ; iii (1884), pp. 199, 211, 224, 232 ; iv (1885), pp.
130, 182 , v (1886), pp. 174, 197.

Goff, Influence of heredity upon vigor. Bot. Gaz., xii (1887),
pp. 41-42.

Goff, Earliness from .unripe seed. Garden and Forest, iii
(1890), p. 427.

Goff, A breeding experiment with tomatoes. Rep. Wis.
Exper. Sta. viii (1891), pp. 152-159.

Goodale, Vitality of seeds. Rep. Mass. Bd. Agric., xxvi
(1878), pp. 268-269, 284-285.

[Hunn], Tests with green and ripe seed of tomato. Bull.
N. Y. Exper. Sta., No. 30 (1891), pp. 478-479.

Keith, Of the conditions of germination, in reply to M. De-
Candolle. Phil. Mag. viii (1836), pp. 491-495.

Kurr, et al., Protocolle der botanischen Section der Versam-
lung deutscher Aerzte und Naturforscher. Flora, xviii (1835),
pp. 1-5; xix (1836), pp. 83-85.

Lucanus, Ueber das Reifen und Nachreifen des Getreides.
Landw. Ver.-Sta. iv (1860) pp. 147-166.

1895.] Editor’s Table. 913

Lucanus, Ueber den Einfluss der Reife und der Nachreife
auf die Keimungs und Vegetationskraft der Roggenkorner.
Landw. Ver.-Sta., iv (1860) pp. 253-263.

Nobbe, Ueber die Keimungsreife der Fichtensamen. Landw.
Ver.-Sta., xvii (1874), pp. 277-290.

Nobbe, Handbuch der Samenkunde, 1876, pp. 331-346.

Nowacki, Untersuchungen über das Reifen des Getreides.
Inaug.—Diss., 1870, pp. 1-30. pl. 2.

Sey ffer, Ueber die Keimfihigkeit unreifer Samen. Isis, 1838,
pp. 113-115.

Siegert, Ueber die vortheilhafteste Erntezeit und das Nach-
reifen der Getreidekérner Landw. Ver—Sta., vi (1863), pp.
134-140.

Sturtevant, Unripe seed. Garden and Forest, iii (1890), p
355.

Tautphöus, Ueber die Keimung der Samen. Inaug—Diss.,
1876, pp. 23-25.
Wollny, Forsch. Geb. Agrik.—Phys. ix (1886), p. 294.

EDITOR’S TABLE.
incl

on Se

—TuE late meeting of thc American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science was an occasion of instruction and pleasure to all con-
cerned. The hospitality of the citizens of the beautiful city of Spring-
field and the generally delightful weather, contributed much to the
comfort of the visitors. The excursions to points less remote than usual,
were, on this accoynt, more enjoyable. The leading club of the place
gave a unique entertainment, furnished by the talent of the members.

The only regrettable feature was the small attendance, less than four
hundred members having been present. As the locality was accessible
to the most populous region of the country, this absence of many of our
best-known cultivators of science excited comment. Such a consider-
able number of our best zoologists remained away from the meeting that
the section of zoology was reduced to a fragment of what it should
had been. A considerable number of the geologists failed to attend
most of the sessions of their section.

914: The American Naturalist. [October,

There are two principal causes for this falling off in the attendance,
which has been characteristic of several recent meetings. One of the
principal causes is lack of patriotism and public spirit on the part of
a good many of the absentee members. The Association affords to the
scientific men of the country the opportunity to present their work to
the public, and thus to excite its interest. The Association has a
missionary service to which no cultivator of science should be insensi-
ble. It is not only a stimulant to education to men of all classes, but
it offers matter of thought and occupation to the well-to-do, who are
sometimes at a loss for occupation for both time and money. And
it should appeal to the selfish interests of the cultivators of science as
well, for the Association must influence men of means in suggesting
directions for the exercise of their liberality.

The other reason for the small attendance of some of the sections is
the absorption of interest in special societies which meet immediately
before the Association convenes. It is well for the societies to meet at
the same time and place as the Association, but they should be careful
not to appropriate too much of its vitality. Due consideration of the
importance of the Association to science and to the country, should in-
fluence them in this matter, and it is to be supposed that the experi-
ence of the last few years is all that is necessary to impress this view on
the mind of their members with reference to the future.

In order to remove some special inducements to absenteeism which
were presented by the Springfield meeting, the Association adopted two
important resolutions. First, that meetings should begin on Monday,
so that they should not be interrupted by a Sunday; and, second, that
excursions should not be undertaken until after the close of the meet-
ing. These arrangements will have an excellent effect in concentrating
both the work and the attendance.

—TuHE Zoological Section passed some important resolutions with ref-
erence to the proposed bibliographical bureau and its work. It endorsed
the plan introduced by Mr. H. H. Field, for the establishment of such
a bureau in Switzerland. It is proposed that this bureau shall issue
frequent bibliographical records of Zodlogical papers as they appear ;
and it is hoped that it will do the same for botanical literature. For
its support the Association appropriated the sum of $250.00, to be
added to the various sums already subscribed in Europe.

Mr. Field offered a resolution that the bureau undertake to fix the
date of publication of all printed matter presented to it. This resolu-
tion was adopted by the Section. He also proposed that the date of

1895.] ria Editor’s Table. 915

publication be regarded as the date of distribution. The Section did
not concur in this view. Consultation with leading publishing zoolo-
gists present, as well as with botanists, disclosed an almost unanimous
sentiment in favor of regarding the date of completed printing, as the
only available date of publication. Resolutions expressing this opinion
were framed and passed Section F unanimously, and copies were sent to
Mr. Field for presentation before the British Association at Ipswich,
and the Zoological Congress at Leyden, Holland.

—OFFICIALISM is becoming more conspicuous among American
office holders than was formerly the case. Years ago, our officials
were conspicuous for their politeness to the public, and general disposi-
tion to forward their interests. More recently many of the customs
collectors have distinguished themselves for their extreme interpreta-
tions of the provisions of the tariff laws, so as to render themselves ob-
noxious, and the country absurd. Still more recently the Post-Office
Department developed an exaggerated officialism in refusing to trans-
mit various articles over its routes. Naturalists have had especial
difficulties in the matter of mailing specimens. Both zoologists and
botanists have been met with refusals to allow the sending of their
specimens, which have only been withdrawn after tedious negotiations.
No sooner is this point gained than some new and superserviceable
postmaster raises fresh difficulties, and the same process has to be re-
peated. The only permanent remedy is the enactment and enforce-
ment of compulsory education laws, so that all our citizens may learn
that the prosecution of the natural sciences is beneficial to the public,
and that their cultivators are an important part of the community.

—AmoncG the various acts hostile to science which have rendered
the present administration notorious, few will excite deeper regret
than the suspension of the journal formerly issued by the Agricultural
Department under the name of Insect Life. Asa record of the discovery
in the greatest of all zoological fields, it has no equal in the world, as its
value was assured by the ability of its editors, first, Mr. C. V. Riley, and
more recently Mr. L. O. Howard. The policy of the present adminis-
tration, as announced by the present Secretary of Agriculture, to limit
the functions of government to those which are most rudimental, war-
rants the retort, actually made by one of his scientific experts to him,
that the Department itself should then be abolished. The first Secretary,
the Hon. Jeremiah Rusk, declared that he was placed at the tail of the
administration on order to “ keep the flies off of it.” The present Sec-
retary seems inclined to let the “ flies ” remain, not only on the admin-
istration, but on the entire country.

916 The American Naturalist. [October,

—In the death of the U. S. Commisioner of Fisheries the Hon. `
Marshall MacDonald, the country loses a veryjefficint officer. It is to
be expected that an equally competent man shall succed him.

—WE must again remind our contributors that the most certain way
of getting soparate copies of their papers*lis-to] comunicate with the
publishers directly; and the most directZmethod of doing this is to

write their wishes on the copy which goes tofthe printer.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Rambles in Alpine Valleys.'—In this little book Mr. Tutt gives
the impressions of a naturalist while} exploring the valleys on the
Italian side ofthe Mont Blanc range. Especial attention is given to
the insect life, and in describing their habits and habitats, many prob-
lems are suggested for discussion. These are touched upon lightly, but
never slightingly, the object of the author, as stated in his preface, being
to explain simply and clearly, without going deeply into scientific
technicalities, the scientific bearings of some of the facts that came under
his notice during a holiday spent in that region. The book is very
pleasantly written and well repays perusal by the lover of nature and
of scenery. Among naturalists it appeals especially to entomologists.

Five plates gives some idea of the scenery in the valleys visited.

Lead and Zinc Deposits of Missouri.’—This report is pub-
lished in two volumes of nearly 400 pages each, the subject being
treated under three heads. Part I is a general discussion of the history,
compounds, modes of occurrence, distribution and industry of lead and
zinc throughout the world. Part II deals with the lead and zine in
Missouri. Part III is a systematic and detailed description of the im-
portant developments and occurrences of lead and zinc ores in the state
of Missouri. Accompanying the report are two papers having a bear-
ing upon the subject: A study of the Cherts of Missouri, by E. O.

1 Rambles in Alpine Valleys. By J. W. Tutt. London, Swan., Sonnenschein
& Co., 1895.

2? Missouri Geological Survey Vols. VI and VII. Report upon the Lead and
Zine Deposits. By Arthur Winslow, assisted by J. D. Robertson. Jefferson
City, 1894.

1895.] Recent Literature. 917

Hovey, and Methods of Analysis pursued in the determination of min-
ute quantities of metals in crystalline and clastic rocks, by James R.
Robertson. A third appendix gives a list of the works referred to in
the Report.

Forty-one page plates and 250 diagrams, sections, etc. illustrate the
text.

Minot’s Land-Birds and Game-Birds of New England.’
—For nearly twenty years this remarkable and interesting book has
ranked among the authorities on the subject of which it treats, and in
editing this second edition, Mr. Brewster has not attempted a revision
in the sense of adding fresh material, or of altering the text except
where it seemed necessary in order to use it in connection with more
modern works. It is practically reprinted nearly in it original form.
The biographies which form the feature of the book were written from
the author’s personal observation and comprise descriptions of the
mature bird, of their nests and eggs, of their habits, and of their notes.

Mr. Brewster has placed in foot notes the latest views as to nomen-
clature, etc. and in a few instances corrects some of the authors’s views.

The illustrations are wood-cuts in outline, drawn by the author from
nature.

Birds of Eastern North America.‘—In this handy pocket vol-
ume Mr. Chapman aims to give the student a work, free from the
technicalities that require a glossary for interpretation. He presents
the subject in a comprehensive but simple way. Three introductory
chapters contain suggestions as to methods of study, and the problems
to be investigated by the student of ornithology—how, when and where
to find birds—directions for collecting and preserving specimens in-
cluding nests and eggs. The remaining pages, some 400 in number,
contain the analytical keys, and descriptions of the species. The de-
scriptions are very full, comprising the bird’s general range, manner of
occurrence, comparative numbers, times of migration at several specific
points, its nest and eggs, and finally a brief sketch of its haunts, notes
and disposition.

The illustrations are varied and include a charming colored frontis-
piece, several full-page half-tone plates and upward of one hundred and
fifty cuts in the text.

3The Land-Birds and Game-Birds of New England. By H. D. Minot. Second
Edition edited by William Brewster, Boston, 1895. Houghton, Mifflin and Co.,
Publishers

1 Hand-Book of Birds of Eastern North America. By Frank M. Chapman,
New York, 1895, D. Appleton & Co., Publishers.

918 The American Naturalist. [October,

Origins of Inventions.°—This volume is an expansion of the
principles laid down by Prof. Mason in a paper on the Birth of Inven-
tion written in 1891. Briefly stated, the author’s views are to this effect.
Invention is stimulated by human wants. In its broad sense the terms
covers not only things, but languages, institutions, æsthetic arts, philoso-
phies, creeds and cults. Invention is based on change. This change
is in both structure and function, and proceeds from simple to complex,
and is also always a change from the natural to the artificial. Prof.
Mason finds that these changes follow a definite law of evolution which
he states at length. In each culture-area of the earth such styles of
invention have been elaborated as to confer upon ihe people thereof
their local or tribal traits.

The book is one of the Contemporary Science Series and conforms
in appearance with the other volumes of that series.

A Pretty Book on Plants and Insects.°—Professor Weed
has shown, in this little book, that it is possible to write a popular
work which does not contain the usual preponderance of error and
false statement. One is sometimes tempted to say that whenever a
popular and readable book appears on a scientific subject, it will cer-
tainly turn out to be bad so far as the science is concerned, and too
often in the end one is justified in making this severe statement.
Here, however, we have an attractive book which is very readable—
in fact, popular—and yet it is not full of error. Let any one read the
succeeding chapters on the glaucous willow, mayflower, spring beauty,
purple trillium, Jack-in-the-pulpit, showy orchis, pink lady’s-slipper,
fringed Polygala, Canada lily and common thistle, and he will have
learned much about plant structure and reproduction, as well as much
about the habits of insects, especially their manner of visiting flowers
in search of honey. In each chapter the plant named is the starting
point from which the author leads the reader out on long botanical
and entomological rambles, thus very greatly increasing the scope of
the book. The beautiful illustrations add much to the value and at-
tractiveness of the work. It should, and doubtless will be, widely read.

—CHARLES E. Bessey.

5 The Origins of Inventions. A Study of Industry among Primitive Peoples.
By Otis T. Mason. London, 1895. Imported by Charles Scribner’s Sons.

ê Ten New England Blossoms and their Insect Visitors. By Clarence Moore
Weed. Houghton, Mifflin & Company, 1895; 142pp.

1395.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 919

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Annual Report Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci. for 1894.

Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey for 1893. From the State
Survey.
Bancs, O.—The Geographical Distribution of the Cotton-tail (Lepus sylvaticus
Bach.) with a description of a new subspecies, and with Notes on the Distribution
of Lepus americanus Erxl. in the East. Extr. Proceeds. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.
Vol. XXVI, 1895. From the author.

BARDELEBEN, K. voN.—Hand und Fuss. Aus dem Verhandl. der Anat. Gesell.
Jahrg. 8, 1894. From the author.

BEECHER, C. E.—Further Observations on the Ventral Structure of Triarthrus.
Extr. Am. Geol., Vol. XV, Feb., 1895. From the author.

BOULENGER, G. A.—List of the Freshwater Fishes collected by Mr. A. Everett
on Palawan and Balahae. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. XV, 1895.——On
the Variations of the Viper ( Vipera berus) in Denmark. Extr. Zoologist, Feb.,
1895. From the author.

Brooks, W. K.—The Sensory Clubs or Cordyli of Laodice. Extr. Journ.
Morph., Vol. X, 1895. From the author.

BrussEL, A.—Ueber die grössere Länge der zweiten Zehe bei den alten Grie-
chen.— Ueber die grössere Bestialitit des weiblichen Menschengeschlechtes in
Anatomischer Hinsicht.——Uber die Unterschiede des Menschlichen Beckens
von den übrigen Affenbecken. Separat-abdruck a. d, Correspondenz-Blatt d.
Deutsch. anthropol. Gesellsch., 1884, Nr. 10 u 11. From the author.

Bulletin No. 29, 1894, Agric. Exper. Station of the Rhode Island College of
Agriculture and Mechanic Arts.

CATER, O. C.S.—Anthracite Coal near Phili Creek, Penna. Extr. Journ.
Franklin Inst., 1894. From the author.

CHITTENDEN, F. H.—Two new species of Beetles of the Tenebrionid genus
Echocerus. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl: Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1895. From the
author.

NN, H. W.—E with Bacillus No. 41.——Cream
Ripening with pure ‘cultures of Bacteria. Extr. Bull. Storrs Agric. Experm.
Station. No date given. From the Station.

Cooke, A. H. ge ate with papers on Recent Brachiopods by A. E. Shipley,
and Fossil Brachiopods by F. R. C. Reed. New York and London, 1895. From
Macmillan and Co., Publishers.

DEINHARD, L.—Psychometrie. (Erschliefhung der inneren Zinne des Mens-
chen. Braunschweig, 1891). From the author.

Dums.e, E. T.—Notes on the Texas AENEA Extr. Trans. Texas Acad.
Sci., 1894. From the author.

FAIRBANKS, H. W.—On Analcite Diabase tied San Luis Obispo Co., Califor-
nia. Extr. from the Bull. Dept. Geol. Cal. Univ., Jan., 1895. Pilea the
author.

920 The American Naturalist. [October,

FARQUHAR, H.—A Stable Monetary Standard. Extr. Proceeds. Amer. Ass.
Adv. Sci., Vol. XLIII, 1894. From the author

FritscH, A.—Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der Perm-formation
Bohmens. Bd. III, Heft. 3. Palaeoniscidae, I, Prag. No date given.

Goong, G. B. AND Bean, T. H.—A Revision of the Order Heteromi, Deep-sea
Fishes, with a description of the new generic types Macdonaldia and Lipogenys.
——On Cetominidae and Rondeletiidae, two new Families of Bathybial Fishes
from the northwestern Atlantic. —-On Harriotta, a new type of Chimaeroid Fish
from the deeper waters of the northwestern Atlantic. Proceeds. U. S. Natl.
Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the authors

Haves, S.—Another Miami Valley Skeleton, including a description of Two
Rare Harpoons. Extr. Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Jan., 1895. From the
author

Fizanicic C. J.—The Cranial Nerves of Amblystoma punctatum. Extr. Journ.
Comp. Neurology, Vol. IV, 1894. From the author

Hyatt, A.—Trias ang Jura in the Western States. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.,
1894.——Carbonif halopods, Second Paper. Extr. Fourth Annual Rept.
Geol. Surv. Texas, 1893. From the author

JULIEN, A. A.—Notes of Research on the New York Obelisk. Extr. Bull.
Amer. Geog. Soc., 1893. From the author

Keyes, C. R. co Sheetal Report of the State Geologist of Missouri, oami
by the Bureau of Geology and Mines to the 38th General Assembly. Jefferson
City, 1895. From Mr. G. R. Keyes.

Kurz, F. Dr.—Die Flora Chileatgebietes im südöstlichen Alaska. Separat-
Abdruck aus Engler’s botanischen Jahrbüchern. XIX Bd. 4 Heft., 1894.
From the author.

LOVELAND, A. E., AND Watson, W. S.—Some observations in the number of
Bacteria in Dairy Products. Extr. Bull. Storrs Agric. Exper. Station. No date
given. From the Station

McCa.tig, 8. W.—A Prefintaiee Report on the Marbles of Georgia. Bull.
No. 1, Georgia Geological Survey, 1894. From the Surve

Mason, O. T.—Overlaying with Copper by the A neicii; Abasna. Extr.
Proceeds, U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII. From the author

MERRILL, G. P. A Papaio of the Granitic Rocks of ‘he District of Colum-
bia. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soe. Am., Vol. 6, 1895. From the Society.

OsBorN, H. F.—Alte und neue Probleme der Phylogenese. Aus Ergebnisse der
Anat. und Entwicklungsgeschicte. Bd. III, 1894. From the au thor

Prosser, C. S.—The Devonian System of Eastern Pennsylvania and N ew York.
Bull. 120, U. S. Geol. Surv. Washington, 1894. From the author.

Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. VII, Geology. Norwalk, O.,
1893. From the Survey.

Ripcway, R.—Additional Notes on the Native Trees of the Lower Wabash
Valley. Extr. Proceeds, U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the Smith-
sonian Institution. «

SALISBURY, R. D.—Report of the Surface Geology of New Jersey for 1894.
Extr. Ann. Report, 1894. From the New Jersey Geol. Surv

SCUDDER, 8. H.—The Miocene Insect-fauna near Ceskineen Baden. Extr.
Geol. Mag., March, 1895. From the author.

1895.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 921

Sixth Annual Report of the Rhode Island Agric. Exper. Station for 1893.

Seventh Annual Report Agric. Exper. Station of the State Agric. College,
Fort Collins, Col., for the year 1894.

Simpson, ©. T—Distribatiad of the Land and Freshwater Mollusks of the
West Indian Region, and their evidence with regard to past changes of land and
sea. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the Smithso-
nian Institution.

Sixteenth Annual Report of the North Carolina Agric. Exper. Station for the
year 1893. Raleigh, 1894.

Smitu, F.—A Preliminary account of two new Oligochaeta from Illinois. Bull.
Ill. State Laboratory, Vol. IV, 1895. From the author

STEINDACHER, F. Dr.—Ichthyologische Beiträge (XVII). Aus den Sitzungs-
ber. der k, Akad. der Wissensch. Wein, Mathem-naturw. Classe ; Bd. CIII, 1894.
From the author.

STRONG, O. S.—The Cranial Nerves of the Amphibia. Extr. Journ. Morph.,
Vol. X, 1895. From the author

Tabular Statements of the Mineral Products of the aii States for the cal-
endar years 1882, 1883, 1884. From the U. S. Geol. Surv

Topp, J. E.—A Preliminary Report on the Geology of South Dakota. South
Dakota Geol. Surv., Bull. No.*1. From the author.

TORNIER, G.—Das Entstehen der Gelenkformen und ein zoophyletisches Ent-
wicklungsgesetz. Aus Verhandl. der Anat. Gesell., Mai, 1894. From the
author.

TROUESSART, E. Dr.—Note sur les Acariens marins recoltes par M. Henri
Gadeau de Kerville sur le littoral départment de la Manche. Extr. Bull Soc.
des Amis des Sci. nat. de Rouen, 1894. From the author

Warp, L. F.—Recent Discoveries in the Potomac Formation of Maryland.
Extr. Bull. Torry Bot. Club, Vol. 21, 1894. From the author

Weyssg, A. W.—On the Blastodermic Vescicle of Sus crofa domesticus. Re-
print Proceeds. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, Vol. XXX, 1894. From the
anthor.

aaeeea R.—Zur Geschichte der Anatomie. Freiburg, 1894. From
the au

pe a Report of the Madras Government Museum for the year 1893-

4.

922 The American Naturalist. [October,

General Wotes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Faunal Migrations.—An interesting account of the changes in
the Mesozoic faunal geography of California is given by James Perrin
Smith in a recent number of the Journal of Geology (May and June,
1895). These changes the author attributes to migration and points
out that marine currents along continental borders are favorable to
migrations. His conclusions, given below, are based on a study of the
faunal relations of the various series of sedimentary rocks of California,
and the faunal relations which California had with various regions
during different periods of geologic history.

From the data in hand, Mr. Smith concludes that at the beginning
of the Upper Devonian, some widespread disturbance occurred, opening
up connection between the American and Eurasian Seas.

The lower Carboniferous fauna of California was developed directly
out of Devonian fauna predecessors with the addition of some Eurasian
elements by migration.

The Upper Carboniferous fauna was developed directly out of that

of the Lower Carboniferous, but still with intermigration with the
Russian and Asiatic regions, so that the California Carboniferous re-
sembles the Eurasian even more than it does that of the eastern United
States.
- The lower Triassic fauna of the West is entirely foreign, having
migrated in from unknown regions, but having reached nearly simul-
taneously the western part of America, the Salt Range in India, and
northern Siberia, but having been cut off from central Europe.

The Middle Trias of the West already begins to show relationships
to the Mediterranean province of Europe, showing a connection in
that direction, while the similarity to the faunas of the Arctic Trias
province is disappearing. _

In the Upper Trias the nearest faunal affinities are with the Hima-
layan and the Mediterranean provinces.

In the Lower and Middle Jura there was no connection with Euro-
pean waters through the Pacific region, but rather through the Atlantic
or “ Central Mediterranean Sea” of Neumayr, bringing a central Euro-
pean fauna,

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 923

Near the beginning of the Upper Jura this connection with Euro-
pean waters was cut off, and one established with those of Siberia and
northern Europe, bringing in a Boreal fauna.

This same connection was continued through part of the Lower
Cretaceous, giving a boreal fauna to the Knoxville.

Near the beginning of the Gault, connection with the Boreal sea of
Russia was cut off, and communication established with southern India
and through that country with central and southern Europe, bringing
in a warm-water fauna. This connection existed during the greater
part of the Cretaceous, but after this time the faunas are confined much
more closely to their present ranges, although even to-day many of our
living and Tertiary mollusca are found in Japan.

These changes in faunal geography are too widespread and easily
correlated over great areas to be charged to mere mountain-making ;
they must rather be of the nature of continental uplift and subsidence.
A study of these changes will throw light on the problem of the extinc-
tion of faunas and explain the great poverty of certain beds, in which
the conditions for life seem favorable.

The fauna of California has not been a genetic series, but rather a
succession of independent faunas, derived by migration from various
parts of the earth, complicated 'by the mixture with the products of
local development. Therefore, the student that would intelligently study
the genesis and history of this fauna, must not neglect the fossil records
of any region, since all may have contributed some elements to this
complex assemblage of forms.

A new Geomyid from the Upper Eocene.—A rodent from
the Uinta beds (Upper Eocene) of Utah, representing a new genus, is
described by Prof. W. B. Scott in the Proceeds. Phila. Acad. 1895, p.
269 under the name Protoptychus hatcherii. The skull only is known,
including the dentition of the upper jaw, but this proves to be of un-

‘usual interest and brings to light some unexpected facts which are thus
summarized by the author:

(1). Protoptychus, a new rodent from the Uinta Eocene, is an unex-
pectedly modernized form, which has already acquired very large mas-
toid bullae, a rostrum, incisive foramina and posterior nares greatly
resembling those of the jumping-mice, and, as in that family, the arti-
culation of the jugal with the lachrymal is retained. The infraorbital
foramen is of the murine type. The dentition and the shape and con-
struction of the mastoid and surrounding parts of the cranium most re-
semble those of the Heteromyidae.

924 The American Naturalist. 3 [October,

(2). The genus is probably to be regarded as the ancestral type of
the Dipodids and indicates an American origin for this family, being
much more ancient than any known representative of the group in the
Old World, which it appears to have reached by a comparatively late
migration. Paciculus of the John Day ‘beds is a somewhat aberrant
number of the same line.

(3). It is not improbable that the Heteromyide were derived from
some form related to Protoptychus, though not from that genus itself.

(4). The Geomyidz are descended from early forms which may best
be referred to the Heteromyide and in which the tympanics and the
mastoids were already greatly inflated. The assumption of subterra-
nean habits of life brought about a reduction in this region of the skull
and led to the acquisition of the many peculiarities which characterize
the recent pocket-gophers. Pleurolicus and Entoptychus represent
stages in this change and are more or less directly ancestral to the
modern Geomyide. (Proceeds. Phila. Acad., 1895.)

Cenozoic History of the Baltic Sea.—lIn a preliminary report
on the Physical Geography of the Litorina Sea’ Mr. H. Munthe gives
a summary of the present saltness of the Baltic and a report of the
present distribution of the Mollusca that concern the Litorina-sea espe-
cially ; he then discusses the question of the distribution of the Mollusca
during the saltest part of the Litorina-time. The report includes also
the author’s investigations of the diatomaceous flora of the Litorina-
sea and its rhizopod- and ostracod-faunas (on which subject but little
has been hitherto published) and in this connection he gives briefly the
testimony of diatoms in the hydrography of the Litorina-sea.

From the facts presented in the communication the late Cenozoic
history of the Baltic can be summed up in the following manner:

A. YOUNGER GLACIAL Epocna.

(1). Time of the younger Baltie glacier. :

(2). Late Glacial time. The land-subsidence in Scandinavia now
reaches its maximum during the Cenozoic period. The Baltic has the
character of an ice-sea with Yoldia arctica Gray, etc., and is in open
connection with the Cattegat across the northern part of South Sweden
(Lakes Wettern, Wenern, etc.) and possibly also with the White sea
across the Ladoga, etc.

1 The author defines Litorina-time as that relatively salt phase of the Baltic
Sea’s postglacial history, which was subsequent to the Ancylus time during which
the Baltic was shut off from the ocean and had the character of a fresh-water in-
land lake.

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 925

(1). Ancylus-time. Owing to upheaval of land in the South Baltic
region and gradually also in adjacent parts towards the north, the
Baltic ice-sea got the character of a fresh-water lake. Climate tem-
perate. A transgression of the Ancylus-lake takes place at a later
phase—due to upheaval of land in the central and subsidence in the
southern portions of the Baltic district. At that phase the lake had its
outlet within the Danish archipelago.

(2). Litorina-time. In consequence the Baltic by degrees came into
open connection with the Cattegat through the Belts and the Sound and
finally reached the salter and warmer character shown in the paper.
Owing to a later upheaval of land—that has been greater the further
one goes towards the central parts of Scandinavia—the saltness de-
creased more and more and in consequence the more stenohalinic forms
retired towards the South Baltic district, and Limneas, etc. immigr-
ated ; the Baltic thus entering into the

(3). Limnea-time. This time seems to come, however, so near the
present or Mya-time that I hesitate whether it is suitable to maintain
the Limneea-time as a particular one. (Bull. Geol. Inst. Univ. Upsala
Vol. II, 1894).

Fossil Elephants of Tilloux.—M. Marcellin Boule calls atten-
tion to the discovery recently made in the “ ballastiere” of Tilloux near
the station of Gensac‘la-Pallue, of the remains of gigantic elephants,
associated with implements of human industry. The most noteworthy
among these fossils are two tusks of Elephas meridionalis, whose size
surpasses all the tusks belonging to the Museum of the Acad. Sci. Paris.
But slightly bent, their line of curvature measures 2 m., 85, while that
of the Durfort elephant in the Museum measures 1 m., 70, and the
modern elephant in the gallery of Zoologie 1 m., 87. M. Boule an-
nounces also, finding in the same deposit two molar teeth belonging to
the same individual, and the remains of other Proboscidians, such as
Elephas antiquus and E. primigenius, also the molar teeth of Rhinoceros,
Hippopotamus, Cervus e laphus a Bos, probably the Bison priscus
figured in the collections of M. Chauvet. We have here then, says M.
Boule “ a deposit similar to those of certain localities in the north of
France, characterized by Elephas antiquus, but in which there is found
a lingerer (E. meridionalis) and a fore-runner (the Mammoth); an-
other proof of the continuity of geological and paleontological phenom-
ena,”

As to the flint fragments found in the same beds with the animals
above mentioned, they are often very fine and reproduce the diverse

926 The American Naturalist. [October,

forms of Chelles and of Saint-Acheul. M. Boule states that in addition
to the usual almond forms, there are discs, scrapers, small carefully
made, and even plates skillfully cut, things one would hardly except
to find in a deposit of this sort. It is the first time, adds the author,
that indisputable objects of human industry have been found contem-
porary with an elephant of which the species has, heretofore, been char-
acteristic of the Pliocene age. (Revue Scientifique, Août, 1895).

The Latest Connection between the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans.—Before the Geological Section of the American Association
for the Advancement of Sciences assembled in Springfield, Dr. J. W.
Spencer presented a short abstract of some investigations of no small
interest to biologists, under the title of “ Geological Canals between
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.” In extending his researches on the
great changes of level of land and sea and the evolution of the present
continental reliefs, the author carried his explorations to the Tehuante-
pec Isthmus, In that region he found that late in the Pleistocene
period there were shallow straits connecting the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans, in a region now elevated about 1000 feet above sea level. The
deeper parts of these straits evidently formed canals, now elevated 800
feet. These discoveries show for the first time the very late Pleistocene
connection between the two oceans, and the occurrence of shallow
waters which have permitted considerable intermingling of littoral
fishes and invertebrates, while excluding from the Gulf of Mexico all
deep sea fishes, and thus explaining in part the distribution of modern
marine life in the waters adjacent to Central America.

BOTANY.

Notes on Recent Botanical Publications.—In the Contribu-
tions from the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University (New Series,
No. IX), B. L. Robinson and J. M. Greenman publish papers on (1)
The flora of the Galapagos Islands, as shown by the collections of Dr.
G. Baur; (2) New and noteworthy plants chiefly from Oaxaca, collec-
ted by Messrs. C. G. Pringle, L. C. Smith and E. W. Nelson; (3) A
synoptic revision of the genus Lamourouxia; (4) Miscellaneous New
Species.—The List of plants obtained on the Peary Auxiliary Expedi-

1895.] ` : Botany. 927

tion of 1894, collected by Dr. H. E. Wetherel has been published in
Bulletin No. 5 of the Geographical Club of Philadelphia. It contains
108 species as follows: flowering plants, 77; fernworts, 5; mosses and
liverwort, 6; algæ, 2; fungi, 2; lichens, 16. Twenty-two families of
flowering plants were represented as follows: Graminew, 12; Caryo-
phyllacee,10; Crucifere, 8; Cyperacee, 6; Rosacea, Rube Praprisac,
Ericacee, Scrophulariacee, 5 each ; Oonpas, 4; Ranunculacee, Ona-
gracee, Polygonacee, Salicacee, 2 each ; Paperari Portulacacee, Dia-

pensiacee, Plumbaginaceæ, Boraginacee, Betulacee, Empetacee, Lil-
iacee, Juncacee, 1 each.— Recent Contributions from the Herbarium
of Columbia College contain papers by Mrs. Elizabeth G. Britton (72)
on the Systematic Position of Physcomitrella patens, and a couple of
hybrid mosses; by John K. Small (73) some new hybrid oaks from the
Southern States (Quercus phellos X digitata, Q. georgiana X nigra, Q,

catesbæi X cinerea) ; by George V. Nash (74) notes on some Florida
plants (including a number of new species); by N. L. Britton and
Anna M. Vail (75) an Enumeration of plants collected by M. E. Pen-
ard in Colorado during the summer of 1892; by Albert Schneider (76)
the biological status of lichens; by N. L. Britton (77) new or note-
worthy North American Phanerogams (including several new
species, one being Ranunculus allegheniensis, from the Mountains of
Virginia and North Carolina)—From the Proceedings of the
American Microscopical Society for 1894, we have two valuable
papers, viz.: The Aeration of Organs and Tissues in Mikania and
other Phanerogams, by W. W. Rowlee, and the Structure of the
fruit in the order Ranunculacee, by K. M. Wiegand. Both are fully
illustrated by good plates—Professor V. M. Spalding’s paper on the
Traumatropic Curvature of roots (Annuals of Botany, Dec., 1894)
familiarizes us with a new word, and gives a somewhat different explana-
tion to root motions than that made by Mr. Darwin.—In the contribu-
tions from the Subtropical Laboratory of the Division of Vegetable
Pathology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture (pub. in Report of
Mo. Bob. Garden, Vol. 6) Herbert J. Webber gives the results of his
studies on the dissemination and leaf reflexion of Yucca aloifolia and
other species. Some interesting adaptations are shown by the author
The leaf reflexion is shown to be a protective device against climbing
animals which would be tempted by the succulent fruits.—“ American
Nomenclature” is the title of a long article by the editor of the Journal
of Botany (London) in the July issue. The most remarkable part of
the paper is that quoted anonymously from an American letter, in
which occur some astonishing statements, e. g. “ Weare now in a very

63

928 The American Naturalist. [October,

critical position in this country.” “I do not know what the result will
be.” “ You have no conception of the violence of the discussions on
nomenclature now going on in this country.” It is not conceivable
that any reputable botanist would write thus of his fellow workers, and
the editor of the Journal must have been imposed upon by some petty
writer.—CHARLES E. Bessey.

Fertilization of the Yellow Adder’s-Tongue (Erythronium
americanum).—The common Dog-Tooth Violet or Adder’s-Tongue
differs remarkably from its nearest ally, the tulip, in its method of
fertilization. The blossoms of the latter being deficient in nectar in
this country, are visited by small bees for the pollen only. Observa-
tions made by me in the spring of 1888 upon the Adder’s-Tongue show
that small drops of nectar are secreted at the base of the inner petals
of the perianth, and that male bees (Nomada luteola), together with
female bees of the genus Halictus, visit the flowers for this nectar,
searching the base of the stamens and inner petals to secure it.

Patron, Hartford, Conn.

« Aboriginal’’ Botany.—Mr. F. V. Coville, the Chief of the
Division of Botany, and Honorary Curator of the Department of
Botany of the U. S. National Museum has issued directions for collect-
ing specimens and information illustrating the aboriginal uses of
plants. Information of this kind is so important that it is desirable
that more attention should be given to obtaining it by all who have
the opportunity. It is suggested that the following points should be
kept in mind. (1) Specimens of the plants or parts of plants used for
any purpose by the Indians should be secured in such condition as to
be readily identified by botanists, and accompanied by notes and
memoranda, (2) Specimens of all kinds of manufactures from plants
are desired by the National Museum. (3) Great care should always
be taken to properly, and fully label every specimen of whatever kind,
since much of its value depends upon such data as can be given only
by the collector. We would urge all who may be able to contribute to
our knowledge in the matter to send to the National Museum for a copy
of these directions,

New Species of Physalis.—In the July number of the Torrey
Bulletin Mr. P. A. Rydberg describes four new species and one new
variety of Physalis, a genus of which he is preparing a monograph.
The new species are as follows, viz.: Physalis subulata, from Mexico ;
P. comata from Nebraska, Kansas and Texas; P. versicolor, from New

1895.] Botany. 929

Mexico, Arizona and Mexico; P. versicolor microphylla from Mexico ;
P. macrophysa, from Arkansas, Kansas, Texas, and doubtfully North
Carolina and Ohio.

The Mycetozoa.—These organisms which have generally been
regarded as plants, and which are treated in the ordinary botanical
works under the name of Slime Moulds have been recently studied
more from a biological standpoint by Arthur Lister, the results of
which have been brought out by the trustees of the British Museum in
the form of a monograph of the group. The work is of such interest
to students of this group that we quote the following selections from the
introduction since they contain so much of general information re-
garding these curious organisms.

“Fries gave the name of Myxogastres in 1833, to the group of organ-
isms described in this Monograph, placing it among the Gasteromycet-
ous Fungi. In 1836 Wallroth substituted the term Myxomycetes
(Schleimpilze) for the older name, and this came to be the generally
accepted designation. Later investigations showed that the spores,
instead of producing a mycelium, as in the case of fungi, gave birth to
swarm-cells, which coalesce to form a plasmodium. In consequence of
this discovery, which indicated a relationship with the lower forms of
animal life, De Bary in 1858 introduced the name Mycetozoa. Under
this head he still retained the term Myromycetes for the section so
named by Wallroth, but linked with them the Acrasiee of Van Tieg-
hem, a small group inhabiting the excrement of animals; in these the
spores are said to produce swarm-cells, as in the Myxomycetes, which
multiply by division but do no coalesce to form a plasmodium. At a
certain period, when the fruits are about to be formed, they become
attached in branching strings which concentrate to a point, where
they are massed together in aggregations of more or less definite shape ;
the swarm-cells, however, do not lose their individuality. In Dictyos-
telium, a genus of the Acrasiee, a stalk is formed by the arrangement of
a number of swarm-cells in vertical rows in the centre of the heap;
the surrounding ameeboid bodies creep up this stalk and form a globose
cluster at the extremity; here each ameboid swarm-cell acquires a
spore-wall, and they become a naked aggregation of spores not enclosed
by a definite sporangium-wall. Rostafinski followed De Bary in the

1 A Monograph of the Mycetozoa, being a descriptive catalogue of the species in
the Herbarium of the British Museum; illustrated with 78 plates and 51 wood-
cuts by Arthur Lister, F. L. 8. London, 1894. 224pp. 8vo.

930 The American Naturalist. [October,

view that the formation of a plasmodium indicates a wide separa-
tion in the natural position of the Myzxomecetes from the fungi, but
he suppressed that name entirely, adopting De Bary’s class name

in its place; at the same time, he admitted into his
Monograph Dictyostelium, a genus of the Acrasiew. The reason for
his including this genus may be the fact pointed out by De Bary, that
Brefeld in first describing the dense aggregations of swarm-cells into
the stalked spore-masses of Dictyostelium, refers to them as being “ plas-
modia; that is, products of the coalescence of swarm-cells ;” and it was
not until after the publication of Rostafinski’s Monograph that Van
Tieghem in 1880 and Brefeld in 1884 corrected this view. Accepting
the Mycetozoa as established by Rostafinski, but excluding Dictyostelium
on the ground of its not forming a true plasmodium, we have a clearly
defined group of organisms separated from all others by the following
combination of characters.. A spore provided with a firm wall pro-
duces on germination an amceboid swarm-cell which soon acquires a
flagellum. The swarm-cells multiply by division and subsequently
coalesce to form a plasmodium which exhibits a rhythmic streaming.
The plasmodium gives rise to fruits which consist of supporting struct-
ures and spores ; in the Endosporee these have the form of sporangia,
each having a wall in which the free spores are developed. A capil-
litium or system of threads forming a scaffolding among the spores is
present in most genera. In the Exosporee the fruits consist of sporo-
phores bearing numerous spores on their surface.

The affinities of the Mycetozoa have been dealt with by de Bary and
Zopf in the works before referred to. It had been suggested that they
were allied to the fungi through the Chytridee, which do not always
form a mycelium, and in which the entire vegetative body is finally
transformed into a many spored sporangium, the vegetative body and
spores having the power of amceboid movement for a longer or shorter
time. ary, however, -mentions among other points of difference
that the Chytridee do not form a plasmodium by the coalescence of
swarm-cells, “and there is, therefore, no ground for assuming their
direct relationship with the Mycetozoa.

The position of the Acrasiee in which the swarm-cells exhibit
amceboid movements, but do not produce a flagellum, and aggregate
without coalesceing into a true plasmodium, has already been referred
to. The view held by De Bary that the Mycetozoa are more closely
associated with the Protozoa is supported by a comparison with the
pelagic Protomyxa of Heckel, which is stated to develope a plasmodium
by the coalescence of swarm-spores, and differs from the Mycetozoa

1895.] Botany. 931

chiefly in the absence of a firm spore membrane; also by comparison
with Bursulla, which, according to Sorokin, forms a true plasmodium
and minute sporangia on horse dung; the spores do not become
invested by a firm membrane, and escape from the swollen apex of the
sporangium in the form of swarm-cells, without cilia, but capable of
amceboid movement. Zopf extends the Mycetozoa so as to embrace the
Monadinee of Cienkowski, but De Bary maintains that, whatever
may be the points of agreement between the Monadinew and the
Mycetozoa they are not such as to warrant their being classed with the
latter division as defined by himself. Lankester accepts the groups as
defined by de Bary, and places them in his grade Gymnomyzxa of Pro-
tozoa ; he suggests their affinity with the Sporozoa. > The ingestion of
bacteria by the swarm-cells appears to strengthen the view that the
group is more nearly associated with the lower forms of animal than
of vegetable life, and the name of Mycetozoa appears to mark its true
position in the borderland between the two kingdoms. Fora more com-
plete discussion of this subject I must refer to those who have paid
special attention to the allied groups.

In preparing this catalogue of the collection of Mycetozoa in the
British Museum, the arrangement of orders and genera given by Ros-
tafinski in his Monograph has been mainly followed, with such altera-
tions as observations made during recent years have rendered necessary.
DeBary made the group the subject of minute and thorough investiga-
tion ; and Rostafinski, while studying under him at Strassburg, devised
asystem of classification which is clear and comprehensive, and is now
generally accepted.

The division by Rostafinski of the main section Endosporee into two
parts, distinguished by the color of the spores, has been objected to as
being artificial and wanting in universal application, but the cases in .
which species offer difficulty with regard to their position under this
scheme are few, and on the whole the organisms range themselves under
the separate heads in a remarkably natural manner, while for determin-
ing the species the plan is simple and convenient.”

Synopsis of the Orders and List of the Genera of the Mycetozoa.

Subclass I.—EXOSPOREÆ. Spores developed outside the sporo-
phores.

Order I.—Ceratiomyxacez. Sporophores membranous, branched;
spores white, borne singly on filiform stalks arising from the areolated
sporophore. Gen. Ceratiomyzxa.

932 The American Naturalist. [October,

Subclass IlA—ENDOSPORE. Spores developed inside the spor-
angium.

Cohort I—AMAUROSPORALES. Spores violet, or violet-brown, ex-
cept in Stemonitis and Comatricha, in a few species of which they are
pale ferruginous.

Subcohort I.—CALCARINEÆ. Sporangia provided with lime (cal-
cium carbonate).

Order I.—Physaracee. Lime in minute innate granules. Gen.
Badhamia, Physarum, Fuligo, Cienkowskia, Physarella, Craterium,
Leocarpus, Chondrioderma, Trichamphora, Diachea.

Order II.—Didymiaceæ. Lime in crystals. Gen. Didymium, Spum-
aria, Lepidoderma.

Subcohort II. —AMAUROCHÆTINE®. Sporangia without lime.

Order I.—Stemonitacez. Sporangia simple. Gen. Stemonitis, Com-
atricha, Enerthenema, Lamproderma, Clastoderma.

Order II.—Amaurochætaceæ. Sporangia combined into an æthal-
ium, Gen. Amaurochete, Brefeldia.

Cohort II.—LAMPROSPORALES. Spores variously colored, never
violet.

Subcohort L—Aneminex. Capillitium wanting, or not forming a
system of uniform threads.

Order I.—Heterodermacee. Sporangium-wall membranous, beset
with microscopic round granules, and (except in Lindbladia) forming
a net inthe upper part. Gen. Lindbladia, Cribraria, Dictydiwm.

Order II.—Liceacee. Sporangium-wall cartilaginous; sporangia
solitary. Gen. Licea, Oreadella.

Order III.—Tubulinacee. Sporangium-wall membranous, without
granular deposits; sporangia tubular, compacted. Gen. Tubulina

Siphoptychium, Alwisia.
_ Order IV.—Reticulariaceæ. Sporangia combined into an æthalium,
the sporangium-wall incomplete, perforated or forming a spurious
eapillitium. Gen. Dictydiethalium, Enteridium, Reticularia.

Subcohort II.—CALONEMINE®. Capillitium present, a system of
uniform threads.

Order I.—Trichiacex. Capillitium consisting of free elaters, or
combined into an ‘elastic network with thickenings in the form of spirals
or complete rings. Gen. Triehia, Oligonema, Hemitrichia, Cornuvia.

Order II.—Arcyriaceæ. Capillitium combined into an elastic net-
work with thickenings in the form of cogs, half rings, spines, or warts
(scanty and often reduced to free threads in Perichena corticalis). Gen.
Arcyria, Lachnobolus, Perichena,

1895.) Vegetable Physiology. 933

Order III.—Margaritacee. Capillitium not consisting of free elaters,
nor combined into an elastic network. Gen. Margarita, Dianema,
Prototrichia.

Order IV.—Lycogalacer. Sporangia forming an ethalium, capillit-
ium consisting of smooth or wrinkled branching colorless tubes. Gen.

Injeogala,

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Bactericidal Action of Metals.—Under the title, “ The effects
of various metals on the growth of certain Bacteria,” Dr. Meade Bol-
ton, formerly Associate in Bacteriology in Johns Hopkins University,
and now bacteriologist to the City Board of Health of Philadelphia,
contributes an interesting study to the International Medical Magazine
for December, 1894. Following up the experiments of Nägeli, Miller
and Behring, he has tested the bactericidal effect of various metals
The following are some of his conclusions, stated as nearly as possible
in his own words. For the most part agar plates were used and bits
of metal were put on as soon as the agar was inoculated with the
micro-organism and poured. In some cases the metals were absolutely
pure, in some cases they were commercial but marked chemically pure,
in one set brass foil was used, and a few preliminary experiments were
made with impure metals. Copper—lIn all cases there is around the
metal a clear zone, in some cases narrower, in others wider, and then a
narrow zone where there is increased growth. This intensified zone -
does not have as sharply marked borders as with certain other metals.
Both the clear zone and the intensified zone vary appreciably in width,
even with the same micro-organism. Tests were made with Staphylococ-
cus pyogenes aureus and the colon, typhoid, cholera, and anthrax
bacilli. Brass.—The zones obtained with the different micro-organ-
isms were similar to those obtained with copper. Silver—The results
with this metal were somewhat less uniform than with copper and
brass. The intensified zone is better marked with silver than with cop-
per or brass, but is also narrower. In some cases with anthrax no
clear zone was to be seen, in others there was a wide zone of lessened

1 This department is edited by Erwin F. Smith, Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C

934 The American Naturalist. [October,

growth or a narrow clear zone followed by one in which the colonies
were not as thick as on the rest of the plate. Gold.—Purified gold,
especially if recently glowed, had no inhibitory effect. In those cases
where inhibition was noticed (some plates of anthrax) the gold had
not been glowed for several weeks. Miller showed that velvet gold
has no antiseptic properties but that certain gold preparations used by
dentists, e. g., Pack’s pellets, Quarter Century gold foil, and Abbey’s
non-cohesive foil, inhibited the growth for about 5 mm. all around.
Magnesium.—Tests were made only on Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus
and the cholera bacillus. With both these organisms there was a clear
inhibitory zone, followed by a zone of increased growth, sharply
marked off from the clear zone and gradually fading out on the out-
side. Zine—Many experiments were made with ordinary scrap zinc,
cast into a sheet, but no note was kept of these. There was a clear
zone, however, in every case, and there was probably not much differ-
ence between the action of this and of pure zinc. With the latter, all
the organisms tested gave a broader or narrower clear zone, surrounded
by an intensified zone. With Staphylococcus p. a. the clear zone aver-
aged 7 mm. With the cholera bacillus there is a wide clear zone
about 1.5 centimeters, and the effect of the zinc is seen as far as 3 em.
away from the metal. With other organisms the clear zone is usually
5 mm., or more, broad, followed by a broad intensified zone that is not
sharply marked. Cadmium.—With this metal the reactions obtained
differ quite strikingly, as a rule. The most peculiar zone observed in
the whole set of experiments is that obtained with the micro-organism
of anthrax and the pure metal cadmium. In this case there is a per-
fectly clear zone 5 mm. wide, then an intensified zone of 2 mm. breadth,
and a second inhibitory zone 1 mm. wide. In some cases this second in-
hibitory zone is not entirely free from colonies, but it can always be made
out very distinctly. Mereury.—There is considerable difference in the
behavior of different micro-organisms towards mercury. With Staphy-
lococeus p. a. there is a clear zone, about 7 mm. around the metal, fol-
lowed by a slightly intensified zone which in different cases varies in
width from 1 to 3 mm. With Bacillus pyocyaneus there is a clear zone 4
mm. broad around the metal and outside an intensified zone, sharply
marked toward the clear zone and falling off gradually on the
outside. With the cholera bacillus there is a clear zone, 2 mm.
around the metal, then a very narrow intensified zone that is well
marked. With the bacillus of anthrax there is a broad clear zone,
9 mm. around the metal, surrounded by a very slightly intensified
zone that is not sharply marked. With the colon bacillus there

1895.] Vegetable Physiology. 935

is a clear zone often 7 mm. broad, sharply marked on the inside,
then an intensified zone gradually shading off on the outside. With
the typhoid bacillus the clear zone is much broader, often 1 cm. across,
but the peculiarity is the character of the intensified zone. This is
about 2 mm. across, more intense on the outside, away from the
metal, and in different cases more or less double, i. e., there is a narrow
almost clear zone running all around which divides the intensified zone
into two zones. Charcoal.—No reaction. Silicon—Do. Aluminum.
—Do. Mobium—Do. Antimony.—With Staphylococcus p. a. this
metal gives a clear sharp zone about 1 cm. wide, then a zone about 5
mm. wide where there is diminished growth. In one of the plates there
was only a very narrow clear zone. With the colon bacillus there is
a breadth of 8 mm. where the growth of the colonies is somewhat thin-
ner than on the rest of the plate, but no clear zone. The intensified
zone is quite distinct and about 1 mm. broad. With the typhoid
bacillus there is an almost clear zone of 1 cm., then an intensified zone
2mm. broad. With the anthrax bacillus there is a perfectly clear
zone 1.8 cm., then an indistinct intensified zone. With the cholera
bacillus there is no sharply marked clear zone, but diminished growth
can be made out as far as 1.5 cm. to 2 cm. around the metal. Bis-
muth.—Staphylococeus p. a. with this metal gives a clear zone about 2
mm. wide and an indistinct, narrow, intensified zone. With anthrax
cultures there isa clear zone 1 mm. wide. Pyocyaneus, cholera, ty-
phoid and colon bacilli gave no reaction with bismuth. Jron.—A
bright polished wire nail gave a clear zone about 7 to 10 mm. wide
with the typhoid bacillus and with the colon bacillus. Other organ-
isms were not tested. Behring is said to have obtained negative re-
sults with iron. Nickel—Pure nickel failed to give any reaction with
most of the micro-organisms tested. Platinum.—Platinum wire and
platinum black failed to give any reaction with any of the micro-or-
ganisms tested. From the above results it is notable that it is precisely
those metals that are resistent toward chemical reagents in general
which fail to show any reaction or do so only to a limited extent. On
the other hand, metals that are readily attacked by chemical reagents
all exhibit a marked inhibitory action on the growth of the bacteria.
The effect is, therefore, probably due to a solution of the metal in the
medium, and putting bits of metal on the cultures is really equivalent
to the addition of a small amount of that salt of the metal formed by
the action of the nutrient medium. Traces of the metal may, more-
over, be detected by chemical reagents in the nutrient medium sur-
rounding the metal. The explantion of the clear zones is thus quite

936 The American Naturalist. [October,

evident, but the explanation of the intensified zones and of the second
inhibitory zone, sometimes seen, is not very apparent. It is probable,
however, that the dissolved oxides or salts of the metals are in too
great concentration in the clear zone, and that the trace present in the
intensified zone may stimulate growth. This does not explain the sec-
ond inhibited zone. The length of time it is necessary to leave the
metals in contact with the agar, in order to develop the inhibitory
action was tried with brass, copper, cadmium and zinc. Plates of
Staphylococcus p. a, were made in the usual way and the metals put on
and removed at various intervals. With cadmium there was a clear
space where the metal had lain and for 1 mm. around, where the metal
had been left on for a minute. Where the metal had been left on for
3 or 4 minutes or more the clear space usually extended over 3 mm,
around where the metal had lain. With zinc the results are similar as
regards length of time, but the edges of the clear zone are not well de-
fined and there is an intensified zone that is not apparent with cad-
mium. With brass there was no effect produced by leaving the metal
on for 36 minutes; after this there was more and more marked inhibi-
tion up to 50 minutes, but no clear space except where the metal was
on for a longer time than this. With copper no visible effect was pro-
duced in less than 36 minutes. After this time there was more and
more marked inhibition, but only where the metal had been allowed
to lie on for 50 minutes was there a clear space. The whole paper is
very suggestive and is commended to experiment station workers and
all who have to deal with problems relating to fungicides and germi-
cides. Probably the increased development and prolonged activity of
chlorophyll in foliage sprayed with Bordeaux mixture is also attribu-
table to the stimulating effect of the minute traces of copper that must
pass into the leaves. The paper contains 10 pages and 11 figures, and
has been distributed as a reprint—Erwin F. SMITH.

ZOOLOGY.

Antivenine.—Prof. Fraser has laid before the Royal Society of
Edinburg some important results of his admirable experiments on
snake poisons and their antidote. His method is to ascertain the min-
imum lethal dose for an animal, to begin experimenting upon a similar
animal with a smaller dose. After a short interval he increases this

1895.] Zoology. 937

dose until, in time, he can inject fifty times the minimum lethal dose
into the animal’s blood without producing any bad effects. This ani-
mal is immunized, and its blood serum, injected into another animal
of the same size and weight, will prevent the action of snake poison
when injected. This immunized blood serum is called, by its discoverer,
antivenine.

In experimenting with rabbits it was found that the blood serum of
one which had received thirty times the minimum lethal dose was as
effective in its antitoxic properties as that of one which had received
fifty times the minimum lethal dose.

The antivenine obtained from a horse was found to be twice as pow-
erful as that from the rabbit. In immunizing a horse the same
method is adopted as is used for the rabbit, viz.: to begin by injecting
a small dose; then to give regularly increasing doses, every few days,
until fifteen times the minimum lethal dose is administered. The blood
serum from from a horse thus immunized is found to be so powerful
an antivenine that a hundredth, and even the thousandth part of a
cubic centimeter per kilogramme of animal was sufficient to prevent
death from the minimum lethal dose of the venom. For a horse to
arrive at this stage of immunism requires four months and a half.

The antivenine can be kept for use in two forms, liquid and dry, of
which the latter is preferable as less liable to decomposition.

In the course of his experiments, Prof. Fraser discovered that dietary
has an effect upon venom poisoning. Ifa herbivorous animal be put
upon a flesh diet, the effect of venom upon it is lessened.

Through another set of experiments Prof. Fraser concludes that the
deadly effects of serpents’ venom is due to its action on the blood.
Venom is almost inert when introduced into the stomach. Neverthe-
less, an animal may be immunized by the administration of poison into
its stomach. This fact is due to the absorption of the poison by the
blood. This may account for the immunity from snake-bites said to
be enjoyed by some of the snake-charmers of India, who eat the poison-
glands of the snakes.

Snakes themselves have been noticed to be impervious to the effects
of the poison. This may probably be due to the absorption of venom
shed from poison-glands through the mucous surfaces of the mouth, or
by the blood-vessels and lymphatics passing to and from the glands.
In some cases it may be secured by serpents devouring other members
of their tribe.

It is now within the range of certainty that, at no distant date, Dr.
Fraser will be able to have sufficient quantities of antivenine from the

938 The American Naturalist. [October,

immunized horse to be of practical value to those who are exposed to
the bites of venomous snakes. It remains now to discover the chem-
ical constituents of the antivenine, so that it may be manufactured in
such quantities as to reduce its cost. (Knowledge, Aug., 1895).

Dall on the Lamellibranchiata.—In his contributions to the
Tertiary Fauna of Florida, Part III, Dr. Dall adopts a new classifica-
tion of the Pelecypoda for which he claims the merit that the groups
are comparably defined. The general features of the system proposed
by the author in 1889 have been revised, and form the basis of the one
now offered. As a matter of convenience, the division Pleoconcha
made by Neumayer to contain certain synthetic types is retained for a
temporary resting place until more 3 known of these undifferentiated
ancient forms.

For the present, then, the class is divided into the following groups,
of which the third represents the most perfected (although not always
the most specialized) modern type of Pelecypoda.

Order Prionodesmacea containing 34 families grouped under 10
superfamilies. Order Anomalodesmacea, 15 families under 3 super-
families. Order Teleodesmacea, 46 families under 18 superfamilies.
The Palsoconcha, 11 families.

Under each family is an enumeration of the chief generic groups be-
lieved to be referable to it.

The genus Solemya Lamark, in this new classification, is placed with
the Prionodesmacea. (Trans. Wagner Free Institute, ITI, Pt. 3, 1875).

On the Species of Uma and Xantusia.—In Tare NATURAL-
ist for 1894, p. 434, I gave descriptions of the two species of Uma
known to me at that time. An examination of the material in the
U.S. National Museum has revealed two additional species, which I
describe below. The U. rufopunctata is based on nine specimens, of
which seven are from Arizona, where they were obtained by Dr. E. A.
Mearns, U.S. A. The U. inornata is represented by a single specimen
(No. 16,500), from the Colorado Desert, San Diego Co., Cal., from Mr.
C. R. Orcutt.

I. Black crescents on the throat, and a black spot on each side of the
belly.

: Labial scales strongly keeled, six keeled suborbital scales; eight
loreal rows; hind-foot shorter, one-third head and body ; femoral pores
40-50; dorsal spots black ; U. scoparia Cope.
_ IL. Black spots on side of belly, but no crescents on throat.

1895.] Zoology. 939

_ Labial scales strongly keeled, three or four keeled suborbitals; five
or six loreal rows; ten or eleven supraocular rows; hind-foot shorter,
one-third head and body; femoral pores 24-28 ; dorsal spots rufous ;
U. rufopunctata dpe.

Labial scales weakly keeled ; nine loreal rows ; fourteen supraorbital

rows ;. hind-foot longer, two-fifths head and body ; femoral pores nine-

teen ; U. notata Baird.

_ III. No black spots on belly or crescents on throat.

‘Labial scales strongly keeled ; five or six loreal rows; ten or eleven
supraocular rows ; hind-foot shorter, one-third head and body ; femoral
pores 19 ; U. inornata Cope.

In the young the disciform areas are e imperfectly outlined.

All the species are from the Sonoran region.

‘In the last number of Tore NATURALIST, p. 859, I described a new
Xantusia from California, but neglected to give it a name. I propose
that it be called X. picta.—E. D. COPE.

Comparisons of Marriages and Births in the Different
European Countries.—The following facts were compiled by M.
Chervin and presented by him to the Anthropological Society at its
recent conference at Broca. The first fact to be noted is that in respect
to the number of marriages France falls a little below the number re-
corded in the principal countries of Europe, as the following table
testifies.

Of 1000 people of both sexes, over 15 years of age, the per cent. that
marry is as follows: Hungary, 91.6; Germany, 53.0: England and
Wales, 52.6; Denmark, 52.0; Austria, 51.3; Italy, 50.1; Finland,
492; Holland, 49.0; France, 45.8; Belginm, 41.9; Greece, 41.6;
Scotland, 40.9; Switzerland, 40.8; Ireland, 23.0.
~ But the number of marriages is only one of the factors in the prob-
lem of the increase of population. The most important thing is the
fecundity of these unions. Statistics in regard to births are given as
follows: (1) Legitimate living children born of 1000 married women
from 15 to 50 years of age—Germany, 270 ; Scotland, 269; Belgium,
265; Italy, 251; England and Wales, 250; Austria, 250; Sweden,
240; Ireland, 240; Switzerland, 236; France, 163. (2) Illegitimate
living children born of 1000 unmarried women from 15 to 60 years of
age—Germany, 265; Scotland, 199; Belgium, 198; Italy, 246 ; Eng-
land and Wales, 121; Austria, 444; Sweden, 444; Ireland, 41 ; Swit-
zerland, 102; France, 167.

These lists show that in respect to legitimate births France falls
below the other European countries, and even taking into account the

940 The American Naturalist. [October,

illegitimate births, she is far behind Germany, Austria and Italy in
point of increase of population. (Revue Scientifique, May, 1895).

Additions to the Mammal Fauna of British Columbia.—
MICROTUS PRINCIPALIS sp. nov. Type, ad. ¢ ; col. of S. N. Rhoads,
No. 2346. Col. by A. C. Brooks on the Mt. Baker Range (alt. 6000
ft.), Westminster Dist., B. Columbia, Aug. 16, 1895.

Description: Size, largest of the western Microtine, color and pro-
portions as in M. pennsylvanicus. Skull broad, rectangular. Incisors
strongly produced anteriorly ; molars relatively very weak. Incisive
foramina short and compressed, not reaching anterior molars by 3
millimeters.

Above, including tail and feet, grayish-brown, not darker along
median line. Below, sooty gray, darkest where bases of hairs are ex-
posed, distal two-thirds of hairs dull white; sides of lower neck and
lips white. Pelage soft and silky. Fourth loop of m. 1 triangular,
meeting fifth loop medially, the latter nearly twice as large as former
and scroll shaped. The same remarks apply to the last two sections
of m.2, Trefoil posterior section of m. 3 one and two-thirds length of
anterior section of same tooth, this section being composed of an ante-
rior loop and two opposing triangles. The formation of m.1 is as fol-
lows: an anterior subcircular loop opening broadly into two angular
wings whose lateral points form the anterior pair of a series of five
angles on the inner and four on the outer sides of the tooth, including
the opposite angles of the posterior loop and the lateral points of two
outer and three inner closed triangles.

Measurements: Total length 246 millimeters; tail vertebra (tip
missing), 78-+- ; hind foot, 29.5. Skull: basilar length, 36; length of
nasals, 11.6; interorbital constriction, 5.2; zygomatic expansion,
23.2; crown length of molar series, 8 ; length of mandible, 25;
greatest breadth of mandible 12.5.

This large Vole need be compared with only one described species,
Microtus macropus (Merriam) from the mountains of Idaho. The
most decided differences which can be noted from Dr. Merriam’s de-
scription and figure are in the molar dentition as particularized above
and which can best be understood by a comparison with the diagnosis
and plate If in North American Fauna No. 5. Besides the type, Mr.
Brooks sent me a two-thirds grown specimen of this Vole which is very
similar in color to type, with softer and shorter pelage. Its tail is
unicolor, dark and very thinly haired.

1895] -` Zoology. 941

PHENACOMYS ORAMONTIS sp. nov. Type, ad. ¢ ; col. of S. N.
Rhoads, No. 2354. Col. by A. C. Brooks on the Mt. Baker Range
(alt. 6000 ft.), Westminster Dist., B. Columbia, Aug. 6, 1895.

Description: Above uniform blackish-brown, feet grayish, blackish
at instep and wrist, nearly white on digits. Upper tail blackish, lower
tail gray, tip white. Lower parts soiled white, showing the plumbeous
bases of pelage. Ears smaller, but nearly as prominent, as in an Evo-
tomys of same size.

Measurements: Total length, 154 mm.; tail vertebre, 38; hind
foot, 20.5. Skull: basilar length, 23; length of nasals, 7.8; interor-
bital constriction, 3.4; zygomatic expansion 15.7 ; length of interpari-
etal, 4.1; width of same, 6.9; length of mandible, 16.3; greatest
breadth of same, 9.2.

This short-tailed Tree Vole is very different from P. longicaudus
True, its nearest geographic ally. From P. intermedius of south cen-
tral British Columbia it is distinguished by the exceedingly small size
of the outer last triangle of m. 3 and that it is distinctly cut off from
the posterior loop. In m. 1 there is a broad crescentic loop as in Dr.
Merriam’s figure of P. /atimanus but differing therefrom in its being
completely cut off from the first outer triangle (loop) with which, in
latimanus, it forms a trefoil. From all the four forms first described
by Dr. Merriam it differs in having the second loop of m.3 almost
completely divided into two sections by the exaggeration of the outer
angle of this loop (see fig. of latimanus, pl. IV, N. A. F., No. 2) and
the acuteness of the next entrant angle on the same side, forming a
small outer median triangle whose inner angle is so nearly closed by
the impinging enamel walls that the gap can only be seen by a glass.
In this feature it resembles P. orophilus of Idaho, from which it dif-
fers in no essential dental characters. In color, however, the two are
distinct and oramontis has an interparietal like celatus, which Dr. Mer-
riam states to be very different from that of orophilus. There may be
other cranial differences, but these are all that can be distinguished
from the rather meagre description of orophilus. Only one specimen
was sent me by Mr. Brooks.

TAMIAS QUADRIVITTATUS FELIX subsp. nov. Type,ad. 9 ; col. of
S. N. Rhoads, No. 2355. Col. by A. C. Brooks on the Mt. Baker
Range (alt. 7000 ft.), Westminster Dist., B. Columbia, Aug. 13, 1895.

Description: Colors and color pattern as in quadrivittatus but much
darker than that type. Darker also than T. q. affinis or T. q. luteiven-
tris, which latter it most nearly resembles. From /uteiventris of the
same season it is distinguished by: (1) greater breadth and depth of

942 The American Naturalist. [October,

rusty orange suffusion of sides, cheeks and lower tail; (2) rusty brown
of upper head, neck, shoulders and fore-back ; (3) greater breadth and
blackness of dark dorsal stripes and ‘corresponding diminution and
rustiness of white stripes; (4) absence of hoary appearance of whole
upper surface seen in Juteiventris,

Measurements: Total length, 245 mm. ; tail vertebræ, 105; hind
foot, 32.5. Skull: basilar length, 26.5 ; length of nasals, 10.5; inter-
orbital constriction, 7.4; zygomatic expansion, 20; length of mandi-
ble, 11; greatest width of mandible, 20.

So far as I am able to examine specimens, this is the darkest repre-
sentative of the T. quadrivittatus group. It is represented by a male
and female, both adults and from the same locality. Their measure-
ments show feliz to be as large as, if not larger than, any of its con-
specific allies,

The above newly described mammals formed part of a small collec-
tion recently made and forwarded to me by Mr. Allen C. Brooks,
They demonstrate emphatically the wonderful variety which character-
izes the Zoology of the mountain regions of the Pacific Slope, even in
northern latitudes.—S. N. Raoaps.

Zoological News.—Mammarta—At the June meeting of the
Linnean Society of N. S. Wales, Mr. Robert Brown read a paper on a
new fossil Mammal allied to Hypsiprymnus, but resembling, in some
points, the Plagiaulacidae. The remains, described under the names of
Burramys parvus, are those of a small marsupial not larger than an ordi-
nary mouse. The form is specially interesting in having but three true
molars in each jaw, and a very large grooved premolar with serrate
edge, very similar to that found in the Eocene genus Neoplagiaulax.
Its affinities are dealt with at some length, and an endeavor made to
trace its relationship phylogenetically. (Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N.S. W.,
1895).

ENTOMOLOGY:

Entomology at Springfield.—The most important entomological
meeting at Springfield in connection with the A. A. A. S. was that of
the Association of Economic Entomologists, August 27 and 28, The

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

1895.] Entomology. 943

President’s address was delivered by Prof. J. B. Smith, after which the
following papers were read :

J. M. Aldrich, Moscow, Idaho, Spraying without a pump; M. H,
Beckwith, Newark, Del., The San José Scale in Delaware; F. H,
Chittenden, Washington, D. C., Herbivorous Habits of certain Dermes-
tide ; T. D. A. Cockerell, Las Cruces, N. Mex., On the natural condi-
tions which affect the distribution and abundance of Coccide; G. C.
Davis, Agricultural College, Mich., Insects of the season in M ichigan ;
C. H. Fernald, Amherst, Mass., The Gypsy Moth; C. P. Gillette, Fort
Collins, Col., How shall we improve our Collections? F. L. Harvey,
Orono, Me., Article on Smerinthus cerisyi; A. D. Hopkins, Morgan-
town, W. Va., (1) On the Study of Forest-tree Insects. (2) Some notes
on observations of the -season; L. O. Howard, Washington, D. C.,
Some shade-tree insects of Springfield and other New England towns;
J. A. Lintner, Albany, New York, A paper; C. L. Marlatt, Washing-
ton, D. C., (1)The Elm-leaf Beetle in Washington. (2) Some notes on
insecticides; J. B. Smith, New Brunswick, N. J., The uses of insect-
lime; E. B. Southwick, New York City, (1) Economic entomological
work in the parks of New York City. (2) A city entomologist and
insecticides; F, M. Webster, Wooster, O., (1) Some interesting facts
regarding the genus Diabrotica. (2) Importation and repression of
destructive insects. (3) Insects of the year in Ohio; C. M. Weed,
Durham, N. H., An important modification of the kerosene sprayer;
H. E. Weed, Agricultural College, Miss. (1) Experiments with the
kerosene knapsack sprayer. (2) Bisulphide of Carbon for Crayfish.
` Prof. C. H. Fernald was elected President for the next year and Mr.
C. L. Marlatt was re-elected Secretary, Resolutions indorsing the
work of the Gypsy Moth Commission, and expressing regret at the dis-
continuance of Insect Life were passed.

In Section F. perhaps the most interesting entomological papers were
those.on the mouth parts of insects by Messrs. J. B. Smith and C. L.
Marlatt.—C. M. W.

Pigments of Pieridæ.—Mr. F. G. Hopkins publishes’ an abstract
of a contribution to the study of excretory substances which function
in ornament. The wing scales of the white Pieridæ are shown to con-
tain uric acid, which substance bears the same relation to the scale as
do the pigments in the colored Pieridæ, so that it practically functions
as a white pigment. The yellow pigment found in the majority of the
Pieridæ is a derivative of uric acid. The yellow pigment may be arti-

2 Proc, Royal Soc. lvii, 1895, pp. 5 and 6.
64

944 The American Naturalist. [October,

ficially induced by heating uric acid with water in sealed tubes at high
temperatures, and the identity of the natural and artificial products
may be demonstrated by the similarity of their spectrum. Mr. Hop-
kins believes that this yellow substance, which may be called lepidotic
acid, together with a closely allied red substance, will account for all
the chemical pigmentation of the wing scales of the colored Pieride,
though modifications may be produced by superadded optical effects.
These uric acid derivatives, though universal on the Pieridæ, are ap-
parently confined to this group among the Rhopalocera. This fact
leads to the interesting observation that where a Pierid mimics an in-
sect belonging to anothers family, the pigments in the two cases are
chemically quite distinct. The fact that the scale pigments are really
the normal excretory products of the animal utilized in ornament is
emphasized by the observation that the yellow Pierids on emergence
from the chrysalis are apt to void from the rectum a quantity of uric
acid, colored by a yellow substance, which exactly resembles the pig-
ment of the wing.—Journal Royal Microscopical Society.

Sense of Sight in Spiders.—Professor and Mrs. Peckham in
continuing their studies of spiders have published? some extremely
interesting observations upon the sense of sight. Concerning the range
of vision the authors think their experiments “ prove conclusively that
Attide see their prey (which consists of small insects) when it is motion-
less, up to a distance of five inches; that they see insects in motion at
much greater distances ; and that they see each other distinctly up to
at least twelve inches. The observations on blinded spiders and the
numerous instances in which spiders which were close together, and
yet out of sight of each other, showed that they were unconscious of
each other’s presence render any other explanation of their action un-
satisfactory. Sight guides them, not smell.”

he authors also experimented with the color sense of spiders, and
reached the opinion “ that all the experiments taken together strongly
indicate that spiders have the power of distinguishing colors.”

* Trans. Wisconsin Acad. X, pp. 231-261.

1895.] Embryology. 945

EMBRYOLOGY:

Eggs of Nematodes.—Hans Spemann contributes to the May
number of the Zodlogische Jahrbücher an elaborately illustrated ac-
count of the cleavage of the eggs of the Nematode Strongylus para-
dozus. In general it is a confirmation of the results obtained by
Boveri upon Ascaris megalocep hala.

The egg divides into two equal cells, yet one contains all the yolk.
Each divides into two'and the four so produced become rearranged in a
characteristic way.

Tho two cells from the one containing no yolk divide into right and
left cells that increase to form the major part of the ectoderm at the
period of gastrulation. One of the other two cells gives rise at its first
division to entoderm and mesoderm, while the other produces four, of
which three add themselves to the ectoderm and one remains as the
originator of the sexual cells.

The author compares this cleavage to the divisions of an apical cell
in a plant; the egg divides off an entoderm cell, a mes-entoderm cell
and ectoderm cell, another ectoderm cell and finally remains as the
origin of the sexual cells. The sexual cells may be thus readily traced
backed to their ancestors amongst the blastomeres. They are sepa-
rated as special cells in the fourth generation, starting from the undi-
vided egg.

In this process of rapid separation of sexual and somatic cells,
Boveri found in Ascaris megalocephala a peculiar nuclear differentia-
tion. At the first cleavage the nucleus of one cell looses part of its
chromatin and its chromosomes undergo a change of shape. The
other cell undergoes a like change when divided, and so on till after
five divisions all the cells but one have the modified nuclei. This cell
with the unchanged nucleus becomes the the beginning of the sexual
cells. i

This remarkable nucleus has been sought for by Oscar
Meyer in the eggs of other nematodes namely, Ascaris lumbricoides, A.
rubicunda, A. labiata, A. mystax, A. perspicillum, Strongylus tetracan-
thus, S. paradoxus and Oxyuris vermicularis. In the first three he
finds essentially the same process as in the species studied by Boveri,

1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and
preliminary notes may be sent. :

2 Jenaische Zeitschrift., 29, May 15, 1895.

3: g ‘oe ee

946. ; The American Naturalist. [October,
in the other cases the material was not suited to a decision on this
point; the author thinks this differentiation between the nuclei of
somatic and sexual cells may well be common to all the Ascaride.

A second subject taken up by Oscar Meyer in this paper is the ori-
gin of the centrosomes in the eggs of Strongylus tetracanthus. By the
methods employed no centrosome could be found near the female pro-
nucleus. The sperm-head is, on the other hand, accompanied by a
very marked system of. radiations surrounding an evident centrosome.
As the male pronucleus approaches the female pronucleus two systems
of radiations and two centrosomes are formed by the division of the
single centrosome that accompanied the male pronucleus. When the
pronuclei are united these two centrosomes become the centrosomes of
the first cleavage spindle. In some abnormal cases the female pronu-
cleus has a centrosome close to it, but this probably migrates from the
male pronucleus. It thus seems that i in this egg the centrosomes arise
only in connection with the sperm.

The third problem taken up by the author is the question as to the
nature of the difference between the two kinds of Ascaris megalocephala.
Boveri found that some individuals have two chromosomes in each egg
or sperm while others have but one. The former have been called the
variety bivalens, the latter univalens.

Oscar Meyer examined 154 horses and found 19 infected with this
parasite, 10 with the variety univalens, 8 with bivalens and 1 with both
univalens and bivalens.

A careful examination of the external and internal anatomy and
histology of both kinds failed to reveal any difference except in the
sexual products. The eggs of bivalens measure 78-88 and those of
univalens only 65-70 microns. The sperms are larger in bivalens and
have a nucleus twice as large as in wnivalens.

The two kinds are very closely related and may, it seems, interbreed;
at least the occurrence of eggs with three chromosomes as well as the
finding of eggs of univalens penetrated by very large sperms points to
such a conclusion. Copulation between the two kinds seems estab-
lished by the discovery of worms with both sizes of sperms in the same
egg-tube. A consideration of the numbers of apparent crosses so
formed as compared with the possibilities that result from the presence
of both kinds of sperm, leads to the conclusion that the crosses are not
as frequent as they might be and that there may be some impediment
to interbreeding. In other words the two kinds of Ascaris seem to be
somewhat separated as physiological varieties in spite of their very
close morphological relationship.

1895.] Embryology. ` 947

Cell Phenomena in the Triton Egg.—Following in the steps
of Driiner Dr. H. Braus of Jena, has made a careful study of cell
division in the blastula stage of Triton alpestris. By special methods
the achromatic spindles and polar radiations of cell division are
brought out with great distinctness. In the spindle three kinds of
. fibers may be present; delicate fibers that aid in moving the chromo-
somes; fibers with a sheath, also pulling the chromosomes ; and stout
fibers that connect the two centrosomes and serve as a supporting sys-
tem tending to resist the pressure exerted by the other fibers.

In the later blastula with several layers of cells just as in the gas-
trula and in the adult testis as made out by Driiner, the arrangement
of the fibers in the spindle is such that the contracting ones that act
upon the chromosomes form the mantle or outer part, while the pres-
sure-resisting fibers form the axial part of the spindle. .

In the early blastula, however, cell division is different ; the spindle
has its contracting fibers in the axial part and the resisting fibers in
the outer part or mantle.

The author comes to the conclusion that the more primitive form of
spindle is that found in the older stages of the ontogeny of the Triton.
© In the same way the author thinks that the origin of the spindle
within the nucleus in the early stages of the development of the
Triton’s egg is a ccenogenetic process, while its origin outside the
nucleus, in the protoplasm of the cell, in the later stages and in the
adult testis is really the more primitive method of spindle formation.
In general the formation of a spindle within the nucleus is to be re-
garded as a recent innovation, not as the original method.

The very important question as to the reason for form in organisms,
the laws of growth of organisms, receives a contribution from the
author’s decision that the position of the spindles in the Triton’s blastu-
læ (the angle which the axis of the spindle forms in successive cell
divisions) does not necessitate the arrangement of the cells to form
parts and organs. The author shows that the position of the spindles
would not give rise to sets of cells placed as they are in the two-layered
blastule if there were no rearrangements of the cells after division. It
is change in position of cells after their formation and not forces in the
processes of cell division that leads to the growth of form.

In this Triton as many as nine sperms may enter one egg. These
supernumerary sperms give rise, the author maintains, to certain extra
nuclei recognizable even up to the blastula stage, so that the possibility
of polyspermy having some lasting effect in the embryo receives some
material basis. i

® Jenaische Zeitschrift., May 15, 1895.

948 The American Naturalist. [October,

PSYCHOLOGY.’

Will and Reason in Animals.—One of the greatest needs of
psychology is a suitable technical terminology. In most of the other
sciences, the words used have a constant meaning, and one feels reason-
ably sure of understanding what the author wishes to say. In psy-
chology there are few terms in use that are not ambiguous. The psy-
chologist has adopted the phraseology of current speech, and too often,
in endeavoring to free it of its ambiguity, he forgets that that very
ambiguity bears witness to a complexity in the matter to be described
which should not be arbitrarily simplified.

Especially is this found true when we endeavor to interpret the
mental processes of the lower animals in terms of our own. We are
ourselves “conscious,” we “judge,” “reason,” “ will,” and we ask
whether the lower forms of life are “ conscious,” whether they can
“judge,” “reason,” “will.” Such questions are vain unless we know
precisely what mental processes we designate ourselves when we use
the words. Yet, in most current discussions, it is apparently taken for
granted that these words have a meaning; that the writer not only
understands their meaning himself, but is assured that his readers will
take them in the same sense. Even in the few cases where some seri-
ous attempt is made to exhibit the exact sense of the terms used, the
writer proceeds upon the assumption that they have but one legitimate
sense, and that that is the sense in which he uses them.

But, in fact, no words in common use have any precise meaning,
and if this is true of all, it is doubly true of those which express the
results of crude introspection, performed, for the most part, with prac-
tical ends in view only. Such are most of our psychological terms.
While the processes which are designated by any one always have
some inner bond of similarity, that bond may be, from the point of view
of the scientific psychologist, s Denai slight importance in view of
the variations to be found with

Let us, for example, examine some of the words used of conduct,
The reflex and instinctive are commonly contrasted with the voluntary,
and the impulsive are contrasted with the rational. The reflex, in-
stinctive and impulsive are regarded as “ lower types,” since we share
them with the lower animals; the voluntary and rational are the

1 This department is edited by Dr. Wm. Romaine Newbold, University of Penn-
sylvania.

1895.] Psychology. 949

“ higher types,” and much discussion has been expended on the ques-
tion whether these also are found in the lower animals or not.

The word “ voluntary ” is used in three quite distinct senses, but all
contain a common element. In its broadest sense, any act is voluntary
which is performed at the instigation of a thought. In this sense it is
contrasted with “forced ” acts, such as those performed under physical
compulsion with acts performed under physiological compulsion, such
as reflexes, and with acts performed under what we may turn psychi-
cal compulsion, as the instinctive. Many impulses, especially those
which hurry into action without allowing time for reflection, are felt to
be only partly voluntary.

Now, at all times, one’s actual thought content comprehends two
groups of elements—those originated from within by association and
habit and those originated from without by the suggestions of the en-
vironment. For the most part, the two blend into a harmonious whole
and both find expression in conduct. But, occasionally, the two clash.
If then, the environment wins the day and controls conduct, even
though it be done through the intervention of thought, we are inclined
to deny that the conduct is voluntary. If I surrender my purse at the
the point of a pistol, I would not call the act voluntary, yet it is not
involuntary in the same sense in which it would have been had the
highwayman taken my hand and, by main force, thrust it into my
pocket, closed it upon my purse, and withdrawn it.

So of other cases. Control by the idea train invariably implies, in
some degree, the ability to withstand the solicitations of the environ-
ment. The adult feels most of those solicitations so slightly that he is
scarcely aware of their presence. But it is different with a child. The
child is ever “in mischief,” because his ideation has not developed
far enough to offset the tempting invitation “ Eat me,” “ Break me,”
“Set me on fire,” by foresight of the latter end. It is in those cases
in which the inner control clearly gets the better of the outer that
we feel the power of “will” to be manifested. This, then, is a second
sense of the word voluntary.

It is only through sensation and idea, on the whole, that the environ-
ment can enter into a man’s mind and control his acts. The reflexes
are exceptions, but they are, for present purposes, negligible. And
its entrance is accompanied by a sense of conflict, as if the kingdom
were divided against itself. Nowa similar feeling often arises in cases
in which the influence of the environment as such is scarcely to be
noticed. Every man’s mind is a polity, and its habitual usages and
active principles not infrequently conflict. Then we commonly invoke

950 The American Naturalist. [October,

our more remote past in some fashion at present incomprehensible, and
there emerges that intangible, contentless power which, like the rudder
on a ship, avails to hold us steadily to the course already: planned, and
makes our present and future symmetrical with our past. Thisis what
we term “ will” in the narrowest sense, and it is a nompatatively rare
phenomenon in the experience of most of us.

If we turn from such an analysis to the problem of volition in the
lower animals, we find it much simplified. There can be no doubt that
in the higher vertebrates, at least, the idea trains, however rudimen-
tary, control conduct to some degree. Yet the part played by the
reflexes and instincts is so much greater in them than in us, and idea-
tion is so scanty that the sphere of the voluntary is much restricted.
Cases of conflict, in which the ideal control overcomes the solicitations
of sense, are probably of rare occurrence. I noted, a case not long ago,
however, which seems here in point. A friend of mine had a very intel-
ligent Irish terrier, who, having been bred to thrifty habits, knew
better than to eat a scrap of food which had “ cost money ” until it had
been “paid for.” In the agonizing interval I have sci adh! seen
him resort to what seemed to be expedients to e temptation
He seemed to feel that the bit of meat exerted a ‘specific attractive force
upon his organized reflexes, that he could not help snapping at it if he
allowed himself to look. He would dance about near it, carefully
keeping his head twisted to one side, so as to keep the tempting morsel
out of sight; sometimes, if the words “ It’s paid for, Patsy,” were long
delayed, he would run to the farthest corner of the room and stay
there until he heard them. Then he would dart for the food so hastily
that he sometimes fell in turning towards it, showing that he had had it
in mind all along. It would seem that this dog, at least, was able to
exert some direct ideational control over his reflexes, and was suffi-
ciently intelligent to use suitable means to support that control when
it was about to fail.

For the existence of the highest form of will in the lower animals,
we have no direct evidence, and it is difficult to see how we ever can
have any. In ourselves it is rare and elusive; it is known by intro-
spection only, and can not be inferred in another by any external
signs. The very fact that it is so unusual in us, and that it appears to
be characteristic of the more highly evolved types of the human mind,
raises a strong presumption against its existence in the lower minds.

The word “ rational ” has had a history very like that of “ voluntary ”.
In its simplest sense it designates conduct controlled by a more distant
end; it is thus opposed to the impulsive conduct which seeks the pres-

1895.] Psychology. 951.

ent end. It implies, therefore, the presence of complex associative
processes. “Irrational” conduct is that which is inconsistent with
some accepted end.

Foresight of the future and its accompanying apprehension of vari-
ous possible ends always involves competition between those ends for
the control of conduct. For various reasons into which I cannot now
enter, the intrinsic attractiveness of most ends tends to vary from time
to time, hence it is always possible that the end which survives com-
petition and controls conduct soon loses its power, and the actor falls a

rey to regret. This is especially likely to be the ease when there has
been little deliberation, or when the end adopted is near at hand. Thus
the word “rational” has been transferred from conduct controlled by
a distant rather than by a nearer end, to conduct controlled by an ap-
proved end, that is, by an end whose attractive power remains constant
under all circumstances. In ordinary parlance, that conduct is “ rea-
sonable” which most men are inclined to, but a little reflection will con-
vince any one that no conduct is reasonable for one, save that whose
adoption does not involve the relinquishment of some end of greater or
more permanent attractiveness.

In the first sense of the word “irrational,” it is probable that some
of the lower animals are more rational than others. But, on the
whole, brutes are adapted to the coming environment rather by instinct
than by reason, i. e., rather by a series of psychical reflexes awakened
by present stimuli than by conscions foresight of the future, giving
rise to an analogous series of representative ideas. The sphere of
ideational control is probably restricted to the immediate future.
Hence it is scarcely possible that brutes should be rational in the
second sense.

Some writers use “ rational ” as equivalent to “ethical,” i. e., of ends
enforced by the community upon the individual. The usage rests
upon the assumption that those principles which ultimately approve
themselves to the individual are essentially in harmony with those
enforced by the community. But it is not customary to enquire
whether animals are rational in that sense, and I may ignore it for the
present.

ANTHROPOLOGY.’

New Evidence of glacial Man in Ohio.—In a paper before a
joint meeting of the Anthropological and Geological sections of the A.
A. A. S. , I presented detailed evidence of the discovery, in the glacial

1 The department is edited by Henry C. Mercer, University of Penna, Phila.

952 The American Naturalist. [October,

terrace on the Ohio River at Brilliant near Steubenville, Ohio, of a
chert implement one inch and three-quarters long and three-quarters
of an inch wide in its widest part, making the third instance in which
glacial man is proved by satisfactory specific evidence to have been
in Ohio. The discovery was made in the summer of 1893 by Mr. Sam
Huston, the county surveyor of Jefferson County. Mr. Huston resides
at Steubenville and is well known to many scientific collectors who have
availed themselves of his services; while his familiarity with gravel
deposits and with the indications of their being disturbed or undis-
turbed is unexcelled by any one in the country.

For a long time the railroad has been engaged in removing gravel
from pits along the extensive glacial terrace below Brilliant Station, on
the Cleveland and Pittsburg R. R., about seven miles south of Steuben-
ville. While excavations were in progress two years ago, Mr. Huston
was engaged in overseeing public work in the immediate vicinity.
When operations were suspended for dinner, Mr. Huston went into the
pit on one occasion, where his attention was attracted by the flat end
of a chipped implement slightly projecting from the perpendicular
face of the gravel which was being removed. The material at this im-
mediate locality was well-washed sand with very few pebbles. The
bedding and cross-bedding were very clearly displayed both above and
below the implement, and it was perfectly evident that there had been
no disturbance of the strata since their original deposition.

The situation in the face of the bank was such that Mr. Huston was
barely able to reach it with his hand by standing upon the slight
amount of talus that was at the bottom. The implement was about
half way up to the top of the bank, making it about eight feet below
the surface. Mr. Huston conducted me to the locality, so that the
evidence was collected by me upon the spot. The bank was sub-
sequently worked off about twenty feet farther and then abandoned,
but according to Mr. Huston the stratification was essentially the same
as is shown in fresh sections near by. The evidence is so specific that
there is no chance to question it in detail, since every item was care-
fully noticed and has been clearly retained in Mr. Huston’s memory.

The gravel terrace at this point is one of the most extensive in that
portion of the Ohio River, and is part of a series of terraces traceable
from Pittsburg down to Wheeling, and indeed throughout the whole
length of the river as far as Louisville. There is no question among
geologists as to its glacial age. - It corresponds precisely, in the Ohio
River valley, with those along the Delaware, in New Jersey, and the
Tuscarawas and the Little Miami in Ohio, in which relics of glacial

1895.] Anthropology. 953

man have, heretofore, been found. These terraces along the Ohio reg-
ularly alternate from one side to the other. At Beaver, Pa., the ter-
race is 125 feet above the river. The height, however, diminishes
gradually as we get farther away from the glacial boundary and the
supply of material contributed by streams coming from the glaciated
area. The terrace at Brilliant rises sixty-eight feet above the river,
and extends southward for a distance of two miles, being more than a
quarter of a mile wide for a considerable portion of the way. The im-
plement was found near the lower end of this section of the terrace, and
about half way between Riddle’s Run and Salt Run coming in from
the west. To any one who inspects the locality it will be seen to be
impossible to separate the gravel strata in which this implement was
found from the glacial deposit which is here so plain and so character-
istic of the region.

On being carefully examined by Professor Putnam he remarked that
the implement was a knife of very early type, and that under the glass
it was clearly seen to be coated with the patina which indicates that it
is a relic of great antiquity, and has lain for a long time in some such
conditions as that described by Mr. Huston. Professor Putnam regarded
it as a very important discovery.

Mr. F. H. Cushing, Vice-President of the Anthropological Section
said that we have in this case an implement concerning which there can
be no doubt that it was completely finished and is not a “ reject.” It
had been carefully chipped to an edge all round; and not only so, but
it had been used and sharpened ; and what was still more significant it
had been sharpened by the older, and not by the later processes, the
edge had been chipped in sharpening not by pressing against it with a
bone but by blows with another stone. Mr. Cushing also remarked
with Professor Putnam upon the antiquity of the type. While continu-
ing in use through later times on account of its convenience, it is with-
out doubt one of the earliest types of implement and everything about
it agrees perfectly with the conditions of its alleged discovery.

GEORGE FREDERICK WRIGHT.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES,

The American Microscopical Society held its Eighteenth
Annual Meeting at Ithaca, N. Y., Aug. 21-23, 1895. The following
were the proceedings: Address of welcome, by the Hon. D. F. Van
Vleet; response by the President of the Society, Professor S. H. Gage.

954 The American Naturalist. [October,

The following papers were read and discussed during the sessions :
Some Notes on Alleged Meteoric Dust, Magnus Pflaum, Pittsburg, Pa. ;
Corky Outgrowth of: Roots and their Connection with Respiration,
H. Schrenk, Cambridge, Mass.; A Practical Method of Referring
Units of Length to the Wave Length of Sodium Light; Professor Wm:
A. Rogers, Waterville, Me. ; Some Peculiarities in the Structure of the
Mouth Parts and Ovipositor of Cicada septendecim, Professor J. D:
Hyatt, New Rochelle, N. Y.; The Lateral Line Systems of Sense
Organs in Amphibia, Dr. B. F. Kingsbury, Defiance, O.; The Chloro-
phyll Bodies of Chara coronata, Professor W. W. Rowlee, Ithaca, N.
Y. ; Secondary Thickenings of the Rootstalks of Spathyema, Mary A.
Nichols, Ithaca, N. Y. ; Comparison of the Fleischel, the Gower and the
Specific Gravity Method of Determining the Percentage of Hæmo-
globin in Blood for Clinical Purposes, F. C. Busch and A. T. Kerr,
Jr., Buffalo, N. Y.; The History of the Sex-Cells from the time of
Segregation to Sexual Differentation in Cymtogaster, Professor C. H.
Eigenmann, Bloomington, Ind.; A Fourth Study of the Blood, Show-
ing the Relation of the Colorless Corpuscle to the Strength of the Con-
stitution, Dr. M. L. Holbrook, New York City ; Two Cases of Inter-
cellular Spaces in Vegetable Embryos, K. M. Wiegand, Ithaca, N. Y.;
The Fruits of the Order Umbelliferx, Dr. E. J. Durand, Ithaca, N.
Y.; The Action of Strong Currents of Electricity upon Nervous
Tissue; Dr. P. A. Fish, Ithaca, N. Y.; The Morphology of the Brain
of the Soft-Shelled Turtle and the English Sparrow Compared, Susanna
P. Gage, Ithaca, N. Y.; The Flagella of Motile Bacteria, Dr. V. A.
Moore, Washington, D. C.; The Primitive Source of Food Supply in
the Great Lakes; Some Experiments in Methods of Plankton Measure-
ments, Professor Henry B. Ward, Lincoln, Neb.; The Fruits of the
Order Composit, Professor W. W. Rowlee and K. M. Wiegand,
Ithaca, N. Y.; The Spermatheca and Methods of Fertilization in some
American Newts and Salamanders, Dr. B. F. Kingsbury, Defiance, O. ;
Cocaine in the Study of Pond-life; Paraffin and Collodion Embedding,
Professor H. S. Conser, Sunbury, Pa.; Formalin asa Hardening Agent
for Nerve Tissue, Dr. Wm. C. Krauss, Buffalo, N. Y.; The Use of
Formalin in Neurology, Dr. P. A. Fish, Ithaca, N. Y.; The Lym-
phatics and the Lymph Circulation, with Demonstration of Specimens
and Apparatus, Dr. Grant S. Hopkins, Ithaca, N. Y.; New Points in
Photo-micrographs and Cameras, W. H. Walmsley, Chicago, Ill. ; The
Question of Correct Naming and Use of Micro-reagents, Miss V. A.
Latham, M: D., Chicago, Ill.; A New Way of Marking Objectives, Dr.
Wm. C. Krauss, Buffalo, N. Y.: Demonstration of Histological Prepar-

1895.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 955

ations by the Projection Microscope, Drs. Krauss and Mallonee, Buffalo,
N. Y.; Improvements in the Collodion Method, Professor S. H. Gage,
Ithaca, N. Y.; The Syracuse Solid Watch-Glass ; A Metal Centering
Block; A New Method of Making Cells and of Mounting in Glycer-
ine, Dr. A. C. Mercer, Syracuse, N. Y.

The afternoon of Wednesday was devoted to an inspection of the
Library and other University buildings. Illustrations of methods of
marking micrometers upon a ruling engine were shown at Franklin
Hall (Physical Building).

In the evening, President Gage gave his address: The Processes of
Life Revealed by the Microseope—a Plea for Physiological Histology.

Thursday afternoon and evening were spent in an excursion on
Cayuga Lake.

Friday afternoon was the business meeting of the Society, and in
the evening there was an exhibition of microscopical objects, especially
designed to give people who have not had the opportunity of making
extended study with a magnifying glass, the privilege of seeing for
themselves some of the interesting and instructive revelations of the
microscope.

The Society appropriated $25.00 in support of Dr. Field’s Biblio-
graphical Bureau, and voted to send their proceedings regularly to it.

The forty-fourth meeting of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science. met in Springfield, Mass., from
August 28th to September 4th inclusive. The officers of the meeting
were:

President, E. W. Morley, Cleveland, Ohio; Vice-Presidents, A.
Mathematics and Astronomy, Edgar Frisby, Washington, D. C.; B.
Physics, W. LeConte Stevens, Troy, N. Y.; C. Chemistry, William
MeMutrie, Brooklyn, N. Y.; D. Mechanical Science and Engineering,
William Kent, Passaic, N. J. ; E. Geology and Geog ed. Hote
kiss, Staunton, Va. ; F. Zoölogy, Leland O. Howard, oe D.
C.; G. Botany, J. C. Arthur, Lafayette, ine; H. Anthropology, =
Cushing, Washington, D. C.; I. Economic
Fernow, Washington, D. C.; Permanent Secretary, F. W. Putnam, Sk
bridge, Mass; General Secretary, Jas. Lewis Howe, Lexington, Va.; Sec-
retary of the Council, Charles R. Barnes, Madison, Wis. ; : Slacretatied of
the Sections, A. Mathematics and Astronomy, Asaph Hall, Jr., Ann
Arbor, Mich.; B. Physics, E. Merritt, Ithaca, N.Y. ;-C, Chemistry,
W. P. Mason, Trop, N. Y.; D. Mechanical Science nad Engineering,
H. S. Jacoby, Ithaca, N. Y.: E. Geology and Geography, J. Perrin

956 The American Naturadist. [October,

Smith, Palo Alto, Cal.; F. Zodlogy, C. W. Hargett, Syracuse, N. Y.;
G. Botany, B. T. Galloway, Washington, D. C.; H. Anthropology,
Stewart Culin, Philadelphia, Pa.; I. Economic Science and Statistics,
W. R. Lazenby, Columbus, Ohio; Treasurer, R. S. Woodward, New
York, N.Y.

The papers which were read in Sections E, F, G and H, which in-
clude the natural sciences as usually defined, were the following :

FRIDAY, Auc., 30TH. Section E, Geology. The Relations of Prim-
ary and Secondary Structures in Rocks, by ©. R. Van Hise; The
Archæan and Cambrian Rocks of the Green Mountain Range in South-
ern Massachusetts, by B. K. Emerson; Gotham’s Cave, or Fractured
Rocks in Northern Vermont, by C. H. Hitchcock ; Recent Discovery
of the Occurrence of Marine Cretaceous Strata on Long Island, by
Arthur Hollick ; Geological Canals between the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans, by J. W. Spencer; Geological Notes on the Isles of Shoals, by
H. C. Hovey; Great Falls of the Mohawk at Cohoes, N. Y., by W.
H. C. Pynchon ; Subdivision of the Upper Silurian in Northeast Iowa,
by Andrew G. Wilson; Supplementary Notes on the Metamorphic
Series of the Shasta Region of California, by J. P. Smith ; Recent Ele-
vation of New England, by J. W. Spencer.

Section F. The Evolution of the Insect Mouthpiece, by J. B. Smith
(Lantern Illustrations) ; The Mouthpiece of Insects with Special Ref-
erence to the Diptera and Hemiptera, by C. L. Marlatt; On the Ol-
factory Lobes, by Charles S. Minot; Notes on Fleas, Mosquitoes and
the Horse-flies, by L. O. Howard; On the Visceral Anatomy of the
Lacertilia, by E. D. Cope; Characters which are useful in raising
larvae of Sphingidae, by George Dimmock.
`- Section G. A Leaf Rot of Cabbage, by H. L. Russell; The South-
ern Tomato Blight, by Erwin F. Smith ; Observations on the Develop-
ment of Uncinula spiralis, by B. T. Galloway; The effect of sudden
changes of turgor and of temperature on Growth, by Rodney H. True;
Recording Apparatus for the Study of Transpiration of Plants, by
Albert F. Woods; Pressure, Normal Work and Surplus Energy in
Growing Plants, by George M. Holferty ; Notes on the Ninth Edition
of the London Catalogue of British Plants, by N. L. Britton ; Obolaria
virginica L. A Morphological and Anatomical Study, by Theodore
Holm ; Botany of Yakutat Bay, Alaska, by Frederick V. Coville.

Section H. The Dynasty of the Arrow, by Frank Hamilton Cush-
ing; The Origin of Playing Cards, by Stewart Culin ; The Origin of
Money in China, by Stewart Culin; Mustach Sticks of the Ainus, by
Stewart Culin ; Some Arabic Survivals in the Lauguage and Folk-

1895,] Proceedings of Scientifie Societies. 957

usage of the Rio Grande Valley, by John G. Bourke; The Sacred
Pole of the Omaha Tribe, by Alice C. Fletcher; The mystery of the
name Pamunkey, by William Wallace Tooker; A Vigil of the Gods,
by Washington Matthews.

Monpay, Sept. 25TH. Section E. Views of the Ice Age as two
epochs, the Glacial and Champlain, by Warren Upham; Glacial Phe-
nomena between Lake Champlain and Lake George and the Hudson,
by G. F. Wright; Whirpool of Niagara, by G. W. Holley; Distribu-
tion of Sharks in the Cretaceous, by C. R. Eastman ; Terminology pro-
posed for the description of Pelecypoda, by A. Hyatt ; The Equatorial
Counter Currents, by W. M. Davis; Address by Maj. Jed Hotchkiss,
the Vice-President of Section E, at 2 o’clock.

Section F. Stemmiiulus as an Ordinal Type, by O. F. Cook; Char-
acters which are useful in raising larvae of Sphingidae, by George
Dimmock ; The Affinities of the Pythonomorph Reptiles, by E. D.
Cope; Temperature Variations of cattle observed during extended
periods of time, with reference to the Tuberculosis Test, by Julius Nel-

son.

Sections F and G. Variation after Birth, by L. H. Bailey ; Rejuve-
nation and Heredity, by Charles S. Minot ; The Distinction between
Animals and Plants, by J. C. Arthur; Fungous Gardens in the nests
of an Ant (Atta tardigrada Buckl.) near Washington, by Walter T.
Swingle; Poisoning by Broad-leaved Laurel, Kalmia latifolla, by
Frederick V. Colville; The Physiology of Isopyum biternatrum L.,
by D. T. McDougal; The Transmission of Stimuli-effects in Mimosa
pudica L., by D. T. McDougal; Personal Nomenclature in the Myxo-
mycetes, by O. F. Cook; A New Californian Liverwort, by Douglas
H. Campbell; The number of spare Mother Cells in the Sporangia of
Ferns, by Willis L. Jepson; The Constancy of the Bacterial Flora of
Sour Milk, by H. L. Bolley; The Watermelon Wilt and other Wilt
Diseases due to Fusarium, by Erwin F. Smith.

Section H. The year of Pleiides of Prehistoric Starlore, by R. G.
Haliburton ; An Iroquois Condolence, by W. M. Beauchamp; Mental
Measurement in Anthropology, by J. McKeen Cattell; Some Symbolic
Carvings from the Ancient Mounds of Ohio, by F. W. Putnam and C.
C. Willoughby ; Account of the Discovery of a chipped chert imple-
ment in undisturbed Glacial Gravel near Steubenville, O., by F.G.
Wright ; Notes on the Bushmen of Transvaal, by George Leith ; pre-
sented by F. W. Putnam; Village Life among the Cliff Dwellers, by
Stephen D. Peet; An Ojibwa Transformation Tale, by Harlan I.
Smith ; Old Mohawk Words, by W. H. Beauchamp; The Different

958 The American Naturalist. [October,

Races described by early Discoverers and Explorers, by Stephen D.
Peet ; Root Fungus of Maize, by George Macloskie ; Enantiomorphism
in Plants, by George Macloskie.

TUESDAY, SEPT. 3RD. Section E. Interesting Features in the Sur-
face Geology of the Genesee Region, illustrated with lantern slides, by
H. L. Fairchild; Japan, Gardner G. Hubbard; Great Falls of the
Mohawk at Cohoes, N. Y. ; illustrated with lantern slides, by W. H. C.
Pynchon. In the afternoon the Section met with Section H.

Section F. On the Girdling of Elm Twigs by the Larvee of Orgygia
leucostigma, and its Results, by J. A. Lintner ; Notes upon the Eupa-
guridæ, by Charles W. Hargitt; On a Revision of the North Ameri-
can Craspedosomatide, by O. F. Cook ; A New Character in the Col-
obognatha, with Drawings of Siphonotus, by O. F. Cook; A New
Wheel for Color Mixing in Tests for Color Vision, by J. H. Pillsbury;
Some Further Results of Investigation of Areas of Color Vision in the
Human Retina, by J. H. Pillsbury; A Study of Panorpa and Bittacus,
by E. P. Felt.

WEDNESDAY, Sept. 47H. Section H. A Study in Anthropo-geog-
raphy as a Branch of Sociological Investigation, by William Z. Ripley;
The Algonquian Appellatives of the Siouan Tribes of Virginia, by W.
M. Wallace Tooker; Indian Songs and Music, by Alice C. Fletcher ;
The Spider Goddess and the Demon Snare, by F. H. Cushing ; The
Influence of Prehistoric Pigmy Races on Early Calendars and Cults,
with Notes on Dwarf Survivals by R. G. Haliburton; Account of the
Discovery of a Chipped Chert Implement in Undisturbed Glacial
Gravel near Steubenville, Ohio, by G. F. Wright ; Paleothic Culture,
its Characteristic Variations and Tokens, by Stephen D. Peet; A
Melange of Micmac Notes, by Stansbury Hager; Grammatic Form
and the Verb Concept in Iroquoian Speech, by J. W. B. Hewitt; An-
thropometrical, Psychoneural and Hypnotic Measurements, by Arthur
Mac Donald ; The Education of Blind-deaf Mutes, by John Dutton
Wright; A Study in Child Life, by L. O. Talbot; The Indians of
Southern California, by Franz Boas; The Cosmogonic Gods of the
Iroquois, by J. W. B. Hewitt ; Word Formation in the Kootenay Lan-
guage, by Alex. F. Chamberlain; Kootenay Indian Personal Names,
by Alex. F. Chamberlain.

The following officers were elected for the coming year :

President—Edward D. Cope, of Philadelphia; Vice-Presidents—A—
Mathematics and Astronomy, William E. Story, of Worcester; B—
Physics, Carl Leo Mees, of Terre Haute, Ind.; C—Chemistry, W. A.
Noyes, of Terre Haute, Ind. ; D—Mechanical Science and Engineering,
Frank O. Marvin, of Lawrence, Kansas; E—Geology and Geography,

1395.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 959

Benjamin K. Emerson, of Amherst ; F—Zoology, Theodore N. Gill, of
Washington, D. C.; G—Botany, N. L. Britton, of New York City;
H—Anthropology, Alice C. Fletcher, of Washington, D. C.; I—Social
Science, William R. Lazenby, of Columbus, Ohio; General Secretary
—Charles R. Barnes, of Madison, Wis.; Secretary of the Council—
Asaph Hall, Jr., of Ann Arbor, Mich. ; Secretaries of the Sections—A
—Mathematies and Astronomy, Edwin B. Frost, of Hanover, N. H.;
B—Physics, Frank P. Whitman, of Cleveland, Ohio ; C—Chemistry,
Frank P. Venable, of Chapel Hill, N. C.; D—Mechanical Science and
Engineering, John Galbraith, of Toronto, Can.; E—Geology and
Geography, A. C. Gill, of Ithaca, N. Y.; F—Zoology, D. S. Kellicott,
of Columbus, Ohio; G—Botany, George F. Atkinson, of Ithaca, N.
Y.; H—Anthropology, John G. Bourke, United States Army; I—
Social Science, R. T. Colburn, of Elizabeth, N. J.; Treasurer—R. S.
Woodward, of New York, N. Y

The Annual Report of Secretary Putnam showed that 367 members
have been in attendance, all parts of the country being well represen-
ted. From Springfied there were 15 and from the rest of Massachusetts
56. The other leading States were as follows: New York 90, District of
Columbia 39, Pennsylvania 29, Ohio 18, Connecticut 14, Indiana 12.
There were 185 new members elected and 58 made fellows. Four have
died during the year. There have been three public lectures and 207
papers, divided as follows among the sections: A 16, B 34, C 42 D 6,
E 17, F 16, G 28, H 33, 113.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Dr. Charles Valentine Riley curator of the department of En-
tomology in the U. S. National Museum died Sept. 15th in consequence
of being thrown from a bicycle on the previous day.

The eminent scientist was born in London in 1843 and he attended
schools in France and Germany. For six years he studied on the Con-
tinent of Europe. Two passions characterized his boyhood—one for
collecting insects, the other for drawing and painting.

At the age of 17 he sailed for New York, where, after a seven weeks’
voyage, he arrived with little means. He went West and settled upon
a farm in Illinois. Here he remained for four years, and acquired an
experience of practical agriculture. About the time of his majority he
commenced journalistic work in Chicago, where, in connection with his
work on the paper, he gave special attention to botany and entomology.
In 1868 he accepted the office of State entomologist of Missouri. In
the Spring of 1878 he was tendered the position of entomologist to the

65

. 960 The American Naturalist. [October,

Department of Agriculture, which he aceepted, but shortly afterward
relinquished, retaining, however, his position at the head of the Entomo-
logical Commission, and continuing his work in the service of the
Government. In 1881 the Division of Entomology in the Department
of Agriculture was formed, and Professor Riley was placed at its head
—a position which he continued to occupy until last year, when, on
account of impaired health, he tendered his resignation.

Professor Riley has given to the National Museum at Washington
his private collection of American insects, containing more than 20,000
species, and represented by 115,000 pinned specimens, and much addi-
tional material unpinned and in alcohol. In 1889 he received the in- `
signia of Knight of the Legion of Honor. At this time the French
Minister of Agriculture wrote him a personal letter acknowledging the
distinguished and valuable services which he had rendered to French
agriculture.

Dr. Riley was a man of great energy as well as persistence of char-
acter. In his personality he was of full medium height and of graceful —
figure; and his face would have adorned a gallery devoted to poets or
the heroes of sentimental fiction. He was of attractive manners, and
an amiable disputant. He had ‘retired from the responsibilities of
official position to devote himself to study, of which he apparently had
many years before him. His sudden death is a blow to science, and a
great loss to his friends.

Dr. Samuel Henshaw of the Boston Society of Natural History has
been spending a few months in Europe.

Prof. F. L. Washburn of the zoological department of the Oregon
Agricultural College has accepted a position in the Oregon State
University.

Professor F. Wm. Rane has resigned from the chair of agriculture
and horticulture at the University of West Virginia to accept a similar
position in the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanic
Arts.

Prof. G. E. Morrow has accepted the presidency of the Oklahoma
Agricultural and Mechanical College at Stillwater.

Prof. Edwin W. Doran has accepted the presidency of Ozark College
at Greenfield, Missouri.

Prof. H. J. Waters of Pennsylvania State College has been elected
Director of Missouri Experiment Station. Prof. F. B. Mumford of Mich-
igan has been appointed Professor of Agriculture in the Missouri State
University.

)
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ADVERTISEMENTS. Mt

Contents of THE MONIST for January, 1895.
OL. 5., No. 2.

iia m Desti (A Posthumous wong George J. Romanes; To Be Alive. What
Edward hoy u AA Ought the United Baies "Senate to be Reformed ?

Noss re D. Conway; The Advancement of Ethics. Dr. Francis Ellingwood Abbot;
The yas Storage of Fee Lester F. Ward; Mind, No Storage of Energy.
Editor; De Rerum rka ura. Editor; Foira Correspondence ; Criticism and Dıs-

h: ; Book Review

Yearly, $2.00. . Single Copies, 50 Cents,

The Philosophical Portrait Series—Issued Quarterly—Will be sent free on application.

The Gospel of Buddha, “2's purai

With Table of References and Parallels, Glossary, roby complete Index. Elegantly Bound;
Gilt .50.

Price,

AN tng pt Agi WEISMANNISM. zA sirpa Pra Professor of iy dai in act Pap moll bal

R.S., Honorary Prague, Translated from the Ger
nile ae a bridge. gna Bcd Tatonas Ey M Q Mn 250 ae.
With Daia of W eis amann, a a Glossary of Morocco, Gilt Top. Price, $2.50
Sci uae, Bia "E Thoroughly g eag 236 DARWIN, “AND AFTER ta An Exposition of

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PRIMER i SE PHILOSOPHY: By Dr. PauL Carus. pint: aieia Cas
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cal Exposition of its Principles, by ERN —The Nation.

Send for catalogue and specimen copies of “The Monist” and “The Open Court.”
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The AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN and ORIENTAL JOURNAL.

Published at 175 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, 111.

Edited by STEPHEN D. PEET, Goop Horeg, ILL.

Bi-Monthly. pines $4.00 Per Year.

The First Magazine Devoted to Archæology and | Ethnology established in America. It has
now reached its Seventeenth Volume, which promises to be the Best of the Series.

There has been no time in all the sixteen years during which this magazine has continued,
when a value promised so well as does the the teenth,

The Co sapere who are all Scholarly gentlemen and specialists will continue as
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The e following n may be sopane as having contributed to the biagi > ter

r. D. G. Brin Rev. M. Beauchamp, Prof: A. F. Cha Mr. Jam

Deans, G. O. Da. T J- Walter ptr H. = Mercer, na a Natal, Ç. Staniland
Wake, Dr. Wm. Wallace Tooker, Dr. Cyrus Thom The Ma agazine d g 95 will embrace
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and discoveries :

Rev. . C. Winslow, D. D., L. » eypt.
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; PAGE
DISTINCTION BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANT:

Ci ias. 961
EPRODUCTION OF PLUMULARIAN
“Hvorom str rated). C. C. Nutling.
T IN PLANTS. ( ale age

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXIX. November, 1895. 347

THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN ANIMALS AND
PLANTS.

By J. C. ARTHUR.

The animal kingdom and the vegetable kingdom were not
sharply distinguished in the days when science was young,
some two or three centuries ago, when even learned men be-
lieved in the Scythian lamb,’ that grew on the top of a small
tree-trunk in place of foliage, and in the wonderful tree of the
British Isles,* whose fruit turned to birds when it fell on the
ground, and to fishes when it fell into water; and the two
kingdoms are not sharply distinguished to-day, when learned
men do not agree upon the systematic position of the Myxo-
gastres and other low forms, some going so far as to assert that
many of the simple organisms are on neutral ground, belong-
ing no more to one than to the other kingdom. Dr. Asa Gray*
once said that “no absolute distinction whatever is now known
between them. It is quite possible that the same organism

1 Read before joint session of Sections F and G of the A. A. A. S., Springfield
meeting, Sept. 2, 1895.

? Duret, Histoire admirable des plantes, 1605; Jonston, Dendrographias sive
histori naturalis de arboribus, 1662; LaCroix, Connubia florum, ed. 2, 1791.

3 Duret, l. c.; Gerarde, Herball, 1597.

ae Monthly, 1860; Darwiniana, p. 124.

962 The American Naturalist. [November,

may be both vegetable and animal, or may be first the one and
then the other.”

So numerous have been the vain attempts to find some
character of universal diagnostic value that it seems rash in-
deed to make another trial. But, in case of failure, no harm
will be done, even if no advance has been made.

In all attempts, so far as they have come to my notice, the
characters selected to distinguish the two kingdoms have been
physiological, and not structural. Yet, in the classification of
plants among themselves, or of animals among themselves,
the characters of acknowledged value are drawn from structure,
and physiological distinctions are only considered when the
organisms are very minute or simple, like the bacteria and
yeasts, or for some other exceptional reason. It seems, there-
fore, highly illogical to accept a purely physiological character
as fundamental for separating the two kingdoms.

On this ground we would discard Linnzeus’ classification :*
Lapides crescunt, vegetabilia crescunt et vivunt, animalia .
crescunt, vivunt et sentient; and that of Heckel® who accords
the chlorophyll function to plants and not to animals; and
that of Sedgwick and Wilson” who find the sole characteristic
of animals to be dependence upon proteid food ; and also that
of Dangeard® and Minot,’ who distinguish the two kingdoms
by the manner in which the food, or food material, is taken
into the organism. There are also characters, for which I need
cite no authority, that were advocated at different times in the
past, which have since been discarded for lack of universality,
such as a carbon dioxide respiration in plants and an oxygen
respiration in animals, that plants exclusively convert in-
organic matter into organic matter, that plants alone produce
chlorophyll, or cellulose, or starch, etc.

5 Philosophia botanica, ed. 4, 1

ê Systematische Phyl. genie ve neh te und Pflanzen, 1894; abs, in Science,
i, 1895, p 272.

1 Biology, 1886, p. 167.

8 Ann, des sci. nat., 7th ser., Bot. T. V.; Comp. rend., 1887; Le Botaniste,
1895, p. 188.

? Science, i, 1895, p. 311.

1895.] The Distineticn Between Animals and Plants. 963

In attempting to distinguish animals and plants by means
of definite characters, there is another point that needs atten-
tion. Primary characters are to be drawn from the mature
condition of the organism, and not from the reproductive or
the immature state. This is such an obvious proposition in
the ordinary classification of animals or plants, that it seems
strange that in diagnosing the two kingdoms it should have
been entirely overlooked. There areremarkable similarities in
methods of reproduction among plants and animals, not only
in the processes, but in the external means for protection and
in the methods of dissemination of the reproductive bodies.
Especially is this true of non-sexual reproduction among the
lower orders. The reproductive structures are sometimes very
elaborate, and the organism in that state often attracts more
attention than in the vegetative condition, as in the case of the
Myxogastres. It is obvious that the individual is the object
that we are studying and classifying, and therefore the most
fundamental of characters should apply to the individual—the
vegetative organism, and not to the mode by which a suc-
cession of individuals is maintained.

The following definition of plants and animals is suggested
as meeting the requirements of the conditions of classification
mentioned above :

PLANTS are organisms possessing (in their vegetative state) a
cellulose investment.

ANIMALS are organisms possessing (in their vegetative state)
a proteid investment, either potential or actual.

The organism may be a cellular body with the investment
extending to each protoplasmic unit, as is usual in plants, or
it may be a ccenocytic body with the investment extending
only to the compound units, as in most animals and in some
plants (e. g., Mucorine, Siphonacex). As a rule, the investment
is most prominently developed upon the general outer surface
of the organism.

By designating the constitution of the walls, it is intended
to cover only the original or basic substance of which they are
composed, and has no reference to subsequent depositions or
infiltrations, of whatever character they may be. Thus in the

964 The American Naturalist. [October,

walls of grasses and Equiseti there is often a great amount of
silica, in certain seaweeds (Corallina) much lime, in tunicates
so much cellulose that it sometimes amounts to one-fourth of
the dry weight,” and yet, in the case of the plants named, the
original and fundamental substance of the wall is cellulose,
and in the animals proteid. A small amount of nitrogen has
recently been found by Winterstein"” associated with the cellu-
lose of fungi, but in what form has not yet been determined.
Other instances of a similar nature might be cited.

It may be well to say that by cellulose is meant both pri-
mary and compound celluloses and their various modifications,
all of which are carbohydrates, and by proteid is meant the
nitrogenous, non-protoplasmic substance of walls, no formula
for which is known, but which Cross and Bevan” suggest
“may prove to be of similar carbon configuration to that of
cellulose.”

There are some organisms which, in their vegetative state,
consist of so-called naked protoplasm, of which the most con-
spicuous and well-known examples are the Myxogastres,
Many species of these fungus-animals (Pilzthiere), however, are
known to possess a distinct proteid envelop about the plas-
modium” which, by its chemical reaction, is shown to be non-
protoplasmic, and it may be inferred that careful examination
will find it present in most of the species, and that it can be
considered as potential or undeveloped in the others, They
are, therefore, distinctly animal in their fundamental character-
istic. Although usually treated in botanical text-books and
studied by botanists, they were long since shown by DeBary"
to have more points of agreement with animals than with
plants, and he believed them to be “outside the limits of the
vegetable kingdom.” This separation by DeBary was made

Schmidt, Zur vergleichenden Physiologie der wirbellosen Thiere. Ann. d.
Chem., liv, 1845, p. 318 ; Schacht, Miiller’s Archiv, 1851, p. 185; Schäfer, Ueber
Thiercellulose, Ann. d. Chem., clx, 187 1, p. 312,

^ Ber. d. d. chem. Ges., xxviii, (1895) p. 167.

12 Cellulose, 1895, p. 88.

13 DeBary, Morphology and biology of the fungi, mycetozoa and bacteria, p.
496.

4 Die Mycetozoen, ed. 2, Leipzig, 1864; 1. c., p. 444.

1895.] The Distinction Between Animals and Plants. 965

without any reference to a proteid membrane, which may,
however, be considered the crucial diagnostic character.

Another set of organisms, with apparently naked proto-
plasm during the vegetative stage, are the endophytic parasites
belonging to the group of genera represented by Synchytrium,
Woronina, Olpidiopsis, Rozella and Reesia. Whether they
ever possess any demonstrable proteid envelop has not been
ascertained, but it is known that they have no cellulose en-
velop; they are, therefore, not plants, and must, in conse-
quence, be animals. This disposition of them has already
been made by Zopf” on the ground that a “ plasmodial char-
acter of the vegetative condition is entirely foreign to the
Eumycetes.” The Chytridiacez, which are usually associated -
with the Synchytria, have a much reduced but demonstrable
mycelium formed of cellulose, and are, therefore, unmistakable
plants.

Among the lowest forms, as generally classified, the Rhizo-
pods, including Amoeba, and the far simpler Monera, show no
distinct proteid envelop, but neither do they show any indi-
cation of a cellulose envelop, and as the other affinities appear
to be with animals rather than with plants, they are doubt-
less rightly placed in the animal kingdom. It is reason-
able to expect that more careful examination will, in some
cases, show a simple or imperfectly formed proteid envelop.

It may be well to specifically state for sake of clearness that
the nature of the investment of spores or sporophores has no
significance in this connection. They are to be regarded as
adaptations without primary classificatory value.

The crucial diagnostic character, which is here proposed,
has in its favor the separation of plants and animals upon a
line which accords well with the consensus of opinion of
thoughtful students, both botanists and zoologists, an opinion
which has been formed from a variety of structural, physio-
logical and developmental data. True relationship must
necessarily be adduced from a study of the full life-history of
organisms, diagnostic characters only forming points of depart-
ure.

® Die Pilze, 1890, p. 2.

966 ; The American Naturalist. [November,

NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF PLUMULARIAN
HYDROIDS.

By ©. C. Nurtina.

During the past spring and summer, while studying the
Plumulariide at Plymouth, England and Naples, Italy, the
writer came across certain facts which are deemed to be of
such general biological importance as to render an immediate
announcement desirable, without waiting for the completion
of a work in which a more formal discussion of these facts and
their significance will appear.

Asexual reproduction of Plumularia pinnata Linn.

This species is the most abundant plumularian at Plymouth
affording ample material for satisfactory study. The first spec-
imens with young gonangia were brought to the laboratory on
May 2nd. Ten days before this I noticed that several fresh
specimens were peculiar in having a number of the hydrocla-
dia greatly produced into thread-like extensions ending in a
clavate enlargement. Neither hydranths nor nematophores
grew upon these processes, although the usual number were
found in their normal position on the unmodified portions of
the hydrocladia.

These specimens were kept alive in a separate jar, and three
days later it was found that the curiously lengthened hydro-
cladia had continued their abnormal growth, and that some of
the enlarged ends had become forked. A microscopic exami-
nation showed that the hydrocladial extensions were almost
or entirely destitute of nodes, the whole structure being a sim-
ple tube, with perisarc, ectoderm and endoderm enclosing the
axial cavity in which the life currents were moving in un-
usual activity. The most notable histological feature was the
surprising number of nematocysts embedded in the ccenosare.
The colony seemed in good condition, the hydranths being
fully expanded and active.

1895.] Notes on the Reproduction of Plumularian Hydroids. 967

Under date of April 27th, four days later, I find the follow-
ing note:

“To-day I noticed some delicate, thread-like lines adhering
to the inside of a jar containing living colonies of P. pinnata.
Upon moving a piece of stone, I found that these lines were
the long, thread-like processes or continuations of hydrocladia
noticed several daysago. Uponclose investigation hydranths
were seen fully expanded arising from these processes attached
to the glass, and one small colony with the primate branching
of Plumularia had advanced so far as toshow seven hydranths
on branches. The original process from the hydrocladium of
the parent colony has become a creeping stolon attached to
the glass. It is sending up the new colony on the one hand,
and giving forth delicate rootlets on the other. A single
hydranth growing on the stolon a little to the right of the in-
cipient colony already described, seems to indicate the starting
of a second colony. Several other stolons (derived in the same
way from greatly elongated hydrocladia) are giving off little
colonies. There have been no other plumularians in this jar,
and the original colonies were without gonangia.”

These new colonies were kept alive for a week longer, by
which time their connection with the parent stocks had been
destroyed by atrophy of the hydrocladial extensions from
which the new colonies arose, and the daughter colonies had
attained considerable size and all the characteristic features of
P. pinnata.

In another jar a colony showing the hydrocladial extensions
was purposely placed so that they could reach neither the side
of the jar nor any other point of support. This did not inter-
fere with the asexual reproduction, however, as the processes
became forked at their distal ends, and from these forks arose
incipient colonies. After a week had elapsed the parent col-
ony died and the main stem became withered and dropped to
the bottom of the jar, carrying with it the daughter colonies
which were then able to attach themselves and proceed with
their development as would any other colony.

After a careful search through the literature of the sub-
ject, I am unable to find any account of this mode of re-

968 The American Naturalist. [November,

production either among hydroids or any other of the metazoa,
and I propose for it the name Stoloniferous reproduction on ac-
count of the great similarity which it bears to that process
among plants.’

Asexual multiplication has long been known to exist among
the hydroids, where it usually presents itself in some form of
gemmation. Fission has been found to occur in a medusa,
Stomobrachium mirabile Köll., but the most remarkable case
heretofore recorded is described by Allman in a campanula-
rian named by him Schizocladium ramosum? The process is,
in brief, as follows:

An ordinary ramulus, instead of bearing a hydranth on its
distal end, elongates and the ccenosare ruptures the chitinous
investment at the tip and protrudes naked into the water.
constriction takes place by which this naked ccenosarc is
divided off and finally separated from the parent stem. “The
detached segment is now the rivof an inch in length, and
strikingly resembles a planula in all points except in the total
absence of vibratile cilia. It attaches itself by a mucous ex-
cretion from its surface to the walls of the vessel, and exhibits
slight and very sluggish changes of form. After a time a
bud springs from its side, and it is from this bud alone that
the first hydranth of the new colony is developed.”

Although this process resembles the stoloniferous multipli-
cation of Plumularia pinnata in the formation of a new colony
from a modified branch termination, it differs greatly in the
fact that in Schizocladium the divided portion or “ frustule,” as
Allman calls it, becomes entirely separated from the parent
stock before the new colony begins to develop, while in P. pin-
nato, there is a vital connection by means of the greatly elonga-
ted hydrocladium.

The stoloniferous multiplication must not be confounded
with any of the many modes of branching heretofore found
among the hydroids, which do not give rise to separate colo-

1“ Stolons are trailing or reclining branches above ground which strike root
where they touch the soil, and then send up a vigorous shoot which has roots of
its own, and becomes an independent plant when the connecting part dies, as it
does after awhile.” Gray, School and Handbook of Botany, p. 37.

? Report Brit. Association, 1870, and “ Gymnoblastie Hydroids,” p. 151, 152.

PLATE XXXII.

MMM “< .]B§;&BLBE

r ws e

— a

DS

a icy

ao FS
aeee

5 <]
BR r

RAMA

Tie

Plumularia pinnata L.

1895.] Notes on the Reproduction of Plumularian Hydroids. 969

nies having independent hydrorhize ; neither is it equivalent
to the multiplication often effected by mutilation. There is
no mutilation in this case, unless we may so regard the spon-
taneous atrophy of the connection between the old and new
colonies.

That this stoloniferous multiplication is normal is indicated
by the fact that specimens fresh from the sea exhibited the
greatly elongated and forked hydrocladia.

_ It may be well to note that P. pinnata seems to have repro-
ductive powers greater than those of any other Plumularian
known to me. At the proper season that part of the stem from
which the hydrocladia spring is fairly packed with gonangia
which may even be crowded out onto the hydrocladia. In
some instances it seemed as if the reproductive potentiality
demanded some other outlet, and long processes, exactly like
the hydrocladial processes described above, were seen spring-
ing from the interior of the gonangia themselves.

The possibility of conjugation among the Plumularidae.

During the months of June, July and August a small spe-
cies of Aglaophenia was brought almost daily to the Naples
Zoological Station. It grows on a long ribbon-like alga in
shallow water and bears a general resemblance to A. pluma
Linn., from which it differs in exhibiting a frequent intercala-
tion of intervening internodes on the distal half of the stem, in
the more distant hydrocladia, and in having, as a rule, not
more than three hydrothece to each internode.

In June it was noticed that a large proportion of the colo-
nies had the end of the main stem greatly elongated and en-
larged, the proximal part of this extension being divided into
a great number of short internodes, while the distal portion
was abruptly bent over so as to form a nearly closed hook. In
many cases the ends of two colonies would be hooked together,
clasping each other so tightly that they could not be separated
without mutilating the specimens. This state of affairs was
so common at this time that one could not regard the attach-
ment as accidental or abnormal, and further developments
were awaited with great interest.

970 The American Naturalist. [November,

In July this attachment was seldom seen, although the en-
larged stem terminations were still common. These latter
appeared to be shedding their perisarc, which was often seen
to be partly peeled off.

About the middle of August I observed that these enlarged
ends were forking just as did the produced hydrocladia of P.
pinnata. Still later, immediately before my departure from
Naples, I found some of these enlarged ends attached to the
sides of the jar and budding, although the buds had not yet.
developed into hydranths. There is practically no doubt that
we have here a ease of stoloniferous reproduction in the genus
Aglaophenia.

Although I was unable to demonstrate the use of the clasp-
ing hooks at the ends of the stems, it was impossible to escape
the constantly recurring suggestion that they might possibly
signify a mode of conjugation such as is found among the Pro-
tozoa (e. g., Paramecium) and the Algæ (e. g., Spirogyra).

That these hooked ends are for some definite purpose can
be confidently assumed, and there are but two explanations
which appear plausible.

Ist. These terminal hooks may aid directly in the stolonif-
erous reproduction by attaching themselves to some adjacent
object upon which the new colonies can grow. i

2nd. They may be clasping organs for use in conjugation.
As a matter of fact they may serve both purposes. My obser-
vations strongly indicate that they are useful as a means of
attachment, and the following considerations indicate a strong
possibility that conjugation may take place.

1st. They were seen so often in a position favoring conjuga-
tion, i. e., with the ends of two colonies clasped in a close em-
brace as to indicate a normal function.

2nd. It was after this supposed conjugation that the stolon-
iferous multiplication was observed to be under way.

3rd. These enlarged ends of the stems were found to contain
a number of amæboid cells which were unusually active,
sending out pronounced pseudopodia. I could not decide
definitely whether these cells were in the ectoderm or endo-
derm, on account of the unfavorable position of the living col-
ony under inspection.

1895.] Notes on the Reproduction of Plumularian Hydroids. 971

Stained sections of these hooks failed to throw much addi-
tional light on the subject, the only noticeable histological
feature being an appearance of great activity in cell multipli-
cation, and the presence of an unusual number of nematocysts.
These sections were of value, however, in demonstrating that
the enlargement of the stem termination was not due to the
presence of a parasite, as is sometimes the case among hydroids,
e. g., Syncoryne eximia and Coryne mirabilis.

The clasping of the hooks is probably effected mechanically
by the undulations of the ripples passing along the alga which
supports the hydroid colonies.

Conjugation is essentially the union of two individuals of a
species during which an interchange of protoplasm is effected
without the intervention of ova or spermatozoa. So far as I
have been able to discover this process has not heretofore been
found among the metazoa, and the observations recorded above
must be regarded as merely an indicatior. of the possibility of
conjugation among hydroids.

It is now a wellestablished fact that the sex cells, both male
and female, of the Plumulariide originate in the endoderm of
the stem ; and any process which would enable the contents of
the endodermal cells of one stem to mix with the contents of
the endodermal cells of the stem of another colony would ren-
der conjugation possible so far as the purely mechanical part
of the question is concerned. This would be effected in the
case under consideration by the solution of the contiguous
walls of the hooks when clasped as already described. While
this solution was not actually seen in any of the specimens
described by me, it was found that the perisare was usually
thinner in the region of contact than elsewhere.

It must be remembered, moreover, that in the normal repro-
duction of most hydroids a solution of the perisarc of the stem
is effected, probably by chemical action, whenever a gonan-
gium is formed,‘ and therefore no new principle would have to

3 The permanent union of individuals which results in Diplozoon cannot be
termed conjugation in the sense eet used, because in the Diplozoon the interyen-
tion of ova and sperma

t+“ Die Entstehung der Sexualzellen bei den Hydromedusen.”” Dr. August
Weismann, p. 182.

972 The American Naturalist. [November,

be invoked to accomplish this end in the case under discus-
sion.

In passing from below upward in the stem of a plumularian
examined just before the appearance of the gonangia, we
find that the sex cells intergrade perfectly with the ordinary
endodermal cells, many of which are themselves destined to
become sex cells. The endodermal cells, then, in the distal
part of the stem, contain that which will ultimately become
ova or spermatozoa, or they contain what might be called the
undifferentiated sex elements. A given colony of Aglaophenia
is always unisexual. That is, all the gonangia contain sex
cells of one kind, and both ova and spermatozoa are never
found in one colony.

Now it is evident that the hooking together of a male and a
female colony by the upper parts of their stems, accompanied
by a dissolving of those portions of the perisare which are in
contact, would leave only the thin ectoderm between the endo-
dermal cells of the two colonies, and a communication between
the undifferentiated sex cells would be an easy matter; for Weis-
mann found that the undifferentiated sex cells exhibited pro-
nounced amceboid movements’ and such movements would,
of course, greatly facilitate conjugation. The ameboid cells
observed by me in the clasping hooks may be of significance
in this connection. Not only did these cells exhibit activity in
sending forth pseudopodia, but they also moved bodily from
place to place among the surrounding cells.

State University of Iowa, Sept. 26, 1895.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

en

. Colony of Plumularia pinnata Linn. showing (a) hydro-
cladial extensions; (b) forking of ends of hydrocladia ;
(c) new colony still attached to parent stock ; (d) new col-
ony separated from parent stock.

New colony, magnified, showing polyps and rootlets.
Portion of hydrocladium showing terminal extension.
Tip of hydrocladial extension showing (a) the budding of
a new colony.

` Š This fact was repeatedly observed by the present writer.

i & bP

1895,] Antidromy in Plants. 973

5. Colonies of Aglaophenia sp. showing (a) terminal exten-
sion of stem; (b) terminal hook ; (c) clasping of hooks;
(d) budding of hooks; (e) new colony attached to side of
jar and to parent stock.

6. Clasping hooks, magnified.

: ANTIDROMY IN PLANTS.
By G. MACLOSKIE.

In November, 1893, I published observations on Maize, from
which it appeared that there are two castes of this plant, the
leaves of one reversing the arrangement of those of the other.
I also traced this diversity to the arrangement of the minute
leaves in the young embryo in the seed; thus in figures 1, 2,
the first foliage-leaf has its right margin
overlapping its left margin. In other
seeds from the same ear the first leaf
would have its left margin external. I
further found that the grains arising on
adjoining rows in the ear of corn are of

fe different castes, and produce “ antidromic”

Grain of Maize; cross Š f z ;
any plants (that is, growing up in opposing
curves), and that the same property be-
longs to all the Graminee.

During the past summer I have ex-
tended this law so as to embrace the
flowering plants. Every species is repre-

Fig. 2. sented by two sets, differing antidromic-
Young leaves of Plu- ally as to the structure of the mother-
mule of Maize. seed, the stem, leaves and inflorescence.
My attention was first attracted to this in the Ladies’ Tresses
(Spiranthes preecox Watson), which had, in some plants, dextral,
in others sinistral, rows of white flowers; and on examination
the dextral and sinistral anthotaxy were found to be accom-
panied respectively by dextral and sinistral phyllotaxy. Fig. 3,

wart

974 The American Naturalist. [November,

representing Spiranthes aestivalis Rich., shows, in a less crowded
manner the sinistral anthotaxy! This specimen would doubt-
less have sinistrorse phyllotaxy, and there should be other
specimens with dextrorse tresses and leaf spirals. Thus it
appears that the much-belabored phyllotaxy of the old bot-
anists is a special case of a larger subject.
The homodromy of phyllotaxy and antho-
taxy within a single individual may be ob-
served in Ænothera biennis, Verbascum thap-
sus, Laportea and Pontederia ; and even in
Gladiolus and Tris we may trace a corres-
pondence between the order of equitant
leaves and the inflorescence, Whilst the
produce of propagation by cuttings, buds,
and bulbs is always homodromic with the
parent stalk, some forms, like Calla-lily,
Iris and Rush, when growing from division
of a root-stalk, appear to be antidromic as if
produced from different seeds. Fig. 4 shows
the spathes of two Calla-lilies, from the same
root-stalk, d having the dextral margin over-
lapping, and s having the sinistral overlap-
ping. We may add that the akenes on the
spadix of d make a dextrorse spiral, and
those on that of s make a sinistrose spiral. ne a:

ranthes aestivalis

In this connection it is interesting to ob- Bich. he Engler and
serve that (so far as I am able to determine Prantl.
from leaves of Bryophyllum supplied me by
Amherst Agricultural Station) the buds growing on opposite
margins of the leaves are relatively antidromic.

Secondary changes, due to twining of stems, spreading out
of leaves under the light, opposition of leaves, and crowding of
flowers, and perfect symmetry of seeds, often disguise the prim-
itive character, especially in the Dicotyledones. But, even in
these cases, we commonly find some trace remaining, In the
great majority of plants, in fruit trees, garden flowers and
weeds, the phyllotaxy immediately divides the representatives

* Dextral and sinistral in this connection signify in the direction, or against the
direction, of the thread of a common screw.

1895.] Antidromy in Plants. 975

of every species into a right-handed and a left-handed caste ;
and even when sunlight interferes, we often get help from

js A
Fig. 4.—Richardia africana Kunth.
branches in the shade. Examples of it abound in all the more
important orders of plants, and there seems to be no exception,
though in opposite-leaved forms the evidence from phyllotaxy
is not easily available. I have found no case of heterodromy as
between the true foliage leaves of an individual plant; and the
only case in which I have failed to observe antidromy between
different plants is the Canna, which is mostly propagated by
bulbs. (Doubtless there are specimens with a right-handed
twist of the young leaves, though I have failed to find any.)
In a bed of Lily of the Valley, half of the specimens have the
inner leaf diverging 120° to the right, and the rest have simi-
lar divergency to the left. (Fig. 5.) In this, as in other
Liliaceze, the anthotaxy
will be found to vary in
harmony with the phyl-
lotaxy.

Doubtless the anti-
dromic phyllotaxy causes
a corresponding anti-
dromy of the leaf-traces,
and of structure of the
stem. This has escaped
anatomists who expected
symmetry; but some of
the figures in the books
show a trending of leaf-

976 The American Naturalist. [November,.

traces to one side, and in all such cases we may be certain that
some of the individuals have similar trending to the opposite
side.

The structure of the embryo, and of the seed as conforming
to the embryo, is very closely identical with that of the adult
plant, and is of use to us when the other evidence is hidden.
Thus fig. 6 shows the flat surface of a coffea-akene; half of the
akenes are of this pattern, the other half resemble the image
of this in a mirror. Fig. 7 shows a cross-section (r) of fig. 6;

Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8.

and also (/) of the antidrom of fig. 6, under the same orienta-
tion, and thus revealing the reverse order of the infolding of
the endosperm. Fig. 8 presents the seed and embryo of
Nelumbium ; on seeing this I predicted the existence of other
seeds with the embryo facing the opposite way, and promptly
Mr. Barney and myself fished out of the Lily-ponds of Spring-
field, Mass., plenty of seeds which showed, under similar orien-
tation, the embryos facing some one way and some the oppo-
site way. The petalsof Water-lilies are also diversely enfolded
in the bud of different plants. The seeds of Lima-bean were
found to have characteristic differences in the mode of enfold-
ing upon each other of the first two foliage-leaves ; and all the
seeds growing on one valve of the pod were of one character,
whilst those growing on the other valve were the antidroms of
the former. The germinating pea sends up its plumule with
a slight twist to one side or the other. The embryo of Bass-
wood, with its large 5-lobed cotyledons, shows antidromic
twists as between different seeds; and diversity is seen in the

1895.] Antidromy in Plants. 977

mode of folding of the embryos of the two seeds, produced by
one flower, of Maple (A. platanoides L.). In Horse-chestnut the
radicles of different seed incurve antidromically (a and c of fig.
9), and the young leaves of the plumule (situated inside the
radicle at p of fig. a, enlarged at fig. b) show the leaflets differ-
ently arranged at the two
sides, indicating the same
primitive torsion as in
other plants. The torsion
of the plumule of ¢ would
be antidromic as com-
pared with that figured.

That the place of origin z
of the seeds is ordinarily Fig. 9.
the determining cause Of Embryo and Plumule of Horse-chestnut.
this character is proved by
Corn, Coffee, Bean, Lepidium, and other seeds. In Gymnosperm
the bilateral origin of the seeds, and the spiral arrangement of
their numerous cotyledons point to the same inference, which
is confirmed by the phyllotaxy, and by the primary spirals
formed by the scales of their cones, as well as by the lateral
bending of their woody tissues. We may ascribe to this cause
the habit of splitting of tree-trunks in contrary spirals, and I
think that the same tendency sometimes shows itself in the
sculpturing of the cortex, so that from the bark of Chestnut and
hard-barked Hickory I can infer the direction of the phyllo-
taxy without seeing the leaves.

` Direct evidence as to the Convulvulacee is difficult because
of secondary distortions. But indirect evidence is available.
Morning-glory has an incumbent curvature of the embryo
as in many Crucifere, indicating such a diversity between the
two seeds in a locule as produces in Crucifere antidromic
phyllotaxy. This may also help to explain the twist of the
embryo of Lepidium virginicum L. which has puzzled botanists,
and if our sufmise is good, we may expect to find the embryos
of two seeds of the same fruit antidromically twisted.

After writing as above I examined the seeds from the two
carpels of a flower of L. virginicum, and found them anti-

67

978 The American Naturalist. [November,

dromic. The same explanation applies to the embryo of
sisymbrium officinale, and to the spirally-folded embryos of
Chenopodiacex. The two forms of the embryo of Salsola kali
are figured in Engler and Prantl’s Pflanzenfamilien (III, 1a,
p- 84, Y, Z). The pods of mesquit (Prosopis) and of Impatiens
have a right or left twist in harmony with the antidromic
phyllotaxy of the plant on which they grow.

These observations help to solve old problems, recall phyllo-
taxy to the science in an improved garb, open up new lines of
research, and start curious problems about heredity. If, how-
ever, the ovum is able to transmit the secondary characters of
a species, there will be small difficulty found in admitting that
it can transmit the primitive characteristics that are common
to all Phanerogams, and that possibly belong also to the
higher Cryptogams. But the curious point is the difference of
heredity as between the two sides of a carpellary leaf; and
other problems arestarted by such cases as Richardia. I wish to
explain that my work has been necessarily done in haste, and
whilst, as a whole, I think it is sound, it will doubtless need
rectification in details.

Postscript.—In the above I have unfortunately overlooked
the valuable observations of Prof. W. J. Beal on Phyllotaxis of
Cones, published in the AMERICAN NATURALIST of August,
1873 and March, 1877. He found the cones of individual
spruce and larch trees to be heterodromic. If this should
prove to be general or frequent, it may possibly be accounted
for by secondary torsions during growth. My own observa-
tions on Tsuga, Pinus, etc., favor the view given above; and I
may add that the arrangement of florets in heads of sunflowers
and other composite appears to be antidromic and in accord
with the phyllotaxy of the respective plants.

The cones of coniferze change in opening so as to make the
secondary spiral appear the dominant one. I have a cone of
Picca excelsa, with ten scales open on one side, where they
appear dextrally arranged, whereas the unopened side shows
the primary arrangement to be sinistral. Taking the opened
and unopened cones of the whole tree, one might conclude
that half the cones were antidromic to the others.—G. M.

1895.] The First Fauna of the Earth. 979

THE FIRST FAUNA OF THE EARTH.

By Josern F. JAMES.
(Continued from page 887).

In 1886, there came an announcement from Sweden that
was received with incredulity upon this side of the Atlantic.
The geologists there had determined that instead of the
Olenellus fauna occupying the middle position, it was at the
base, and the Paradoxides fauna was in the middle. Continu-
ous sections showed the rocks of Lower, Middle and Upper
Cambrian age in conformable succession, and the question at
once arose, Could there he one sequence upon the eastern and
a different one on the western side of the Atlantic? If not,
then which was correct? The difficulty on this side was to
find a continuous section, and it was not until 1888 that it was
found. In that year, Mr. C. D. Walcott, now the Director of
the U. S. Geological Survey, found in Newfoundland the de-
sired section. Here the Olenellus fauna was at the base, and
the Paradoxides fauna was above it.

The base of the Cambrian being thus at last defined, it then
remained to ascertain the extent and variety of organic life in
these old rocks. To Mr. Walcott again the world owes the
best exposition of this fauna. In a paper published in 1890,
he showed there was a variety and profusion of life that had
never before been imagined. In this fauna there were repre-
sentatives of all the great classes of invertebrates. Strange to
say, the most highly organized class had the greatest number
of species, as shown below:

Spongie . : : . 4 species.
Hydrozoa . ‘ : ; 2 species.
Actinozoa : : : è . 9 species.
Echinodermata . ; : : 1 species.
Annelida (?) . 3 ; ; i . 6 species.
Brachiopoda : ; : ; ; 29 species.

Lamellibranchiata . ; : . 8 species.

980 The American Naturalist. [November,

Gastropoda
Pteropoda
Crustacea.
Trilobita . ‘

i : 13 species.
i i : . 15 species.

8 species.

51 species.

The astonishing number of 141 American species was there-
fore known in 1890 from this very old series of rocks, and this
has since been added to until there are now known from the
world nearly 200 species, distributed among about 75 genera.
The illustrations accompanying this article show some mem-
bers of most of the classes above-mentioned. In Figure 4 is

Fig. 4. Archeocyathus pro-
fundus.

shown the cup of a small specimen of
Archæocyathus profundus, one of. the
Actinozoa. In Figure 5 we have two
views of Medusites lindstromii, one of the
Hydrozoa, and supposed to represent
casts of the gastric cavity of a jelly-
fish. In Figure 6 there are shown a
number of forms of Brachiopoda, a class
which, in times past, was very abund-
ant, but which now has only a limited

number of representatives. Figure 7 shows some species of

Fig. 5. Medusites lindstromit.

Gastropods and Figure 8 the three known species of Lamelli-
branchiata or bivalve shells which are, to-day, so abundant in
the fresh and salt waters of the globe. In Figure 9 there is

1895.] The First Fauna of the Earth. 981

shown one of the species of annelids. The soft bodies of these
animals have, of course, decayed, and all that remains to tell
of their former existence is a vast variety of trails and bur-
rows, which, in some places, cover the rocks in myriads. ‘The
problematic character of fossils has caused them to be de-
scribed as Algæ, but there seems no reason to doubt that they
were really worm casts, burrows or trails. In Figure 10 are
shown some species of Hyolithes, a genus of Pteropods now en-
tirely extinct, but represented in the Lower Cambrian by eight
species and one variety. Figure 11 is a representation of a

Fig. 6. Various species of Brachiopoda.

~~

982 The American Naturalist. [November,

crustacean in a nearly per-
fect state of preservation,and
Figure 12 is a group of trilo-
bites of various genera, most
of them belonging to the
typical genus of the Lower
Cambrian, Olenellus. This ge-
nus, as pointed out by Wal-
cott, is probably genetically
related to Paradoxides, the
typical genus of trilobites of
the Middle Cambrian, and it
has its modern, living proto-

Fig. 8. Lamellibranchiata.
type in the common horse-
shoe crab, Limulus, of the
Atlantic coast. It would
be an interesting fact, and
a not altogether improb-
able one, to find in Limu-
lus a descendant of Olenel-
lus of the LowerCambrian.

Besides the great varie-
ty of forms found in this
very ancient fauna of the
globe, there is the interest-
ing subject of geographical
distribution and its con-
nection with the study
of evolution. As already
stated, the three great divisions of the Cambrian, the Lower,

Fig. 9. Trails of Annelids (P/anolites).

1895.] The First Fauna of the Earth. 983

Middle and Upper, are each characterized by a special genus
of trilobite. Inthe lower zone we have Olenellus, in the middle
zone Paradoxides, and in the upper zone Dikellocephalus. These
three genera are so closely related that it does not require any
stretch of the imagination to regard one as a descendant of
the previously existing form. It is true there are no exactly
connecting links between the three, and yet there are genera
known which have certain intermediate characters. In some
localities the three zones present an almost conformable se-
quence, with scarcely a break in sedimentation, but in other
places there is a very perceptible time interval between them.
In the former cases, the intermediate genera are known to
occur.

a

ad

3
2

ae

“$
jia
rin
‘oe

. .
tat” +e

’
Ta Pie aa

Fig. 10. Pteropoda (//yo/ithes). Fig. 11. Protocaris marshit.

We have already seen that the fossils of the Lower Cambrian
are found in New York, Vermont, New Brunswick, Newfound-

984 The American Naturalist. [November,

land, Sweden, Wales and Bohemia. But they have likewise
been collected in Massachusetts, Georgia, Alabama and Tenne-
ssee on the Atlantic side of North America, and from British
America, Utah, Nevada and California on the Pacific side.
They have also been found in France, in Sardinia,and in Russia,
while fossils of the immediately succeeding middle and upper
zones occur in all these places and in India, China, Australia
and South America. It would thus appear that at a very
early period in the history of the earth, the faunas then living
had an almost world-wide distribution. There is, however,
little to be wondered at in this, since it is probable that the
conditions of existence at that early day were very uniform.

Fig. 12. A group of Lower Cambrian Trilobites (much reduced).
3 What these conditions were in other countries besides
-= Europe and North America can not be stated, since the rocks
_ in the more remote places have not been studied with the

1895.] Editor’s Table. 985

same care asin America and Europe. From the studies of
Mr. C. D. Walcott and others, it seems clear that the continent
of North America in Cambrian time had essentially the same
outline it now has, although it was considerably less in extent.
In brief, it has been ascertained that there was a depression
along the margin of what is now the Appalachian chain from
Newfoundland to Alabama, protected from the open sea, the
primitive Atlantic, by a fringe of islands. Along the western
slope of the site of the Rocky Mountain chain the same con-
ditions prevailed, and in these two troughs the fauna lived and
flourished. During Middle and Upper Cambrian time, condi-
tions became modified so as to allow the fauna to exist in
other localities, notably in Minnesota, Wisconsin and Texas.

Where the faunas originated, and how they spread from
place to place, so as to become so widely scattered over the
globe, are questions it is not, at present, possible to answer.
That we know as much as we do about the life on the earth at
so distant a period in its history, is owing to the patient work
of a few enthusiastic students, among whom Mr. C. D. Wal-
cott must always occupy a prominent position.

EDITOR’S TABLE.

—TxHE public is acquainted with the results of Peary’s last expedi-
tion from which he has just returned. He was not able to discover his
principal caches of food, and this, with the treachery of some of his
Esquimaux, prevented him from reaching the coast which he discov-
ered on his first expedition. He turned back in time to permit his
reaching his camp of departure just as his provisions were exhausted.
A heavy storm at the end might have ended his career at no great
distance from his base of supplies. This season and the last were un-
favorable for arctic exploration, and it is quite possible that some one
may yet utilize Peary’s supplies and reach higher latitudes in Green-
land. It is, however, certain that Greenland does not lie in the most
available route to the pole, which is by way of the islands north of
Siberia. Science awaits with interest the results of Nansen’s bold

986 The American Naturalist. [November,

enterprise by sea, and of Jackson’s Expedition across Franz Joseph
land. When once the way is open, science will send its votaries to the
field which is awaiting them.

Peary’s observations and collections in Ethnology, Meteorology and
other departments on Inglefield Gulf will repay the cust of the ex-
pedition; and the results of the relief expedition, like those of its
predecessors, are of great value. Large collections were made by the
latter, which will go to the American Museum of Natural History of
New York, and the Museum of the University of Kansas.

—Mr. L. O. Howarp, of the Department of Agriculture of Wash-
ington, has made a discovery which will probably be of great practical
importance. He finds that a thin stratum or film of oil on the surface
of the water where they breed, will destroy the larvze of mosquitoes,
This will prove welcome news to people living in many localities. How
to destroy this pest of many parts of the earth has been a subject of
thought for a long time. The late Dr. Robert Lamborn gave two
prizes for essays which advocated the propagation of dragon-flies as the
most feasible mode of attack, since the mosquito is the natural food of
these raptorial insects; but no one has yet undertaken to demonstrate
the practicability of the plan. The application of oil to the waters of
swamps and lagoons where the Culices breed, is a simple matter, and
the expense will be small in comparison with the advantage gained.
The use of oil in the valley of the Missouri River, and on many parts
of our coast, would increase the value of the land to an untold degree.
In fact, the habitable part of the earth in many latitudes must be
greatly increased in extent by this discovery. Meanwhile we must be
content to let these small creatures render life miserable or impossible,
and hide behind “ bars” which do not always protect, or suffocate in
stinking smudges, until the use of oil for their destruction becomes
general. In waters which are not private property, it will be well for
the States to lead the way, and make appropriations for the purpose.

RECENT LITERATURE. *
Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission for 1893.\—The con-
tents of this volume comprise the papers that were read at the congress
? Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission, Vol. XIII, for 1893. Washington,
1894.

1895.] Recent Literature. 987

of persons connected with fishery interests, held in Chicago Oct. 16,
1893. The papers cover a wide range of subjects, and being the views
of men qualified by experience and study to speak upon the subjects
treated, are of practical worth. A synopsis of the topics discussed in-
cludes: 1. Fishery laws and administration of the fisheries. 2. The
sciences in relation to fisheries and fish-culture. 3. Methods of capture,
utilization and distribution of fishery products. 4. Fish-culture. 5.
The world’s fisheries. In addition, an interesting paper is contributed
by G. F. Kunz on pearls, and the utilization and application of the
shells in which they are found, in the ornamental arts, as shown at the
World’s Columbian Exposition. The illustrations of this article are
beautiful both in subject and execution.

Geological Survey of Michigan, Vol. V.’—The contents of the
present volume comprise a report upon the Iron and Copper regions of
the Upper Peninsula by Dr. Rominger; and a paper by A. C. Lane,
on deep borings in the Lower Peninsula, based on the work done by
the late Mr. Wright. Mr. Lane’s paper is prefaced by a brief chapter
on the origin of salt, gypsum and petroleum written by the State Geo-
logist, Mr. L. L. Hubbard, and is accompanied by 73 plates and a
“map.

Dr. Rominger’s report covers the work done in the iron region in
1881 and 1882 and includes recent observations made in the Copper-
bearing or Keweenan group.

Geology of Minnesota.*—The materials for this quarto volume
have been accumulating since the Survey began, and it has been found
desirable to issue the publication in two parts. Pt. 1, includes 5 chap-
ters on the paleontology and systematic geology of the Lower Silurian
which is found in the southeastern part of the State, and a historical
sketch of investigation of the Lower Silurian in the Upper Mississippi
Valley. The paleontological work is distributed as follows: Cretaceous
Fossil Plants, Leo Lesquereux ; Cretaceous Microscopical Fauna, A.
Woodward and B. W. Thomas; Notes on other Cretaceous fossils, N.
H. Winchell; Lower Silurian Sponges, Graptolites, Corals and Brach-
iopods, N. H. Winchell and C. Schuchert ; Lower Silurian Bryozoa,
E. O. Ulrich. Each chapter is accompanied by page plate illustrations,
34 in all.

2 Geological Survey of Michigan, Vol. V, 1881-1893. Lansing, 1

3 Final Report of the Geology of ee Vol, I Pt. 1, Ste
Minneapolis, 1895.

988 The American Naturalist. [ November,

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ALLEN, H.—Morphology in the Study of Disease. Extr. Trans. Congress of
American Physicians and Surgeons, 1894.

AMEGHINO, F.—Sur les Ongulés fossils de l’ Argentine. Examen critique de
l'ouvrage de M. R. Lydekker: A Study of the Extinct Ungulates of Argentine.
Extr. Revista del Jardin Zool. de Buenos Ayres, T. IT, 1894.

Sur les Oiseaux fossils de Patagonie. Extr. Boletin Inst. Geog. Argen-
tino, XV, 1895. From the author.

Baur, G.—Bemerkungen iiber die Osteologie des Schlifengegend der héheren
Wirbeltiere. Aus. Anat. Anz. x Bd. Nr. 10. From the author.

BENEDICT, A. L.—Tabular Review of Organography for the use of Classes in
Botany of the Dept. of Pharmacy of Buffalo. Buffalo, 1895. From the author.

Birce, E. A.—The Vertical Distribution of the Pelagic Crustacea of Lake
Mendota, July, 1894. Extr. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters, Vol.
X, 1895. From the author.

BONAPARTE, R.—Les Variations Périodiques des Glaciers Français. Extr.
YAnn. du Club Alpin Français, Vol. 17, 1890.

——Les Variations Périodiques des Glaciers Français. Extr. de l’Ann. du
Club Alpin Frangais, T. 17, 1891.

——Assemblées démocratiques en Suisse. Extr. Figaro, 1890.

—— Democratic Swisse. Extr. L’ Evénement, 1890. From the author.

Bourns, F. S. AnD D. C. WorcEsTER.—Preliminary Notes on the Birds and
Mammals collected by the Menage Scientific Expedition to the Philippine Islands.
Occasional Paper of the Minn. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. I, No. 1, 1894.

Bulletin No. 44, Agric. Exper. Station University of Wisconsin. Madison,
1895.

BURCKHARDT, R.—Das Gebiss der Sauropsiden. Abdruck aus den Morphol.
Arbeit. V Bd. Zweites Heft. From the author.

CALVERT, P. P.—The Odonata of Baja California, Mexico. Extr. Proceeds.
Cal. Acad. Sci., (2) IV. From the author.

CLAYPOLE, E. W.—On a new specimen of Cladodus clarkii. Extr. Ann. Geol.,
XV, 1895. From the author.

CULLEN, T. C.—Report in Gynecology, III. Johns Hopkins Hospital Reporta:
Vol. IV, No. 7-8, 1895.

DALL, W. H.—Report on Mollusca and Brachiopoda dredged in deep water,
chiefly near the Hawaiian Islannds, with illustrations of hitherto unfigured spe-
cies from Northwest America. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., X VII, 1895.
From the author.

Dana, J. D.—Manual of Geology. 4th ed. New at Cincinnati, Chicago,
1895. From the American Book Co., Pub.

KoENIKE, F.—Nordamerikanische Fidinda BópurkilA koik aus Ab-
handi. des Naturw. Ver. zu Bremen, XIII, 1895. From the author.

LIVERSIDGE, A.—Boleite, Mantokite, Kerargyrite, and Cuprite from Broken
Hill, N. S. W. Read before the Roy. Soc. N. S. W., June 6, 1894. From the
author.

Lucas, F. A.—Additional characters of the Macropterygidae. ‘Extr. The Auk,
XII, 1895. From the author.

M ARILAUSS, ANTON KERNER VON.—The Natural History of Plants, their forms,

1895.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 989

growth, reproduction and distribution. Translated by F. W. Oliver. Vol. I,
Pts. 1 and 2.
Mason, G. E.—Description of a new Earth-Snake from the Bombay Presidency,
with remarks on other little-known Uropeltidae. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
1888. From the author.
Mason, O. T.—The Origins of Invention. London, 1895. Imported by Chas.
Seribner’s Sons. From John Wanamaker’s.
MATTHEW, G. F.—The Protolenus Fauna. Extr. Trans. New York Acad. Sci. |
XIV, 1895. From the author.
McGeE, W. J.—Some Remains of Don Francisco Pizarro. Extr. Amer.
Anthropol., 1894.
—— Principles of Nomenclature. Extr. Amer. Anthropol., 1895.
Primitive Trephining. Extr. Johns Hopkins Hospital Bull., 1894. From
the author.

MERRIAM, J. C.—On some Reptilian remains from the Triassic of northern
California. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. L, 1895. From the author.

Muar, L. C.—The Natural History of Aquatic Insects. London and New
York. Macmillan & Co., Pub. From John Wanamakers.

Minor, C. S.—The Work of the Naturalist in the World. Extr. Pop. Sci.
Monthly, 1895. From the author.

Moore, H. F.—On the Structure of Bimastus palustris. Extr. Journ. Morph.,
X, 1895. From the author.

* Morris, C.—The Extinction of Species. Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad., 1895.
From the author.

North Carolina Weather During the Year 1894. From the N. C. Agric. Exper.
Station.

Osborn, H. F.—The Hereditary Mechanism and the Search for the Unknown
Factors of Evolution. Reprint, 1895. From the author.

Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Sciences for 1894. Vol. II. Des Moines,
1895. From the Academy.

SCUDDER, S. H.—The Fossil Cockroaches of North America. Extr. Trans.
Roy. Soc. Can., Sect. IV, 1894. From the author.
_ STEJNEGER, L.—Description of a new Salamander from Arkansas, with notes on
Amblystoma annulatum. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII. From
the Smithsonion Institution. ; |

TayLor, W. E.--The Box Tortoises of North America. Extr. Proceeds. U.
S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1895. From the author.

ULREY, A. B.—The South American Characinidae collected by C. F. Hartt.
Extr. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sc., VIII, Jan., 1895. From the author.

VERMEULE, C. C.—Report on the Water-supply, Water-power, and Flow of
Streams and Attendant Phenomena. Vol. III of the Final Report of the State
Geologist of New Jersey. Trenton, 1894.

Warminc, E.—A Hand-Book of Systematic Botany, with a revision of the
Fungi, by Dr. E. Knoblaugh. Translated by M. C. Potter. London and New
York, 1895. From Macmillan & Co., Pub. :

Weir, J.—The Birth of Psychos. Extr. Charlotte Med. Journ., April, 1895.
From the author.

Wotcort, A.—Memorial on the State of the National Finances. Mis. Doc.,
No. 86. Fifty-third Congress, 3d Session. From the author.

990 The American Naturadist. [November,

General Notes.

MINERALOGY.

An Instrument for Preparing Accurately Oriented Sec-
tions and Prisms from Crystals.—Mention has been made in
these notes of the valuable instruments which Tutton has designed in
connection with his recent studies in the field of chemical crystallo-
graphy. _One of them’ is an instrument of precision for preparing
prisms or sections of the delicate crystals of artificially prepared com-
pounds. The methods now in use for making these preparations re-
quire a prodigious amount of labor while securing only a rough
approximation to the desired orientation. Of his new instrument Tut-
ton says:

“It is possible by the use of the instrument to grind and polish a
truly plane surface in any direction in a crystal so as to be true to that,
direction to within ten minutes of are, an amount of possible error
which would exercise no measurable influence upon the values of the
optical constants. Moreover, this result may be achieved in a small
fraction of the time hitherto required, and with only the very slightest
risk of fracturing the crystal. An arrangement is also provided by
which a second surface may be ground parallel with a like degree of
accuracy to the first.”

This somewhat elaborate piece of apparatus is constructed like an
inverted goniometer with horizontal circle, being provided with grad-
uated disc, the usual centering and adjusting device, telescope, colli-
mator and lamp. A revolving table mounted in an excentric position
under the crystal and driven by a turning table, carries a ground glass
plate for grinding and a finer one for polishing. The pressure of the
crystal on the glass is delicately regulated by means of counterpoised
levers which support any desired portion of the weight of the instru-
ment’s axis, the remaining portion bearing directly on the crystal.

A larger, stronger, and somewhat modified form of this apparatus’
has been designed for carrying out the same operations on the hard
natural crystals. This form is provided with a cutting apparatus,
which, when not in use, is rotated out of the way so as not to interfere

t Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wi.

* Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 185, (1894), A, pp. 887-912.
*Tutton, Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. 57, pp. 324-330.

1895.] Mineralogy. 991

with adjusting the crystal or grinding. The grinding table is supplied
with nine different laps suited to minerals of different degrees of hard-
ness and to artificial crystals. The apparatus may be driven by a
small motor, the current from three pint bichromate cells being ample.
These instruments are constructed by Messrs. Troughton and Simms,
the smaller instrument at a cost of £40, and the larger one, which is
adapted for use of mineralogists and chemical crystallographers alike,
at a cost of £60.

An Instrument for Producing Monochromatic Light of
any Wave Length.—The same author has constructed an instru-
ment to furnish strong light of any desired wave length, which wave
length may be changed at willt The source of light is an oxy-coal
gas lime lantern and the dispersive apparatus a specially constructed
spectroscope in which the telescope is replaced by a collimator tube and
slit exactly like the one on the side of the instrument toward the
source of light. The prism has a refracting angle of 60°, is pre-
pared from heavy flint glass, and is rotated on a graduated circle so as
to allow any desired wave length of the spectrum to pass through the
exit slit. This is diffused by a plate of ground glass before it enters
the goniometer, total refractometer, or axial angle apparatus, in which
it is utilized in determining the index of refraction or the size of the
optical angle. It is thus possible to extend indefinitely the measure-
ments to show the amount and character of the dispersion of crystals,
while greatly facilitating the measurements themselves. By replacing
the exit slit by diaphragms having two or more slits at proper distances
apart, composite light made up of any desired wave lengths may be
employed, which is very useful in studying crystals with crossed axial
planes like brookite.

Other Mineralogical Apparatus.—Wolff® gives detailed in-
structions for making diamond saws suitable for section cutting, also
directions for sawing sections so thin that only a small amount of sub-
sequent grinding is necessary.—Federow® describes the simplest form
of his universal microscope stage, which is specially adapted for rapid
petrographical determinations. Atthesame time he advocates length-
ening the heretofore circular opening in his ebonite section holder.

* Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 185, (1894), A, pp. 913-941.
5 Am, Journ. Sci., XLVII, pp. 355-358, (1894).
* Zeitsch. f. Kryst., XXIV, p. 602.

992 The American Naturalist. [November,

Determination of Optical Sign in Random Mineral Sec-
tions.— Using the universal microscope stage Federow’ shows that it
is possible and usually quite easy to determine the optical character of
a mineral from random sections. In the case of uniaxial minerals the
section is revolved between crossed nicols to extinction. It is then
tilted first about one and then about the other axis of its ellipse of elas-
ticity. The one of these corresponding to the ordinary ray is distin-
guished by the resulting slight change in double refraction (due entirely
to increase of thickness of the slide). Having determined this direc-
tion (n,) it is only necessary to determine by use of the quartz wedge
or mica plate whether this direction corresponds to the greater (posi-
tive) or less (negative) elasticity. In the case of biaxial minerals a
section is sought having the highest double refraction (nearest plane of
optic axes). This is now tilted until it gives the lowest possible
double refraction, when the light comes through it most nearly along
an optic axis. If the angle which this direction makes with the axis
of least elasticity (nearly in the plane of the section) is less than 45°
(half the optical angle) the mineral is positive, otherwise negative-
This latter method is only approximate, but is accurate enough for
minerals having an acute optical angle of 75° or less, and these are the
only ones in which determination of the optical sign is of much value
for purposes of identification.

Pseudochroism and Pseudodichroism.—The same author®
furnishes an explanation of certain variations in color which are often
observed in minerals having a lamellar structure when observed under
the microscope. A bundle of white rays incident on any inclined
plane separating two lamelle is in part totally reflected, the reflected
portion being obviously made up of more rays from the violet than
from the red end of the spectrum. Of the light which is transmitted
the red rays are the less refracted, and hence take their direction nearer
the axis of the microscope. Asa consequence the color observed near
the centre of the field is due to the mixing of the red rays with the |
darkness due to partial total reflection, and it is, therefore, brown.
Nearer the margin of the field the more refrangible rays produce green.
This effect is observed in ordinary (non polarized) light, and v. Fede-
row proposes to call it pseudochroism. If the polarizer is used the
amount of total reflection will evidently be greatest when the direction of
vibration of the incident light is parallel to the surface of incidence,

1 Ibidem, pp. 603-605.

*Tscherm. min. u. petrog. Mitth. , XLV, heft 6.

1895.] Mineralogy. 993

hence a variation in the depth of the color, called by v. Federow
pseudodichroism, is observed when the stage is revolved. Of use in
distinguishing pseudodichroic substances from truly dichroic substances
is the fact that the former always show brown shades in the centre of
the field.

Meteorites in Field Columbian Museum.—Farrington has
prepared a “ Handbook and Catalogue of the Meteorite Collection” of
the Field Columbian Museum? modeled somewhat after Fletcher’s
admirable handbook describing the meteorites in the British Museum
collection. The popular introduction is well written, with reference
for the purpose of illustration to catalogue numbers of typical speci-
mens in the collection. Thisimportant collection includes 180 falls or
finds and the aggregate weight of the specimens is over 4700 lbs. With
the exception of the Canon Diablo specimens, the largest specimens of
the collection, are those from Kiowa Co., (Kan.), (466 and 345 Ibs.)
and the Phillips Co., (Kan.), meteorite (11843 lbs.). The list includes
355 numbers which are described with considerable detail. Six excel-
lent plates illustrate typical structures.

Crystallography of Wisconsin Minerals.—In a Bulletin of
the University of Wisconsin, Hobbs” has studied the Wisconsin min-
erals crystallographically. The specimens are chiefly from the zine
and lead region of the southern part of the State, where they occur
in the cavities of limestone, the principal species being calcite, smith-
sonite, cerussite, galena, sphalerite, azurite, malachite, barite, gypsum,
chalcopyrite, marcasite and pyrite. Four generations of calcite are
distinguished by different habits as well as by slightly different colors and
degrees of translucency. These four types appear in scepter-like par-
allel growths. The new form 24R (24.0.24.1) has a large development
on two of the types. At Mineral Point and Highland galena appears
in hopper-shaped octahedral as well as arborescent aggregates, and
individual crystals show polysynthetic twin lamellz according to the
laws, (a) twinning plane a face of the octahedron and (b) composition
plane a face of the dodecahedron. On sphalerite from Galena, (IIli-
nois), the new form (775) was observed. The azurite of Mineral Point
exhibits the new forms (307), (203), (205) and (9.12.8). The“ angle-
site” from Mineral Point is found to be selenite. Some new crystal
habits are observed on marcasite and on cerussite.

° Field Columbian Museum. Publication 3, Geol. Ser., Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 64,
pls. 6, (1895).
10 Bull. Univ. Wis., Sci. Ser., Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 109-156, pls. 4-8, (1895).
68

994 The American Naturalist. (November,

Miscellaneous.—Hillebrand" has made an analysis of a tellurium
ore which occurs sparingly in the Cripple Creek district of Colorado,
and determined it as calaverite. The corrected analysis (disregarding
traces of elements) from the Raven Mine is Fe 57.40, Au 40.83, Ag
1.77, total 100.00. The mineral is very imperfectly crystallized, but
as a result of a crystallograpbical examination Penfield thinks it is
probably triclinic but near sylvanite in angles and axial ratio. It is
interesting by reason of the unusually low percentage of silver, which
in the three specimens analyzed ranged from 0.90 to 3.23 per cent.—
Emerson” notes several peculiar mineral transformations from Massa-
chusetts. The so-called “ quartz pseudomorphs” from Middlefield he
finds to be serpentine pseudomorphs after olivine resembling the Snarum
forms. Ina boulder at Holyoke was found calcite probably pseudo-
morphous after common salt. A large sapphire corundum crystal from
Pelham encloses a crystal of allanite which is much puckered for a dis-
tance of an inch from the allanite, but elsewhere possesses its usual
parting.—v. Federow™ finds that in the rocks of the shores of the
White Sea (granites and gneisses) a vicareous relation seems to exist
between plagioclase and garnet, the former being developed in large
quantity only when the latter is present in small quantity and vice
versa. Hobbs“ describes cerussite from Missoula, Mont., showing the
forms (110), (100), (130), (010), (001), (832), (111) and (380). The
crystals are covered by a paper-thin film of galena, doubtless due to
alteration through the action of sulphuretted hydrogen. Crystallized
barite from Negaunee and chloritoid from Michigamme are also
described.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. L, pp. 128-131, (1895),

Bull. Geol Soc. Am, Vol. 6, pp. 473, 474, (1894).

13 Tscher. min. u petrog. Mitth., XIV. pp. 550-553, (1894).
1t Am. Jour. Sci., L, pp. 121-128, (1895).

PETROGRAPHY-.'

The Rocks of Gouverneur, N. Y.—An interesting feature of
the biotite hornblende gneisses’ of the vicinity of Gouverneur, N. Y.,is

! Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.
3C. H. Smyth, Jr., Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sciences, xii, p. 203.

1895.] Petrography. 995

the abundance in them of microperthitic intergrowths of orthoclase and
plagioclase. From the relations of the plagioclase to the orthoclase
and to the surrounding minerals there can be no doubt that it is of
secondary origin. It fills cracks between quartz and orthoclase, and
from these areas it sends long stringers into the orthoclase along its
cleavage cracks and into its fracture lines, without suffering the least
interruption in its continuity. The gneiss in its structure is sometimes
granular and sometimes granulitic, and in the appearance of its con-
stituents it shows plainly that it isa dynamo-metamorphosed rock. The
dark bands occurring with the predominating light colored ones zon-
sist, as a rule, of the same minerals as the latter, but one band noted is
composed of monoclinic pyroxene and hornblende in addition to the
feldspars. The normal granites of the region differs in composition from
the gneiss in the absence from them of hornblende, except in certain
basic segregations. The granite, like the gneiss, has suffered the effects
of pressure, but to a more limited extent. Among the limestones
associated with these rocks are phases containing much colorless py-
roxene, tremolite and scapolite. Near the base of the limestone series
the pyroxene-scapolite rocks are foliated, and are apparently interstrati-
fied with unaltered beds. They consist of feldspar, quartz, pyroxene,
mica, sphene, apatite, graphite, pyrrhotite and pyrite, or of these com-
ponents, with the feldspars replaced by secondary scapolite.

Diorites and Gabbro at St. John, N. B.—Among the in-
trusive rocks cutting the Laurentian near St. John. N. B., Matthew’
finds a granite-diorite and a gabbro. The diorite is coarse grained and
porphyritic in its larger masses, and fine grained and granular in its
smaller bands. Quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase, hornblende, biotite and
the usual accessory constituents compose the rock, while epidote and
microcline-microperthite are present in it as alteration products of
plagioclase and orthoclase. The microperthite is also noted as forming
a rim between plagioclase and quartz. As the rock becomes finer
grained orthoclase and biotite diminish in quantity. Although the
contacts of the diorite with the surrrounding rocks are usually faulted,
it can be clearly seen that the latter have been altered by the intrusive.
On the contact with a gabbro, this latter rock has been changed to a
granular aggregate of hornblende and plagioclase. The diorite, on the
other hand, is very fine grained, and is composed of an allotriomorphic
mixture of plagioclase, quartz, orthoclase and a few small shreds and
grains of hornblende and biotite. Limestone in contact with the

3 Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., xiii, p. 185.

996 The American Naturalist. [ November,

eruptive has been marbleized. In it are pyroxenes and garnets, the
latter often in large numbers. This diorite has heretofore been re-
garded as a metamorphosed sediment, but, from the evidence at hand,
the author concludes that it is a true irruptive. The gabbro of the
region is confined to two small knobs. In one, the rock grades from
an anorthosite into a peridotite. In the latter phase olivine consti-
tutes nearly half of its mass. Hypersthene is abundant, while augite,
plagioclase, and the usual accessories, spinel and magnetite, are present
in small quantities. Reactionary rims always surround the olivines
when in contact with plagioclase. These are composed of three zones,
an inner one of hypersthene which is continuous with the large hyper-
sthene components ; a middle one, composed of fine needles of uralitic
amphibole, and an outer zone consisting of uralite and a deep green,
highly refracting substance in grains, probably a spinel. The contact
rim is supposed to be secondary. The various phases of the rock are
usually much altered into actinolitic varieties.

South American Volcanics.—The collection of Argentine
volcanic rocks belonging to Berlin University has been investigated
by Siepert. The collection embraces quartz-porphyries, porphy-
rites, diabases, augite-porphyrites, melophyres and an epidiorite-
porphyrite. In the quartz-porphyries quartz grains are often sur-
rounded by aureoles of the same substance, whose optical orientation
coincides with that of the surrounded particles. Many of the grains
show undulous extinction, which the author regards as secondary. In
some of the specimens the granophyric structure, in others the micro-
granitic, and in still others the felsophyric structure predominates. In
many instances the granophyric structure is unquestionably secondary.
The porphyrites include diorite-porphy rite, eustatite-porphyrite and
epidiorite-porphyrite. In one of tha latter a feldspar granule was seen
to be surrounded by a feldspar aureole. The other rocks examined
present no unusual features.

Specimens of the younger voleanic rocks gathered by Sapper in
Guatemala were submitted to Bergeat® for study. They comprise
trachytes, rhyolites, dacites, andesites and basalts. The trachytes,
though of the “ Drachenfels” type, contain about 66 % of silicia, and
are thus closely related to the rhyolites. The andesites are the most
abundant types. They include pyroxene, hornblendic and mica horn:
blende varieties. Some of the pyroxenic andesites contain two pyrox-

t Neues Jahrb. f. Min., ete., B. B., ix, p. 393.

* Zeits. d. deutsch. geol. Ges. xlvi, I, p. 126.

1895.] Petrography. 997

enes—a hypersthene and an augite, both of which are pleochroic in the
same tints parallel to B and C, a difference of color being noticeable
only in the direction of A. The author notes that the volcanoes on
the principal fissures have eruptive andesites, while the others have
yielded basalts.

Rock Classification.—A new classification of in organic rocks,
based on the nature and past history of their components, is pro-
posed by Milch The original rocks are the archaiomorphie,
embracing those whose constituents have separated from a molten
magma. Through alteration processes these have given rise to the
neomorphie rocks, including the three groups: anthi-lytomorphic, allo-
thi-stereomorphie and anthi-neomorphice. The first of these groups in-
cludes those rocks whose material was originally in some other condi-
tion, but whose constituents possess forms independent of outside
influences, as, for instance, the chemical precipitates. The second
group embraces those whose material has been transported and been
laid down with its own form to produce a rock different from the
original one, as the mechanical sediments. The third group compre-
hends rocks whose material is in its original position, but in a different
condition from the original one, as in the case of the residual and
metamorphic rocks.

Miscellaneous.—Levy and Lacroix! describe a Carboniferous
leucite-tephrite from Clermain, that is associated with micaceous
porphyrites. The tephrite contains large leucites and pyroxenes in a
groundmass composed of biotite, augite, plagioclase and leucite. All
of this latter mineral, whether in large or small crystals, is transformed
into aggregates of albite.

Palache® announces the discovery of riebeckite and aegerine in the

8 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1895, I, p. 100.
Forellen granulite of the Gloggnitzer Berges, near Wiener-Neustadt in
Austria. The rock is a typical granulite, consisting of a quartz-plagio-
clase aggregate in which are imbedded acicular crystals and grains of
the amphiboloids mentioned.

® Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B. B., ix, p. 129.
7 Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., xviii, p. 24.

998 The American Naturalist. [ November,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

A Batrachian Armadillo.—The significance of certain fragments
which I observed several years ago in Permian material from Texas,
has been established by a more complete specimen which I have re-
ceived from the same locality. This consists of a portion of the skele-
ton, which includes ten consecutive vertebrae and their appendages, of
the rhachitomous type, similar in general to those of Trimerorhachis.
The genus differs from Trimerorhachis in this important respect. The
neural spines are elevated, and the apex of each sends a stransverse
branch which extends in an arch on each side tothe ribs. These spin-
uous branches touch each other, forming a carapace. Above and cor-
responding to each of them is a similar dermal osseous element, which
extends from side to side without interruption on the median line,
forming a dermal layer of transverse bands which correspond to the
skeletal carapace beneath it. To this remarkable genus I propose to
give the name of Dissorophus. It is a veritable batrachian armadillo.

As to species characters, it is to be remarked that the intercentra are
longer in proportion to their width thanin the Trimerorhachis insignis.
The heads of the ribs have a small free truncate angle below their cap-
itulum. The extremities of the spinous roof-processes are free from
each other for a short distance, and each has a depressed rounded sharp
edge. The dermal bands above them terminate a little proximad of
them and in a similar manner, and their extremities are closely ap-
pressed to the surface of the band below them, with which they slightly
alternate. Their surface is very coarsely rugous, with ridges and fossae,
whose long axes agree with those of the segments. This species I pro-
pose to call Dissorophus multicinctus. Length of ten vertebrae in
place 93 mm. ; width of intercentrum 16; length of do 9; elevation to
roof 30; thickness of carapace 8; width of a carapacial band 9 ; length
of do on curve 75. The species appeared to have been about the size
of the Japanese salamander Megalobatrachus maximus.

The genus Dissorophus adds another to the remarkable forms already
known from the American Permian. It is remotely approached by the

genus Zatachys Cope, where a dermosseous scute is codssified with the
apex of the neural spine.—E. D. Copr.

Cope on the Temporal Part of the Skull, and on the
Systematic position of the Mosasauride—A reply.—In the
September Number of this Journal Prof. Cope has published a review

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 999

of two of my papers (Bemerkungen über die Osteologie der Schlifenge-
gend der héheren Wirbelthiere Anat. Anz. x, 1894, pp. 315-330 and:
On the Morphology of the Skull in the Mosasauridex, Journ. Morphol.
VII, 1892, pp. 1-22, pl. I-II), to which I should like to make some re-
marks.

1. The Parocecipital.

The bones of the temporal region in question I have termed squam-
osal, prosquamosal and quadratojugal. Cope states that I adopted the
name prosquamosal (Owen, 1860), because the name supratemporal was
used previously for a differentelement peculiar tothe Teleostomous fishes.
But this was not the only reason; the principal reason was, that with
the name supratemporal, totally different elements were designated in
the Stegocephalia and Ichthyosauria and in the Lacertilia (Anat. Anz.
x, 1894, p. 320.)

Cope has called the three bones, the paroccipital, supratemporal and
zygomatic, “after earlier authors” as he says. But the paroccipital is
not the squamosal, the name supratemporal is misleading as stated
before; and the name zygomatic has been used since the beginning of
Anatomy, for the jugal or malar; how can Prof. Cope use this name
for the quadrato-jugal? I thought I had shown once for all, that the
opinion held by Prof. Cope, that the squamosal of the Squamata is
homologuous to the paroccipital (opisthotic) is wrong. But it seems,
that he is not convinced. He is, however, the only one among all liv-
ing morphologists who has this opinion.

He believes that the exoccipital together with the paroccipital pro-
cess in the Reptilia in which there is no free paroccipital (Ichthyosauria,
Testudinata) represents the exoccipital alone. He states that nobody
has ever found the paroccipital process as a separate ossification. But
he is wrong about this: The free paroccipital, uniting later with the
exoccipital and forming the paroccipital process has been first described,
as far back as 1839, by Rathke’; in Tropidonotus natrix and this pass-
age has been translated by Huxley in his well known Croonian lecture
on the Theory ofthe Vertebrate Skull, delivered the 18st of November,
1858 before the Royal Society. It was also described by Leydig’ in
Anguis fragilis, in 1872.

1Rathke, Heinrich Entwicklungsgeschichte der Natter. Königsberg, 1839,
pp- 201-202. y

2 Leydig Franz. Diein Deutschland lebenden Arten der Saurier. Tübingen,
1872, p. 26.

1000 The American Naturalist. [November,

The paroccipital has been described in Sphenodon by me in 1889° in
the following words. “In the old animal supraoccipital, exoccipitals,
paroccipital, petrosals are united, but on the young all these elements
are free. There is much cartilage between the supraoccipital and the
petrosal and paroccipital. The paroccipital is united to the exoccipital
by suture, the elements in question of a young Sphenodon resemble
those in Chelone and especially in Ichthyosaurus.”’ I may state here,
that in a skull of Sphenodon, of 50 mm, in length from anterior end of
premaxillary to occipital condyle, the suture between exoccipital and
paroccipital is quite distinct, and also the characteristic Y-shaped
sutures between the paroccipital, supraoccipital and petrosal.

Siebenrock* has independently, not knowing my paper in the Journal
of Morphology, found out the same in Sphenodon and has given very
good figures of the conditions. He has also shown in an absolutely con-
vinecing way,’ that in the Lacertilia the paroccipital process is also
homologuous to the paroccipital, and has given excellent figures demon-
strating it. These two papers were mentioned by me in the paper
published in the Anatomischer Anzeiger, discussed by Prof. Cope, but
he certainly did not consult the papers, which are easily accessible.

After this demonstration of the free nature of the paroccipital in
Sphenodon I think Prof. Cope will have to give up his view on the
homology of the paroccipital of the Testudinata with the squamosal of
the Lacertilia. I do not understand, how Prof. Cope could fall into
such a fundamental error. We know since Hallman and it has since
been redemonstrated dozens of times, that in the Reptilia and
Birds, the semicircular canals of the ear are placed into 3 bones:
1, the petrosal ; 2, the supraoccipital and 3, the paroccipital. These
3 bones come together and form that exceedingly characteristic Y-shaped
suture, first mentioned by Hallman, and fully discussed by Huxley in
his lectures on the Elements of Comparative Anatomy, London,
1864.

He already stated in his Croonian Lecture: “ when the petrosal, mas-
toid (paroccipital) and squamosal are determined in the turtle, they

* Baur, G. On the Morphology of the Vertebrate Skull. Journ. Morph., III,
1889, pp. 467—468.

*Siebenrock, Friedrich. Zur Osteologie des Hatteria—Kopfes. Sizungsberichte
d. Kais. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Mathem. naturw. Cl. Bd. CII, Abth. I, Juni, 1893,
pp- 7-10. Pl. fig. 3. 5.

*Siebenrock, Friedrich; Das Skelet der Lacerta simonyi Steind., und der
Lacertiden familie überhaupt ; Sizungsb. d. Kais. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Mathem.
naturw. Cl. Bd. CIII, Abth. I. April, 1894, pp. 4-9, Fig. Pl. III.

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 1001

are determined in all the Reptilia. But the Crocodilia, Lacertilia
Ophidia, differ from the turtle and Chelonia generally, in that their
. mastoid (paroccipital) is, as in the bird, anchylosed with the exoccipital.”’
The matter is so simple and clear, that it can be demonstrated to any
student who begins his work in Osteology. -

Prof. Cope also states, that he has been hitherto alone in the opinion
that the suspensorium of the quadrate of the Ophidia is the squamosum
of the Lacertilia, but he forgets that this opinion was held already by
Spix® in 1815. who has given excellent figures of these conditions in
Lizards and Snakes; by Hallmann, Troschel, Gegenbaur and many
others before 1870, when Cope read his paper.

Prof. Cope believes that the squamosal (his paroccipital) in the
Squamate can not be homologous with the squamosal in the Ichthyos-
auria, Colylosauria and Stegecephalia, with which it is identified by
me, since it is a brain-case bone, while the latter is a temporal roof-
bone, a fundamental difference, as he says. I never knew that the
squamosal (paroccipital, Cope) of the Squamata is a brain-case bone,
it is certainly not in the many skulls I have examined, but is
homologuous to the squamosum of the Stegocephalia and Ichthyosauria
is shown by Saphewosaurus which bridges over Sphenodon with Ichthyo-
saurus. In regard to the homologies and nomenclature given in my
paper in the Anat. Anz. I have not to change a single point.

2. The systematic Position of the Mosasauride.

“ Like Owen, Marsh and Dotto, he [Baur] does not perceive that
this group (Mosasauridse) is essentially distinct from the Latertilia, and
concludes with them that I have erred in alleging it to present affinities
to the Ophidia.” Cope, p. 857.

In order to determine this matter, Prof. Cope, thinks it necessary to
know, what the characters are that distinguish snakes from Lizards.
The first character, the descending of the parietal and frontal bones to
the basicranial as is in the Ophidia is as he admits himself, not
constant, being found also in the Amphisbzenians and Anniella.’

As a second character he mentions, that the prosquamosal (supra-
temporal) is present in the Lacertilia, but absent in the Ophidia, stat-

Spix J. Baptista, Cephalogenesis, sive capitis ossei structura. gr. fol. Mona-
chii, 1815.

TI may mention here the interesting fact that in some Amphisbenians, the
parietals and frontals are connected by a especial element with the basisphenoid,
in other genera they unite with this element. The basisphenoid of snakes is also
a composite of this bone and the basisphenoid proper.

1002 The American Naturalist. [ November,

ing the Amphisbenians and Anniellide to be exceptions; but the
Geckonidz and Uroplatidæ also lack the prosquamosal. Therefore,
this character does not hold.

A third distinction according to Prof. Cope is that the quadrate bone
is supported by the paroccipital [squamosum] in the snakes, and the
exoccipital [paroccipital] in the Lizards. In the Mosasauridz the
squamosal (paroccipital) is said to be more largely developed than in
the Lacertilia, and that it supports the quadrate bone as in the
Ophidia.

This is by no means correct. It is the squamosal (paroccipital, Cope)
which supports the quadrate in most of the Lacertilia; in some forms
only, the paroccipital (exoccipital, Cope) takes part (Chameleon).
But in many Lizards, the Iguanide for instance, the paroccipital pro-
cesses do not support the quadrate at all. This character, therefore ,
falls to the ground. I can not see any principal difference in the rela-
tion of the squamosal (paroccipital, Cope), the paroccipital (exoccipital,
Cope) and quadrate in the Mosasaurs and the Iguanide. In the
squamosal (paroccipital, Cope) of Platecarpus (fig. 20, 21, Pl. IL) of my
paper we can distinguish 3 portions: first, an upper one, which joins the
parietal processes; second, an inner one which is suturally united with
the paroccipital and petrosal, and a lower one, which supports the
quadrate.

In a skull of Conolophus (Iguanide) before me, I find very similar
conditions, the inner process only is not so much developed, but it
reaches the petrosal. The differences enumerated by Prof. Cope be-
tween the Lacertilia and Mosasauride do not exist; and I can not dis-
cover one trace of a character of the snakes. The phlogenetic conclu-
sions of Prof. Cope are not supported by the facts. I believe as firmly
as formerly, that the Mosasauridz are true Lacertilia adapted to aquatic
life; and that their closest living representatives are the Varanide.
The Varanidæ haveretained the terrestrial limbs, and the free nasal bones
but have lost the postorbital bar. The Mosasauride have required fins
with digits? with numerous phalanges, the nasals have become united
with the premaxillaries, but the postorbital arch has been retained.

®In a specimens of Thorosaurus, which I have lately examined through the

kindness of my friend, Prof. S. W. Williston, Lawrence Kas. I find in the fore-
limb the following number of phalanges.

Ist. digit 5 (+3); probably 8, the 5 proximal ones are preserved.

2nd. digit 7 (+2); probably 9, the 7 proximal ones are preserved.

3rd. digit 9 (+1); probably 10, the 9 proximal ones are preserved.

5th. digit 10 (+1); probably 11, the 10 proximal ones are preserved.

Sth. digit 11 or 12; all preserved, but some covered up.

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 1003

Reply to Dr. Baur’s critique on my paper on the Parocci-
pital bone of the Scaled Reptiles and the Systematic Posi-
tion of the Pythonomorpha.—In the following pages I continue
the discussion of the questions raised by Dr. Baur in his papers.

I. THe PAROCCIPITAL OF THE SQUAMATA.

Dr. Baur in the paper just preceding reiterates the opinion that the
parotic process of the exoccipital bone of the scaled reptiles includes
the paroccipital element, and that I have fallen into a serious error in
supposing that his squamosal isthe true paroccipital. He cites various
authorities against me and intimates that I am not familiar with the
literature, which he says is accessible. In this last statement he is un-
doubtedly correct, as the greater part of it is in my private library.

I must call my eritic’s attention at the cutset to the fact that my last
paper has reference to the elements which support the quadrate bone,
and not to the presence or absence of the opisthotic element of Huxley.
It was not necessary, therefore, to enter into an exposition of the evi-
dence for the existence of the latter which, as he says, has been proven
by Siebenrock and Leydig in the lizards, Rathke in the snakes, and
himself and Siebenrock in the Rhynchocephalia. It is the element
which supports the quadrate bone for which the name paroccipital
(Owen) is appropriate, while the element which includes the posterior
semicircular canal is the opisthotic of Huxley.

Baur asserts that the so-called parotic process of the exoccipital
which supports the quadrate in the Squamata is the same element as
that termed opisthotic by Huxley. This I deny, and believe that in
this it is Baur and not myself who has fallen into error. Siebenrock
instead of asserting this to be the case, denies it in the following lan-
guage:° “ It is not the processus paroticus of the pleuroccipital (exoc-
cipital) which is homologous with the (paroccipital Owen) opisthotic
Huxley, but the portion anterior to the foramen nervi-hypoglossi
superius which protects the organ of hearing.” Siebenrock here uses
the names of Owen and Huxley as referring to the same element, but
he makes the clear distinction, which is the important point, between
the parotic process of the exoccipital and the element which contains
the posterior semicircular canal. What then is the element which
articulates with the quadrate in the different orders of the Reptilia ?

In the Testudinata, and, according to Baur, in Sphenodon,” the

®Sitzungsber. Wiener Akademie, 1894, p. 285; On the Skeleton of Lacerta
simonyi.

10 Siebenrock, Sitzungsberichte Wiener Akad. Wiss , 1893, p. 254.

1004 The American Naturalist. [November,

element which extends externally from the exoccipital to the quadrate
is continuous with the opisthotic, but the semicircular canal is included
in its proximal part only. Here the structure is entirely different from
that which characterizes the Squamata, where the opisthotic does not
extend distad of the canal and fuses early with the exoccipital. This
character is to be added to those which distinguish the Rhynchocepha-
lia from the Squamata. The paper which Dr. Baur criticizes above
had reference to the Squamata, and the question at issue is what is the
element attached to the end of the parotic process of the exoccipital in
this order, which I call paroccipital, and which Dr. Baur calls squam-
osal. That it is not the opisthotic is clear enough.

The reasons for supposing that the element which I call paroccipital
in the Squamata is really such, are as follows. In the orders
Testudinata and Rhynchocephalia, where a continuous element extends
from the posterior semicircular canal to the quadrate, this so-called par-
occipital is not distinct. In the Squamata, where the opisthotic is re-
stricted to the region of the canal and does not reach the quadrate, this
so-called paroccipital is distinct. It becomes then probable that the
paroccipital of the Squamata is represented by the distal, non auditory
part of the element whose auditory portion is the opisthotic of the
Testudinata and Rhynchocephalia. This hypothesis is confirmed by
the structure in the Pythonomorpha, which is intermediate between
that of the two types mentioned. The paroccipital extends proximad
to the position of the opisthotic and petrosal, which it does not do in
the Lacertilia or the Ophidia."

Neither Owen nor Huxley distinguished the single element of the
Testudinata as composed of two. The name paroccipital is the prior,
and I have retained it for the distal or quadrate portion, while Hux-
ley’s name of opisthotic belongs to the auditory portion for which he
designed it. The direct evidence for such a primitive division of this
element in the Testudinata has, however, yet to be produced, and I am
entirely willing to give up the view above defended should it turn out
on further investigation to be untenable.

II. THE AFFINITIES or THE PYTHONOMORPHA.

No one who has examined carefully the relations of the parocci-
pital to the surrounding proximal elements in this suborder and com-
pared them with their relations in the Lacertilia, can fail to see the
important difference between the two. My opportunities of studying

4 See Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1892, p- 19, where the structure in Mosasau-
rus is represented in fig. 3.

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 1005

these characters have been good, including the principal collections of
European Museums and those of this country. I have at hand crania
of all but one or two of the North American genera of Lacertilia, and
the principal ones of all other countries, and I maintain that the dif-
ference between them and the Pythonomorpha is universal. I main-
tain, contrary to Dr. Baur’s statement, that in all Lacertilia the exoc-
cipital supports the quadrate, and that in the Pythonomorpha and
the Ophidia the exoecipital does not support it or generally touch it.
I also maintain that the paroccipital (squamosal Baur) does sup-
port the quadrate in the Ophidia, whileit is only in contact with a very
small part of it in the Lacertilia. This assertion is true of the Iguani-
dae as well as of all other Lacertilia. Of this family I have many
crania. These do not include Conolophus, to which Dr, Baur refers,
but I have the nearly allied genus Cyclura, which has the character of
other Lacertilia in this respect. Steindachner’s figures of Conolophus
show that it closely resembles Cyclura in the point in question, and I
have no doubt that if Dr. Baur will take to pieces the proximal
articulation of the quadrate of Conolophus as I have done in Cyclura,
he will find an articular facet on the exoccipital and none on the par-
occipital (squamosal). In fact the quadrate extremity of the parocci-
pital in Lacertilia is so insignificant, and the proximal end of the
quadrate is so considerable, that the support of the latter by the former
is a mechanical impossibility. Since the articulation of the quadrate
in Pythonomorpha, of which I have seen all the American genera, is
exclusively with the paroccipital, it is clear that the distal as well as
the proximal relations of that element are different from those of the
Lacertilia. On the other hand the relations to the quadrate are the
same in the Pythonomorpha as in the snakes, and the proximal articu-
lar characters are approached by the Tortricid snakes more nearly
than by any lizard. In the distal articulation of the paroccipital
with the supratemporal, the Pythonomorpha and lizards agree, as was
long since pointed out by authors.—E. D. Cope.

Recent Elevation of New England.”—I submitted some con-
clusions to the American Association for the Advancement of
Science in advance of the preparation of a detailed paper upon this
subject. Indeed in a discussion of a paper by Prof. C. H. Hitchcock
before the Baltimore meeting of the Geological Society of America
(December 1894) the present writer called attention for the first time
to certain terrace phenomena which might be used as a yard stick in

12 Read by J. W. Spencer at the Springfield meeting of the Am. Ass. Adv. Sci.

1006 The American Naturalist. [November,

measuring recent terrestrial elevations. Since that meeting I have
gone over many critical localities and the phenomena confirm the
conclusions then announced. The importance of this contribution is
not so much in a determination of the magnitude of post-glacial elevation
as in finding a means of physical measurement of it and in my consequent
challenge of the doctrine of ice dams in the late formation of high-level
beaches and terraces. For no apparent reason has the structure of the
terraces escaped early observation to such a degree that hitherto it has
not been described in such a way as to be used as a meter of recent
terrestrial changes of level.

The structure may be briefly set forth, The terraces are not those
of the sloping rivers, but are the much more horizontal remains of
water plains. The platforms do not merge from one step to the next
below and thus make the ancient slopes of the rivers as has been
often assumed, but they abruptly descend as steps to the lower plains.
Thus a small meadow widens out into a broad flat, with the river near
the surface of the plain along the upper part of the flat, but further
down, it descends to greater depths below the same floor or plain, which
on being eroded become a lateral terrace hounding the still lower plains.
Thus as meadows, plains and remanie terraces, the same platforms may
often be traced for many milesin length, disappearing owing to erosion,
and to the distance of the terraces from the source of supply of sands
and gravels. The terraces often cross the country and extend from one
valley to another. Subject to certain corrections, these meadows, flats,
and terraces mark the lowering of the base planes of erosion, or in
other words indicate the elevation of the land. That is to say, the land
has approximately been elevated as much as the sum of the heights of
the terrace-plains one above the other. In some places, these are
situated only a few feet apart in elevation, yet in other localities several
of the steps are so combined that the great terraces may be from 50 to
250 feet above the river. Occasionally, in the course of a few miles,
scores of terraces, may be ascended or descended and counted with
certainty. Yet at any one locality, there are seldom more than four
or five lateral terraces distinguishable; but these four or five are not
identical with the four or five platforms observed several miles away,
in the same great valleys.

Such distinct terraces are seen to an elevation of 2700 feet at the base
of Mount Washington, with terrace material much higher, but without
the preservation of the structure upon the steep mountain slopes.
The terrace forms described have now been observed under so many

1895.] Botany. 1007

conditions and over such a wide extent of territory that they appear
to be the prevailing conditions and not exceptional.

Did these accumulations in the great valleys, often two miles or more
in width, occur only on the northern and western sides of the high
lands the theory of glacial drains might be supported. But they
also occur on the southern and eastern sides of so many mountain
masses so as to preclude the idea of their formation in glacial lakes.
And the author has found the same structure within a few degrees of
of the equator.

The platforms are commonly cut out of till deposits filling preglacial
valleys, and are covered with sands and gravels. From these evidences,
the author concludes that the New England Mountain regions have
been elevated at least 2700 feet in the post-glacial epoch, or in other
words the post-glacial submergence was at least 2700 feet in New Eng-
land, but much less farther westward. Although this great continen-
tal movement has so recentlv occurred, yet the magnitude of the coastal
changes have not yet been fully considered, but it was probably much
less.—J. W. SPENCER.

BOTANY."

Sacaline.—Under this name a species of Polygonum (P. sachalin-
ense F. Schmidt, from Saghalin Island) has been freely advertised in
this country within the last six months as a forage plant, especially
adapted to the conditions which prevail upon the Great Plains. Ex-
travagant claims as to its great value were made by dealers who wished
to supply the farmers with roots or seeds. It was said that from one
hundred to nearly two hundred tons of the plant could be grown upon
an acre, and the forage yielded by it was said to nearly or quite equal
that of Alfalfa or Red Clover in nutritiousness.

For two years the writer has watched carefully a clump of this
plant growing upon a favorable spot upon the campus of the Univer-
sity of Nebraska. In spite of the fact that the plants have had better
care than they would have in an ordinary field, they have made but a
moderate growth, at no time exceeding three feet in height. The
clump is moderately ornamental, about as much so as a fine growth of
dock (Rumex), and less so than rhubarb (Rheum). The foliage is
neither dense nor abundant, while the stems and branches are very

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska,

1008 The American Naturalist. [November,

tough and hard; the latter are evidently unfit for forage, while thus
far no animals have shown any disposition to eat any part of the plant.

While it blossoms freely late in the summer, it has not produced
seeds. It is slowly spreading under the ground by its creeping root.
stocks —CHARLES E. Bessey.

Saccardo’s Sylloge Fungorum.—The eleventh volume of this
work has recently appeared. It contains 4220 additional species,
scattered through the whole of the fungi. Many of the descriptions
are rather badly mutilated, often being reduced to little more than
mere measurements. This suggests that the author may have become
weary of his work, and that we have in this volume the last of the
Sylloge. The total number of species thus far described in the eleven
volumes of the Sylloge is 42,383.—Caarurs E. Bessey.

North American Fungi.—The thirty-third century of Ellis and
Everhart’s “ North American Fungi” appeared not long ago. The
former excellence of this standard distribution is fully maintained in
the present volume. The more important genera represented are Cer-
cospora (5 species), Phyllosticta (8 sp.), Puccinia (3 sp.), Ramularia
(4 sp.), Septoria (11 sp.), and Valsa (5 sp.).

Hough’s American Woods.—This distribution of wood sections
has reached Part VI, bringing the number of species thus far repre-
sented up to about one hundred and fifty. The part before us is de-
voted to the woods of the Pacific Coast. The species represented are
Rhamnus purshiana, Aesculus californica, Cercidium torreyanum, Proso-
pis juliflora, Cercocarpus parvifolius, Garrya elliptica, Arbutus menziesii,
Arctostaphylos pungens, Chilopsis saligua, Platanus racemosa, Quercus
garryana, Quercus agrifolia, Quercus densiflora, Castanopsis chryso-
phylla, Salix levigata, Libocedrus decurrens, Sequoia gigantea, Sequoia
sempervirens, Taxus brevifolia, Torreya californica, Pinus lambertiana,
Pinus ponderosa, Pinus contorta, Picea sitchensis, Pseudotsuga taxifolia.
These sections should find a place in the collections of every botanical
department of the universities of the country, and for the forestry
departments of our agricultural colleges they are indispensible.

HARLES E. BEssEY.

Seymour’s Grasses and Grass-like Plants of North
America.—The second half-century of this useful collection was sent
out during the summer. The numbers from 51 to 61, inclusive, in-
clude sedges, the remainder being true grasses. The specimens are

1895,] Vegetable Physiology. 1009

large and well dried, and the labels are full and of neat form and size.
Occasionally, a specimen is somewhat deficient in roots, a fault which
may easily be avoided in subsequent issues.—CHARLEs E. Brssry.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Saccardo’s Color Scale.—The learned author of the Sylloge
Fungorum has issued a second improved edition of his color scale
(Chromotaxia seu nomenclator colorum polyglottus additis speciminibus
coloratis ad usum Botanicorum et Zoologorum. Editio altera. Patavii.
Typis Seminarii, 1894) which is very useful and ought to be in the
hands of every botanist. The pamphlet contains 22 pages of Latin
text and two well executed tables of 25 colors each. The text gives in
regular order, from left to right: (1) The Latin name of the type
color. (2) Latin synonyms. (3) Latin names of colors approaching
the typical color. (4) Italian names. (5) French names. (6) En-
glish names. (7) German names. (8) Explanatory remarks. To il-
lustrate, we have under the first entry : “ Albus. Candidus, niveus,
ermineus, virgineus, calceus, gypseus, Cretaceous, cerussatus, olorinus.
Albatus, albicans, albidus, albidulus, albineus, albinus, albulus,
eburneus; pallidus, pallens, pallidulus; lacteus, lacticolor, galactites,
galochrous; argenteus, argyraceous; candicans, canescens. Bianco,
eburneo, pallido, latteo, argenteo, canescente. Blanc, blane d’ivoire,
pile, blanc de lait, argentin. White, ivory-white, pallid, milk-white,
silver-colored. Weiss, elfenbeinweiss, blass, milchweiss, silberfarben.
Typical examples: Lime, gypsum, snow, white lead, ermine. Pallidus
is an impure white. Argenteus, argyreus (from argyros, silver) is a
metallic, shining white. Lacteus is the color of fresh cow’s milk. Gal-
actites, galochrous are from gala, milk. Candicans, canescens is pure
or impure white resulting from a tomentum such as on the under side
of the leaf of Populus alba or Alnus incana. Olorinus (from Cygnus
olor) is a pure shining white (example Clitocybe olorina).” An ex-
amination of the color scale cannot fail to deepen the impression that
it is futile to attempt to use color terms in natural history without re-
ferring them to some particular scale or standard. On first thought,
nothing seems less likely to be misunderstood than such terms as flesh-

1 This department is edited by Erwin F. Smith, Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C. <

69

1010 The American Naturalist. [November,

color, bay, or chestnut, and yet these names and many others call up
quite different conceptions in different minds, and, where much de-
pends on the accurate description of colors, are sure to mislead, unless
referred to some exact color scale or well known object or substance of
invariable color. In this particular scale, for example, ater does not
represent the usual conception of a lusterless coal black, but is a lighter
color between plumbeous and slate; Jatericius is not the color of any
bricks commonly found in this country, but rather what the writer
would designate a light chocolate; badius is scarcely the color of a
bay horse; and incarnatus is certainly not the lively color of the lips.
These matters, however, are trifles provided the colors of the scale are
made from pigments that will be permanent and provided those who
use it as a guide remember that it represents in many cases not the
universal concept of particular colors but only the author’s, and
specify accordingly, e. g., “ violaceus Sacc., No. 47.” Itis to be re-
gretted that directions for reproducing these colors are not given. To
see how widely color concepts vary, even among distinguished natu-
ralists let the reader compare Saccardo’s hazel (7), isabella (8), chest-
nut (10), scarlet (15), cream-color (27), emerald green (36) glaucous
green (38), violet (47), and lilac (48) with Ridgway’s numbers, IV 12,
IIL 28, EV 9, VIL 11, VI 20, X 16, X 17, VIII 10, and VII 19 which
bear the same names but are by no means the same colors. Evidently
the perfect color scale is yet to be put upon paper, and owing to de-
fects in pigments is not likely to appear soon. Meanwhile we may be
thankful for those we have, using them as intelligently as possible, and
never forgetting to specify, in cases where color is important, the par-
ticular scale in which a similar color may be seen. Saccardo’s scale
has a special value to mycologists, since it affords the users of that im-
mense and indispensable work, the Sylloge Fungorum, a ready means
of determining in a thousand and one descriptions exactly what color
is meant, provided, of course, the author has used the terminology of
this scale consistently throughout.—Erwin F. SMITH.

Kroeber’s Transpiration Experiments.—It will be remem-
bered that Miiller-Thurgau believed he had demonstrated the amount
of transpiration-water to be different in different varieties of vines and
orchard trees, and that this fact could be turned to practical use by
horticulturalists who, in dry soils or climates; should plant varieties,
making small demands on transpiration, and in moist ones those tran-
spiring abundantly. Very recently Mr. E. Kréber, assistant in the
plant-physiological experiment station of the Kénigliches Lehranstalt

1895.] Vegetable Physiology. 1011

at Geisenheim on the Rhine, has gone over the same ground in a long
series of experiments (Ist die Transpirationsgrisse der Pflanzen ein
Maassstab fiir ihre Anbaufihigkeit? Landw. Jahrb., Bd. 24, 1895,
H. 3, pp. 503-537) which throw doubt on Miiller-Thurgau’s methods
and lead to the following opposite conclusions : (1) In determining
the amount of transpiration the entire decrease in weight of the plant
and apparatus must be taken into account and not simply the decrease
of water in the flasks, since under pressure, in short experiments, the
error resulting from the forcing into the wood of water which is not
transpired is very considerable. (2) The demonstrated transpiration
of any branch can never be taken as a measure of the transpiration of
the whole tree. (3) The amount of transpiration of different branches
of the same tree may be wider apart in many cases than that of
branches of different trees or even of different varieties. (4) In par-
allel experiments, under exactly the same transpiration conditions, the
ratio of the amount of water given off by different branches is by no
means constant. (5) The influence and interchange of the different
factors governing transpiration is quite different in different individ-
uals. (6) The present condition of the individual and the circum-
stances under which it previously transpired have a great influence
upon transpiration. (7) It follows that the amount of transpiration
of a single individual cannot be regarded as a measure of the water
requirements of the whole variety. According to the writer, Müller-
Thurgau has also left out of account the capacity of individuals and
varieties to adapt themselves to changed conditions—-Erwiy F.
MITH.

ZOOLOGY.

A Stratified Lake Fauna.—One of the most interesting results
achieved by the naturalists of the Russian Biological Station on the
island of Solowetzk in the North Sea, has been the discovery of a re-
markable lake on the island of Kildine in the Arctic Ocean. This
lake, which is completely separated from the sea by a narrow strip of
land, was discovered by the Russian naturalist, M. H. Herzenstein,
who was struck by finding in the lake a fish which is exclusively
marine in habit, namely, the common cod. Further observations by
MM. Faussek and Knipowitsch have elucidated the peculiar features
of the fauna of the lake. On the surface the water is fresh, and is in-

1012 The American Naturalist. [November,

habited by fresh water animals, such as Daphnids, ete.; this water is
brought to the lake by streams from a neighboring marsh. Under
the superficial layer of fresh water is found salt water, supporting a
Marine fauna—-Sponges, Sea-anemones, Nemertines, Polychetes,
marine Molluses, Starfish and Pantopods. There is even a regular lit-
toral zone beneath the fresh water, characterized by small Fuci.

The bottom of this lake is covered with mud exhaling an odor of
sulphurretted hydrogen, and is not inhabited. The water of the lake
shows a slight ebb and flow, attaining a vertical height of only a few
inches, while the tides in the adjacent sea are considerably greater.
This fact would appear to point to the existence of some subterranean
communication between the lake and the sea. (Nature, July, 1895.)

Sexual Rights and Lefts.—The genus Anableps includes sev-
eral species of the most extraordinary of the fishes. With other novel
characters, they have the eye divided into a lower section, looking
downward, and an upper protruded above the head conveniently for
seeing on the surface of the water; the pelvis also is divided; and the
young are retained in the ovary until well developed. Our present,
interest, however, concerns only their means of fertilization. Ina
study of the Cyprinodonts (Monograph published as Vol. XIX, No. 1,
of the Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, from which
this item is repeated) particular examinations of the anal fin of the
males, which is modified into an intromittent organ, disclosed the fact
that its structure adapts it for sidewise motion, rather than vertical.
Directing attention to the species A. anableps of Linné (A. tetrophthal-
mus of others), comparisons of the males showed that this organ differs
in individuals, being functionally dextral on about three-fifths, and
sinistral on about two-fifths of the specimens. Among the females in
the Museum’s collection a similar state of affairs exists, but with the
numbers reversed, two-fifths of them being rights and three-fifths lefts.
Once possessed of the facts, dextrals and sinistrals are easily recog-
nized. Happily Professor Agassiz, on his Brazilian Expedition, had
provided a considerable amount of material to compare.

Of the accompanying diagrams, figure 1 represents the lower side of
the hinder portion of a dextral male, figure 2 that of a sinistral female,
figure 3 that of a dextral female, and figure 4 that of a sinistral male.
In its posterior half the anal fin of the male ( p ), the sexual organ, is
bent to the right on dextrals (1), or to the left on sinistrals (4) ; it has
on the convex side of the bend a small fleshy tubercle or gland (ce),
while the urogenital tube lies along the concave side. The opening to

1895.] Zoology. 1013

the oviducts of the female, behind the vent, is covered by a larger
scale (s), a foricula (a diminutive shutter), which opens to the right on

ae rS

a Magen

ieee ka

4
dextral (3) and to the left on sinistral individuals (2). Evidently
copulation is effected by a right male at the left side of a left female,
and by a left male at the right side of a right female, the anal (p ) of
the male being turned so as to bring its tip under the free edge of the
foricula (s) into the mouth of the oviducts.

From the specimens examined it would appear, at sight, as if the
male sex was eventually to become dextral and the female sinistral,
and as if by selecting rights or lefts one might exclusively raise either
rights or lefts as he chose; but the proportions of the sexes, and of
dextral and of sinistral of each sex, in the progeny are really deter-

1014 The American Naturalist. [November,.

mined by tendencies in the ovary, tendencies which may vary from
connection with different males, from food, temperature, etc. To
bring about a variety in the species, all the males of which might be
rights, or all lefts, the females to suit, choice would have to be made of
individuals actually producing the required forms, and of particular
conditions, in a measure disregarding the right or left of the parents.
And this introduces a great many complications into the selection
problem. Another question of interest relates to the origin and devel-
opment of the unusual features. Some light is thrown upon this by an
allied genus in the family, of which the males alone appear to be rights
and lefts. Excepting these genera, no other creatures are recalled
that are in the particulars under notice similar to these peculiar fishes..
Though less extravagant, the species of Anableps are suggestive of the
fanciful birds in the stanza translated by Moore, as he tells us, from
the Persian, alluding to the “ Jaftak,” “a sort of bird that is said to
have but one wing, on the opposite side to which the male has a hook,
and the female a ring, so that when they fly they are fastened
together: ”

“ How can we live so far apart ?

Oh, why not rather heart to heart,

United live and die,
Like those sweet birds that fly together,
With feather always touching feather,
Linked by a hook and eye!”
—S. GARMAN.

The Bats of Cuba.—Of the twenty species of bats observed by
Dr. Gundlach in Cuba, nineteen have been recorded by him in his
paper entitled “Contribucian á la Mamalogia Cubana.” He places
them in two groups, as follows: I. Species with a nose-leaf or with
fleshy wrinkles over the nostrils or around the mouth. They hang
themselves during the day by the hind legs. They eat insects and
fruit. The following genera are included: Macrotus, Monophyllus,
Phyllonycteris, Artibeus, Phyllops, Brachyphylla, Mormops, Chilonyc-
teris, Noctilio. II. Species without a nose-leaf and with no wrinkles
about the mouth. These sleep in crevices and do not hang themselves
by the hind feet. They eat only insects. The following genera are
included: Molossus, Nyctinomus, Natalus, Vesperus, Nycticejus,
Atalapha. (Abstr. Proceeds. Linn. Soc. New York, No. 7, 1895.)

Fatigue and Toxicity.—A series of experiments carried on by
M. Redon show the toxicity of the blood of cattle that have died of

1895.] Zoology. 1015

fatigue. The arrival at the abattoir (Paris) of a consignment of cattle
from South America gave opportunity for the experiments. Five in-
dividuals died after a panic stricken race. The autopsy revealed that
the animals had suffered from both hunger and thirst during the long
journey. Of three rabbits inoculated with the serum of the dead cattle
the first, injected with a dose of 12 cubic centimeters, died in five
hours; the second, inoculated with 5 cubic centimeters, was seized with
a violent diarrhcea, which terminated its life at the end of the fifth day,
having lost one-third of its weight; the third, having received one
cubic centimeter of serum, died in 30 hours. In the first and third
case the liver was very much congested and enlarged.

Although the intravenous injections differ from the accustomed
mode of ingestion of food, M. Redon thinks it highly probable that the
eating of the flesh of animals that have died from fatigue is detrimental
to health. Acting on this presumption, the veterinary inspectors
promptly quarantined all the animals of the consignment that showed
signs of the fever of fatigue. (Revue Scientifique, June, 1895.)

Poisons of Putrid Fish.—In a short article, incorporated in the
Bull. U.S. Fish Commission recently issued, Dr. J. Lawrence Hamilton
points out the connection between foul fish and filth diseases. Begin-
ning with cholera, he notes the outbreak of this disease in 1893, in the
fishing ports of Grimsby and Hull, and instances cases of deaths which
occurred from mussels, cockles and oysters from those infected ports.

It is well known that fishing populations, from their slovenly and
dirty habits, are more prone to endemic as well as epidemic affections.
The author refers to Astrakan, the seat of the sturgeon and caviare
industries, as a case in point. Statistics show that the population of
this place would become extinct were it not recruited from external
sources. During the winter of 1878-79, the plague devasted the place,
and the worst and most fatal cases were among the laborers employed
in fish salting, who live under very miserable conditions. The price of
bread being beyond their reach, they subsist chiefly on the leavings of
the inferior parts of the prepared fish. Formerly, Government rules
enforced that the unused remains of the prepared fish should be
thrown directly into the the water, but now these, collected and ac-
cumulated in masses, are left to rot in and about the banks of the
rivers under the heat of sometimes an almost tropical sun. The local
atmosphere is further vitiated by many fat-boiling, fish-oil, isinglass,
etc., works. During the five years preceding the outbreak of plague
in 1878, enteric fevers, measles and small-pox were epidemic, whilst
scarlet fever raged in 1876-77. Previous to 1878, the town of Astra-

1016 The American Naturalist. [ November,

kan, during 22 years, had suffered from nine epidemic attacks of
cholera and three of enteric fever.

Such skin diseases as elephantiasis, ichthyosis, and beri-beri are sus-
pected of being produced by a combination of fish, filth and poverty.

Wounds caused by the handling of decomposed fish are often very
serious. The author gives a list of such cases. The Norwegian
whalers take advantage of this fact by using prepared putrefactive
poisoned harpoons. The whales are driven toward shore, surrounded
by a net to prevent escape, and then struck with the poisoned harpoons.
After twenty-four hours they show signs of exhaustion, probably
through septic poisoning, and are readily captured. The harpoons
are recovered and carefully preserved, without wiping, for future use.

The importance of the question of putrid food cannot be overesti-
mated, hence the author’s strong language in urging a better super-
vision of the fish-markets. Especially does he condemn the practices
of leaving fish ungutted and unbled until sold, and of keeping fish
soaked and sodden with water to make the skin look bright.

The foul condition of the boats, and of the boxes in which the fish
are shipped to market, and the unsanitary condition of Billingsgate
Market, are described in disgusting detail, and suggestions are given
for, at least, mitigating these evils.

The infection of fish by impure preservatives, such as ice made from
impure water and dirty salt and also bacterial infection, are referred
to. In this connection the author remarks that “ the cleanliness in the
United States caviare factories is unknown in southern Russia, the
home of astounding dirt and disease, augmented by the most hideous
poverty and ignorance.”

It has been supposed that prolonged soaking would render diseased
animal food innocuous, but it would seem, from the experiments con-
ducted by Prof. Pamem and again by Dr. Bremton that the vitality of
poisons derived from putrid and other animal matter, though weak-
ened, is not destroyed by boiling. Accordingly, to avoid all possible
danger of the use of condemned food, the author recommends that it be
burnt in properly-constructed local furnaces, and he includes, under this
head, particularly “ fish, its offal and refuse.”

Another important suggestion as to public welfare is for all fish to
be bled, gutted, cleaned, and dry-air-frozen at the place of capture.
This would do away with many of the evils complained of, and is,
moreover, a feasible business project. The author’s investigations on
this point warrant him in stating that “ every day in the year, 2 pounds
of bled, gutted, cleaned, dry-air-frozen (imperishable) fresh herring

1895.] Entomology. 1017

(about 6 fish) could be profitably retailed by costermongers for one
penny, or 2 pounds of sprats for one halfpenny”

A sharp arraignment of the “ Billingsgate Ring,” which Dr. Hamil-
ton accuses of diminishing the market supply of fish, in order to keep
up the price, by getting the fish destroyed at various places along the
coast, and a brief description of the “koshering” process for preserv-
ing animal food, closes this interesting paper.

The idea embodied in the article is, that foul fish is one of the most
unwholesome, disease-producing factors in existence, but the conditions
that result in such food being put upon the market are not necessary,
but are due to ignorance, carelessness and greed, and can be remedied
at no great expense. (Bull. U. S. Fish Commission, Vol. XIII, pp.
311-334).

ENTOMOLOGY.

The Genera of Lysiopetalidz.—The genus Spirostrephon was
founded by Brandt on Tulus lactarius Say, in 1840. Owing to the fact
that many subsequent naturalists have not had an equally vivid appre-
ciation of generic characters and limits, Spirostrephon has usually
appeared as a synonym of Lysiopetalum, the typical species of which
is L. feetidissimum (Savi).

Through the kindness of Mr. Pocock of the British Museum I have
had the opportunity of comparing specimens of fætidissimum with
abundant material of /actarium from Pennsylvania, Ohio, and the Dis-
trict of Columbia. The form, and ornamentation of the body and the
location of the repugnatorial pores render the generic distinctness
evident, as Brandt pointed out. Brandt also remarks’ the similarity
with Cambala, but holds the genera distinct because the ocelli of Cam-
bala are represented as arranged in a single row. ‘There seems to be
no ground for Latzei’s inference that Brandt included Cambala under
Spirostrephon. Brandt saw but one specimen, which must have been
young, as the length and number of segments are less than in mature
specimens of /actarium.

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

? Recueil, p. 90.

3 Myr. Ost. Ung. Mon., II, p. 353.

1018 The American Naturalist. [November,

The Lysiopetalide seem to be in need of careful generic revision.
The result would probably be the recognition of several new genera
from Europe and Western Asia. Recently Dr. C. Verheeff has at-
tempted to arrange some of the European species‘, and with his usual
disregard for the association of generic names with their typical species
has placed Lysiopetalum fetidissimum under a subgenus Silvestria,
while other species unknown to Brandt form the basis of the subgenus
Lysiopetalum, sensu strictu. The conjecture is offered by Dr. Verhceff
that Lysiopetalum carinatum Brandt belongs in the latter subgenus, and
if this is really the case there is no need of a new generic or subgeneric
name. According to Berlese Callipus rissonius Leach (1826) is a
synonym of Lysiopetalum carinatum Brandt, but the earlier designation
having priority, Dr. Verhceff’s second subgenus seems to be entitled to
a name seventy years old. -

The late Mr. C. H. Bollman conjectured from the description of
Callipus that it is the same as Lysiopetalum, and proceeded to form the
names of the family and superfamily accordingly. Mr. Pocock has
adopted this suggestion. However, it seems clear that we must identify
a type species for Callipus, or it is a nomen nudum, and may be
neglected ; also, if we are to use the name Callipus we must accept Ber-
lese’s identification until reasons to the contrary are shown, and the
meagre description of Callipus will make these hard to find. I have
examined a specimen purporting to be Lysiopetalum carinatum Brandt
and agreeing with the original description, as far as that goes. The
differences between it and the specimens of fetidissimum are very con-
siderable and render it probable that the two genera may be maintained
on sufficient characters when a careful study of the European forms
has been made. In the meantime we may accept the three genera as
distinct, and continue the use of the older name Lysiopetalidz, which
would need to be resumed in case it were at any time proven that
jetissimum represents a generic type distinct from rissonius, whatever
that may be.

The genus Eurygyrus C. L. Koch may also prove to be distinct, and
the enormous species Platops xanthina Newport evidently represents an
independent generic type, if the analogy of other Diplopoda does not
fail in the Lysiopetalide. The genus Platops Newport was founded,
according to Pocock, on Lysioptalum lactarium Say, and so becomes a
synonym of Spirostrephon. Two other genera, Cylindrosoma Gray

* Zool. Anzeiger, XVIII, p. 207.
* Studi Critici dei Chilognati, etc., Part I, Julidæ, p. 31.

1895.] Entomology. 1019

and Reasia Gray, have been referred to the Lysiopetalide. As no
species have been published under them and practically no descrip-
tions are given, they may be looked upon as nomina nuda, and not in-
cluded in the synonymy of any of the genera. The following, then,
are the genera of Lysiopetalide which have not been properly disposed
of, and may for the present be assumed to be valid:

Genus Callipus Leach (1826) ; type rissonius Leach; locality, Nice.
Syn. (Subg.) Lysiopetalum Verheeff; type illyricum Latzel.

Genus Lysiopetalum Brandt (1840); type fatidissimum (Savi);
locality, Italy.
Syn. (Subg.) Sylvestria Verhceff (1895) ; type fetidissimum (Savi).

Genus Spirostrephon Brandt (1840) ; type dactarium (Say); locality,
North America.
Syn. Platops Newport (1844) ; type rugulosa (Gray)=Tlactarium (Say).

Genus Eurygyrus C. L. Koch (1847) ; type rufolinatus C. L. Koch:
locality, Constantinople.

Genus Megastrephon nov.; type xanthinum (Newport); locality,
Asia Minor.—O. F. Coox.

Habits of Ants.—In an interesting paper on the ants of India®
Mr. G. A. J. Rothney reports that the nest of a colony of Myrmicaria
fodiens Jerdon, under a banyan tree in the park at Barrackpore which
had been constantly under the author’s notice between 1872 and 1886
was still flourishing in January, 1894, showing a continuous residence
in one spot of twenty-two years. In Madras he found Monomorium
salomonis Lin. used in protecting bales of paper from white ants. The
paper merchant scattered sugar around the sides of the bales every day
to ensure the attendance of these red ants.

Concerning Pheidole rhombinoda Mayr. Mr. Rothney says: “I
found some nests in Barrackpore Park, covered over in a perfect circle
(taking the centre from the entrance, the circumference would equal
about 10 to 12 inches), with the leaflets of some species of mimosa, but
no leaflets were found in the nest itself on digging it up, and the even
and umbrella-like appearance of the arrangements seems to suggest a
protection against heat or rain, as the objects the ants have in view.

“Tn Madura, I came across a number of nests of a very curious and,
to me, novel form.

“ The entrances were surrounded by little mounds arranged in a circle,
composed of the dead bodies, or parts of bodies, of Camponotus com-

ê Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1895, Part II, pp. 195-211.

1020 The American Naturalist. [November,

pressus and C. rufoglaucus, but chiefly the big soldiers of compressus.
There were heads alone, heads with the thorax attached, thorax with-
out the head, bodies without thorax, with a scattering of legs and
antennæ, attached and unattached, in every possible form, but I could
not find any of these portions in the nests. Now the question arises,
What are these mounds for, and how does Pheidole collect and form
them? Are they simply carcases stacked, to be cut up at leisure and
carried into the nest in suitable sizes for future provision, or are these
bodies arranged as a grim warning to prowling enemies, after the fash-
ion of skulls set up at the entrance to the villages of some wild and
primitive tribe? and, then, how does Pheidole collect them? It is
hardly possible that they are killed and brought in, for Pheidole would
have to be in overwhelming force to master a single giant-headed
soldier of compressus. Perhaps they act as undertakers, and collect the
dead thrown out by Camponotus for some special purpose of their own ;
and, then, why should this trait break out in Madura, for certainly I
have not met with it in other parts, although compressus and rhom-
binoda are practically common everywhere.”

Mr. Rothney was unsuccessful in getting ants to stridulate while on
the march. He thinks they do so, however and concludes that “ in lay-
ing down rules for ant conduct some allowance should always be made
for the different little traits of character, the whims and fancies, as it
were, which are to be found not only in a given species but in individ-
ual ants.”

Entomological Notes.—Mr. R. I. Pocock figures and describes’
an interesting stridulating organ in the male of the spider Cambridgea
antopodiana (White). He believes it is used as a sexual call, no such
organ being found in the female.

Professors J. H. Comstock and V. L. Kellogg have prepared an ex-
tremely valuable laboratory handbook entitled The Elements of Insect
Anatomy. It is published by the Comstock Publishing Co., Ithaca,
N. Y.

Bulletin 48 of the U. S. National Museum consists of a Revision of
the Deltoid Moths by Prof. J. B. Smith. There are 126 pages of letter-
press and fourteen plates of figures,

“A Preliminary List of the Hemiptera of Colorado” is the title of
Bulletin 31 of the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station. In it
Messrs. Gillette and Baker have prepared a faunistic paper of unusual
value. There are 647 species listed, belonging to 261 genera; five new
genera and 111 new species are described,

"Annals & Mag. Nat. Hist., XVI, 230.

1895.] Embryology. 1021

In Bulletin 33 of the U.S. Division of Entomology, Mr. L. O. How-
ard presents a valuable compilation concerning American Legislation
Against Injurious Insects.

EMBRYOLOGY."

Conjugation of the Brandling.—Of the many kinds of earth-
worms common in the Eastern United States one of the best known is
the prettily colored but offensive-smelling species often called the
striped worm from its conspicuous cross bands of red-brown and yellow,
but known to the specialist at present as Allolobophora fetida. It
` abounds in decaying vegetable matter especially in compost and man-
ure heaps where it lies a few inches beneath the surface and may be
readily captured though quick and active in its movements. In some
regions it is regarded by the youthful angler as especially attractive
bait for trout and as bait it has been used ever since the days of Isaac
Walton who refers to it repeatedly in the Complete Angler by a name
too characteristic to be lost from our vocabulary—the brandling. Thus
in speaking of bait for the perch he says—“ and of worms the dunghill
worm called the brandling I take to be the best, being well scoured in
moss or fennel.”

It is well known that earthworms, though they are hermaphrodites
yet interchange sexual products in a remarkable process of conjuga-
tion. Our knowledge of this process, is however, confined to the
accounts of two naturalists who studied the large European earthworm
Lumbricus terrestris. W. Hoffmeister, whose work on earthworms
published in Brunswick in 1845 was the pioneer in a field that was
later so diligently tilled by French and of late by English specialists, ob-
served the worms as they came out on the surface of the ground in the
night-time and obtained a pretty good idea of the main phenomena of
conjugation.

is account is in the main as follows: “ The old worms leave their
holes first, the younger ones only when it is quite dark. They protrude
their bodies with great caution and very slowly, after resting a while
they feel about with the anterior end of the body till they reach a
neighbors’s hole or come upon another worm. They now crawl along

1 Edited by E. A. egin Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and
preliminary notes may be se

1022 The American Naturalist. [November,

against and carefully examine one another. If the worm that is found
is not mature or even if it is smaller than the seeker, greeting does not
last long and the worm continues his search in some other direction till
he succeeds in finding some other individual like himself

He generally finds one waiting or else oe
one o from its nile w thrusting his head into it. They undulate against
one another; now one now the other drawing back is always followed
by his companion. The movements soon become more active; they
strike one another with their heads.

At length they both lie still with the ventral surfaces near together.
The body begins to undulate, especially at the girdle and within a few
minutes the sucking action of the girdle comes into play to establish a
more firm union of the two animals. The side parts of the girdle that
bear the sucking disks are spread out in wing-like expansions while
the ventral part is much drawn in. In this way a sort of tube is formed
and in this the other individual is enclosed.

The mutual adjustment of one to the other becomes more and more
close and accurate while the undulations of the transverse muscles and
of the girdle constantly increase. Meanwhile mucous flows copiously
from the dorsal pores and from the girdle. Usually a Jot of young
worms now assemble and greedily suck up the mucous

The pair lie motionless for a good half hour before the seminal fluid
could be seen flowing out

Once I watched for a pair the day after wtopa; in vain, oe the
following day I found one of the two in conjugation again. Conjuga-
tion seems to be repeated so often that one may imagine a separate
fertilization for each egg.

n the above account all that refers to the actual transfer of sperm
has been omitted as it contains many errors that have been corrected
by our only reliable authority on this problem, Ewald Hering,’ who in
1856 as a medical student in Leipzig made so careful a study of the re-
productive organs of the earthworm that many years elapsed before his
discoveries were rediscovered and introduced into text books in place
of the erroneous views long lingering there.

His account of the conjugation of earthworms is all the knowledge
we have of the process, at present, and is here translated in full to
make intelligible the facts that we have to add in regard to conjugation
in the brandling.

“ When conjugating the worms lie in opposite directions with their
ventral sides applied to one another. By drawing in the ventral side

1 Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., VIII, 1856.

1895.] Embryology. 1023

each hollows out the girdle and the neighboring rings into a boat-
shaped depression. The other worm lies in this excavation. There is
then a copious secretion of mucous that gradually hardens on the sur-
face and encloses both worms is a common envelope. The union be-
comes closer and closer, especially so in the regions of the girdle and of
the male openings.

The ventral elevations of the girdle always lie opposite to the 9th,
10th and 11th rings of the other worm while the ventral elevations
about the male openings lie opposite to the 26th ring.

The elevations of the girdle begin to contract rhythmically. Ante-
rior to the girdle the region between the upper and lower setæ on each
side swells up as a longitudinal elevation bounded by two longitudinal
grooves. As the worms lie on one side this can be seen only on the
other, upturned side. This elevation forms gradually from behind for-
ward as far as the 15th ring when it terminates in the glandular swell-
ing about the male opening. Ina live worm the position of the grooves
bounding the above elevation is indicated by two more or less darkly
pigmented parallel lines on each side from the 15th ring to the girdle
(Hoffmeister erroneously regarded these as canals). When a worm is
thrown into spirit it generally forms in its violent contractions both
the longitudinal elevations and the boat-like excavation of the girdle.

Since the ventral surface is flattened out or even made concave dur-
ing conjugation the ridges of both worms lie pretty close together and
the lower or less essential furrow is concealed from observation. The
upper furrow, however, is evident as a longitudinal groove along which
we may see waves of muscular contraction passing from before back-
ward. This contraction consists essentially in a change in the furrow
and its rims. The rims draw together to form a pit in the 15th ring
which then passes back to the girdle, like the trough of a wave. In
one minute about fourteen such pits may be seen to form and pass
back.

The ejection of sperm takes place only after an hour or more from
the beginning of conjugation. We see a small drop ooze out of theslit
in the elevation of the 15th ring and enter the longitudinal furrow
where it looks like a white rod about as long as a ring is wide. This
drop of sperm is taken up by the pit above described and led back-
ward, Whenit has proceeded abouts its own length from the opening
a new drop is poured out and so on. The ejection of sperm thus takes
place with rhythmic interruptions and we see passing back in the furrow
a row of small white rods separated by intervals equal to their own
length. As the rods as well as the intervals between them just equal

1024 The American Naturalist. [November,

the length of a ring, every other ring will have a drop of sperm in its
furrow at any given moment. The sperm thus flows from the 15th ring
to the girdle outside the animals, covered only by a layer of mucous
We may calculate the time taken as about 80’”. ;
The girdle now becomes especially active. Its muscular elevations
on the sides and at each end contract rhythmically about fifty-five times
a minute to form shallow depressions which advance in a wave-like
manner. The lateral depressions move downward and the end depres-
sions toward the middle of the girdle ridge so that the sperm that has
been poured out and accumulated between the worms under the girdle
is concentrated, more and more, about the openings of the seminal recep-
tacles, which lie opposite to the swollen part of the girdle. The same
object is accomplished also by a second rhythmic motion that occurs
about twice a minute; the lateral part of the girdle alternately presses
against and lifts up from the other animal and so drives the sperm to-
wards the openings of the seminal receptacles. There is no doubt that
the sperm is taken into the seminal receptacles; their openings lie free
under the mucous envelope and the sperm may be seen collecting about
them. Perhaps the taking in is brought about by some sucking action
of the receptacles. Though the ridge on the girdle continues to collect
the sperm about the openings it cannot press it in as it does not cover |
them. G. Meissner mentioned accessory organs concerned in introduc-
ing sperm and eggs into these narrow openings, but as yet I have found
‘none. : ;
When the ejection of sperm is finished the longitudinal swelling and
furrow slowly disappear in the direction opposite to that in which they
appeared. The contractions of the girdle yet continue for some time
till the sperm has so far disappeared that only a small drop remains
about each opening of the seminal receptacles. When the conjugation
has taken a normal course these white drops are found on both worms
and on both sides of each. I often examined them microscopically and
never found any eggs though they probably would have been present
_ if, as Meissner supposed, they are taken into the receptacles along with _
_ the sperm. ee at oe ee |
_ At length the worms separate from one another b rful wrench

_ for which the tail ends that still remain in the ground serve as points —
Of resistance. If we cut off both tails at once the worms often remain

_ united for hours. If thrown into spirit they die without separating.
~ The entire act of conjugation lasts two to three hours and may be
_ easily observed under the lens since the worms are shy only in the early _
~ Stages while when an intimate union has taken place we may use a
-brilliant light and even lightly touch without disturbing them.

PLATE XXXIIL

Ps
é i
’

= Haat a # z
5 . ° o, G
: i rater CAL ay ee
yi HEN 02° 2.2 Paea a oa
n 4 EG O° 0999050
e! À A f o% o 9,
: 7 RYN 7S a T]
e ; a UNV HEE AEN
> IEAA pi SE : : AR RARA No 2 69 2089s
$ COM can eee oe $ : DY) 290 200 Ne
` * pote HE EY i 5 o 008
: PT ea > ae NY
. $ ar a s X —
: ar 3 Fa = f h e A
: s T FRE :
6

10
a

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ô 99070!
20000092, .
98 p 0 90, 5
ma 08 9°90! Say
fo 0
N Edon
SS

ome?

Andrews on Allolobophora,

SEL

Yy
N
No

\

oe

Andrews on Allolobophora.

1895.] Embryology. 1025

The formation of the grooves and the ejection of sperm do not always
take place simultaneously in both worms. They may also be of consider-
ably different dimensions and yet accomplish conjugation since they are
so changable in form. As a rule, however, both worms act in every
respect alike.

As it seems scarcely credible that the sperm should not spread out
on the moist surface of the body one might at first suppose that it flowed
back in a canal covered only by the transparent epidermis, yet no such
canal is to be found nor any opening at the girdle. Moreover the
seminal ducts open directly to the exterior and in handling a long
worm, I once saw issue a white drop of what proved under the
microscope to be sperm.

After conjugation a small flat, club-shaped process is found on each
side of the worms. This so-called penis is about 1’” long and is gener-
ally in the region of the 26th ring, seldom at the girdle. It generally
lies in the region of the ventral sete, sometimes on and sometimes
between rings. It is sometimes duplicated and sometimes absent upon
one or both sides. It gradually becomes harder though at first soft;
it is a hyaline mass with a droplet of sperm imbedded in its free end.
In my opinion it is made of hardened mucous. Before conjugation it
is absent; if we separate conjugating worms before ejaculation it is soft
and contains no sperm; it is demonstrably a product of conjugation.
When formed in the region of the 26th ring opposite the male opening
it receives sperm from the other individual and in the few cases in
which it is on the girdle it receives sperm from the worm on which it is
found. In the miele cases in which it lies on other regions of the
body it contains no sper

It seems superfluous to i ddacelie all the varieties of form, number and
position of such an unessential structure.”

Many features of the above remarkable interchange of sperm may
be readily observed in wet nights in the Spring and Autumn in the
public parks of Baltimore where this large earthworm, Lumbricus
terrestris has been introduced.

In the case of the smaller brandling, direct observation is precluded
by the fact that the worms do not come to the surface to conjugate but
lie closely appressed and bent some inches beneath the surface of the
wet dung heaps they abound in. When disturbed they slowly separ-
ate. The following facts relative to their conjugation are hence con-
fined to observations upon preserved material.

At Byrn Mawr, Penn. in May, 1892 and in Baltimore in May, 1895
attempts were made to harden the worm in pairs by the use of Perenyi’s

70

1026 The American Naturalist. [November,

liquid, picric acid, chromic acid and Merkel’s liquid but the worms
separated in hardening ; it was found, however, that when thrown into
hot corrosive sublimate or even into boiling water the animals remain
in a very natural position. This is due to the fact they are enveloped,
especially in the region of the girdle, by a secretion that is coagulated
by heat while the worms themselves are so quickly killed that they do
not contract enough to change shape or to tear themselves apart. It is
thus possible to obtain preserved pairs such as indicated in figure 11
that very accurately indicate the appearance of the conjugating worms
when alive.

Even the large Lumbricus may be well preserved in pairs by plung-
ing into actively boiling water and then hardening in alcohol.

From figure 11 it will be seen that a pair of conjugating brandlings lie
in a somewhat S shaped figure with the heads in opposite directions and
the ventral sides turned toward one another anteriorly though posteriorly
each may have it ventral side in the normal position, downward. Each
may twist so that its anterior part lies on the side, the right or left in
both worms. Itis noticeable that at two regions the worms appear con-
stricted as if threads had been drawn about them but in reality it is
only the firm envelope of mucous which binds them together. These
two regions are separated by a long expanded region on the side of
which may be seen the swelling about the male opening. Each con-
stricted region is made up by the light colored girdle on one worm and
the small dark colored region near the head of the other, a region of
three rings that we will find subsequently are nearly enclosed by the
girdle. The most anterior part of each worm may be free and is then
immediately followed by the short region so very firmly clasped by and
attached to the girdle. This free tip of the body contains seven rings
in each worm. The following part that fits into the girdle contain
three or four rings. The expanded region between this and the follow-
ing girdle contains fifteen or sixteen rings and the girdle itself six or
seven. Posterior to the girdle the animals may be nearly or quite free
from one another so that the extend of the closely united region when
the seven anterior rings are free, may be only twenty-four to twenty-
seven rings of the entire one hundred, approximately, that make up the
worm. The applied areas do not fit together exactly ring to ring and
though they begin and end at the same distance from the head in each
worm a fixed point, such as the male openings in the fifteenth ring, is not
exactly opposite the same ring in each case. Approximately the male
opening on the fifteenth ring of one is opposite the twenty-first ring of
the other worm whereas we would expect it to be diagrammetically

1895.] Psychotogy. 1027

opposite the twenty-fifth if the seventh ring of one is opposite the
thirty-third of the other.
(To be continued.)

PSYCHOLOGY."

Recent Work in Hypnotism.—With the June number the
“ Revue de l’Hypnotisme ” completed its ninth volume and in turning
over its pages I find several articles that are of more than merely
technical interest.

Liébeault of Nancy contributes two articles on the psychology of
normal sleep and its relations to hypnotic sleep and waking life.
The essential characteristic of waking life is the activity of attention
and will; in sleep both faculties become quiescent; in hypnosis we
find an anomalous “ polarisation” of attention, it being riveted on
the idea of sleep on the one hand, whereby actual sleep is induced,
and on the personality of the hypnotizer on the other. Will is
quiescent, and thus the patient becomes amenable to suggestion.
Violent passions, “ fascination,” aboulia, and all other states in which
will power is weakened, are to be regarded as akin to sleep.

Prof. Matias-Duval outlines a histological theory of sleep suggested
by the Golgi-Cajal doctrines. Admitting that the ultimate nervous
elements are functionally. related, not by actual physical continuity,
but by mere contiguity, itis natural to suppose that the transmission
of nervous activity would be facilitated by approximation of the ter-
minal filaments. It is not improbable that they may be capable of
amceba-like extension such as has been observed by Wiedersheim in
the brain of Leptodora hyalina. It is possible that a paralysis of these
terminal filaments may be brought about by the absence of oxygen and
excess of carbonic acid; the transmission of nervous activity would
thus be impeded and sleep supervene.

Dr. Raphael Dubois contributes a paper on the physiological condi-
tions of hibernation in the marmot. He has been unable to find traces
in the blood of the hibernating animals of toxalbumens, toxines or
other somniferous agents, but has found an excess of carbonie acid
which he ascribes in part to the depression of circulation, respiration

1 This department is edited by Dr. Wm. Romaine Newbold, University of Penn-
sylvania.

1028 The American Naturalist. [November,

and temperature, but chiefly to a dehydration of the blood. A portion
of this water accumulates in fluid form in the stomach and caecum, and
another portion in the peritoneum and other membranes in the form
of lymph containing leucocytes. At the same time, owing to a diminu-
tion in the portal circulation, glycogen accumulates in the liver. Upon
awaking, these fluids are reabsorbed, the leucocytes convert the gly-
cogen into sugar and the temperature rises. All these phenomena are
under the control of the center for thermic sensibility in the anterior
portion of the aqueduct of Silvius; and between this center and the polar
plexus, which controls the portal circulation, there is direct anatomical
relation. Acetone, which is known to have soporific powers, is also
found in the blood of the hibernating marmot and doubtless contrib-
utes to the total effect. “The winter sleep of the marmot may there-
fore be described as a carbonico-acetonemic autonarcosis.”

The doctrine of the subconscious fixed idea has never been as
clearly and succinctly stated as by Pierre Janet in the June number of
the Revue. He gives first a typical case of a conscious fixed idea. A
woman, aged 33, of neurotie ancestry and hysterical antecedents, fell at
sight violently in love with a physician called to attend her child, and
for some years remained under the control of this fixed idea. Here we
have (1) Marks of mental weakness, (2) An irrational passion at-
tached to one idea, (3) Its natural consequences in words, acts, ete.
Four other cases are then detailed, precisely analogous, save in the ab-
sence of the second factor, there being no conscious fixed idea, A
hysterical woman, aged 21, has repeated attacks of vertigo and of
groundless terror. Another sustained, at 29, three great shocks: her
father lost his money, a near friend died of phthisis in her presence,
and she saw a man crushed to death. For four years afterwards she fell
into an apparently dreamless sleep upon the least shock. A girl aged 16
has nocturnal micturition, but affirms that she never dreams. A woman
of neurotic family, a brother being hysterical, a sister insane, father
and grandfather drunkards, has monthly attacks of mental and physi-
cal distress which end in an uncontrollable desire to drink. After a
spree of several days’ duration, she recovers consciousness and has no
memory of the attack. While her normal self she is a total abstainer,
and has a horror of the liquor which has ruined her family. In all
these cases we have no conscious fixed idea. But when hypnotized, it
apparently comes to light. Case (1) in hypnosis tells of a horrible

i ped from a bridge; this dream
When a child, she was frightened by
that her terrors are due to seeing snakes about

recurring produces the vertigo.
a snake, and she claims

1895.] Psychology. 1029

her. Case (2) is told, while hypnotized, that when she falls asleep she
is to dream aloud; her dreams are invariably repetitions of her friend’s
death-scene. Case (4) confesses to an insane desire to drink, of which
her normal self is wholly unconscious, and Janet, upon tracing the
history of the case, ascribes this to the fact that in her earlier convul-
sive attacks, the suggestion to drink was constantly given her by the
presence of her drunken father. Case (3) hypnotized, has no memory
of dreams which could cause her annoying trouble, but her hand, in
automatic writing, tells of nightmares utterly unknown to her, during
which micturition takes place. From these cases Janet draws the in-
ference that in all a fixed idea exists subconsciously, producing in the
upper consciousness effects analogous to those produced in the first case
by a conscious fixed idea.

Prof. Pitres reports a case presenting analogous features. L. G.,
aged 37, became subject to hysterical convulsions in consequence of a
runaway accident in which she and her child were thrown from a cart,
The recurrence of this experience in the form of a dream or nightmare
was the basis of her crisis. By hypnotic suggestion Prof. Pitres
abolished its more terrifying features and diminished the violence of
her attacks, but was unable to affect her sensory symptoms, pains, etc.
While experimenting with another end in view, he made her dream
that a certain surgeon performed an operation upon her; next day
upon seeing the surgeon she had a, to her, inexplicable feeling of
aversion for him, and, at the same time, felt a pain in the part upon

‘which the imaginary operation had been performed. It would seem
that the sight of the surgeon awakened into subconscious life the dream
and its consequences. Acting on this hint, Prof. Pitres suggested dreams
in which sundry doctors cured her pains, and so obtained results which
he could not get by direct suggestion.

From the medico-legal point of view, the possibility of criminal sug-
gestion is discussed by Prof. Delboeuf, of Leyden, and Dr. Liébeault,
of Nancy. Prof. Delboeuf recants at length the affirmative view which
he has expressed in his earlier works. Laboratory experiments are
worthless ; the patient is always more or less influenced by the sugges-
tions of the environment as well as by the command of the hypnotizer,
and is consequently fully aware that the whole performance is a mere
comedy. We are all subject to criminal auto-suggestions in our
dreams, and we know how little mischief actually results from them ;
the danger from hypnotic suggestions is no greater; it will never be
as great as that of evil communications and corrupt example. Yet

1030 The American Naturalist. (November,

Prof. Delboeuf admits that signatures to wills, etc., may be secured and
attempts on chastity made easier by hypnotic suggestion.

Dr. Liébeault’s articles in reply adduce no new arguments and
wholly fail to meet the points raised by Delboeuf. He merely empha-
sizes the power of suggestion and the helplessness of the subject. The
single case which he quotes as conclusive is of no value. Dr. X. and
himself successfully suggested theft to a working man; some years
later he was convicted of numerous petty thefts and imprisoned. After
his release he told Dr. Liébeault, while hypnotized, that his second
series of thefts had been committed in obedience to a second suggestion
from Dr. X. The total lack of evidence for the man’s previous hon-
esty and of confirmation of his story, taken in conjunction with Lié-
beault’s obvious predisposition to accept this view of the case, robs it
of the interest it would otherwise have had.

Two cases of death in the hypnotic state are reported. One was a
patient of Bernheim’s; the autopsy showed that death was due to a
pulmonary embolism with which the hypnosis could have had nothing
to do. The other is the sensational case in Hungary of which a brief
account appeared at the time in the American papers. Frl. Elsa Sol-
omon, living in the neighborhood of Buda-Pesth, had suffered from
hysterical attacks for several years, but had found considerable relief
during the last 18 months of her life in hypnotic treatment at the
hands of her physician. A man named Neukomm, described as a
“ specialist in well-digging,” happened to be visiting at her father’s
house and hypnotized her for experimental purposes. She was found
to be possessed of clairvoyant powers. On Sept. 17, 1894, Neukomm
hypnotized her, much against her will, as she was feeling badly, and
told her to visit in spirit his brother, ill at Werschetz, and describe his
condition. This she professed todo. He then asked what would be
the outcome of the illness. She replied, with difficulty, “ Prepare for
the worst,” and immediately fell from her chair with a cry. Her heart
was still beating, and an injection of ether was given, but she died in a
few seconds. A medico-judicial commission appointed by the Govern-
ment reported that her death was due to cerebral anaemia, and refused
to inculpate Neukomm. As he continued experimenting, the Hungar-
ian Government issued an edict restricting the practice of hypnotism to
regular physicians, and requiring that the patient in every case sign an
order, before witnesses, asking to be hypnotized. The hypnotization
must also be in presence of witnesses.

Casimir de Krauz contributes six admirably impartial articles upon
the experiments conducted by Dr. Ochorowicz and others with Eusapia

1895.] Psychology. 1031

Palladino in Warsaw. He has given in concise form and a civilized
tongue the gist of the discussion which raged about the case in the
Polish magazines and newspapers. Lack of space prevents my giving
any extended account of these remarkable experiments at present.

Dr. Quintard, of Angers, reports the case of a child of six who ap-
pears able to read his mother’s thoughts. The case seems to deserve
careful investigation.

As usual, the Revue abounds with accounts of remarkable cures
wrought by suggestion, but the most interesting of the articles from the
therapeutic point of view is one on “ The Clinical Indications of Hyp-
notism,” based upon Prof. Morselli’s sixteen years’ experience. Prof.
Morselli belongs to the school of Braid, Richet, and Bernheim; he has
found about one-fifth of his patients hypnotizable, neurasthenics,
hysterics and maniacs being the most refractory. He has never ob-
served clairvoyance, telepathy, cerebral polarization, ete., and holds a
negative attitude with reference to their possibility. He does not
believe that hypnosis has dangerous results; is not oversanguine as to
its therapeutic value, but has had good results in functional neuroses
and in dealing with symptoms of organic disorders. The effects of
hypnotic treatment he has found neither constant nor durable, and
thinks it must be supplemented by other agencies.

The Cebus and the Matches.—A Cebus apella in the Phila-
delphia Zoological Garden has become an expert in striking matches.
He distinguishes the end with the fulminate, and I have not seen him
make an error in this point. He seizes the match at the proper dis-
tance from the fulminate and so avoids breakage. He uses for friction
the rough side of a kettle which is used for water, and spends no time
on the glazed surface. As soon as the match is lit he throws it away,
and I have not seen him burn himself. No man could handle the
match more appropriately. He does not however always select a
a proper surface, as he tried on one occasion to strike a match on
my finger, without success.—E. D. Cope.

Sand Swallows and Sawdust.—Mr. C. O. Tuursrton writes
to the Naturalist, that during a visit at Groton, Conn, he observed
sand swallows in great numbers building their nests in a large pile of
sawdust instead of their usual resort, a sand bank.

1032 The American Naturalist. [November,

ANTHROPOLOGY:

The Discovery of Aboriginal Netting Rope and Wood
Implements in a Mud Deposit in Western Florida.—I was
in Florida, last April, tarpon fishing, and had been drawn down in the
course of this pursuit to the neighborhood of the settlement of Marco—
a few frame houses on the south-east coast, collected near the pass of
the same name through the reef. This pass is an important one, as
importance goes in this thinly-peopled region, it being a road to the safe
shelter in Marco Bay, and also to the little wooden pier in Collier’s
Creek, leading from Mr. Collier’s store and house. And Marco has
clearly, for very many years, been thus important. A Spanish settle-
ment was remembered by a friend of the “oldest inhabitant,” and,
from the more distant past, numerous kitchen middens, formed chiefly
of shell-heaps, bring us heavy conch axes or clubs sharpened at the
point and bored for handles, smaller conch and other shell implements,
bits of black pottery, shell sinkers, and various ornaments, all pre-
sumably relics of the mysterious Mound-Builders. Hard cement-like
floors of former huts or cottages are reported to be visible in the local-
ity—Collier’s is, infact, built on Mound-Builders’ débris, and the rows
of these shell-heaps show the extent of their occupation of the place,
both in time and numbers. Yet, withal, there has been hitherto a
complete absence of wooden articles or of any textile fabrics from the
discovered remains.

Here and there shell-heaps form the banks of what are locally called
“muck ” tracts, former creeks or inlents, now filled with peaty mud,
ill-smelling when first disturbed. The drier of these have been for
years overgrown with trees and bushes, some of which trees are old and
dead. This peat muck is valuable as a fertilizer, and it is this prop-
erty that originally brought the special basin, that I shall describe
later on, particularly under notice.

I had been looking with curious eyes at a somewhat similar forma-
tion in the neighborhood of Naples City, a Floridian watering place,
of from ten to fifty inhabitants, according to the season of the year,
where we had been staying at its comfortable little hotel. At Naples
there is an ancient waterway now in various stages of peat muck and
stagnant pool—an artificial canal, cut with the clearly deliberate pur-
pose of forming a canoe or boat pass from the sea to the lagoon or bay.

1 The department is edited by Henry C. Mercer, University of Penna , Phila.

PLATE XXXV.

Fro, 1.

Aboriginal wooden trencher and perforated shells discovered by Lieutenant
Colonel C. D. Durnford in a mud deposit near Marco, South-
western Florida, in April, 1895.

‘CEST [Udy ur ‘epuopg miajsoMy Nog ‘oreg vou yisodap pnu
B ur ‘paogunq ‘A ‘O PUO yuBuoynary Aq posoaoosip soouvuozindde pur jou ysy odos peurSuoqy
BL “OW

OOMVYW) varyots 453M Hines jysd WI ONNOJ animes
j ( 2 SDNYNVJYAIV «LIN Owisrd SHIdTING ONNOW

oom

a ee aa

bar
-
A aS

moe
<i ere samme

Ahi ia
aaron AP

toawers

Naanipa 0809
mirnim OMRON,
RELIEFE 320%

Go a bet ite att. er
SIHL 3NI SLING eo

TAXXX LLV Id

1895.] Anthropology. 1033

It is cut large and well for a distance of considerably over half a mile,
and is an undertaking so extensive that it would have been looked
‘upon as unreasonable to have credited the Mound-Builders with it,
were it not that there exist similar and longer canals formed, I believe
indisputedly, by these prehistoric people from their mounds to some
of the larger watercourses in the neighborhood of the Everglades.

The preservative properties of peat at home, and the family likeness
of this peat muck to the British article in its moister and more boggy
condition, made me very loth to forego an effort to find out the secrets
that I felt sure must be hidden at the bottom of the canal, and of its
adjacent peat basins. It was, however, far too extensive and difficult a
work to attempt under the circumstances, although various means of
doing so had been canvassed with the other guests of the hotel.

Archæological instinct having been aroused, an amateur exploring
expedition was accomplished to a curious cement-capped mound in the
neighborhood, of which more anon.

Mr. Charles Wilkins, of Rochester, N. Y., left me still at work at
this mound on the second morning, and went on to Marco in the hopes
of coming across tarpon there. Two days later he returned to Naples,
having made a find in a muck basin at Marco that excited our interest
greatly. The results of this find it will, perhaps, be out of place for
me to describe in detail here; suffice it to say that the articles con-
sisted of wooden cups, a carved head of an animal, conch cups and
conch clubs, with remains of their handles, and other most inter-
esting articles of wood, pottery and bone. He had been led into this
search, I believe, by a casual find of some kindred objects by one of
Mr. Collier’s people when getting “muck” for fertilizing purposes.
One of the wooden articles had remains of fire still on it, and the black
rubbed off upon the fingers as if it had been charred yesterday,
although it must have been done before 2 feet 6 inches of deposit had
formed over it, and a tree, a foot across, had grown and died above the
old fire-site.

I at once made preparations for going to Marco to try and add
further to this treasure-trove, and a few days afterwards my wife and
myself were off with a boatman for the long row south, within the reef,
through bay and canal with a strong tide which turns for or against at |
the most odd places and times, seemingly without reason, until one
learns the ways of this strange reason, and that all depends upon which
of the passes intersecting the outer reef, the particular canal or bayou is
ebbing or flowing through. A small bayou between two passes will
have the ebb tide running out of both its north and south channels at

1034 The American Naturalist. [ November,

the same time. Through miles of narrow waterways we row or are
rowed, waterways bordered by the green mangroves with oysters hang-
ing from their boughs, oysters grating against the boat’s bottom here
and there as the low tide made it difficult to pass through the canals cut
in the oyster bars between the different lagoons, bays, reaches, bayous,
lakes, channels, creeks, rivers, passes, as the lanes and sheets of brack-
ish and salt water are variously termed, according to their special size
and nature.

On our way we stayed for a few minutes at the rookery, an island
teeming with sea-birds and their nests. The latter were close together
on the mangroves, under which we rowed, for it was high tide and the
' roots were covered with salt water. We took some young cranes and
pelicans out of their nests and returned them ungrudgingly thereto
after they had bitten our fingers. So also I returned one of two eggs,
the inhabitant of which, a juvenile pelican, was in a sufficiently ad-
vanced stage of composition to squawk reproachfully at being shaken.

We arrived at Collier’s, Marco, at sunset, and the sandflies and
mosquitoes being in full charge, I did not examine the muck-bed until
next morning, when, with the aid of a “ smudge,” the smoke of which
was less objectionable than the sandflies, and a hat-net for the mosqui-
toes, we proceeded to work. The basin is an oval about 150 feet long
and 120 feet across (I write from memory), filled with peat muck, the
bottom a hard shell bed that the sounding-wire, when pushed through
the soil, struck each time in regular grade, giving, as far as I could tell
from the cursory trials that I made, an even saucer-like pool, formerly
filled with water, now with the peat muck deposits of centuries of
disuse, the flat surface of which is covered with grass and trees, young
and old, alive and dead. It is situated about 200 yards up from
Collier’s on the same bank of the creek, i. e., the right bank. All the
way up the creek rows of old oyster-shell banks or mounds are met with
at right angles to the creek and to the road by the creek side. They
have narrow openings, over which, at high tide there is, in one or two
cases, still a trickle of water. At other times the road is dry over
what used to be old canals or small side creeks, in which the canoes lay
when the old world people sorted their drafts of fishes, opened their
oysters or cooked their fish or

That thesé operations were habitually carried out here there is too
much evidence to doubt.

On the morning after our arrival, I obtained the services of two of
Mr. Collier’s employés to dig in the peat basin. The pits already made
by Mr. Wilkins were half filled with water, which percolates into all

1895.] Anthropology. 1035

of them a few hours after they are dug out. They average in size
about 4 feet 6 inches in length and 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet in width
and depth.

I decided to dig in the direction of the shore, that is, between the last
pit opened—from which we removed the water—and the nearest ex-
posed shell-bank, perhaps 20 feet away.

Hardly had two barrow-loads of the earth been taken out when the
finding and excitement, on my part, at least, began. One after another
they came, the first of importance being a wooden tray or trencher, the
rounded feel of which at first made us believe that we had found a
canoe, two spikes of a fish, etc.

The trencher (See Plate XX XV) (which, with other of the articles-
found, is now in the British Museum) is of wood, in shape oval, with
ends extended, squared and notched to form handles for the fingers to
grip more readily. It is hollowed out and was well made. Underneath
it is flattened, so that placed on a level surface it is capable of being
rocked lengthways only. It is in a good state of preservation. Its
length is 19 inches eee inches broad and 4 inches deep; in thick-
ness it varies from $ to ł of an inch.

One of the next articles that we came upon, also, I believe, unique,
was a curious funnel made of a clam-shell ; it is shown in the accom-
panying photograph (See Plate XXXV). It hada hole, about { of
an inch in.diameter, cut through its deepest portion, and there were
signs of some brown fluid having been poured through it. Small
pieces of black pottery and a small conch or two pierced for handles
and sharpened, were also discovered ; but the most curious of these old
remains was the fishing-net which lay close to the trencher and to the
other articles. It was well and evenly made, of about a 2-inch mesh,
netted with a two-strand cord, the strands being spun from some
vegetable fiber, perhaps cocanut or banana bark. Of this net, (See
Plate XXXVI) a specimen of which has been deposited at the
Museum of Archeology of the University of Pennsylvania, only a
small portion was obtained, and that, unfortunately, in a very rotten
condition, but a small piece of rope, an inch in diameter, of a coarser
fibre, the division between its prairie being interwound with a fine
cord, and a number of interest f the net were
also discovered. (See Plate XXXVI). These consisted of five wooden
sticks about 20 in. x 1 in. of irregular section, apparently made of the
central palm-leaf stem, heavy and strong ; their use is dificult to deter-
mine. There is no apparent mark of cords having been used in con-
nection with them. There were also about thirty pins, made of an

1036 The American Naturalist. [November,
exceedingly light, tapering, reedy wood, each about 94 inches long by
1 inch in diameter at their thickest end. They were fastened together
at one end—the thickest—at intervals of an inch, by a strong cord
about 7s of an inch in diameter. Each pin had a hole bored in it and
a groove cut round the head to receive the cord, which, passing through
the hole, was knotted after one turn and a half round the groove.
There are also two small plaques of thin wood about + of an inch thick,
quadrilateral in shape, the sides measuring severally 3% inches, 23
inches, 3 inches and 2% inches, the short equal sides making with the
longest equal interior angles. Of one of these plaques only half was
found, but they are evidently the same in design. The complete one
contained five holes about } inch in diameter; the three holes in the
incomplete one corresponded in position with the three in the same
part of the complete. The holes contain remains of cord which evi-
dently had run freely through them. (See Plate XXXVI).

Two round wooden billets, about 17 x3 inches, and one irregular
block, about 5 or 6 inches across in its thickest portion, completed the
appurtenances which seemingly form some kind of trapping arrange-
ment to the net. Everything was found resting on the shell bottom of
the “ basin,” and all nearly together. It seems to point to some sudden
desertion of the spot, whether from fear or for some hurried foraging
expedition or other reason. From whatever cause the place was left,
the party did not return, though certainly intending to do so, as wit-
ness the beauty of the cup conches found by Mr. Wilkins, and the
value of the nets and wooden articles, the condition of which, when
found, points to their having been left there in excellent order.

The net was certainly placed where it lay by man, for the five loose
sticks which served some unknown purpose were on the top of the
bunch of the thirty or so smaller pins, and lying as if placed there by
one hand hold. These smaller pins were piled in uncertain rows as to
number and position, all seemingly tied together and at one end only.
The idea that the whole position gave, was the arrival home of a fish-
ing canoe, the net with its appurtenances being taken out, the heavier
round billets (purpose unknown) first laid on the beach with the block
between or next them, the trapping arrangementsiof thirty pins placed
on the billets with the five sticks loose over the whole. The two small
plaques, probably part of the trapping arrangement also, were a short
distance above the main heap.

The net was placed joining the trapping-pins, but lower down the
beach, and the rope lower still, near them being the necklace of fish
fin-bones in a cup. Unfortunately, one of my assistants working in

1895,] Anthropology. 1037

the pit which I had cleared of water, broke through into the next one,
just as the rope was discovered, and the water poured in and flooded
both the one that had been freed, and the one that had just been
opened, and not being then sure of the nature of my find, I gave up
and left off at that point. I caused several other pits to be dug, but
with little result.

As I could learn of no similar ancient articles having been discov-
ered in this region, and as their nature, position and surroundings
pointed to the probability of their having belonged to some uncivilized
race who had inhabited this spot centuries ago, I preserved them as
well as I could, keeping them wet until I was able to show them to ex-
perts. At the University of Pennsylvania I was fortunate in meeting
not only Mr. Stewart Culin, but also Mr. Frank Hamilton Cushing,?
from whom I learnt the antiquity of these relics and the archzological
value of the discovery. Mr. Cushing, whose experience and knowledge
of these subjects is probably without parallel, considers them to be of
pre-Columbian origin, and as, under the direction of Dr. William Pep-
per, Mr. Cushing is, I hear, to undertake a further exploration, we will,
I hope, before long, be in possession of fuller information concerning
the race who made use of them.

I mentioned, in the earlier portion of this account, a curious cement-
capped mound which was partially examined by some of the tarpon
fishers at Naples. The mound had been for some time the subject of
discussion of the guides and hunters, and had created no small curios-
ity in the mind of at least one of the guests at the hotel.

This, as related by them, was the largest of three sandhills near
Sandhill Bay (lagoon), not far from little Marco. The hills (I write
from memory) are about a hundred yards apart, and joined by low
ridges in a slight curve. The story of the guides was roughly as fol-

ows:

The mound was the most easterly of the three, and was about 30 feet
above the sea level, perhaps the highest land between Naples and Cape
Sable, a distance of 50 miles, excepting one—Caximbas Mound, the
summit of which may be 40 feet above the sea. It lies about ten or
twelve miles from Naples and five or six from Marco, and having
water on two sides at a distance from its centre of about 70 or 80 yards
on one side, and, perhaps, 100 yards on the other. It had been opened

1 Director of the Dept. of Archeology and Paleontology of the University of
. Pennsylvania.

2? Ethnologist Smithsonian Institute, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washing-
ton, D. C.

1038 The American Naturalist. [November,

about two years before; first by two of the local hunters and guides,
including one of the Weeks brothers, who came afterwards with our
party, and again by one of the guides named Walker, who was also
with us. These told the same story, viz.: that it was covered in by a
regular “bottle” top of cement—hard stone cement—smoothed and
even on the inside at the point where the men had got through, which they
had accomplished at the summit. They found one skeleton which was
described as lying about 4 feet below the cement. The cement was said
to be more than a foot thick, and so hard that they could only cut
just enough away to allow the passage of a man. Below it was a soft,
fine, dry sand. They soon had to stop digging when they began piling
up this sand on the edge of the hole, as it came falling in again. They
did not get more than 4 or 5 feet below the cement, and found nothing
but this fine, soft sand ; in some parts it was “just the color of dripping
blood, so red, not ordinary sand red, but as if it had been painted red,
just like dripping blood,” so said Bill Weeks, one of the hunters. They
were looking for treasure, of course. This cement work and the blood-
red sand being quite out of the common, Dr. Durrett, of Louisville,
Ky., and myself, with a party of boatmen and hunters, therefore set
out one morning, prepared to cut more deeply into this mound, and
did so. We did not, by any means, fully explore it, but we cut into
and across the “cement” dome, and found the guides’ account to be
practically correct. The dome is composed of a gray-colored close-
binding mud. The blood-red sand or powder we did not come upon,
but it is quite possible that that found by the hunters was some of
the same hematite found by Professor Othniel Marsh in the Taylor
Mound near Newark, Ohio, and which he supposed to have been used
as paint. A description of this will be found in the American Journal
of Science and Arts, Vol. XLII, July, 1866.

The remains of the hunters’ former dig for treasure lay about the
mouth of the small man hole made by them through the cement, and
in clearing away these and the shrubs near, we came upon several of
the old and whitened bones that had been thrown out at that time, in-
cluding half an arm bone that had been splintered, apparently, by
some sharp weapon. Later on, the other half of the same bone, the
fractures fitting perfectly, was produced, yellow from the sand below
where it had been sheltered by the cement from all rain, except the
direct fall into the small man-hole.

I am writing this description of our partial examination of this
mound, solely on account of the curious, and, I believe, unique, rude
dome formed over, so far as we know at present, one skeleton buried in

1895.] ; Anthropology. 1039

soft sand. We found therein no relics except these bones, which were
in good preservation. The base of the cement dome rests on a ring of
shells—chiefly oyster shells—evidently placed there to receive it, about
60 feet in circumference, 6 inches deep, and 18 inches across. The
ring was laid upon sand. Rather above the level of this ring and in
the centre, had been placed the body, and apparently over this had
been made a rounded hill of fine sand, and again over this had been
plastered the layer of light slate-gray mud, which, whatever had been
the intention of the depositors, now remains as a waterproof, solid, self-
supporting dome, about 15 to 18 inches thick, and 20 feet or so across,
and perhaps 5 or 6 feet high. It defied a spade or ordinary hoe, re-
quiring a grubbing-hoe and, in places, a crow-bar to pierce it.

On my return the second day in company with Mr. Wilkins, who
remained a short time—Mr. Durrett, who had camped near the spot,
having left earlier in the morning after completing the cutting across
through the north side—I laid bare the whole inner base of one side of
the dome; the sole result was the verification of the fact that the dome
was evenly formed interiorly, and rested on the evenly formed shell-
ring.

I am personally of opinion that the hardening quality of this slate
mud was understood and deliberately utilized by these people. Floors
of prehistoric huts and other buildings are said to exist in the neigh-
borhood, formed of the same material, and a piece of the cement car-
ried away by myself has hardened perceptibly since its exposure to the
air. Itis difficult to conceive of an observant people, who were also capa-
ble of making very fair pottery, not knowing or noticing this property
of a material used by themselves in such a position. It has, however,
been suggested, and, though not agreeing with the suggestion, I give it
as a possibility, that the cement-forming capabilities of this gray mud
were not understood by the builders, and that it was not intentionally
employed to this end, but was simply mud from the nearest lagoon,
placed over the sand-heap to prevent the sand from blowing away, and
laying bare the remains. This hypothesis is based upon the uneven
quality of the cement cover—that next the northern lagoon being
softer and coarser than that next the south. Further enlightenment
will probably be thrown upon this question also by the expedition which
Dr. William Pepper is sending to Florida in the coming autumn.

—C. D. Durnrorp.

1040 The American Naturalist. ` [November,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Louis Pasteur was born at Dôle in the Jura region on Dec. 27,
1822. His father, a journeyman tanner, was poor, but he was a soldier
who had been decorated for his valor on the field, and it is supposed
that from him the famous man of science imbibed the patriotism which
has always been one of his striking characteristics. His father super“
intended personally his early education, and the boy was sent to school
at Arbois and began his classical studiesthere. It is said that in those
days his devotion to study was not great. He was fond then of draw-
ing, and preferred sketching his neighbors to spending time over his
books, and this inclination seemed so strong that it was predicted he
would ultimately become an artist. But the capacity for work which
developed so strongly later asserted itself when he began to study at
the college of Besancon. He took the degree of Bachelor of Letters
there, was appointed a tutor, and in the intervals of his duties he
studied to prepare himself for the Ecole Normale. On his first exam-
ination he was admitted, having passed fourteenth on the list of candi-
dates.

But this did not satisfy his ambition. He went to Paris, started on
a new course of study in the Institution Barbet, and in 1845 tried the
examination for a second time and won fourth place. He spent two
years at the Ecole in the study of chemistry, and was appointed a doc-
tor in 1847. The following year he was appointed a professor of phy-
sics in the college at Dijon, and three months later was called to the
Dniversity of Strassburg, where he was appointed professor of physics
in the Faculty of Sciences. In 1854 he accomplished the organization
of the newly formed Faculty of Sciences at Lille, and three years after-
ward he returned to Paris and assumed the “ direction of the scientific
studies” at the Ecole Normale.

In 1865 he was made a professor of geology, physics, and chemistry,
at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and in 1867, professor of chemistry at
the Sorbonne, and he remained here until 1875. He was elected a
member of the Academy of Sciences in 1862, and six years later, the
faculty of medicine at Bonn gave him the title of Doctor, but he re-
turned the diploma on account of the Franco-German war. In 1869
he was made a foreign member of the Royal Society of London, and in
1881 a member of the French Academy. The University of Oxford
conferred on him the title of Doctor of Sciences, and he was made,

1895.] Scientific News. 1041

unanimously, a perpetual Secretary of the Academy of Sciences to re-
place Vulpian, who died in 1887; but the state of his health and his
personal scientific researches did not allow him to assume the duties of
the position. He resigned after two years, and was made an honorary
perpetual Secretary.

He has received almost every distinction that the French Govern-
ment could give him. By a decree of Napoleon III, not promulgated,
he was made a Senator, and in 1885 became a member of the Legion
of Honor, in which he was steadily promoted to the highest rank.

M. Pasteur began his well-known series of investigations with the
study of crystals while he was an assistant in the Ecole Normale. He
had no allowance for the expenses of his studies, and so he worked in
a laboratory of his own with no funds except what was supplied by his
own slender resources. His success in this particular branch of inquiry
was regarded as remarkable for so young a man, and it was only
through the force of circumstances that his labors were led into another
direction.

He began the study of fermentation when he became connected with
the Faculty of Sciences at Lille. It was a subject little understood at
that time, and he speedily succeeded in bringing the scientific men of
France to agree with his conclusions.

In 1849 an epidemic threatened to destroy the entire silk worm ine
dustry of France. Pasteur went to Alais where the plague was raging
in its worst form to see what scientific measures could be taken to abate
it. His investigations there proved that the disease was contagious,
and the simple method suggested by Pasteur to separate the diseased
eggs from the healthy ones has since been adopted to prevent a recur-
rence of the epidemic.

The discoveries which were to make him best known were yet to fol-
low. In 1870 he commenced his studies in inoculation for diseases
other than small-pox, with which his name is most associated. He
achieved some remarkable results in the prevention of hydrophobia.
Patients from all parts of Europe and America travelled to Paris to put
themselves under his care, and his treatment has long been given at
Pasteur institutes established in London and New York.

The cholera epidemic of 1892 led him to begin experiments in anti-
cholera vaccination which proved successful in the case of animals.

Pasteur was one of the greatest men of science of the present century,
but in one respect he disappointed his admirers. His refusal to
accept recognition from Germany appears to have been a mistake.
Science is cosmopolitan, and the attempt to localize its rewards is incon-
sistent with the spirit of the age. 71

1042 The American Naturalist. [November,

Marshall McDonald.—To his many friends, to the public hav-
ing an interest in the fisheries which he labored so successfully to en-
rich, and to the biologists whose scientific labors he appreciated and
utilized, the death of Colonel Marshall McDonald, the late U.S. Fish
Commissioner, is a severe loss.

Though the work in which he was directly engaged in his official
capacity was of an eminently practical nature, he early recognized that
science was the ally of practice, or rather that the best practice is
science, and sought in the working biologist his most helpful colaborer
whom he always urged to turn to the solution of the problems which
he had ever before him.

With Col. McDonald pisciculture in this country was fast advancing
to the secure foundations of scientific method now enjoyed to a consid-
erable degree by its sister art, agriculture. His method was not to
experiment at hap-hazard in the hope of making a lucky hit that
might solve the problem at hand, but by the most painstaking investi-
gation to study the fisheries in their widest relations, to build up a firm
basis of facts scientifically acquired, and from these to draw conclu-
sions which were as practical as they were far-reaching and accurate.
This method was necessarily as slow as its results are enduring, and we
have yet to see the full fruition of his labors. As a consequence the
work has met with the usual criticism from impatient persons of cir-
cumscribed view, who would measure the value of the Fish Commis-
sion’s labors only by the number of young fry annually raised, or
supposed to have been raised, failing to recognize the practical fact,
which alone will appeal in such cases, that many of the methods and
apparatus now generally employed in local hatcheries have resulted
from the careful scientific inquiry conducted under Col. McDonald’s
direction, and without which the highly gratifying and useful results
attained would not now be possible.

One of the last important works of Col. McDonald’s life was to plan
a biological and physical survey of far greater thoroughness than any
previously undertaken. He was convinced that the first step toward
a comprehensive knowledge of the conditions of greatest productiveness
of the fisheries is an understanding of the primary food supply—the
“aquatic pasturage,” he called it. This he hoped to gain by an
accurate qualitative and quantitative analysis of the unicellular plank-
ton and littoral life, which, in turn, involves the chemico-biological and
physico-biological questions concerning the ultimate relation existing
between land waste and sea utilization, and incidentally a study of the
life-histories and interrelations of myriads of animals and plants.

1895.] Scientific News. 1043

While busily engaged in thus establishing the foundations for the
pisciculture of the future, he was ever alert to secure methods of
immediate practical utility, and searched the scientific literature for
facts and suggestions, and it was thus often through him that import-
ant biological work, which had else been barren of practical results,
became the basis of inventions of much economic importance. His
mechanical ingenuity was remarkable, as his numerous inventions of
apparatus will testify; nor until ill-health forced him to relax his
efforts did he neglect the minutest details of construction.

It is, of course, impossible, in such a short sketch, to give any ade-
quate idea of the scope and importance of Col. McDonald’s work, com-
pleted or contemplated, but I am sure that all who have a scientific
grasp of the questions involved in the labors of the U. S. Fish Com-
mission toward the maintainance and betterment of our extensive
fisheries will feel the immense loss which these interests have sustained
in the death of Col. McDonald, especially following so shortly upon
that of his lamented co-worker and frequent scientific adviser, Dr. John
A. Ryder. eG

Col. McDonald was born in Romney, Hamshire Co., W. Va., Oct?
18, 1836. His early education was had at a local academy. He
entered the Virginia Military Institute in 1855 and graduated in 1860,
having interrupted his course to attend the University of Virginia
during the college year of 1858-59. After graduation he was appointed
assistant at the Institute to Prof. “Stonewall” Jackson, serving until
the outbreak of the war, when he was appointed Inspector-General on
that General’s staff. He saw much active service, particularly while
serving as an officer of the Engineer Corps. From 1866 to 1879 he
was a professor at his alma mater, occupying the chair of chemistry,
geology and mineralogy, and later that of geology and mining engineer-
ing. He served as Commissioner of Fisheries of Virginia from 1875
to 1888, when he was appointed U. S. Commissioner by President
Cleveland, to succeed Dr. G. Brown Goode, who had temporarily filled
the position left vacant by the death of Prof. Baird. Col. MeDonald
had previously held responsible positions in the U.S. Fish Commission
under Prof. Baird, first, in 1879, as special agent on the fisheries statis-
tics for the Tenth Census, then as superintendent of the shad hatcheries
of the Potomac River, and subsequently as chief of the Division of
Distribution of Food-fishes. He died Sept. 1, 1895.

7 —J. Percy Moore.

Luigi Ferri, Professor of Philosophy in the University of Rome,
Italy, died in Rome, March 17,1895. He was born in Bologna in 1826,

1044 The American Naturalist. [November,

was educated in France under Suisset and Simon, among his fellow
pupils being E. Curo and Paul Janet. In 1862 he was made
Professor of the History of Philosophy in the University of Flor-
ence and remained there until 1871, when he assumed the title of Pro-
fessor of Theoretical Philosophy at Rome. His most important works
were “ Histoire de la Philosophie en Italie au XIX” siècle,” 1869, and
“ Psychologie de l’Association de Hobbes à nos joués,” but he was best
known as the editor of Italy’s chief philosophical journal, the “ Revista
Italiana di Filosofia.”

Charles Secrétan, a pupil of the philosopher Schelling and for many
years Professor of Philosophy in the University of Lausanne, died Jan-
uary 22, 1895

G. G. Glogan, Professor in the University of Kiel and author of
many psychological and philosophical works, died early in this year.

Dr. D. Hack Tuke, the distinguished alienist, author of many works
on psychological medicine, died in London March 5, 1895.

Georg von Gicycki, Associate Professor of Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Berlin, died March 4, 1895, at the age of 46. Professor von
Gicycki was the leader of the Utilitarian school in Germany, was a
warm personal friend of Felix Adler and Stanton Coit and was much
interested in the introduction of the “ Ethical Culture ” movement into
Germany. His most important work appeared in 1888 under the title
“ Moral philosophie.”

Appointments of the past year. Professor O. Kiilps, who has
been one of Wundt’s assistants at Leipzig has gone to the University
of Würzburg.

Dr. S. Mezes, a graduate of Harvard, has been Appin Professor
of Philosophy in the University of Texas.

Dr. Margaret Washburn to be Professor of Philosophy and Psychol-
ogy at Wells College.
W. B. Elkin to be Professor of Philosophy in Colgate University.

A. H. Lloyd to be Assistant Professor of Philosophy, and J. Bigham
Ph. D. (Harvard) and Geo. Rebec Ph. B. mee Instructors in Philoso-
phy in the University of Michigan.

' J. S. Mackenzie M. A. to be Professor of Bkini | in University
College, Cardiff, Wales.

1895.] Scientific News. 1045

W. L. Bryan Ph. D. (Clarke) to be Professor of Philosophy and —
Vice-President, University of Indiana. Dr. John A. Bergstrom to be
Assistant Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy; E. H. Lindley to
be Instructor in Philosophy.

Warner Fite Ph. D. (Penna.) to be Instructor in Philosophy, Wil-
liams College.

J. H. Hyslop Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins) to be Professor of Logic and
Ethics, Columbia College

Dr. J. Allen Gilbert of Yale to be Assistant Professor of Psychology
in the University of Iowa.

Drs. E. B. Titchenor and J. E. Creighton have been made full Pro-
fessors in the Sage School of Philosophy at Cornell.

Dr. Hillebrand has been made Assistant Professor of Experimental
Psychology in the University of Vienna.

Dr. Hugo Miinsterberg, Professor of Experimental Psychology in
Harvard University for the past three years, has returned to Germany.
He has not yet decided whether he will make his home permanently in
the United States or in Germany.

Report of the Committee Appointed by the Smithsonian
Institution to Award the Hodgkins Fund Prizes.—The Com-
mittee of Award for the Hodgkins prizes of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion has completed its examination of the two hundred and eighteen
papers submitted in competition by contestants.

The Committee is composed of the following members

Dr. S. P. Langley, Chairman, ex-officio; Dr. G. Brown Goode, ap-
pointed by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution; Assistant
Surgeon-General John S. Billings, by the President of the National
Academy of Sciences ; Professor M. W. Harrington, by the President
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

The Foreign Advisory Committee, as first constituted, was repre-
sented by Monsieur J. Jansen, Professor T. H. Huxley, and Professor
von Helmholtz; and after the recent loss of the latter, Dr. W. von
Bezold was added. After consultation with these eminent men, the
Committee decided as follows:

First prize, of ten thousand dollars, for a treatise embodying some
new and important discoveries in regard to the nature or properties
of atmospheric air, to Lord Rayleigh, of London, and Professor Wm.
Ramsay, of the University College, London, for the discovery of
Argon, a new element of the atmosphere.

1046 The American Naturalist. [November,

The second prize, of two thousand dollars, is not awarded, owing to
' the failure of any contestant to comply strictly with the terms of the
offer.

The third prize, of one thousand dollars, to Dr. Henry de Varigny,
of Paris, for the best popular treatise upon atmospheric air, its proper-
ties and relationships. Dr. de Varginy’s essay is entitled “ L’Air et la
Vie.”

August 9, 1895. (Signed) 8. P. LANGLEY,

G. Brown GOODE,
Joun S. BrLLINGS,
M. W. HARRINGTON.

“ Post-Darwinian Questions,” the second part of the late Prof. George
J. Romanes work, “ Darwin, and After Darwin,” is announced
for publication by the Open Court Publishing Company, of Chicago, on
October 15th next. With the exception of the concluding chapters,-
the present volume was ready for publication over two years ago, but
the severe and protracted illness of Professor Romanes prevented its
speedy completion. On his death, in 1894, the manuscript was placed
in the hands of his friend, Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan, the distinguished
biologist and Principal of University College, Bristol, England, who
has successfully edited the work. This volume, with the first on “ The
Darwinian Theory,” and the booklet on “ Weismannism,” constitutes,
in the opinion of all competent critics, the most complete and authori-
tative general treatise on evolution in the English language. (Pages,
334. Price, $1.50.)

The same publishing house has also recently issued a second edition
of Professor Romanes “ Thoughts on Religion,” declared, by a promi-
nent writer in the Chicago Tribune, to be “ one of the most valuable
books the century has produced.” (Pages, 184. Price, $1.25.)

The Open Court Publishing Co., of Chicago, will issue, late in Octo-
ber, one of the most important books on the theory of evolution which
America, perhaps, has yet produced. Its author is Prof. E. D. Cope,
of Philadelphia, a well-known representative of the Neo-Lamarckian
school of America, and represents the opposite extreme to Weismann-
ism in evolution. In this book, which is entitled ‘‘ The Primary Factors
of Organic Evolution,” Professor Cope will seek to show, principally
by an examination of the paleontological records (in which he has done
his main original work), and secondarily by a review of the general
results of embryology and comparative anatomy, what the efficient
causes are that are concerned in the progressive development and per-

1895.] Scientific News. 1047

fection of the organic forms of the world. One of the most note.
worthy features of the book will be Professor Cope’s attempt to show
that every variation of organic beings has been produced by a direct
efficient cause, and is not the result of chance—a consideration which
Darwin overlooked. , Professor Cope also discusses the part which
consciousness has played in the evolution of living forms. His book
will be a storehouse of evolutionary facts and discussions, especially
from the paleontological point of view and undoubtedly the most
complete handbook of the purely mechanical theory of evolution which
exists. The original illustrations will be numerous and valuable.
(Pages, circa 550. Price, $2.00.)

Course in Embryology.—Professor Charles S. Minot will give,
at the Harvard Medical School, Boston, a course intended for persons
who wish to make a special study of vertebrate or human embryology.
This course is open to registered students of the graduate department
of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, and will be offered hereafter also
as a special course to graduate students of the medical school.

This course will extend through the entire year, but in two parts of
one term each. The resources of the Embryological Laboratory in
apparatus and material render it possible to offer unusually favorable
opportunities for both general study and special research. ‘The course
is arranged for those who, as morphologists, anatomists and practition-
ers, wish to give the principal part of their time for one or more school
terms to the subject. It will cover the whole field of embryology, in-
cluding the genital products, the theories of heredity and sex, the
formation of the germ-layers, differentiation of the organs, the history
of the placenta and the general morphology of vertebrates and of man.
Most of the work will be done by the student in the laboratory, but
there will also be formal lectures. Students taking this course will be
expected to devote to it not less than eighteen hours a week.

Persons wishing to take this course should enter the university as
graduate students under the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, but those
who have a medical degree may enter as graduate students of the med-
ical school. In the latter case, the fee for one term is $75.00, for two
terms $125.00.

Applications should be addressed to Dr. Charles S. Minot, Harvard
Medical School, Boston, Mass.

Prizes of the Belgian Academy of Sciences, Letters and
Fine Arts.—The following announcement in regard to the prizes
offered by the Academie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-

1048 The American Naturalist. [November,

Arts de Belgique has recently been made. In Natural Science the sub-
jects for discussion are: (1). Original researches on the intervention
of the phagocytesin the development of the invertebrates. (2). A de-
scription of the phosphates and carbonates of Belgian soil. The de-
scription must include the strata and locality of each mineral to which
the writer refer. (8). Original researches concerning the peripheral
nervous system of the Amphioxus, and, in particular, the constitution
and genesis of the roots of the sensory nerves. (4). Original researches
concerning the mechanism of the cicatrization of plants.

The prize for each of the four divisions will be a gold medal, valued
at six hundred francs.

The memoirs must be written legibly, either in French or Flemish,
and addressed post-paid to M. le secretaire perpétual, au palais des
Académies, before the first of August, 1896.

The Academy insists upon exact citations; the authors must give
the editions and pages of the works cited. Only manuscript copy will
be accepted.

The competitors are requested not to use a pseudonym, but to adopt
a device, which must be repeated on a card containing the name and
address of the author and sent with the manuscript in a sealed envelope
A prize cannot be awarded to any one who fails to comply with this
formality.

All memoirs sent after the limit of time has expired, or those whose
authorship is made known in any way whatever, are excluded from
the competition.

The Academy reminds the competitors that when the memoirs are
submitted for judgment, they must remain among its archives. How-
ever, the authors may have copies made at their own expense, by
addressing a note to that effect to the permanent secretary.

The Jean Servais Stas prize is in the form of one thousand francs, to
be awarded to the best work on the following subject :

To determine, by original research, the atomic ide a of one or more
elements for which the physical constant is now uncertai

e memoirs must be legibly written in French or Flemish, They
must be addressed, post-paid, to M. le secrétaire perpétual, au palais des
Académies, before the first of August, 1896.

The competitors will, in other respects, conform with the usual con-

ditions of the annual contest.

ADVERTISEMENTS, i

Rare U. S. Reptiles | and
Batrachians in Alcohol.

Amphiuma, Alive and Prepared.
Live Frogs, Etc., for Class Work.

EMBRYOLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Mammals, Birds and Fishes, —Skins and Alcoholics.

H. H. &C. S. BRIMLEY,

RALEIGH, N. C.

The Entomologist’s Record and Journal of Variation

. E. S., London, England.

Subscription 7s, per volume ree a sue Index of every name used
> earm Send Post free.

au fait with the advance of science. The ep of Philosoptiical and
Biological questions relating to insects is made a special feature as is also the
saa “a their variation.
onthly critiques of the articles in the leading German and American
OR magazines. monthly summary of the scientific progress made
y the wcieties. Current notes on entomological science from all parts of the
world. Practical Hints for collectors, as to breeding, capturing and preserving
insects.
Subscriptions for the current volume 7p, should be sent by all elotaiain
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mee: :—ALFRED ALLEN, Bath, Eng.

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SSOCIATE 5. STEVENSON BROWN, Pendant, s Montreal Micro Soc., Montreal, Canada.
EpiToRS : | FILANDRO VICENTINI, M. D., Chieti, Italy.

Contains articles by Specialists in every department of Microscopy, Botany,
eology, Zoology, and Natural Science, Reviews of New Books, etc.
lustrated with Plates, Wood engravings, ete.

Portion of the Contents for January, 1895.

The Denizens of an Old Cherry Tree with Notes of its Surroundings. (2 Plates.)

C. J. Watkins.

The Development of the Tee Theory. pens S Browne, F. R. C. S.

Technology of the Diatomaceæ. J. Tem

Preda aceous and Parasitic Enemies of pryk Including a Study of Hyper- gro (2 A Vine)
m Du-t to Dust: A Cycle of Life. (1 Plate.) J. Sydney Turner, M. R. A 4 EuS.

Das to the Members of the Bath Ae Eng.) Microscopical Society. Rev. E. T. Stubbs.

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PLASTER CASTS OF THE FOLLOWING MAMMALIA

with dentition in good secll cxiicon made under direction of
Professor E. D. Cope may be had by application to Jacob
Geisman, 2102 Pine St., Philadelphia.

Phenacodus primaevus Cope, (Wyoming) $100.00. Æy-
vacothertum venticolum Cope, (Wyoming) $50.00. Protohippus
micabilis Leidy, skull $7.00. Protohippus pachyops Cope, skulls
of adult and young, and P. fossulatus Cope, skull, $5.00 each.
Tetrabelodon shepardii Leidy, mandibular ramus and symphysis
with two molars, $20.00. Dzdbelodon tropicus Cope, do., $15.00 ;
Mastodon precursor Cope, last molar $5.00. _ The horses and

‘nastodons from the Cenozoic beds of Texas, are uncolored

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Vol. XXIX. DECEMBER, 1895. 348
CONTENTS:

PAGE PAGE »
‘SARGENT’s STUDIES OF THE FORESTS OF JAPAN. of Eusmilus, a Genus of Sabre-toothed Cats
S Chartes E; Bessey. 1049 New to North pea ca. z

THE BIRDS of NEW GUINEA. (MISCEL gash, Botany.—The e Propisibiaas. , 1093

(Continued from. p. 636). fead. 1056 Vegetable Phenol A Mantilake on- Para
THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA ON heliotropism—Chalazogamy in /uglans regia. 1100”
LARvaL CHARACTERS. (Tllustrated). Zoology—Variation in Haficystus ocloradia

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vout. XXIX. December, 1895. 348

SARGENT’S STUDIES OF THE FORESTS OF JAPAN.
By CHARLES E. Bessey.

Within a few years we have had a most valuable contribu-
tion to our knowledge of the forest trees of Japan from the
hand of Professor Charles S. Sargent, who first published a
series of papers in Garden and Forest, now collected into a vol-
ume entitled the “ Forest Flora of Japan.” Some of the re-
sults of these studies are so at variance with the common state-
ments in papers and books on the geographical distribution of
plants as to be quite startling. Thus it is shown that many
of the trees usually regarded as Japanese are not actually na-
tives of the islands, but have been introduced from China and
other adjacent regions. In discussing this point, reference is
made to Dr. Gray’s paper on “ Forest Geography and Arche-
ology,” in which it was shown that Japan is remarkable for
the number of species of its forest trees (one hundred and
sixty-eight).

“In the Japanese enumeration were included, however, a
number of trees which are not indigenous to Japan, but which,
as we know, were long ago brought into the Empire from
China and Corea, like most of the plants cultivated by the

1050 The American Naturalist. [December,

Japanese. Early European travellers in Japan, like Thun-
berg and Siebold, who were unable to penetrate far into the
interior, finding a number of plants common in cultivation,
naturally believed them to be indigenous, and several Chinese
plants were first described from individuals cultivated in
Japanese gardens. ` Later writers on the Japanese flora have
generally followed the example of the early travellers, and in-
cluded these plants in the flora of Japan. Indeed, it is only
very recently that it has been possible to travel freely in all
parts of the Empire, and to study satisfactorily the character
and distribution of its flora.”

“The list of Chinese and Corean trees cultivated in Japan,
and usually enumerated in floras of the Empire, includes
Magnolia conspicua, Magnolia parviflora, Magnolia watsonii, Ster-
culia platanifolia, Cedrela sinensis, Zizyphus vulgaris, Koelreuteria
paniculata, Sapindus mukorosi, Acer trifidum, Rhus vernicifera,
Sophora japonica, Liquidambar formosana (maximowiczii), Cornus
officinalis, Diospyros kaki, and probably Diospyros lotus, Chio-
nanthus retusa, Paulownia imperialis, Catalpa ovata, ` Lindera
_strychnifolia, Ulmus parvifolia, Thuya orientalis, Gingko biloba,
Podocarpus nageia, Podocarpus macrophylla and Pinus koraien-
sis.”

In comparing the forests of Japan with those of other
countries, after deducting the foregoing, it is still found that
“the Japanese region for its area is unsurpassed in the num-
ber of trees which inhabit its forests.” Comparing the Japan-
ese forests with those of eastern North America, there are 139
species in 53 genera in the former, and 155 species in 66
genera in the latter. If now we take larger areas in each re-
gion, the comparison is equally instructive.

“In eastern North America, that is, in the whole region
north of Mexico and east of the treeless plateau of the centre
of the Continent, but exclusive of south Florida, 225 species of
trees, divided among 134 genera, are now known. The Japan-
Manchurian region includes. eastern Manchuria, the Kurile
Islands, Saghalin, and the four great Japanese islands, but, for
our purpose, does not. include the Loochoo group, which,
_ although it forms a part of the Japanese Empire politically, is

1895.] Sargent's Studies of ine Forests of Japan. 1051

tropical and subtropical in the character of its vegetation,

which, moreover, is still imperfectly understood. In this nar-
row eastern border of Asia, there are now known 241 trees,
divided among 99 genera. The extra Japanese portion of the
region contributes but little to the enumeration. In Saghalin,
Fr. Schmidt found only three trees which do not inhabit Yezo,
and in Manchuria, according to Maximowicz and Schmidt,
there are only eighteen trees which do not also occur in Sag-
halin or the northern Japanese islands. In the four islands of
Yezo, Hondo, Shikoku, and Kyūshū, therefore, we now find
220 trees divided among ninety-nine genera, or only five less
than occur in the immense territory which extends from
Labrador to the Rio Grande, and from the shores of the Atlan-
tic to the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains. Neither Cycas
revoluta nor Trachycarpus (Chamaerops) excelsa is included in
the Japanese list, as the best observers appear to agree in
thinking that these two familiar plants.are not indigenous to
Japan proper. I. have omitted, moreover, a few doubtful
species from the Japan enumeration, like Fayus japonica Maxi-
mowicz and Abies umbellata Mayr, of which I could learn
nothing in Japan,so that it is more probable that the number
of Japanese trees will be increased than that any addition will
be made to the silva of eastern America.”

That the moist and equable climate of Japan is favorable to
the growth of woody plants, is shown by the fact that very
nearly ten per cent. of the species of Anthophytes and Pteri-
dophytes are trees. If we consider the shrubs also, the propor-
tion of ligneous species is still more remarkable, being almost
exactly twenty-two per cent.

“The aggregation of arborescent species in Japan is, how-
ever, the most striking feature in the silva of that country.
This is most noticeable in Yezo, where probably more species
of trees are growing naturally in a small area than in any
other one place outside the tropics, with the exception of the
_lower basin of the Ohio River, where, on a few acres in south-
ern Indiana, Professor Robert Ridgway has counted no less
than seventy-five in thirty-six genera. Near
Sapporo, the capital of the island, in ascending a hill which

1052 The American Naturalist. [December,

rises only 500 feet above the level of the ocean, I noticed forty-
six species and varieties of trees, Within five miles of this hill
also grow sixty-two species and varieties, or more than a
quarter of all the trees of the Empire, which are crowded into
an area a few miles square, in the latitude of northern New
England, in which, north of Cape Cod, there are only about
the same number of trees.”

Upon the question of the similarity of the flora of Japan to
that of eastern North America, Professor Sargent makes a full
discussion, and it is not too much to say that it will compel a
change in some of the prevalent notions as to the vegetation of
these regions.

“Travellers in Japan have often insisted on the resemblance
between that country and eastern America in the general fea-
tures of vegetation. But, with the exception of Yezo, which is
still mostly uninhabited and in a state of nature, and those
portions of the other islands which are over 5,000 feet above
the level of the ocean, it is difficult to form a sufficiently ac-
curate idea of the general appearance of the original forest-
covering of Japan to be able to compare the aspects of its vege-
tation with those of any other country, for every foot of the
lowlands and mountain valleys of the three southern islands
has been cultivated for centuries. And the foothills and low
mountains which were once clothed with forests, and could be
again, are now covered with coarse herbage, principally Eula-
lia, and are destitute of trees, except such as have sprung up
in sheltered ravines, and have succeeded in escaping the fires
which are set every year to burn off the dry grasses. Remote-
ness, bad roads, and the impossibility of bringing down their
timber into the valleys, have saved the mountain forests of
Japan, which may still be seen, especially between 5,000 and
8,000 feet above the level of the sea, in their natural condition.
But these elevated forests are composed of comparatively few
species, and if it were not for the plantations of conifers, which
the Japanese for at least twelve centuries, it is said, have been
making to supply their workers in wood with material, and
for the trees preserved or planted in the temple grounds in the
neighborhood of towns, it would be impossible to obtain any

1895.] Sargent’s Studies of the Forests of Japan. 1053

idea at all of many of the Japanese trees. But, fortunately,
for nearly two thousand years the priests of Buddha have
planted and replanted trees about their temples, which are
often surrounded by what now appear to be natural woods, as
no tree is ever cut and no attempt is made to clear up the un-
dergrowth. These groves are sometimes of considerable extent,
and contain noble trees, Japanese and Chinese, which give
some idea of what the inhabitants of the forests of Japan were
before the land was cleared for agriculture.

The floras of Japan and eastern America have, it is true,
some curious features in common, and the presence in the two
regions of certain types not found elsewhere shows their rela-
tionship. But these plants are usually small, and are rare or
grow only on the high mountains. Diphylleia, Buckleya,
Epigaea, and Shortia show the common origin of the two
floras; but these are rare plants in Japan, as they are in
America, with the exception of Epigaea, and probably not one
traveller in ten thousand has ever seen them, while the chief
elements of the forest flora of northern Japan, the only part of
the Empire where, as has already been said, comparison is
possible—those which all travellers notice—do not recall
America so much, perhaps, as they do Siberia and Europe.”

On making a close comparison of the forests of Japan and
eastern North America, it is found that in the former region
there is no Black Oak, Chestnut Oak, Tulip-tree, Pawpaw, Gor-
donia, Plum-tree, Locust, Gymnocladus, Liquidambar, Tupelo,
Osage Orange, Sassafrass, Plane-tree or Hickory. Moreover,
in many instances where a genus has representatives in both
regions, the species are rather of the European than the North
American type. The Japanese forests contain species of many
genera which have no North American representatives, as
Euptelea, Cercidiphyllum, Trochodendron, Idesia, Ternstroe-
mia, Cleyera, Eurya, Camellia, Phellodendron, Hovenia,
Euscaphis, Maackia, Albizzia, Distylium, Acanthopanax,
Syringa, Cinnamomum, Machilus, Actinodaphne, ete., ete.
Magnolia and Aesculus occur in both regions, as also Rhus,
Hamamelis, Aralia, Cornus, Juglans, Thuya, Chamæcyparis,
Picea, Abies and Tumion (Torreya).

1054 The American Naturalist. [December,

Other interesting comparisons are made by Professor Sar-
gent showing that in other ways the forests of the two regions
are quite unlike, as in the greater number of broad-leaved
evergreen trees and shrubs in Japan, the small number of
pines, and more striking still, the dense bamboo undergrowth
which covers the forest floor, even on the mountains and in
the extreme north.

Of the studies of the families of forest trees taken up by the
author, it is impossible here to give more than a brief outline,
and the reader must be referred to the work itself for the de-
tails. Of the Magnolia family there are, in Japan, five genera,
while in the United States there are but four; nor are there
any evergreen species of the genus Magnolia, resembling those
of our southern States. In this family the most important tree
is the Cereidiphyllum japonicum, which is said to be the largest
tree in Japan. It is often one hundred feet high, and its
usually clustered stems are often eight or ten feet in diameter
at their common base.

Of Ilex latifolia, one of the eight arboreal species of hollies,
Professor Sargent says that it is “probably the handsomest
broad-leaved evergreen tree that grows in the forests of Japan,
not only on account of its brillant, abundant fruit, but also on
account of the size and character of its foliage.” We are told
that it will certainly succeed in our southern States, and may
be hardy as far north as Washington.

There are twenty species of Japanese Maples, more. than
twice as many as occur in North America. Two of these be-
long to the section Negundo. In marked contrast to the
Maple family is the Pea family, represented by but three
arborescent species, viz.: Albizzia julibrissin, Maackia amurensis
and Gleditschia japonica ; the latter closely resembles our Honey
Locust, even to the appearance of the branches, which are
“horribly armed with flattened spines, two or three inches in
length.” Fraxinus manchurica, the Japanese Ash, attains a
height of one hundred feet, with a diameter of from three to
four feet. It has been grown for many years in the Arnold
Arboretum, where it is quite hardy. The Japanese Elms are
of minor importance, the principal species being identical with

1895.] Sargent’s Studies of the Forests of Japan. 1055

the Elm of Europe (Ulmus campestris), although of much
smaller growth. Related to the Elm is the Zelkova, “ perhaps
the largest deciduous-leaved tree of Japan,” as well as “its
most valuable timber tree.” It attains a height of one hun-
dred feet, and a diameter of eight to ten feet. The best known
of the Japanese Oaks is Quercus dentata, a tall but irregular
tree, “remarkable for the great size of its leaves, which are
often a foot. long and eight inches broad.” Quercus crispula
and Quercus grosseserrata are excellent timber trees, eighty to a
hundred feet in height, with a diameter of three to four feet.
The Chestnut and Beech are identical specifically with the
European trees, but show varietal differences, the former being
a more precocious tree, often bearing fruit when but ten or
twelve feet in height. Professor Sargent suggests this tree for
introduction into the northern United States.

Japan is richer than eastern North America in conifers,
and they “are more planted for shade and ornament than
they are in America, or, perhaps, in any other country.” The
great number of Japanese conifers prevents more than a mere
mention in this paper of the most important species. Chamæ-
cyparis obtusa and Cryptomeria japonica are largely planted as
timber trees, the former also being one of the sacred trees
planted about the temples. Cephalotaxus drupacea and Ginkgo
biloba are common, although it is now agreed that the latter is
not a native of Japan, where, however, it grows to a great
height (100 feet) in. the groves about the Buddhist temples.
Tumion (Torreya) nuciferum is the “largest and most beautiful
representative” of a curious genus. The Umbrella Pine—
Sciadopitys verticillata—well-known to us as a small tree in
cultivation, is, in its native region, a tall pyramidal tree a
hundred feet or so in height. But two pines, Pinus densiflora
and Pinus thunbergii are valuable timber trees. There are also
important species of Picea, Tsuga, Abies and’ Larix, some of
which have long been in cultivation in America and Europe.

In closing his interesting account of the Japanese forests,
Professor Sargent remarks upon their lack of economic or
scientific management, and the imperative need of adopting
an intelligent system of reforesting and cultivation. It ap-

1056 The American Naturalist. [December,

pears, however, that “the forests of Yezo are still intact, except
where here and there a struggling settlement has broken into
the forest blanket which covers this noble island. Here are
great supplies of oak and ash of the best quality, of cercidi-
phyllum, walnut, fir, acanthopanax, cherry and birch—a store-
house of forest wealth, which, if properly managed, could be
drawn upon for all time, and which, if the timber is not
needed in Japan, may become, when the trans-Asiatic railroad
is finished, an important factor in the development of southern
Siberia and some of the treeless countries of central Asia.”

THE BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA. (MISCELLANEOUS).
By G. S. MEAD.

In considering the birds of the tropics or of any portion of
the tropics, one is apt to suppose that the birds which are seen
therein at any time may be seen at all times. In other words
that they are as much fixtures as the trees, that they never
migrate. While this may be true of a large number of species,
it is not by any means true of every species, even of land
birds.

Our own birds are with usa few months only ; most of them
at the approach of winter go south where, in tropical lands or
in low temperate latitudes, they may be found during a longer
period. The mere migrants—those that pause on their way
north or south for days only—are not taken into account.

It is well then to bear in mind two facts: First, that in
every country migratory birds whose period of stay covers a
large proportion of the year, are to be met with besides per-
manent residents; second, that all birds found by travellers
are not necessarily permanent residents, butin many instances
transient vistors only.

Birds of Paradise are said to move from one island of the
Papuan Archipelago to another, in order to avoid storms or
stress of weather at certain times of the year. The Nicobar

1895.] The Birds of New Guinea. "eT

pigeon also, a heavy flyer, has been seen many miles distant
from the mainland.

Probably therefore,in New Guinea, although we find a very
large resident population, we also discover many birds that
have come from Australia or the Asian Continent to remain
but a partial period. Mr. Jukes illustrates this view in his
valuable narrative “ The Voyage of the Fly.”

“While we were in this neighborhood (in Torres Straits,
Turtle-back Island) about the end of February, (1845), great
flocks of the bee-eater which is common in Australia (Merops
ornatus) were continually passing to the northward. The

‘white pigeons also (Caropophaga luctuosa) were going in the
same direction in numerous small flocks, and in March all the
pigeons left in the islands were young ones. The bee-eaters
go as far to the southward as Sydney during the summer of
New South Wales, but we never saw the white pigeons much
to the southward of Torres Straits.. In September, 1844, they
were coming thickly from the northward to Endeavour Strait,
and they seem to return in March. What can be the reason
of the migration? In these latitudes it is evident that mere
temperature cannot be the cause of it, although the variation
of the seasons for different fruits or insects may. I had after-
wards strong reasons for suspecting, that even on the opposite
sides of so small a space as Torres Strait, not more than 120
miles, the seasons are totally different; that the wet season pre-
vails in New Guinea between March and October, which on
the north of Australia is the driest part of the year; while
from October to March, when most rain falls in Australia, it is
probable that the south coast of New Guinea has its driest
weather.”—J. B. Jukes’ Voyage of the Fly, Vol. I, p. 157.

Rich as the entire archipelago is in bird life, many as are
the species peculiar to this or that island and found no where
else, it would nevertheless be an unjust limitation to enumer-
ate only such forms as are confined to the one region and tan-
not without the compulsion of some extraneous force pass
beyond the barriers of their island home, to the total exclusion
of the many additional species of birds that while they may
not in all cases breed, yet linger for a longer or shorter period

1058 The American Naturalist. [December

in the places of their choosing. A large number of species of
swallows, king-fishers, raptorial birds, range so widely as to
make it impossible to say that they really belong to one island
or group of islands rather than toanother. In some instances,
therefore, we find an interchange of habitat.

The pigeons form a very large chapter in the Natural His-
tory of New Guinea. They are many in number and species,
(more than 80 are known) of all sizes and characteristics, and
are found pretty generally throughout the vast island. Many
of the kinds distributed in different quarters in Australia are
to be seen in Papua, while several are peculiar to the latter
and never found in Australia at all. Almost all phases of `
columbar development, therefore, may be studied in this
region, which ornithologically speaking, is, as has been shown
in divers instances, singularly favored. Foremost among the
pigeons is the splendid Goura coronata, whose stately form
is now not uncommon in zoological gardens. It is very large
for a pigeon, as large oftentimes as the domestic turkey, very
slow in its movements and quiet in its disposition. Its lovely
dark blue plumage and the peculiar but beautiful crown, are
its chief claims to renown among the many other wonders of
its habitat, while its great size distinguishes it among its own
kind. The crest is certainly very remarkable, imparting to its
wearer a look that no other species of its tribe, indeed no other
bird, possesses. It hasthe appearance of a bunch of long, del-
icate leaves from which all the pulpy matter has been re-
moved. There appears to be rather individual than specific
differences in the crests. The crest of Goura victoriae may be
thicker towards the top, the thin feathers spreading out into
little fans, but this appearance is notinvariable. On the other
hand Goura albertisi boasts a crest fully as large and tall, but
the spatulas instead of flowering out as it were, remain of an
even texture throughout their length. Yet in this case also,
the distinction is not certain. A surer mark of difference be-
tween the two species is the white on the wings, this color be-
ing particularly noticeable in the albertisi.

A dark gray-blue is the dominating color; this becomes paler
on the tail, and finally makes a bluish-white band. Whitish

1895,] The Birds of New Guinea. 1059

marks appear on some of the feathers, while on the shoulders `
a fine maroon is visible and again on the under parts. The
total length of the bird is fully two and a half feet.

Another species, Goura sclaterii, says D’Albertis “is like the
crested Goura, but differs from it in having an ashen colored
instead of an iron-gray black.” Wallace mentions still another
species, Goura steursii from Jobie, brought from there by the
naturalist Rosenberg.

The genus ELutrygon of New Guinea is represented by a sin-
gle species namely, F. terrestris. This pigeon is a handsome
dark leaden-gray bird with a whitish spot on the forehead.
The wings, tail, back and rump are a shining light olive,
the sides and under tail coverts rufous. A white collar encir-
cles the neck and throat; bill small and bony. The smallest
of the genus Ptilopus, Ptilopus nanus, is clothed in brorzy-
green, set off by a strip of gray on either side the neck, by a
patch of purple in the very middle of the abdomen, and yel-
low touches on the wing coverts. Tail deep green; bright
corn-yellow on under tail coverts. Female has no purple spot.
The Tiny fruit pigeon it is called.

Another pretty little pigeon is Ptilopus iozonus, purple-
banded; this dainty miniature of its family is about 8 inches
in length. The general color is green, becoming black along
the extremities of the long wings. The tail beneath is yellow,
buff and white ; legs yellow.

The Chalcophaps margaritae (Philogoenas jobiensis) or white-
chested pigeon strikes one at first as being brown or bronze in
color, but further observation will show a greater variety of
tint. Moreover, as with almost all pigeons, the fundamental
color is rich with its reflected lights. The tail is black inter-
mixed with blue, the head black and gray, the neck, breast
and throat white. Elsewhere violet, blue, even pink are re-
flected from the uniform metallic brown surface. This pigeon
is small in size, timid and suspicious, and keeps to _ ground,
rarely perching upon trees.

A fine, large bird, nearly two feet in length, is Macropygia-
reinwardtii, widely distributed over the archipelago. The
under parts including the neck and head are pure white or

1060 | The American Naturalist. [December,

ashy. Above, over the back, wings and two middle feathers
of the long and shapely tail, the color is a warm chestnut.
Black occurs also on the primaries, and in lines and edgings
along some of the tail feathers, mixed with gray. The feet
are red; around the eye runs a circlet of bare skin.

- Otidiphaps nobilis, a ground pigeon, is rich in color. On the
long feathers of the head a dark green lies; around the neck
runs a collar of green rippling with light. A rich brown dark-
ens the metallic surface of the back, while the wings are coffee .
colored. The curiously rounded tail is a dark blue-black and
contains twenty feathers. The note of this bird is strenuous
and persistent, lacking perhaps, the volume of certain species,
but making up the deficiency by iteration and reiteration.
The bill is like a small bone.

To D’Albertis we are indebted for a brief description of
Gymnophaps albertisii, novum genus et nova species. “The form
of their beaks, the nostrils surrounded by a circle of the bright-
est scarlet, and a large bare space around the eyes of the same
brilliant color, give these birds a most curious appearance.
The back is generally ash colored, speckled with black at the
ends of the feathers.”

Among pigeons, indeed among all the feathered folk, there
are few more curious looking birds than the species Caloenas
nicobarica, Nicobar pigeon, representing a genus by itself, scat- _
tered more or less abundantly throughout the Malayan Archi-
pelago. It possesses considerable power of flight, although
not an easy bird upon the wing, hence-its general diffusion over
the numberless islands of the Australasian seas. Mr. Guppy
records its appearance in the Solomon Islands. The anoma-
lous feature causing the peculiar appearance is the spread of
long individualized feathers over the neck, shoulders and
back. Thus is formed a kind of disparted mantle in which
the lanceolate plumes seem to have been thrust after the sub-
jacent layer was grown. The reflections from this singular
covering are a blending of bronze and green. A still brighter
reflection is turned from the metallic surface of the wings, a
livelier green here meeting the eye. One notices with some
surprise, as if it were an incongruous appearance, that the

1895.] The Birds cf New Guinea. ` 1061

terminations of the tail feathers are a pure white. Everywhere
else we find a uniformity of bronzy coloring, intense indeed
with reflections, but without contrasts.

Many of these pigeons, especially of the crowned species, are
most delicious eating. The flesh surpasses in flavor, richness
and other edible qualities that of almost all game birds. Ac-
cording to the taste of some travellers turkeys, ducks, geese,
all must hang their heads in the presence of Goura coronata.

The Talegallus or Brush turkey is frequently seen in New
Guinea, his mound being one of the characteristics features of
the country. He is a small bird to accomplish such a task as
gathering together in a compact mass, material—brush, dirt,
leaves, etc.—in sufficient abundance to fill 20 or 30 large carts.
No two travellers seem to make the same measurements. In
this, which he treads down firm, the eggs are deposited and
then left for the incubation the heat of decaying matter is sure
to bring about. Several nests are placed in the same mound and
do service for successive seasons. It is very much as if one of
our barnyard fowls were transported into the depths of the
forest, since the general aspect of the domestic hen and the
wild bird is almost identical, and the cackling equally serious
and obdurate.

The muscular effort necessary to the heaping up of the
mounds must of course be very great ; most of the work, if not
all, is done by means of the foot, which is of large size and
terminates a long, stout leg. While the bird stands on one
foot, with the other he grasps the materials to be used and
thrusts or kicks them, back to the place he wishes. In this
way the huge nest is gradually formed until it becomes a very
respectable hillock in its dimensions, in some instances 20 to
30 feet through and 15 in height; all this is accomplished by
birds (several combining together to perform the task) searcely
larger than a barnyard fowl. This Megapode (not using the
term in its strict scientific limitation) is not addicted to flight
nor are its wings of sufficient strength to keep it long in the
air even were the bird disposed to entrust itself to that element
Accordingly when disturbed, if it takes to its wings at all, it is
with hurried and laborious strokes usually terminating at

1062 = The American Naturalist. [December,

some convenient bough not far away, where it stands with out-
stretched neck somewhat after the manner of our wild turkey,
anxious as to the cause of alarm below. It is a shy timid
bird, attentive to its own business solely, yet, like all such
creatures, frequently carried away by curiosity.

Its enemies are many, for the flesh is sweet and the eggs
nutritious. It would seem, therefore, as if for this defenseless,
inoffensive creature, Nature would have provided some special
protection. So indeed she has, since in the dusky hue, that
blends readily with the forest surroundings, the Talegallus is
furnished with the best possible protective coloring, but Nature
oftentimes appears to delight in being capricious or inconsist-
ent; she here gives an invisible cloak but as if to neutralize
the gift, she bestows also.a loud, dissonant voice that invites
everything within hearing to come and see to what it belongs ;
and, as if this were not enough, the poor creature is obliged by
hapless fate to call public attention to the depository in which
its treasures are laid, by the vast size of the structure erected
for their concealment.

The general color of the birds is a sober brown, unrelieved
by any touch of brightness, unless it be in the pale yellow of
the legs. The neck of one species is flushed with red, while in
another a warm dark gray reaches as far asthe abdomen. In
some cases a delicate shading of browns produces a pleasing
effect on the body and wings. The bill is dark, short and
compact.

Four species are known, namely, Talegallus lathamii of Aus-
tralia and.New Guinea, T. jobiensis, T. cuvierii and T. fusciros-
tris. D’Albertis calls the last nova species. It would seem as
if some or all of these might be domesticated. The first men-
tioned is a large bird, in shape and size the counterpart of the
female turkey, of a uniformly dark brown plumage and long
neck denuded of a compact covering of feathers, but having
instead a coarse dull-red skin scantily-clothed with short, stiff
feathered shafts. The head presents a similar appearance.
The tail is long and keel shaped, and like the wings dull of hue.
There isa slight interfusion of gray on the under parts, im-
parting a mottled appearance to the thighs and abdomen.

1895.] The Birds of New Guinea. 1063

- Yellow brightens the wattles. The female is like her mate
but somewhat smaller. The eggs are pure white, laid in a
wide circle, and about 34 inches long.

Talegallus cuvierii is also a very dark brown with yellow legs
and feet. It is not nearly so large a bird as the preceding and
_ is better put together. Whilethe larger bird looks not unlike
a loosely set, shambling turkey, the smaller might pass for a
trim, plump pullet. The sexes present no special differences.
The color throughout is asooty-brown excepting on the abdo-
men, which is mottled. The back and hinder parts are covered
- with a thick bed of the softest down; like the feathers a dark
brown.

Talegallus fuscirostrii has been assigned a separate species of
its own on account of its dark-colored bill.

T. jobiensis from the Island of Jobie is a variation probably
differing but slightly from the species enumerated.

In Dasyptilus pesquetii we see a bird which must be classed
- among the parrots, yet one which possesses a curious resem-
blance in that most distinctive feature of the parrot family, viz.,
- the head, tohawks and eagles; the eye also is small and fierce,
and the beak that of a bird of prey. The feathers too, what
- feathers there are, for the head is almost bare except the occi-
put, stand out stiffly as at times of anger those on the head
of the eagle. But in all other points the parrot is evident
enough. The colors are strongly laid in, although few in num-
ber. Black of a greenish tinge covers most of the upper parts,
from which the red of the wings stands out vividly; a similar
tint scarcely less brilliant appears.on the thighs, abdomen and
rump; a grayish hue is apparent on the breast, combined with
pale yellow, giving a peculiar cast to that part of the body.
- In length, taking in the somewhat long tail, this anomalous
. member of his tribe, is about twenty inches.

If the parrot just described is something of a nondescript,
the Black Cockatoo, Aterrimus, is exceptional because of his
great size, for he is the largest of his family. He is also the
- only member of the genus Microglossus. He is to be found
pretty generally throughout the archipelago and is always in
- evidence because of his size, color and eccentricity of looks and

1064 The American Naturalist. [December,

conduct. He measures sometimes 32 inches and is entirely
black from his absurd head, which is finely crested, to the
long, rounded tail. The only relief to this funereal garb is the
bright red of the bare cheeks. The bill is extremely powerful
and is used with as much dexterity by its proud possessor as
if it were not the most awkward looking thing in the world.

A splendid species of the Gardener, splendid by reason of
its crest, for in other features it resembles the Jnornata, is
Amblyornis subalaris found in the Astrolabe and Horseshoe
Mountains, Southeast New Guinea.. One noteworthy fact
should not be omitted; its cabin boasts of two entrances, for
what special purpose, if any, is a matter of surmise. There is
considerable olivaceous on the body of this species and bright,
fine stripes on the throat. The beautiful erectile fire-orange
crest, tall and spreading, grows dark of hue near the crown,
and is also shaded here and there along the sides. The bill
lacks the size of the other species. The total length of the
bird is only about eight inches. The female is like the male
with the exception of the crest. She is without this distin-
guishing ornament, but the uniform dark brown of the back
and the mottled brown-yellow below are the same.

The bower of this species is said to surpass that of any other
bird in ingenuity and quaintness. The same general design
as we have seen in the case of the Inornata is followed by the
Subalaris. Around a central post or tree-stem the construction
is reared ; at its foot isa bank of moss into which is thrust
flower or twig or other ornament. The running or chasing
ring encircles the bank, and over all there is erected a sort of
roof probably as ashelter and concealment. Surely instinct
or sagacity has not further gone than in this little pleasure
house built as it were after a plan, out of material as servicea-
ble and durable as the special purposes required. Easily re-
movable, they are at the same time fitted in the entire work
so artistically as to give the appearance of solidity to the fab-
ric.

Ten years ago there was discovered in the Horseshoe Mount-
ains, Eastern New Guinea, a fine Paradise bird, regarded as a
new species of a new genus and so classified by the distin-

1895.] The Birds of New Guinea. 1065

guished German naturalists Drs. Finsch and Meyer, whose
personal knowledge of the great island and its feathered popu-

lation isso widely appreciated. They named the acquisition

Astrarchia stephaniae after the Crown Princess of Austria. It
is like the brilliant Astrapia nigra but differs in some particu-

lars so important, especially in the form of the tail, as to justify
its relegation to agenus of itsown. The general color is black

with violet, green, bronze and blue reflections. ‘There are two,
if not three bands, athwart the breast, the one glinting out all
the reflections, the other just below, less broad, glowing with a
coppery refulgence, while a third so evanescent as to scarcely
admit of specification, is of a bluish shade. The under parts
do not fail from their dark surfaces to send forth gleams of
changing colors—green, golden and brown. The tail is black

also, upper and under tail coverts blue-black. From the side
_of the head proceed velvety-black, shining feathers somewhat
“lengthened ; so too are the loose feathers on the neck. ‘The
metallic wings—black and glistening—are of a violet-purplish

cast. The bill, feet and irides are black. As in the Astrapia
the exterior upper tail feathers are curved back at their ends
and are of a roseate dye, perceptible but elusive. But it is not
in the tints but in the arched shape of the tail feathers, that one
essential difference between the Astrapia nigra—the Paradise
Pie—and Astrarchia lies. In the first “the tail is regularly

graduated,” in the second “ the graduation is irregular.” Again
the head of the latter is less profusely plumaged, nor are the-
feathers of adornment as long as in the allied genus. On the.
neck the plumes of Astrarchia are not free and upturned, but.
laid close upon the underlying feathers.

1060 The American Naturalist. [December,

THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA ON
LARVAL CHARACTERS.

By Harrison G. Dyar.

Several articles' have appeared in the AMERICAN NATURAL-
IsT, presenting different views of the classification of the Lepi-
doptera. Certain studies on the larve have tended to show
that there are characters of classificatory importance in this
immature stage, and it may be interesting to compare the evi-
dence furnished by them with that deduced from the mature
structures.

Prof. V. L. Kellogg, accepting the division of the Lepidop-
tera into the suborders Jugate and Frenate, finds in the fam-
ilies of the former certain generalized characters in the mouth
parts; but the Hepialide exhibit an atrophied condition. In
the larve these conditions are reversed. The Hepialid larvee
present distinctly the characters of classificatory importance,
while the leaf-mining Micropterygide are considerably atro-
phied. In the view advocated by Dr. A. S. Packard, the
Hepialide are placed, not in a separate suborder, but low in
the scale, near the Tortricide. Therefore, these larve will
serve as something of a test between the two views advanced.
Dr. Packard has discussed the larve of the Hepialide and
quotes their characters as supporting his views, saying that
the hairs are arranged in the same way as in normal Tortricid
and Tineid larve “ the four dorsal hairs arising from minute
warts arranged in a low or short trapezoid.” He has also
given figures of several species (Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., iii, 70,
pls. iii and iv). This article is, however, open to criticism in
two essential points. In the first place, the differential char-
acters of the families of Lepidopterous larvæ do not reside in
the dorsal warts. By this argument, Hepialus could equally
well be proved to be a Noctuid or a Butterfly. In the second
place, the figures of Hepialus larve do not show all of the

1 Am. Nat., March, June and August, 1895.

1895.] The Classification of the Lepidoptera. 1067

sete, often not half of them. Probably they had become
lost by attrition in the specimens drawn or possibly they
were overlooked; but it is evident that any conclusions
founded on these figures will require revision. Dr. Packard’s
figure of the first stage of Hepialus mustelinus is drawn in such
a position that the lateral sete do not show. I have, how-
ever, received some of these larva from Dr. Packard (who has
very kindly furnished me with valuable specimens of larvæ
which I should not otherwise have seen); I am able, there-
fore to present a more detailed drawing. (Fig. 1.)

I have shown in other publications’ the general arrange-
ment of the sete common to all Tineids, Tortricids and
and other Microlepidoptera, and that the higher families, in-
cluding the Noctuide, Sphingide and Butterflies are founded
on the same type. The arrangement on the two last thoracic
segments and on the abdomen is shown in Figure 5. This
type includes what I call the subprimary sete, certain ones
common to all the Microlepidoptera and the Noctuids and
their allies, but absent in the newly hatched larva and also in
the highest families. They are marked by an asterisk in the
figure. Now, clearly, if Hepialus belongs where placed in the
view advocated by Dr. Packard, that is to say among the
lower “ Neolepidoptera,” it should possess the subprimary
sete in the normal position. If, however, it belongs to a sep-
arate suborder, as the Jugate in the view supported by Prof.
Kellogg, it should not have them, and for this reason: the
subprimary sete are not universal in the Frenatz, but exist
in two of the superfamilies (of my arrangement), not in the
three others. Now Hepialus, if of the rank of a suborder.
should show the generalized characters of the other suborder
without its special acquired characters which might appear in
some of the superfamilies. Therefore, the subprimary sete
should be absent, though this argument does not preclude the
presence of other different subprimary setz, or of other pri-
mary ones, not present in the Frenate.

Figures 1 and 2 show Hepialus in Stage I and mature.
The subprimary setæ are absent but on the thorax are a set of

? Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., viii, 198; Trans. of the Same, xiv, 50, 1894-5.

1068 The American Naturalist. [December,

setee quite different from those of the Frenate marked + in
Fig. 2a (mesothoracic segment), and also the primary sete,
which correspond to those of all other Lepidoptera. Thus
Hepialus larva is not only a generalized form, but has pursued
a line of development different from all Micros and Noctuids,
the only larve in any way comparable with it in simplicity.
With the three higher groups no one has recently thought of
allying it, though formerly it was included among the “ Bom-
byces.” This evidence seems to me to be best interpreted as
supporting the view that Hepialus represents a group of Lepi-
doptera (Jugate) as generalized as the lowest Micros and of
subordinal rank.

However, let us see hice favorable an interpretation to the
other view can be put on the structures of Hepialus larve.
That is to say, can the setee be homologized with the Tineide?
We recognize at once that no Tineid or related family has
such astructure. They are remarkably uniform, for, when
not degenerate, the arrangement of Figure 5 obtains, gradually
modified in the higher forms by the approximation of iv and
v on abdomen, then of i and ii also; on thorax ia and ib, iia
and iib, iv and v, respectively, approximate. Therefore,
Hepialus is neither typical nor does it represent a high devel-
opment in the normal line. Still, on the abdomen, the fourth
primary seta above the spiracle may correspond to the seta in
Cossus hereinafter mentioned, but we must suppose this seta
in Cossus to be primary; iv is out of line with v, more as in
the Noctuina. Of the secondary sete, the lower may corre-
spond to vi, the upper is unexplained. On the thorax the
upper anterior primary seta is unexplained; the two sub-
primaries may correspond to iii and v but moved up out of
all association with iv. Thus by some violent movements
we have homologized a part of the subprimary sete of Hepi-
alus with those of the Tineide. It is true that considerable
movements may occur; I was deceived by such in my first
explanation of the Psychide. Granting the possibility then,
it could be argued that Hepialus may really belong with the
' Tineidæ, were it not for the two unexplained sete; but the
whole explanation is too forced to pursue further.

1895.] The Classification of the Lepidoptera. 1069

To turn now to the Protolepidoptera (Packard’s suborder I).
Aside from the generalized condition of the mouth parts and
the body as a whole, no characters appear to prove that Erio-
cephala is entitled to subordinal rank. The possession of gen-
eralized characters is also called for in placing this genus in
the Jugatz. It is true that if the external lobe of the maxille
corresponds to the tongue and not the inner (galea) in Erio-
cephala as Dr. Packard implies in his article, quoting Dr.
Walter, we would have a real difference, indicating a dicho-
tomous division. But Dr. Walter homologizes the true tongue
of his “höheren Micropteryginen” (the Paleolepidoptera of
Packard), also with the outer lobe, stating “ Die Innenlade
der Maxille ist indes völlig geschwunden. Als einzige Maxil-
larlade ziegt sich hier ein zwar noch kurzes, aber typisch ent-
wickeltes und leicht rollbares Riisselchen” (Jena. zeit. fur
Naturwissenschaft, xviii, 761) and Prof. Kellogg thinks that it
is the inner lobe in all cases that corresponds to the tongue
(Am. Nat., June, 1895, p. 547), finding a rudiment of the outer
lobe in the true Micropterygide.

The larva of Eriocephala is admittedly a specialized one.
Not much is to be gained in discussing it, as it is in the inter-
est of both views to show it different from most larve. Still I
will show that the arrangement of the sete may be derived
from the Micropteryx type. Their form is unique and most
interesting, but not valuable in classification.

I will briefly discuss, but in more detail, the characters of
the larvee of the several families of the Jugate, as far as they
are known to me.

Suborder JUGAT A.
Superfamily HEPIALIDES.
Family Hepialide.

Hepialus mustelinus. Stage I (Fig. 1). The prothoracic seg-
ment is normal for all generalized Lepidoptera. On the two
posterior thoracic segments the primary setæ are present with

3 Grote, Syst. Lep. Hildesiæ, 1895.

1070 The American Naturalist. [December,

an additional primary seta (marked + in the diagram Fig. 1c).
On the abdomen, the primary sete are present with a small addi-
tional one behind tubercle iii (+ in Fig. 1d). I am indebted
to Dr. Packard for the specimen.

Hepialus humuli. Mature larva (Fig. 2). On the prothorax
the cervical shield extends down to include the sete before
the spiracle. No sete added to those in the first stage. On
the last two segments the setæ are as in Stage I, without any
of the true subprimary sete (associated with iv and marked
* in Fig. 5), but two different ones are present (marked * in
Fig. 2a), associated with iib. On the abdomen there are pres-
ent, besides the primary sete, two subprimary ones (marked *
in Fig. 2b). There are four primary sete above the spiracle,
which is unknown in any other Lepidoptera except in the
Microlepidopterous genus Cossus, where the fourth seta is
probably secondary (I have not seen Stage I of Cossus) and in
the butterfly Danais, where it occupies a different position.
The upper subprimary seta is without an analogue so far as I
know. The lower one I have formerly interpreted as being
the subprimary tubercle vi of the Micros (Ann. N. Y. Acad.
Sci., viii, 198), but this was before I had examined consider-
able material. This interpretation is still possible, but in view
of the fact that the tubercle is associated with vii as vi never
is, and in view of the condition on the thorax, we cannot re-
gard it as the homologue of vi.

Hepialus lupinulus. Mature larva. The structure is the
same. I cite the species to show that the characters described
above are generic and not individual. In my example (a
blown specimen) a number of the setz have been lost during
the journey from Europe but the tubercles from which they
arose can be distinguished plainly under a half inch objective
in the proper positions.

Superfamily MICROPTERYGIDES.
Family Micropterygide.

Micropteryx purpurella. Mature larva (Fig. 3). The rudi-
mentary sete are difficult to distinguish. On the thorax I

1895,] The Classification of the Lepidoptera. 1071

discover but one seta to represent ia and ib; the rest are pres-
ent, but without any subprimary ones. On the abdomen the
primitive arrangement prevails. I take the two lower setz to
represent vii and viii (the latter corresponding to one on the
inside of the leg in Hepialus, which could not be shown in the
figure) and consequently subprimary viis absent. There is
nothing here to contradict placing this genus with Hepialus
in the suborder Jugatz, but I do not emphasize the point, on
account of the extreme reduction of the sete. Larve kindly
sent me by Dr. T. A. Chapman.

Family Hriocephalide.

Eriocephala calthella. Stage I (Fig. 4). Dr. Packard has
kindly loaned me a slide of these larve prepared and given
him by Dr. Chapman. Dr. Chapman has recorded many in-
teresting observations on these larve (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.,
1894, 337-344), but only the arrangement of the setæ concerns
us here. Dr. Chapman’s dorsal view (l. c. pl. vi, Fig. 1) corre-
sponds with my own observations. His lateral views, how-
ever, are on a smaller scale and the lowest row of setæ has
been omitted. It was apparently not seen, as it is stated in
the text that there are “8 rows of globular appendages” or
setæ, that is four on each side, whereas, in reality there are
are five rows, The two lower sete on the prothorax also es-
caped observation. These corrections should be made to Dr.
Chapman’s account.

The setæ are highly modified and their arrangement has
been much specialized as shown by the fact that the last two
thoracic segments are like the abdomen. Thisis the case in
no generalized type and has only been so perfectly attained in
some of the highest lines of development in the Frenate.
Nevertheless, by omitting seta iv on the thorax and iii on the
abdomen, the arrangement could easily be derived from that
of Micropteryx. I do not wish to suggest that this is the
actual homology, for my material is too limited, but there
seems nothing to preclude a derivation of Eriocephala from
Micropteryx.

1072 The American Naturalist. [December,

The curious abdominal legs are unique in the Lepidoptera.
Probably they have been derived secondarily and have no
homologues elsewhere. Dr. Chapman has endeavored to ally
Eriocephala with the Limacodide (Eucleide). Certainly there
are several curious and striking analogies,* but I believe that
these families really have no affinity. This is not the place
for a discussion of the reasons for this view and I will only
remark that the arrangement of the sete is clearly not homol-
ogous.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1. Hepialus mustelinus, Stage I, side view. a, head and
thorax; b, one segment of abdomen ; c, a thoracic
segment made diagrammatic and the leg sete
omitted; d, an abdominal segment made diagram-
matic.

Fig. 2. Hepialus humuli, mature, a diagram of the sete. a,
thorax ; b, an abdominal segment.

Fig. 3. Micropteryx tet tees mature, first two thoracic and
an abdominal segmen

Fig. 4. Eriocephala calthella, Sa I Thé whole larva is rep-
resented, side view, but only the sete are shown.
The head is retracted and its outline appears by
transparency.

Fig. 5. A diagram of the metathoracic and abdominal sete
of the primitive Microlepidoptera (Tineides).

t These are (1) the retractile head, (2) the angular outline of the body section,
ridged subdorsally and laterally and bearing sete on the ridges, (3) the presence
“5 a series of dorsal and lateral intersegmental areas corresponding in position to

o the largest of the depressed spaces of the Eucleide, (4) the unusual number of
Siisti legs, on the same segments as the suckers of the Eucleidæ, especially
in the presence of a foot on joint 5 (first abdominal segment), which bears no ap-
pendage in any other Lepidopterous family than these two, and is also apodal in

- the phytophagic ori bora (5) the tendency to have the thoracic sete ar-
ranged like the abdomi

PLATE XXXVII.

Dyar on Lepidoptera.

1895.] Recent Literature. 1073

RECENT LITERATURE.

Flora of Denver.'—The author of this little book states in her
prefaces that “this Flora was written with the sole aim of helping
students to learn the names of the plants that grow around Denver.”
She has accordingly made a simple book, in which, however, she has
striven to secure areasonable amount of scientific accuracy. In this
she has succeeded very well. She has descriptions, (sometimes very
short, and in sedges and grasses a mere list of names) of about 500
flowering plants, which must prove useful for the young people who
study the plants of the vicinity of Denver. We understand that this
is a prodrome of a more complete work to appear in the future. In it
doubtless the nomenclature will be modernized and characters sup-
plied to the families and genera.—CuaRr es E. Bressry

Two Plant Catalogues.—In 1868 the Portland Society of
Natural History published a Catalogue of the plants of Maine, which
has been a standard list for a quarter of a century. We now havea new
Catalogue’ in which the results of much recent work have been incor-
porated. In the Catalogue proper issued in 1892 we find 1509 species
and varieties of Phanerogams and 69 Pteridophytes. In the supple-
ment these numbers are increased by 149 Phanerogams and 6 Pterido-
phytes. Seventy-seven names must be dropped from the original list,
leaving at present a total of 1656 species and varieties. This is in
truth a very good beginning toward the acccomplishment of the final
catalogue, of which this is but the forerunner.

The arrangement and nomenclature are ultra-conservative, and this
in spite of the fact that the author recognized the propriety of changes
in both. Such a course is not scientific, nor do we think it is wise.
What defense can be made of this—which we find on p. 42? “ While
in the case of the class Gymnorperme it would perhaps have been well
to follow the more natural system of placing it between the Monocotyle-
donee and the Pteridophyta, yet it has been thought better to follow
closely the sequence adopted by Gray;” or of this in the next para-

14 Popular Flora of Denver, Colorado, by Alice Eastwood. San Francisco.
Zoe Publishing Company. 1895, 57pp.

2 The Portland Catalogue of Maine Plants, Second edition extracted from the
Proceedings of the Portland Society of Natural History, 1892, and Supplement
tothe Portland Catalogue of Maine Plants, extracted from the Proceedings of the
Portland Society of Natural History, 1895, by Mr. L. Fernald.

1074 The American Naturalist. [ December,

graph? “So also the names in some cases might have been changed
with advantage, but it was decided to follow the nomenclature of the
6th edition of Gray’s Manual of the Botany of the Northern United
States.” It used to be the boast of Science that her votaries had the
courage of their convictions; let us hope that this may continue.

As a list, however, the catalogue speaks well for the activity of the
botanists of Maine. We note in the supplement the unlooked for
occurrences of several far-western plants, viz., Oxytropis lamberti sericea,
Glycyrrhiza lepidota, Artemisia biennis, Cenchrus tribuloides.

In the ‘‘ Flora of Pasadena,’’*°—In a pamphlet of 45 pages
Professor McClatchie has catalogued 1056 plants which he has found
upon an area about ten miles north and south and six miles east and
west, lying about the city of Pasadena, California. The southern edge
of this tract is 500 feet above sea level while the northern edge rises to
5000 or 6000 feet upon the San Gabriel Mountains ; at its western edge
is a deep cañon traversed by a swift stream, and numerous small streams
flow from the interior of the tracts.

Upon this small, but varied region have re found of Protophyta
40 species; Phycophyta, 50; Carpophyta, 350; Bryophyta, 53;
Pteridophyta, 21; Spermaphyta, 542. The catalopas is therefore a
list of the plants of the region, not of “ the flowering plants and vascular
cryptogams,” as is so commonly the case in similar undertakings.
Several things about the catalogue are especially commendable; thus,
the place of publication of the new species (sixty-two) is given in all
cases, a most helpful feature. This sentence, also, is significant, and
hopeful ; “ being opposed to the naming of new species after collec-
tors. I have attempted to prevent any being given my name, and have
succeeded in all cases except one.” Another commendable feature is
that the author has “attempted to follow the Rochester rules for
nomenclature.” If we compare the two catalogues, we find that both
show excellent work as their basis, but the western author is shown to
have a broader conception of systematic botany, and to be less tram-
meled by the traditions of conservatism than the eastern one.—CHARLES
E. Bessey.

Frank’s Diseases of Plants.‘—The first volume the new edition
of this useful work has recently appeared from the hand of Dr. Frank,

5 Flora of Pasadena and Vicinity, by Alfred J. McClatchie. Reprinted from
Ried’s History of Pasadena. Los Angeles, California, 1895.

Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen, Dr. A. B. Frank. Erster Band, Zwiete Auflage,
Breslau, Verlag von Edward Trewendt, 1895, pp. 344.

1895.] Recent Literature. 1075

of the Royal Agricultural High School of Berlin. The present volume
deals solely with the those “diseases” which are due to inorganic
agencies, those due to the attacks of parasitic animals and plants being
deferred to the second volume. Thus we have nearly one-half of the
book devoted to wounds, somewhat less than a third to atmospheric
influences, about a sixth to the influence of the soil, while in remaining
pages various other agents are discussed. A few woodcuts help to
illustrate the text. An English work of this kind would be useful.—
CHARLES E. Bessey.

Wilson’s Atlas of Karyokinesis.‘—It is the object to this altas
to place before students and teachers of biology a practically continuous
series of figures photographed directly from nature, to illustrate the
the principal phenomena in the fertilization and early development of
the animal egg. The new science of cytology has in the course of the
past two decades brought forward discoveries relating to the fertiliza-
tion of the egg and the closely-related subject of cell-division (karyo-
kinesis) that have called forth on the part of Weismann and others
some of the most important and suggestive discussions of the post-
Darwinian biology. These discoveries must in some measure be dealt
with by every modern text-book of morphology or physiology, yet they
belong to a region of observation inaccessible to the general reader or
student, since it can only be approached by means of a refined histo-
logical technique applied to special objects not ordinarily available for
practical study or demonstration. A knowledge of the subject must
therefore, in most cases, be acquired from text-books in which drawings
are made to take the place of the real object. But no drawing, how-
ever excellent, can convey an accurate mental picture of the real
object. It is extremely difficult for even the most skilful draughtsman
to represent in a drawing the exact appearance of protoplasm and the
delicate and complicated apparatus of the cell. It is impossible ade-
quately to reproduce the drawing in a black-and-white text-book figure.
Every such figure must necessarily be in some measure schematic and
embodies a considerable subjective element of interpretation.

The photograph, whatever be its shortcomings (and no photograph
can do full justice to nature), at least gives an absolutely faithful repre-
sentation of what appears under the microscope ; it contains no subjec-
tive element save that involved in the focussing of the instrument, and
hence conveys a true mental picture. The present work, therefore,

t An atlas of the Fertilization and Karyokinesis of the ovum. By Edmund
B. Wilson, Ph. D., Professor of Invertebrate Zoology in Columbia College, New
York. Columbia University Press McMillan & Co., 1895.

1076 The American Naturalist. [December,

serves a useful purpose, especially by enabling teachers of biology to
place before their students a series of illustrations whose fidelity is
beyond question, and which may serve as a basis for either elementary
or advanced work in this direction.

The photographs have been taken from the eggs of the sea-urchin,
Toxopneustes variegatus Ag. (a classical object for the study of these
phenomena), taken as a type. The eggs having been cut into extremely
thin sections sov to sovo inch.) were stained in iron-hemotoxylin, and
projected by means of the Zeiss apochromatic oil-immersion objective,
2 mm. focus, at an enlargement varying from 950 to 1000 diameters.
They have been reproduced absolutely without retouching or modifica-
tion of any kind.

Following is a partial list of the points clearly shown in the present
series:—The ovarian egg, with germinal vesicle, germinal spot and
chromatin-network ; the polar amphiaster with the “ Vierergruppen ”
or quadruple chromosome-groups; the unfertilized egg, after extrusion
of the polar bodies; entrance of the spermatozoon, the entrance-cone ;
rotation of the sperm-head, origin of the sperm-aster from the middle-
piece, growth of the astral rays; conjugation of the germ-nuclei, exten-
sion and division of the sperm-aster ; formation of the cleavage-nucleus ;
the attraction-spheres in the resting-cell ; formation of the cleavage-
amphiaster, origin of the spindle-fibres and chromosomes; division of
the chromosomes, separation of the daughter-chromosomes; structure
and growth of the astrosphere; degeneration of the spindle; formation
of the “ Zwischenkoérper ;” origin of the chromatic vesicles from the
chromosomes; reconstruction of the daughter-nuclei; cleavage of the
ovum ; the two-celled stage at several periods showing division of the
archoplasm-mass, “ attraction-spheres”’ in the resting-cell, formation of
the second cleavage-amphiasters.

The explanatory text comprises a simple introductory account of the
general history of the subject (for the use of students and general
readers), with a number of figures, mostly original, but a few copied
from Boveri. In the descriptive part a more critical description of the
photographs is given, with drawings illustrating every stage shown.

The atlas will be of great utility to embryologists and biologists in
general, and the execution will satisfy the student, as worthily illustrat-
ing the text. The reputation of the author guarantees the accurracy of
the work.

A Delightful Book on Butterflies.,—In these excursions into

5 Frail Children of the Air. By Samuel Hubbard Scudder. Houghton, Mifflin
& Co., Boston, 1895. Price $1.50.

1895.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 1077

the world of butterflies, Dr. Scudder has treated of some of the most
fascinating phases of biological science in an extremely interesting

he comparatively few who had read these essays as they
originally appeared in the author’s classic Butterflies of New England
—a work so expensive that it could only be accessible to a limited
number of readers—will rejoice that they are now available to every
seeker after biological knowledge. In the thirty-one chapters which
the book contains there are discussions of such subjects as these:
Butterflies in Disguise; a Study of Mimicry; Deceptive Devices
Among Caterpillars; Butterflies as Botanists; Color-relations of
Chrysalids to their Surroundings; Butterfly Sounds; Nests made by
Caterpillars: The Eggs of Butterflies; The Oldest Butterfly Inhabi-
tants of New England; The Procession of the Seasons; Lethargy of
Caterpillars; Fossil Butterflies. Each of these subjects is discussed
with the fullness of knowledge and excellence of style which characterize
the authors writings. The book is certain of a hearty welcome from
lovers of nature-knowledge—CLARENCE M. WEED.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ABBOTT, W. L.—Notes on the Natural History of Aldabra, Assumption and
Glorioso Islands, Indian Ocean. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., X VI, 1894.
From the Smithsonian Institution.

ALLEN, J. A.—On the Species of the Genus Reithrodontomys. Extr. Bull.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1895. From the author.

BAILEY, V.—The Pocket Gophers of the United States. Bull. No. 5, U.S.
Dept. Agric. Washington, 1895. From the Dept.

Bain, H. F.—Preglacial Elevation of Iowa.. Extr. Proceeds. Iowa Acad. Sci.,
Vol. II, 1894. From the author.

Batcu, T. W.—Some facts about Alsace and Lorraine. Extr. Bull. Geog. Club
of Philada. March,1895. From the Club.

BaRBAZON DU Bocacg, J. V.—Sur un Batracien nouveau dur Fernando Po.
Extr. Jorn. Sci. Math., Phys. e Nat. (2) XII, 1895. From the author.

Bean, B. A.—Descriptions of two new Flounders, Gast frontalis and
Cyclopsetta chittendenii. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1895.
From the author.

Bean, T | He Desesipel ion of a new sop of Fish, Bleekeria gilli. Extr.
Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1895.

—— Description of a new species of Rockfish Sebasthicthys brevispinis, from
Alaska. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII. From the author.

1078 The American Naturalist. [December,

Bean, T. H. anp B. A. BEAN.—Description of Gobioides broussonetii, a Fish
new to North America, from the Gulf of Mexico. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl.
Mus., Vol. XVII, 1895. From the authors.

Bulletin Nos. 22 and 23, 1895, Wyoming Experiment Station University of
Wyoming.

CHAMBERLAIN, T. C.—Recent Glacial Studies in Greenland. Extr. Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895.—Classification of American Glacial Deposits.
Extr. Journ. Geol., Vol. III, 1895. From the author.

Cuapman, F. M.—On the Birds of the Island of Trinidad. Extr. Bull. Am.
Mus. Nat. Hist, Vol. VI, 1894. From the author.

COCKERELL, T. D. A.—Notes on the Geographical Distribution of Scale In-
sects. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1895. From the Smithso-
nian [nstitution.

Commissioner’s Report for 1892. U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries.
Washington, 1894.

Darı, W. H.—Contributions to the Tertiary Fauna of Florida. Pt. III. A
new Classification of the Pelecypoda. From the author

DumsLE, E. T.—Cretaceous of Western Texas and Gealretls, Mexico. Extr.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895. From the author.

FAIRBANKS, H. W.—The Stratigraphy of the California Coast Ranges. Extr.
Journ. Geol., Vol. ITI, 1895. From the author

GEIKIE, J.—Classification a European Glacial Deposits. Extr. Journ. Geol.,
Vol. ILI, 1895. From the a ;

GILL, T. N.—On the a i aS of the Myliobatidae or Aëtobatidae. Extr.
Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894.

HEILPRIN, A.—The Progress of Discovery and the Lands of Promise to the
Explorer. Extr. Bull. Geog. Club of Phila., Vol. I, No. 3, 1894-95. From the
Club.

Hertwic, O.—The Cell : Outlines of General Anatomy and Physiology. Trans-
lated by M. Campbell. New York and London, 1895, Macmillan and Co.
From John Wanamaker’s.

Hit, R. S.—Notes on the Geology of the Island of Cuba. Extr. Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool. Harvard, Vol. XVI, 1895. From the author

Howarp, L. O.—On the Bothriothoracine Insects of the United States. Extr.
Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1895. From the author

Leverett, F.— On the Correlation of New York Moraines with raised Beaches
of Lake Erie. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. L, 1885. From the author.

LONSDALE, E. oe. Materials i in lows. _ Extr. Proceeds. Iowa Acad.
Sci., 1894, Vol. I Upper C tern Iowa. Ibid. From
the author.

Miter, W. S.—The Anatomy of the Heart of Cambarus. Extr. Trans. Wisc.
Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, Vol. X, 1895. From the author.

Prers, H.—On the Nidification of the Winter Wren in Nova Scotia. Extr.
Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. Sci. (2) I, 1892. From the author.

PoweLL, E. P.—Religion as a Factor in Human Evolution. Chicago, 1895.
From the author.

Report for the year 1894-95, presented by the Board of Managers of the Ob-
servatory of the Yale University to the President and Fellows.

.1895.] Petrography. 1079

Ricumonp, C. W.—Diagnosis of a new genus of Trogons (Heterotrogon )
on Hapaloderma vittatum of Shelley, with a description of a female of that spe-
cies. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1895. From the Smithso-
nian Institution.

Ripeway, R.—Remarks on the Avian genus Myiarchus, with special reference
to M. yucatanensis Lawrence. rari eames U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI,
1893. From the Smithsonian Institu

——Ornithology of Illinois. Maiki Hist. Surv. Ill., Vol. II, Pt. I, Spring-
field, 1895. From the Survey.

SHUFELDT, R. W.—Notes on the Trunk Skeleton of a Hybrid Grouse. Extr.
The Auk, Vol. X, 1893. From the author

SMITH, J. P.—Geologic Study of Migra of Marine Invertebrates. Extr.
Journ. Geol., Vol. III, 1895. From the author.

STEJNEGER, L.—Remarks on Japanese Quails. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl.
Mus., Vol. XVI, 1894. From the Smithsonian Institution.

SWAMI, VIVEKANANDA.—The Religion of the Hindus. Extr. Neely’s Hist.
Parliament of Religions. Chicago, 1893. From the Pub., F. T. Neely.

AYLOR, E.—Preliminary Notes on the Osteology of the North American
Crotalidae. Extr. Am. Nat., 1895. From the author.

TROUESSART, DR.—Sur la Progénése des Sarcoptides psoriques. Extr. Comp-
tes rendus séances Soc. Biol., 1895.——Description d'un genre nouveau (Labido-
carpus) et de deux espéces nouvelles de one pilicoles. Extr. Bull. Soc.
Entomol. de France, 1895. From the auth

Tutt, J.W.—Rambles in Alpine V A London, 1895. From the Pub.,
Swan Sonneuschein & Co.

VANDER VEER, A.— Report on one hundred and forty-five operations done for
the removal of ovarian tumors and pathological conditions associated with the
ovaries and uterine appendages only. Extr. Am. Journ. Obstetrics, 1895. From
the author.

Vaucun, T. W.—The Stratigraphy of northwestern Lousianna. Extr. Am.
Geol., Vol. XV, 1895. From the author

General Notes.

PETROGRAPHY:'

The Lherzolites of the Pyrenees and their Contact
Action.—The contact action of the lherzolites of the Pyrenees upon
the lower Jurassic rocks through which they cut has been studied care-
fully by Lacroix,’ who publishes his conclusions in a volume illustrated

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2 Comptes Rendus, Feb. 11, 1895. Nouv. Archiv. D’hist. Nat., ILI, Sér. vi, p.
209.

1080 The American Naturalist. [December}.

by six plates containing fifty figures. The intensity of the meta-
morphism varies widely. At 500 meters from the contact the lime-
stones are filled with metamorphic minerals, and even at 1.5 kilos from
the nearest visible contact with the eruptive the limestomes still con-
tain many of these. The altered sedimentary rocks are limestones,
calcareous marls and occasionally sandstones. In the limestones the
principal new minerals found are dipyr, micas, feldspars, tourmaline,
rutile, sphene, magnetite, hematite, pyrite, apatite, quartz, graphite and
rarely spinel, epidote and garnet. The calcareous marls have been
changed to aggregates of silicates with four types of structure, the
honestone, the micaceous schist and the amphibolitic and dioritic.
Near the contact the organic coloring matter of the marls has disap-
peared. A little further away it is changed to graphite and ata
greater distance it remains intact. The fissures cutting through the
metamorphic rocks are lined with zeolites, which, however, the author
does not think are connected in any way with the metamorphic pro-
cesses. The sandstones, at the only contact seen, were changed into
quartzites rich in needles of rutile, and a lusite, sillimanite and a few
flakes of mica. A close similarity exists between the contact action of
lherzolites and granites. The difference in the two cases consists in a
corrosion of the metamorphic rocks by the granite and a great produc-
tion of feldspar, while in the case of the lherzolites there is no transi-
tion between the metamorphosing and the metamorphosed rocks. The
conditions determining the nature of the contact rock formed are: 1,
the original composition of the sedimentary beds; 2, the quantity of
the volatile and soluble substance accompanying the eruptive; and 3,
the conditions under which the rock was erupted.

Nepheline Rocks from the Kola Peninsula.—A full account
of the nepheline syenite region of the Kola Peninsula, Finland, by
Ramsey’ and Harkman has recently appeared. The main results of
the senior author’s study of the region have already been given in these
notes. Other results can only be referred to, as they are two numer-
ous to be described in detail. The authors define a new rock t
imandrite. It is a rock composed of quartz, plagioclase, chlorite, bio-
tite and several accessory components. The first two minerals occur
in isometric grains separated from each other by seams of chlorite or
biotite. The rock has a half clastic structure, since the quartz and
feldspar appear often as fragments in the interstitial chlorite. The
quartz is largely secondary, and is supposed to be due to a silicification

3 Fennia, 11, No. 2, 1894. Also American Naturalist, 1892, p. 334.

1895.] Petrography. 1081

of the original rock. A second type of imandrite resembles a silicified
porphyritic rock. A hypersthene-cordierite-hornfels, with handsome
cordierite crystals, an oliving-actinolite schist, containing cordierite,
and several contact metamorphosed sediments are described in detail.
The major portion of the article deals with the nepheline syenites and
the related rocks—theralites, augite,-porphyrites, iolites, monchiquites,
tinguaites, etc., and the new rocks, lujavrite and tawaite. The thera-
lite agrees exactly with Rosenbusch’s definition of the type. It isa
medium grained aggregate of idiomorphic pyroxene, and granitic
plagioclase and nepheline, with the accessories brown hornblende, bio-
tite, sphene, magnetite, apatite, sodalite and secondary zeolites. Luja-
vrite is a trachytic nepheline-syenite with its components largely idio-
morphic. Tawaite is a coarse-grained mixture of sodalite and pyrox-
ene.

Around the periphery of the nepheline syenite the rock is different
from its main mass and it has produced contact effects with surround-
ing rocks. A nepheline syenite with a trachytic structure is described
among the peripheral phases of the syenite, and a rock resembling
pulaskite, but containing no porphyritic crystals. This rock, which
the authors call umptekite, is a nepheline syenite, poor in nepheline,
It differs from the nepheline syenite in containing a calcium-feldspar,
from augite-syenite in possessing hornblende instead of augite, from
laurvikite in its structure, and from akerite in its lack of quartz. Its
structure is granitic. Arfvedsonite is its principal amphiboloid, and
besides, it possesses aegerine. The characteristic minerals of the
nepheline syenite are also present in it. The aegerine is frequently as-
sociated with sodalite or with feldspar in pegmatitic intergrowths. A
sillimanite gneiss is mentioned as possibly being a metamorphized sed-
iment.

The Matrix of Naxos Corundum.—The corundum‘ of Naxos
occurs in an iron gray foliated or massive granular rock composed al-
most exclusively of corundum and magnetite. The first mentioned
mineral is in largest quantity. Associated with these two components
are limonitic and hematitic alteration forms of magnetite, margarite,
tourmaline, muscovite, cyanite, staurolite, biotite, rutile and occasion-
ally spinel, vesuvianite and pyrite. The corundum is in rounded
grains or in well defined crystals surrounded by magnetite. Most of
the other constituents, with the exception of the magnetite, appear to.
be the results of shearing. An analysis of the rock gave: Corundum

*Tschermak, Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., xiv, p. 311.

74

1082 The American Naturalist. (December, ©

=64.2% ; Magnetite=26.8% ; Iron oxides=6.9% ; Siliceous products
=2.00%.

Miscellaneous.—In the abstract of a paper read before the Geo-
logical Society of America, E. B. Mathews® gives a brief account of
several distinct types of granite, covering an area of 900 square miles,
in the Pike’s Peak district, Colo. All are believed to be portions of a
single magma, erupted at different times, with the later portions cut-
ting through the earlier ones.

Bayley’ records the existence of a series of acid and basic tuffts,
amygdaloids, glassy and crystalline lavas, and spherulitic phases of
volcanic rocks on North and Vinal Haven, Maine.

Darton and Kemp,’ in the same brochure describe a dyke near De-
wĦt centre, three miles east of Syracuse, N. Y. It is a peridotite simi-
lar to that described by Williams from Syracuse. Its composition is
represented by the following figures :

SiOz i s se ~ mo Nio CaO BaO SrO Mgo K}0 NaO P.O; ve SO; S H,O Total — 0 =S
36.80 1.2 .09 8.63 .12 tr 25.98 2.48 17 .47 2.95.06 .95 7:44—100.22—.471—=99.75

Lepsius’ divides gneisses into meta-gneisses—those formed by the
metamorphism of sedimentary rocks, pro-gneisses—those constituting
portions of the original earth crust, gneiss-granites—those produced
from granite by fluidal movements of a liquid rock magma—and
clasto-gneisses, those formed by the crushing of a solid granite.

Hornung’ has examined a series of rocks associated with the mela-
phyres in the South Harz, and has shown that some of those that have
been called clay slates are in reality volcanic tuffs. Their material
was erupted in two different periods, and both were erupted before the
melaphyre. The older tuff is composed essentially of a green basic
pumiceous glass, the second of splinters of biotite, zircon, quartz, plagi-

oclase, pyroxene and red garnet. Both have the typical tufaceous
structure. The tuffs are interbedded with sediments, and their mate-
rial is more or less thoroughly intermingled with the material of these
latter rocks.

In the District of Columbia granitic rocks” have disintegrated into

Š Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, p. 471.

*Ib., p. 474.

1 Ib., p. 477.

* Notizbl. des Ver. f. a iv foes 15 Hft., p. 1.

* Min. u. Petrog Mitth., xiv, p. 283

1 Merrill, Bull. Geol. i Soe, pera Vol. 6, p. 321.

1895.] Petrograp hy. 1083

sandy soils, whose composition is almost identical with that of the com-
pact rock from which they were derived.

SiO, TiO, 2 20; Fe,O, FeO CaO MgO Na,O K,O P,O, Ign Total
Rock 69.33 4.33 3.60 3.21 2.44 2.70 2.67 .10 1.22—99.60
Soil 65.69 .31 gsr 4.39 2.63 2.64 2.12 2.00 .05 4.70—99.76

The disintegration processes are not chemical except in so far as
hydration is chemical, but they are mainly mechanical.

Formation of Dolomite.—A most important contribution to the
study of the formation of dolomite is made by M. C. Klement in the
Bull. Soc. Belge Géol. Paléontol. et Hydrol. After describing the his-
tory of the theories of dolomite the author calls attention to the fre-
quent occurrence of dolomite in the form of coral reefs, as observed by
Dupont in the Devonian, by Richthofen and Mojsisovics in the Trias, and
by Dana in the recent raised reefs of Metia in the Pacific. He points out
that while in the chemical experiments that have been made with a
view of dolomitizing carbonate of lime, calcite has always been operated
on, the substance of coral has been shown by Sorby to be probably
aragonite. The author has, therefore, carried out a large series of ex-
periments on the action of the constituents of sea-water (particularly
magnesium sulphate) upon aragonite, the results of which are given at
full length. From these he finds (1) that asolution of magnesium sul-
phate, in the presence of sodium chloride, and at a temperature of 60°
C. or more, decomposes aragonite with formation of a magnesium car-
bonate, the exact composition of which is difficult to determine, owing
to the impossibility of isolating it from the residual aragonite; (2)
that this action increases with the rise of temperature, and with the
concentration of the solution, and is greatly diminished by the absence
of sodium CES ; @) that — coral is attacked by magnesium
sulphate j ; and (4) that the lagoons of modern
coral reefs offered all the conditions of temperature, saturation,
etc., necessary for the production of magnesium carbonate in the
manner of experiments, while recognizing therefore, that dolomites
may have been formed in more ways than one, M. Klement concludes
that one of the most usual ways in nature has been the action of heated
and concentrated sea-water in coral lagoons on the aragonite of coral
and other skeletons, with formation of carbonate of magnesium, which
is subsequently, perhaps after solidification of the rock, with the
remaining carbonate of calcium, converted into massive dolomite.
(Nature, June, 1895.)

1084 The American Naturalist. [ December,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

On a New Species of Diplacodon, with a Discussion of
the Relations of that Genus to Telmatotherium.—The ma-
terial forming the basis of this paper consists of a skull with lower jaw
(No. 11242, Princ. Collection) found by the writer near the base of
the Diplacodon elatus beds of Osborn, in the upper Eocene or Uinta, of
Marsh. The locality is about eight miles north of White River and
twenty-five miles east of Ouray Agency, Utah, and is locally known as
Kennedy’s Hole. Other remains of Diplacodon were found, some of
which are of considerable interest, inasmuch as they establish a lower
geological range for that genus than has hitherto been accorded it, and
indicate a considerable variety of species. Remains of Diplacodon are
among the rarest of all the Uinta mammals, and any material which
will increase our knowledge of this morphologically interesting genus
is most acceptable.

In referring this skull to Diplacodon, I have been compelled to
ignore certain characters ascribed to that genus by Prof. Marsh. That
author, in speaking of the relations of this genus to the Titanotheriide
(Brontotheridze), in his original description of the type specimen, says :*
“From this family Diplacodon differs widely in its dentition and the
absence of horns.” In describing Diplacodon as hornless, it would
seem that Prof. Marsh’s conclusion is entirely conjectural, since his
material does not show whether there were horns or not. The present
skull has a well-developed pair of frontonasal horns, and, since it
agrees in all the characters known to that genus, I have preferred to
refer it to that genus rather than to propose for it a new one on the
strength of this purely conjectural character ascribed to Diplacodon by
Prof. Marsh. Should future discoveries show that there are hornless
forms with the same dental characters as Diplacodon, it will then be
necessary to establish for the present specimen a new genus which may
be called Protitanotherium.

Diplacodon emarginatus sp. nov.

The type of the present species is the skull and lower jaw above re-
ferred to (11242). The posterior region had already weathered out
when found and was badly injured, but many of the pieces have been
fitted together and show some of the more important characters of this

1 Am. Journ. Sci. & Arts, March, 1875, p. 247.

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 1085

region of the skull. Anteriorly both the skull and lower jaw are well
preserved, and supplement admirably Prof. Marsh’s type of this genus
which consists only of the palate and premolar and molar teeth.

The present species is at once distinguished from D. elatus by its
greater size, as is shown by a comparison of the length of the premolar
and molar series, which is 310 mm. in the former and 242 in the latter.

The Cranium :—In general appearance the cranium of D. emargi-
natus is remarkably like some of the smaller forms of Titanotherium.
The dorsal surface is slightly concave antero-posteriorly? and is
further characterized by the absence of a sagittal crest. The nasal
openings are high and deeply incised. The horns are composed of both
the frontals and nasals; they are placed transversely and directed up-
ward, outward and forward; they are elliptical in cross-section with
the antero-posterior diameter the longer. The nasals are broad, strong
and rather short, they are firmly codssified, concave inferiorly, emargi-
nate anteriorly and with their external lateral borders considerably
thickened, they do not extend as far forward as the premaxillaries and
are slightly constricted just in front of the base of the horns. The pre-
maxillaries are well-developed, are separated anteriorly by a deep
median notch back of which they are firmly codssified, they extend
considerably in front of the maxillaries.. The maxillaries are expanded at
the base of the canines and decidedly constricted between this tooth and
pm. 2, back of which they expand rapidly in order to accommodate the
large posterior premolars and molars. The infraorbital foramen is
situated just above pm. 4.

The Lower Jaw:—The rami are closely united at the symphysis
which is very long and oblique, its posterior border is just below pm. y.
The anterior mental foramen is situated directly below pm. z, between
it and the premolars there is a slightly excavated and fluted area. The
rami gradually deepen from before backwards.

The Superior Dentition :—The superior incisors are placed consider-
ably forward of the canines, and are arranged in the are of a circle in-
stead of in a nearly straight line as in Titanotherium; they show a
remarkable transition from the Paleosyops to the Titanotherium type
of incisor. The external, lateral incisors are large, pointed teeth, with
strong, internal basal cingula and rather sharp external, lateral cutting
edges. The median incisors are much smaller than those just de-
scribed, but are larger and better developed teeth than the internal
lateral incisors which are assuming the rudimentary, spherical form
seen in Titanotherium. Both the median incisors and the internal
laterals have posterior, basal cingula and a posterior ridge connecting

1086 The American Naturalist. [December,

the apices of these teeth with the cingula. The different degrees of
development noticed in the superior incisors would seem to indicate the
order of disappearance of these teeth in the Titanotheride. The
superior canines are large, pointed, conical teeth, nearly circular in
cross-section ; they are directed almost straight downward, only slightly
forward, and scarcely any if at all outward. There is a diastema be-
tween the superior canines and pm. 1, which is a very simple tooth
fixed in the jaw by two roots, and consisting of a single cone with a
posterior heel. The remaining superior premolars and molars are
wanting in the present specimen.

The Inferior Dentition :—Of the inferior incisors the median ones
are much the larger, while the external and internal laterals are about
equal in size; they all have internal basal cingula. The crowns of
these teeth are somewhat wedge-shaped, with an anterior and a poste-
rior inclined plane. The inferior canines are very much like the
superior, and are directed upward, outward and forward ; they are
separated from premolar one by a considerable diastema. The latter is
a very simple tooth, consisting of a single median cone with anterior
and posterior ridges. In the present specimen pm. y on the right side
isa much smaller tooth than the one on the left. Pms: ,, s, are be-
coming molariform, and pm. ; has already assumed the molar pattern..
The inferior molars are identical in character with the same teeth in
Titanotherium and need no further description ; m. , in the type speci-
men is injured.

The figures in Plate XXXVIII accompanying this paper, were
drawn by Mr. Rudolph Weber, and represent accurately the more
important characters of the skull and lower jaw of the type specimen.
Figs. 5 and 6 are introduced for comparison.

MEASUREMENTS :
The Cranium.
mm
Length of nasals from base of horns, . i : : 114
Breadth of nasals anteriorly, . 123
Breadth of nasals at point of greiti easttletion in fnit
of horns, . 112

Distance between top of hosi at {dale of shies ipite : 151
Transverse diameter of horns at a point midway between

base and summit, 40
Antero-posterior diameter of Horis at a point midway be
tween base and summit, é i 66

Length of diastema, sS: N 3 eae oe 3T

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 1087

The Lower Jaw.

Distance from front of symphisis to anterior border of

ascending rami, . ‘ ‘ : i 3 . ; 385
Depth of ramus below pm. ;, . : : Š ; ; 63
Depth of ramus below m. „ . $ ‘ ; ; i 110
Length of symphisis, : i : i i ae 152
Length of diastema, : s ‘ ; ; : i 26
Distance from base of pm. , to anterior mental foramen, 42

The Dentition.

Length of crowns of sup. internal, lateral incisors, . è 10
Length of crowns of sup. median incisors, 7 ` 13
Length of crowns of sup. external, lateral incisors, . ' 21
Transverse diameter of sup. canine at base, . ; s 26
Length of inf. premolar-molar dentitions, ; . F 310
Length of inf. premolar dentition, . ; > : : 107
Length of inf. molar dentition, ‘ $ : hiss Ae
The Phylogeny of Diplacodon.

Marsh, Osborn’ and Earle‘ have all agreed in considering Diplaco-
don as ancestral to Titanotherium, and the present material only em-
phasizes the correctness of their views. This is evidenced not only by
the structure of the teeth which, as was first pointed out by Marsh, is
intermediate between Paleosyops and Titanotherium, but also by the
general appearance of the skull which is strikingly like that of the
latter genus, as will be seen by referring to the figures in Plates
XXXVIII and XXXIX. This likeness is shown in the great depth
of the cranium above the premolars and molars, in the absence of a
sagittal crest, presence, shape and position of the horns, breadth of
nasais, etc.

Earle, in his very excellent memoir on Paleosyops just cited, has
attempted to indicate the phylogenetic positions of the various genera
and species of the earlier Titanotheres. In this paper he derives
Diplacodon from Telmatotherium. Later, Osborn,’ in describing two

2 New Tertiary Mammals, Am. Jour. Sci. & Arts, March, 1875, p. 246-247.

3 The Mammalia of the Uinta Formation. Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. XVI,

pp. 461-572.
+A Memoir upon the Genus Paleosyops Leidy, and its Allies. Jour. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Phil., Vol. IX, pp. 267-388.
5 Fossil Nandi of the Uinta Basin. Expedition of 1894. Bull. Amer. Mus.

Natl. Hist., Vol. VII, pp. 71-105.

1088 The American Naturalist. [ December,

new and several little-known species of Telmatotherium from most ex-
cellent material secured by Mr. O. A. Peterson, chief y from the Uinta
beds of Utah, has considered Te/matotherium cornutum as directly an-
cestral to Diplacodon. He says, on page 72 of the article just cited,
“ Telmatotherium cornutum is in one of the direct ancestral lines leading
to the Titanotheres.” In a recent paper by Earle,’ he suggests a poly-
phyletic origin of the genus Titanotherium as had already been inti-
mated by Osborn. Earle, in this last paper, points out very clearly
two distinct lines of species of Paleosyops and Telmatotherium which he
considers persistent series and probable ancestors of Diplacodon and
Titanotherium.

After studying Diplacodon in connection with what is already known
of Telmatotherium cornutum, it seems impossible to accept Osborn’s
views in regard to the ancestral relations of the latter to any of the
later Titanotheres. The character of the dentition and the presence of
incipient frontonasal horns would, at first, seem to lead to such a con-
clusion, but a closer study of the material seems to indicate that this is
simply a case of parallelism, since, in nearly every other character, T.
coruntum exhibits features not at all in accordance with what we
should expect to find in the immediate ancestors of the Titanotheres ;
as examples of such features, I would point out, 1, The long, narrow
nasals; 2, Convex dorsal aspect of skull; 3, Position of posterior nares
which, according to Osborn, are in this species moved backward until
they now open far back behind the last molar ; 4, The slender and almost
parallel zygomata; 5, The presence of an infraorbital shelf; 6, The
reduction in the number of inferior incisors to two on either side, while
Diplacodon still retains three well-developed ones on a side; and
Marsh’ has shown that some of the later forms from near the base of
the White River beds still retain three on a side, although quite rudi-
mentary as would be expected. These are all characters of import-
ance, and the position of the posterior nares and reduction of the num-
ber of incisors in T. cornutum would seem to absolutely prohibit the
placing of that species in the direct line leading to the genera Diplaco-
don and Titanotherium.

There seems to be little doubt that Diplacodon had an earlier ances-
try than has heretofore been referred to it, for remains of it are found
in the T. cornutum beds of Osborn associated with remains of that

On a Supposed Case of Parallelism in the Genus Paleosyops. Am. Nat.,
July, 1895, pp. 612-626.

‘Notice of New Tertiary Mammals. Am. Journ. Sci., June, 1890, pp. 523-
525.

PLATE XXXVIII.

ACCC CA cc
WAY Shs ;

pk bt \\
Teco i VOR

: a
Wim

zuy
WW
N

+ ON f:
WA i j I,

Hatcher on Diplacodon.

PLATE XXXIX.

)
Poj

pm eet
SD J

Hatcher on Diplacodon.

Plate XL.

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

“St seeet®
"d

. A ee i
-e
,
d

DN
SS
“ff

AD

iS

we ZZ
OG

R. Weber, del, nS

EusMILUS DAKOTENSIS, Hatcher.
24 nat. size.

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 1089

species, and already at the base of the Uinta proper (Diplacodon elatus
beds of Osborn) it exhibits a considerable variety of forms. Aside
from the two species already known, there are indications of still
others, one of which is shown in the pair of nasals (No. 11213) repre-
sented in the outline drawing, Fig. 1, with the same portion of D.
emarginatus, Fig. 2, drawn to the same scale introduced for compari-
son. Notice the greater absolute and proportional breadth of the
former, also the more pronounced medial emargination.

1
4
Fig. 1. Sup. view of nasals Fig. 2. Sup. view of nasals of
of Diplacodon, sp. } nat. size. Diplacodon emarginatus. } nat. size.

If we compare Diplacodon with Telmatotherium vallidens, we shall
meet with much more consistent results, for in this species we have all
the conditions which we should expect to find in the ancestor of Dipla-
codon from the Washakie beds. In T. vallidens the sagittal crest is
already disappearing, the anteroposterior dorsal aspect of the skull is
slightly concave, the zygomata are expanding and becoming stronger,
the nasals are becoming broader and shorter, there are incipient fronto-
nasal horns, and there are none of those inconsistent characters so
numerous in T. cornutum. The Bridger representative of this series
was doubtless Paleosyops laticeps, which has the concave dorsal aspect
of the skull, broad zygomata and short nasals, all characters indicative
of T. vallidens.

In conclusion, there seems little doubt that the Parallel Series, I and
II, established by Earle in his late paper, were differentiated early in
the Bridger, and that Series I, of that author, was terminated in the
Uinta, most likely by T. cornutum; while Series II was continued on
up into the White River and terminated in the genus Titanotherium.
Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4, Plate XX XIX, are introduced to show the suc-
cessive stages of development from the Bridger to the base of the
White River beds. Future discoveries will doubtless close the gaps

1090 The American Naturalist. [December,

between 2 and 3, and 3 and 4, but there would seem to be little doubt
that the genus Titanotherium has been evolved from the earlier
Bridger forms of Paleosyops through P. laticeps and the intermediate
forms Telmatotherium vallidens from the Washakie and Diplacodon
from the Uinta. Vertebrate paleontology rarely shows a more com-
plete series of the stages of development than are to be seen here.

I wish here to thank Prof. Scott for his kindness in placing at my
disposal the material upon which this paper is based. My thanks are
also due to the various undergraduate and graduate members of the
expedition of 1895, whose generosity alone made it possible.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate XX XVIII.

Fig. 1.—Side view of front of skull of Diplacodon emarginatus.
Fig. 2.—Dorsal view of same.

Fig. 3.—Front view of same.

Fig. 4.— Crown view of lower jaw of same.

Fig. 5.—Crown view of inf. premolars of Paleosyops laticeps.
Fig. 6—Crown view of inf. premolars of Titanotherium sp.

Plate XX XIX. All figures } natural size.

Fig. 1.—Side view of Paleosyops laticeps (after Earle).
Fig. 2.—Side view of Telmatotherium vallidens (after Osborne).
Fig. 3.—Side view of Diplacodon emarginatus.
Fig. 4.—Side view of Titanotherium varians (after Marsh).

—J. B. HATCHER.
Princeton, N. J., Oct. 29, 1895.

POSTSORIPT.

The genus Telmatotherium as it now stands should be divided, since
it embraces at least three quite distinct forms. The type of T. vallidens
should be removed from that genus and made the type of a new genus.
This new genus may be called Manteoceras as suggested by Wortman
from the field, it would be distinguished from Telmatotherium by the
absence of the infraorbital shelf, the stronger and more expanded
zygomata and the concave superior aspect of skull and incipient fronto-
nasal horns. The type of T. cornutum should also be made the type of
a new genus which may be called Dolichorhinus, it would be distin-
guished from Manteoceras and Telmatotherium by the reduced number
of inferior incisors, presence of incipient horns, presence of infraorbital
shelf and position of posterior nares.—J. B. HATCHER.

1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 1091

Discovery, in the Oligocene of South Dakota, of Eus-
milus, a Genus of Sabre-toothed Cats New to North Amer-
ica.—In 18738, Filhol® described and figured under the name of
Machaerodus bidentatus, portions of the mandibles and superior canines
of a sabre-toothed cat from the phosphorites of Quercy. Two years
later, Gervais’ described similar remains from the same beds under the
name of Eusmilus perarmatus. There seems to be little doubt that E.
perarmatus is identical with M. bidentatus; but since the material
shows characters which at once distinguish it from the genus Mache-
rodus, Cope has accepted the genus Eusmilus, proposed by Gervais,
and retained Filhol’s specific name. Eusmilus bidentatus may then be
considered to include all the known remains of this remarkable feline.
Hitherto no American representative of this genus has been reported.
In 1894 the writer had the good fortune to discover in the Protoceras
beds of the upper White River ( Oligocene) deposits a complete ramus
which agrees fully in all the generic characters known to Eusmilus, and
is of interest as being the first American representative of that genus. It
differs, however, from the European species in several important char-
acters, and may be called E. dakotensis.

Eusmilus dakotensis sp. nov.

The type of Eusmilus dakotensis consists of a right ramus (No. 11079,
Prine. Coll.). It isin a splendid state of preservation, and all the
teeth except the canine are entire. Most of the characters are well
shown in plate XL, accompanying this paper, which has been produced
from very accurate drawings of the specimen made and placed at my
disposal through tlie kindness of Mr. Rudolph Weber.

Dentition :—I x, C. 1, Pm. z, M.x. . The incisors are recurved, about’
equal in size, and have rather sharp lateral edges. The crown of the
canine is gone, but the root of this tooth indicates that it was rather
weak, the antero-posterior diameter is about twice the transverse. The
alveolar border between the canine and pm. , consists of a sharp ridge
of bone; it is complete, and demonstrates conclusively the absence of
pms. x,2,,- Premolar; is well-developed and fixed in the jaw by two
roots ; it is directed upward and backward. The protoconid is high
and sharp, the paraconid and metaconid are much smaller and about
equal in size, the former has a somewhat internal position and is out
of line with the other two cusps. There is only a faint indication of a
basal cingulum. The sectorial is quite simple, consisting only of a

ë Bull. Soc. Phys. et Nat.. Toulouse, 1873, t. I, p. 205.

* Journal de Zoologie, 1875, t. XVIII, p. 419..

1092 The American Naturalist. [December,

protoconid and paraconid. The slight prominence on the posterior
edge of the protoconid seen in Figs. 1 and 2, is due to wear by the
opposing superior tooth. The protoconid is larger than the paraconid.

The Ramus :—The most striking feature of the jaw is the extreme
downward projection of its anterior angle or flange, which is about
equal to the depth of the jaw proper. The flange is deeply concave
exteriorly, its lateral surface is separated from the anterior by a sharp
ridge of bone. The mental foramen opens far down, almost on a line
with the inferior border of the ramus. Near the middle of the jaw,
and just in front of pm. ;, there is a small foramen directed forward
and upward. The exterior surface below the molars is convex longi-
tudinally. The masseteric fossa is deep, and is not enclosed posteriorly.
The posterior angle is very strong, it is but slightly deflected, and is
directed outward and backward. The condyle is low, being placed a
little beneath the line of the alveolar border, it decreases in strength
from within outward, and its articular surface describes accurately a
reclining semi-cone. The coronoid process is strong, low and rounded.
The inner side of the jaw is a nearly plane surface. The dental fora-
men is situated just back of the sectorial and a little below the middle
of the jaw. The symphysis is very characteristic, it extends far down
on the flange, and is greatly expanded superiorly and inferiorly, and
much constricted medially. The chin was broad and very deep. About
one-third the distance from the incisive alveolar border to the bottom
of the anterior angle of the jaw there is a large foramen.

Eusmilus dakotensis is easily distinguished from Æ, bidentatus, 1, By
its size, which is about two-fifths greater than that of the European
species; 2, By the structure of the sectorial, which is without the pos-
terior cusp seen in bidentatus; 3, By the structure of pm. ,, in this
tooth—in E. bidentatus the posterior cusp is much smaller than the
anterior, while in dakotensis these cusps are about equal in size. Com-
pare Figs. 141 and 142, Filhol’s Phosphorites du Querey, with Figs.
1 and 2 in the plate accompanying this paper.

The discovery of Eusmilus in the White River beds is additional
evidence in favor of referring those deposits to the Oligocene as pro-

posed by Cope and Scott.
MEASUREMENTS:
mm.
Longitudinal diameter of m. ,, . eRe ohio 23
Transverse diameter of m.,, . ; ; ‘ $ $ 10.5
Longitudinal diameter of pm.;, . . ., . . 16

Transverse diameter of pm. q, ; : j ý ‘ 8

1895.) Botany. 1093

Length of diastema, . : ‘ ‘ i ; i 54
Greatest length or ramus, . i : ‘ j : 173
Distance from top of coronoid process to bottom of jaw, 56
Depth of jaw below sectorial, ‘ : ‘ à 33
Width of jaw below sectorial, i ; ` i ; 16
Distance from bottom of flange to incisive alveolar

border, . ; ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ F : 89
Depth of symphisis, . : : : ‘ : : 71
Length of symphisis superiorly, . : i : ‘ 27
Length of symphisis inferiorly, . ; i i i 21

Length of symphisis medially, : i : 10
—J. B. HATCHER.
Princeton, Nov. 1, 1895. l

BOTANY.:

The Vienna Propositions.—-In the January number of the
Oesterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift Ascherson and Engler publish
six propositions embodying their views upon nomenclature, accompa-
nied by an explanation of the work of the international committee
appointed by the Genoa Congress. The propositions themselves have
been published quite extensively, but their explanation has not re-
ceived much notice in this country. The explanation is of some inter-
est to American botanists because it evidently furnished a part at least
of the inspiration and even of the language of the recent “ protest” of
certain botanists against the Rochester Rules. It is also interesting as
showing that the committee appointed by the Genoa Congress has prac-
tically dwindled down to Ascherson and Engler.

Following is a translation of the “explanation” and of the six
propositions.

“ Following the appearance of O. Kuntze’s Revisio Generum Plan-
tarum in the spring of 1891, a deep movement made itself visible
among botanical systematists of all lands. In Germany it led to the
inquiry set on foot hy the Berlin botanists, in the course of which the
four theses sent to over 700 colleagues were answered, for the most part
favorably, by more than half of the addressees; by the Scandinavian

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

1094 The American Naturalist. [December,

botanists investigation of the question was recommended to the meeting
of Naturalists at Copenhagen ; in North America the Botanical Club
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at
Rochester adopted a resolution agreeing for the most part with the
Berlin explanation. This movement reached its culmination at the
International Congress held at Genoa in September, 1892, at which the
three first points of the Berlin explanation were agreed to almost with
unanimity, and for the settlement of the still controverted questions,
namely, the fourth Berlin thesis, as well as the doubt over the naming
of species, an international committee of thirty members was chosen
to prepare the decision of a future congress by a carefully elaborated
statement which should impartially consider all the material at hand.
“Since then the actual interest in the nomenclature controversy
seems to have cooled considerably. But the organization of the com-
mittee encountered unexpected difficulties. Only a bare majority ad-
vocated carrying forward the management of the undersigned. Of
the other members of the committee, to our regret, two of the three
British members, the representatives of Kew, Sir Joseph Hooker and
Mr. Baker, declined election in the committee. Two votes fell to Sir
Joseph Hooker as manager. One member, indeed, accepted the choice,
but thought that he must abstain from all discord over the manage-
ment. Some colleagues have left the questions addressed to them un-
answered. Discouraging as this result was, yet the undersigned held
themselves pledged to undertake the management, as otherwise nothing
would be accomplished. By this time it became necessary to produce
the requisite means for defraying expenses, which lately was made pos-
sible by the munificence. of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. If,
therefore, O. Kuntze in one of his latest publications accuses us of hid-
ing the questions out of sight in order to neglect them, that is one of
the cheap insinuations which we are accustomed to from this gentle-
man, and which, indeed, is not worthy a thorough refutation. This
seasoning of scientific polemic, for him indispensable it seems, and just
as insipid as undeserved aspersion of opponents, is employed in profuse
quantity in the controversial pamphlet appearing in the last twelve
months which O. Kuntze has published as the first part of the third
volume of the Revisio Generum Plantarum. In this pamphlet the
author has collected all the accessible observations upon the reform in
nomenclature undertaken by him and answered them in his manner
according to his use of foreign languages. The pamphlet contains also
a series of further propositions relating to the reform of nomenclature,
among others concerning the constitution of a future congress, and cul-

1895.] Botany. 1095

minates in the proposal of a compromise in that the author explains he
will agree to 1737 or even 1753 as the starting point of priority in gen-
era, provided the congress take up his other propositions en bloc.

“Of the other more important observations published in Europe we
mention also the memoir of Pfitzer, in which O. Kuntze’s nomenclature
reform in the region of the orchids is critically examined ; O. Kuntze’s
reply thereto, and a study by J. Briquet of the current nomenclature
questions.

“We would meet with little contradiction were we to state as the
common mark of these discussions and publications the opinion that
the endeavor of O. K. (sic) to replace a considerable portion of
the generic names hitherto in use by others and to provide 30,000 spe-
cies with his mark of authorship, has found little response with the
great majority of thoughtful botanists, who hold the reform worse than
the alleged evil. The Kuntzean attempts found enthusiastic approval
only in certain circles of American systematists who had already in-
scribed priority a outrance upon their banners. This tendency seems
to have been in the majority at the Botanical Congress held at Madison
in 1893, which, on account of the slender representation of Europe,
renounced internationality, since this gathering concluded its transac-
tions with a vote of thanks to O. Kuntze.

“ But one would err very much if one thought that these gentlemen
adopt the Kuntzean nomenclature unexamined. There the specifically
American rule ‘once a synonym always a synonym’ (which is ener-
getically opposed by O. Kuntze, but by Briquet interpolated into the
Parisian lois de la nomenclature of 1867) has opened up a new source
of rebaptisms, through which the number of needless renamings may
soon be increased by several more thousands. So we see that the
Kuntzean exertions, so far from bringing into the world the harmony
striven for by him, have opened the gates wide to dissension and con-
fusion.

“We believe that before we approach the special questions, two
closely interdependent fundamental errors must be met, which run
through the argumentation of Kuntze and his American friends, The
first is the notion that the principle of priority in questions of nomen-
clature, on account of its intrinsic justice, should be established for the
vindication of the spiritual property of the first discoverer or describer.
In our opinion this consideration can in no wise hold the first rank in
importance. Much more have we established the rule of priority only
for this purpose, in order to have an objective standard, since as a rule
it is much easier to determine which name was first published for a cer-

1096 The American Naturalist. [December,

tain form than which is the most convenient and suitable. The sense
of subjective justice is naturally different with each critic; let one con-
sider only the bitter discussion over the so called Kew Rule or ‘ object-
ive priority’ and the closely connected questions of designations of
authority. The one thinks that he who first described a species, or
much more he who first named it, has unquestionably rendered the
greatest service in connection with it, the other puts the work of the
author who first placed a species in the proper genus so high that his name
must stand under all circumstances. This cult of priority as a postu-
late of inherent justice takes on a truly grotesque form with the Amer-
ican theologist Greene; he resembles to a hair the political legitimism
over which history has long since passed to the order of the day.

“©. Kuntze appears not to share this romantic conception, although
he seems to hold the not less strange illusion of his position over other
botanists. He will sacrifice a portion of his * well earned rights,’ but
only for the concession that the new congress lay aside its dictatorship.
He thinks that he possesses a source of power by which to bring the
whole botanical world, present and future, under his yoke.

“ The second fundamental error has clearly arisen out of a mistaken
conception of the juristic form in which the late illustrious A. deCan-
dolle edited the rules of nomenclature in the form of a statute book.
Here also there can be no doubt that only an agreement for reasons of
expediency was submitted, which has been followed by the majority of
describing botanists by common consent. With what right can Kuntze
reproach the Kew botanists who have never recognized the laws with
non-observance of these rules? But on no account can the resolutions
stand as a law for the enforcement of which the community of botanists
must lend their strong hand without refusal, as the state to civil laws.
Still less can the defects of this statute book, its silence concerning
questions which then were not on the order of the day, be misused for
advocates-tricks as, for example, O. Kuntze has done in the matter of
beginning priority of genera with 1735. The law says, as we know,
that in nomenclature one shall not go back of Linne. Standard works
of the master are not specially named. A. deCandolle in his remarks

2 In this place, as in many others in the article, Messrs. Ascherson and Engler
misrepresent Kuntze’s attitude. Dr. Kuntze reproaches the Kew botanists be-
cause they persist in following their own personal inclinations and refuse to con-
sider themselves bound by any rules—not because having recognized the Paris
Code, they violate it. He compares their obstinacy with that of the English
ig who persist in measuring by yards, feet and ee after every one else

has adopted an international and rational system.—R. P.

x

1895.] Botany. 1097

of 1883 makes the observation that the terms Phanerogamae and Cryp-
togamae are to date from 1735, the Linnaean genera from 1737, and
the species from 1753. He means this in the purely historical biblio-
graphical sense. In this state of affairs Kuntze now maintains that he
has acted in accordance with the laws because he has transferred the
species names of 1753 to the generic names of 1737-1752 (we will
leave undiscussed the shoving back to 1735 which was so fruitful in
new names), and accuses us of revolutionary procedure because we will
not allow priority of generic names to be put back of 1753. We can
here call upon the most competent testimony that can be adduced upon
this question, that of the late A. deCandolle, who prepared the laws,
directed the conference over them, and edited the conclusions for the
press. If this father of the Paris rules of 1867 has rejected the Kuntzean
interpretation, then the question is certainly put at rest. Not less does
the Kuntzean position that the rules which were there established con-
cerning the division of genera and like matters, be given retroactive
force in interpretation, so that now, for example, the species of Helian-
themum, because they form the majority of the Linnaean genus Cistus
must bear that name, and the Miller-Gartnerian species of Cistus be re-
baptized, conflict, if not with the letter of the Paris resolves, at least
with the uninterrupted interpretation of them for nearly a quarter of a
century. Here also we hold it self evident that historical development
is to be respected—quieta non movere. But these rules of 1867 are to
hold when a new monographer reforms the present generic boundaries.
So all thoughtful systematists have held from 1867 to 1891, and so will
they do also in the future.

“With good foresight, then, did we fix upon the year 1753 as the
starting point for genera also in the first Berlin thesis. The American
resolution does the same, and both propositions are in full accord with the-
present practice. As the Genoese congress assented to this decision by-
a large majority, it is scarcely intelligible how Kuntze sees in this.
proposition a rash action into which one of the undersigned ‘ irritated ’
the congress. Briquet lately opposes these conclusions in a pitiable-
way in order to argue for 1737. He calls to his aid the Kuntzean,

argument that 1753 will necessitate the rebaptism of about 6000 spe-.

cies, while by beginning with 1737 a much smaller number would be-

required. Naturaily alterations of the Kuntzean nomenclature are

meant. But a comparison can only be made with the nomenclature

current before the appearance of the Revisio, and thus it appears that

1737 makes a greater number of alterations necessary than standing

upon the starting point hitherto commonly adopted, at least de facto..
75

1098 The American Naturalist. [December,

“ Already two years ago we called attention to the fact that the es-
tablishment of 1753 did not suffice to restrain a large number of dis-
agreeable rebaptisms of the best known and most numerous in species
of genera. We then as a fourth thesis made a list of 80 (81) genera,
the current names of which we wished to retain in spite of priority.
This thesis was not adopted at Genoa. It had previously found oppo-
sition among the Vienna botanists, and had united against itself the
greater number of opponents in the Berlin inquiry. We believe that
this opposition is directed against the arbitrary selection ; while the
purpose, the protection of current names against alterations in majorem
gloriam of an abstract principle, as inconvenient as unnecessary, has
met with the approval of many of the dissenters. Who can wish sin-
cerely that the abstruse word-buildings of an Adanson, the doctrinaire
creations of a Neckar (who strove to obscure the conception of a genus
as it had stood well-defined since Tournefort and Rivinus) and the
hasty improvisations of a Rafinesque should replace names some of them
current for more than one hundred years? We believe that in this
ease the narrowing of the rule of priority for genera by introducing a
year limitation will lead to our goal. One can seean inconsistency here,
namely, that we do not propose this year limitation for specific names
also. Yet we believe that here also, considerations of convenience
must take precedence of abstract symmetry. For half a century men
have labored zealously to determine the meaning of Linnaean species
and of the species of the older authors by a careful study of their writ-
ings and of their collections. These studies were only made possible
by the most exact knowledge of the forms concerned; which one cer-
tainly cannot assert of the efforts of Kuntze and his imitators which
are for the most part based only on bibliographic researches. The
result of all these labors which has already met with abundant general
acceptation, would be lost, and long vanquished errors would resume
sway if we were to introduce the year limitation (naturally with re-
troactive force) for species also. The inconvenience of such a rectifi-
cation of priority affects only as a rule a single name, sometimes two,
more seldom a larger number. In the case of genera a similar ‘ cor-
rection,’ which in no way concerns the scientific knowledge of the types
in question, may often lead to the rebaptism of two hundred names.

“ Moreover, theoretical reasons can be adduced why genera should
not receive precisely the same treatment in nomenclature as species.
Only a few would defend the absolute application of the principle of
priority to the naming of families, orders and classes, Now, since in
these cases, the considerations for priority fail, it is an entirely reason-

1895.] Botany. 1099

able distinction to hold that while with genera priority shall rule,
nevertheless where reason would become unreason and benefit vexa-
tion it be restrained by a year limitation, and yet in the case of species
rule unrestrained.

“ A different treatment of priority for genera recommends itself also
with respect to the debated starting point of the same. We have
already mentioned the important considerations of convenience which
speak for 1753; nevertheless, there are numerous adherents of 1737 ;
there have been and will be some for 1735, 1694, 1690, and, perhaps,
for still other dates. Each of these starting points would naturally
require a special generic nomenclature. `
- “Tt is also to be noticed that the conception of the genus is much
less defined and, therefore, more inconstant than that of the species.
What alterations have the ideas of genera in the Cryptogams, exclud-
ing the ferns, in the Graminew, Orchidacee, Umbellifere, Composite,
Crucifere, etc., undergone since Linné. For these groups, therefore,
our proposition comes to the same result as the proposals which would
have the priority of groups begin with thisand that monograph. Also
the disagreeable double-namings in the Proteacee, in which by Kuntze’s
own statement Knight and Salisbury, the authors he has raised upon
his shield, do not seem at all free from the suspicion of plagiarism,
would be put out of the world.

“ Moreover, by the adoption of a period of limitation, the addition to
the second Berlin thesis resolved upon at Genoa at Prantl’s suggestion
will become superfluous. This, as it must be confessed, somewhat im-
provised proposal directed its point against Adanson ; but it affected as
well Haller, Scopoli (in part), and many other authors whose names are
well known.

“ Besides, even O. Kuntze has nothing to oppose to a limitation prin-
ciple, provided only his restorations are excepted from it!

“Tt is self evident that the endeavor to alter the current nomencla-
ture of genera as little as possible, which has moved us to propose a .
period of limitation, must not fall into opposition with itself. Such an
opposition would occur if a name for a long time in common use
should be rejected by reason of the rule, since, perhaps, after it had
remained unobserved for a long time it might be restored once more.
It is necessary, therefore, to fix a limitation for this and analogous
eas:

es.
_ “ By fixing both periods at fifty years, the greatest number of the
names applied in DeCandolle’s Prodromus will be allowed to stand,
and most of the 6000 rebaptisms calculated by O. Kuntze as required
by 1753 will fail.

1100 The American Naturalist. | December,

“ We summarize the results of the foregoing discussion in the follow-
ing rules :

“1. The rule that a name once applied but later becoming invalid
must not be used again is to be recommended for observance in the
future; but retroactive force is to be denied to this rule (once a syno-
nym always a synonym) and alterations of names based upon it are to
be rejected.

“2, On the transfer of a species out of the original genus into another
genus, the original specific name is to be retained.

“3. The year 1753 is to be retained as the starting point of priority
for both species and genera.

“A, In the nomenclature of species the principle of priority is im-
perative ; only a more certain name must not be replaced by a doubt-

ul one.

“5, In the nomenclature of genera a name which has remained un-
noticed for at least fifty years, cannot later be established in the place
of one which has become current.

“6. This rule allows an exception where the name in question, since
its restoration, has remained in use at least fifty years.

“ These rules as well as all other proposals proceeding from the
committee after they have been passed upon by the committee, require
the approval of a future congress.

“Tt is much to be desired that botanical nomenclature be placed in
the closest possible accord with the system of nomenclature now under
deliberation by the zoologists.

Fs eee
“A. ENGLER.”
“ Vienna, September 21, 1894.”
(To be continued.)

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY:

Macfarlane on Paraheliotropism.—As the result of a series of
interesting experiments, described in Botanisches Centralblatt, Bd. 61,
1895, under the title of “ The Sensitive Movements of some Flowering
Plants under Colored Screens,” Dr. J. M. Macfarlane, of the Univer-

1 This department is edited by Erwin F. Smith, Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C

1895.] Vegetable Physiology. 1101

sity of Pennsylvania, finds that the hot sun position assumed by sensi-
tive plants is not due to the action of solar heat rays, as a number of
observers have stated,-and as he was himself formerly inclined to be-
lieve, but to the more refractive rays of the solar spectrum. His
studies were made upon Cassia nictitans, C. chamecrista, C. tora and
Oxalis stricta, and some of his conclusions are as follows :

“Tn all cases it has been found that Sachs’ statement is so far cor-
rect, viz.: that when sensitive plants are placed under colored screens
the leaflets fold as in the nyctitropic state, most powerfully under red,
less so under yellow, only feebly or not at all under green, and that
under blue screens the leaflets remain open as in ordinary daylight.
But expansion under the red and yellow screens soon takes place, the
rapidity of the expansion varying according to the brightness of the
light and the species experimented on.” “Ifthe light be diffuse, and
thus of moderate intensity, the flat morning position of the leaves is re-
tained throughout the entire day, or part of it if the sun ultimately
shinesout.” “If the light becomes more intense, no alteration, or it may
be slight deflection in Cassia or inflection in Ovalis, occurs to leaflets
of plants under the red and yellowscreens. When plants are under a
green screen and exposed to intense illumination. the leaflets either re-
main flat or assume a more or less paraheliotropic position, the angu-
lar change at times amounting to 25°. In all cases under the blue
screens the leaflets become paraheliotropic more or less powerfully,
the amount of angular movement being proportioned to the intensity
of the light. It is impossible at present to say whether the blue or
violet rays are the more powerful. In all cases, normal nyctitropic move-
ment is accelerated a half to one and a half hours under a red screen,
but the movements of the leaves and leaflets then are very peculiar.”
“Under a yellow screen nyctitropism is not quite so accelerated as
under red, but the closing movements are nearly or quite regular in
sequence, and in Cassias are first visible at the leaf extremity. Under
a green screen the time movement practically coincides with that of
exposed plants, and is beautifully regular in sequence.” “ Under the
blue light there is always a distinct retardation of the normal nycti-
tropic period to the extent of from 4 to 2} hours, the variations seem-
ing to depend on temperature, on length of exposure to the blue light,
and on relative intensity of the light for the day.” “ These observations
seem further to warrant us in concluding that up to 38° C., or even
43° C. in some species, heat rays either fail to stimulate the tissues, or
if they do that, their action is interrupted aud antagonized by some
other form of energy, though this is scarcely likely. The same is true

+

1102 The American Naturalist. [December

of the less refrangible light rays, and of these the orange-yellow, yellow
and yellow-green seem to give the most uniform results, for so long as
plants were exposed to intense light the leaflets remained either quite
flat or became slightly reflexed. Under the green screen the leaflets
of Cassia nictitans and O. chamecrista, when strongly illuminated re-
mained flat or became inflexed in.some cases to 25°, but those of C.
Tora under equal illumination inflexed through an angle of 15° ; those
of Oxalis stricta remained flat. The paraheliotropic movement
thus started under the green screen in some species became greatly
more pronounced under the blue in all, and during intense illumina-
tion in Ozxalis almost amounted to the nyctitropic position. Grouping
the above facts, the conclusion is reached that the heat rays, the less
refrangible rays, and the more refrangible rays are all trophic up to a
certain point. When that point is crossed the heat rays and less re-
frangible rays continue to be trophic up to a much higher point, but
the more refrangible rays (from green-blue to violet) act as a stimu-
lant or irritant.’ “It may be worth emphasizing here that sensitive
movements are most pronounced in tropical plants, are less so in sub-
tropical and warm-temperate species, and are rare or feebly expressed
in temperate and sub-arctic plants. But, as is well known, leaves that
are exposed to an intense light show more rapid metabolic changes than
those that are shaded. Any change, therefore, in the tissues of a plant
which would insure protection of the lamina from the intense blue-vio.
let rays, and its exposure again when these rays become subdued,
would have every likelihood of perpetuation in sub-tropical and tropi-
cal regions, and such is the state of matters as we find them. We do not
» know accurately, as yet, the mechanism involved in a sensitive pulvi-
nus, or the changes effected on stimulation of it, but anyone can readily
prove that every gradation from non-sensitive to highly sensitive
leaves is met with in such groups as the Oxalidee and Leguminose,
and that, broadly speaking, the sensitiveness increases as we pass from
regions where the sun’s rays are of minor intensity to others where the
rays are of increased intensity. The writer, therefore, regards the ac-
tion of the more refrangible rays, when of a definite intensity, as one of
stimulus, because (1) the angular inflection of leaflets is proportionate
to the intensity of the stimulating rays; (2) the movement is not due
to indirect action from the green laminar substance to the pulvinus
cells, but is wholly centered in the latter; (3) ifthe inflection movement
is considerable, the white cushion of the pulvinus shows a visible change
from white to a dull leaden green:color ; (4) when the more refrangi-
ble rays are cut off by a color screen the stimulus is removed, and then

1895,] Vegetable Physiology. 1103

neither the heat rays nor the less refrangible light rays cause closure.
The above experiments then indicate that by the paraheliotropic
movement leaflets are protected from the intense action of the blue-
violet rays, and for this end all the leaflets on any one leaf need not
` move through the same angle.” “ These observations emphasize the view
already expressed by several investigators that orange, yellow, and
green screens to the protoplasm, whether in the form of pigmented
walls, of pigmented cell sap, or of chlorophyll are of a protective char.
acter, and permit the normal functions to be carried on unimpeded by
the action of the more intense blue-violet rays. But while such pig-
ments are specially effective, the writer would suggest a similar func-
tion for the thick, highly cuticularized epidermis that covers so many
desertic plants, or plants that grow in places exposed to intense sun»
light. One can easily prove by experiment that on a hot day a thin
sheet of white paper considerably reduces the light intensity. A piece
of Opuntia epidermis similarly obstructs the light rays, and even
though the heat rays pass, we have seen that up to 40-43° C. no inju-
rious effect follows to many plants. It might further be pointed out,
as Wiesner has already done, that the hair covering on the leaves of
certain plants will contribute to the same end.” The location of the
movement in the pulvinus was determined by shading this organ from
the direct action of the sun by narrow strips cut from an oak leaf.
When the pulvini were thus shaded, leaflets that were inflexed 45 to
50° re-expanded in a few minutes so as to form an angle of only 5 to
10°. The time required to effect this change of position was only 13
minutes in Cassia nictitans and 2} to 2% minutes in C. chameecrista,
depending on the age of the leaf. Strips of mica of like —_—
caused no movement.”—Erwin F. SMITH.

Chalazogamy in Juglans regia.—Some years ago in Cina
rina a peculiar genus of Australian and East Indian trees, dicecious,
bearing aments, having the foliage reduced to scales, and superficially
resembling Equisetacee, Dr. Treub discovered that the pollen tube
does not enter the ovule by way of the micropyle but finally reaches
the egg-cell by growing through the chalaza. This peculiar and alto-
gether anomalous method of fertilization led him to found a distinct
group of Angiosperms, sub-division Chalazogamia equal in rank with
subdivision Porogamia, including the rest of the Digotyledons and
Monocotyledons. Subsequently, Dr. Nawaschin, of Kiew, Russia, dis-
covered that the same thing occurs in the Betulaceæ, and now in Ein
neues Beispeil der Chalazogamie (Botanisches Centralblatt, Bd. 63;
1895, pp. 353-357) the same author states that he has found chala-

1104 The American Naturalist. [December,

zogamy in Juglans regia. The large ovule is anatropous. The pla-
centa fills the ovary and frequently fuses with it. From the sides of
the placenta develop two peculiar wing-like growths projecting some-
what above the base of the ovule. The pollen tube is strictly intercel-
lular in its growth as in the other Chalazogamia. After the tube has *
penetrated the stigma and grown through the style, it enters the tissue
of the ovary near the canal of the style but without entering its cleft
or penetrating the micropyle. During its further growth, in the wall
of the ovary, the tube turns to right or left and passing through the
wing-like placental growths enters the top of the placenta and from
here grows through the chalaza into the nucellus and to the embryo
sack. During nearly its entire growth the tube sends out projections
and in the chalazal- region these become branches which give to the
nucellus a veined appearance as if penetrated by a number of distinct
pollen tubes. Several of these branches finally reach the embryo sack
and surround it on all sides. The author detected the male nucleus,
not only in the pollen tube, but also inside the embryo sack. At this
time there was in the embryo sack neither an egg apparatus nor a dif-
ferentiated egg. Besides the antipodal cells, separated from each
other by a cellulose membrane, there were only some free nuclei on
which devolved the rôle of the female apparatus. These appearances can
hardly be explained otherwise than by supposing that the male nucleus
fuses with one of the female nuclei to form the egg-cell. In these par-
ticulars Juglans (also Corylus) appears to be related to Gnetum, the
developmental history of which has been studied critically of late by
Geo. Karsten (Coheen’s Beiträge, VI). The author now attributes
chalazogamy to the inability of the pollen tube to grow through empty
spaces, and regards these plants as standing on the threshhold of the
angiospermous world. To him they represent transition forms be-
tween Gymnosperms in which the pollen tube has an intercellular
growth and Angiosperms in which it grows through the mycropyle.—
Erwin F. SMITE.

ZOOLOGY.

Variation in Halicystus octoradiatus.—Among 154 speci-
mens, according to a recent paper in the Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopical Science,| Mr. E. T. Brown found 120 normal and 34 abnormal

Vol. XX XVIII, pp. 1-9, PL. I.

1895.] Zoology. 1105

specimens, the normal individual being understood to be one with
eight tentacle groups, eight genital bands, eight colleto-eystophores
and four well-formed septa. The variations occur in the tentacle
groups, the genital bands, and in the number and position of the
colleto cystophores. In some cases there is an extra collecto-cystophore,
which may be on the edge of the arm of the tentacle group, or within
the margin the inner surface of the bell, or even outside the margin. A
peculiar variation occurs in the collecto-cystophorus, themselves some
of them sometimes bearing a small capitate tentacle. The variation in
the genital bands may be due to an apparent splitting of a band or even
to a fusion of one band with a ninth or supernumerary one. Two
variations in the tentacle groups are interesting. In one individual
figured there are seven perfectly normal groups, and one abnormal
rather small group occupying a position within the margin upon the
inner surface of the bell. Its normal position on the margin is occu-
pied by a large colleto-cystophore with a capitate tentacle. In the
other case there are likewise seven normal groups. The eighth is
normally placed, but is small. Somewhat outside of it there arises
a supernumerary arm bearing an apical group of tentacles and another
or proximal group. On each margin of the arm is a colleto-cystophore,
thus raising the number of these to ten. It may also be said that the
eighth genital band corresponding to the abnormal tentacle group is
double.

The author adds that mutilated individuals may reproduce a part
that is or is not Jike the original, and that in some cases these mutilated
forms bears a close resemblance to others that are congenitally abnor-
mal. This being the case, it may be said that his observations show that
there is considerable room for experiment to determine why the repro-
duced part is not like the original, and to what extent it may differ.

ie

The Role of the Liver in the Anti-coagulating Action of
Peptone.’—E. Gley and V. Pachon have performed certain experi-
ments that not only demonstrate the correctness of the earlier conclu-
sions of G. Fano, that the anti-coagulating action of peptone injected
into the blood of an animal is indirect, but also localize the intermedi-
ate agent. The experiments consisted in ligaturing the lymphatic
vessels leaving the liver in a dog previously morphined and chloro-
formed, and then at intervals drawing blood from the left carotid and
from the sphenal vein.

? Comptes-Rendus de |’ Acad. Sci., CX XI, pp. 383-5.

1106 The American Naturalist. [December,

At 3.42 (p. m.), 6 c.c. of blood from the carotid coagulated at 3.43.

At 3.50 to 4 (p. m.) the lymphatics were ligatured.

At 4.09, 8 c.c. of blood coagulated at 4.10.

At 4.22, 5 c.c. of blood coagulated at 4.23.

Then from 4.23-4.26 a solution of 6.5 gr. of peptone was injected into
the sphenal vein. At the end of this time blood was drawn at inter-
vals.

7 c.c. drawn at 4.33 coagulated in 1 minute.

8 c.c. drawn at 4.40 coagulated in 1 minute.

8 c.c. drawn at 4.553 coagulated in 1} minute.

This clearly shows that by thus preventing the intrahepatic circula-
lation of the lymph, the peptone loses its power of preventing the coagu-
lation of the blood, and consequently that peptone has its usual effect
only after having passed through the lymphatics leaving the liver.

—F.C. K.

The Neoformation of Nerve-cells in the Brain of the Ape
after a Complete Removal of the Occipital Lobes.’—It has
commonly been supposed that nerve-cells are not regenerated, and such
was the conclusion of G. Marinescu presented to the Société de Biologie
in 1894. But physiololgists have observed that animals deprived of
the occipital lobes gradually regain the power of codrdination of move-
ments and of the recognition of surrounding objects to a degree, at least.

The author, on Aug. 24th, 1895, observed this phenomena, and, upon
repeating the operation, was surprised to find the orifices of trepanation
closed with a somewhat resisting tissue, and that the space formerly
occupied by the occipital lobes had been refilled with a tissue that, upon
examination with the rapid Ramon y Cajal Golgi method and by the
Erlich hematoxylin eosin method, proved to be made of pyramidal
néerve-cells and nerve-fibres and neuralgia. The latter was very abund-
ant, while the former were less numerous than in the normal lobes. The
growth was not due to the hypertrophy of the anterior lobes, for there
was no clear microscopical demarkation between the two parts, and
must therefore have been due to neoformation.

He adds that this explains, somewhat, the conflicting results of differ-
ent observers in cases of incomplete removal of the lobes

The operation of removal was repeated on the animal, end some three
and a half months later the same phenomenon of reviving recognition
reappeared.—F. C. K.

The Æstivation of Snails in Southern California.—Like
the human genus, snails require rest, days and weeks of solitude, in

1895.] Zoology. 1107

fact, the land snail (Helix) withdraws so completely from social- inter-
course that months are spent in voluntary confinement. So secluded
does this little householder become that his door or aperture is closed
with one white curtain after another until sometimes one-half a dozen
membranous curtains in succession are draped when, he has entered
into his Nirvanic rest. In this condition his aperture, or outer door,
is securely glued to the under surface of a stone, a board, or any sub-
stance under which he seeks shelter. In the eastern states he takes
his annual siesta in winter, this being the period of hibernation.

But in Southern California snails (Helix) differ from their congeners
presenting an illustration of the power of environment over natural in-
instincts. Instead of going into winter quarters in October and re-
maining asleep all the winter months, the season of greatest activity of
the Southern California snail is during those months.

The reason for this is that the food supply is plentiful in the winter
when the warm rains prevail; but, during the summer months the arid
condition of the foot-hills, the habitat of these quiet creatures, makes
makes the estivation of snails a necessity, a question of domestic econ-
omy, an adjustment of demand and supply. In process of time the
necessity for estivation, rather than hibernation, became a habit.
During this period his functions are in a state of coma; digestion,
respiration and circulation are imperceptable; he sleeps with all his
powers, and his waking is not a voluntary action. Without moisture
a snail will rest for years! Dr. R. E. C. Stearns, of the U. S. National
Museum, records a rest of six years of one snail from Lower Cali-
fornia, Helix veatchii.

On March 21, 1890, a few land snails (Helix traskit Newcombe)
were collected from some of the low foot hills in Los Angeles, These
were left in a glass jareon a stand and in the morning the snails had
crawled up the wall of the room and were esconsced in one corner of
the ceiling, another one had travelled farther in the night and had
pre-empted his claim in one corner of the hall ceiling. They were al-
lowed to remain undisturbed in order to study developments. One
soon fell down upon the carpet, but the other two remained intact-
The household orders were that Helix traskii were to be left undis
turbed by brush or broom. The summer came and went, antumn fol-
lowed, winter came on, and still the hermaphrodites remained asleep.
No sound of music nor mirth aroused them.

But the rains came on, heavy drenching showers that rushed down
the mountains, washed the foot hills, overflowed the zanjas, and all
nature was in a dripping condition. During one of these storms, in

1108 The American Naturalist. (December,

January, 1891, the rain made invidious incursions into the hall during
the night, and in the morning the snail was found onthe carpet. In
an hour afterward he was as willing as ever to struggle for existence.
He ate heartily of celery, with his little rasping tongue (radula) beset
with multitudes of tiny siliceous teeth.

It was not until February 23, that the other snail had been suf-
ficiently overcome by the forces of nature to loosen his epigram enough
to descend to the floor. He was then placed in a shallow saucer of
water and he assumed his functions as though there had been no state
of torpor.

While the house snails were glued to the ceilings, their relatives. in
a “snailery ” in the garden had been aroused to activity by the first
rain as it pattered through the screen cover of the snailery, and had
been busy housekeeping. As the result, a number of tiny pellucid
looking balls were, on January 21, 1891, carefully hidden. in the moist
earth in the box., These were the eggs of the snails. Time had been
lost by the house snails, their siesta, extended beyond the requirements
of Nature, had gained them nothing. It was the intention to study
all these forms and see if the “ house snails” lived any longer for their
protracted æstivation, but, alas! for the rapacity of the animal king-
dom, slugs, sow bugs, ants and insects from the rosebushes, made war
upon the whole snail colony, adults, babies and eggs, and by summer
time, the little houses were empty, the tenants were dead.—Mrs. BUR-
TON WILLIAMSON.

A Careless Writer on Amphiuma.—I have recently read an
article in the last number (October, 1895) of the American Journal of
Morphology by Mr. Alvin Davison on Amphiuma, which contains such
evidence of haste and carelessness as to require early notice. At pres-
ent I refer principally to his references to my work and my conclusions,
but as the errors here are so numerous I cannot suppose that I am the
only author favored by misrepresentation,

On page 378 he says, “ the number of premaxillo-maxillary teeth is
never less than fifty. The number is wrongly stated by Cope as thirty-
one.” I have recounted the teeth on the specimen which I had in
hand when this assertion was written, and I find the number to be ex-
actly as I have stated. Mr. Davison has probably counted the teeth
on both sides of the skull. One would think that a little scientific
imagination would have suggested this explanation of the discrepancy
to Mr. Davison.

Our author next describes the squamosal bone of Amphiuma, putting
his discoveries as to its shape in italics, as though it had not been often

1895.] Zoology. 1109

described and figured before, and then goes on to say that “ the bone
which Cope has called squamosal in the Ceecilians is quite differently
located, being directed forwards and inwards in such a manner as to
form part of the orbit, and, therefore, deserves the name of quadrato-
jugal, as some authors have already called it.” » It is at least amusing
to learn that to contribute to the orbit is characteristic of the quadrato-
jugal bone. That is exactly what it never does; and, moreover, thé
squamosal does not do so in Ceecilia. That the element in question is
the bone which is called in Batrachia generally by modern authors
the squamosal, there can be no doubt; I prefer however, at present, to
call it supratemporal. Mr. Davison’s osteology is here seriously at
fault.

On page 383 the author states that “doing the past six months I
have searched carefully for a description, or even a few words of intro-
duction to the muscular system of this strange animal, but have been
able to find only a very terse discussion of the subject.” He then refers
to Bronn, who gives he says “only a few words to the muscles of the
head.” It is evident that this search was not very careful, or Mr.
Davison would not have missed so important a work as Fischer’s
Anatomische Abhandlungen ueber die Peremibranchiaten und Dero-
tremen 1864, where much space is devoted to the muscular system.

On p. 390 we read “ Cope has greatly erred in saying that the lungs
are subequal.” I find on reexamination of adult specimens that the
left lung is only one-tenth shorter than the right.

On p. 395 is another error, which would suggest animus, were not the
author’s capacity for blundering so exceptionally developed. He says
“Cope has asserted that Amphiuma has only one testis, but I find
paired testes extending half way from the liver to the vent.” It does
not appear to have occurred to Mr. Davison that I was describing one
side only, and that I stated it to be single in order to distinguish it
from that of Siren, where there are two on each side.

On page 403 we have a discussion of the phylogeny of Amphiuma.
He gives my table of the Urodela from the “ Batrachia of N. America,”
and then remarks. ‘It is evident to all phylogenists that this table
presents an absurdity, since representatives of each of the five families
in the direct line of descent are existing at the present time.” On the
contrary this naive observation shows that Mr. Davison is a tyro in
phylogeny. He does not seem to be aware that families of many ver-
tebrata, and especially of the lower classes, often have had a long dura-
tion in geologic time. Thus in the American Oligocene occur genera
of the existing families of lizards, Gerrhonotide and Amphisbaenide,

1110 The American Naturalist. [December,

and existing families of Batrachia are known from the Miocene. But
when Mr. Davison wishes to derive the immediate descent of Ceecilians
from the Stegocephalia, he goes to an opposite extreme of antiquity,
and, moreover, there is no resemblance whatever between the two
groups. Even if the Cccilians possess a basisphenoid as he alleges,
but which I greatly doubt, this character would constitute a ground of
difference from the Stegocephalia, and not resemblance.

Finally our author, in order to set forth his views of the phylogeny
of the class Batrachia, copies bodily, p. 407, my diagram as published in
the Batrachia of N. America, without credit, only introducing the two
absurdities of deriving the Amphiumidex and the Ceeciliide from the
Stegocephalia direct.

Mr. Davision has, in fact, adduced some new reasons in support of
the proposition which I was the. first to formulate, that Amphiuma is
nearly related to the Ceeciliidee. So certainly have his researches with
those of the Sarasins and Hay confirmed this view, that it is quite
worth while to reéxamine the supposed ethmoid of the Ceecilians, and
see whether there is not an agreement in this point also.

At the close of the article the author states that Dr. Scott has pointed
out parallelisms in evolution of different lines of Mammalia. Dr.
Scott has never claimed that his observation was original with himself,
and if Mr. Davison had asked the distinguished Professor of Princeton
as to this, he would have learned where and by whom this fact of phy-
logeny was first set forth.

Finally, the plates attached to this paper are quite unworthy of the
American Journal of Morphology.—E. D. Corr.

Zoological News.—Those interested in the anatomy of the frog
will find Gaupp’s account.of the hand and foot muscles of that animal
(Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. XI, No.7, Oct., 1895) extremely valuable, and the
illustrations which accompany it are very clear. No abstract is possi-
ble.

P. J. White adds* Hexanchus griseus to the list of Selachians (Noti-
danus indicus) in which a median cartilage is inserted in the shoulder
girdle. Like Haswell and Parker, he regards it as sternal in nature,
and consisting of pre- and post-omosternal elements.

3 Vitzon, Alex. N. Compte-Rend. Acad. des Sci., CX XI, 1895, p. 445.
«Anat. Anz., XI, 222, 1895.

1895.] Entomology. 1111

ENTOMOLOGY.’

Stemmatoiulus as‘an Ordinal Type.—The genus Stemmiulus?
was established by Gervais in 1844. The type species was collected in
the mountains of the United States of Colombia. The genus was sup-
posed to differ from Iulus in the possession of a single large ocellus on
each side, instead ofa cluster of small ocelli, but to subsequent writers
this seemed a rather slender basis of generic distinction. Latzel placed
Stemmiulus as a doubtful subgenus under Iulus.

Other species with two large ocelli have been described from Jamaica
and Ceylon by Karsch and Pocock, but no dissections seem to have
been attempted. Mr. Pocock has given me credit for having pointed
out to him the fact that the pleural sutures are open, and he has estab-
lished a separate family for the accommodation of the genus, having
previously referred it to the Callipodie (Lysiopetalid:e) because the
ventral plates are free and the segments striate in a manner resembling
that of some of the European Lysiopetalide. Mr. Pocock also estab-
lished? a suborder Callipodoidea to contain the Callipodidæ and Stem-
miulidæ, but seems later on to have abandoned this arrangement, for
we find both families referred back to the Iuloidea.*

During the past four year I have had the opportunity of accumulat-
ing in Liberia abundant material in this group, and have accomplished
several dissections which reveal a series of remarkable characters, and
make possible camera drawings of the interesting parts.

The living animals strikingly resemble in form, size, coloration,
habits and movements the Iuliform Craspedosomatide, such as Crypto-
trichus and Underwoodia. No Craspeddsomatide are, however, found
in tropical Africa, so that mimicry will hardly explain the apparent
similarity of these really diverse forms. The movements, indeed, are
even more vigorous than those of Craspedosomatide, and the creatures
frequently throw themselves several inches when disturbed. Mr.

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, Durham, N. H.

* This is the original name, and the derivation from ot¢#a is evident, but the
form seems to be incorrect. A similar carelessness in derivation is that of the
names ‘‘ Craspedosomide ” and ‘“Chordeumide,”’ which classical usage would
compel us to write “ Craspedosomatide ” and “ Chordeumatide.”

Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., XXIV, p. 447.

*Zool. Erg. einer Reise in Niederl. Ost-Indian, Herausg. von Dr. Max Weber,
p- 376. As this reference cites the former one (Journ. Linn. Soc., XXIV, p-
447) it would seem to bea later publication.

1112 The American Naturalist. [December,

Pocock informed me that the collector of the Ceylon species reported
that the animals were saltatory. This apparent jumping motion, is
caused by vigorous wriggling of the body. At other times they crawl or
run after the manner of other Diplopoda, but are more fleet. Strangely
enough, one of several genera of Spirostreptidg found in Liberia is also
very fleet and has the habit of throwing itself by vigorous wriggling in
the same way as Stemmatoiulus. In Liberia I collected three well-
defined species, here referred to Stemmatoiulus, but noticed no differ-
ences in habitat or habits. All were found among fallen leaves and
decaying vegetable debris in deep forests or other moist and deeply
shaded localities, or rarely in heaps of rubbish in open places.

Structurally considered, these Liberian species show many characters
or combinations unique among recent Diplopoda. It will not be pos-
sible to separate satisfactorily the ordinal, family, generic and specific
characters in this group until the American and Indian forms are
better known, and the following subordinal description will probably
need modification when further investigation has been made.

STEMMATOIULOIDEA, new Suborder.

Body fusiform, distinctly compressed laterally.

Labrum tridentate, with a median tooth.

Eyes of one or two very large ocelli.

Mandibulary stipe with cardo distinct, subequal in size with the
stipe.

Hypostoma present, large.

Mentum entire, very short.

Promentum broad, longer than the mentum.

Lingual lamine distinct, very large, transversely striate; lingual
lobes provided with sense-cones.

Median lobe well-developed, without styliform processes,

Segments not divided by a constriction into anterior and posterior
subsegments; the suture inconspicuous or wanting; dorsally with a dis-
tinct median suture and four pairs of setiferous punctations; surface
divided by longitudinally oblique impressed lines into narrow areas.

Repugnatorial pores present, subdorsal, located in the anterior part of
the segments.

Pleurs incompletely adnate or nearly free from the tergites.

Pedigerous lamin all free, of two different shapes.

Legs eight-jointed, except the first two pairs.

Seminal opening of males through an unpaired two-jointed, external
duct inserted behind the second pair of legs, which are greatly
modified.

1895.] Entomology. 1113

Both pairs of legs of seventh segment of males replaced by copula-
tory organs.

Segments of adults 40-50.

Among these characters some are especially noteworthy :

The ocelli are many times larger than those of other Diplopoda, and
the small number should not be looked upon as an indication that any
reduction or coalescence has taken place, such as sometimes occurs in
cave or subterranean forms.

The lingual laminze of males are as large and as long as the stipes of
the gnathochilarium, and are transversely striate. To accommodate
these large laminz the promentum is greatly reduced, but in the female
the promentum is larger and the lamin correspondingly shortened.

The eight-jointed legs are quite different in form from those of any
other group of Diplopoda. Seven joints is the number in the other
suborders, although the second joint is always very short and in some
case is nearly or quite obsolete. The second joint in Stemmatoiulus is
also small, though larger than in any other Diplopod, and the addi-
tional joint is probably the result of an articulation in last tarsal joint
which in other forms is undivided.

In males the second pair of legs is conspicuously reduced and trans-
formed into a pair of hooks probably of use in copulation,

Behind this second pair of legs is inserted an attenuate, apparently
two-jointed, external seminal duct which lies back between the cox of
the third and fourth pairs of legs, which are medianly hollowed out to
receive it, as the drawings show. No such structure has been found in
other recent Diplopoda, but the Carboniferous Archipolypoda as de-
scribed and figured by Scudder show a probably homologous feature
described by Scudder as an “ intromittent organ.” The copulation of
Stemmatoiulus has not been observed, but as the creatures have the-
usual copulatory legs on the seventh segment it seems more reasonable-
to suppose that in Stemmatoiulus, at least, the function of the structure
in question is to convey the seminal matter to the copulatory organs.

The pleurz are neither free after the manner of Glomeris and
Siphonotus, nor coalesced and obsolete asin Iulus and Polydesmus, but
are anteriorly more or less adnate to the scuta, and posteriorly separ-
ated by a deep incision, Compared with those of the Oniscomorpha
and Colobognatha the pleure of Stemmatoiulus are very small, which,
suggests the possibility that the pleure of Iulus have been lost, and
have not so completely disappeared by mere coalescence.

The segments are provided with eight setz each, instead of six as in
Craspedosomatide, and they rise from punctations instead of tubercles,

76

1114 The American Naturalist. [December,

though in the Iuliform Craspedosomatide the setæ sometimes rise from
punctations, e. g. Caseya. The last segment is rudimentary and has
four conic processes like those of the last segment of Craspedosomatide.
The appearance of sete on the last segment in these diverse forms
accords with the known fact of their great constancy in the other sub-
orders in supporting the view that they are primitive characters and
hence of great importance in classification and the estimation of affin-
ities.

The repugnatorial pores are subdorsal, located in the anterior part
of the segment and oceur in an uninterrupted series from the fifth
segment. The occurrence of sets and pores on the same animal indi-
cates that closer affinity may prove to be possible between the Craspe-
dosomatide and Callipodide than would be indicated by arranging
them in separate suborders.

This combination of characters indicates a wide divergence in devel-
opmental history from the other recent Diplopod types. This diver-
gence is also indicated by the fact that the affinities of Stemmatoiulus
are evidently with the carboniferous forms known as Xylobius. The
segments of Xylobius, according to Scudder’s diagrams, are divided
into so-called “frusta ” by longitudinal impressed lines not apparently
comparable to the striz of Iulide nor to the carine of Callipodide or
Cambalide. Hence I have arranged Stemmatoiulus and Xylobius
as representatives of suborders® under a new ordinal name, Monocheta,
coérdinate with the Oniscomorpha, Limacomorpha, Colobognatha and
other groups noticed below. The comparative study of the Diplopoda
necessary in examining the question of the proper systematic value of
the characters presented by Stemmatoiulus has led me to look upon
the Helminthomorpha of Pocock as a composite group, the different
members of which are not necessarily more related to each other than
to the Oniscomorpha or Limacomorpha.

An apparently satisfactory means of division into groups the mem-
bers of which have more evident affinity among themselves, is to be
found in the location of seminal opening and the structure of the
external seminal ducts when present. Without known exception the
characters drawn from these organs are accompanied by a definite
complex of other features so that there appears to be ample ground for

5 Suborder Xyloiuloidea, to contain the family Xyloiulide, genus Xyloiulus

fossils from the Sigillarian stumps of Nova Scotia. Xylobius Dawson is pre-
occupied, and is replaced by Pyloiulus.

1895.] Entomology. 1115

the claim that the proposed groups® are natural ones. The nature of
the differences by which the Monocheta are maintained as distinct may
be shown by briefly indicating the most important diagnostic features
of the different orders with which they have been confused. Complete
parallel descriptions are in preparation.

Order MEROCHETA.
Median lobe of gnathochilarium with styliform processes.
Seminal openings of males appearing as perforations of the coxæ of
the second pair of legs.
Suborders Polydesmoidea, Craspedosomatoidea, Callipodoidea. |

Order Monocueta.

As defined above. The affinities, as far as these can be indicated, -

seem to place this order between the Merocheta and the Diplocheta.
Suborders Stemmatoiuloidea, Xyloiuloidea.

Order DIPLOCHETA.
Seminal openings through paired ducts inserted at the base of the
second legs.
Suborders Spirostreptoidea, Cambaloidea, Iuloidea.

Order ANOCHETA.

Labrum with a median sinus and an even number of teeth.

Segments 1-5 with one pair of legs each.

Seminal opening single, median, located at the base of the second legs ;
external seminal ducts entirely wanting.

Suborder Spiroboloidea.

Family STEMMATOIULID& Pocock.
Stemmiulide Pocock, Journ. Linn. Soc., XXIV, p. 477.

Genus STEMMATOIULUS Gervais.
Stemmiulus Gervais, Ann. d. Soc. Entom. d. France; 2 series, II,
1844; 3 series, II, p. 70, Pl. V, fig. 11 (1844).
Type St. bisculatus (Gervais and Goudot) ibid.
Locality —Columbia, temperate regions.
eh N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. IX, p. 8, 1895. There seems to be no good reason

which separate them are both fundamental and constant,

1116 The American Naturalist. [December,

The type species had but a single ocellus on each side of the head,
and may prove to represent a genus distinct from the forms with two
ocelli. For the present, however we have no means of estimating the
value of this character and the new Liberian species are provisionally
described under Stemmatoiulus.’

Stemmatoiulus bellus sp. n.
Plates XLI, and XLII, figs. 1-31.

_ Body distinctly fusiform, especially narrowed caudad.

Vertex even, smooth and shining, very finely striate longitudinally,
with a trace of a median suture; no hairs except one on each side
rising from a punctation.

Clypeus even, smooth and shining with a few scattered piliferous
_ punctations; immediately above the labrum with a row of peculiar
clavate, decurved hairs.

Labrum with a rather deep emargination and three teeth separated
by deep incisions.

Eyes of two very large ocelli, the superior of which is larger ; a small
punctiform sense-organ mesad from between the ocelli.

Antenne clavate, the second and fifth joints longest.

Gnathochilarium and mandibles, see plates.

First segment semi-elliptical the inferior corners rounded ; surface
evenly convex, the margins not raised; two or three short striations
near the posterior corners; surface apparently smooth and shining ;
under a lens of sufficient strength it is seen to be very finely striate lon-
gitudinally over the entire surface, as are all the other segments; no
trace of a median line or suture; eight sete rising from punctations
near the posterior margin.

Subsequent segments with a very distinct median dorsal sulcus; on
posterior segments this is gradually more deeply notched posteriorly ;
the whole surface of the segments is very finely and closely striate lon-
gitudinally; in addition to these there are numerous distinct oblique
impressed line or striations, higher in front and at subequal distances
apart, though closer together laterally than dorsally and closer on the
posterior segments than on the anterior; there are about 26 of these
oblique lines, 5-7 above the pores. The impressed lines are finely

TI have seen the types of St. bioculatus (Gervais and Goudot) and of St. com-
pressus Karsch. The latter is a dried female in the Berlin Museum There seem
to be six conic setiferous processes on the last segment; the pore is located in the
third area from the median line; the striæ are wider apart than in the African
animals ; the legs shorter ; the body strongly compressed, short and robust.

1895.] Entomology. 1117

beaded or crossed by minute ridges, something after the manner in
which the transverse sutures of certain Polydesmoidea are ornamented.
The effect of these impressed striations is to give the body a peculiar
satiny sheen. The striations do not appear on the dorsal surface of
the first few segments, but come farther up gradually to about the
tenth.

Repugnatorial pores beginning on the fifth segment; located sub-
dorsally and on the anterior part of the segments, so far in front that
they are frequently concealed by the posterior edges of the adjoining
segment. The pores are below the second seta from the middle, though
the setz are near the posterior margin of the segment; the pores are
usually just below one of the oblique lines which is then sinuate up-
ward around the pores; sometimes the pore is midway between two
lines which are then not sinuate, but are always wider apart than any
other lines, for their whole length. ;

Sete in four pairs; the lowest pair small and inconspicuous, but
always present.

Last segment rudimentary, with four setiferous conic processes.

Anal valves not strongly convex, the margins not compressed or
raised ; surface moderately hirsute with hairs of different lengths, espe-
cially caudad.

Preanal scale nearly semicircular, with the two sete usual in
Diplopoda.

Pleure striate in the same manner as the scuta.

Pedigerous laminz of two sorts, those of the anterior pair of legs of
each segment subtrapezoidal, those of the posterior pairs with the pos-
terior corners produced. The spiracles are large and distinct.

First pair of legs six-jointed in both sexes, the three distal joints
fringed with long hairs.

Second legs of male modified into hooks; four joints are distinguish-
able, the two lower nearly coalesced. Second legs of female reduced,
five-jointed, the joints fringed with long hairs, as are those of the first
pair.

Legs 3-5 of males distinctly crassate, the others slender. The
distal joints of the anterior male legs have peculiar stout spines or
chitinous processes in addition to the usual and ordinary hairs.

Copulatory legs of male, see figures.

Color a dark though bright, horn-brown; a narrow yellow median
stripe; a row of light (whitish) spots in which the pores are located.
The dark: color stops at the middle line of side, and below this the
animal is colored a bright orange or light brownish-yellow; legs and

1118 The American Naturalist. [December,

ventral surface pale yellowish or nearly white. Head and antenne
dark. Second and third segments bright yellow, and forming a con-
spicuous collar.

Length 25-30 mm., width 2°5 mm., dorso-ventral diameter 3 mm.
Segments 48-50.

Locality: Not rare in Western Liberia; Monrovia, Muhlenburg
Mission, and Mt. Coffee. I have examined about 40 mature specimens.
The females seem to be somewhat more numerous than the males.

The above description may be taken as somewhat generic, at least.
for the Liberian species. In the remaining two only characters differ-
ing from those of St. bellus are given.

Stemmatoiulus pencillatus sp. n.
Plate XLIII, figs. 32-46.

Body slender, not so distinctly fusiform as in the last species.

.Segments with setiferotis punctations inconspicuous; dorsal suture
and sulcus more distinct and notched posteriorly; the impressed lines
more distinct and the surface of the segment between somewhat more
convex than in St. bellus.

Second male legs with a pencil of long hairs rising from the third
joint, where in St. bellus there is a cluster of shorter hairs. On the
fourth joint is a pectinate row of curved spines in, St. bellus represented
by a cluster at apex.

3-5 of males more strongly crassate haat in St. bellus.

Copulatory legs quite distinct in form, see figures.

Colors in general similar to that of St. bellus, but not so bright,
mottled horn-brown. Median stripe broader, but rather indistinct, red-
dish-brown ; spots about the pores very indistinct, horn-color, lighter
than the surrounding surface. The dark color ceases at about the
middle of the side, but not very constantly or abruptly. Immediately
below there may be a row of dull orange spots, or the whole lower
lateral surface may be a mottled light horn-brown. Feet whitish,
antennee dark, except the last joint. Second and third segments not
yellow, but rather darker than the others; the first segment is occasion-
ally yellowish.

Length of male 19 mm., width, 1:25 mm.; female 22 mm. and 1°75
mm., there being a much more noticeable disparity in size than in the
preceeding species. Segments 50-53.

` Locality: A rare species in Western Liberia; Mt. Coffee and Muh-
lenburg Mission.

1895.] Entomology. 1119

Stemmatoiulus calvus sp. n.
Plate XLIV, figs. 47-57.

Body smaller and less fusiform than in St. bellus, but more robust
than in St. pencillatus ; lateral compression not so strong.

Segments with the minute longitudinal striations less distinct than on
St. bellus; the coarser striations less oblique and less distinct ; the pores
seem to be slightly more dorsal. -

Second male legs almost without hairs on the two distal joints, which
are also much more slender than in the two preceeding species.

Length 3-5 distinctly crassate, but less so than in the other Liberian
species.

Copulatory legs of characteristic form, see figures. A notable differ-
ence is shown in the basal lamina of the anterior face. In both other
species this is broad and distally emarginate ; in St. calvus it runs out
into an attenuate process.

Color: In life this species appears to be banded with black and white
alternately, as the posterior part of each segment is subhyaline and ap-
pears white. In alcohol the color is dark horn-brown, nearly black,
somewhat mottled; median dorsal line very narrow orange, sometimes
nearly or quite obsolete. A row of lighter horn-brown spots along the
pores and another similar row at an equal interval below; the dark
color is not interrupted at the median line of side as in the other species,
but extends down nearly to the pleural suture. Under surface, legs,
` and apical joint of antennz whitish.

Length 22 mm., width 2 mm. ; number of segments, 44-47.

Locality—A rare species in Western Liberia. Found only in the
region of the Mangrove Swamps in vicinity of Monrovia; I have
collected a few specimens on Busbrod Island and along the Mesurado
River, of which two are mature males.

A considerable quantity of young specimens were collected, but they
are difficult of determination and have not been given much study. In
young individuals of all the species the color is a uniform grayish. I
have also collected forms congeneric with the Liberian at Sierra Leone
and at Conakry, French Gambia, but no mature males were secured.

The drawings of the Liberian species here submitted are supposed to
show, in addition to the specific characters, the apparent constancy of
the more fundamental and important features on which the higher
divisions have been based. On this account figures of the same struct-
ures have been repeated for each species, even when the specific differ-
ences were not important.—O. F. Cook.

1120 The American Naturalist. [December,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Pirate XLI.

Stemmatoiulus bellus—Fig. 1. Gnathochilarium of male; 2. Part
of same, more magnified ; 3. Gnathochilarium of female; 4. Antenna
of male; 5. First pair of legs of male, posterior view; 6. Second pair
of male legs, anterior view; 7. Same, posterior view, showing also the
external seminal duct; 8. One of the second male legs, lateral view,
more magnified ; 9. Same, posterior view ; 10. Third leg of male, pos-
terior view ; 11. Fourth leg of male, posterior view; 12. Fifth leg of
male, anterior view; 13. Sixth leg of male, anterior view; 14. Tenth
leg of male, anterior view; 15. Male genitalia, anterior view; 16,
Same, posterior view.

Puate XLII.

Stemmatoiulus bellus—Figs. 17. Anterior pair of legs of a segment
from the middle of the body, anterior view; 18. Posterior view of basal
portion of same; 19. Posterior pair of legs from same segment; 20.
First four segments, ventral face; 21. Lateral and ventral portion of
a segment from the middle of the body, showing the pleural suture ;
22. Mandible; 23. Head, lateral view, showing antennal socket, two
large ocelli, mandibulary stipes and gnathochilarium; 24. Dorso-
lateral part of a segment, showing the median line at the left, the
sculpture, repugnatorial pores, and three sete; 25. Last three seg-
ments, dorsal yiew; 26. Same, ventral view ; 27. Same, lateral view ;
28. First pair of legs of female, posterior view ; 29. Second pair of legs
of female, posterior view; 30. Third pair of legs of female, posterior
view; 31. Fourth pair of legs of male, anterior view.

Prate XLIII.

Stemmatoiulus pencillatus.—Figs. 32. Antenna of male; 33. Gna-
thochilarium of male; 34. Leg of first pair of male; 35. Second
male leg, anterior-lateral view ; 36. Second pair of male legs, posterior
view, showing also the exterior seminal duct; 37. Third pair of male
legs, posterior view ; 38. Apical joints of same, more magnified ; 39.
Fourth pair of male legs, basal joints, posterior view; 40. Fifth pair
of male legs, anterior view; 41. Sixth male leg, anterior view; 42.
Seventh male leg, anterior view; 43. Male genitalia, anterior view;
44. Same, posterior view; 45. Labrum, exterior view; 46. Same, inte-
rior view.

Puate XLIV.
- Stemmatoiulus calvus.—Figs. 47. Gnathochilarium of male; 48.
Antenna; 49. First male leg; 50. Second male leg, anterior face; 51.

PLATE KLL
ree

11
Cook on Myriapoda.

PLATE XLII.

Myriapoda.

Cook on

PLATE XLIII.

Cook on Myriapoda.

PLATE XLIV.

1895.] Embryology. ee 1121

Second pair of male legs and external seminal duct, posterior view ;
52; Third legs of male, posterior view ; 53 ; Fourth legs of male, pos-
terior view ; 54, Fifth legs of male, posterior view ; 55; Sixth legs of
male, posterior view; 56. Male genitalia, anterior view; 57. Same,
posterior view.

EMBRYOLOGY.

Conjugation of the Brandling (continued from page 1027).—It is
an error to suppose that there is any great accuracy of adjustment of
ring to ring in this process of conjugation ; there are no openings of one
to be brought opposite to openings in the other but only the long girdle
to be applied to the region of the sperm receptacles which open between
the ninth and tenth and the tenth and eleventh rings. When the
girdle envelopes this region, as seen in the two-constricted parts of the
figure, the enlarged intermediate region with the openings of the male
ducts may be drawn backwards or forwards without need of accurate
coincidence with certain rings on the other worm.

Having hardened conjugating brandlings after killing in boiling
water we may cut sections of the two and obtain some insight into the
anatomical relations of various parts during, or at least at any given
stage of the process of sexual interchange. In longitudinal median
sections we find such cunditions as are indicated in figure 2 which re-
presents the true relative size and positions of the organs although
small details are omitted and the organs are represented in a conven-
tional way. We see the somewhat free head end of the upper worm
then the constricted region, the long swollen region, the second con-
stricted part and the head end of the lower worm.

Examining the upper worm from the head backward we see that in
the first-eight rings the digestive tract has a large muscular and
glandular thickening of its dorsal wall, that the brain lies in the cavity
of the third ring while the nerve cord is shown ventrally just as in the
normal worm at ordinary times. The ninth and tenth rings form a
small swelling sharply cut off by very deep constrictions of the body
wall from the regions in front and behind. In these two rings the diges-

1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and
_ preliminary notes may be sent.

1122 The American Naturalist. [ December,

tive tract is reduced to a more slender tubule with scarcely any lumen.
The main bulk of this region is made up by the seminal receptacles
two of which are shown as swollen bags full of fresh sperm. There are
in all four such bags two opening between the 9th and lOth and two
between the 10th and 11th; as indicated in this figure the openings of
those bags are tubules that run out through the body wall on the
dorsal side, not on the median line but some distance right and left.

Immediately after the region of the sperm receptacles follows the long
enlargment that reaches from the 12th to 25th rings inclusive. Here the
digestive tract enlarges as the soft-walled crop in the fifteenth and six-
teenth rings and then narrows as the gizzard with very thick walls.
Then from about the eighteenth ring the intestine runs back as a much
distended tube full-of liquid. The great accumulation of liquid in this
swollen part of the body between the two constricted areas is a marked
feature ; the same congested state pertains to the dorsal blood vessel
which is seen as a very thick tube dorsal to the intestine though in the
constricted sperm-receptacle region it is reduced to a scarcely observ-
able and collapsed state.

What gives this long intermediate region its excessive pilitapis
and distended appearance at the anterior end, where it seems to over-
hang the first constriction as seen in fig. 1, is the presence of the huge
sperm vesicles, or as they are sometimes called testes, which are quite
full of sperm is various stages of development. They are roughly in-
dicated in figure 2 as large dorsal bags in the 12th to 16th rings. The
body wall in this region is thin from distension and the diameter of the
section is great from the presence of these seminal receptacles, the
gorged intestine and blood vessel and the accumulated liquid of the
body cavity.

The following region, ftom the 26th to 33rd rings is the girdle. It
has a much thickened glandular wall and is contracted so that the sec-
tion is small, the intestine, body cavity and blood-vessel all compressed.
Just posterior to this the section enlarges and the organs take on a
more normal state of expansion.

Looking now at the lower worm we find the anterior part essentially
as in the first case but the next region is even more powerfully con-
stricted so that these 9th and 10th rings make but a very small show-
ing in the entire section.

One of the sperm receptacles is crowded back out of this region into
the greatly enlarged part that follows. The constriction between the
two regions has here taken place in the middle of the eleventh ring and
the pressure has forced the posterior seminal receptacle of the small
contracted region into the large mass that holds the seminal vesicles.

1895.] Embryology. 1123

In the elongated region from the twelfth to the twenty-sixth rings
the distension of the intestine and the great protuberance caused by the
large crowded lobes of the seminal vesicles are even more pronounced
than in the other worm.

The girdle is much contracted and constricted towards the ends in
such a way that its thickened glandular wall extends both forward and
backward beyond the constrictions into the neighboring regions.

From such sections we learn that the girdle and the region opposite
it and containing the seminal receptacles are much contracted while the
long intermediate region between the girdle is correspondingly dis-
tended. The ends of the girdle contractions are markedly constricted

as deep annular grooves in which coagulated mucous serves as a cord

to bind the two worms firmly together. The distended region is the
one that contains the seminal vesicles full of sperm and the openings
of their ducts on the fifth ring.

In a series of transverse sections of the anterior portions of two con-
jugating brandlings the condition of affairs at the contracted girdle
region is especially striking. As shown in figure 5 oue worm more
than half envelopes the other. The upper part of the figure is the
girdle region with its thick glandular and thinner muscular parts of
the body-wall on the dorsal and lateral sides but with a much attenu-
ated body-wall on the ventral side, which is pushed in so that the
lateral parts hang down and form a deep trough for the reception of
the other worm. The other worm, below in the figure, is so much con-
tracted that the muscular part of its body wall is very thick and it is
moreover thrown into folds that farther increase its extreme diminu-
tion in diameter. Its body cavity is very small and the digestive tract
in it reduced to a minute tube as compared with the intestine in the
other half of the section, in the girdle region of the other worm. In
this shrivelled part of the worm enveloped by the girdle we see the
ducts or outlets of two of the seminal receptacles, full of ripe sperm
that stains deeply and is indicated in black.

This section passes nearly between the ninth and tenth or tenth and
eleventh rings of the worm enclosed below by the girdle of the worm
above which is cut across about the twenty-eighth to thirtieth ring.

The figure also indicates a cuticle like membrane passing from the
girdle completely over the dorsal side of the other worm ; this is hard-
ened mucous that lies close to the worms and binds them together. At
the same time there is a smal] space left between the epidermis and this
mucous cuticle and in this we find ripe sperm, especially, as indicated
in the figure, in the angles where the surfaces of the two worms
separate.

i) The American Naturalist. RA

As the sperm stains very darkly it may be easily recognized in sec-
tions. Itis found in the sperm ducts of both worms as well as in the
sperm receptacles, where some of it is not even now ripe. Tt is also seen
issuing out of the openings of the sperm ducts onto the outside of the
body in both animals. There it may be traced for some distance as it
is held beneath the pseudo-cuticle of mucous that envelopes the worms.
Especially abundant along lateral lines it rises up onto the dorsal side
of the worm enclosed by the girdle and may there be seen collected
about the openings of the seminal receptacles and traced into the short
ducts of these organs to the mass that more or less fills up these four
bags in all the conjugating brandlings as yet studied.

The anatomical evidence thus shows that in the conjugation of
brandlings the girdles form grasping organs that envelope the part of
the other worm containing the seminal receptacles and that a secretion,
probably from the girdles, binds the two worms firmly together at these
two regions. It also demonstrates that both worms pour out sperm
onto the outside of the body and that this passes some distance back-
wards and not forwards along the sides of the worms and is finally
taken into the seminal receptacles. We cannot, however, decide from
these sections whether none of the sperm of one animal enters its own
receptacles, but there is nothing to militate against the facts observed
on the live Lumbricus, by Hering, that is the passing of two currents
of sperm, each backward from its orifice to the girdle and so into the
other animal and the sections indicate that no sperm passes forward to
the animals own receptacles.

In the main the process of conjugation in the brandling as deduced
from the anatomical relations of preserved pairs harmonizes exactly
with the observations made upon the live Lumbricus and as we have
seen by sectioning conjugating Lumbricus that the anatomical relations
are almost the same as in the brandling we have little doubt that direct
observation upon the brandling when they are made, will be pt et a
confirmation of Hering’s account.

Yet the action of the girdle may be somewhat different since the
dorsal opening of the seminal receptacles in the brandling as compared
with the ventral opening in Lumbricus makes it difficult to understand
how such movements of the girdle as described above by Hering can
collect the sperm about the openings of the receptacles though they
might bring it to the lateral positions shown in fig. 5. In the brand-
ling even more than in the large Lumbricus we may suppose with Her-
ing that same sucking action of the receptacles may be concerned in
taking in the sperm.

1895.] Embryology. 1125

We are probably not far wrong in concluding that conjugation is
essentially the same in Allolobophora fetida and Lumbricus terrestris.

In addition to filling the sperm receptacles of the other worm con-
jugation commonly leaves a trace in the form of theso-called spermato-
phores, or penis of Hering and older writers, which may here receive
attention less from their intrinsic value than from their bearing, though
it be slight, upon the important suggestion advanced by Professor Whit-
man namely that spermatophores might have been the original means
of transferring sperm and only later superceded, in most animals, by
localized organs for transmission. Though in the earthworms the
foreign sperm is discharged from the receptacles when the eggs are laid
and fertilizes them outside the body it might be supposed that these
spermatophores in question were remnants of a formerly useful
apparatus for putting sperm from one animal into the other, such as is
found in some leeches. In the brandling, however, the indications seem
rather to favor the idea that the spermatophore here is in a sense
accidental and of no historical value so that it cannot be relied upon
in extending the condition found amongst leeches to other groups, even
if related,

When conjugating brandlings are separated we often find upon one
or the other or both such spermatophores as are indicated in fig. 3.
They are conspicuous white specks that soon turn yellow-brown though
preserving a milk-white central elevation.

When pulled off from the epidermis, to which it adheres quite firmly
at first, each is a homogeneous membrane or hardened secretion with a
central cavity full of ripe sperm that moves when crushed out.

In a section of such a spermatophore attached between two rings we
see, in figure 4, that it is very closely attached to the epidermis and that
it ends abruptly, in fig. 3 it is seen to have a ragged edge and may also
present outlying bits separately attached to the skin. The contained
sperm lies in layered masses as if ejected into a stiffening jelly ; more-
over this mass is not entirely closed in as the section, fig. 4, would indi-
eate but lies in a pit or pouch that opens at the top, in other sections, so
that the sperm may be squeezed out in a fresh specimen. The sperm-
atophore is thus a mass of sperm lying in an irregular cup of some
tough secretion that is spread out on the skin and stuck to it.

Of 220 live brandlings taken at the conjugating season of the year
84 had spermatophores attached at about the 22nd ring of the body.
Generally there are two sometimes but one, generally they are attached
so as to cover the groove between two rings as in fig. 4 but often they
are on the face of a ring as in fig. 3.

1126 The American Naturalist. [December

Of fifteen pairs taken in conjugation May 8th, 1892, five had sperm-
atophores as follows: two symmetrically placed, between rings 22 and
23; one on the right side of the 23rd ; two symmetrically placed on the
23rd; one on the left between the 23rd and 24th; two symmetrically
placed on the 24th.

The region in which these bodies are found, the 22nd to 24th rings is
opposite to the openings of the male organs of the other animal during
conjugation, as already emphasized and indicated in figs. 1 and 2, and as
the distance between the bodies, when there are two, is equal to that
between the two male openings we are led to infer that these
spermatophores are formed where the male openings are pressed against
the other animal.

In serial transverse sections we find where the sperm is issuing
from the male openings a condition of things such as is indicated in
fig. 6. In the angle between the sides of the two worms just exterior
to the closely applied ventral surfaces there is a considerable accum-
ulation of sperm which is continuous with that issuing from the male
opening. This extends backwards along the side of the worm that is
ejecting it and is covered over by a dense, mucous, cuticle-like membrane
as indicated in the figure. The glands near the male opening are
‘evidently active and pouring out a dense secretion which fills up most
of the space between the two worms and partly envelopes the large sperm
mass. We have here what seems to be, with little doubt, a spermato-
phore in process of formation; the secretion of the glands about the
male opening forms a dense mass adhering to the other worm and
receiving in its substance a considerable collection of sperm as it issues
forth. When the worms separate the secretion should adhere to the
worm opposite to the male opening and leave in it a little mass of sperm ;
thus might arise spermatophores as are shown in fig. 3.

If the spermatophores are formed in this way as entangling of some
sperm in a local secretion about the male opening and are stuck to the
other worm they might still be of use in fertilizing the eggs of that
worm when they pass into the egg capsule for the egg capsule would
glide forward from the girdle over the region where the spermatophores
are stuck and perhaps carry them off. But it is very doubtful if the
spermatophores remain attached till the eggs are laid. Of twenty-two
worms bearing spermatophores not one had them after forty-eight hours
when kept in confinement, nor were any eggs laid in that time.

Though we regard the spermatophore as an accidental or at least
useless structure as far as it has to do with any preservation of sperm
we would not deny that the secretion about the male opening has a use
whether sperm sticks in it or not.

1895. ] Psychology. 1127

Possibly this dense mass may serve to check the spreading of sperm
in a forward direction and make more certain its passage backward to-
wards the region where it can reach the receptacles of the other worm.

The balance of evidence seem to be that the spermatophores of the
brandling, and by inference those of other earthworms too, are of no
use after the process of conjugation is finished, that they do not serve
to convey sperm and hence are not spermatophores at all in any proper
sense of the word.—E. A. ANDREWs.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Criminology.—In a series of articles on Les Régles de la Méthode
Sociologique, recently contributed to the Revue Philosophique (May,
June, July and Aug., 1894), Prof. Emile Durkheim, of Bordeaux, has
taken occasion to advance a somewhat novel theory of crime and its
relation to the normal social organism. This he restates and reaffirms
in the May number, 1895, in reply to a rather intemperate attack
made by M. G. Tarde in February. The whole controversy is of inter-
est as showing how easily familiar facts assume a new and even para-
doxical guise when put in ambiguous language.

Prof. Durkheim finds his point of departure in the impossibility of
getting from the subjective or the teleological points of view any satis-
factory definition of the concepts normal and pathological. The morbid
is not necessarily painful e. g., hysterical anæsthesia and, vice-versa, the
painful is sometimes normal, e. g., menstruation, parturition. The nor-
- mal cannot be defined as that which is adapted to its environment, for
it is not proved that every state of the organism must be adapted to
some external state, and, in any case, we lack a criterion to judge be-
tween greater and less degrees of adaptation. Noris the normal that
which is fitted to survive, since, e. g., infancy and old age are normal,
and, on the other hand, many morbid states do not appreciably shorten
life. There remains, then, only one suitable meaning which we can
give these words. The normal is the general, the usual, the average.
The abnormal, morbid or pathological is the exceptional and unusual.
It follows then that the conception of a healthy organism is practically
identical with that of the organism as such. Health will also be

1 This department is edited by Dr. Wm. Romaine Newbold, University of Penn-
sylvania.

1128 The American Naturalist. | December,

desirable, for the normal or average traits which constitute it are
grouped together chiefly by reason of their common utility to the spe-
cles.

The importance of the above analysis, Prof. Durkheim continues,
will become evident if we apply it to a single problem. All criminol-
ogists are agreed that crime isa pathological phenomenon. Yet, in
the light of the foregoing, the error of this view is at once apparent.
Crime is found in all societies of all types, and is indissolubly con-
nected with the conditions of social life; it must therefore he regarded
as anormal phenomenon. By this admission we do not merely mean
that it is inevittable, although regrettable; we mean “that it is a factor
of the public health, an integral part of every healthy society.” Good rea-
sons can be given for this conclusion. In the first place, crimé can never
be abolished. It consists in the offence of certain collective sentiments
If those sentiments could be made strong enough to suppress the pres--
ent forms of crime, they would, by reason of their greater sensitiveness,
take fresh offence at acts now regarded as venial, and crime would be
as far from extinction as ever. In the second place, since it depends
upon conditions which are essential to life, it must itself be regarded as
advantageous. In the third place, this occasional clash of the individ-
ual with the collective sentiment of the community is an essential con-
dition of progress. The abolition of crime would be the abolition of
progress. “ Thus we see the fundamental facts of criminology in a
quite new aspect. Contrary to current notions, the criminal no longer
appears a radically unsocial being, a parasitic element as it were, a
foreign and unassimilable body introduced into the midst of society ;
he is a legitimate instrument of social life. Crime should no longer be
conceived as an evil that cannot be contained within too narrow
bounds; but, so far from congratulating ourselves when it chances to
fall too noticeably below its usual level, we should feel confident that
our apparant progress is accompanied by, and is even organically con-
tinuous with, some social disturbance.” . . . . “Since crime is
not. morbid, its cure cannot be the end of punishment, and that end
must be sought elsewhere.” To these startling deductions Prof. Durk-
heim adds some even more startling reflections upon the practical ad-
vantages of this truly and only scientific method of investigation. No
longer need human effort be wasted in the pursuit of fantastic and
indefinable ideals. The desired and desirable end, that is, social
health, is something definite and known; we need only labor to main-
tain the normal state of affairs, to reéstablish it if it is disturbed, to re-
construct its conditions if they tend to change.

1895,] Psychology. 1129

To this argument M. Tarde replies by reaffirming the prevalent view
that crime is hurtful to society, and therefore a menace to progress,
contests Prof. Durkheim’s attempt to exclude from the definition of the
normal the teleological element and concludes, most unhappily, as I
think, with a protest against the admission of “science,” reason’s off-
spring, as the supreme guide of life to the exclusion of “the heart, the
soul, the imagination.” To which Prof. Durkheim calmly replies by
admitting all his opponent can say as to the evil effect of crime; his
sole point is that crime is an inevitable outcome of the laws of life,
must therefore be regarded as normal, and is both indirectly and
directly advantageous, in spite of its disadvantages.

Although surrendering no one of his original arguments, the tone of
this reply is very different from that of his first statement. The enthu-
siasm of the iconoclast has given way to the determination of one con-
vinced of his point, although apparently anxious to overlook its prac-
tical consequences.

The fallacies in Prof. Durkheim’s argument are evident enough,
although M. Tarde fails to see them. They lie in the ambiguity of the
words normal and crime. “ Normal” properly means “ conformable to
type,” or “conformable to the standard.” The type is primarily de-
termined by the average of instances, and has no direct reference to
the end subserved. We may thus regard a given scrap of stone, a
case of typhoid fever as normal, i. e., as types of their kind, without any
covert teleological reference. But, when, in any given class, con-
duciveness to a given end is a relatively constant feature, it necessarily
becomes embedded in the type-concept and the latter becomes teleologi-
cal. It would thus be impossible to define a normal knife without
explicitly or implicitly including fitness for cutting as one of its
elements. When the end subserved is generally advantageous, a ten-
dency manifests itself to enforce upon individuals conformity to the
type and the latter thus assumes to the consciousness of the community
the form of a standard to which one ought to conform. Again, since
in the realm of nature constant features are usually due to the opera-
tion of fixed laws, the normal in the first sense is frequently necessary.
But the normal is not always necessary, as it is not necessary that a
human adult be above three feet in height, although the normal adult
is. The word “abnormal” is not the simple negative of “ normal,”
but is properly the negative of its second sense only. “ Morbid” and
“ pathological ” are used in yet narrower sense. When we endeavor to
discover the concept “normal” in the phenomena of life, we meet
with a new difficulty. The phenomena of life are always manifested

77

1130 The American Naturalist. [December,

by individuals, but their function is two-fold. At first glance it appears
to be the preservation of the individual, but a closer examination shows
that they can subserve that end only in so far as it conduces to the
preservation of the race. Thus phenomena may be found which con-
-duce to the preservation of the race, or which are absolutely in harmony
-with it, while endangering that of the individual. The words “ morbid”
and “ pathological ” primarily denote that which tends to the destruc-
tion of the individual ; secondarily, they are used of that which tends
to the destruction of the race. They are not antithetical to “normal ”
in its first sense of “typical,” but in its second sense only. Their
proper antithesis is “ healthful.”

A similar ambiguity lurks in the word cerime. Prof. Durkheim
would define it as an act which is repressed by the sense of the com-
munity. This is not itscommon meaning. As ordinarily used, it de-
notes an act which is not condemned, but econdemnable; the latter word
involves reference to a standard, and that standard may be defined in
‘various ways. The standard which is more or less explicitly recog-
‘nized by most of us who are accustomed to the biological way of think-
‘ing, is “ conduciveness to preservation,” and this is implicitly acknowl-
edged by Prof. Durkheim himself.

If we follow his reasonings with these distinctions in mind, the
paradoxical character of the conclusions vanishes. Let us quote his
-words and bring to view in italics the ambiguity of the thought:

“To class crime among the phenomena of normal sociology, as we
are justified in doing because it is found in every society (1st sense of
“normal”’), is equivalent, since that which is normal is also conducive
to preservation (2d sense of “ normal”), to affirming that it is a factor
of public health, an integral part of every sound society,” P. 591.

Evidently this depends upon a confusion between the first and second
uses of “ normal.”

The second argument would prove that crime is necessary and there-
fore useful. The paradox depends upon the double sense of “ crime.”
If we remember that Prof. Durkheim means no more than individnal
transgression of the majority’s will, the paradox vanishes. We may
also admit that such transgression is occasionally useful. The question as
to its necessity is more difficult. Prof. Durkheim conceives of progress
as the resultant of two opposing factors, the tendency to innovation on
the part of individuals, and the tendency of society to suppress innova-
tions, hence those innovations only survive which are found to be
advantageous. He tacitly assumes that the innovations of individuals
must be as much disadvantageous as advantageous, and infers that any

1895.] Psychology. 1131

increase in the intensity of the repressive factor must tend to the
suppression of all forms of innovations alike, and hence must extinguish
progress. For this conclusion I can see no warrant. The tendency of
individuals to disadvantageous variation is not, in fact, proportioned to
the tendency to advantageous, and as the latter gains ground upon the
former, the necessity for stringent suppression on the part of the com-
munity diminishes. In ethical terms, with the moralization of the
individual, laws and penalties become superfluous. With the increase
in average intelligence also goes an increase in the intelligence with
which the repressive instinct is exercised and a greater freedom in
choice is allowed the individual than was found in earlier stages of
development.

Thus Prof. Durkheim’s startling paradox dissolves upon examina-
tion. Crime, in the narrower sense of the word, i. e., conduct disad-
vantageous to the community, is not shown to be essential to the exist-
ence of variations in conduct which may prove advantageous to the
community, since we have reason to believe that continuous decrease
in the former is entirely compatible with continuous increase of the
latter.

The Habits of Nestor.—Mr. Taylor White gives, in the last
number of the Zoologist, an interesting account of the Kea or Nestor
notabilis, the parroquet of New Zealand, which is so often cited as an
example of a gramnivorous bird becoming, on occasion, carnivorous,
and which is reputed to attack sheep and devour the delicate fat which
-envelops the kidneys. Mr. White lives in New Zealand, and can ob-
serve the bird close at hand.

According to him, the Kea subsists principally on lichens and not
on fruits or grain, for it is found at some distance from the forest,
among rocks and on bare ground. Like other animals unaccustomed
to man; the Kea exhibits no fear at first sight. It allows itself to be
approached, and Mr. White speaks of some of the birds playing about
him, even becoming familiar enough to peck the buttons on his boots.
Others would perch on his hand and allow themselves to be caressed.
In captivity, they eat both bread and meat. Their powerful beaks
enable them to break the bars of strong wooden cages.

As to the carnivorous habits of these birds, Mr. White speaks as fol-
lows: About the year 1861, sheep were introduced, and after some
years it was noticed that a certain number of them died, and on the
backs of these, behind the shoulder, in the neighborhood of the kid-
neys, was found a peculiar wound. About this time it was discovered
that the Kea was the enemy of the sheep. In selecting a victim the

1132 The American Naturalist. [December,

Kea prefers an animal with long fleece to which it can cling. It would
seem, moreover, that the bird is after the fat rather than the flesh. A
Kea has never been seen on a dead body, and the probabilities are that
it also feeds on the blood. The various stories told of the Kea are
then true in part—it does attack sheep. But it is naturally carnivo-
rous, for, in addition to fruits and grains, it feeds on insects. It has,
then, not changed its régime in adding mutton to its ménu; it has
simply extended its depredations. Revue Scientif., Aug., 1895, p. 248.)

ANTHROPOLOGY.

A preliminary examination of aboriginal remains near
Pine Island, Marco, West Florida.—The significance of Colonel
Durnford’s able and interesting communication to the AMERICAN
NATURALIST for November, 1895, descriptive of his discoveries in South
West Florida last Spring, may gain force, it is thought by the courteous
Editor of this Department, if I add a few comments in regard to my
own later observations in the same field, and in regard to the relation
this find seems to bear to Eastern American Archeology in general.

It was my good fortune to be under the care of Doctor William Pep-
per and at the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania when
Colonel Durnford called at the Museum of the University and exhibited
a few of his valuable specimens to its Director, Mr. Stewart Culin. It
was also my good fortune both to meet Colonel Durnford and see his
specimens at the time, and to receive from him then a full account of,
and later, a series of detailed notes upon, his exploration.

From these communications and from examination of the articles he
brought, I inferred that probably Colonel Durnford had investigated
not an isolated place of the sort he so well describes, but a typical de-
posit such as might, by further search, be discovered in connection with
other shell settlements in the same region. I therefore did not hesitate
to pronounce this find of his one of the most important yet made on
our southern coasts, and with a view to ascertaining more relative to
its nature and to learning whether my inference in regard to its typical
character was tenable or not, I gladly seized the opportunity afforded
by the suggestion of Doctor Pepper, (whose views coincided with mine)
that I extend a health-trip in the South, to the scenes of Colonel Durn-

1 The department is edited by Henry C. Mercer, University of Penna, Phila.

1895.] Anthropology. 1133

ford’s excavation, and, in the interest of the Archzological Association
of the University of Pennsylvania, make examinations and, so far as
might be collections there.

On reaching Florida, I found that it was impracticable to proceed
beyond Punta Gorda, directly to the place Colonel Durnford and Mr,
Wilkins had excavated. Procuring at this place a little sloop and two
men, I therefore followed a somewhat round about course, exploring
the greater number of keys or little islands lying along the way thence
southward to the point in question, namely Collier’s, near Marco. At
the first key examined, some fifteen miles south of Punta Gorda, I
found to my astonishment, that all its heights had resulted from arti-
ficial accumulations of shells, not irregularly piled up, like mere refuse
heaps, but more or less structurally and regularly reared on a shallow
reef in relatively shoal waters, to serve apparently as the core or central
foundation of a village of enormous extent. These heights were fringed
interruptedly by lower platforms and long, out-reaching winrows, so to
say, of additional shell accumulations, some several feet high, others
scarcely elevated above the level of high tide. Penetrating portions alike
of these low shell embankments and of the central tumuli or cores, were
openings long, narrow, and measurably straight through which the
waters of the bay still to some extent ebbed and flowed. When seen from
the highest points (for every portion of the key was covered with a tangled
jungle of trees, vines and tropical plants, agaves and cacti, and when
looked at from below was hidden by the dark, dense margin of mangoes)
these openings seemed all to tend toward some central point or points ;
and on descending and following one of them I was led into a veritable
water-plaza around which clustered the gigantic mounds of shell—
each set of them between its channel-like openings.: I then realized
that this central space—which had an irregular extent of more than an
acre—was the filled up basin of a shallow lake formed rather by the
rearing of structures around it than by other artificial means, and now
filled to high tide level by washings from these heights and by growths
of aquatic plants. I further realized that the openings leading into
this place were actual canals, preserved or kept clear between the shell
mounds or platforms, ete., for the passage in and out of the canoes of
the dwellers on and around the heights. An examination of the sides
of the highest of the central shell mounds or cores surrounding this
water-plaza or lake court, revealed ere long a fairly well preserved
road-way leading up to near the summit of the mound, and with eyes
thus opened, I soon found other, though less distinct roadways or trails
on the shell slopes, leading up to lesser heights around. Following

1134 The American Naturalist. [December,

these trails down to what was once the water’s edge of the lake (which
was even now so marshy that I could not excavate it with so limited a
force) I found more than a hundred of the typical pierced busycon
shells or conchas, such as had once (I later determined) served as the
armatures or heads of hammers, clubs, picks, hoes and chisels or celts,.
etc., as was even then manifest to me in the various forms (pecked
or ground) of their more tapering portions or whorl ends." Thus I was.
at once convinced that this was another such place,—shell heaps, canals,
central lagoon and all, as Colonel Durnford had described, yet on a
scale so vast that I could scarcely believe it to have been artificial,
wholly the work of human hands. What I have here described was
more or less typical of no fewer than eleven others of these shell settle-
ments later examined on various keys or on out-lying reefs of Pine Is-
land, and the mainland below Punta Rassa. In the lagoon of one of
the lower keys (off Pine Island), I was able to excavate sufficiently to
determine that it too, contained the remains of objects of arts as was
evidenced by a wattling plummet, a hammer stone (rare indeed in those
parts where shell and bone seem to have replaced to a great extent the
stone so common in other ancient camp sites) and a busycon shell pick
still mounted on its original handle of mango wood! With this find I
was convinced of the typical nature of the original Collier muck-bed as
described in Colonel Durnford’s notes, even ere I saw it, and the dis-
covery here, and later in the edge of one of the great canals of the con-
tiguous island, of the remains of pile work, suggested that these great
shell settlements had been surrounded inside and out by post-supported
platforms, from which alike implements, etc., now found in the mud as
described by Colonel Durnford, and the shell rows or heaps alongside,
which I have designated winrows, had been dropped. This, eked out.
by many later observations, solved the problem of the origin, as well as
of the structural character of these great shell settlements. On reach-
ing Collier’s, I was most courteously received by Mr. and Mrs. Collier.
Excavations alongside the diggings of Mr. Wilkins and Colonel
Durnford, and still further in toward the center and one side of the
muck bed, although made under water mostly (for the rainy season had
set in) revealed within the few hours I could devote to the work other
relics of the kind Colonel Durnford has described—net-pins, seine-

1 I find, and it gives me pleasure to state here that in some of his earliest admir-
able communications to this Magazine relative to the Mounds of St. John’s River,
Florida, Mr. Clarence Moore arrives at almost identical conclusions regarding the
uses of these pierced shells, and that my later finds in the mucks beds of old
lagoons on Demorest’s key and at Collier’s fully confirm these conclusions.

1895.] Anthropology. 1135

stays, small fragments of netting, and the like, as well as rope made of
palmetto and agave fibre, burnt thatch, a long and beautifully finished
spar or post, fragments of a burnt mud hearth and of pottery, some
highly finished, wattling plummets and sinkers, two beautifully shaped
fish clubs, five mounted busycon shells, one of which was edged to
serve as a celt, several of the shell funnels (which proved to have been
mounted on handles asspoons) many necklace pendants, gourds, seeds,
etc., etc. Some of the art remains found here and on the surrounding
low, but very extensive shell mounds, as well as at other settlements,
strongly indicated, as did skulls later dug from a shell burial place
to the northward on Sanybal Island, a far southern origin of the
builders of these works, at least of the oldest of them. Moreover, the
study of these shell settlements and of their art remains, has been found
by me to have a most important and explicit bearing on the archeo-
logy of at least the Mississippi and contiguous regions, in other words
on the Mound Builder question ; points which it is believed the expedi-
tion I am hoping soon to conduct to Florida under the joint auspices
of the University Association and the Bureau of American Ethnology
will clear up and to some extent demonstrate or establish. But even
if these indications of a hasty reconnissance be not all borne out by
` more careful examination of the field, still, this find of Colonel Durn-
ford’s seems to have been typical, to relate at least to a hitherto un-
thought of phase of aboriginal life, to relate also to a period indefinitely
antedating the time of Columbian Discovery, and hence giving us, as
have the cliff dwellings—so opposite in character—well preserved re-
mains of the perishable work of prehistoric stone-age (or, in this case,
shell-age) men, and is thus the most important of Archeologic finds re-
cently brought to notice. The Archeological Association of the
University of Pennsylvania is therefore to be congratulated on the
uuique opportunity far research in a comparatively new field which
Colonel Durnford’s scientific disinterestedness and generosity has made
possible—Frank HAMILTON CUSHING.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

The National Academy of Sciences.—A scientific session of
the Academy was held at Philadelphia, in the Laboratory of Hygiene
of the University of Pennsylvania, beginning Tuesday, October 29,
1895, at 11 o’clock A. m. and continuing through the following day.
The papers presented were as follows :

1136 The American Naturalist. [November,

(Oct. 29th) On the Paleozoic Reptilian Order of the Cotylosauria,
E. D. Cope; Ona New Variable of Peculiar Character, S. C. Chandler ;
On a Bone Cave at Port Kennedy, Pa., E. D. Cope; On Borings
through the Coral Reef in Florida, A. Agassiz; On the Alkali Urana-
tes, Wolcott Gibbs; (Oct. 30th) The Olindiadae, W. K. Brooks; The
New Campanularian Medusae (read by title), W. K. Brooks; The
Filar Anemometer, Carl Barus; The Counteér-twisted Curl Aneroid,
Carl Barus; On the Broadening of Spectral Lines by Temperature and
Pressure ; A. A. Michelson; On the Asteroids (read by title), A. Hall ;
The Early Segregation of Freshwater Types, Th. Gill.

Boston Society of Natural History.—Nov. 6, 1895.—The
following paper was read: Prof. George Lincoln Goodale, “Some
Peculiarities of Australasian Vegetation.” Illustrated by stereopticon
views of Australia and New Zealand.

November 20.—The following paper was read: Dr. J. Walter
Fewkes, “ Some Newly Discovered Cliff Ruins in Arizona. Stereopti-
con views were shown.—SAMUEL HENSHAW, Secretary.

American Philosophical Society.—November 15, 1895.—Prof.
Cope read a paper “ On the Ancestral Type of Amniote Vertebrata.”
Dr. Brinton presented a new vocabulary from South America, with ©
remarks. Mr. H. C. Mercer made observations on Indian work in
the Wyandotte Cave, Indiana.

The Biological Society of Washington.—October 19.—The
following communications were made: S. D. Judd, “ The Food of the
Catbird, Thrushes and Wrens;” L. O. Howard, “An Enemy of the
Hellgramite Fly ;” W. H. Dall, “ Exhibition of the Remains of the
Mammoth ;” C. Wardell Stiles, “ The Rudolph Leuckart Memorial ;”
“The Third International Zoological Congress;” C. Hart Merriam,
“ North American Shrews.”

November 5.—The following, communications were made: F. V.
Coville, “The Botanical Explorations of Thomas Coulter in Mexico
and California ;” William Palmer, “Albinistic Birds’ Feet;” F. A.
Lucas, “ The Extinct Gigantic Birds of Patagonia.”

November 16.—The following communications were made: Barton
W. Evermann, “The Fishes of the Missouri River Basin;” Frank
Baker, “Nomenclature of Nerve Cells;” Edw. L. Greene, “ Some
Fundamentals of Nomenclature.” —FREDERIC A. Lucas, Secretary.

1895.] Scientific News. 1137

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Bibliographical Reform.—At the Baltimore meeting of the
American Society of Naturalists (Dec., 1894), a committee was ap-
pointed to consider Dr. H. H. Field’s plans for bibliographical reform,
the committee to report in print. That committee would report as
follows:

Dr. H. H. Field, in view of the well-known imperfections and short-
comings of all existing records of zoological literature, has formulated
plans which will give the zoological world an approximately complete
index of all literature as promptly as possible. This record will be
issued in the form of bulletins, each number of which will be distrib-
uted as soon as sufficient material has been acumulated to make a
“signature.” The same bulletin will also be issued printed only on
one side of the page to allow for cutting up for special bibliographies.
Lastly, the separate titles will be issued upon cards of the standard
“index” size. Each title will be followed by a few words giving the
subject and scope of the article, when this is not sufficiently indicated
by the title, while the cards will have, in addition, catch numbers, so
that any library assistant can readily incorporate them in the card
catalogue.

The plan contemplates a union of existing bibliographies with this
one. In the case of the Naples Jahresbericht, this will consist in co-
operation, this series continuing as the yearly morphological analysis
of the bibliography. It is to be hoped that the Zoological Record will
co-operate in a similar way, devoting itself to the systematic side, and,
by aid of the new facilities of co-operation, increase its present useful-
ness to students. Arrangements have now progressed so far that it
seems probable that the records of literature in the Zoologischer and
Anatomischer Anzeigers will be merged in the new scheme, and, it is
hoped, that the one in the Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte will take the
same course. If sufficient encouragement be given, it is proposed to
include physiology in the scope of the new plan. The net gain will be
fewer bibliographies, wider scope, nearer approximation to complete-
ness, and more prompt publication.

The central office of the work will be established at Ziirich, Switzer-
land, and it may be said that the cantonal government has already
appropriated 2000 francs annually to its support, and will supply suit-
able quarters for its work. France has promised a similar sum, and

1138 The American Naturalist. [Dassi

aid is expected from Germany, from the International Congress of
Zoologists, and from the British Association for the Advancement of
Science. Committees have been appointed in France, Germany and
Russia to co-operate in making the record as complete as possible.
Lastly, publishers stand ready to undertake the publications of the
bulletins, cards, etc., without expense to the central office, since the
sales are estimated to fully cover all cost of manufacture. The only
matter unprovided for is that of preparing the record for the printer,
and this is already so far provided for that if America can give $500,.
the beginning of the work with the vear 1896 can be assured.
our committee, having examined the matter in detail, would there-
fore report that they regard the plan as one worthy the fullest support
of the American scientific world. They recommend it as worthy of
financial support, and would urge all publishers and publishing insti-
tutions to send all periodicals and other works, or, in the case of books,
at least the correct title and a summary of contents prepared by the
author, promptly to the central bureau. They would finally recom-
mend the appointment of a permanent committee of ten, to co-operate
with similar committees in other countries in forwarding the movement.
Signed: SAMUEL H. SCUDDER,
H. P. Bowprrca,
Henry F. OSBORN,
E. A. ANDREWS,
J. S. KINGSLEY,
ommittee.
In this connection it is well to state that the funds desired from
America have been obtained: $250 from the Elizabeth Thompson
fund, $250 from the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, and $50 from the American Society of Microscopists. Arrange-
ments have been- concluded for the publication, by Englemann, of
Leipzig, of a “ Bibliographica Zoologica,” as a continuation of the
“ Litteratur” of the Zoologischer Anzeiger, and by Fischer of Jena,
of a “ Bibliographica Anatomica” to contain the morphological titles.
The price for the first will be 15 marks a year, that of the Anatomica
has not yet been fixed. Cards containing the titles will be issued at.
from $2.00 to $3.00, according to the number taken. Arrangements.
are now in progress for the inclusion of physiology in the plan, and
steps have already been taken looking to the later incorporation of
botanical literature.

Botanical readers will be pleased to hear that another part of Gray’s
Synoptical Flora of North America, beginning with Ranunculaceæ, is

1895.] Scientific News. 1139

now in press. Every encouragement should be given for the comple-
tion of this magnificent work.

Dr. J. P. Lotsy, formerly at Johns Hopkins University, has ac-
cepted a position with Dr. Treub, at Buitensorg, Java. It is said that
the Maemillans will shortly issue an important work by him on the
Morphology of Reproduction in Cryptogams.

Dr. James Ellis Humphrey will be instructor in Botany at Johns
Hopkins the coming year. It is much to be regretted that this great
university cannot see its way clear to the founding of a chair of Botany.

W. T. Swingle, of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Path-
ology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, has secured leave of absence,
and will spend a year or two at German Universities. He goes first to
Strasburger at Bonn, and will subsequently study with Göbel at
Munich.

President and Mrs, Fairchild, of the State Agriculture College, Man-
hattan, Kansas, spent the summer travelling in Great Britain and on
the Continent. Mrs. Kedzie accompanied them.

David G. Fairchild, formerly of the Division of Vegetable Physiology
and Pathology, in the U. S. Department of Agriculture, has spent the
last two years studying botany at various European centers—Naples,
Breslau, Berlin, Miinster. He is now studying fungi with Brefeld,
and contemplates spending the winter at the great tropical botanic
garden at Buitensorg in Java.

During the summer. there were several changes in the personelle of
the Division of Animal Pathology, in the Bureau of Animal Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Dr. Theobald Smith, for a long time
Chief of Division and widely known on account of his bacteriological
researches, has become Bacteriologist to the Massachusetts State Board
of Health and Lecturer at Harvard ; Dr. V. A. Moore takes his place,
and Dr. P. A. Fish, of Cornell Univ., becomes Dr. Moore’s assistant.

Dr. C. W. Stiles, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, has returned from a two months trip to
Europe, made partly for the sake of attending the International
Zoological Congress at Leiden.

Dr. Volney M. Spalding has resumed his duties as Professor of Botany
in the University of Michigan, having recently returned from a two
years’ sojourn at German Universities, most of which time was spent
with Pfeffer in Leipsic, at the British Museum, and with Brefeld in
Münster. |

1140 The American Naturalist. [December,

Dr. Lucien M. Underwood has been called to the chair of Botany in
the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Auburn, Alabama.

Dr. Engler, of Berlin, in conjunction with other distinguished botan-
ists, has, in preparation, a new edition of Grisebach’s famous treatise,
Die Vegetation der Erde, which has been out of print some time. Mr.
Th. Holm, of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology
in the U. S. Department of Agriculture, has been asked to contribute
the portion on North American Gramineæ and Cyperacez.

Mr. F. S. Earle, of Ocean Springs, Miss., has been appointed Assist-
ant in the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology in the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Vice Joseph F. James, resigned.
Mr. Earle will have charge of the herbarium.

Mr. O. F. Cook is contemplating a third trip to the west coast of
Africa. Mrs. Cook will accompany him. The next volume of the
Transactions of the New York Academy of Science will contain an im-
portant systematic paper on Myriapods, from his pen.

The Entomological Society of Washington will devote the next
number of its Proceedings to a memorial of Prof. C. V. Riley, who
was the founder of the Society and always an active member.

The Australian Museum, at Sydney, still suffers from small
appropriations by Parliament, and during the year 1894 it was work-
ing with a reduced staff and with practically no money for increase or
publication. Dr. Ramsay, owing to ill-heatlh, has resigned his posi-
tion as Curator after 20 years’ service, but still retains a connection
with the museum. Mr. Robert Etheridge, Jr., has been appointed as
his successor. The total income for the year 1895 was about £6,000, and
120,000 persons visited the museum during the year, 34,000 of these
coming on Sundays. Among the most interesting additions to the
museum were a number of relics of Capt. Cook, the list of which would
seem to indicate that this antipodial museum has about as large a col-
lection of specimens collected by Capt. Cook and of memorials of him
as has the museum at Oxford. The museum has also received a con-
siderable collection of aboriginal pottery from Arkansas.

Dr. A. I. biien the well-known anatomist and surgeon, of Paris,
died June 1

Dr. A. st has been made Ordinary Professor of Anatomy, at
Tübingen.

Dr. W. C. Williamson, the botanist and paleobotanist of Owens Col-
lege, Manchester, England, died June 23, aged 79.

1895,] Scientific News. 1141

Dr. J. Strahl, of Marburg, has been appointed Ordinary Professor
of Anatomy, in Giessen.

The American Association for the Advancement of Science appropri-
ated $250, and the American Society of Microscopists $25.00 towards
Dr. Field’s Bibliographical Bureau.

Dr. Karl Müller, of Berlin, goes as Professor of Technical Botany
to the Technical School of Carlottenburg.

Dr. N. V. Ussing becomes Professor of Mineralogy in the University
of Copenhagen, in place of Dr. yon Johnstrup.

George Murray has been appointed Custodian of Botany in the Brit-
ish Museum, in place of Dr. Carruthers.

Dr. L. Plate is Privat-docent in Zoology in the University of Berlin.

Dr. Max Verworn has been appointed Extraordinary Professor of
Physiology in Jena.

Dr. Albert Giinther has retired from his position as Director of the
Zoological Department of the British Museum, having reached the
age-limit of the British Civil Service.

Count Angelo Manzoni, geologist and paleontologist, died in Ravenna,
Italy, July 14, 1895.

Dr. W. Roux, of Innsbruck, goes to the University of Halle as Pro-
fessor of Anatomy.

Sir John Tomes, well-known for his researches on the teeth, is dead
at the age of 80 years.

Dr. E. Ihne has been appointed Professor of Botany in the Technical
School at Darmstadt.

Rev. J. G. Morris for many years recognized as an eminent
student of American Lepidoptera died at his home near Baltimore,
October 10. Dr. Morris was born in 1803 and has long been considered
one of the fathers of American entomology. His catalogue of the
Lepidoptera published in 1860 by the Smithsonian Institution and his
Synopsis of Diurnal and Crepuscular Lepidoptera are the publications
by which he was best known to entomologists.

Dr. Albert E. Eoote, of Philadelphia, died recently in Atlanta,
Georgia. Dr. Foote was born in Hamilton, N. Y., Feb. 6, 1846. After
graduating at Cortland Academy, Homer, N. Y., he entered the class
of 1867 in the University of the State of Michigan, where he took the

1142 The American Naturalist. [December,

degree of Doctor of Medicine. After some time spent as an instructor
at Ann Arbor, he was appointed Assistant Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in the Iowa State College.

In 1875, Dr. Foote removed to Philadelphia. He was a life member
of the Academy of Natural Sciences, of the New York Lyceum of
Natural History, and of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science. Dr. Foote’s extended travels, both in this country
and in Europe, made him particularly well known in scientific circles.
His chief interest was in mineralogy.

He was well known as one of the few professional dealers in objects
of nature in the United States, and he made a financial success of it,
leaving a competency to his family. As an antiquarian repository of
works on natural history, Dr. Foote’s establishment is without a rival
in America.

EDITOR’S TABLE.

—Some cultivators of the sciences occasionally complain that the
meetings of scientific bodies are not well attended, and that they read
_papers to too’ many empty benches. Moreover, even when they have
a scientific audience they allege that very few of those present under-
‘stand what they have to say. And they speculate on measures to be
adopted to remedy this state of affairs.

As the scientific investigator acquires years and experience, he recog-
nizes that in the present state of human society he has no right to ex-
pect that the situation can be very different. The number of serious
cultivators of science in any community is not large, and the number of
men engaged in original research in any given field is still smaller.
Like the landed aristocracy of the old nations, the producers in each
department of science are well scattered over a country, and it is only
on national occasions that they gather in any considerable force. The
situation as to the audiences who assemble to listen to papers of origi-
nal value in pure science is therefore not likely to change for some
years. In fact, the size of audiences may be set down as inversely as
the rationality, and directly as the emotionality of the matter set before

‘them. Such is the present state of the civilized nations of the earth,
and it is not peculiar to any one of them.

11895.) Editor’s Table. 1143

Most of the large cities of the United States have an “Academy of
“Sciences,” or its equivalent, and -it is largely with reference to the
prosperity of those bodies that discussions such as we have referred to
‘above is heard. Many of the members want them to be what they call
popular, which, in its best sense, means that they wish for large audi-
‘ences at the meetings. Now, if what we have said above is true, this
object cannot be attained, unless the Academy abandons its real object,
ithe advancement of scientific knowledge by original research. This is
the primary object of Academies of Science in all countries, and if they
‘neglect it, they lose their identity, since the facilities for the distribu-
‘tion of knowledge are everywhere relatively abundant. When the’
Academy of Science becomes a distributor of knowledge only, it
-abandons its important proper function, and becomes comparatively a
nonentity. Let us hope that Academies of Science in America will not
‘follow the course of the Academies of Music, which are, in Europe,
-educational and critical, in America, mere theaters.

_ The measures adopted by Academies of Science in the United States
‘to make themselves popular and therefore “successful,” are often
‘highly amusing. The usual method is to elect some man president
‘who is rich but unknown to science ; since, in the minds of some people,
money is the source of the sciences and the arts. Men of the same
type are also often elected to other responsible positions in these socie-
‘ties for similar reasons. We have watched this mode of attacking the
problem for many years, and have never known it to be successful. In
the case of the Philadelphia Academy, it did, on one- occasion, entail a
loss of over $12,000 cash capital to the Society. In fact, the reasons why
this method should not prove successful are not far to seek. The only
way to make it successful would be tu have a bill of sale of the office
legally executed, so that the sum agreed on could be collected by pro-
-cess of law in case of failure to produce the “ consideration ” after the
election. This the business world understands, whereas it does not
perceive the cash value of original research. In fact, the election of
an outsider to rule over them hy a body of experts for a supposed
‘financial equivalent, is a proceeding not calculated to excite the re-
‘spect of a rich man or any other kind of man.
_ A society is, however, fortunate if it escapes without more serious
injury than a financial disappointment. Men not habituated to the
‘ways and means of research frequently apply nostrums which do more
harm than good, and bring the society into deserved contempt. Thusin
one city the President, who was of the type mentioned, succeeded in
incorporating into the society a body of photographers, with the result

1144 The American Naturalist. [December,

of simply developing the photographic society. The men by whom the
original society was known to the world were locally quite lost sight
of. In another city a number of local amateur astronomical clubs
were taken into the Academy. These consisted of ladies and gentle-
men whose devotion to science consisted in viewing the stars in each
others pleasant society. Another Academy adopted popular lectures
as a device for filling empty benches. The selection of the lectures
being in the hands of incompetent officers, cranky and ignorant per-
sons, and those who had apparatus to sell, occupied the time of the
_ Academy, to the great scandal of the really scientific men of the
city.

The appointment of amateurs and unscientific persons to positions in
scientific bodies, often has ludicrous results. One Academy of Science
discussed an ancient bone dredged up in salt water. It was perforated
with fossæ in series, and it was concluded that it was a mouth bone of
a fossil fish. It turned out to be the head of and ancient tooth-brush.
An exhibition of foot-tracks on ancient rocks before the same Academy,
brought to his feet a dancing master, who illustrated the formation of
the impressions terpsichorean fashion.

Another plan for promoting the prosperity of scientific bodies is to
have dinners and social receptions. These methods are always suc-
cessful in drawing together numbers, and if persons are to be elected
members of such societies in proportion to their gastronomic capacities,
such a system must be eminently successful. To be serious, however,
and to repeat what should be self-evident to every person, this plan
tends only to an increase of non-expert membership, which is really at
the bottom of all the evils which have befallen scientific societies.
Hence, unless some measures to protect the membership be adopted,
this method of “ promotion ” should be always rejected.

The result, both of our observations and cogitations on this subject
is, that the only method by which Academies of Science can advance
themselves in the public esteem, is to continue in their work of original
research. If they cannot acquire public confidence in this way, they
cannot acquire it at all. There is no short cut to this so-called “ suc-

” As in all other human endeavors to wrest advantage from
Nakib, labor and labor only “omnia vincit.” As with the agricul-
turist, the machinist, or the accumulator of money, devotion to work
and this only, brings the rewards which we seek. The visible products

-of labor are what men respect, and if the scientific man wishes to in-
spire the respect of wealth, he must show results, rather than bestow
on men of wealth what are to them empty honors.

ADVERTISEMENTS. 4

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PEET’S PREHISTORIC AMERICA.

The editor of the AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN is publishing a series of works
on Prehistoric America under the following titles:

No -L HE Mounp BUILDERS AND THETR RELICS.

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No. III. Myrus AND SYMBOLS, OR ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS.

No. IV. ArcmæoLoGIcaL RELICS, OR ART IN THE STONE AGE.

No. V. CLIFF DwELLINGS AND RUINED CITIES.

The first three of these books are now ready and can be furnished by the
author. The last two are in preparation. Subscriptions for the whole set are
solicited.

Address AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN Office, Chicago, IN., or

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There has been no time in all the six hich thi ine h tinued,
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before, ber several new names will be added.
The e following may be Bahet ber as having cats nt ee the Volume for ’94.
D. G. Bri Wm

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different departments, a the followhg ieni will have ese and report all ata iassa
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; . C: Winslow; D- D, E L. D; port
Prof. T] F. Wri ight Explorations in Pales
Henry W. Haynes, Paleolithic Fueps Archaeology.
Dr i

A. 5, tics.
Marshall H. Seville, Mexico a PCa A
Hon. James Wickersham, The North West goes and Eastern Asia.

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Portion of the Contents for January, 1895.

The Denizens of an Old Cherry Tree with Notes of its Surroundings. (2 Plates.)
C. J. Watkins.
The Development of the are Theory. H. anes Browne, F.-R..C; S.-E.
Technology of the Diatom J. Temper
Predaceous and Parasitic Pakit of Koleka Including a Study of Hyper- does pers J Plates,
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From Dust to Dust: A Cycle of Life. (1 Plate.) J. Sydney ok M R.C: s F. i Mas
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Recent Bete Sa pi Researches on the Sputa. The Morpholog y Bg: Biology of the Microbes.
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College, Cambridge; A. E. SHIPLEY, M.
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EED, B. A., Trinity College, Cam-
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snet:

JACKSON. ~The Great Frozen Land.
cag pr a Winter aTi Across the —
and a Sojourn am the Samoyads. -
Gabeae F. ore KSON, Fel ow of the Bo al eae
RER © angen and Leader of the Jackson-
Tieri Poplar E ar Expedition, With Ilustra-
tions a) Mane

Edited from his Journals by
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THE RURAL SCIENCE SERI
Edited by L. H. BAILEY,
NEW V

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King.—The Soil, its Nature a at ee
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bok Professor UF Aevicatt ural S ia the
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