QKt 1 Bue THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE EDITORS: JOHN M. uae i University of Chicago, Chicago, I CHARLEs R. BARNES, The University of Chicago, a. Il. 1, goa Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: GEORGE F, ATK Fritz NOL Cornell Unlietilty. econee of Bonn. CASIMIR Aes Artal tag VOLNEY M. SPA Gen Uni westy 8 Michigan. J. B. DET ROLAND THAXT Unversity of Padua. Har ie University. ADOLF ENGLE WILLIAM Locher Un arereity of Berlin, Missouri "Botanical Garden. LEON GUIGNARD, i. Se csicac Wa L’Ecole de Piinntle Un pues ors ‘Cambridge. JinzO MATSUMUR EUGEN. WARM Imperial Univeaaty Tokio. Un siversity of Copenhagen VEIT WITTROCK, Royal Academy of Sciences, Stockholm. VOLUME XXVI JULY—DECEMBER, 1808 fe CHICAGO, ILLINOIS PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 26 : PRINTED AT The University of Chicago Press pees CHICAGO Vol. XXVI JULY 1808 No. 1 THE BOTANICAL QGAZETTE JOHN M. COULTER, Zhe University of Chicago, Chicago, 12. CHARLES R. BARNES, Universtty of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. ASSOCIATE EDITORS GEORGE F. ATKINSON FRITZ NOLL Cornell University University of Bonn CASIMIR DeCANDOLLE VOLNEY M. SPALDING Geneva University of Michigan J. B. DeTONI ROLAND THAXTER University of Padua Harvard University ADOLF ENGLER WILLIAM TRELEASE ee University of Berlin Missouri Botanical ‘avin ce LEON GUIGNARD H. MARSHALL WARD _ oe L’ Ecole de Pharmacie, Paris University of Cambridge JINZO MATSUMURA ' SUGEN. WARMING | 2S imperial University, Tokyo reid of Copenhagen VEIT WITTROCK eh Academy of Sciences, Stockholm CHICAGO, ILLINOIS ee | Bublishen bp the Gnibversity of eae ee Che Gniversity of fbicageo press _ COPYRIGHT Lo ‘BY THE UNIVERSITY oF CHICAGO - WHEN Doctors Dirrer Wxo SHALL DECIDE? But the fact is, doctors do of differ in their opinions — of Pears’ Soap. Sir Erasmus Wilson, F.R.S., late President of the Royal college of Surgeons, England, the renowned Dermatologist, writes: «Nothing has an- swered so well, or proved so beneficial to the skin as Pears’ Soap.” and Dr. James Startin in his work upon the “Skin and Complexion,” writeS: “There is however, one soap, which has met with such warm commendation from writers that it should be mentioned here, as / can endorse all that has been written and said by the late Mr. Startin, Sir Erasmus Wilson and Dr. Tilbury Fox con- cerning it. It was through /ier instrumentality that, on account of its purity Pears’ Soap was introduced into hospitals. It has obtained a world-wide reputation, and deservedly so.” Dr. Redwood, Ph.D., F.1.C., F.CS., late Professor of Chemistry and Pharmacy to the Pharmaceutical Soct- ely of Great Britain, says; “T have never come across an other toilet soap which so closely realizes my ideal of perfection.” PDP PLL “LL OAL BEAUTY IS ONLY SKIN DEEP. All the more necessary then to attend to the skin, and keep it clear from impurities. Pears’ Soap ensures a proper performance of the functions of the skin, and keeps the complexion in its natural bloom. | There are so many dangerous and éven poisonous soaps in the market that a thorougt | ly reliable articie like PEARS’ SOAP, that accomplishes all that it is claimed for it, is? Hotanical Gazette A Monthly Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science : Sébieligtion per year, $4.00 Single Numbers, 40 Cents The subscription price must be = in advance. No numbers are sent ape the expiration of the time paid for. No reduction is made to dealers or agent FOREIGN AGENTS: Great Britain— WM. WeEsLEY & Son, 28 Essex Germany — GEBRUDER BORNTRAEGER, Berlin, St., Strand, London. 18 Shillings. SW. 46, Schénebergerstr. 17a. 18 Marks. Vol. XXVI, No. 1 Issued July 28, 1898 CONTENTS ON THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA (WITH PLATES I- Duncan S, Johns CONDITIONS FOR THE GERMINATION OF THE SPORES OF BRYOPHYTES AND PTERIDOPHYTES (with PLATE Iv). Fred De Forest Heald - 25 BRIEFER ARTICLES. NOTES ON THE GENUS BARTONIA, B.L. Robinson - - - - - 46 NoTEs ON SUNDRY AMERICAN PLuMs. F. A. Waugh - - - - - 48 Two NoTrewortuy Oaks (with plates v and v1). £&./. Hill - : - - 53 CURRENT LITERATURE. OOK REVIEWS = : = . : : - ‘< ; 58 THE PRUNING-BOOK FossiIL BOTANY MINOR NOTICES - - - : . : ‘ : ORs NOTES FOR STUDENTS - : : . - : é ‘ Gs NEWS a Se : é ; ‘ : ‘ : : : : 68 CONTENTS AND INDEX OF VoL. XXV - - - - - immediately preceding text Separates of any article (not less than 50 copies) will be printed upon special order in advance of Series airs five copies will be furnished gra#is to authors of erie articles; others at the following ra Number of copies 50 - 100 ** 350 200 I-press, ee nae : fee ince $1.00 $1.50 $2.25 $3.00 Siete lates (1 d fnglety 22. ic03. $0.75 $1.00 $1.50 $2.00 Cora with title abet like Caner cover)... $1.00 $1.50 $2.25 $3.00 Wanitli Contributors are requested to write scientific od proper names with particular care, and in citations to follow the form shown i in the pages of the ‘Sage ETTE. Manuscripts should be sent to ‘The Botanical G e* Books and. for ould be sent to the same address. Review shi : henner will be vik free only when claim is made within thirty days after receipt of the “ number fol wing, of Chicago, University 8 ‘Brion Chicago, Money Orders mel drafts should be made- payable to The University of C [Ewrmnen AT THE Post Orrice AT. 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(For teachers’ use on ale EXPERIMENTS IN PHYSICS LITERARY CRITICISM | A Manual of Experiments in Physics: Elements of Literary Criticism. By | CHARLES F. JOHNSON, Professor of Eng-| By JosePH S. AMES, Ph.D., Associate Pro- lish Literature in Trinity College, Hartford, Author of “‘ English Words.”’ 16mo, Cloth, | sity, Author of ‘Theory of Physics,’ and | | 80 cents ; by mail, 88 cents. in pecan Hopkins University. 8vo, Cloth, 1 80; by mail, $2 00 PARADISE LOST: Its Structure and leaning. The Po ee | A thoroughly legge and helpful volume, ¥ view- with Copious Notes by JOHN A. HIMES, | ing its subject from a modern stand-point, and de Graeff Professor of English Literature, | signed to offer the aie approved methods of dem: — Pennsylvania College. Post 8vo, Cloth. | onstration. THE PRINCIPLES oaenceueaand, THEORY OF PHYSICS : their Application. By ADAMS SHER- By JOSEPH S. 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Special Terms for Introduction. Correspondence Invited. Address HARPER & BROTHERS, Publishers, Franklin Square, New York City. aaeaee ae aw aw riptive circular and 2 Sa nen pages will be Laboratory fe for College Classes. ~ fessor of Physics in “Joh Hopkins Univer: — WILLIAM J. A. BLISS, Associate in Physics | tect) OF THOUGHT AND” | By BORDEN P. BOWNE, Professor of Philoso™” f es yaa mal TABLE OF CONTENTS. On the leaf and sporocarp of Pilularia (with plates I-Il), Duncan S. Johnson Conditions for the germination of the spores of vere and pteridophytes (wi h plate iv), : Fred De Forest Heald A comparative saad of the development of of some anthracnoses (with plates ¥u— Xvi), . Bertha Stoneman On the relation of the flora of the Lower Sonoran zone in North America to the . flora of the arid zones of Chili and Argentine, - liam L. Bray The origin of gymnosperms and the seed habit, - - . John M. Coulter A study of regeneration as exhibited by mosses (with plates xIx and x fred De pice Heald Karyokinesis in the root tips of Allium Cepa (with plates xx1 and xx), John H. Schaffner Cell division in pine seedlings (with plates xxl and xxiv), Edward L. Fullmer Popular American plant-names. V and Vi--- ~ - Fannie D. Bergen Observations upon the newer botany, - - - : Byron D. Halsted The comparative morphology of the pistils of the Ranunculacex, LRP and Rosacez (with plate xxv), - - Ernst A. Bessey The embryology of Alyssum (with plates erat Lumina Cotton Riddle Further observations on the eastern acaulescent violets, Charles Louis Pollard A new self-registering transpiration machine, - dwin Bingham Copeland The effect of aqueous solutions on the germination of fungus spores, fF. L. Stevens The physiological action of certain plasmolyzing agents, - Rodney H. True The early botanical views of Prunus domestica, - - f. A. Waugh BRIEFER ARTICLES— Notes on the genus Bartonia, - - - - +. BL. Robinson Notes on sundry American plums, - ~ 9+ A. Waugh Two noteworthy oaks (with plates v and oe oe Ba Mee The southern maidenhair fern in the Black Hills of South Dakota, harles £. Bessey Bacterial content of hailstones, - s - F.C. Harrison Notes and new species of the genus bp (with figures), Charles F. Millspaugh PAGE I . 65 : 5; v [Volume XXVI vi oe CONTENTS [VOLUME XXVI PAGE BRIEFER ARTICLES—continued Joseph F. Joor (with portrait) —- - - - - J. B.S. Norton 270 Four generations of botanists in one family, - - G. E. Stone 274 Some results from the study of Allium, : - Clarence J. Elmore 277 The seeds and seedlings of some Amentiferz (with plate XxIx), W.W. Rowlee and George T. Hastings 349 A graminicolous Doassansia, - - - - - J.J. Davis 354 Recent work upon the development of the archegonium age _ ‘ampbell 428 The homology of the blepharoplast, — - - - C. ; cee 432. OPEN LETTERS— The American Botanist, —- : : - - - B.L. Robinson 279 Eschscholtzia Mexicana-parvula, - : - T. D. A. Cockerell 27 The source of Welwitschia, - - s : - Maxwell T. Masters 355 Confused species of Agropyron, - - - - - Roscoe Pound 355 Sete Another question of nomenclature, - - - T. D. A. Cockerell 436 CuRRENT LITERATURE— For titles see index under author’s name and Reviews. Papers noticed in “Notes for Students” are indexed under author’s name and subjects. NEws — 68, 152, 223, 294, 373, 455. DATES OF PUBLICATION, No. 1, July 28; No. 2, August 15; No. 3, September 17; No. 4, October 15; No. 5, November 19; No. 6, December 22. eT ee a eS ne a ee ERRATA, . 151, line 6, for Kawin read Kaurin. 223, line 6 from below, for merite read mérite. 235, line 3 from below, after reduced insert to. 239, line 2, for Fulmer read Fullmer. 240, line 5 from below, for nucleoli read nuclei. 279, line 4, for 1896 read 1808. 296, line 12 from below, for is read was. 296, line 11 from below, for this issue read the October number. 310, line 18, after lucida dele comma. age eee ee ee eee ee ee ee ee ee age ee eee ee 375, line 14, after him. insert — W. M. CANBY. SES ee ON Tee ee epee vil [Volume XXVI History for Ready Reference and Topical Reading. In Five Imperial Volume By J. N. LARNED, Ex-Pres. American Library Ass’n. UPON EASY TERMS OF PAYMENT. | The Greatest Historical Work of the Century. THE NEW ILLUSTRATED Chambers’s Encyclopedia Published by J. B. 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Miss Tarbell’s paper HE EARLY Lire oF Lincotn gave the first, and ‘indeed the only, full and a oe account of S iaeoin's youth and early manhood that the world has had. nae Hamlin Garland s Series of papers did some- what the same service for THE EARLY LIF ve OF GRA And in the oheantien number will begin MISS TARBELL’S LATER LIFE OF LINCOLN Miss Tarbell’s papers on the “ Early Life of Lincoln” ended with Lincoln’s first nomination to the Prisidaner The “ Later Life” will exhibit Lincoln at his home in Springfield between the his ee AR and his inauguration, and in his daily life in the White House, giving a Bi ap picture of the man throughout his ee five years, and also an account of such of the move- ments of the war as centered in him. Miss Tarbell has gat athgeed, from men who knew esos peat, a great store of recollections that fiove never yet been published, HISTORY BY THE MAKERS OF IT Wherever or survives a man whos n life has been a significant “FI Sept = the history of the country, we aim to have him tell the world nse = in the e pag es of MCCLURE’S MAGAZINE Autobiographic history, in addi tion to being the entertaining a read, is fe ede the most valuable. It is nen one kind sage is infallibly vivifying: it gives us the face, hot and direct, from the hand of the one fk canis able of delivering it. Scarcely a month passes that the magazine does not Seecepead iter of this kin THE NEWEST SCIENCE, INVENTION, AND EXPLORATION ways seeking for boas significant discoveries or speculations which eon the edge of the - — teas E’s MAGAZINE has been the first to give authoritative and attractive account of y new scientific eck oneal mong the coming articles ot this kind we may erage THE ReLipse OF 1898, by Sir Norman Lockyer—an account of his own observations ; THE MILKy Way, by Prof. E. E, Barnard, the man who first successfully eeaaloged photogra phy in the ‘aay of the Milky Way ; ee IN FLyING—an article by Octave Chanute, describing important experi- ments in flyin e by him and his associates within the last LEGRAPHING WITH- OUT WIREs—an articl b reece, E giieesincchiel of the Telegraph Department of the nglish Postal m, giving the authoritative ni the latest experiments made by the Bnitish postal authorities in telegraphing without the res; an E EST MOUNTAIN EVER CLIMBED—an article by Mr. E. A. FitzGerald, telling the story of his recent triumph in climb- ing Aconcagua, a peak 23,000 feet high. SERIALS AND SHORT STORIES No magazine hoe ever published a more aap serial than Anthony Hope’s “ ie ti of Hentzau,” now appearing in McCLuRE’s. It more than maintains the ese set by McCLURE’S itself when it published Stevenson’s “ Ebb Tide” sad **St. Ives ”and Anthony Hope’s “ Phroso. The McC ure short story has come to be a kind by soa of allthe world. It always has a certain novelt ty and compelling interest of plot and incident; a certain strength and reality of characterization; ‘les at the same time, an petailing purity of theme and hopefulness of _ It ge —- en by Rudyard Kipling, Octave Thanet, Conan Doyle, Joel Chandler Har e wri own as these ; but it is still always the MCCLURE story—a story that apie will td with ene and which they will be the appier for reading. BUY OF ANY NEWSDEALER OR REMIT DIRECT. THE S. S. MCCLURE COMPANY, 141-155 EAST 25TH ST., NEW YORK CITY RISO Ti Se Ne NN ee >| 7 ia PIANO: ° PHOTOGRAPHIC and | at a NOMINAL PRICE. } ') " Lantern. Slide Apparatus ( Chicago’s larg- q ( pe tc Sy. alla Materials for the est music house, } Sion & Healy,wo | () Scientist and Amateur sharply reduce 1 7) ( ( a ee ‘ ) Anthony’s Micrographic Camera ( codettegs guts, () 4 Anthony’s Lantern Slide Camera 4 slightly used pi- : aa d A.T. Thompson & Co’s Improved Elec- i. 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Address ‘ ) ( { LYON & HEALY, | * GH, is ANTHONY & CO. j Wabash Ave. and Adams St., Chicago. ?- 91 Broadwa ( , 4 i 45, a. 49 E. Seka G conical =O Pee ese ee ee Te See. eee ee ee O- CPENCERIAN TEEL PENS Are the Best, ce EEE SEEMS IN THE ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF Durability, Evenness of Point, and Workmanship. CCORITER ARE WRITE WELL. WEAR LONG. ONCE TRIED. ALWAYS USED. Established Tuirtry-E1GHt years ago, and always recog- nized among expert writers as the Stanparp AMERICAN BRAND. Samples for trial on receipt CATALOGU of return pees n smi ve TYPEWRITER "RACUSE,N.Y.U.S.A. “SPE: TAN EIAN N~ me ee eee ee ee Se SS es eS ee VOLUME XXVI NUMBER 1 BOTANICAL GAZETTE FULLY. B66 ON THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA. DuNCAN S. JOHNSON. (WITH PLATES I-III) Durinc the course of some work on the development of the foliar structures of Warsilia guadrifolia L., the results of which have been published elsewhere (’98), a brief examination was also made of the same structures in the related Pilularia. Cer- tain features observed here suggested the desirability of making a more careful study of the latter genus, and following out in detail all stages of the development for comparison with the same stages in Marsilia. Through the kindness of Professor Eugenius Warming, Dr. Ostenfeld Hansen, of Copenhagen, collected for me in July 1897 a considerable quantity of fruiting material of Piluaria globuli- fera L. With this material the work embodied in the present paper has been prosecuted at the biological laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, while holding the Adam T. Bruce fellowship for 1897-8. The material was fixed in 95 per cent. alcohol, which seemed to give very good results except in the older stages, where the preparation of certain tissues of the capsule for the gelatiniza- tion, which causes the bursting of the capsule, had already begun. In this stage the sporocarps were often considerably shrunken, as happens in Marsilia after using other fixing agents unless great care is used in running up through the alcohols. 2 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY Sections of the structures studied were cut in paraffine, stained rather lightly in Mayer’s haemalum, and then strongly with Bismarck brown in saturated solution in 70 per cent. alcohol. THE LEAF. The leaves of Pilularia arise, in acropetal succession, on the right and left sides alternately of the upper surface of the stem. Each leaf originates in a large cell from which a typical two- sided apical cell is cut out by curved anticlines. The apical cell thus formed has its longer axis directed toward the stem apex (ZL, fig. 7), as was shown by Bower (84). This apical cell swells out beyond the general surface o the stem and cuts off segments, alternately toward the right and left of the latter and of the leaf itself. The number of segments formed is probably about fifteen pairs. In several young leaves where the segments could be counted the number | was found to be ten or eleven on each side of the apical cell, but in older leaves where the segments could not be satisfactorily — counted the number was apparently considerably greater, at least as many as fifteen. x By the growth and division of these segments a papilla-like organ is formed, which soon begins to curve in ventrally (Z, Jig. 3) toward and above the stem apex. This circinate coiling continues with growth of the leaf until, when a centimeter long, the tip may form a flat spiral of two turns or more, of which the inner projects out laterally beyond the plane of the outer, so that median sagittal sections cannot be obtained through the whole length of the leaf. Up to quite a late period the apical cell can be distinguished, but whether its fate is finally like that to be described for the — apical cell of the sporocarp was not determined. The shape of this is never three-sided, as described by Campbell (’93) in P. Americana, but is two-sided as stated by Meunier (’87), though the segments are not cut off toward the dorsal and ventral sides _ of the leaf as seems to be indicated in Meunier’s figures, but to the right and left alternately as we have seen. 1898 ] THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA 3 The primary division of the semicircular segments or “ pri- mary marginal cells” is quite regular and at first resembles exactly that described by Poirault (’90) and myself for Marsilia. The first wall formed is a longitudinal and radial anticline (J, jigs. 3, 4) cutting off about one-third of the segment toward the dorsal side to form what we may call a section. The second is a similar wall (Z/, figs. 2-4) forming a second section next to the median wall of the leaf (or inner border of the segment), and leaving a ‘tertiary marginal cell” (m 03, fig. g). Then a trans- verse anticline (¢a’, figs. 2, 3) divides this marginal cell into two, an upper and a lower one. In each of these tertiary marginal cells a third longitudinal anticline appears (J//, figs. 3, 5) nearly parallel to wall I. At this point the similarity to Marsilia ceases, for instead of forming two more sections, as in that plant, each marginal cell of the fourth grade is here divided by a peri- cline (d w, fig. 6), thus ending its function as a marginal cell. The four primary divisions formed in each segment (leaving out of account the transverse anticlines which do not appear in a cross section of the leaf) develop in a way very like that found in the six primary divisions in the segments of the leaf of Marsilia. Section I very early cuts off by a pericline near the inner end (f/ w, fig. ¢) a cell which is to function as procam- bium. The outer end of the section is soon cut in halves by a lon- gitudinal anticline (4a, fig. 4). Thensections II and III and the marginal cell form procambium at their inner ends (p/w, fig. 6), while at the outer ends of all the sections periclines, correspond- ing to that in the marginal cell, separate the protoderm and ground meristem layers which encircle the procambium (figs. 6, 7). No second portion of procambium is ever formed in section I, as happens in Marsilia. The protoderm layer soon divides by periclines into epidermis and hypodermis (epand xk y, figs. 7-9) and the cells of these then divide by anticlines to form many cells, but each layer remains of a single cell in thickness even at maturity, as no more periclines are ever formed. The procambium throughout breaks up by numerous longitudinal walls and fewer transverse ones to 4 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY form the elongated cells of the axial vascular bundle (a b, figs. 6-9). Of the cells arising thus, one of the four first formed in the procambium of section II (¢7, figs. 6-9) develops without further division by longitudinal walls into the large trachea of each side of the bundle. Whether transverse anticlines are formed in this in its later development could not be made out with certainty, but it agrees apparently with the trachea of the same bundle in Marsilia in remaining the full length of the segment. As the bundle progresses in its development the outer layer of the cells formed from the procambium becomes specialized as an endodermis or bundle sheath (0 5, figs. 8, 9). The fact that the first wall formed in the procambium of section I does not correspond exactly with the halving anticline in the outer end of this section (fig. 5) makes it easy to distinguish procambium and ground meristem at this point (figs. 6-8). The leaf of Pilularia thus forms an exception to the general rule holding in the ferns, that the endodermis is formed from the ground meristem surrounding the bundle (Haberlandt, 796, p. 336); and agrees rather with the Juncacee and Cyperacee which have been studied by Haberlandt. I am inclined also to believe that Marsilia agrees with Pilularia in this respect, though it was not possible to determine this with absolute certainty as in the present case. We may now turn to follow briefly the development of the ground meristem layer. The two primary cells of this layer in section I and the single cell of each of the other three main divisions of the segment divide by a single pericline in each. The inner layer of cells thus formed, ten in number, constitutes the mesophyll layer (m 9, figs. 7-9), which remains of this num- ber (as seen in cross section) until maturity, being one cell thick and having no tannin sacs like those of Marsilia. Of the ten outer cells (pc, figs. 7-9), of which there are at this time several in the length of a segment, each gives rise to its part of one of the ten longitudinal partitions which separate the ten longitudinal air canals (a ¢, figs. 7,9), in the leaf of Pilularia (Bischoff, ’28). These air canals arise very early as small a gi ae aa a aaa amie Sta ee Ra seed a a a eA a LS eT PT ES Se Eee ot ee et PE TT eee 3 a ie 1898 ] THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA a intercellular spaces between the cells of the ground meristem and those of the hypodermis (a ¢, figs. 7-9) on the line of the median wall, of each section wall, and on the halving anticline of section I. The primary partition cells divide by periclines and thus increase in a radial direction as the leaf increases in diameter. At certain points the tips of these cells remain in contact with those of their fellows in adjoining sec- tions laterally (as at the median wall and halving anticline in fig. 8). When viewed in tangential section (fc, fig. 70) it is seen that each cell of the partition elongates tangentially and forms thus a protuberance at the upper end on one side and at the lower end of the cell on the other side. Then when the next transverse anticline is formed it is slightly oblique and forms two wedge-like cells, each with a protuberance on one end and none at the other (fig. zo). These cells soon elongate with the growth in length of the leaf, and cells are cut off from each which are not in contact with their fellows laterally (jg. If). Thus arise the longitudinal partitions which separate laterally the adjacent air canals. The protruding ends of the partition cells, which separate the divisions, at first short, of the same lon- gitudinal canal from each other, are finally cut off by oblique anti- clines (c p, fig 17) and form thus transverse partitions two cells broad from one longitudinal partition to the next. These cells do not divide further, as in Marsilia to form transverse parti- tions many cells in width, but elongate very greatly as the lon- gitudinal partitions separate by the growth in circumference of the leaf. The latter, however, are closer together at the point where joined by the transverse partitions, and thus each longitu- dinal partition, as seen in tangential section, has a zigzag course from the base to the apex of the leaf. Both kinds of partitions remain one cell in thickness throughout, and both are perfo- rated by pores, the “meats” of Meunier, which allow the free circulation of the enclosed air to all parts of the leaf. The stomata which are present on both the leaf and the sporocarp and the peculiar trichomes which cover all the younger parts (Mettenius ’46) have been carefully studied and figured 6 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | JULY by Meunier, and for the sake of simplicity have been omitted from nearly all drawings in the present paper. We may note, however, that the origin of the trichome from a portion cut from the acroscopic end of an epidermal cell is practically the same as in Marsilia, though the regularity is not so striking. 2 As is well known ( Bischoff 28), the mature leaf of Pilularia a has no lamina whatever. We may consider it as quite probable, — however, that the immediate ancestors of Pilularia and Marsilia a had leaves possessing a lamina, which still persists in the latter genus, and we might expect to find some remnant or trace of | this in Pilularia in the mode of division of the segments if not — in the outward form. Keeping in mind then the mode of devel-— opment of the lamina in Marsilia, by the continued activity of - the marginal cells near the apex of the leaf, many segments in — this region of the leaf of Pilularia were examined in search of — any irregularity in the formation of cell walls, or of continued activity of the marginal cells. The results were always negative and we must therefore conclude that the development of the of Pilularia gives no indication that it has ever possessed a amina. THE SPOROCARP, The sporocarp of Pilularia was considered by Hofmeiste (’62) as a modified branch arising as an accessory bud at t base of the leaf. Alexander Braun (70) and his pupil Russow (72) dissent from this view, and on theoretical grounds consider — ita segment or branch of the leaf; while Juranyi (’80) a Goebel (’82) confirm this latter view as a result of the stud the development of the sporocarp and the relation of its tis to those of the neighboring leaf. Meunier (87) , however, wh holding that the latter view is probably the correct one, thin! the evidence adduced is at fault, as the vascular bundle of r Sporocarp, according to his observations, does not fuse first ’ that of the leaf, but with that of the stem itself. He then poin out that the best evidence for this view will be the proof both arise from the single apical cell of a foliar structure at 1898 ] THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA f unbranched, This he was not fortunate enough to obtain, and it was left for Campbell (’93) to show that this was the case in P. Americana, where he found the sporocarp arose from a single cell at the base of the leaf. In the development of the capsule of the sporocarp in Pilularia, Juranyi thought the soral cavities arose by a splitting of the internal tissues of the young capsule, as Russow had described for Marsilia. Goebel on the contrary held that these cavities were external in origin, and this view was later confirmed by the work of Meunier and Campbell. According to Meunier’s work the young sporocarp is devel- oped from a two-sided (possibly a three-sided) apical cell which soon ceases to function as such, and growth is continued by the activity of four cells occupying the four corners of the tip of the sporocarp. Each of these cells was supposed to give rise to one of the four valves of the mature capsule with its sorus. Meunier’s figures of the vascular bundle system of the cap- sule and of the stalk show that the sporocarp is bilaterally sym- metrical, and that the plane of symmetry separates the sori into aright pair and a left pair and does not pass through the middle of diagonally opposite sori as do the longitudinal sections x dais by Meunier. The latest work on the development of the capsule ea: bell ’93 and ’95) indicates that one of the valves or lobes of the young capsule is developed directly from the apical cell of the sporocarp, being thus terminal in position, while a second appears lower down on the median line of the side toward the leaf, and the third and fourth on the right and left of this line respectively. This of course means that the plane of symmetry must pass through the upper and lower sori and between the other two, which does not agree well with the structure of the mature cap- sule of Pilularia as given by Meunier, or with the mode of development that I found in Marsilia. It was this difficulty in seeing how the structure of the mature capsule as given by Meunier could be developed in the manner described by Camp- bell that led me to take up the present work. According to my own observations the sporocarp of Pilularia 8 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY arises on the inner and anterior side of the leaf, just above the axillary bud which is always present. As in Marsilia, a fertile branch of the stem has a sporocarp on nearly every leaf, but | there is never more than one on the same leaf in Pilularia, or could any rudiment of a second be found. The young sporocarp owes its origin to the formation of a two-sided apical cell in one of the marginal cells of the fourth grade in (probably) the first segment of the anterior side of the leaf (7, fig. 72). The difficulties of orientation were such that transverse sections of the leaf in this region were not frequently obtained, and it cannot be definitely stated therefore that the Sporocarp arises in the quaternary marginal cell, rather than the tertiary one, but the evidence obtained seems in favor of the former. The fusion of the outer tissues of the leaf with the stem makes it impossible also to state positively from which segment the sporocarp arises, but I believe it to be the first rather than the second, and certainly it cannot be a younger one than this. “ The apical cell of the sporocarp has its longer axis across the leaf, and cuts off se : readily seen The fate is at first ex Z7), but wh 1898] THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA 9 by three more section walls. Wall IV is dorsal to the marginal cell and nearly parallel to wall III (fig. 78), wall V is on the ventral, and VI on the dorsal side of the marginal cell (figs. 78, zg), and the ultimate marginal cell is thus of the seventh grade, just as in the capsule of Marsilia (Johnson ’98). THE STALK. The type of primary division just given is the one found in most of the later segments of the sporocarp, but in those at the base, which form the stalk, wall IV is often followed immediately by a pericline in the marginal cell which ends its activity as such (jig.20). The further fate of the various sections and the mar- ginal cell is quite similar to that found in the leaf. Procambium, ground meristem and protoderm layers are formed in all; the latter gives rise to epidermis and hypodermis ( ¢ 9, 4 y, figs. 20, 2r),and the ground meristem to the two or three-layered meso- phyll and to the partitions separating the small and irregular air canals. We find a notable difference in the fate of the procam- bium, for the eccentric vascular bundle of the stalk is developed entirely, or nearly so, from the procambium of section I (a 4, fig. 20), while most of the procambium of the other divisions is devoted to the formation of the large stereome bundle which lies ventral to and partially surrounding the vascular bundle (s cl, figs. 22, 31-33). This fuses below with the central stereome of the stem, but ends abruptly above at the basal wall of the capsule. In the mature sporocarp the stalk is sharply curved in ventrally, is smaller at the lower end and considerably enlarged at the upper end where it joins the capsule, at which point also it is peculiarly modified on the dorsal side, as will be — described in detail in speaking of the wall of the capsule. The vascular bundle of the stalk, as Meunier has pointed out, does not fuse with that of the leaf in the way described by Goebel, but usually, according to my own observations, fuses first with the bundle of the axillary bud, and then this composite bundle reaches that of the stem at or near where the leaf bundle joins the latter. 10 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY THE CAPSULE. In the terminal segments of the sporocarp, which form the capsule, the number of primary divisions is seven, as we have seen. Ofthese the six sections immediately divide up to form the three meristem layers, while the marginal cells, or at least : pair of these on each side, do not (figs. 79, 22). There are fo ultimate marginal cells in each segment arising from the divisio of each of the two quaternary marginal cells by a transverse anticline (fig. zg). On each side of the capsule we find tha two of these cells, in different but successive segments, becom considerably larger than their fellows (fig. 74), and each finally | gives rise to the sporangia of one of the four sori. In several cases these sporangial marginal cells, as we may call them, seemed to be the upper ones of the segments, as in the case figured ( fig. 14), but the material at hand of this stage was not sufficient to allow me to determine whether this is always true. Neither can I assert positively that all of the sporangia of sorus come from one marginal cell, but the evidence obtained such that I feel practically satisfied that further study will sho’ this to be the case. The essential thing, however, and of which is quite certain, is that the sporangia come from marg} cells, in'a way that we shall find to be similar to that found Marsilia, though differing in some details. In describing further the development of the various $ tures of the capsule, we shall find it best to take them up sep rately, and may conveniently begin with the wall develop‘ _ from the protodermal layer. Soon after apical growth ceases the young sporocarp, the portion near the tip, that is the regi including the four sporangial marginal cells, begins to swell ventrally and laterally to form the globular capsule ( Sigs. to a circinate coiling of the young sporocarp is seen at anyt ti but growth soon becomes more rapid on the lower side of ventral protuberance and the original apex is thus push 1898] THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA ee around dorsally (4, figs. 37-33), and the sori, which origi- nate in cells having a lateral position (fig. 74), come later to have a position such that the soral canals open nearly terminally figs. 31-33), thus making the longitudinal axis of these canals nearly parallel to that of the stalk. On the dorsal side of the sporocarp in the meantime there is formed a small protuberance at the upper end of the stalk (/7/, Jigs. 31, 32), which is later found to be supported by a mass of thick-walled cells extending inward nearly to the vascular bundle (fig. 33). This protuberance, as was pointed out by Russow in P. minuta, is apparently homologous with the lower tooth of the capsule of Marsilia quadrifolia. Just above this tooth there is a rather narrow, but deep depression (4 9, jigs. 31, 34), which according to Russow corresponds to that found between the upper and lower teeth in MZ. guadrifolia, but there is no marked increase in height of the epidermal cells above this that might represent the upper tooth of the Marsilia capsule (see Russow ’72, and Johnson ’98). ' It was this bending backward of the young capsule, per- haps, which led Meunier to think that the sori were primarily terminal in position, and this may account also for the view of Campbell that one of the valves is developed from the apical cell of the sporocarp, but it is not very difficult to follow out the details of development satisfactorily if the unchanging sagittal plane is used as a guide. During this change in the general form of the capsule the protodermal layer throughout, beginning on the dorsal side just above the basal pit, divides by periclines into epidermal and hypodermal layers, and then the latter divides again to form inner and outer hypodermis (e f,/ y, figs. 30, 31). These layers soon surround the whole capsule (Mettenius °46, Han- stein ’66) except for the stomata, most of which are near the base of the capsule. At these openings both hypodermal layers are wanting, the guard cells being as usual derived from the epidermis (s ¢, fig. 33). The development of these highly specialized tissue layers 12 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JuLY has been very carefully studied by Meunier, and I will therefore give only a brief account of their mature structure. The brown walled cells of the epidermis are prismatic in shape, varying in height from one-half to three or four times their diameter, the highest being those at the base of the capsule near the ventral side (fig. 33). Inthe basal pit the epidermis is made up of several layers of irregular thin-walled cells (figs. 32, 33), while just above this on the wall of the capsule it consists of a single layer of very short cells (fig. 33). On either side of this nar- row pit the epidermal cells are quite high, as was shown by Meunier, but, though this author figures transverse sections of this region of the capsule, he does not appear to have discovered the pit in longitudinal sections, and hence apparently failed to appreciate its significance. Scattered about among the epider- mal cells of the ripe capsule are many of the persistent basal cells of the deciduous trichomes (fc, fig. 33). The outer hypodermal layer consists of cells with the clear manner as the outer hypodermis of the capsule (fig. 33), and 1898] THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA Ba is continuous with this hypodermis laterally and ventrally (jigs. 33,34). Fora narrow space in the dorsal region, however, the outer hypodermis from the dorsal wall of the capsule is seen in sagittal section to continue on down into the stalk, making a sharp bend and becoming much thickened just opposite the basal pit, while the similar layer of the basal wall laps over on to this above and abuts against the thin inner hypodermis (fig. 33). Horizontal sections (fig. 35) show that the region of overlapping is a very narrow one, and that this arises from the transverse division here of cells which are elsewhere undivided. Whether this division gives rise to an open slit is difficult to determine, but I believe that at maturity there is an actual opening here which may have the function, attributed by Russow to the simi- lar structure in Marsilia, of allowing an interchange of air between the capsule and the air canals of the stalk. Russow noticed the thinness and the bulging outward of the outer hypodermis just above the basal pit, as shown in horizontal section (fig. 34), but was unable to study it thoroughly from lack of material. The course of the light line at the point of overlapping is worthy of special notice. It moves toward the inner surface of the hypodermis (//, figs. 33, 34) and finally passes over into the basal wall (figs. 33, 35), and the thickening of the walls of the cells in these layers is seen to be definitely related to this line, the cell cavity increasing in size with the dis- tance out from this line toward the end of the cell (figs. 34, 35), while where two layers are present (fig. 35), the cells of the outer one, in which the light line is wanting, have very slightly thickened walls. At the stomata also the light line is seen to bend outward to the guard cells, so that we may con- clude that this line indicates the distribution of some material which makes the hypodermis impervious to air or moisture, and is therefore present only where needed for this purpose. At the base of the capsule the inner hypodermal layer is wanting, and is replaced by several layers of brown-walled cells which form the inner portion of the basal wall ( fig. 33). Next to the prismatic outer layer of this wall these cells are closely 14 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY packed together, but farther up many small intercellular spaces occur. These spaces open into the larger spaces between the rounded parenchyma cells surrounding the vascular bundle under the base of the sori, and these in turn connect with the still larger canals in the mesophyll which surrounds the capsule just within the hypodermis (fig. 33). In the region near the basal pit the inner hypodermis seems to be pretty sharply separated from the cells of the inner por- tion of the basal wall (jig. 33), running down from the dorsal side of the capsule as a very thin layer which abuts against the overlapping edge of the outer layer of the basal wall. The cells of the inner portion of the basal wall in this region are thin- walled and have small intercellular spaces between them, sug- gesting thus the tissue that was described by Russow as filling the “lens-shaped space” in this part of the capsule of Marsilia. There is, however, no indication of a duplication of the hypo- dermis to shut off these cells from the rest of the capsule (see Russow "72 or Johnson ’98), nor is there any trace of the rod of brown cells described by Russow as occupying the anterior end of this lens cavity. THE VASCULAR BUNDLE SYSTEM. This system has been carefully studied by Meunier, and since my own work confirms his in all essential points, I have, with his consent, reproduced several of his figures (figs. 36-38) of its mature anatomy. In the development of the vascular system we have already seen that the axial bundle of the stalk comes from section I entirely, and this is true also of the simple continuation of this bundle into the capsule (a4, fig. 24). The rapid modification in shape and position of the various parts of the capsule, however, makes it practically impossible to trace out the origin of the many branches in the capsule with reference to segments and meristem layers, as it was possible to do in Marsilia. After penetrating unbranched nearly to the base of the sori (fig. 33), the axial bundle divides, sending one branch to the 1898 | THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA 15 right side of the capsule and one to the left, forming a short transverse bundle perpendicular to the main trunk (7d, figs. 36, 37). Each end of the transverse bundle soon divides again, sending one branch upward and dorsally in each case, and the other downward and ventrally (figs. 32, 33). Then each of these four branches, which correspond to what I have called the ‘lateral branches of the dorsal bundle”’ in Marsilia, divides to form the three peripheral bundles of its respective valve (/d/, figs. 30, 36, 37). Of these bundles, the middle one of each valve gives rise, a short distance above its base, to a short branch (p abr, fig. 36) that turns abruptly into the capsule to join the placental bundle which runs through the length of the placenta just back of the sporangia (paJ, figs. 30, 36). Of the other two main branches in each valve, one runs along close to each edge of the latter (14 /, figs. 27-30), and all three fuse again at the tip of the valve (figs. 36, 38). There is never a fusion of bun- dles from upper and lower sori on the same side of the capsule as occurs in Marsilia, and the absence of this allows the separa- tion of upper and lower valves on each side, just as the absence of fusion across the median plain in Marsilia allows the separa- tion of the wall of the capsule into right and left valves. THE SORI. In the young soral segments the growth in a tangential direc- tion of sections II and V is comparatively slight, while the sec- tions dorsal to the marginal cell grow vigorously and thus push this cell around into a nearly ventral position (m c’, fig. 19), After increasing considerably in size, the marginal cell divides into halves by an anticline parallel to the median wall (sp ¢, fig. 22), and then these halves are divided further by walls parallel to the first (figs. 23-26) and by others perpendicular to these (figs. 27-29), giving rise thus to the large number of sporan- gium mother cells of the sorus. During the growth and division of these derivatives of the marginal cell they are turned over, by the continued growth of the dorsal sections, so that the origi- nally outer surface finally faces toward the cells of section V, which 16 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [juLy have been turned in a similar way to face laterally outward (s pc, fig. 23). The slight depression thus formed on the ventral sur- face (sc, figs. 23, 24) is the beginning of the soral canal, which grows constantly deeper as the capsule develops (jigs. 24-26), becoming crescent-shaped in cross section (figs. 27-30), and finally closing at the outer end, by the growing together of sec- | tions V and VI, to completely inclose the sporangial cells (jigs. 26-32). By the striking change in the external form of the capsule already mentioned, the position of the sori within this is con- — | siderably affected. From their origin ( fig. 7¢) we might expect — | the sori to face the median wall, as in Marsilia, but this is not the — case, for in accommodating themselves to the globular form of the capsule, the sori of the upper pair soon come to face inward and downward, while those of the lower pair face upward and inward (jigs. 27-29), or, in other words, all four face towardthe central axis of the capsule. | When fully developed to sporangium mother cells the deriva- _ tives of the marginal cells are elongated perpendicularly to the — surface of the sorus, densely filled with contents, and have large — nuclei in which, in the resting stage, the chromatin is collected | in a few rounded masses (figs. 26-28). The number of sporan- gium mother cells in the length of the sorus is ten or more ( /ig- 26), while the number seen in transverse sections varies from four to five at the base or top ( figs. 27, 30) to as many as twel at the middle (fig. 29). The basal cells of the sorus are the first to form sporangia ( fig. 26), and this begins in each of them by the occurrence of inclined walls, cutting out a tetrahedral apical cell (sf, figs. 26 28, 29). One or more series of segments are cut off from thi off the tapetum in the usual way (s 4, figs. 28-30). to Meunier, who has carefully described the development of the sporangia, the microsporangia and macrosporangia are just alike up to the time of formation of the mother cells. This view i$ 1898 | THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA 17 confirmed by Campbell, and I believe it to be true, though I have not been able to follow out in detail this part of the devel- opment. Among the cells at the base of the sorus, where the first sporangia are formed, are a few cells which do not develop sporangia until much later, so that the sporangia in this region differ greatly in age, and hence in size (s 9, fig. 30). Inthe middle and upper portions of the sorus there seems to be much less disparity in the size of the sporangia, as all of the sporangial cells form sporangia at about the same time (fig. 29). From the similarity in distribution in the sorus of the sporangia first formed to that of the macrosporangia of the mature sorus, one is tempted to believe that these primary sporangia near the base of the sorus are the only ones that develop to macrosporangia, while the backward sporangia, including a few at the base and all those of the upper part of the sorus, give rise to micro- sporangia only, but this view could not be definitely confirmed. I can corroborate Campbell’s statement that no stalk cell is regularly formed in the development of the sporangia, and whether the cell sometimes seen at the base of the sporangial cell ( fig. 29) is the homologue of the stalk cell of the Poly- podiaceze seems open to question. We have seen that while the indusium which separates the sori of the laterally opposite pairs from each other is formed by the ventral outgrowth of sections II and V, that which separates the upper and lower sori of the same side must be derived principally from the sterile marginal cells. The presence of intercellular spaces along the median wall is noticed very early (i sc, figs. 25-27), and these finally run together to complete the separation of the indusia of the opposite sori. A similar splitting apart begins a little later between the upper and lower sori of the same side. The fact that these layers of tissue surrounding the individual sori are not originally separate is used by Goebel as evidence for the view that it is not an indusium morphologically, but it seems to me that, just as in Marsilia, the mode of development 18 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yury by the outgrowth of surface cells favors the opposite view, as has been pointed out by Meunier. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. The leaf of Pilularia develops, like that of Marsilia and many other leptosporangiate ferns, by a two-sided apical cell arising on the right and left sides alternately of the dorsal surface of the stem, near the apex. The eleven or more pairs of segments formed by this apical cell divide primarily into three sections and a quaternary mar- ginal cell, instead of five and a marginal cell of the sixth grade, as in Marsilia. Each of these four divisions takes part in the formation of all three meristem layers. The sheath of the axial bundle is derived from the procambium and not from the ground meristem as in other ferns. The mesophyll of the mature leaf is of a single layer. Outside of this are the ten air canals, sepa- rated both laterally and transversely by perforated partitions, and surrounded externally by the epidermis and epee dees oped from the protoderm. No indication of a rudimentary lamina could be found carefully following the details of division in the terminal se‘ ments of the circinately coiled leaf. The sporocarp of Pilularia is a branch of the leaf, arising if an anterior marginal cell at the base of the latter. It eee | a two-sided apical cell which cuts off six or more pairs of s ments, and is then divided up by irregular anticlines. Thes segments, like those of the sporocarp of Marsilia, form } primary divisions. This plan of division found in both genera must, + think regarded as a characteristic of the spore-bearing portion of : leaf in their common ancestor. From the absence 0 1898 | THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA 19 in the same mannert as in many other families of the group, and had a petiole more like these same forms in the number of divi- sions of its segments (see Sadebeck ’7q). Pilularia, on the con- trary, has no lamina, and has a smaller number of divisions in the leaf segments, resembling in this respect certain petioles of Marsilia (Johnson ’98), where the number of sections is reduced below the normal. Again, the type of division in the cap- sule seems to be easily derivable from that of the leaf of Marsilia, for the interpolated section IV of the former seems so plainly to assist in pushing the marginal cell around to the ven- tral surface, that we can readily believe it to have been added to a leaf of this type for this particular purpose. When all of these facts are considered, it seems evident that, so far as the structure of the leaf indicates, Marsilia is the less modified of the two genera, and resembles the other leptosporangiate ferns more closely, while Pilularia has a leaf very much reduced from the ancestral type. Whether the capsule of Pilularia is derived from one with more numerous sori cannot, perhaps, be profitably dis- cussed until we know the details of development in such forms as Marsila polycarpa, or M. Aegyptiaca, and Pilularia minuta, where the number of sori is reduced in each genus below that in the forms already studied, but from my own study of P. Slobulifera and M. quadrifolia, 1 am inclined to think the capsule of the latter, like its leaf, is the more primitive of the two. It seems to me that detailed study of the leaf development through- out the Leptosporangiate may be expected to give more light on the exact affinities of the Marsiliacezw with the other families of the group. In the segments forming the stalk of the sporocarp the protoderm gives rise to epidermis and hypodermis, and the ground meristem to mesophyll and the irregular partitions sepa- rating the small air canals, while the procambium gives rise in section I to the vascular bundle and in the other sections to the ventrally placed stereome bundle. The remaining younger segments of the sporocarp are devoted to the formation of the capsule. In this region two of the ulti- 20 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [jury mate marginal cells on each side are devoted to the formation of sporangia, all of those of each sorus arising from one of these four sporangial marginal cells. The sori thus arise in right and left pairs, one above the other on each side, and are not terminal in origin, as described by Meunier, nor with two sori on the median plane, as indicated by Campbell. These sporangial marginal cells give rise in a way somewhat similar to that found in Marsilia, to the large number of sporangium mother cells of the sori, and are in the meantime surrounded by the more vigor- ous growth of the other portions of the ventral side of the cap- sule. By the more rapid growth at the base of the capsule on the ventral side, the openings of the soral canals thus formed are pushed around from a lateral position to become nearly terminal in the mature sporocarp. The macrosporangia and microsporangia are not derived from different marginal cells, as in Marsilia. The earliest evi-— — dence of differentiation found here is in the fact that the first — sporangia formed, most of them near the base of the sorus, seem to develop macrosporangia, while the upper and younger ones become microsporangia. Except in this matter of location, the two kinds of sporangia are just alike up to the formation of the i spore mother cells. ‘ae Sat. eae eae sori from each other. It seems to me that Meunier is right in saying that the development of this tissue here (as in Marsilia also) is sufficient warrant for calling it an indusium. But we cannot agree with Campbell in regarding these indusia as t inturned edges of leaflets enclosing the sori, since we have evidence that any structure homologous with the lamina 0c: ul in the capsule. : Of course, the whole question of homology is comp by the fact that the sporangia of the Marsiliaceze seem tt on the ventral surface of the leaf, But if we pass from f like Asplenium, with sporangia borne near the middle of 1898 ] THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA 21 dorsal surface of the leaf, through forms like Adiantum, with sporangia near the edge on the same surface, to Lygodium, where, according to Prantl (?87), the sporangia actually arise from marginal cells, the transition to the Marsiliacezx, with several sporangia arising from each marginal cell, does not seem to be so very abrupt. The indusium of Lygodium also seems to have a striking resemblance to that of the Marsiliacee in some features of its development, and may repay further investiga- tion from this point of view. The axial vascular bundle entering the base of the capsule divides into two, one branch going to the right and the other to the left side of the latter. Each of these again divides, forming four branches, each of which furnishes the three main bundles of a sorus. The middle one of the three in each case develops a placental branch which connects with the placental bundle present in the axis of the placenta. The three bundles of each sorus fuse together at the tip of the valve, but there is no fusion of the bundles of the upper and lower sori on the same side like that found in Marsilia. The firm wall of the globular capsule of Pilularia is made up, like that of Marsilia, of an epidermis of thick brown-walled cells with trichomes and stomata scattered among them. Within this are two hypodermal layers, the outer of very thick-walled, regularly prismatic cells, and an inner layer of larger, more irregular, brown-walled cells. Across the base of the capsule is formed the thick basal wall, the outer layer of which is con- tinuous with and exactly like the outer hypodermis and has the same “light line” running through it. Near the dorsal side of the capsule there is a narrow slit through this wall, correspond- ing to the air passage which opens into the lens-shaped space in Marsilia, but, though a tissue similar to that found in this space is present in Pilularia, it is not cut off from the rest of the capsule by a duplication of the hypodermis. Just opposite the basal wall there is a depression in the dor- Sal surface of the sporocarp, and just below this, at the upper end of the stalk, is an outgrowth corresponding to the lower 22 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY tooth of the capsule of Marsilia. The upper tooth, which in Marsilia consists simply of elongated epidermal cells, is entirely wanting in Pilularia. In conclusion, the sporocarp of Piludaria globulifera is essen- tially the equivalent of a Marsilia sporocarp in which the num- ber of sori has been reduced to two pairs, and will probably be found to correspond even more closely in development with those Marsilias, like -J/. polycarpa or M. A2gyptiaca, which also — have a small number of sori. Morphologically, then, we must in both cases consider the capsule as equivalent to a branch of the leaf in which the marginal cells have been devoted to the | formation of sporangia instead of a lamina. ; BALTIMORE, Mp. LIST OF WRITINGS REFERRED TO. BISCHOFF, G. W., ’28: Die kryptogamischen Gewachse. 1828. Bower, F. O., ’84: Comparative morphology of the leaf of the vascular cryptogams and gymnosperms. Phil. Trans. 175: —. 1884. RAUN, A., ’70: Ueber Marsilia und Pilularia. Monatsb. Berl. Akad. CAMPBELL, D. H., ’93: The development of the ene of Pilularia Americana. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 20:—. 1893. ee ee ’95: The structure and development of the mosses and ferns. — GOEBEL, K., 82: Ueber die “Frucht” von Pi/ularia globulifera. Bot. | Zeit. 40: —. E882, HABERLANDT, G., '96: Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie. 1896. : HANSTEIN, J., 166 : Pilularie globulifer generatio cum Marsilia com-_ parata. 1866. ’ HOFMEISTER, W., ’62: On the germination, a eae. and fructifica- tion of the higher Cryptogamia, etc. Ray Soc I JOHNsoN, D. S., 98: On the leaf and s ; rocarp of J ‘lia uadrifolia L. Ann. of Bot. 12: —, 189 per = ee " _ Juranyt, L,, ’80: Celle. die Gestaltung der F fuicht bei Pilularia atoll Jera. Bot. Centr. 1:—, 1880. a : itrge zur Kenntniss der Rhizocarpeen. 1846. EUNIER, A., ’87: La Pilulaire. Etude wenmaie tage du sporo- carpe chez la Pilularia globulj ifera. La Cellule 4:—. 7s POIRAULT, G., ’90: Recherches d’histogenie eeetale Mém. de l’Acade imp. de St. Péteiaboseg 37:—. 1890. ‘ 1898 } THE LEAF AND SPOROCARP OF PILULARIA 23 PRANTL, K., ’81; Untersuchungen zur Morphologie der Gefisskrypto- gamen, Heft II, Die Schizaeaceen. 1881. ussow, E., ’72: Vergleichende Untersuchungen d. Leitbiindelkrypto- gamen. Mém. ieee: imp. de St. Petersbourg rg: —. 1872. SADEBECK, R., ’74: Uber die Entwickelung des Faieibantes 1874. EXPLANATION OF PLATES I-III. Abbreviations used.— A, apex ; ad, axial bundle; ac, air-canal; arc, archesporium ; 44, basal pit; ds, bundle sheath; dw, basal wall; cp, trans- verse partition ; D, dorsal; d, protoderm ; dw, protoderm-wall; ¢, epider- ; #, sporocarp ; Aa, halving anticline ; Ay, hypodermis; Ay*, outer hypo- dean. hy, inner hypodermis ; zd, indusium ; zsc, intersoral cavity ; Z, leaf; 4b, lateral branch of vascular bundle; 4bf, fork of the lateral branch; J, light line; &, longitudinal partition; 74, lower tooth; mc, marginal cell; mic*, mc*, etc., marginal cell of the first, second, etc., grade ; mp, mesophyll ; mw, median wall; fa, placenta; fad, placental bundle; faér, placental branch; #4, ground-meristem; fc, partition cell; A/, procambium; A/w, procambium-wall ; #%, pores in partition; S, stem; sc, soral cavity; sc/, Stereome bundle; sf, sporangium; sfc, sporangial cells; s¢, stoma; sw, segment wall; /a', first transverse anticline; ¢c, trichome; ¢/, tapetum ; 7/7, trachea; X, apical cell; I, Il, etc., first, second, etc., section walls. All figures are camera drawings from microtome sections, except figures 36-38, which are copied from Meunier. PLATE f, Fig. x. Transverse section of stem through apical cells of two young leaves. & 400. Fic. 2. Ventral surface of tip of young leaf. x 400. FiG. 3. Lateral surface of same. X 400. Fic. 4. Part of transverse section of young leaf. x 400. FG, 5. Similar section of an older leaf. X 400 Fig. 6. The same stil] older. X 400 Fig. 7. The same older than the last. X 400. Fig. 8. The same still older than the last. X 400. Fig. 9. Similar section of nearly mature leaf. x 75. Fig. 10. Part of tangential section of a young leaf through the partitions and air-canals, x 200. IG. 11, Similar section of older leaf. X 200. Fig. 12. Part of transverse section of stem showing ventral surface of a young leaf and the mother cell of a sporocarp. X 400. ‘IG. 13. Dorsal surface of tip of a young sporocarp. X 400. Fic. 14. Ventral and lateral surface of the same. X 400. 24 BOTANICAL GAZETTE’ [JULY Fic. 15. Surface view of the apex of an older sporocarp, showing the : fate of the apical cell. X 4oo. Fic. 16. Part of a section of the tip of a young sporocarp, which cuts the segment on the right parallel to the upper and lower segment-walls and the segment on the left perpendicular to these. X 400. Fic. 17. Part of a transverse section of a young sporocarp. X 400. Fic. 18. Similar section of slightly older sporocarp. X 400. Fic. 19. Part of transverse section of a capsule showing ultimate margi- nal cell. X 400. PLATE I. FiG. 20. Transverse section of stalk of sporocarp. X 400. Fr, 21, Similar section of an older stalk. x 300. _ FiG, 22. Transverse section of a capsule older than that shown in figure Ig. X 400, Fig, 23. Similar section slightly older than the last. X 400. Fic. 24. The same still older, though lower sori. X 400. : Fic. 25. Approximately horizontal section through upper pair of sori of a capsule considerably older than that shown in figure 31. X 200. Fig. 26. Part of similar section slightly older, showing formation of spo- rangia. X 400, 1G. 27. Part of a section transverse to the sori of a capsule of the age shown in figure 31, near the ventral surface, 400. Fig. 28. Similar section of right upper sorus a little older. X 400. FiG. 29. Similar section near the middle of left upper sorus still older. veces Fic. 30. Similar section, near the base of lower right hand sorus, older than last. x 175. PLATE Il, i Fig. 31. Approximately Sagittal section of a young sporocarp, just at the right of the median plane. x 400 FiG. 32. A similar section of a much older sporocarp. X 200, FiG. 33. Nearly median sagittal section of a mature sporocarp. X 30 — (At 7d, in dotted lines, the vascular bundles which would be seen ina section - a little farther from the median plane than this.) Fic. 34. Horizontal section through pit and base of mature capsule, just | dorsal to slit in basal wall, x 17%, FIG. 35. Section parallel to last through slit in basal wall. x 175. Fig. 36. View from the ventral side of the mature capsule. x 15, plane.) | Fig. 37. View from above of capsule and its branches. x.1 5. 1G. 38. View from above of the bundles at the top of the capsule. X 15 vascular bundle system of the (The arrow indicates the direction of the median ; the transverse bundle at the base of the BOTANICAL: GAZETTE, XXVI, PLATE J. Gis LA “TTT 4 wall Pp be oe, tH per hy= ep. JOHNSON on PILULARIA. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI. Be 5 HY cae cH Suey THA ier pray LA es " & Gae: Cera > Since a YZ) NT pLLEZT EO WNecacresst OES CRATE, 2c eeune Ol . © S Ke te? Sz Ti! O] S Ae ees ° : - ) @ woe > za ik cS Sac AY A ed nett NX 70)9/* 5 sainsemctes ae! “4 \\ ed INE ee VALS PRA TR YR p Me SRO eee tee ge 2 ee y- ae Age See SERRE oh Outs (eR a i TAY St ezeen Bors ASAT VR Benseees AK PLATE fi, CO BIN 22, % e, RISEN CTR GOuienaey emma a ey = ays () oe BX c> Y = KW) a, sei BANS Sars a e my, he a, =” SB 2 eal [} ee Bs . Lat PER Te on GN S\ \\ fe ‘e as A R a ‘J TD @ se <8. 2 s ae at \\) a LS sad a ag ®&, eae LS ==22 —— nbn | cel sett Bx = ae oe: REIS LA ae: Se, BRAT SX atees C7 C2 & HU Les BS RN co, AS oA Ga “ae . ~ LY LA ®, i] e Ba Sa SS LS Ry () a oe ies yy ZA, \ a 85 Ks gel Cas Roe YS 100 x CJ i rv X\ ise (| Bs E Qo ) S THe \ 2 .O Re (? AT / Yo ee ra TFS Ze O28 Ze ory i) [2 A -) a 7 S : AL EAT he wash @ = 8 eS = (V7 (> ae iF .Y cy Som ant == Ti ie = 2. one S= iN \] a LJ a: Kr) sap aes Sr sacdietllgl’ "] Goats! NAY Oo HHI . # cS aoe BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXV41. Weg) CSS = D3 5. del PLATE 111. aren 4.3 ‘ sli Se inte he ~ iy he, Ri? a ~~ XG ~S KE y es > Ss =— PO i S = see Se. a ZL. SS) . rnin iy <—~shw “hy ry Pr} mt al nig Hy Bt Uy rth at PUR TA od yeesit ‘i oie TAB os KS) Meese qtanse fica LAr Bee tstens ers, tes 3 ry LY Ss $2) aie 2 _N Keg a EE 3 @ ey TT . OH Uy 1D ct ry se Hie CONDITIONS FOR THE GERMINATION OF THE SPORES OF BRYOPHYTES AND PTERIDOPHYTES. FRED DE Forest HEALD. (WITH PLATE Iv) I. INTRODUCTION. THE investigations upon the effect of light on the germination of fern and moss spores have led to opposite and contradictory results, According to Borodin, Schmidt and others, the failure of fern spores to germinate in the dark is experimentally demon- strated, while Géppert and Schelting arrived at exactly opposite conclusions. Leitgeb has shown the necessity of light for the germination of liverwort spores, and Milde succeeded in germinat- ing Equisetum spores in the dark. Up to this time no system- atic work on the germination of moss spores in light and darkness has been carried out. In order to clear up this existing confu- sion and extend our knowledge in regard to the conditions for the germination of moss spores, the present investigation was undertaken, Before proceeding with the results of my own experiments however, I will treat a little more in detail the investigations bearing upon this subject, which have been hitherto published. II. HISTORICAL. Theearly botanists were in no sense of the word physiologists, and so from the time when the spores of mosses were first observed and compared to the seeds of flowering plants nearly to the present time, their germination has been treated almost exclusively from the morphological point of view. A historical summary of the works on the germination of the spores of eho and Hepatice, up to 1884, is brought together by Lind- 9 25 26 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY berg. The summary is not quite complete, as no mention is made of the result which Borodin? obtained with spores of Polytrichum commune. He found that they were unable to germinate in darkness. The work of Miiller-Turgau3 on the germination of spores and the production of secondary protonema is also omitted. As regards the fern spores, the earlier investigators made the assertion that light prevents their germination, as is to be noted in the works of Senebier, Humboldt,+ Ingenhouss,5 and Treviranus.© More recent investigators, as Kaulfuss,’ Leszczye- Suminski,®? Merklin,9 Wiegand” and Hofmeister," intimate that light is one of the necessary conditions for germination, although no definite investigations in that line are mentioned. The first investigations of importance from the physiological point of view are those of Borodin.? He experimented with eight different species of ferns and found that in all cases light was necessary for germination, and that in the dark no burst- ing of the exine occurred. His experiments are lacking in one datum, since he does not state at what temperature the cultures were kept. As shown by my own investigations this is one of the most important points. Two years later Gdppert*3 succeeded in bringing the spores of Osmunda to germinate in the dark, but the temperature at which the cultures were grown is unknown tome. A year later, Schmidt, with cultures of the spores of Aspidium violaceus and filix-mas, confirmed the results previously * Historiska Data rérande var Kinnedom om Moss-sporens Groning. Helsing- _ fors, 1884. Rectorprogram. * Bull. de l’acad. imp. de S. Petersbourg, 12: 433-440. 1867. 3 Arb. d. Bot. Inst. zu Wiirzburg 1: 47 5-499. * Aphorismen go. 5 Versuche mit Pflanzen IT, 5. 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Pharmacie, Paris versity - oe JINZO MATSUMURA EUGEN. bps RMI ING Imperial University, Tokyo University of Copenhagen VEIT WITTROCK Royal Academy of Sciences, Stockholm CHICAGO, ILLINOIS © | Publisher by the Gnibersity of Chicago Che Bniversity of Chicage press COPYRIGHT 1898 BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO - 283 Waetae oS Peeps $s Hotanical Gazette A Monthly Fournal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science Subscription per year, $4.00 Single Numbers, 40 Cents The subscription price must be paid in advance. No numbers are sent after the expiration of the time paid for. No reduction is made to dealers or agents, FOREIGN AGENTS: Britain Wm. WesLEy & Son, 28 Essex Germany — GEBRUDER BORNTRAEGER, Berlin St., Strand, London. 18 Shillings. SW. 46, Schonebergerstr. 17a. 18 Marks. Vol, XXVI, No. 2 Issued August 15, 1898 CONTENTS 4 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES (WITH PLATES VII-XVUl). Sertha Stoneman : 69 _ ON THE RELATION OF THE FLORA OF THE LOWER SONORAN ZONE IN F NORTH AMERICA TO THE FLORA OF THE ARID ZONES OF CHILI AND . ARGENTINE. William L. 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T Established Tuirty- 216# S recog” : if nized among expert wi as the STANDARD AMERIC BRAND. i ipt Samples for trial on recelp of return 2 gnsee | : : VOLUME XXVI NUMBER 2 BOTANICAL CFAZELEE AUGUST 1898 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES. BERTHA STONEMAN. (WITH PLATES VII—XVIII) INTRODUCTION. THE investigations recorded in the following paper were undertaken (1) for the purpose of ascertaining by the growth characters developed in artificial cultures, the relationship of certain fungous diseases grouped under the common name of anthracnose, and (2) to determine, if possible, by a study of their life histories, the connection of these so-called imperfect fungi with perfect or ascigerous stages. Following the established precedent I have included under this general term certain conidial forms belonging to the family Melanconiacez ; and a few species of the closely related sphzr- opsidaceous genus Vermicularia, and Volutella belonging to the Tuberculariacez, which so closely approach the genus Colleto- trichum in their structural characters and in the effect upon the host plant that diseases belonging to these genera have been referred to the anthracnoses,* have also been studied. *The popular term anthracnose has no systematic value. The name first applied to the “bird’s eye” fungus of the grape (Sphaceloma ampelinum De Bary, Bot. Zeit. 32: 451. 1874) has since been applied to diseases having a similar external appearance =~ agreeing in general in microbotanical characters. 70 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST The greater number of diseases described as anthracnoses have fallen under the genera Gleeosporium and Colletotrichum. These are characterized as fungi appearing at the time of fruit- ing in subcutaneous or subepidermal acervuli, which at maturity : t become partly erumpent. The conidia are borne upon basidia \ arising from a more or less definite basal stroma. At maturity the conidia issue upon the surface of the host in a conglutinated mass, usually of a roseate hue. ‘The acervuli frequently occur upon the host in quite regular concentric circles. The char- acters of the genus Colletotrichum agree in the main with those of Gleeosporium, with the exception of the presence of sete in the former genus, which is not an absolute line of distinction, however, since Glceosporium develops occasional sete, and the sete in Colletotrichum sometimes become so reduced in number that the pustules cannot be distinguished from those of Glao- sporium. The large number of species of these genera, which closely resemble each other in structural characters, and the fact that the anthracnose of one host will adapt itself to others, indicate their close relationship, and suggest that many more species have been established than should be maintained. Moreover, Species are often established, especially among the imperfect fungi, from characters which vary with the conditions of growth. It is well known that these fungi, though parasitic, adapt themselves quite readily to saprophytic conditions, and may grown in various nutrient media. In artificial cultures, distinct Species present more or less marked growth characters, and 1B with the aid of these characters that I have attempted, to relate, or distinguish, the species of some of this group of fungi, i) the characters peculiar to each are sufficiently constant and we marked to be of taxonomic value. In studying the characters, the ordinary dilution culture method has been employed, and the colonies photographed a Petri dishes. The fungus is then transferred to tubes of steril- ized nutrient media. Various media have been employed, but. sterilized bean stems have proven the most satisfactory for so a 1898] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 71 eral purposes, as they are rich in nitrogenous matter and the fungus has a vigorous healthy growth upon a substratum of a consistency near that upon which they are accustomed to grow, Of nearly all the species studied, the structural characters and relation to the host have received previous study from an economic standpoint; in such cases these points have been briefly mentioned. While germination of conidia has been observed in all species, a detailed account of those which agree quite closely would be tedious; it has, therefore, been usually omitted except in cases where some differences from the normal type have been observed. Herbarium specimens, tube cultures, and microscopic mounts have been placed in the Botanical Department of Cornell Uni- versity where the work has been conducted. My acknowledgments are due to Professor George F. Atkin- son at whose suggestion the work was undertaken and to whose ready advice and assistance I have been greatly indebted, and to Messrs, J. B. Ellis, S. M. Tracy, Byron D. Halsted, and others for their cheerful compliance to requests for fungi from their herbaria. GLa@osporIUM FRUCTIGENUM Berk. ( figs. 1-4, 33-38, 83). This species, which has been so fully and carefully described by Miss Southworth,? and to which Mr. Alwood: has recently devoted considerable attention, is comparatively rare in the northern states. The material from which the disease was Studied was obtained from apples in the northern markets and from quinces in an orchard at Ithaca. The presence of the fungus was indicated by the characteristic dark brown spots _Which Spread rapidly in size and become somewhat sunken. The center of the spot becomes quite dark in color from the Numerous black pustules which rupture the epidermis a few days after the spot has made its appearance. From some of the pustules the abundance of conidia presents a pale rose *Jour. Myc. 6: 164-173. 1891. *Ag. Exp. Sta. Virginia, Bull. no. 40, May 1894- 72 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST color; at the margin of the spot the pustules are frequently arranged in concentric circles. Sections of the fruiting bodies show the extreme variation marked by Miss Southworth. The developing stroma at the base of the pustule causes in some a depression in the tissue of the host, which is shrunken and brown for some distance down in the fruit. In others there is scarcely any depression; the . base of the pustule is very narrow, and the basidia, which become septate with age and quite dark in color, spread gradu- ally and extend a considerable distance above the host, giving the pustule in cross section a flabellate appearance. In the older pustules the disappearance of the basidia at the center was observed, and in addition to the ordinary conidia, on some of the elongated basidia were borne large oval or club-shaped bodies which become fuliginous, and are single-celled or once septate. They resemble the so-called secondary spores so fre- quently observed in artificial cultures. The conidia are hyaline, single-celled, elliptical, ovate or sometimes curved, varying con- siderably in size and shape. i In a dilution culture of meat-, or potato-agar, the conidia germinate readily within three or four hours. A germ tube 1S _— developed usually near the end of the conidium, which becomes coarsely granular and the contents begin slowly to pass into the tube. Two or three germ tubes frequently arise from the conid- ium. Sometimes the conidium upon germination becomes | septate, but this is the exception under favorable conditions of growth. The fusion of the conidia mentioned by Mr. Alwood? : is not peculiar to the species, but is frequently seen in other species, and is apparently due to a lack of nutrition, as it is most noticeable in water cultures or in agar-agar cultures when the growth is crowded, or when the nutritive material is exhaustel Within two or three days after sowing is made, the small te . late colonies may be seen in the agar with the unaided ey® 2 They are subcircular or elliptical, the center being marked ke, . slightly elevated, more compact growth of mycelium, elong® . ae 4 Loc. cit., 67. 1898] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 73 and radiating in two to five directions. Upon this growth the first and most abundant development of conidia takes place, which gives it a flesh color; beyond this the growth is nearly uniform. The colony is almost colorless at first, later assuming a delicate flesh color with the pigment developed in connection with production of conidia. The conidia are formed acrogen- ously on the branches of the mycelium; as the successive ones are formed they push the older ones aside, where they may be seen lying in evenly arranged rows or piled up in little heaps. Becoming more numerously developed in some places, they form light pink acervuli quite evenly distributed over the colony. On bean stems the fungus develops a dense white or grayish mycelium, which extends over the stems and the surface of the infusion in a flocculent weft. About three days after transfer- ring, blackened fruiting sori make their appearance upon the stems ; from these issue the pink masses of conidia, varying in color under different conditions ; in parallel cultures the pigment had a deeper tint on infusion of apple than on bean stems. With age there is developed an abundant stroma, spreading over the stems and underlying the younger flocculent mycelium. The mycelium forming the stroma becomes coarse, irregular, and dark colored. In old plate cultures the protoplasm of the mycelium has been seen to break up into elliptical spore-like bodies arranged somewhat diagonally in the cells or placed end to end. The dark, club-shaped bodies may be lacking in the entire life cycle of this Species, but conidia sown in a hanging-drop of water ire quently send out a short promycelium upon which these bodies are borne the second or third day after germination. It has been observed that in old cultures on bean stems, especially in those that have been repeatedly transferred, the acervuli become less prominent, in fact scarcely make their appearance at all; but an abundant stroma is developed. This peculiarity corresponds apparently to the habit of the fungus on its natural host, for in the older pustules, in which the ends of the basidia have grown out in long, dark colored filaments, the 74 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST production of conidia seems to have ceased, and the ends of the hyphe terminate in the enlarged bodies. The Gloeosporium found on the quince produces also a dark brown depressed spot which increases by well-marked concen- tric rings. The tissue remains quite firm, becoming more oF less hardened, and frequently cracks. In the growth characters of the colonies, and in the habit on bean stems, the resemblance to the species found on the apple is so close as to leave no doubt that the two fruits are infested by the same species ; the slightly different effect produced on the host being doubtless accounted for by the firmer tissue of the quince. Professor Halsteds further confirmed the identity by inoculating the quince with “virus” obtained from the apple. The writer has also successfully transferred the Glceosporium from the quince to the apple. However, since these forms easily adapt themselves to artificial cultures and are in a measure saprophytic, too much importance should not be attached to the results of laboratory inoculations, where the conditions are more or less artificial. No indication of a yeast form has been found in connection with the development of the species, GLa:OsPORIUM PHOMOIDES Sacc. ( figs. 5-7, 39-41); on tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum). An anthracnose causing a ripe rot of the tomato is mani- fested at first by a small circular depressed area. Older spots show a lighter central portion surrounded by a dark marginal band 2-3™ in diameter. Upon the central portion, the dark- — colored fruiting pustules first appear, producing irregular fissures in the epidermis, which often turns a bright yellow on the ma gins. From the pustules the conidia ooze out in light pink : masses. With age the diseased portions become quite black. : The spore measurements vary considerably from those giver in Saccardo (3:618), some of them measuring 18.5 X 5-O#- fe shape they may be oblong, elliptical, fusoid or reniform, and sometimes curved. — 5N. J. Ag. Exp. Rept. 316-317. 1898 } THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 75 The acervuli in section bear little resemblance to those of the ripe rot of apple. From a well developed cup-shaped stroma, lying some distance beneath the epidermis, the short continuous basidia arise. They do not project beyond the host, but the conidia are delimited beneath the epidermis. Although the acervuli may be closely adjacent, they seldom become con- fluent, and the structural characters maintain a greater uni- formity than is seen in G. fructigenum. In dilution cultures with meat- or potato-agar, however, the two species resemble each other in the early appearance of the colony. The conidia of G. phomoides germinate readily, fre- quently becoming once septate. The colonies show the dense, elongated, Y-shaped, or stellate center ;. the marginal growth does not present the regular, more or less parallel arrangement of hyphe seen in G. fructigenum, although this character depends somewhat on external conditions. With age, however, the roseate tinge of the colony is less marked. The mycelium is nearly or quite white until astroma begins to develop. This usually makes its first appearance in a circle about midway between the center and the margin, when the colony is from six to nine days old. This extends gradually both toward the center and the margin of the entire colony, frequently becoming in time a dark red- dish-brown. In parallel cultures of the two species this differ- ence is more marked in potato- than in meat-agar. In meat- agar the mycelium approaches the buff-pink tinge seen in G. Sructigenum, but here also a stroma is conspicuously developed. So uniform is this feature that it seems a valuable specific character. On bean stems the mycelium is a grayish-white at first, rather long and spreading ; an abundant stroma is devel- oped subsequently, which discolors the stems with thin, spread- ing, elliptical patches ; upon these the dark fruiting pustules are Situated. While the appearance on the stems is suggestive of the Gleeosporium of the apple and quince, in parallel observa- tions of the two, the Glceosporium ‘of the tomato was distin- fuished by the darker fruiting pustules, and the duller tint of the conidium mass.. At different times, however, and under 76 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [auGusT slightly varying conditions of the infusion of bean stems, these characters were found to vary and were not regarded as of so much importance as the characters developed in Petri dishes. Notwithstanding the fact that this fungus has been found to grow on the apple and quince in laboratory inoculations, the characters manifested in artificial cultures are sufficiently dis- tinct, so that it seems to merit a distinct specific name. Another disease appearing on maturing tomatoes causes te fruit to crack, These fissures are filled with an abundant white mycelial growth. The conidia are elliptical, oval, or fusoid, and resemble those of G. phomoides. On making a dilution culture it was found that the conidia were borne in chains, and proved to be the Ordium lactis. GLa@OsPORIUM VENETUM Speg. (figs. 8, 42-46); on Rubus sp. The raspberry is a most generous host for the anthracnoses, and the different genera and species parasitic upon it have formed an interesting group for study. The most destructive of these, G. venetum Speg., has already received considerable attention from economic mycologists, and a brief description of the external characters of this species will suffice. The disease is said to attack all parts of the plant, even the fruit, although so far as the observations of the writer extend, it has been confined to the stems and petioles of both feral and cultivated plants. It appears first in small purple spots, the oldest ones ‘being found near the base of the plant. As the spots increase in siz® they become grayish-white at the center, where the tissue of the host frequently becomes ruptured. Encircling the spot may 2 usually be seen an elevated purple border. The disease a permeates deeply into the tissue of the plant, but is locate¢ — chiefly in the cambium layer, where the cells become shrunken and brown. . : The conidia form amber colored masses on these spots, and upon examination may be distinguished easily from the gia species on the raspberry by their small size. They are oblong 1898] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 77 elliptical, measuring 5-7 X 2.5-34. The short basidia, which soon become erumpent, spread over the spot and are not con- fined to a definite pustule. The fungus does not adapt itself readily to artificial culture, and considerable difficulty was experienced before obtaining a pure culture. The conidia are not easily distinguished from isolated yeast cells, and a fungus forming light colored masses on the anthracnosed spots, and producing conidia closely resem- bling the conidia of G. venetum, proved to be a yeast form. The conidia germinate readily in water or agar, but after the germ tube has attained a length of three or four times the length of the conidium, further development is very slow. In agar, numerous short branches are sent out from the primary germ tubes, which become closely septate; the cells, including the conidium, become somewhat swollen, so that the conidium itself can be distinguished with difficulty from the cells of the myce- lium. Separation is more or less difficult, since growth in acidi- fied agar is even less favorable than ina neutral medium, and bacterial and other foreign growth is liable to contaminate the cultures before the colonies can be seen in order to be separated. Many unsuccessful attempts were made to obtain a pure culture of the anthracnose of the raspberry. As late as November 29 fresh conidia were again obtained. With some of these a culture was made ina hanging-drop of water; dilution cultures were also made in acidified and neutral agar. On the following day the cultures were examined and Many conidia were found to be sending out slender germ tubes by which, in the crowded condition in the hanging-drop, the conidia were frequently fused; the tubes attaining three or four times the length of the conidium. Four days after sowing, the germ tubes in the Petri dish cultures had attained a length of 24—-60u. They were divided into cells but slightly longer than broad, which were swollen so that the mycelium presented a moniliform appearance. On December 2 transfers of blocks of @gar containing germinating conidia were made to tubes of bean Stems. The growth at first seemed very unpromising. Small 78 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [auGusi tufts of white mycelium appeared on some of the stems. By December 22 the growth had spread so as to form colonies about 2—3™" in diameter. Very little mycelium could be seen, but one pink mass of conidia was borne on the upper portion of one of the stems. On examination the mass was found to be composed of closely packed basidia, bearing at the end elliptical or oval conidia 6-7 in length, although occasionally one was found measuring 12 or r4u. These were sometimes united by short.germ tubes. Dilution cultures were made in potato-agat from this colony. Growth took place very slowly; some of the conidia gave rise to two or three germ tubes, these branched frequently and became closely septate. The resulting colonies did not advance beyond a diameter of 3~4™™, At first they presented a stellate, or snowflake appearance, but later became quite dense and compact, with a close even marginal growth. The mycelium assumed a deep red color, darker at the center and shaded to a light pirk toward the margin, and: presented a glazed, shining appearance. The production of conidia was not observed. Subsequent transfers to tube cultures on bean stems, as well as on sterilized raspberry stems, resulted in a very slight mycelial growth in scattered tufts. Some of these tufts floated freely on the surface of the infusion, in small stellate colonies; and often became attached to the sides of the tubes. In cof- nection with the mycelial growth were small, pink, elevated masses. So peculiar was the growth and unlike that of any other Species of anthracnose studied, that in order to satisfy myself that the growth was that of the anthracnose, fresh material was again obtained the following July: The growth in agar and om bean stems manifested the same peculiarities as before, but upon closer examination of the newly formed patches on the stems the conidia were found. These quickly fall away and form the small colonies which were before mentioned floating freely on a the infusion. The colonies in agar did not attain a diametet © ‘ed or copper colored center with a com < alt ibe SUS fea Sake ake 1898 ] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 79 chocolate colored or dull pink margin. Upon teasing out the colonies and examining them under the microscope, the conidia were found in all stages of germination. Some of them pre- sented a dumb-bell appearance, while in others the germ tube about equaled the conidium in diameter, so that it could scarcely be distinguished from the vegetating mycelium. This crowded growth, and the rapid germination of the conidia in the colony, probably accounts for the small size attained by the colonies and their dense, hard, interwoven character. On sectioning portions of the bean stems upon which the fungus was growing, within the tufts of mycelium were found perithecia-like bodies with delicate walls of closely interwoven mycelium. These were quite small, measuring from 60 to 70 in diameter, ovate or pyriform. The peripheral cells were light brown, the interior was filled with light colored cells rich in pro- toplasm. While this condition suggests an ascigerous stage in connection with the fungus, it has not yet matured. On the hyphz surrounding these bodies were developed buds or gemmae; these were smaller than those found in other species but were of the same general shape, and of a dark brown color, Synonymy.—Gleosporium venetum Speg. is commonly regarded as a synonym of G. necator E. & E., the original distinction being that the former one affected the leaves while the latter was confined to the stems. This distinction is now seldom regarded, the description of the two as found in a natural state agreeing so closely that there is little doubt as to their identity. Not hav- ing obtained cultures from the fungus on the leaves, the writer is unable to discuss their growth characters in nutrient media. Gleosporium naviculisporum, n. sp. (/igs- 77, 58-61). While attempting to obtain a culture of G. venetum, a species of Gleeosporium was found on twigs obtained from Mr. Pearson, of Vineland, N, +, This proved to be quite a different species, although the conidia were obtained from canes quite badly affected with the characteristic spots caused by G. venetum. 80 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST The conidia of this new species ’are larger than those of G, venetum, measuring 12-15 X 4-6p, in shape fusoid or navicular and sometimes curved. Unlike G. venetum the fungus is a rapid grower, the colonies attaining, under favorable conditions, a diameter of 1™™ in three or four days. The colonies have a uniform growth of pure white, erect mycelium, resembling at first those of G. fructige- num. It is separated from this species, aS well as from G. pho- moides, by the navicular character of the conidia and by later growth characters. In addition to the characteristic develop- ment of mycelium, there are developed abundant bright pink acervuli, formed in concentric rings. It is also distinguished in its development on bean stems by the entire absence of stroma; this character was noted throughout many generations of cul- tures. The abundant mycelial growth noted in the agar-agat cultures was not so marked on bean stems, but large pink acer- vuli are freely developed and the conidia frequently sink to the bottom of the tube, where they form a thick, pink sediment. The colored, club-shaped bodies have been noted in hanging drop water cultures. Growth on bean stems was at first less vig- orous than on sterilized raspberry stems, but in laboratory cul- ture it gradually adapted itself to the former. Inoculations were made on cuttings of raspberry stems transplanted. in the greenhouse from the garden, in order to ascertain whether the fungus would adapt itself to growth on living stems. Eighteen days after the inoculations were made the fungus reappeared on the stems, the withered petioles, and along the veins of the leaves. As it has since been found on stems obtained from the university gardens in connection with G. venetum, it would be unsafe to say that the appearance was due to the inoculatio® since the mycelium might have been lurking in the tissue before the transplantings were made, although the canes were in ap apparently healthy condition. the fungus seems to be a different species from those that os have been described, and presents also growth characters a — tinct from the species studied in artificial cultures derived ry 1898 } THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 81 different hosts. Unlike G. venetum the acervuli are not confined to spots on the host, but spread indefinitely over the stem or leaves. From the form of the conidia I propose the name G/ao- sporium naviculisporum, with the following diagnosis : Acervuli erumpent-superficial, 60—240p in diameter, not con- fined to definite areas on the host. Basidia elevated, hyaline, 30-354 in length. Conidia fusoid-elliptical, straight or slightly curved; ends acute, hyaline, continuous, measuring 12-15 X 6p; oozing out in deep pink masses on stems and leaves of Rubus. Harnesia Rupr (West) Sacc.® (figs. 10, 52, 52); on Rubus. Another fungus of the raspberry is described by Saccardo under the name Hainesia rubi (West) Sacc. (Syll. 3: 699). This species has been collected in various localities about Cornell University. It is found abundantly on the leaves of Rubus, and is associated with Ceoma nitens (xcidial stage of Puccinia Peckt- ana), although this fungus does not seem essential to its exist- ence, since it will grow on artificial media in pure culture. The acervuli are subcuticular, soon subsuperficial, on both upper and lower sides of the leaf. At maturity the conidia ooze out in pale pink heaps. In section the pustule has much the same appearance as that of G. naviculisporum, but the conidia have not the pronounced navicular form found in that species. The colonies have a growth strikingly similar however to that species. There is the Same abundant growth of white mycelium which gives the colo- nies a uniform undifferentiated appearance. The species 1s fur- 6The species which Miss Stoneman has studied here is identical with that described by Ellis and Everhart as Gleosporium rubi (Jour. Mycol. 4:52. 1888) asso- ciated with Ceoma nitens on Rubus from Mississippi. There has been no opportunity to compare this material with the European specimens, but since their habitat 1s identical (association with Uredinez on Rubus), the difference in measurement of the Spores, which is not very great, : of the species, if they are generically the same. The genus Hainesia : branched basidia. This character is certainly not common in the American ape: mens which I have examined. While there is a strong probability that the arin — Earopean specimens are the same species, it is not possible at present to spea with certainty.—G, F, A. : 82 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST ther distinguished from G. naviculisporum by the development of a stroma in old cultures on sterilized bean stems. Gleosporium cactorum, n. sp. (jig. 74); on Cactus sp. There is a member of the genus Glceosporium which infests the cactus in greenhouse cultivation. The acervuli are erum- pent-superficial, pale pink, becoming dark colored, situated on dark brown, decayed spots. On the margin of the spots the acervuli become confluent, often forming a close ring surround- ing the less gregarious acervuli of the central portion. The conidia are elliptical, with rounded ends, and measure 12-17 x 4-6. The conidia germinate readily in nutrient agar, and growth takes place rapidly. The colony has a white, snowflake appearance, belonging to a group showing a loose, open growth at the center, with the slender radiating strands of mycelium growing from the central point. The growth of the mycelium above the surface of the agar gives the colony a downy oF floc- culent appearance.. The marginal mycelium presents a less regular growth than is seen in the open centered colony of Colletotrichum gleosporoides, and the open center is usually less distinct. By comparing the colonies with those of G. cingulatum Atk. (see fig. 26) a close resemblance will be observed. - The latter, however, differs in the looser, irregular marginal growth, as well as in morphological characters, which will be discussed more at length in connection with that species. On bean stems a dense growth of white mycelium is Pf duced, which shows later a slight development of strqae appearing along the edges of the stems. A well developed stroma is formed at the base of the acervulum. The conidia ooze out in light pink masses. Associated with the acervuli are compact stromata, forming dark spherical elevations of the aeons Their appearance suggests perithecia, but no indication | of asci has been found in connection with the species. fig. Ty ‘Tepresents colonies of the same species collected from 4 differ- ent variety of cactus a year later. 1898 | THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 83 GLaOSPORIUM MUSARUM Cke. & Mass. (jig. 77), on banana (Musa paradisiaca). The anthracnose of bananas is quite commonly found on ripe bunches of the fruit in warm weather. The fungus appears in roseate, innate, erumpent, gregarious acervuli on blackened spots of the fruit. These spots spread over the entire fruit, and the underlying tissue becomes disorganized. The conidia are elongate, ellipsoidal, rounded at each end, usually with a Single vacuole, and measure 16-18 X 4 p.” The material from which the first cultures were made was obtained from Ellis & Everhart’s N. A. F. no. 3178. Conidia from the material collected in July 1894 germinated readily when sown in November of the same year. Germination takes place in the ordinary manner, one or two germ tubes originating at or near the end of the conidium. The conidia remain single- celled upon germination. Growth is rapid and the first crop of conidia in potato-agar appears the second day after sowing. The colonies have at first a stellate appearance, which becomes more or less obscured with further growth. -Hyphal growth is Sparse at the center, and the mycelium radiates in more or less straight lines. The flocculent or feathery radiations extending from the center to the margin give the colony a characteristic appearance. It is at first grayish in color, and assumes a buff tinge when the acervuli appear, which are scattered irregularly over the surface. Very little mycelium is developed on bean stems, but a compact grayish mat spreads over the surface of the infusion. Over this mat, as well as on the bean stems, the acer- vuli are produced in great abundance. They are comparatively large and attended with the development of a stroma, which does not spread thickly over the stems as in G. cactorum, frac genum, and phomoides. Its entire growth marks it as a species distinct from the others that have been studied. The fungus readily adapts itself to various nutrient media. Although grow- ing upon soft tissue on its natural host it shows a vigorous growth tls original description in Grevillea (16:3), gives the spore measurements 12X qu. 84 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucusr of mycelium and an abundance of acervuli when transferred to ster- ilized oak and grape stems. The development of the so-called secondary spores has not been observed in cultures of this species. Gleosporium feetidophilum, n. sp.° (fig. 72); on skunk cab- bage (Spathyema fetida). The Glceosporium which was found to infest this host causes black depressed, elliptical spots on the spathes. Ina micro- scopic section, the cell walls are found to be very much collapsed; with the exception of those cells just above the acervuli, which frequently retain their normal shape and color though elevated by the underlying mycelium, and causing pale elevated spots on the surrounding blackened portion. The acervuli remain covered for some time, and the customary basal stroma is lacking ; the mycelium forms an irregular, loosely interwoven mass at the fruiting points, the conidia being borne some distance beneath the surface, frequently filling the large intercellular spaces. They are slender, elliptical, and slightly inequilateral, varying in size from 7—12-1 5X 2-3p. Conidia sown in a hanging-drop of water become closely granular or vacuolate, usually once septate and frequently swollen at the ends, previous to germination. They send out two or three germ tubes which produce conidia quite close to the mother conidium. In potato-agar the growth is much more vigorous, as many as five germ tubes having been observed originate from a single conidium. These branch frequently se a monopodial fashion and the conidia are abjointed so abundantly as to give the colony a yeast-like appearance. The colony is characterized by the pronounced stellate radiations which remain quite distinct from each other in the earlier growth, but the out spreading mycelium becomes more or less intermingled, renders | ing the radiations less pronounced, About 2™™ from the centeh, these radiations branch profusely, giving to the colony 4 more or less uniform margin. The colony which is at first quite white assumes with age a pale yellow tinge. 8 Collected by Professor G. F. Atkinson, Ithaca Flats, April 10, 1896. 1898 | THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 85 On bean stems there is scarcely any development of mycelium, The conidia do not remain collected in heaps, but spread over the stems or collect in a dense layer on the surface of the infusion. The cultures in the tubes are also characterized by the uniform yellow tinge. No stroma develops in the cultures, and the colored club-shaped bodies are not formed either in agar, in bean stems, or in a hanging-drop. The characters are as follows: acervuli for a long time covered, finally erumpent, situated on black depressed spots. Basidia short ; conidia sometimes borne on intercellular hyphe, hyaline, elliptical, ends acute, 7-12-15 2-3. On spathes of Spathyema fetida. GLa@OsPORIUM NERVISEQUUM (Fckl.) Sacc. (figs. 73, 53-61) ; on oak (Quercus), sycamore (Platanus). Co. This species may be easily recognized on the host by the shrunken withered veins of the leaves bordered by arid brown patches. The fungus causes the leaves to curl and become much distorted in appearance. The conidia, which may be found from early in June until November, are distinguished from the usual type of Gloeosporium by their ovate pyriform contour, some being so constricted at one end as to appear almost stipitate. Others are more regular in shape, ovate-oblong or oblong, measuring 10-12 X 4.5—5M. Owing to the slow growth after germination has taken place, considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining a Separation culture, as it was closely associated upon the leaves with cladosporium, a pycnidial form, and other rapidly growing fungi. In several unsuccessful attempts to obtain a culture from affected oak leaves, a peculiarity in germination was observed; the germ tube, which had a bulbous swelling at the base, made a short curve near its origin, sometimes encircling the conidium ina close coil. After germination had been observed the pieces of agar containing the germinating conidia were transferred to infusions of oak leaves. No satisfactory growth, however, 86 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [auGusT resulted from these cultures, which were made early in October, and they were discarded. On October 28 a Gloeosporium was found on the leaves of a sycamore on Ithaca Flats. The veins of the leaves had the withered appearance and were bordered by the irregular patches which characterized the disease on the oak. Upon the under side of the leaf brown acervuli were produced, on which an abundance of conidia were found. The acervuli were not confined so closely to the region bordering the veins as was the case on oak leaves, and the withered portions were more expanded, but the color of the pustules, and the spore mieasure- ments were the same, and the same peculiarity in germination was noted, the germ tube frequently coiling once and a half or twice around the conidium. The fungus was less contaminated on the sycamore, and the growth could be more satisfactorily observed. On the day following the sowing of the conidia many were found to be germinating, sending out one OF two germ tubes. On the third day after germination from three to five tubes could be seen to issue from a conidium which had in some cases become once septate, and the cells were slightly swollen. The colonies in nutrient agar produce a rather scant mycelial growth, the clusters of conidia forming grayish masses for the most part submerged in the agar, are borne quite uniformly ove? nearly the entire colony. The colony has a loose, feathery; almost uniform growth, there being no marked radiations of abundant central growth. In both meat- and potato-agar the growth is slow. On bean stems, also, there is a very slight, inconspicuous growth of mycelium, and the tube cultures at marked by the pale brown acervuli which are produced quite freely on the stems. ae June (1896), material was again we : oak leaves; the appearance on the leaf an section, as well as the peculiarity of germination and the gro' oe € same species of Gloeosporium infests sycamore and oak. 1898] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 87 COLLETOTRICHUM GLCOSPORIOIDES Penz. (jigs. 15, 84); on orange (Citrus aurantium L). This disease, which was found on an orange tree in the con- servatories, is also said to infest plants in outdoor cultivation. It causes, at first, light green spots on the leaves, which become collapsed and brown. Upon them are situated the black fruit- ing pustules which occur on both the upper and under surfaces of the leaf. Some spots show the acervuli arranged in quite regular circles around the margin, surrounding more indefinitely located acervuli at the center. The acervuli increase rapidly when the leaves are placed in a moist chamber, and the conidia Ooze out in bright pink masses. They are rather broadly oval, 12-16 X 5—6u, with one ortwo large oil drops. In section the acer- vuli, from 120-270p in diameter, are seen to be erumpent, super- ficial, possessing a well-developed basal stroma, which gives rise to short basidia. The sete, when present, are marginal, flexu- ous, once or twice septate, attaining a length of 130p. On bean stems the fungus develops an abundant loose, white, flocculent mycelium. The conidia ooze out in large masses, of a deep pink or orange color; a blackened stroma is developed quite abundantly, and the growth resembled that of G. fructige- num, of which parallel cultures were studied. Subsequent cul- tures, however, developed quite different characters in the colony than those of that species. The compact center developed in G. fructigenum is not seen in Col. gleosporicides. From the small central point of the colony of the latter species the mycelium radiates in from two to five directions. The branching of the mycelium is more or less suppressed at the center until the myce- lium attains a growth some distance from the center. It there branches abundantly, the branches spreading out ina fan-shaped growth. These marginal tufts for a time remain quite distinct, but in older colonies well supplied with nutriment they mingle more or less, forming a continuous circular margin. The clear Spaces at the center usually remain.. The fruiting clusters appear in a circle some distance from the center. More or less of a stroma is developed in connection with the acervuli, so that 88 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AuGuST they appear as black points in the white mycelium. At times there is a pink pigment developed, which gives color to the acervuli. In subsequent transfers to bean stems, in which the mycelium was less abundantly developed, the pustules showed a considerable formation of stroma, and sete were distinctly seen, although their presence is quite variable. COLLETOTRICHUM LAGENARIUM (Pass.). Sacc. and Roumg. ( figs. 17, 18, 62-69, 75-79); on watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris). In Farlow’s host index this species is recorded for the fol- lowing cucurbits; watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris), muskmelon ( Cucumis melo), cucumber (Cucumis sativus), pumpkin ( Cucurbita pepo), and squash (Cucurbita sp.). Its presence is indicated by subcircular brown spots on the rind of the watermelon; on some spots the tissue at the margin may become black, or the order may be reversed and a dark center may be surrounded by a lighter brown portion. Dull roseate acervuli rupture the epidermis, and are arranged more or less concentrically, The presence of setz is a variable character ; in some pustules which were quite mature none could be detected even in carefully prepared microscopic sections. This has led to some confusion in the history of the fungus as to its generic position. The conidia are rather long, narrowly elliptical, 16-20 x 4-54, sometimes ovate-oblong or inequi- lateral. A section through the pustule shows but a slight develop- ment of basal stroma; the basidia are rather long, immersed, but extending partially above the surface of the host. The fungus does not adapt itself readily to artificial cultures, and several unsuccessful attempts were made before satisfactory results were obtained. Conidia sown in meat-agar were seen to germinate, but subsequent growth took place slowly, and the contents showed disintegration. The mycelium became coarsely granular, and the contents showed disintegration. More satis- factory results were obtained in potato-agar, but here, also, the a growth, as well as on bean stems, made but little progres® « ee 1898 | THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 89 first. With successive generations, obtained by making trans- fers of cultures, the fungus became gradually adapted to artificial conditions, and vigorous growth was obtained in potato-agar. A normal type of germination takes place; one or two germ tubes arise from near the ends of the conidium, making their first appearance within six or twelve hours after the sowing is made. Twenty-four hours after sowing the conidia have usually all germinated. The contents of the conidium become coarsely granular, and a clear space at the point of origin of the germ tube is seen as its contents pass into the tubes. The mycelium becomes coarsely granular or vacuolate, and branches in an irregular monopodial fashion. As the colonies exhaust the nutrient medium large hyaline vesicles appear as offshoots of the myce- lium, or short branches of the mycelium become very much enlarged at the tips. The colonies make their first macroscopic appearance as small, irregularly stellate bodies; as they become older, the mycelial growth is nearly uniform, radiating from a small, dense central point. The conidia are first formed most abundantly at the center of the colony, where a pink acervulus appears. When the colony attains the age of five or seven days, the acervuli are formed irregularly over the central portion of the colony, the marginal mycelium keeping some distance in advance of the fruiting portion. The setz are produced quite abundantly on the acervuli; in fact, the characters of Colleto- trichum are often more distinctly manifested in artificial cultures than in a natural state. At the center of the colony a compact, reddish-brown stroma is formed, which does not spread far over the colony ; beyond this stroma the colony acquires uniformly a buff or salmon tint. Faint concentric markings are sometimes seen in the colony. ; Transfers to bean stems give rise at the point of inoculation to a spreading, grayish mycelium which covers the stems and the infusion. About three days after sowing the pustules appear in circular, elevated masses of a dull pink hue. As the culture becomes older they become surrounded by a stroma which gives go BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST them a blackened appearance at the margin, and long sete pro- ject some distance above the mass of conidia; these are dark brown except at the base, which is nearly hyaline, and they are frequently once or twice septate. The stems become blackened with a coarse, dark stroma, of irregular, more or less swollen cells, often terminating in club-shaped bodies. The mycelium does not develop below the surface of the infusion, but forms a compact coating over the surface which becomes glazed and shining, and of an intensely dark, reddish - brown color, becoming almost black, retaining, however, a reddish, iridescent hue. The Colletotrichum on cucumber agrees so closely in all the growth characters that parallel cultures of the two in agar or om bean stems cannot be distinguished from each other. The sim larity of growth leaves no doubt as to the identity of the species found on the two hosts, although the illustration of the two im section, and the appearance which the fungus gives to the host, might lead one to suppose them distinct species. COLLETOTRICHUM LINDEMUTHIANUM (Sacc. & Magn.) Scrib- ner, 1887 (figs. 19-20, 70-74); on bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The history of the anthracnose of the bean has been = interesting one, and much discussion has arisen in regard to its position and nomenclature. We have an account of its first observation by Lindemuth at Popplesdorf, 1875. It was described and named in his honor by Saccardo and Magnus in Michelia 1: 129, under the name Glaosporium lindemuthianum. Owing to its economic importance it subsequently received considerable attention, and has bee® figured and described in various journals. Professor Scribner (Rept. Veg. Path. 188 7), records the a ence of sete in the acervuli, and suggests that the species 4 placed in the genus Colletotrichum. Inthe report of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1887, Mr. Galloway i - the fungus and mentions that the presence of setae was constal’s — ; ; . also though very scarce in some cases, in all the material. He a’s° 1898 | THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES gt suggests that the species be transferred to the genus Colletotri- chum or Vermicularia. Under the title “ Identity of anthracnose of the bean and watermelon,”? Dr. Halsted describes some interesting experi- ments in inoculation of anthracnoses. The anthracnose of the watermelon was easily transferred to the bean, and a third fruit, the citron, was made to receive the anthracnose of both bean and watermelon; and he therefore regards the anthracnose of bean and watermelon, as well as that of the cucumber and musk- melon, as identical. So different was the development of the watermelon anthracnose from that described by Professor Atkin- son” for the anthracnose of the bean ( Colletotrichum lindemuthi- anum), that the latter was compared in artificial cultures with G. lagenarium. Some rusted beans of the Wardwell kidney wax variety were obtained and placed in a moist chamber to germinate. After the first pair of leaves had appeared on the stems of some of the seedlings, the anthracnose was manifested in the characteristic depressed patches. The center of the spots was of a light brown color, bordered by a reddish-brown margin. Scattered over the depressed portions were the small leather-colored pustules. The appearance on the host marked a difference in the species, the watermelon showing a more indefinitely spreading discolored portion of the host which is not depressed. The character of the pustules in section would give less evidence as to their iden- tity; in fact, there is a similarity both in shape and position of the acervulus, as well as in the length of the basidia and char- acter of the conidia. Dilution cultures were made in acidified and unacidified agar. The former medium was unfavorable to growth, as none of the conidia germinated. Those in the neutral medium two pays later showed signs of germination, while four days after sowing Several were found in different stages of germination. The first evidence of activity was seen in the swollen condition of the °N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep., pp. 347, 352. 1893- * Bor. Gaz, 20: 305-311. 18095. g2 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST conidium at either end, which gives it the appearance of being constricted at the center. This agreed with the peculiarity observed by Professor Atkinson, as did the further development of the colony and the appearance on bean stems. In order to compare the development of the anthracnose of the watermelon and the bean, parallel dilution cultures were made of the two on March 15, in order that uniform conditions of growth might be obtained. The material from which the cultures were made was obtained from separation cultures of the two previously made on bean stems. On March 16 the conidia of Col. lagenarium had sent out germ tubes about ten times their length, while others were not so far advanced, being shorter than the conidium itself. Some of the conidia were provided with septa, one usually at the middle. A few of the conidia of Col. lindemuthianum showed short germ tubes, but many had only increased in size. Four days later the conidia, which had just begun to germinate, showed the characteristic dumb-bell swell- ing, and many of those which had germinated earlier were also seen to be considerably swollen, and many were once septate. From some of the conidia as many as four germ tubes had formed. A few which had produced germ tubes of considerable size showed no appreciable difference in size or shape ; whether a change would come later could not be determined as they were obscured by the mycelial growth. While the spores of Col. lagenarium occasionally become distended, the pronounced dumb-bell appearance is not a feature of germination. The germination of Col. lindemuthianum resembles that frequently observed in spores of Marsonia, which are originally septate. As the colonies had exhausted the nutrient medium, the enlarged vescicles observed in the mycelium of G. lagenarium were see? in G. lindemuthianum. These were larger than those previously mentioned; they were frequently once septate, and sometimes sent out one or several short tubes. oe Not only do these two species show distinct differences in early growth, but the mature colonies present a very different aspect. Instead of the salmon cast of the colony, it is at first 1898 ] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 93 a pure white, with a later development of sepia colored stroma over the central portion, where the fruiting pustules are most abundantly developed. This portion of the colony is not con- fined to such a limited area as it is in colonies of Col. dagenarium ; nor does the outer portion of the colony become tinged, but remains a distinct white. On bean stems the stroma is also soon developed, causing a blackened appearance of the stems, upon which there is but slight mycelial development, but it forms a white mat over the surface, which for some time forms a marked contrast to the blackened stems. In cultures a month old this also develops a stroma. ; Since making the original parallel cultures the two species have been subsequently studied in connection with others; and, from material collected at different times and localities, with uniform results. The colonies of the bean anthracnose leave the impression of a study in black and white, while that of the watermelon, one in pink or salmon and a dark reddish-brown. A comparison of the two is well shown in figs. 77, ré, 10; 20, These various differences which are so marked, and which are quite constant under varying conditions of temperature, seem to show conclusively, notwithstanding previous results in inoculation, that the two are distinct species. From experiments made by the writer, it would seem that very little dependence can be placed upon the results obtained from cross inoculations made in the laboratory. The host to be inoculated is placed in a moist chamber or under a bell jar, where the moisture of the fruit is conserved, and the conditions are then favorable for any fungus which is already lurking in the tissue to develop. On the other hand, it has been shown that the fungi of this group easily adapt themselves as saprophytes, and a watery fruit like the watermelon or citron, which has been separated from the plant, has lost to a degree the power of resistance, and becomes more or less of the nature of a culture medium. 94 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST Volutella citrulli, n. sp. (figs. 2¢-25, So—S2); an anthrac- nose of the citron. From the Ithaca markets an anthracnosed citron was obtained. It was marked by light brown, subcircular, confluent patches thickly covered with black acervuli, from which the conidia oozed forth in light pink masses. In some of the spo- rodochia sete were present, while in others they were wanting. The conidia are hyaline, single-celled, elliptical or clavate, sometimes slightly curved, 15-20X 3-4. From the general macroscopic characters, and the shape and size of the conidia, as well as from the nature of the host, the fungus was at first referred to Colletotrichum lagenarium (Pass.) E. & H. Further study, however, revealed quite a marked difference in the two species. The pustule of the citron anthracnose has its inception in a dense stroma just beneath the epidermis, but it extends some distance above the surface of the host. In some cases the stroma extends up around the basidia, almost forming a cove! ing as is found in the genus Vermicularia. Long basidia arise above the stroma; the elevated basidia and the marginal sete, when sete are present, would show a close relationship to the genus Volutella. The sete are colored, two to three times septate, with a swollen base. This species develops quite differently from that of the beam, or watermelon anthracnose in artificial cultures. In colonies the salmon colored pigment of Col. lagenarium is wanting, and the fruiting pustules are not so centrally located, but appear ® — light colored pustules more or less separated from each other and somewhat concentrically disposed. A stroma, instead of being centrally located as in the two previously under consider ation, appears in clusters of peculiarly contorted sclerotoid bodies terminating in club-shaped cells. These masses f° — formed in concentric rings, intermingled with the fruiting Por tions. The mycelial growth radiates in quite straight rays from the center to the margin. The growth on bean stems also PF sents a different aspect from Col. lagenarium, just mentioned 1898 ] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 95 On the stems the mycelium is scarcely apparent, but with a hand lens it may be seen to form a very sparse growth of short threads spreading out on the inner surface of the tube.. The stems bear blackened elevations which resemble perithecia in shape, but which have never been found to be associated with conidia. The conidia do not form large pustules on the stem, but can barely be distinguished as small light colored elevations. The surface of the infusion becomes coated with a light colored scanty growth of mycelium. Within this growth appear light colored elevations composed of aggregations of swollen cells which develop dark membranous enveloping walls, similar in appearance to the dark elevations on the stems. While it is possible that the species Colletotrichum lagenarium infests the citron, the species in question is distinct from the one studied on the watermelon. There seems to be no species described in the genus Volutella which agrees with the one under discussion, and the name Volutella citrulli is proposed with the following description: Acervuli elevated ; basidia elongated, seated upon an abun- dant stroma rising above the tissue of the host. Conidia hyaline, single-celled, elliptical or clavate, sometimes slightly curved, 15-20 3-4. Seta, when present, marginal, septate, with a Swollen base. Forming light brown, subcircular, confluent - patches on the rinds of citron ( Citrullus vulgaris, var.). CoLLETorRICHUM LYCOPERSICI Chester ( fig. 21). Another anthracnose of the tomato is described by Chester” as follows: « Spots depressed, circular, slightly discolored, center black, 5-10" in diameter, becoming confluent. Acer- vuli abundant, densely gregarious, rusty brown or black, applan- ate, 95-150 in diameter. Sete abundant, fuliginous, generally curved, rarely undulate or straight, gradually tapering, septate, 65-110, about sm at the base. Conidia oblong 16-22 4x, averaging 18—20x 4p, hyaline, 2-3 guttulate. Basidia short, slender, 30-40p, arising from a well developed basal stroma.”’ “Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 4: 60-62. 1891. 96 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUSI Material was obtained from tomatoes of the yellow variety growing in the Cornell University gardens, answering in general to Chester’s description, with the exception that the setz are sometimes absent, and the basidia are rather longer than the measurements given in the original description. The colonies are quite different from those of the Gloeosporium on tomato, as well as from those of Col. lagenarium. There is a scant develop- ment of decumbent, spreading mycelium, with a strong tendency to concentric markings in the growth, where the mycelium is more erect and in tufts, surrounding black, spherical perithecia- like bodies which produce long sete. These, so far as has yet been determined, are sterile. The conidia formed freely on the mycelium do not mass up in large heaps. Toward the margin clusters are formed of knotted and swollen mycelium bearing quantities of dark colored buds or gemma. These lie quite close together, but are more or less distinct. They resemble the colonies of the Volutella on citron in this respect. On bean stems very little mycelium is developed, but the stems are plentifully covered with black spherical or hemispherical pustules, which bear long sete. In some of these bodies sete are absent. These bodies seem to be sterile, like those des- cribed in the colonies on nutrient agar. On the surface of the infusion a light colored mycelium forms a thick compact mat which does not have a flocculent appearance. but which is rather smooth and shining, and shows white compact aggre : a gations of threads which with age turn black as those on the stems. ; Another Colletotrichum was found on muskmelon, which a from the similarity in artificial growth developments was referred ae to this species. Volutella viol, n. sp. (figs. 22-23, 85-89); on violet (Vial cucullata) . ; a ny The Volutella on the violet is manifested on the leaves the host by pale brown patches surrounded by a dark : margin. In the center of the spots the black pustules of the : fe prow! 1898 ] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 97 fungus are formed, usually on the upper surface of the leaf, though they also occur on the lower side. It is distinguished as a Volutella by the marginal sete, and by the elevated character of the sporodochia, although in some cases the basidia are scarcely more elevated above the host than is found to be the case in some species of Colletotrichum. The conidia are continuous, hyaline, curved, acute at each end, measuring 15-21 X 3—4qpm. Upon germination the conidium contents become coarsely granular, and a germ tube pushes out at or near the end on the concave side. Sometimes a second and a third germ tube suc- ceeds the first. These soon become irregularly septate. With the growth of the fungus the mycelium becomes short celled and closely intermingled, forming at irregular intervals patches of stroma. The mycelium at these places, which is at first colorless, becomes irregularly swollen and colored; from the center of this mass the conidium bearing basidia are formed. Certain cells of the stroma give rise to the sete, which are enlarged at the base, usually twice or three times septate. Large colored club-shaped bodies are formed at the ends of certain threads of the mycelium, which frequently form gro- tesque masses by elongation and budding. The colony of the fungus is one of the most beautiful ones Studied. Three or four days after germination the small colo- nies present a stellate appearance; this character is gradually effaced and the mycelium forms a uniform colony of compact radiating threads. The acervuli are confined to a central region in the colony, in irregular arrangement, where a pink pigment is developed. This gradually extends over the colony, chang- ing to violet, and producing a beautifully iridescent play of colors, In tube culture a sparse grayish mycelium spreads over the stems, and forms a compact shining mass over the surface of the infusion which displays the iridescence seen in the colonies. With age this coloring disappears in the tubes but is quite last- Ingin Petri dishes. This delicacy of coloring is less marked 98 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | AUGUST in colonies produced from conidia, which have for some time become adapted to artificial culture. On sterilized stems the fruiting stools are formed similar to those found on the leaves but of a more vigorous habit. The sete attain a length of 320”. From the acervuli the conidia exude in dull pink masses. The early growth characters and the development of the pigment show a close relationship with that of the Volutella of carnations described by Professor Atkinson. The colonies, however, of the latter show in photograph more decidedly stel- late characters in the mature colonies, while in the former the stroma and setz are black, instead of hyaline as in that species. VERMICULARIA CIRCINANS Berk. ( fig. 76). The anthracnose of onions, which occurs quite frequently on the white varieties, was first described by Mr. M. J. Berkeley.” An account was subsequently given of the same disease by Dr. Thaxter.*3 The disease first appears as a small black dot, usu- ally on the outer scales, which becomes encircled by rings: These concentric markings are caused by the acervuli, which as the disease Spreads are scattered with less regularity over the scale. The pustules are plentifully supplied with sete, and the conidia ooze out in dull flesh colored masses. They are ellipt- cal, slightly curved, or inequilateral, measuring 20—22 X 34- A section reveals a remarkable development of a stroma extending down into the tissue to a distance of 250-3004- boa! development extends above the tissue to some extent. There is not, however, a perithecium developed, and although the i gus has been placed among the Sphzropsidex, the.charactet of the pustule shows a close resemblance to those species of Colle- totrichum in which an abundant basal stroma is developed, while the marginal sete and the elevated basidia, as well as the char- acters in artificial cultures, intimately associate the fungus with o the genus Volutella. * Gardener’s Chronicle yz 2595. 1851. *8Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 13: 163. 1889. 1898 ] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 99 In germination the protoplasm pushes out through one or more germ tubes usually near the end of the spore, in the usual manner. The colony, as it first appears to the unaided eye, presents a somewhat stellate appearance, but later from the point of inoculation a nearly uniform appearance is presented over a larger part of the colony, with a delicately fringed margin of spreading mycelium. The mycelium which grows both above and below the surface of the agar is at first nearly colorless; with age it becomes a dark smoky color. The discoloration usually appearing some distance from the point of inoculation, extends outward in irregular radiations. The ends of the threads become enlarged, colored, and delimited by a septum. These enlargements are also intercalary and at times peculiarly lobed and branched. At the center of the colony are grouped the dark colored fruiting bodies. At these points a stroma is formed and from some cells of the stroma setz are borne as in nature. On bean stems the fungus produces a grayish mycelium which spreads over the surface of the infusion, becoming in time of a dark smoky color. A thin stroma spreads over the stems, and acervuli are produced abundantly, and are at times confluent. The sete, which are quite conspicuous, are borne usually on the Margin, sometimes at the center of the pustule. ASCIGEROUS FORMS. The course of development of many of the Ascomycetes, especially the Pyrenomycetes, is pleomorphic, and various con- idial forms have been definitely interpolated with ascigerous Stages. The structure and habits of the species of Glaeospor- ium and Colletotrichum suggest that they too are form genera, having biological relations with perfect forms, although little has been definitely proven in this group to establish the con- nection,. Since the mycelial growth takes place largely near the sur- face of the host, and the conidia, provided with delicate walls, require no resting period previous to germination, evidence 1S strong that in the course of their life history, or at least in some 100 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST stage of their phylogenetic development, this group has, or once had, a complemental perithecial or pycnidial stage. A In 1886 Von Tafel™ carried on some investigations with Gleosporium nervisequum (Fckl.) Sacc., which he suspected from morphological evidence to possess an organic relationship with a pycnidial form, Discula platani (Pk.) Sacc. Owing to the fact that the pycnidial form was always associated with the Glceo- sporium form on the leaves, he was led to suppose that the mycelium passed through the petioles to the branches and there formed the pycnidia whose conidia developed in turn the Glceo- sporium. He was unable, however, to establish the connection by cultures, and the question still remained an open one. In continuing the investigations there was a suggested connection of the Discula with an ascigerous form of the genus Fenestella. The apparent connection of this form with a second pycnidial form as well as witha form resembling Acrostalegma, tended to disprove rather than to establish the connection with the Glceosporium. In connection with the study of Gleosporium fructigenum Berk., Miss Southworth * notes the finding of a perithecium con- taining two asci on the apple from which the Gloeosporium Was obtained, but the material, owing to contamination, could not be further examined. While the association of the two forms on the same host is interesting, very little value can be given ” a the incident in establishing a connection between them, for, she says, the apple became contaminated and it is quite poss! ie to account for the presence of the ascigerous form in that way Suggested connections are found in Saccardo’s Sylloge 0 species of Gloeosporium with ascigerous stages. Gnomoniella? circinata® on the leaves of Ribes is noted in connection with Gleosporium ribis and Gnomoniella fimbriata has been found asso” ciated with Gleosporium carpini on the leaves of Hedera In a large number of artificial cultures of Gleosporium fruch- o ™ Bot. Zeit. 44: 284. 1886. , = 5 Dept. Ag. Rept. Washington 348. 1887. *6Sacc. Syll. Fung. 1: 416-419. 1898 ] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES Iol genum no perithecial form was found in connection with it by the writer. In the study of G. nerviseguum (Fckl.) Sacc., both pycnidial and perithecial forms were found associated with it in the first dilution cultures, but when pure cultures were obtained by subsequent dilutions only the conidial form was found in the cultures. It is an interesting and significant fact that two species of Gleeosporium should be found associated with the same asciger- ous genus Gnomoniella. The writer made several attempts to obtain a culture of G. 7767s, all of which failed and its culture was abandoned. Gnomoniopsis cingulata Stoneman ( figs. 27, 28, 90-97); Gle@ospo- rium cingulatum Atk. on Ligustrum vulgare. In 1892 Professor Atkinson’? described a new species of anthracnose of the privet (Ligustrum vulgare). The growth characters of the fungus in artificial cultures suggested the prob- able cycle of development of this Glceosporium. On cultures of sterilized bean stems the threads were associated into strands of compact tufts, several layers deep. Within these wefts were numerous black rotund perithecia-like bodies, white within and filled with rich protoplasmic contents, presaging, as the author suggested, a probable ascigerous stage. Subsequent to the pub- lication of this study, mature perithecia were obtained in pure cultures of this Gloeosporium, sections of which were mounted and preserved. The material studied was obtained from Penn Yan, N.Y. The discovery of the perfect stage in pure cultures rendered the investigations of Professor Atkinson of more value than any results which had been previously brought to bear on the subject. In February 1895, material was received from Manhattan, Kansas, through Professor Hitchcock, of the State Agricultural College. The affected stems showed the elongated depressed areas of a light brown color corresponding to the affected twigs originally described. No spores could be obtained owing to the 7 Cornell University Exp. Sta. Bull. 49: 310. 1892. 102 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST age of the fruiting pustules, but with a flamed scalpel, after cut- ting away the surface tissues, portions of the affected areas were removed and transferred to tubes of sterilized bean stems on — February 18. A grayish mycelium soon began to spread over the stems, and black perithecia-like bodies made their appear- ance in connection with the acervuli producing the masses of conidia. On March 18 an examination of the cultures was made, and the black elevated wefts of mycelium were found to be peri- thecia containing mature asci, agreeing in every respect with © those previously mounted by Professor Atkinson. The perithecia were cespitose, seated upon a subiculum or stroma of loosely interwoven mycelium, dark brown, flask-shaped, membranaceous, measuring from 250—320y in length and about 150 in diameter, gradually constricted toward the apex into a short rostrum. The perithecia were more or less hairy with a — conspicuous tuft of coarse brown mycelium about the ostiolum. The asci were aparaphysate, clavate, sessile, measuring about — 64 X 14m. Spores eight, hyaline, elliptical, slightly curved, subdistichous, 20-28 X 5-7, usually with a clear spot at the center. As it was impossible to say from what growth this result was obtained, it now remained to establish definitely the connection — of the ascigerous stage and the conidial form. A dilution cul- ture was therefore made in nutrient agar, and spores were — marked which by their size and shape could be distinctly recogy nized as ascospores. These spores germinated in the same : manner as do the conidia, by sending out a germ tube usually — near the end, a little in advance of one originating neat the opposite end. Fig. 97 shows germinating ascospores eight hours after sowing; twenty-four hours later under favorable conditions © they may attain a length of 500 or 600p, showing indefinite S€P” tation and irregular branching. The germination of some spores may be retarded and the germ tube delayed until the day fol | lowing the sowing, although the spores do not become altered in size or shape. On the second day after germination as many as four or five germ tubes may be seen to proceed froma single 1898 ] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 103 spore. These usually become branched quite near their origin, but the center of the colony remains open and the radiating mycelial strands remain distinct from each other for about 2™™ from the center. Beyond this the mycelium branches in a brush- like manner, mingling toward the margin in a loosely spreading uneven fringe. The colonies produced from the ascospore had the same characteristic snowflake appearance described by Pro- fessor Atkinson for the colonies resulting from the conidia. From the tips of the mycelium the elliptical or clavate conidia are delimited as early as the second day after germination; the time, however, varies, depending upon the separation of the colonies and the amount of nutriment. When the colonies are well separated and growing in an abundance of nutriment, the formation of conidia is delayed. In artificial cultures the acervuli are sometimes attended with setz, although they are not sufficiently abundant to characterize the genus as a Colleto- trichum, and none have thus far been found in sections of the acervuli made from the host plant. Very little pigment is developed in the agar in connection with the formation of conidia, but ten or fourteen days after sowing the colony begins to show a development of stromata in small circular masses scattered indefinitely over the colony, which become elevated above the agar and overspread it with a grayish mycelium. These are filled with coarse granular protoplasm, and represent the early stage of the perithecia ; the agar, however, usually dries away before they become mature, although asci have occa- sionally been found in them. These are formed in connection With conidia, alike on the colonies developed from either asco- Spores or conidia. Portions of the mycelium produced from marked spores were removed to cultures of bean stems, the col- Onies being sufficiently separated so as to insure pure cultures. These separation cultures produced the grayish mycelium, bearing conidia abundantly, which collect in pink masses. The mycelium after about ten days becomes a dark brown; numerous dark buds or gemmae (?) are formed, and the association of the Perithecia-producing stroma becomes manifest within a week or 104 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST ten days after inoculation. The perithecia become mature when the cultures have attained an age of three or four weeks. Again in November 1895 both stems and leaves were received from Kansas affected with G. cingulatum Atk. On the leaves the fungus appears in light brown arid spots, oval or fusoid, bordering the midribs. Fruiting pustules are formed on both surfaces of the leaf, though more abundantly on the upper surface. From cultures obtained from these conidia, ascospores were again obtained. * The two forms have been obtained repeatedly in subsequent transfers made to preserve the species in artificial cultures, and definite connection of the two stages cannot be doubted. While the pleomorphic course of develop- ment can readily be traced, it cannot be said that one stage is necessarily intercalated between successive crops of the other. Gnomoniopsis piperata Stoneman (figs. 98—rog); Glaosporium piperatum E. & E.; on pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). , In October 1896, peppers affected with Glwosporium were received from Professor S. M. Tracy of the Mississippi Agricul- tural Experiment Station. The affected areas appeared as cit cular or oval spots in which pale yellowish fruiting pustules had ruptured the epidermis in elongated, irregular fissures, which were closely associated so as to be confluent at the older affected portions; around the margin they were arranged concentrically The conidia were elliptical to oval, measuring 12-23 X 5-OM- A dilution culture of the conidia was made October 10. The col idia germinated in the ordinary manner within twelve hours: subsequent growth was slow and lest the colonies should become contaminated transfers were made to bean stems on October 23: although at this late date no conidia could be found in the eur tures. The colonies showed few positive characters, the mycelium growing almost uniformly from a small light colored central point with the exception of a less abundant growth surrounding te ; center about 4-5™" in diameter. On bean stems the fungus devel” a oped quite an abundant grayish mycelium, standing out in a i | culent mass. On the surface of the infusion it is of a lighter colt and is usually more compact than on the stems, although ae oes 1898 | THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 105 condition varies in different cultures; in tubes containing richer nutrient material there is a more abundant and more compact development of mycelium. This difference is quite marked in parallel cultures on bean stems and young bean pods. In the latter case the mycelium is very abundantly developed, quite or nearly concealing the fruiting pustules. In tube cultures made on October 23 pink masses of conidia made their appearance five days later. In connection with the pink acervuli many perithe- cia-like bodies were observed. From this series of separation cultures a second dilution culture was made. The colonies again showed the nearly undifferentiated mycelial growth with the exception of a less abundant growth about the center. This portion, which is nearly free from mycelium at first, becomes overrun as the colony advances in growth, but the colony always remains more open at this portion. The production of conidia was not delayed so late in the second series of dilution cultures, and a few were formed eight days after sowing. Whether their earlier appearance was due to the condition of the nutrient agar, or to the fact that the fungus was becoming adapted to artificial growth conditions was not ascertained. The aggregated conidia form pale acervuli scattered quite thickly over the colony with the exception of the lighter portion near the center. In cultures ten or twelve days old the conidia become much longer than normal, and once or twice septate. From these cultures in which the colonies were so separated that pure separation cultures could be with certainty obtained, transfers were made on November 18 to an infusion of bean stems. On December 15 an examination of the tube revealed fully developed perithecia in connection with conidial clusters and the colored club-shaped bodies. The perithecia were so covered by the mycelium that their presence was not detected until a portion of the growth was removed with a needle and examined with the microscope. In order to check the experiment a second sowing was made of conidia which had undergone desiccation in the laboratory for five months. These germinated and conidia and perithecia were obtained as re; befo 106 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST The perithecial form closely resembles that of G. céngulatum Atk. On first examination it was thought that, though of the same genus, a specific distinction existed in the more slender perithecia of the former and the smaller spore nieasurements. These characters vary, however, in different cultures, and the larger measurements of the perithecial stage of G. piperatum. E. & E. are common to the smaller perithecia and spores of the privet anthracnose. Ascospores sown in nutrient agar produced the conidia, and later on perithecia, which matured in thirteen days in the agar cultures, the colonies from ascospores having the same appeat- ance as those from conidia. These colonies differ from those of G. cingulatum Atk. in the more uniform growth and the compact interweaving of mycelium at the outer portion of the colony. A description of the perithecial stage is as follows : Perithecia cespitose, thinly membranaceous, dark brown, of a lighter color toward the ostiolum, at least in younger forms, pear-shaped, hairy, situated upon or partly immersed in a light- colored stroma of loosely interwoven threads. Asci aparaphy- sate, clavate, sessile ; sporidia eight, hyaline, single-celled, slightly curved, elliptical, subdistichous, 12-18 X 4-6. Gnomoniopsis cincta Stoneman (figs. 31, 110-114); Colleto- ‘richum cinctum (Berk. & Curtiss); on orchid (Maxillaria piles Oncidium sp.). : a In connection with a study of the leaf spot of the conserva: Ss tory orchid by Mr. Paddock, a student in the laboratory, one nae the affected leaves, when placed in a moist chamber, developed - an anthracnose. The anthracnose had apparently no connection with the so-called “leaf spot” of the orchid, which‘is probably of non-parasitic origin2® Later other anthracnosed orchids : were found in cold house cultivation on species of the genera — Maxillaria and Oncidium, having a similar appearance 0? er to The disease has been found by Mr. Massee (Annals of Bot. 9: 42%: 1895) be due to sudden changes of temperature causing a precipitation of moisture 0% ves, lea ati i ai hae 1898 | THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 107 leaf and in the growth characters manifested in artificial cul- tures. The pustules are erumpent, appearing on either surface of the leaf, indefinitely located on large, withered areas, or arranged in waving concentric circles. Conidia 12-15 X 3—4m, elliptical, 2-guttulate. Setz rising above the pink masses of conidia characterize the genus as a Colletotrichum, which agrees in other characters with the species described by Berkeley and Curtiss as Glewosporium cinctum. The sete frequently nearly obscured by the abundant masses of conidia are doubtless in some cases absent. On sectioning portions of the leaf, the Colletotrichum was found associated with a pycnidial stage and also a minute pyre- nomycetous form. The perithecia of the latter measured 48-75 in diameter, were flask-shaped, borne singly or in clusters of two or three, on both upper and under side of the leaf. The bases of the perithecia were wholly or partly submerged, the partially emerging necks causing minute elevations in the tissue of the leaf. The spores were immature, and in sections the characters could not be well determined ; they were small, elliptical, slightly inequilateral, hyaline, single-celled, and measured approximately 6-7 X 2-34. Dilution cultures of the conidia were made February 16. On February 17 germ tubes arising from one or both ends of the conidium had attained a length of 15—50u. Laboratory dried conidia which were sown later required a longer period for absorbing nutrient material before germinating. Many showed no sign of germinating twenty-four hours after sowing, except in the coarsely granular contents of the conidia. These later, however, germinated in the ordinary manner. The young colo- nies resulting from the conidia present a small, white center, from which proceed five or six slender radiating strands of mycelium which branch out about 2™ from the central point in fan-like tufts, remaining quite distinct in some colonies, while in others they mingle more or less at the margin, if the growth is luxuriant. The mycelium does not have such a loose, undulat- ing growth as that of G. cingulatum Atk., which it resembles in 108 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST the open portion surrounding the center, but the colonies resem- ble those of the orange anthracnose (Col. glaosporoides). On bean stems the fungus develops a pure white mycelium which in rich nutrient media covers the substratum with a close, white felt. In some of the tubes black perithecia-like bodies made their appearance on the stems, while in others they were mingled with pink acervuli, and again the acervuli appeared almost exclusively. On bean stems, to which transfers were made February 17, perithecia containing asci were found on March 21. In cultures two months old many of the perithecia- like bodies retain their white protoplasmic contents, the cessa- tionof further development probably being due to the exhaustion of the nutrient media. The perithecia measure from 180-2804 in diameter, are flask-shaped, membranaceous, and _ cespitose. : Asci aparaphysate, clavate, sessile, truncate or obtuse when mature, measuring 65-70 in length, eight-spored. Sporidia hyaline, single-celled, elliptical, curved, measuring 15-20 X 3# From the germinated ascospores the conidia were again obtained. The first results were verified by cultures made later from differ- ent material. The ascigerous stage, as may be seen by comparing the : description and illustrations, bears a close resemblance to the two previous forms. The characters of the colonies show 4 It is possible that the perithecial stage obtained in artificial cultures is identical with that found in connection with the Gl@- osporium on the leaf. The difference in size and the presence of a stroma might be accounted for by the artificial conditions | of growth. Jak Gnomoniopsis rubicola Stoneman (figs. 29-30, 105-7 09) + _ Colletotrichum rubicolum E.. & E.; on red raspberry ( Rubus ae £osus). 7 In December 1895 some anthracnoses were kindly fo warded me by Mr. J. B. Ellis, among them a new species, at 1898 | THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 109 time unpublished, on Rudus strigosus, accompanied by the follow- ing description: “ Forming large, dark brown patches on the upper surface of the leaf; sori small, dark, suberumpent ; conidia oblong, elliptical, 12.5 x 6. Col. W. Va., Oct. ’95, F. W Nuttall.” Conidia sown in a dilution culture of potato-agar on January 30, four hours later had developed germ tubes usually from one end of the conidium, and slightly constricted at the base, pro- ceeding in irregularly flexous manner, occasionally septate, with little or no branching for a distance of 100-150#. On January 16 the growth could be seen in the agar with the unaided eye, the low temperature of the laboratory possibly accounting for the slow progress of the fungus. The mycelium showed a long, narrow, loosely branched growth, 3-4™™ in length. A colony from one of the conidia, which had been marked at the time of germination, was transferred to sterilized bean stems. Four days later the mycelium had formed a rather dense, closely adhering weft of grayish mycelium; black fruiting bodies appeared upon the stems, which were also overspread with a mycelial growth. Upon examining these on February 10, the perithecia were found to contain mature asci, the ascigerous Stage agreeing generally in appearance with the two previous forms. There is lacking in this species the conspicuous tuft of mycelium at the apex of the perithecia, which are usually larger than those of the pepper anthracnose. ‘The ascospores germinated in potato-agar, as had the Col- letotrichum conidia, by sending out obliquely from one end a germ tube ; the tube again is slightly constricted at the base, and extends from 180-200, in length before branching takes Place. This growth produces a colony, which, like that from the Colletotrichum conidia, is at first narrow, elongate, and loosely Spreading. About four days after germination, conidia are delimited from the mycelium in great abundance. Later, colored swollen buds are formed. The reproduction of conidia here took place much sooner than in the original cultures of the conidia ; and, inasmuch as the temperature of the laboratory 110 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST was nearly uniform at the two different times, their earlier appearance may be accounted for by its gradual adaptation 0 the artificial environment. Certain cells in the mycelium become swollen, usually septate and dark colored, and, in many cases, the fusion, with a smaller, curved, mycelial branch sug- gests a process of fertilization, although no careful study of this point was undertaken. From the swollen cells numerous colored branches arise which twine about and conceal it. At these places in the mycelium perithecia are formed. The appearance of the colonies is quite peculiar to the spe- cies. The mycelium radiates from a small central point, ina — feathery manner, forming one or two fan-shaped expansions which sometimes remain quite distinct for some time, or when growth proceeds in several radiations they become more oF less united, and growth is more or less uniform. The margif of the colony has an even fringe of straight, nearly parallel _ threads. The colony, which is at first flesh-colored, assumes a faint greenish tinge, which becomes a dark olivaceous brown at the more central portions, while the marginal growth retains the buff or slightly salmon tinge. The darker central portion 1S surrounded by the black fruiting bodies which are tufted with ” gtayish mycelium. The peculiar development of pigment 1§ quite unlike that found in the three preceding species, or in fact In any species yet studied. In connection with the perithecia grown upon bean stems; — large conidial cushions were formed, surrounded with dark spreading hyphe arising from a stroma at the base of the cushion. The conidia in artificial cultures frequently become septate. Vanilla, An anthracnose was obtained from a vanilla plant growing in the conservatory which belonged to the genus Colletotrichum: — It appeared in small black erumpent pustules on both sides 9% — Gnomoniopsis? vanille Stoneman ( fig. 32); Colletotrichum one - 1898 ] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 111 the withered leaves, on the stems, and on the aerial roots. The pustules measured 150-180 in diameter; a section through the pustules shows a well developed basal stroma, bearing closely crowded septate basidia 30—45m in length. The sete are colored, three or four times septate near the base. In older pustules the stroma passes up around the basidia, forming a cyl- inder of a compact association of rather regular rectangular cells, The pustules are somewhat superficially situated, the basidia extending nearly their whole length above the epidermis of the host. Closely associated with the Colletotrichum was found a pyre- nomycetous form. The perithecia bore a close resemblance to those described by Massee” in connection with another conidial form belonging to this group, the genus Hainesia. They were flask-shaped, having a membranaceous wall several layers in thick- ness, borne singly or in clusters, but without a stroma. Asci clavate, sessile, 75-80 15—16m, attenuate at base, paraphysate, 8-spored; paraphyses long, slender, filiform; sporidia elliptical, hyaline, or slightly fuliginous, curved 21-24x6-74. The form described by Massee belonged to the genus Calospora, and dif- fered in the presence of a stroma and in the tri-septate sporidia. The perithecia found on the leaves were not valsoid as in Calo- Spora, but when two or three were aggregated the necks diverged. The close resemblance of the two forms and the association of a Colletotrichum suggested an interesting study, and a dilu- tion culture was made of the conidia in meat-agar. The leaves, Which were more or less decayed, were an easy prey to sapro- phytic fungi, so that the first dilution was liable to be contami- nated. The conidia, however, were found in great abundance in plates one and two, and germination was observed. Owing i their crowded condition, however, and the liability to contam1- Nation, these plates were discarded. Plate three contained but ©ne colony. It had attained in eight days a diameter of 2" and Was nearly uniform in growth. As frequently happens with a Kew Bull. Misc. Information 139: 111-120. 1892. 4 112 BUTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST good supply of nutriment, when a profuse vegetative growth takes place, the production of conidia is delayed. Transfers, however, were made to bean stems in order to determine its further growth characters, and to avoid the possibility of con- tamination from exposure to the air. As germination had not been observed it was impossible to say from what the colony had originated. On bean stems there was developed a rather compact white mycelial growth, and black fruiting bodies made their appeat- ance in connection with the Colletotrichum conidia. The former developed into perithecia containing paraphysate asci with single-celled, curved spores. These spores when sown produced conidia, but from the conidia the perfect stage has not yet been obtained. Further investigation will be necessary in connection with this species, and a further detailed description will be deferred to another paper. The colonies from both ascospores and conidia, in their uni- form growth, with the exception of a slightly open growth around the central point, resemble those described in connection with Gleosporium piperatum. CONCLUSIONS. I will sum up briefly.some of the more important results obtained in connection with this study: The group of fungi under discussion, commonly known as anthracnoses, 10 many cases present, in artificial cultures, distinct characters of growth for distinct species, which may be made of value in distinguish- ing species whose similarity in morphological structure in ss nection with their host often renders their systematic position uncertain. uate The artificial growth characters of a single species fluct ; ang within certain limits with varying conditions of temperature nutrient media, and certain characters which are prominent may of become obscured with age, so that to render the characters taxonomic value uniform growth conditions are essential. The formation of the so-called secondary spores © r buds a 1898 } THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 113 which are common to Gleeosporium, Colletotrichum, Volutella, and Vermicularia is not a constant character, but may be absent throughout the entire cycle of development of a species, or they may be forced in these same species by a lack of nourishment. The presence of a perithecial stage has been proven in four dif- ferent species, of which the host plants vary widely in habits and structure. One of these exists as a saprophyte in a natural state (the one in connection with the vanilla anthracnose is omitted), while the other three are saprophytes in artificial cul- tures; whether they occur in nature has not been determined. Two of the perithecial forms were connected with species of the genus Colletotrichum, and two with Gleeosporium.” The colonies produced in the species with which perfect forms have been connected agree in producing a loose open growth about the center, but all show specific differences in for- mation of stroma, pigment, or arrangement of fruiting sori. While the conidial forms show greater variations in structure than do the perithecial stages of the different species, the growth characters of the colonies from ascospores resemble those of the conidial stage with which they are connected more closely than they resemble each other. The perfect forms approach the genus Gnomoniella, agree- ing in the submembranaceous, subglokose, subcutaneous-erum- pent perithecia; in the cylindrical, clavate, 8-spored asci; and the continuous hyaline conidia. They differ in the curved conidia, which in Gnomoniella are typically ovate, oblong sub- filiform and straight, although in species of Gnomoniella, G. amena (Nees) Sacc. and G. fasciculata (Fckl.) Sace. they are curved. The genus under consideration does not show ne slender, somewhat elongated beaks found in Gnomoniella, which are surrounded at the base with a white, cleft collar formed of the ruptured epidermis of the host, and the necks are hairy, while in Gnomoniella they are smooth. In shape the perithecia resemble the genus Camptospheria, but they differ from this * The presence of sete in the cultures has been so variable as to — tion whether they form a well-founded basis for distinguishing these two genera. 114 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST genus in other characters more than they do from Gnomoniella. Excluded from these two genera its position would be in a genus between these two for which the writer proposes the name Gnomoniopsis with the following diagnosis : GNOMONIOPSIS, n. gen. Perithecia cespitose, membranaceous, dark brown, rostrate, of a lighter color at the apex in early stages, flask-shaped, hairy, situated upon or partly immersed in a stroma; asci ses- sile, aparaphysate?, clavate, sporidia eight, hyaline, oblong, single-celled, slightly curved, elliptical, subdistichous, including the following species: conidial form, certain species of Gloeos- porium : G. cingulata (p. 101), G. Schein (p. 104), G. rubicola (p. 108), G. cincta (p. 106), G. vanille ? (p. 1 From the evidence of these perfect forms it is probable that the genera Gleeosporium and Colletotrichum have developed from one common ancestral genus of the pyrenomycetous form described above. Since of about thirty species studied but five have developed the complemental ascigerous stage, it is sug ~ gested that they have, to a large extent, become divorced from a perfect stage, and have become so adapted to environment that they are able to maintain themselves from year to year without the intervention of this stage. Many of the anthrac- noses are parasitic on garden and orchard fruits, and are thus preserved with their host during the winter. Under less favor-— able circumstances the conidia may tide the fungus over, since _ they will stand a certain amount of desiccation. The stroma — and sclerotia may also assist in ther preservation. * CORNELL UNIVERSITY. BIBLIOGRAPHY. : ALWoop, Wo. B.: Ripe rot or bitter rot of apples. Bull. Va. Agr. = se. 40 :59-82. May 1894 ARTHUR, J. C.: Gleosporium timonte. N. Y. Agric. Exp. Sta. Rep. yas oe 1884. 1898 ] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES Lis ATKINSON, GEO. F.: Anthracnose of cotton. Jour. Myc. 6: 173-178. 1891. A new anthracnose of the privet. Bull. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta, 306- 314. 1892 Carnation diseases. Am. Florist 8: 720-728. I ome observations on the development of Codletotrichum tindemuth- ianum in artificial cultures. Bot. GAZ. 20 : 305-312. July 1895. Volutella leucotricha. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. Rep. Bull. 94 : 260-264. 1895. Some Fungi from Alabama. Bull. Cornell Univ. Sci. 3:1. 1 Bary, A. bE: Vergleichende Morphologie und Biologie der Pile, Myce. tozen, und Bacterien. 1884. Sphaceloma ampelinum. Bot. Zeit. 32: 451. 1874. “BERKELEY, M. J.: Gleosporium leticolor, n. sp. ae s Chronicle — :603. 1859. ~ “Outlines of British fungology. 676. 1854 —Gleosporium fructigenum (first recorded notice of this species). Gar- dener’s Chronicle. —:255. 1856. BERKELEY AND CurTIS: Gleosforium versicolor. Grevillea 3:13. 1874. _ BREFELD, Oscar: Untersuchungen aus dem Gesammtgebiete der Mykol- ogie ‘Briost & CAvaRa: Funghi Della Plante Cultivati, no. 50. “CHESTER, F. D.: Colletotrichum Lycopersici. Del. Agr. ome Sta. pen 4: 60-62. 1891. "DUDLEY, W. R.: Anthracnose of currants. Second annual Rep. Cornell v. Exp. Sta. 196-198. 1889. \ Evus, 5. * ’ Evernart, B. M.: The North American species of Gleos- porium. Jour. Myc. 1 +9, 16-119. Sept. 1880. New and rare species of N. A. Fungi. Jour. Myc. 5: 145-157: Agee Paaiic, A. B.: Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen. 1880. FUckEL, K. W.: Symbole Mycologiz, Beitrage zur Kentniss ates Rhein- —schen. 1869. age B. T.: A new anthracnose of peppers. Bull. Torr. ss oye 714-15. 1889. acc, of the bean (G/a@osporuim lindemuthianum). U. Agr. Rep. 361-366. 1887. Aitter rot of apples. U.S. Dep. Agr. Rep. 348-359- ee nes Anthracnose of raspberry and blackberry. U. S. Dep. Agt- ro 361. 1887, Anthracnose of the grape. U. S. Dep. Agr. Rep. iets Gleosporium nerviseguum Sacc. U. S. Dep. Ag: Rep. 8 cae S. Dep. 1688, Matstep, B. D.: Anthracnose of the maple. Garden and Forest 3: 325- 1890, 116 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST HA.stepD, B. D.: An orchid anthracnose. Garden and Forest 4 : 309. 18gI. A new anthracnose of peppers. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 18: 14-16. 1891. Colletotrichum nigrum Ell. & H., N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 2: 359. SLeleosporium piperatum E.& E. N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 2: 358. 1890 go. Anthracnose or blight of the oak. Garden and Forest 3:121, 295. 1890. The secondary spores in anthracnoses. N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 303-306. 1892 Laboratory sidy of fruit decays. N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 326-330. 1892. 9 Anthracnose of solanaceous fruits. N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 330-333. 1892. Apple and Pa fruit rot (Gleosporium fructigenum Berk.), Am. Agric. — : 387. 1892. A study of pi GE fruits. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 20:109g-I12. 1893 Identity of anthracnose of the bean and watermelon. N. J. Agr. Exp. ae 347-352. 1893. cays of mature apples. N. J. Agr. Sta. Rep. 367-377. 1893- HARTIG: Tauck der Baumkrankheiten. 1882. Humpurey, J. E.: Comparative morphology of the fungi. Am. Naturalist 25:1055. 1891. MASSEE, GEO.: Vanilla disease. Bull. of Misc. Inform. Royal eect Kew NeCurnt, G. W.: The blight of the sycamore. Garden and Forest 3:21- 90. iienoke M. A.: The morphology and development of certain pyrenomy- cetous fungi. Bor. Gaz. 22 : 301-328. 1896. PenziG, Dr. O.: Funghi Agrumicoli 66, 1882. Botanici agrumi e sulle piante affini. Ann. d’ Agria 384. 1387. SACCARDO, P. A.: Sylloge Fungorum, 1-3. 1882-1884. Colletotrichum. Rev. M ycologique. SCRIBNER, F. L.: Dotted or speckled anthracnose of the vine. “Orchard and den 12:82. April 1890. SCHROETER: Die Pilze. Cohn’s Kryptogamenflora von Schliesen. 1885- ASMiTuH, W. G.: Cheasporiin leticolor Berk, Gardener's Chronicle —:657- os : go. SORAUER : Handbuch dex Pflanzenkrankheiten. 1886. /SouTuwortH, E. A.: Gleosporium nerviseguum (Fckl.) Sacc. Jour. Mye a 5:51. 1889 1898 | THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES tt] SOUTHWORTH, E. A.: A new hollyhock disease. Jour. Myc. 6:45-50. 1890. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 17:235. 1890. Anthracnose of the hollyhock. Jour. Myc. 6: 115-116. r8o1. ‘Ripe rot of grapes and apples. Jour. Myc. 6:164-173. 1891. Anthracnose of cotton. Jour. Myc. 6:100-105. 1891 SturGis, W. E.: Literature of fungous diseases. Bull. Conn. (New Haven) Exp. Sta. 118 : 36. March 1894. TAFEL, FRANZ VON: Contributions to the history of the development of the Pyrenomycetes. Bot. Zeit. 44 :824. 1886. our. Myc. 5 :53-58, 113-125, 181-184. 1887. ATHUMEN, F. von: Gleosporium versicolor. Fungi Pomicoli 60. 1879. Gleosporium leticolor, Die Pilze des Aprikosenbaumes 6. 1880. TuBEuF, Dk. KARL FREIHERR VON: Pflanzenkrankheiten 500-504. 1895. UNDERWOoD & Earve: A preliminary list of Alabama fungi. Ala. Agr. Exp. Bull. 80. 1897. ZIMMERMANN : Microtechnique. Zeitschrift fiir Pflanzenkrankheiten. EXPLANATION OF PLATES VII-XVIII. The first plate is from photographs of the Petri. dish cultures, generally of pure cultures, the colonies being natural size. The pen drawings are made to two different scales, the sections of hosts and the perithecia being made all to one scale, while the conidia and details of germination are made to another scale. PLATE VU, ‘a FIG. 1. Gleosporium fructigenum Berk. from apple ; culture 1, three days 0 . FiG. 2, Same, four days old. Fig. 3. Same, from quince; culture 1, three days old. Fig. 4. Same ; culture 3, six days old. FIG. 5. G. phomoides Sacc. from tomato ; culture 1, three days old. Fic. 6. Same; culture 3, six days old. Fie. 7, Same; an old colony, showing development of the stroma. FIG. 8. G. venetum Speg.; culture 3, one week o FIG. 9. G. naviculisporum Stoneman; culture eight days old. Fic, 10. Same, or Hainesia rubi (West.) Sacc GS tickinC isporum, and G. rubs all froma Rubus sp. FIG. 11. G. musarum Cke. & Mas FIG. 12. G. fetidophilum Stoneman ; culture six days old. 11G..1 3: G. nerviseguum (Fckl.) Sacc. from P/afanus. FIG. 34. G. cactorum Stoneman. 118 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST Fic. 15. Colletotrichum gleosporioides Penz.; culture three days old. Fic. 16. Vermicularia circinans Berk.; colony showing beginning of stroma. Fic. 17. Colletotrichum lagenarium (Pass.) Sacc. & Roumg. from water- melon; culture five days old. 18. Same; culture from another series nine days old FiG. 19. C. lindemuthianum (Sacc. & Magn.) Scribner; culture four days old. Fic. 20. Same; culture from another series nine days old, showing the pronounced stroma which is absent from the colonies of C. dagenarium. Fic. 21. C. dycopersict Chester from tomato. Fic. 22. Volutella viole Stoneman, plate culture. Fic. 23. Same; older culture. Fics. 24, 25. V. citrud/i Stoneman from citron ; the same plate at differ- ent ages. F1G. 26. Gnomoniopsis cingulata Stoneman; colonies from conidia taken from the stem. Fics. 27, 28. Same; colonies grown from four ascospores ; fig. 25 shows early formation of the stroma which bears the perithecia. FIG. 29. G. rubicola Stoneman Fig. 30, Same; culture five days old. FIG. 31. G. cincta Stoneman. Fig. 32. G. ? vanille Stoneman; from culture four days old. PLATE VIII. FIG. 33. Gleosporium fructigenum Berk.; conidia germinating three hours after sowing. FG. 34. Same; twenty-four hours after sowing. Fig. 35. Same; conidia sown in water producing colored buds and anas- tomosing mycelium in three days. Fic. 36; Same; old mycelium in plate cultu FIGs. 37, 38. Same; sections of old eid Rar large colored bodies at tips of basidia. FiG. 39. G. phomoides Sacc.: conidia. Fic. 40. Same; conidia germinating after twenty-four hours in agar. Fic. 41. Same; section of pustule on tomato. PLATE IX, FIG. 42. G. venetum Speg.; conidia germinating in hanging drop. Figs. 43-45. Same ; conidia germinated in agar three days after sowing. Fic. 46. Same; section of acervulus. FiG. 47. G. naviculisporum Stoneman; section of acervulus on host (Rubus sccidentales: 1898] THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ANTHRACNOSES 119 Fic. 48. Same; conidia. 1G. 49. Same; conidia in hanging drop; 4, anastomosing conidia; 4, short basidium bearing a ‘‘ secondary spore.” 1G. 50. Same; conidia in agar twenty-four hours after sowing. Fic. 51. Hainesta rubi (West) Sacc. ; section. Fig. 52. Same; conidia germinating. PLATE xX, Fi. 53. (. nerviseguum (Fckl.) Sacc. ; section of leaf showing acervulus on Quercus alba. IGS. 54-56. Same; conidia and early stages of germination. Figs. 57, 58. Same on P/atanus. FIGs. 59, 60. Same ; conidia showing early stages of germination in agar. Fic. 61. Same; conidia in agar twenty-four hours after sowing. PLATE XI. FIG. 62. Colletotrichum lagenarium (Pass.) Sacc. & Roumg.; conidia. FIG. 63. Same; conidia germinated after twenty-four hours. Fig. 64. Same; conidium which has been in agar three days showing no swelling. Fig. 65. Same; conidium and mycelium four days old. Figs. 66,67. Same; mycelium in culture five days old. FIGS. 68, 60. Same; section of pustule on host. PLATE XI. Fig. 70. C. lindemuthianum (Sacc. & Magn.) Scribner ; conidia. Fic. 71. Same; conidia in culture twenty-four hours old. Fic. 72. Same; conidia, and mycelium in culture four days old. Fics. 73, 74. Same; section of pustule on pod of Phaseolus vulgaris. PLATE XIII. FIGs. 75, 76. C. lagenarium (Pass.) Sacc. & Roumg. on cucumber ; sec- tion of pustule, Fic. 77. Same; conidia anastomosing in hanging drop culture. Fig. 78. Same; conidia in agar. FIG. 79. Same ; seta enlarged. Fig. 80. Volutella citrulli Stoneman; section of citron rind showing character of pustule. 1G. 81. Same; conidia in various stages of germination. Fig. 82. Same; stroma formed in clusters in colonies. PLATE XIV. Co FIG. 83. Gleosporium fructigenum Berk.; section of pustule on fruit 0 quince, 120 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST Fic. a Colletotrichum “eben teaagg Penz.; section of leaf of. orange with pust FIG i : Pies viole Stoneman ; section of siected leaf, Fic. 86. Same; conidia germinating. Fics. 87, 88. Same; stroma in agar. Fic. 89. Same; seta enlarged. PLATE XV. “Fic. 90. Gnomoniopsis cingulata Stoneman ; section of leaf showing acervulus. Fic. 91. Same; conidia germinating. FiG. 92. Same; conidia produced in culture two days old. F1G. 93. Same; ascospores germinating. Fic. 94. Same; seta and conidia in old cultures from ascospores. Fic. 95. Same; stroma produced in cultures. Fig. 96. Same ; perithecia grown on bean stems. ‘F1G. 97. Same; asci. PLATE XVI, Fic. 98. G. piferata Stoneman; section of fruit showing pustule. Fic. 99. Same; perithecia from bean stem culture. FIG. 100. Same ; asci. Fic. tol. Same; ascospores before and after carninater Fic. 102. Same; conidia. : Fic. 103. Same; beginning of stroma. Fic. 104. Same; conidia from ascospores in agar. PLATE XVII. Fic. 105. G. rubicola Stoneman; ascospores. Fic. 106, Same; ascospores germinating in agar. Fic. 107, Same; ascus enlarged. ; Fic. 108. Same ; beginning of formation of stroma in which the perithe- cia are developed. F1G. log. Same; yections of perithecia grown on bean stems. PLATE XVIII. FIG: 1 Ito. G, ‘Gincta Stoneman ; ‘section of acervulus ¢ on leaf. Fic. 111. Same; conidia germinating. Fic. 112. Sdme; perithecia found on leaf of orchid in conservatory. Fic, 113. Same; perithecia grown on sterilized bean stems. Fic. 114. Same; immature ascus, and mature one with ascospores. SL LES XAVE {I GAZE BOTANIC ACNOSES > \ aq a: << a << = PLATE VUll BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI STONEMAN on ANTHRACNOSES BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI PLATE LA VAS 1h ci i Nii iy ie i SS aoa KEES TW aa a. a @ Ve & “ib ae se STONEMAN on ANTHRACNOSES PLATOON BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI © , GE ZE- Fm Ed ——— FZ = WA i) 5 == aes v Oo (a Sy oe . Q 5 Vuiron ir) Hit if STONEMAN on ANTHRACNOSES BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI PLAT Lad STONEMAN on ANTHRACNOSES PLATE XIE BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI STONEMAN on ANTHRACNOSES BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI PLATE X/ff Fae Fame? I oh / N No vy . i.) Pek YY) i SN Rhee SRT TC BUOY Sok — asp STONEMAN on ANTHRAC NOSES BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI PLATE XIV 5: x felen. =e => . SB SS WS Se STONEMAN on ANTHRACNOSES BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI PLATE XV WA MAA the ff |} CE Wi! Ma RR Hi) \ aL] CTI . RAE KERRY RENO IID GA f eee ~ af oy) LZ ee cf iS y b) 4 6. BS CD he ef) Jas ‘ss ER are ‘ ‘Et “f I3¢. yj he Oe Bane Bar Ny) ae Ft BTR TENS is ae Ser hae wie By : a CLS MIA & ea ey)

P. hygrometrica; N. — gle. P. Lorensii, Ar- gentine peed P. Chilensis ; N. Chili. B. bonariensis ; Santiago del Estero; west slope of Sierra de Cor- git , Catamarc Ate 133 Means of distribution Mucilaginous seed coat with spirally coiled projectile rot fitted for adhe ing when mois- tened. Thin fleshy exo- carp which birds No special me- chanical device for distribution. Broad winged open, arid step- es. : BOTANICAL GAZETTE In both oS in warm temperate | z W. Indies, S. Sonoran zones Basi, northern . Plec- trocarpa 9. Larrea -L.. Mext- cana, 8. Meth- arme g. Tribu- lus fer- rophytic restris i. Cali- Sornicus , . Ariz., Lower Calif. T. brachy- styles N. Me Guaymas, Mexic to. Kallis- troemia K. maxi- K.maxt- ma ; a, Bo- Texas, livian N. Me Andes north- K. grandi- ward ora, hrough Texas to Central Calif. merica aud West Indies Chili- Argentine xerophytic zone Va tetracantha ; L. divaricata ; endoza. L. cunetfolia ; salt deserts, Cordoba to Rio Colorado. ti pot Argen- tine. M.lanata,; Tara- paca, N. E. Chili. } wv ~ [ AUGUST Means of distribution Carpels with curved spines. Carpels withlong, thick-walle hairs wo Rage device for trans- portation. SS a SR ere ae ENTS 1898] FLORA OF LOWER SONORAN AND ARID ZONES 135 W. Indies, S. pee 3 Pi N Bak Aescried ie northern Chili-A panei xerophytic Means of distribution 11, Vis- V. gem- Fruit of four split- cainoa wmulata: ting capsules, Lower not winged, still Calif light enough to be carried by winds. me N . Chito- C. Mexi- Fruits large and hia cana ,: winged, splitting Monte- at maturity. el Ww « Sttico- S$. Greg- Woolly carpels. des N — os - Pegan- P. Mexi- Like Fagonia. um The distribution of Fagonia cretica vars., Tribulus, and Kallis- treemia‘is similar to that of Frankenia grandifolia, Chorizanthe com- missuralis, Oxytheca dendroidea, Lastarriea Chilensis, etc.; that of Larrea and Porlieria is like the isolated Frankenias, Spirostachys, etc. Larrea may be cited as the best case illustrating that Phase of distribution in which there is absolute separation of the species both in a geographical and a genetic way. No other ‘Species are more reliable determinants of zonal areas that those of Larrea "8 which is also to say that distribution from one zone to another Over thousands of miles in which Larrea could not grow 'S very improbable, and this is clearly indicated by the distinct- ness of the species. Professor Engler expresses the opinion” that the present condition of Larrea, and indeed of the Guajacinez, **Merriay, North American Fauna 7:293; Engler, Pflanzenfamilien 3*:86. ° Geogr. Verbr. der Zygophyllacez, etc. Abh. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. —:17. 1896. 136 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ auGust represents remaining parts of a prehistoric, more general devel- opment, ¢. g.- Cordoba in ausgedehnten Bestinden auftreten. Diese Arten sind sowohl von einander, wie auch von der mexikanischen sehr verschieden, so dass die phologische wie raumlich de jetzt lebenden Larrea-Arten mehr verkniipften. REVIEW OF HALOPHYTIC ELEMENTS. Following is a tabulation of halophytic species occurring beyond the tropics in North and South America. Certain endemic species of Sueda and Atriplex are believed not to be related through the cosmopolitan coast species. In no other genus, except Prosopis, are species known to occur in the inter- vening distance, 7. ¢., over 40° of latitude: Lower Sonoran halophytic Chili-Argentine halophytic Spirostachys occidentalis. : inata; Argentine. P y Spirostachys 1 ({8e"*) © a Patagonica; Suzeda ; e.g. S. Torreyana and S. suf- Suda ; ¢. g. S. divaricata. fruticosa Atriplex; ¢. g. A. canescens. Atriplex ; e.g. A. Chilense (Chili) (c/ A. cinereum ; Austra Frankenia grandifolia, - - = fF, § Toichogonia-cosmopolita ; Chili. F. Jamesii, F. Palmeri, related to Neiderleinia juniperoides; Argentine. Fagonia cretica Californica, Fagonia cretica } ues Ce Larrea Mexicana. Larrea divaricata ; Argentine. “es é * cuneifolia aes Metharme lanata; Chili. Prosopis § Algarobia: P, juliflora, Prosopis § Algarobia ; P. julifiora and many others, mostly Argentine. § Strombocarpa, 3 species. § Strombocarpa, 3 species; Argentine. ee ot Oem: aes chal eats EL DE 1898 } FLORA OF LOWER SONORAN AND ARID ZONES 137 In the above will be noted (1) the greater number of com- mon genera in Argentine and the Lower Sonoran zone ; (2) that most species have no special mechanical devices for seed trans- portation. BORRAGINOIDEZ-ERITRICHIES. The Borraginoidez-Eritrichiez of the Pflanzenfamilien include seventeen genera, of which two, Lappula and Eritrichium, possess a broad distribution in the temperate zone of both hemispheres. Seven genera are chiefly E. Asiatic. Eight other genera occur in western North America, of which four recur in Chili. The geographical center of this group would appear to have been eastern Asia. From here the migration would have been along the chain of islands, Aleutian, etc., joining Asia and America, or by Behring strait and along the continental axis to extra- tropical South America; and hence the group would fall in with the boreal element represented in the Andes of Bolivia, Peru, and Chili. But the group has attained a distinct development in the Lower Sonoran zone of North America, and in the Atacama-Chilian arid zone, and for that reason is discussed here in some detail. It is to be noted that at one time or another, almost all of the west American development of Borraginoidee- Eritrichiex (both north and south) has been referred to the genus Eritrichium (excepting, of course, Amsinckia), and this fact may be made important in interpreting the present condition of the group in the western hemisphere. The Eritrichium type still prevails in a few species, and these are notable for being high mountain forms distributed along the continental axis from Alaska to southern Chili, with a considerable interruption from southern Mexico to Ecuador, while the forms referred to distinct genera represent apparently the variations resulting from the Occupancy of a vast arid tract. In the Synoptical Flora (191-199, ed. 1), Asa Gray included allof North American Borraginoidex-Eritrichiex under Eritrich- ium, Echidiocarya, and Amsinckia. In Proc. Amer. Acad. 20 : 264, and Syn. F/. Suppl. 423-433 (ed. 2), the two latter are retained, 138 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | AUGUST while Eritrichium in North America practically disappears in Krynitzkia and Plagiobothrys. Later, Professor Greene” defines the following genera: Allocarya, Eremocarya, Piptocalyx, Sonnea, Plagiobothrys (incl. Echidiocarya), Oreocarya, Cryp- tanthe, and Amsinckia. This is the arrangement adopted in the Pfhlanzenfamilien. Professor A. Philippi? describes one hundred Chilian species in twelve groups under Eritrichium, besides recognizing Amsinckia and Plagiobothrys. The one hundred species of Eritrichium fall under Allocarya, Eremocarya (?), and Cryptanthe. In the following tabulation species are grouped under those characters which best emphasize the relation of the Chilian to the North American species : Western N, America Chili 1. Cotyledons two-lobed AMSINCKIA. A, echinata ae A. angustifolia. (boreal species.) A. intermedia 2. Nutlets rugose, depres- sed from above; scar in middle of concave ventral face; lower leaves opposite. ALLOCARYA A. stricta ne (E.) uliginosum. A. trachycarpa i (E.) procumbens. A. chorisiana ee (E.) humilis. A, plebeia (E.) sessifolium. 3. Nutlets very strong, thick, depressed (as in 1), very broad; stipe in middle of ventral ace. PLAGIOBOTHRYS. P. rufescens = P. rufescens. ((E.) fulvum.) ((E.) tinctorium?) 4. Nutlets united in pairs to an elongated stipe- like base ECHIDIOCARYA. E, Arizonica. None. ° Pittonia, pts. 1, 2, 3. 1887. 21 Plante Nuevas- Suis 1893. 1898 ] 5. Nutlets with rugosity prolonged into barbed spines. 6. Nutlets with very thin, often crustaceous or pearly dotted or tuber- cled pericarp attached to gynobase along the whole grooved ventral face, or at base by trian- gular area; fitting to- gether by plane faces. CRYPTANTHE. EREMOCARYA. (1). Nutlets unlike or only one or two maturing: calyx articulated with and easily falling from rachis, on tN — - Four nutlets maturing: not of extreme xerophy- tic habit. More xerophytic. a, Ww — . Nutlets very large, pro- truding beyond calyx; pericarp _crustaceous, silvery white. (4). Calyx circumscissile. (5). Calyx lobes with long, foliose tips, mostly thickly beset with long, needle-like hairs: more extremely xerophytic. (6). Species with amphicar- pous nutlets. FLORA OF LOWER SONORAN AND ARID ZONES Western N. America Two species. Many species, Cryptanthe angusti- folia. C, crassipetala. Many North Ameri- can species 0 Cryptanthe. hh Eremocarya micran- tha. Cryptanthe Jamesii. In several groups. C. Torreyana. C, leiocarpum. C. intermedium. C. ambigua. C. barbigera. None. Chili None. Many species. (E.) aspera. (E.) Bridgesii. (E.) congesta. (E.) carrizalensis. (E.) minutiflora. (E.) glareosa. (E.) chetocalyx. (E.) debilis ? (E.) axillare ? (Eritrichium) parvi- flora. (E.) gnaphalioides, and most amphicar- pous species. None. (E.) longiseta. (E.) micrantha. (E.) calycina. (E.) diffusum. (E.) diplotrichium. Fourteen species. 140 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST The foregoing synopsis of characters does not always bring together plants of similar habit, as, for example, Cryptanthe Jamesii (N. America) and C. (Eritrich.) gnaphalioides (Chili), but it does aid in showing (1) that the Chilian species are an expansion of the North American development, and (2) that while identical species exist in the two zones there was also possible a distribution long enough ago to permit noticeable individuality to arise in the Chilian group. To summarize briefly: More than 130 species of Borra- ginoidew-Eritrichiee have been described in western North America, of which over 60 per cent. are confined to the Sonoran zone. Fewer than ten of these species pass into northern Mexico; but one into southern Mexico. In the Chilian xero- phytic zone, from 23° S. to 34° S., more than one hundred Borra- ginoidee-Eritrichiee have been described, of which five or six are high mountain forms of a wider distribution southward and northward, especially in the high Andes of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. But there remains a region of more than twenty degrees latitude from which Borraginoidex-Eritrichiex are absent, or in which they occur very sparingly. The southward extension of this group may be ascribed in part to glacial agency, inasmuch as some species belong to the high Andean boreal element. Mechanical arrangements for distribution are found in the easy disarticulation of the fruit, and its needle-like hairiness in Cryptanthe and Eremocarya; in the roughened or spined carpels of certain species ; and in the long, sharp-haired calyx lobes of others. With the Borraginoidex-Eritrichiee may be presented een the genus Pectocarya. The genus embraces the two sections Ktenospermum and Gruvelia. KTENOSPERMUo has the same species, P. /inearis, in California, Utah, Arizona, and in Chili. From California north to British Columbia is var. fenicillata, and in Peru a similar var. laterifiora. GroveELiA has P. sefosa, a distinctly marked species confined to southern California and Nevada. There is a more common and widely distributed form of this section which Gray added to Rigel aoe Se eats = 1898 ] FLORA OF LOWER SONORAN AND ARID ZONES 141 the Chilian P. (GRuvELIA) pusilla. It is not identical with P. pusilla, and to call it a variety of that species hides the essential fact that the Chilian plant is a southward migration of the common form of GRUVELIA. The flat light carpels of Pectocarya are admirably adapted for clinging to birds or mammals because of the pectinate mar- gin with its recurved sete. POLEMONIACE. The Polemoniacez duplicate the characteristics of the Borrag- inoidew-Eritrichiee in being a boreal group with a marked development in the Lower Sonoran zone of North. America, repeated in a less marked degree in the Chilian zone. Except for the genus Gilia the family would scarcely come within the scope of this discussion, being in their South American distribu- tion high mountain species. Gilia includes some eighty North American species, falling under thirteen sections; and about fifteen Chilian species, mostly included in Eugilia, Navarretia, and Dactylophyllum, but, as in Cryptanthe, having an individuality of species that indicates a prehistoric as well as modern distribution. Western N. America Chili § Eveiia Gilia laciniata, described originally Amer.; occurs likewise in western N. Amer. Gilia multicaulis, western California, is of G. laciniata type; straggling laciniate-leaved forms doubtless= G. aciniata. Gilia capitata and Gilia achillefolia are more extreme California and Oregon species, related to - G, laciniata. Gilia inconspicua, Wyoming to west- €rn borders of Texas, and west to California and British Columbia ; forms with laciniate radical leaves SS very close to - - - : i st G. copiapina. G. longifolia. 142 BOTANICAL Western N. Amerfca § NAVARRETIA. Gilia intertexta, plains of Columbia river to California and the Rocky mountains - - - -= Gilia minima, of arid portions of in- terior of Oregon and Nevada to Colorado and Dakota” - - = § DacTYLOPHYLLUM. Gilia pusilia, Guadaloupe island, and var. Californica, Sacramento to Nevada, -_ - - - — COLLOMIA. Collomia linearis Nutt., Saskatcha- wan, Oregon, Washington, and Utah, - - - - See Collomia grandiflora Dougl., similar to preceding, plains from Rocky mountains to California and Ne- vada. Collomia gracilis, Alaska to Chili. POLEMONIUM. Polemonium micranthum - -= In the preceding tabulation GAZETTE [ AUGUST Chili Gilia fetida, distinct Chilian species. Gilia glabrata and G. ramosissima are Chilian species of common Eugilia type. G. involucrata (incl. G. Navarretia Steud., and G. eryngioides Lehm.). dwarf forms of G. imvolucrata in Chili. G. pusilla, in Chili. Collomia coccinea Lehm., Peru, Bo- livia and Chili. P. antarcticum. the more extreme xerophytic species do not appear, because it is only the mountain species which have the extended distribution, and among which, ae fore, the same or closely related species occur in both Chili an western North America. The method of distribution 1s of interest here. Commonly in the Polemoniacee the seed is ‘fur- nished with a layer of cells whose walls become mucilaginous by contact with water, expelling forcibly the spirally thickened hair- like processes which cause the seed to adhere firmly to moistened 1898 | FLORA OF LOWER SONORAN AND ARID ZONES 143 objects (¢. g., feet of birds) and thus secure transportation. So far as I was able to examine, all the South American species of Polemoniacee possess these mucilaginous seeds. Giha minima and dwarf forms of G. involucrata (Chili) grow in little dense mats in arid spots. On the addition of moisture the seeds are gradually pushed up from the dense enclosure of bracts until they stand exposed and ready to adhere to any disturbing object. In the section Navarretia the bract development itself would be sufficient to bring about extended distribution by cling- ing to the hair of mammals. The absence of these genera from both north and south Mexico is noteworthy. SUMMARY. 1. Most of the genera just considered are of pronounced xerophytic or halophytic character. 2. Characteristic American groups, such as Zygophyllacee, Guajacinee, Borrag.-Eritrichiee, Amarant.-Gomphrenee, and Loasacez, tend to a development in both extra-tropical xerophytic zones, often with the same, and generally with nearly related species in both zones. 3. For some genera each zone has its characteristic group of endemic species, indicating an independence from the other reaching into prehistoric time, é. g., Malvastrum, Chorizanthe, Larrea, etc. 4. The halophytic genera in particular indicate that in some cases no distribution has occurred from one region to the other under present geological conditions, ¢. &:, Frankenia Palmeri, F. Jamesii, F. triandra, Niederleinia juniperoides, Spirostachys, Larrea, etc. It is evident from a study of the plants concerned that dis- tribution by natural methods has occurred and is occurring under present physical conditions. It is further evident that distribu- tion has been greatly facilitated by what may be called, in con- tradistinction, artificial means, namely, as a result of commerce. Again, one must suppose the present conditions, or others as favorable, to have endured far back into the history of the pres- 144 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | AUGUST ent plant world to allow time enough for the isolation of such groups as Chorizanthopsis, Malvastrum § Phyllanthophora, or even for the Chilian development of Borrag.-Eritrichiex. But how does it occur that the high andean flora is chiefly boreal? And how have the arctic-alpine plants reached the southern high Andes from the Rocky mountains? Further, how have the sharply defined and isolated species of Larrea, Frankenia, Prosopis, etc., come to be in both regions ? Gray and Hooker supposed that in the glacial time there was a driving of boreal and warm temperate elements southward, as a result of which some plants were placed favorably for migra- tion farther south. Engler suggests that the southward migra- tion of animals caused by the glacial encroachment was very notable in aiding the distribution of plants southward over the isthmus. It has been suggested that geological conditions have allowed a more general extension along the west American coast of an arid plateau similar to that of middle and northern Chili. Referring to a chart of ocean depths along the Pacific coast it is clear that by an uplift of 3000 feet a series of abrupt step-offs or shelves would be exposed extending to the Californian coast, and making the isthmus region a broad belt of land. This, besides offering a highway for xerophytic elements, would also bring about that union of the Pacific islands off the Californian coast with the continent which Sereno Watson” supposed must have prevailed in order to give the similarity of island flora to that of California. He suggested that the relations to the adja- cent continent indicate a former flora which spread over a wide region now submerged, from which ancient flora the elements common to California and Chili were derived. Such a condition of emergence along the west coast would be very favorable as an explanation for many of the phenomena of distribution, but I am not convinced that it is either necessary or possible to assume this. One must bear in mind that an ele- vation of the coast of South America by 3000 feet would in all * On the flora of Guadaloupe islands. Proc. Amer. Acad. 11: 112. 1876. 1898 | FLORA OF LOWER SONORAN AND ARID ZONES 145 likelihood mean an elevation of the Andes much higher above their present summits than we are warranted in ascribing to them. Professor Engler* says that the Andes of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador could not have been completely glaci- ated during the glacial period, for in this zone we find peculiar tropical genera which, without doubt, date from the oldest times. In this event these mountains could not, within the era of pres- ent vegetation (dating presumably from somewhere in the Ter- tiary period) have had a much greater elevation than at present. On the other hand, there is conclusive evidence of a state of submergence during the Tertiary period and of subsequent upheaval, a fact significant in the present discussion. He says in effect: If the geological conclusions be correct, we have in the Tertiary period the Andes representing an island separated from the Guiana-Brazilian triangle of land by an arm of the sea, nar- row at the north, wider at the south, and from Central America by a strait. Central America was united with western North America, which latter was separated from eastern North America by inland seas. In these conditions an exchange of tropical elements between Central America, West Indies, Guiana-Brazil, and the Andes could occur. With the progress of upheaval of the Andes and consequent changes of climatic conditions the tropical nature of these mountains was modified, only those forms remaining which could adapt themselves to the extremes of greater altitude. With this elevation, in particular, the flora of the north pushed southward over a newly opened territory, peopling the Andes in such numbers that the present high andean vegetation is to be reckoned with the boreal. This southward wandering of North American species was at first of the hygro- Philous elements, embracing many forms coming from the Hima- layas to North America, and so explains the presence of Himalayan types in the Andes. But, as the Andes began to attain their present elevation, the moisture of the trade winds was withdrawn, and a pathway for more xerophytic elements was *% Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt x: 198. “ENGLER: Entwicklungsgeschichte 1: 196-198. 146 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | AUGUST opened, and so the xerophytic hosts, which had previously found favorable territory for expansion and variation in western North America, pressed southward; for example the Sonoran Composite, Polemoniacee, Cactacee, Borraginez, etc. These, by the agency of birds and mammals, were carried over the equator to the extra-tropical regions of Chili, where again they found a broad, open territory favorable to a varied development. Three important propositions result from the foregoing: 1. We are carried back to a time when the isolated groups, like § Chorizanthopsis and Malvastrum § Phyllanthophora could have branched off from the North American stem. 2. Conditions following the appearance of land along the eastern base of the Andes might account for a more general dis- tribution of those genera like Frankenia, Niederleinia, Larrea, and other Zygophyllacex, Spirostachys, and some other Chenop- odiacee, which are now widely separated and genetically dis- tinct. 3. Animals, particularly birds and mammals, have probably played a prominent part in the distribution of plants across the equatorial and isthmus regions. In the following tabulation the devices for securing distribu- tion are brought together for a general view : I. Adaptation for wind distribution : ; 1. By winged fruits: Bulnesia, Chitonia, Centrostegia, Pterosteg!a, Harfordia, 2. By light, woolly hairs: Larrea. Il. Adaptation for distribution by animals. 1. Probably by birds. (2) As food ; fleshy exocarp: Guajacum, Porlieria. : (4) Seeds with mucilaginous covering and elastic coiled slime hairs : Gilia, Collomia, F agonia, Peganum. . (c) Seeds very small; without special devices for clinging, yet poss!” bly adhering to birds’ feet in mud or slime: Frankenia, Spifo- Stachys. 2. Probably by mammals, (a) As food; nutritious mesocarp: Prosopis. (6) By devices for clinging to wool or hair. 1898 ] FLORA OF LOWER SONORAN AND ARID ZONES 147 (1) Involucral bracts with recurved hooks ; stems fragile at joints: Chorizanthe, Oxytheca, Lastarriza. (2) The whole plant beset with barbed hairs; stems very brittle: Loasacez. (3) Rough or spiny projections on calyx or carpels: Tribulus, Kallistrcemia, some Cryptanthes, Froelichia. (4) Calyx with sharp, sometimes recurved stiff hairs; fruits easily falling away ; many Borrag.- Eritrichiez. (5) Carpels flat, with hooked sete: Pectocarya. (6) Fruits adhering by woolly covering: Gossypianthus, Freelichia, Gomphrena. For most species, then, the distribution and relationships in the two zones are such as can be accounted for from data that are reasonably well established. The element which remains rests upon very much the same basis of speculation as the rela- tion of New World to Old World Zygophyllacee, or Aus- tralian and South American Chenopodiacee, or, indeed, the relation of the great salt desert regions of the world to each other. UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS. CURRENT LITERATURE. NOLES FOR STUDENTS. ALFRED J. Ewart’ continues to hold it as proved, in spite of Kny’s objections, that isolated chlorophlastids may continue to assimilate for a short time after removal from the parent cell.—J. M. C IN HIS INTRODUCTORY presentatation of the pteridophytes, Sadebeck? outlines five main groups, FILICALES, SPRENOPHYLLALES, EQUISETALES, LYCOPODIALES, and CyCADOFILICES. The three groups of FILICALES are Fil. leptosporangiate (with the natural isosporous and heterosporous sub- divisions), Marattiales, and Ophioglossales. The EQUISETALES are subdivided, on the basis of isospory and heterospory, into Eueguisetales and Calamariales. The LycopopiaLes have as their main divisions Zyc. eligulate and Lyc. ligulate ; the subdivisions of the former being Psilotinee and Lycopodiinee ; of the latter, Sedaginellinee, Lepidophytinea, and Isoetinee. The taxonomist who delights in uniformity of group names, and also names that indicate the rank of groups, will not be pleased.—J. M. C THE INTERESTING discovery of a set of the plants collected on the Lewis and Clark expedition and named by Pursh forms the subject of a paper by Mr. Thomas Meehan.3 Pursh in his Flora refers to 1 Ig as having been col- lected, many of which were new. The fate of the collection was unknown, the general understanding being that Pursh took the plants to England, and left them to Lambert, an officer of the Linnean Society, and that upon the distribution of Lambert's herbarium the plants were scattered. The occur- rence of a large number of types in the collection made the loss of it a serious one. It seems that two years ago Professor C. S. Sargent suggested to Mr. Meehan that some of the material might be in the custody of the American Philosophical Society. After a long search the original packages were found unopened, some of them in bad condition, but the collection as a whole fairly preserved. Pursh’s labels and notes made the discovery certain. The col- lection was sent to the Gray Herbarium for final identification, and Mr. Meehan includes in his account the very full and satisfactory report by he B. L. Robinson and Mr. J. M. Greenman. Several interesting discoveries were made which will correct certain current identifications, In presenting the report parallel columns are used, one giving the present name of the plant, the other the treatment of the plant in Pursh’s Flora. The discovery * Bot. Centralbl. 75 : 33-36. 1898. *Engler and Prantl’s “ Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien” 14: 1-48. 1898. 3 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. 12-49. 1898. 148 [ AUGUST Bet a al ae ees FR Ee Sg ee ES. ee SEE RN ae Sel Bae Se Esra ue : ios, 1898] CURRENT LITERATURE 149 of this important collection of North American plants and its deposit in the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia is a matter of congratulation among taxonomists.—J. M. C Mr. Henry H. Dixon‘ has published recently some very interesting papers upon transpiration, which deal with the results of experiments which satisfy the author that transpiration is a “ vital”’ process rather than a physical one. By “vital” processes he means “those which cannot be accounted for by the immediate energy-relations of the organism to the external world, but those in which energy previously stored by the organism, ¢. g., oxidizable ne is utilized, and which only take place during the life of the organ- ism.’ uring transpiration, therefore, the elevation of water in the vessels resembles the raising of water in plants by root pressure. The phenomena of transpiration responded sufficiently to oxygen and to anesthetics to sug- gest that it is connected with vital phenomena. The conclusions drawn from experiments in a saturated atmosphere are as follows: 1. The elevation of the water of the transpiration current, when the leaves are Surrounded with a saturated atmosphere, is effected by pumping actions ees | in the living cells of the leaves. e observations on the drying back of branches furnished with dead leaves renders it highly probable that these vital pumping actions are par- tially or wholly responsible for the elevation of water even in an unsaturated atmosphere. hese pumping actions are capable of raising the water against an external hydrostatic pressure. . In common with other vital actions, they are accelerated by a moder- ately high temperature, and are dependent on the supply of oxygen. 5. The cells adjoining the terminal portions of the water conduits appear to possess this activity, and, in plants provided with water-glands, the pump- ing actions are not limited to the secreting tissues of these glands.—J. M. C. THE GENETIC RELATIONSHIPS between the phanerogams and cryptogams in the light of the most recent investigations are discussed by Belajeff.s As the title would indicate, the paper presents no new facts. Little attention is paid to the sporophyte, but the evolution of the male and female gameto- phyte, from the bryophytes to the spermatophytes, is presented in a masterly way. The female gametophyte shows a gradual transition from independ- ence in the bryophytes to complete dependence in the gymnosperms and angiosperms, and the archegonia which it bears show a gradual transition | from forms with the neck and venter free to forms with the entire archego- n the effects of stimulative and anzsthetic gases on transpiration, Proc. Roy. ish ey III. 4: 618-626, 1898; T em meee into a saturated atmosphere, /. c. 627-635. 5 Biol. Centralbl. 18 : 209-218. 1898. £50.': BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUS1 nium imbedded. The homologies of the embryo sac structures of the angio- sperms are not yet cleared up. Up to 1885 there is nothing in literature to justify the assumption of such a gradual transition in case of the male gametophyte. Belajeff investigated antheridia of Selaginella and Isoetes in 1885, and the antheridia of the heter- osporous Filicinee in 1890. The small cell cut off from the germinating spore of Selaginella and Isoetes is the male gametophyte, the homologue of the prothallium which bears the antheridia in the homosporous Filicinee. The antheridium which this much reduced gametophyte bears consists of several peripheral cells forming a wall enclosing inner cells in which sperma- tozoids are formed. The peripheral cells later coalesce. In the heterosporous Filicinew the more complex male gametophyte shows that the transition from cryptogams to phanerogams is not to be sought here but rather in the hetero- sporous lycopods, In the gymnosperms Belajeff investigated only the conifers, In the Abie- tinez the small cells cut off from the germinating microspore represent the male gametophyte. The rest of the spore consists of an inner small cell sur- rounded by a large outer cell which develops the pollen tube. The inner cell divides into two, the hindmost of which disorganizes; the other again divides, giving rise to two cells which are the homologues of the mother cells of the antheridia of Selaginella and Isoetes. In the Cupressinez the male gameto- phyte is entirely suppressed, the pollen grain transforming itself directly into an antheridium, In the Taxinez the simplification is carried still further. In the angiosperms the conditions are the same as in the Cupressinee, the pollen grain dividing into two cells, the larger representing the anther- idium wall, which stretches into a tube, the smaller dividing into two genera- tive cells. In 1897 the studies of Ikeno and Hirase threw new light upon the rela- tionships of the cryptogams and phanerogams. Hirase found that the two generative cells in the pollen tube of Gingko develop into ciliated spermato- zoids, and Ikeno made the same discovery in Cycas. Webber recently made similar observations on Zamia, his description of the development of the spermatozoids corresponding with Belajeff’s description of these structures in Equisetum and ferns, thus adding another proof of the relationship between the cryptogams and cycads. Of course these observations break down the old division into zoidiogams and siphonogams, since Cycas, Gingko, and Zamia would belong to both groups.— CHAS, J. CHAMBERLAIN, ITEMS OF TAXONOMIC INTEREST are as follows: Recent numbers of the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club contain descriptions of new species of Asclepias and a recasting of A. verticil/ata and its allies, by Anna Murray Vail (25 : 171-182. 1898); some new species of liverworts, with two plates, by Marshall A. Howe (Z. c. 183-192); descriptions of various new species 1898 | CURRENT LITERATURE I51 from the west, with three plates, by A. A. Heller (2. c. 193-201, 265-271); descriptions of various new Wyoming plants, with plate, by Aven Nelson (2. c. 202-206, 275-284, 373-381); a revision of the N. Am. Eurhynchia, by A. J. Grout (¢. c. 221-256), in which Cirriphyllum is proposed as a new genus including the species (four) with the concave filiform-tipped leaves, BryAnia Kawin recognized to include two species with papillose leaves, and £u- rhynchium retained to include the remaining nine species, one of which is new; miscellaneous new plants from New Mexico, by E. O. Wooton (¢. ¢. 257-264, 304-310); miscellaneous new plants, by John K. Small (Z. c. 316- 320); about three dozen new fungi, by Chas. H. Peck (2. ¢. 321-328, 368- 372); a presentation of the genus Syntherisma (often called the Digitaria section of Panicum) in North America, by George V. Nash (Z. c. 289-303), twelve species being recognized, two of which are new, and most of the others with new combinations.—M. L. Fernald (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 28 : 237-249. 1898) has been studying the much discussed genus Antennaria and presents a synopsis of the New England species, all included in our manuals under the “polymorphous” A. p/antaginifolia, recognizing thirteen species and varieties. The same author (Erythea 6: 41-51. 1898) has also attacked the species complex known as Castilleia parviflora, and recognizes fourteen species and varieties, eleven of which are new.—C. V. Piper (Zrythea 6 29-32. 1898) has recently described some miscellaneous new species from Washington.—B. L. Robinson (Proc. Am. Acad. 33: 305-334. 1898) has published revisions of Mimosa and Neptunia. The North American and Mexican species of Mimosa are presented, sixty-seven being recognized, nine of which are new. A new subgenus, ASTATANDRA, is established to include M. teguilana Wats. Four North American species of Neptunia are recog- nized, one of which is new.— J. M. Greenman (Proc. Amer. Acad. 33 : 455- 470. 1898) has published revisions of Galium and Relbunium, so far as species of Mexico and merica are concerned. Twenty-five are new. Relbunium, included by Dr. Gray in Galium, includes seven Species, one of which is new. The same author (¢. c. 471-489) has also. described numerous miscellaneous new and critical species from Mexico. —W. Willard Ashe (four. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 14:51-54. 1898) has described a new Robinia (R. Boyntoniz) from the southern Alleghanies. —E. L. Greene (Pittonia 3: 313-328. 1898) has recently cso sped ag amu new species of Viola, five new forms of Antennaria, six new species of Con- volvulus, and reéstablishes Rafinesque’s Polycodium, including the stamineum §roup of Vaccinium (six species), and Nuttall’s Batodendron, with V. radius deta as a type and two new species.— Dr. A. Weber continues his delonsreiepns = Cactacez (Bull. du Mus. d’hist. nat. 1898; nos. 2 and 3), dealing with rs §enus Echinocactus in Lower California, and with Pereskia and the Pereskia- like opuntias of Mexico.—J. M. C. NEWS. PROFESSOR W. W. BAILEY, after twenty-one years of continuous service at Brown University, has been granted leave of absence for the first term of 1898-9. ILLUSTRATIONS of the inflorescence and dissections of Welwitschia (Tumboa), made from a plant growing at Kew, are published in the Gardener's Chronicle (111. 24: 62-63. 18098). THE Division oF Borany of the Department of Agriculture has issued a bulletin (no. 20), prepared by V. K. Chestnut, which describes and illustrates the principal poisonous plants of the United States. Mr. Joun W. HARSHBERGER has published his lecture upon the uses of plants among the ancient Peruvians. Among the prehistoric remains are found the maize, peanut, potato, sweet potato, and coca. THE LAST FOUR NUMBERS (171-174) of Engler and Prantl’s Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien contain a continuation of the Umbellifere, by Drude; @ continuation of the Hymenomycetinee, by Hennings; and the beginning of the Pteridophyta, by Sadebeck. THE BERLIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE has made the following grants for botanical work: 2000 marks to Professor Engler for the continuation of his work on East African plants; 600 marks to Professor Graebner, for the con- tinuation of his work on German heaths ; 500 marks to Dr. Loesner, for the completion of his monograph of the Aquifoliacee. DURING THE LAST COLLEGE YEAR the following botanists have passed their doctorate examinations at the University of Chicago: W. L. Bray, thesis “The xerophytic flora of Texas;” Otis W. Caldwell, thesis “ Morphology of Lemna minor, with ecological notes ;” Henry C. Cowles, thesis “ The ecolog- ical relations of the sand dune flora of northern Indiana;" W. D. Merrell, thesis ‘Contribution to the life history of Silphium.” 152. [aveust 1898 St a eS eh ee Pe EON re PPP P AA LPP AL, IAP PG v HEALTH! REST! COMFORT! . The Pennoyer KENOSHA n Lake Michigan WISCONSIN $°oO ln in i Mi i i Mii ta hi Mi i hi Mit Mi hi hi Mi i i hi hi i i hi i i The Ideal Resting Place Established Forty Years Combines in most perfect form the QUIET and Isolation of Country Life with the Lux- uries of High-class Hotels, and the erg of the best Medical Skill and Nursing 2% Elegantly geri ee — pamphlet 1ca THE PENNOYER SANITARIUM co. KeNOShA: WISCONSIN. The Zackson Sanatorium Dansville, Livingston County, N. Y. 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Byearsof 5 ~s a oe vo 6 3 ILLINOIS Malan maieanaen STUDY Madea cui SIMEON W. KING Medicine’=*: a « Chicago Sum inn rey Attorney at Law, United States Commissioner ical College, holding sessions fro September. ur venee creded course. Commissioner of Deeds too : Twenty Professors, Excellent For ALL the States end Te uring ra gy tn ed rp Labor- n | Commissioner for U. art tories. dant — of cla ims meee 3G erateriat Livin Governm third less than in Winter. No at Chicago, Il). ne a "Amida: other great city has a climate vits and Depositions taken. eet study all Summer A 25s 1 orr ee ga tional. Recognize } call at Room 570, by the Tilinois State oer of | : r teed Chicago, Lil. Health Apply to acerinmanie plete Ulmer WF. Waugh,A.M.,M.D.,Dean When vote 3 in regard to advertisements please . 02% H. A. Brown, M. D., Secy, aici 2 “Botanical Gazette ” 103 State St.. Chicago. 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All subscriptions and requests for sample copies should be addressed to THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, UN NIVERSITY Pk PRESS DIVISION, Chicago, il. eas Zee ane a4 ROSES re = ana Oe ding buyer should rcv We ELLWANGER & BARRY, Mount Hope Nurseries, Rochester, N ent CORR WANCER 2 BARRY) Mount Hop Meet eon nus 9 BEAUTIFUL ETCHINGS ILLUSTRATING AMERICAN SCENERY ano AMERICAN ACHIEVEMENT ON ORTH:SOUTH VIA THE \ CO = _ Evaro | — Gatalogue 4 Containing miniature | | reproductions will be sent free post paid on Ys é : —_> e 43 ’TWIZ2>AS ; : , STA OAT hy Diy LITT ~— a : BEA AD OTE ANGMAR TIAN AND by George H. Daniels, A Genl.Passr. Agt. Grand. Cae tation oe | | | COPYRIGHT 1096, @ a S08 Grand Trunk “TRUNK RY. SYSTEM, ‘All Canadian id Eastern Points | VIA THE ‘ST. 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Wyckoff, Seamans & Ben ’ The Esterbrook Steel Pen Co, 144 MADISON STREET, Works, Camden, N. J. 26 John St., N. Y: CHICAGO. Vol. XXVI SEPTEMBER 1808 No. 3” THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE EDITORS JOHN M. COULTER, Zhe University of Chicago, Chicago, M1. CHARLES R. BARNES, Zhe University of Chicago, Chicago, f2. J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. — ASSOCIATE EDITORS GEORGE F. ATKINSON rnell University CASIMIR DECANDOLLE eneva J. B. DETONI University of Padua ADOLF ENGLER On Fie of Berlin FRITZ NOLL ea sd Bonn VOLNEY M. SPALDING Oniversity eo Michigan ROLAND THAXTER Harvard University WILLIAM TRELEASE Missouri Botanical Garden LEON GUIGN Bs cg se WARD "oie 4 Pharmacie, Paris University of Cambridge JINZO MATSUMURA EUGEN. WARMING Imperial University, Tokyo University of Copenhagen VEIT WITTROCK Royal Academy of Sciences, Stockholm CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Published by the Bniversity of Chicage Che Bniversitp of Chicage Press COPYRIGHT 1898 BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO Botanical Gazette A Monthly Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science Subscription per year, $4.00 Single Numbers, 40 Cents The subscription price must be paid in advance. No numbers are sent 0% the expiration of the time paid for. No reduction is made to dealers or agent FOREIGN AGENTS: Great Bri —Wwm. WESLEY & Son, 28 Essex Germany — GEBRUDER BORNTRAEGER, Berlin St., Strand, London. 18 Shillings. SW. 46, Schonebergerstr. 17a. 18 Marks. Vol. XXVI, No. 3 Issued September 17, 1898 CONTENTS THE ORIGIN OF GYMNOSPERMS AND THE SEED HABIT. John M. Coulter - ee ic: A STUDY OF REGENERATION AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES (WITH PLATES XIX-XX). Fred De Forest Heald - - - - - - 169 BRIEFFR ARTICLES. 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LATER LIFE OF L s Tarbell’s papers on ue later life of hears orn cise in the November number. They tell the story of oe s ue polo the time of his first nomination to the Presidency to his eath. It is a short iod, but as tremendously ‘vce. and Miss Tarbell kas collected a great deal of new i sla ace: i. Reminiscences of Lincoln by Personal Friends, Unpublished letters, and unpublished poate have been placed at ved henge ges Then has derived from talks and correspondence with men prominent in the events of the time, rage sig ae of Linc oie that 4 give new phnphen: of his character. 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The data upon which we base opinions concerning phylogeny are never suffi- _ cient, but such opinions usually stimulate research and are nec- essary to progress. Any statement dealing with this problem is merely an expression of our knowledge of comparative mor- phology, and of our judgment concerning the phylogenetic importance of certain structures. To my mind, the most conspicuous error in many schemes of phylogeny is the tendency to focus attention upon very few structures. It may be that the structures selected are the most significant, but the organism is a plexus of structures, and must be considered in its totality. Very different structures have been laid hold of by the processes of evolution, and it may not be possible to relate the resulting forms properly upon the basis of any one or two structures. A conspicuous example is fur- nished by the liverworts, in which one line gave special atten- tion to the structure of its gametophyte body, another to the * Address of the retiring President of the Botanical Society of America, delivered at Boston, August 19, 1897. ies 153 154 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER form of its gametophyte body, a third to the structure of its sporophyte body. Any attempt to relate these to one another upon the basis of a single structure, even so important a one as ' the sporogonium, is essentially misleading. But when we con- sider the totality of structure, we are led to the opinion that these lines possibly diverged from an archetypal plexus in which there were gametophyte bodies as simple as that of Aneura, and sporophyte bodies as simple as that of Riccia. Another illus- tration is the recent attempt of Arnoldi to associate Isoetes with Selaginella largely upon the basis of endosperm development, without regard to great diversities in habit and anatomical details. The association may be perfectly proper, but the reason given for it is inadequate. In dealing with problems of phylogeny it is also important to remember that the origin of a prominent group of living forms from another group of living forms is extremely improb- able. We can point out resemblances in structures which we have come to regard as essential, but this is not likely ta mean the origin of the one group from the other. It may mean that the two groups can be traced to one, probably now extinct, which combined the characters now differentiated. Most living groups are best regarded as divergent rather than consecutive series. But even this apparently sure ground has become very uncertain from the fact, becoming more and more apparent, that similar changes in structure, even very important ones, may have appeared independently in different lines. The response of organisms in structure to their environment is deeper seated than we were once inclined to believe, and testimony from the similarity of certain structures, when contradicted by the major- ity of other structures, argues feebly for recent community of origin. Such similarities in structure argue more for physiolog- ical conditions than for phylogeny. For instance, from the standpoint of evolution, the appearance of heterospory among the pteridophytes is one of the most important contributions to plant progress made by the group, but it is impossible to escape 1898] THE ORIGIN OF GYMNOSPERMS 155 the conclusion that heterospory was attained independently by several lines. To put into the same genetic group all hetero- Sporous pteridophytes would be regarded as a morphological absurdity. If heterospory appeared independently in several lines, the same conclusion must be reached in reference to its natural outcome, the seed, and the polyphyletic crigin of the spermatophytes becomes extremely probable. This increases the perplexities of phylogeny, but it broadens its horizon, and introduces another possibility. To continue the same illustration, in our search for the origin of seed-plants we have narrowed attention to the existing heterosporous pterido- phytes, when some of the spermatophyte groups, as for example the gymnosperms, may represent an entirely distinct line in which heterospory and then the seed appeared, and may not be related directly to any existing heterosporous pteridophyte. In such a case we are permitted to look to some group of living homosporous pteridophytes as possibly containing the best liv- ing representatives of the group from which gymnosperms have been derived. With all these possibilities in mind, 1 wish to discuss the phylogeny of the gymnosperms, not so much to reach a clear phylogeny, as a clearer understanding of the complexity of the problem, and the uncertainty of conclusions. This is a field in which no one can afford to be dogmatic. THE ORIGIN OF GYMNOSPERMS. From Hofmeister’s classic researches to the discovery of Symnosperm spermatozoids by Hirase, Ikeno, and Webber, the fact has become increasingly apparent that gymnosperms are very closely related to pteridophytes. It was natural, for a time, to regard gymnosperms as phylogenetically intermediate between pteridophytes and angiosperms, for it was not easy to believe that such a structure as the seed appeared in more than one genetic line; but it is probably not going too far to say that there is now no serious opposition to the view that the Symnosperm and angiosperm lines are genetically independent. 156 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER However, such a discussion does not lie within the scope of this paper. That gymnosperms have been derived from pteridophyte _ stock is hardly open to discussion, at least we must assume that this is true, or all attempts at phylogeny are useless. The first. question which confronts us, therefore, is whether the very divergent gymnosperm lines have had a common origin in this pteridophyte stock or not. Was there a single group of archaic gymnosperms, derived from pteridophytes, which subsequently differentiated into distinct lines? The existing gymnosperm groups are so very diverse that one of two things seems evident: either they differentiated into divergent lines from a common gymnosperm stock in very ancient times, or they originated independently from the pteridophyte stock. From this discus- sion I wish to exclude the Gnetales, as we do not possess suffi- cient data concerning their early history, or concerning the morphology of the very dissimilar living forms, to justify any opinion as to their origin. They are such dissimilar fragments, living in such extreme conditions, that their origin is totally obscure. In some respects they are more cycad-like than coni- fer-like, but in most respects they are so unlike both that a sep- arate origin seems possible. It may be even true that the three genera belong to groups of independent origin, which is cer- tainly the easiest way of disposing of their differences ; and their common characters of true vessels, the so-called perianth, and elongated micropyle, may have been attained independently as readily as was heterospory ; but the combination of characters in common does not seem to justify such a disposition of them, and the three genera had better be regarded as of common derivation, wonderfully diversified by ancient separation, isola- tion, and extreme conditions. Approaching the subject from the historical standpoint, the great group Cordaites seems to be the first with sufficient data to justify consideration. The structure of the vascular bundles, especially those of the leaves, is said to suggest those of coni- fers, cycads, Isoetes, and Ophioglossum; and the sporophylls 1898 ] THE ORIGIN OF GYMNOSPERMS 157 are organized into a strobilus, a character common to pterido- phytes and gymnosperms. But such characters can be used only as cumulative testimony. In such evidences as we have of the structure of the male gametophyte, however, we obtain -some valuable suggestions. Within the mature microspore there appears a considerable group of polygonal cells. In liv- ing groups of gymnosperms, so far as investigated, there is no such structure; and if we look to pteridophytes for suggestion, we are constrained to believe that this group of cells is either prothallial or sperm mother cells. In either event, it would represent a condition of things much nearer pteridophytes than is shown by any living seed plant. In view of the discovery of spermatozoids in Cycas, Zamia, and Ginkgo, taken in connection with the peculiar structure of the male gametophyte just described, I am of the opinion that the Cordaites also devel- oped spermatozoids. With either hypothesis as to the nature of the cells developed within the microspore of Cordaites, in seeking for the pteridophyte origin of the group, we are led away from such heterosporous pteridophytes as now exist, for in them the male gametophyte is much more reduced than in Cordaites, in fact, more reduced than in most living cycads and conifers. Additional testimony to the same effect is furnished by sec- tions of the seeds of Cordaites. In addition to the remarkable nucellus beak, which probably has no phylogenetic significance, the large pollen chamber is the most conspicuous feature. This is sometimes so extraordinarily large that it occupies the whole upper portion of the nucellus, and has been observed to contain numerous pollen grains. The pollen chamber is a well-known Cycad feature, and seems to be associated with the early devel- opment of siphonogamy. By means of it, the tubular outgrowth from the antheridium wall is reduced to a minimum, and may coexist with spermatozoid development, as shown by Hirase, Ikeno, and Webber. The testimony all indicates that in Cordaites we have the beginnings of a siphonogamic line, brought about by the reten- 158 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER tion of the megaspore, which still develops its exine in Cor- daites and some cycads. As to the pteridophyte group from which the Cordaites were derived, data are not sufficient to make opinion other than a pure hypothesis. I think it is clear that such heterosporous pteridophytes as are living today must be set aside in this search, by the testimony of both of their gametophytes, espe- cially the male. They stand for lines which have very much reduced the male gametophyte, have variously modified the female gametophyte, but have not developed siphonogamy by retaining the megaspore. It may be that the lycopod forms of the Carboniferous and earlier formations represent the pterido- phyte plexus from which Cordaites were derived, but we know too little of their morphology to make any assertion. My judg- ment is that the Cordaites represent an independent hetero- sporous line, and that if they were associated in origin with the lycopod forms at all, it was before the latter had developed heterospory, which seems never to have been extensively devel- oped in the lycopod line until recent times. I believe that we must regard either the ancient homosporous lycopod forms or the abundant Paleozoic Marattia forms as responsible for the origin of Cordaites, and my own inclination is toward their Marattia origin, perhaps for no better reason than that in such an origin I see more opportunity for the develop- ment of such a group as cycads; but such a view is further sup- ported by the discovery that the spermatozoids of cycads, and their ally, the ginkgo, are of the multiciliate type, and not bicil- iate, as in living lycopod forms. Just what stress should be laid upon this I do not know, but when opinion is fairly balanced it would seem to help to a decision. It seems satisfactory, therefore, to regard the origin of cycads as from the homospor ous-eusporangiate plexus of Filicales, represented today most abundantly by Marattia and its allies. It would seem further that this has been brought about without the intervention of such Cordaites as we recognize, which, with probably similar origin, were developing a very different type of body, that 1898 ] THE ORIGIN OF GYMNOSPERMS 159 finds its modern expression in the conifers. In the acknowledged Cordaites, therefore, I recognize a transition region between the homosporous-eusporangiate plexus of Filicales and the more modern conifer series; while in the cycads we have a line which continued more of the fern habit and structure, recognizable not merely in its foliage leaves and general port, but in its occasional vascular bundles of concentric type, and its multiciliate sperma- tozoids. The Cordaites, however, must have included forms that we have not recognized as such, for it is only when they become differentiated from the fern habit that in the main we are able to distinguish them. This very fact of their sharp differentiation means that they had made a decided departure, and we are prob- ably able to recognize only the most highly specialized forms. Of course, in what I have said I may have been using the name Cordaites in a much more inclusive sense than taxonomy would justify. As ordinarily defined I would see in them the first dis- tinct beginnings of a type which afterwards gave rise to the conifers; as used in this paper, they refer to a plexus of forms derived from the homosporous-eusporangiate Filicales which gave rise to both cycads and conifers as divergent lines, one retaining more nearly the fern habit and structure and culminating earlier, the other departing more widely from the habit and structure and culminating later. I believe that some Paleozoic forms now regarded as ferns will be found to be more closely related to the Cordaites. How many other lines arose from this large Cordaites plexus, as I have defined it, we have no means of knowing, but it seems to be responsible at least for all of the living gymnosperm forms. It is important to obtain such historical evidence as we can in reference to the gymnosperm lines, restricted in this paper to the Cordaites, conifers, and cycads. Ifa historical sequence can be established which conforms to the views expressed here as to the interrelationship of these lines, the conclusion will have additional support. I need not apologize for the paucity of data furnished by paleobotanists. They have done what they could, and we are greatly in their debt. Morphologists recog- 160 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER nize, however, that the structures usually preserved are not the most convincing as to relationships, and that nowhere are appear- ances more deceitful. While we have no sympathy with wild generalizations based upon fragmentary material, there is an increasing accumulation of data which furnish a substantial foundation for some conclusions. It seems to be clear that dur- ing the Paleozoic there was an increasing display of gymno- sperms. The fragments which bear this testimony became very abundant in the later periods of the Paleozoic, and are regarded, for the most part, as Cordaites. Associated with these forms is the great display of Marattia and its allies. A distinct type of leaf and of stem is attributed to each of these great groups, and when seeds or sporangia are associated with them the case seems clear enough, but apart from such association the uncer- tainty is profound. Intergrading forms between the two are to be expected, but with material so fragmentary and non-commit- tal it would be a rare chance that would lead to its definite demonstration. In the Coal Measures the cycad type becomes apparent, but not prominent. This would seem to indicate either an early differentiation from the Cordaites plexus, or a late dif- ferentiation from the Marattia plexus. I see no difficulty in the former view, as I see no advantage in multiplying the independ- ent heterosporous and seed lines until forced to do so by incon- trovertible evidence. The domination of cycads during the Mesozoic, and their subsequent decline are well-known facts. More suggestive, however, is the history of the conifers. It is generally stated that this line, in its modern expression, began during the Paleozoic, and that our modern genera have been recognized by stem and leaf anatomy. Such methods of deter- mination we know to be untrustworthy, as there is the greatest possible amount of anatomical diversity even in contiguous regions of the same organ, much more in different orgams and at different ages. In examining the claim that modern conif- erous genera appeared during the Coal Measures, I find no evlr dence that seems to be worthy of serious consideration except ing that with reference to Ginkgo, and it is an interesting 1898] THE ORIGIN OF GYMNOSPERMS 161 fact that Ginkgo is no longer regarded as a conifer, Long before the evidence of spermatozoids was discovered it seemed perfectly clear to me that Ginkgo was more cycad-like than conifer-like. In the light of our present knowledge the appear- ance of Ginkgo in association with the Carboniferous cycads seems natural enough. It is a matter of very secondary impor- tance whether we are to regard it as an independent line or not. I am inclined to believe that while during the Paleozoic hetero- spory and the seed were both attained, siphonogamy was in its beginnings, and that the spermatozoid habit was for the most part still continued in the seed lines. There is no conclu- Sive evidence, therefore, that any of our modern coniferous genera appeared during the Paleozoic, during which the Cor- daites were the dominating seed plants. During the last Palzo- zoic periods undoubted conifers did appear, and in considerable abundance, and we may recognize the beginnings of distinct lines represented today by Abies and its allies, Taxodium and its allies, and Taxus and its allies, but the genera are not those of today. In the lower Mesozoic, however, modern araucarian and abietinous genera appear; and the Taxodium and Taxus lines become more distinct, but not modern until the later Meso- zoic. At that time Cupressus forms also appear, but not of modern genera. Further details are not necessary, as the point to be made is that the conifer type was not recognizable until late in the Paleozoic, and then not in its modern expression. It cer- tainly suggests a later departure from the Cordaites stock than do the cycads. Another fact is interesting to note in connection with the evolution of the conifer forms. In existing conifers there is considerable variation in the development of the male gameto- phyte. In some forms, as the Abietinee, the development of two or three prothallial cells, distinct from the large antheridial cell, is a well-known fact, an amount of prothallial develop- ment not shown by any other living heterosporous forms, even the heterosporous pteridophytes. In other forms, as Cupres- sinee and Taxez, the reduction of the male gametophyte is 162 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER greater, no sterile prothallial cells appearing, the whole struc- ture being an antheridium, as in the angiosperms. Our historical evidence accords with this progressive reduction of the male gametophyte, the Taxus and Cupressus lines having attained modern expression after the Abies line ; and back of the Abies line we find the Cordaites, with probably a still greater development of the sterile region of the male gametophyte indicated. To derive the Cordaites or Abies lines, with their two or three to many- celled sterile tissue of the male gametophyte, from such hetero- sporous lycopod forms as we know today, with their constantly more reduced male gametophytes, is not within the bounds of probability. Besides, the reduction of the male gametophyte seems to be so prompt a response to heterospory, that its par- tially reduced condition in certain conifers, and probably in Cor- daites, would seem to argue for their near derivation from some homosporous type. The development of a suspensor in the lycopod forms has also suggested a genetic connection with gymnosperms, in which the suspensor development is so conspicuous. This organ, how- ever, seems to have no morphological constancy. In gymno- sperms it may be developed from a plate of cells formed in the oospore, as in most conifers; or from a mass of cells formed basally or parietally in the oospore, as in cycads; or from free cells formed within the oospore, as in Ephedra; or from the elongation of the oospore itself, as in Gnetum; or from the downward elongation of the archegonium, as in Welwitschia. The suspensor, therefore, seems to be a temporary organ of the embryo, of various morphological origin, intended to relate the embryo properly to its food supply, and not of phylo- genetic significance. The testimony of history and morphology seem to combine in pointing to avery generalized Paleozoic type as the origin of Symnosperms. This type is characterized by its advancement towards seed production rather than by its habit, which must have been extremely varied to have given rise to such types 45 cycads and conifers. The usually recognized Cordaites show 1898 | THE ORIGIN OF GYMNOSPERMS 163 but one tendency of a much more extensive group, for which the name Cordaites may be extended for convenience. Cordaites in this larger sense occur in such association with groups of homo- sporous eusporangiate Filicales, and approach them so much nearer in the important morphological structures mentioned than they do living heterosporous Filicales, that an independent heterosporous line is suggested. If such be the case, in the passage from the Marattia forms to the Cordaites form both heterospory and the retention of the megaspore were attained, and probably siphonogamy begun. THE SEED HABIT. The evolution of heterospory seems simple enough. The physiological differentiation of the spores was complete when prothallia became persistently dicecious. This division of labor is to be expected in the case of two such distinct functions as the production of antheridia and archegonia. A prothallium producing both sex organs equally well may be regarded as in a state of equilibrium, an equilibrium which is disturbed by any conditions which favor the production of one sex organ rather than the other, in this case probably nutritive conditions. This disturbance of the equilibrium of a bisexual prothallium would certainly find an expression first in a dicecious tendency, and finally in a dicecious habit. With the habit once fixed the mor- phological differentiation of spores becomes inevitable, since the nutritive requirements of the two prothallia are so different. The evolution of heterospory seems to be one of the simplest of selective processes, with inequalities of nutrition to furnish the variations. From this point of view it would seem natural to expect that it may have been derived frequently from homo- Spory. The retention of the megaspore, however, does not seem tobe So simple a problem. Ina certain sense it is correlated with the reduction of the gametophyte, since retention would not seem practicable until reduction had proceeded far enough to make the gametophyte endosporic. Even greater reduction, however, 164 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER is attained by the male gametophyte, but the spore is shed. It should be noted that even in the case of the microspore the male gametophyte is usually completely organized before pollination; but the fact remains that the reduction does not compel reten- tion. It has seemed to me that this phenomenon is to be explained by Bower’s law of sterilization, developed in reference to the strobilus. This law certainly finds expression in the megasporangia of heterosporous pteridophytes, in which the sterilization of mother cells is conspicuous. This method of increasing the nutrition of the fertile cells is too commona phenomenon to need illustration; but it is a tendency that would seem very consistent with the development of megaspores, whose peculiar work holds so definite a relation to abundant nutrition. For this very reason high numbers of microspores may be continued, anda diminishing number of megaspores produced. This would reach its culmination in the production of but a single megaspore by a sporangium, and a proportionate increase in the size of the megaspore. With the development of a single spore imbedded in a sterile tissue, shedding becomes not only mechanically difficult, but meaningless, since the neces- sity of scattering a brood of gametophytes, to avoid competi- tion, has disappeared. It is further true that the development of such a spore involves nutritive supplies from numerous neighboring cells, and a certain amount of retention becomes necessary for this reason. Still further, the advantage to 4 single megaspore in being retained, thus securing more abundant outside nutrition during germination, would fix the habit if any selective process wereat work. For these various reasons it would seem evident that when the sterilization of a megasporangium had reached its extreme limit, by organizing a single spore, retention is likely to follow sooner or later. If this line of reasoning be true, the seed habit might have been developed in any heterosporous line. With the retention of the megaspore pollination became necessary, but its gymnosperm expression differs in no way from the scattering of aerial spores in all the lower groups. The new 1898 } THE ORIGIN OF GYMNOSPERMS 165 feature demanded by the retention of the megaspore, therefore, was not the scattering of the microspores, but the development of siphonogamy. That the first retained megaspores were exposed to the microspores can hardly be doubted, and in such cases we now know that the spermatozoid habit must have been retained, and that no tube, or a very small protuberance of the antheridium wall, was needed to discharge the spermatozoids sufficiently near the oosphere. If chemotropism can explain the guidance of a pollen tube through much intervening tissue, it would certainly be sufficient to cause the protrusion of an elastic antheridial wall. In the very few illustrations of Cordaites obtained, the megaspore is but slightly covered by sterile tissue at the bottom of a deep pollen chamber, and a very slight development of tube is necessary. The same condition is continued in the cycads, and thus the habit of siphonogamy may have been gradually built up. As siphonogamy developed, the gradual failure of the sperm mother cells to organize sper- matozoids followed, and presently, almost exclusively now in gymnosperms, sperm mother cells are found to function directly as male gametes, without further organization. The secondary results which followed the retention of the megaspore were numerous. The well-known effect of fertiliza- tion upon adjacent tissues necessarily involved at least the sporangium, and the seed resulted. The presence of abundant available nutrition and favorable conditions induced the imme- diate germination of the oospore, which the development of a resistant tissue about the sporangium checked. As a conse- quence, the development of the embryo was thrown into two stages, the intra-seminal and the extra-seminal. In the case of the angiosperms, however, another tendency was connected with the retention of the megaspore, namely, the tendency of the sporophyll to enclose the megasporangium, a tendency so evident in such pteridophytes as Isoetes and Mar- silea, that the direct pteridophyte origin of the group seems more natural than an origin from so specialized a type as the gymnosperms. Given the reduction of spore production toa 166 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER single megaspore and the persistent enclosure of the sporan- gium by the sporophyll, and the angiosperm peculiarities follow. The profound effect of these conditions upon the germination of the megaspore is so remarkable, and intergrading stages so com- pletely unknown, that there seems to be no clue to the sequence of changes. That an endosporic gametophyte might eliminate the archegonium seems evident, for the tendency is shown among gymnosperms by Gnetum, where oospheres are organized by free endosperm cells. That the reproductive region of the female gametophyte may be organized earlier than the nutritive region, when the gametophyte is supplied with outside nourish- ment by the retention of the megaspore, is hinted at among the heterosporous pteridophytes and gymnosperms. These tend- encies have found full expression in the angiosperms, where archegonia have disappeared and the reproductive tissue of the female gametophyte is persistently organized before the nutritive tissue. Evidenceas to the details of the evolution of this tend- ency is lacking, and may not be in existence, but the tendency has certainly reached a remarkably definite expression. The unvaried appearance and movement of eight free nuclei or cells, and the remarkable fusion of two of them, represent habits so fixed through such an enormous group that they baffle explana- tion, and argue both for the monophyletic origin of angiosperms, and against their derivation from so divergent a line as gymno- sperms. The earlier evolution of the gymnosperm line is probably to be explained by ecological conditions. The body as a rule is organized to endure extreme conditions. It is certainly not a mesophytic type, and its evolution was certainly not in response to prevailing mesophytic conditions. On the contrary, the angiosperm type is essentially a mesophytic one, with great foli- age display, and probably expanded in response to widely prevalent mesophytic conditions. This might explain the habit peculiarities of the two groups, but whether the more recondite morphological differences hold any relation to these or not is too obscure to permit even speculation. 1898] THE ORIGIN OF GYMNOSPERMS 167 SUMMARY. 1. A great Cordaites plexus, more extensive than the one usually included under that name, represented the characteristic Paleozoic seed plants. 2. It was probably derived from homosporous-eusporangiate Filicales, represented today most abundantly by the Marattia forms and their allies, and was the most common Palzozoic type of Filicales. 3. From it the gymnosperm lines, at least the cycads and conifers, were derived, the usually recognized Cordaites repre- senting a transition stage towards conifers. 4. The frequent independent appearance of hetérospory is to be expected, as it probably results from inequalities of nutri- tion in connection with the development of antheridia and archegonia. 5. The retention of the megaspore, resulting in the seed habit, follows the extreme sterilization of the megasporangium, Which is attained with the organization of but one megaspore. With the development of a single megaspore imbedded in sterile tissue, shedding becomes mechanically difficult, unnec- essary, and even disadvantageous from the standpoint of nutri- tion. 6. The retention of the megaspore was followed by the development possibly of seed coats, through the well-known effect of fertilization upon adjacent tissues ; by immediate germi- nation of the oospore, on account of the favorable conditions and the abundant supply of available nutrition; and by the checking of the developing embryo by the mature seed struc- tures, resulting in the characteristic intra-seminal and extra- seminal stages of germination. 7. The first retained megaspores were doubtless directly exposed to the microspores, and in Cordaites and cycads a pol- len chamber of varying depth and extent is associated with the 168 “BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER early stages of siphonogamy, with which spermatozoid habit was more or less associated. 8. The pollination of gymnosperms is but a continuation of the ordinary method of dispersing aerial spores employed by cryptogams, the chief result of the retention of the megaspore upon the male gametophyte being the development of siphonog- amy. THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. A STUDY OF REGENERATION: AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES FRED DE FOREST HEALD. (WITH PLATES XIX—XxX) I. INTRODUCTION. TuHaT the sexual generation of the bryophytes is endowed with a remarkable power of regeneration is a well-known and oft-stated fact. The extent to which this is true for the liver- worts has been shown by the investigations of Véchting’ “Uber die Regeneration der Marchantieen’’ and of Schostakowitsch? “Uber die Reproduktion und Regenerationsercheinungen bei den Lebermoosen.”’ As far as the mosses are concerned, the gen- eralizations have been based upon scattered and isolated obser- vations by Schimper, Goebel, and others, and not upon any detailed investigation. The present work has been carried out with the intention of showing to what extent these generaliza- tions in regard to the vegetative reproduction from stem and leaf are true, and also to throw some light on the physiology of regeneration. Before proceeding with theresults of my own investigations, brief mention will be made of some of the observations pre- viously recorded. II. HISTORICAL. The first record of the formation of protonemata by the leaves is by Kiitzing3 for Bryum pseudotriquetrum. The leaves produced an abundant protonema growth and after a period of eight weeks, buds appeared. Schimper* obtained a growth from the basal portion of "Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. 16 : 367. 1885. *Flora, Erganzungsband 1894 : — 3Phycologia generalis 282, 18 *Recherches anatomique et Siphologicaus sur les mousses 19. 1848. 1898 } 170 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ SEPTEMBER detached leaves of Funaria hygrometrica, but no buds were pro- duced. He also makes the very broad statement: ‘‘Chaque feuille et méme chaque portion de feuille detachée de la plante- mere et placée dans les cgnditions convenables peut produire des filaments proembryonnaires, par la multiplication d’une ou de pleuiseurs de ses cellules parenchymatuses.”’ Goebel’ also mentions the ability of Funaria leaves to produce protonemata, when they are detached and kept moist. Limpricht® states that almost every leaf can by proper culture be made to form sec- ondary protonemata. Also in the case of plants with brittle leaves, as Leucobryum glaucum, Barbula fragilis, Campylopus frag- tis, and. Barbula ruralis, one can find in nature on the detached leaves the beginnings of protonemal filaments. It is to be noted that in all of the cases above mentioned, regeneration only occurred when the leaves were detached from the stem. That this is not necessary in all cases is shown by the observations of Goebel? on the leaves of several species. In Oncophorus glaucus a thick felt of tangled filaments appears on the fertile summits of the plants, which prevents their further growth and eventually gives rise to patches of young plants. The marginal cells of Buxbaumia aphylla \eaves are able to pro- duce protonemata which will completely envelop the leaf. According to Limpricht,® the apex of the end bud in Leucobryum has been known to produce a protonemal growth, and H. Schulze has observed a luxuriant growth of protonemata from the leaf apices of Hypnum giganteum. Mention should be made here of the formation of brood- bodies on different portions of the leaf, now apex, now costa, in various species of Orthotrichum, Ulota, Barbula, Grimmia, Syrrhopodon, and Calymperes.2 These brood-bodies are appat- ently formed in the younger stages of the leaf and are homol- 5 Sitz.-Ber. d. mat.-phys. Classe d. k. bayr. Akad. d. Wiss. 26: 463. 1896. ® Laubmoose von Deutschland 1: 64. 7 Outlines of Classification 173. 1887. 8 Loc. cit, 9GOEBEL, Outlines of Classification 172-173. 1887. LIMPRICHT, Laubmoose 4. 1898 | REGENERATION AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES 171 ogous with protonemal productions. They become detached from the leaf and under proper conditions grow out into proto- nema filaments, although in some cases growth may begin before detachment. The formation of a protonema and the later production of a new plant has been observed from the calyptra of Conomutrium Julianum. According to Goebel” the formation was from the inner side, and according to Schimper,” from the outer surface. Limpricht ™ has also recorded the production of protonemata by the detached calyptrae of Phascum. Limpricht” ascribes to all parts of the moss plant a very great power of regeneration since he says: ‘Alle Teile der Moss- pflanze besitzen die Fahigkeit, sekundare Protonema zu erzeu- gen,” and specifically in regard to the stem: ‘Auch jede Zelle der Stengeloberflaiche ist fahig einen Protonemafaden zu bilden.” In a great majority of cases, however, an intervention of rhizoid production occurs. The sessile or stalked brood-bodies of Pleu- ridium alternifolium originate from the stem. Bryum erythrocarpum® produces axillary brood-bodies, and Webdera annotina and W,. Ludwigii** produce axillary bulbils which detach themselves from the stem and grow without the intervention of any proto- nemata. Schulze*™ records the production of bulbils by the stem of Hypnum aduncum which detach themselves and grow in a similar way. The brood-bodies of Aulacomnium and of Jetra- phis pellucida also originate from the stem. Mention should also be made here of the work of Miiller-Turgau”® on the pro- duction of ‘ Zweigvorkeime.” Not only the gametophyte, but also various parts of the sporophyte are able to produce protonemata. This has been observed by Stahl 7 from the capsules and setae for Ceratodon pur- pureus, and by Pringsheim™ for Hypnum serpens, H. cupresstforme, BOD. LTT 3. 2S Leid., Fis LIMPRICHT, Laubmoose 1:65. 5 Bot. Centralblatt 31: 382-384. 1887. 2 Ibid., 61 and 63. %6 Arb, d. Bot. Inst. Wiirzb. 1: 475-499. 1874. *3 SCHIMPER, Rech. anat. et morph. sur les mousses 19. 1848. "7 Bot. Zeitung 34 : 690. 1876. %8 Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. 11: 1-46. 172 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER and Bryum cespiticium, all in artificial cultures, and by Brizi,” in nature for Funaria hygrometrica. According to Brizi, some of the setae of Funaria which had come into contact with the earth produced an abundant growth of protonemata with numerous buds. Ill. METHOD. In course of the experiments described below three different methods were used. The leaves and stems to be used as cultures were carefully washed in sterilized water in order to render them as free as possible from bacteria and fungi, and then placed either in Petri dishes upon several thicknesses of filter paper which had been saturated with a nutritive solution, or upon pieces of flowerpots placed in crystallizing dishes. In the third method the leaves were placed upon soil in either Petri or crys- tallizing dishes. The filter paper was carefully sterilized in boil- ing water and then placed in the Petri dishes which had been previously sterilized in the dry-oven. The pieces of flowerpots were first boiled and then sterilized together with the crystalliz- ing dishes in the dry-oven. The dishes containing the soil were also sterilized in the same way. All of the cultures were sup- ‘plied with a 4% pro mille normal nutritive solution, and were kept at a temperature varying between 19—21° C. IV. EXPERIMENTAL. In course of my investigations the following species were used: Mnium rostratum Schwagr.; Funaria hygrometrica Hedw.; Bryum capillare Hedw.; Bryum argenteum Linn.; Barbula murals Timm.; Awichum undulatim P. Beauv.; Polytrichum commune Linn.; Brachythecium rutabulum Bry. Eu. and variety ; Leptobryum pyriforme Schimper; Phascum cuspidatum Schreb.; Ceratodon purpureus Brid.; Fissidens bryoides Hedw. In addition to these, cultures of Plagiochila asplenoides and Lophocolea bidentata were made for comparison with those 9 Schostakowitsch. *® Annuar. Istituto Orto botan, Roma 5 : 53-57. 1892. 1898] REGENERATION AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES 173 I. MNIUM ROSTRATUM. On account of the size of its leaves and the consequent ease of manipulation Mnium presents a very favorable specimen for experimentation. In its power and manner of regeneration it stands alone among all of the species investigated. At first two cultures were made for exposure to light; the leaves were carefully stripped from the stems and in one case placed with the dorsal surface uppermost, in the other with the ventral surface upper- most. These cultures were placed upona table in the middle of the laboratory. Two similar preparations were made and enclosed in a dark chamber. After an interval of a week the first appearance of rhizoids from the leaves was noted. An examination of the specimens grown in the light showed that the rhizoids proceeded almost exclusively from the contact surface, and in general from the periphery of the leaf, although they were not entirely absent from the middle and costal region. An examination of the cultures in the dark showed nearly the same manner of growth except that a considerably larger number of rhizoids originated from the side uppermost, the proportion being about one to ten. The rhizoids from the very first, both in light and dark, were devoid of chlorophyll and the cell walls were distinctly brown. As growth proceeded, those in the light developed an abundance of chlorophyll bodies and showed in nearly every case oblique cross walls. In the course of two weeks the rhizoids in the light had branched considerably, while in the cultures in the dark they rarely branched, and the cells were more elongated. At the end of three weeks the first appearance of buds was noted ; and in cultures in brighter light in the window after a lapse of two weeks. The buds originated exclusively from the illuminated side and directly from a leaf cell without the inter- vention of any protonemata. The buds generally made their appearance near the periphery of the leaf, and the cell from which the bud originated had previously given rise to a rhizoid from the contact side. This is shown in cross sections of the leaf in figs. 2 and 3. The mother cell of the bud first produces 174 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER a protuberance which becomes divided very soon by an oblique wall, and the insertion of the successive walls then follows in rapid order. Buds may occasionally originate as side branches of the rhizoids from either surface, although this is rare in the normal development. At the end of six weeks the specimens in the dark showed no sign of buds, and the long unbranched rhizoids had attained a length of about one centimeter. The peculiar method of regeneration shown in these experiments is especially noteworthy, since Goebel * states that the vegetative reproduction of mosses has this peculiarity, that the formation of a new leafy shoot is always preceded by the production of a protonema. From the above experiments it is demonstrated that there is no inherent tendency to the production of rhizoids or buds from a particular side of the leaf; also that buds are not produced in darkness, either because the photosyntactic processes cannot be active or because light in itself is necessary. The greater production of rhizoids from the free side of the leaf in the dark would indicate that illumination exercised a retarding influence upon their production. The growth of the rhizoids from the contact surface of the leaf may be due either to contact of gravity, or both. In order to determine the part which contact and gravity play in the direction of rhizoid growth, the following experi- ments were carried out. Leaves were placed on filter paper and grown in the dark in an inverted position, and in these cultures the same as in the ordinary position, the leaves produced rhizoids mostly from the contact surface. In order to render the supply of moisture of both surfaces as nearly equal as possible, the leaves were grown in a saturated atmosphere. Other leaves grown in ‘both light and dark between two sheets of filter paper showed a production of rhizoids about equally from both surfaces. Again, leaves which were grown in a vertical position produced rhizoids radially in all directions. These experiments then show that the rhizoids are not influenced as to their point of origin by gravity, Outlines of Classification 170. 1887. # 1898 | REGENERATION AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES 175 but rather by contact. Leaves were also grown in soil with about the same result except that a greater number of rhizoids originated from the surface of the leaf nearest the air. The formation of buds upon the leaf in the ordinary manner was naturally prevented and when the rhizoids reached the surface of the soil and were exposed to light, they gave rise toan abundance of protonema-like branches and numerous buds. A culture of leaves with long, sparsely branched rhizoids which had been grown in the dark was removed to the light and allowed to undergo further development. When examined a week later the rhizoids had produced in the apical region an abundance of branches, part of which were still rhizoidal in character. A large number of the branches were, however, dis- tinctly protonemal, the cell-walls colorless, the cross walls per- pendicular, the cells short and filled with an abundance of oval chlorophyll bodies. The rhizoids also contained chlorophyll bodies but they were fewer in number and of an elongated len- ticular form. An enormous number of buds was also formed, and in one of two ways: either as a direct modification of a side branch from a rhizoid cell, or as a side branch from one of the lateral protonemal branches. This is plainly illustrated in figs. 6 and 7. Occasionally a bud was formed later near the leaf, but the great majority made their appearance towards the distal extremity of the rhizoids. A question which now presented itself was: Is the continued exposure to light necessary to call forth the production of buds? In order to determine whether buds would be produced by light induction, leaves were grown in bright light for nearly two weeks and then carefully examined to see that no buds had been formed. They were then placed in the dark chamber and after five days the formation of buds was observed. The number was much less than from those leaves in the light, and on account of a lack of food material only a limited growth occurred, Whether this light induction is due to physical or chemical changes in substances already present in the leaf, or to the accumulated products of photosyntax, cannot be stated with certainty, but 176 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER the experiment which follows would indicate that the products - of photosyntax are not necessary to call forth the production of a leafy shoot. In order to determine whether the products of photosyntax as obtained from the use of the free CO, of the atmosphere are necessary to call forth bud production, a culture of leaves was made in CO,-free air in an apparatus similar to that figured by Pfeffer.2x At the end of three weeks the leaves showed a very abundant production of buds. It has long been known that plants are able to use the CO, of respiration as material for photosyntax. Since this is so, the above experiment does not prove conclusively that light is necessary to effect physical or chemical changes in material already present, for on account of the size of the Mnium leaf, the CO, produced by destructive metabolism would be considerable, and a small amount of car- bohydrate food might be formed. Later experiments with other species tend to show that it is the accessible supply of plastic material upon which the production of buds is dependent, and not upon physical or chemical changes in the material already at hand. Experiments with leaves in colored light by the use of double-walled bell-glasses filled with the solutions of potassium bichromate and ammoniated copper oxide, showed the produc- tion of buds as well in the strongly refrangible rays as in the less refrangible. The photosyntax would be greatly suppressed in the leaves exposed to the blue end of the spectrum, and thus this result points to a chemical or physical change in material already at hand. Since Klebs” has pointed out a difference in the relation of spore protonemata and leaf protonemata to light in a specific case, we might reasonably expect to find a differ- ence in the leaf productions from different species. Another point which may be noted in the case of the cultures in the rays of different refrangibility is that, in both the strongly refrangible and less refrangible rays, the leaves produced a much greater ** Pflanzenphysiologie 1 : I91. 1881. 22 Biologisches Centralblatt 13 : 646-648. 1893. 1898 } REGENERATION AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES 177 number of rhizoids from the surface uppermost. This would tend to corroborate the statement already advanced that light retards the production of rhizoids, since here each culture was only subjected to half the rays of the spectrum. In all of the cultures the buds only originated from the illu- minated side of the leaf, and the question naturally suggests itself: Is this due to illumination or to the negative geotropism of the moss shoot? In order to determine this, a series of leaves was illuminated from below by a mirror, so that light and gravity would be acting in the same direction. After the usual length of time buds made their appearance, and that only from the illuminated surface. Bastit?3 has shown that the moss-plant is distinctly negatively geotropic, but that with illumination from below, the shoots grow towards the light, the influence of gravity being overcome by that of light. This I have been able to sub- stantiate in the case of plants grown from the leaves. Another series of experiments was carried out with leaves illuminated from both surfaces. In order to effect this, the leaves were placed in a Petri dish and irrigated by means of narrow strips of filter paper alternating with rows of the leaves. The dish was placed upon a ring-stand and illuminated from below by a mirror. In this experiment I found that the buds originated from both surfaces, thus showing the dependence upon illumination. In another series of cultures the leaves were placed in a vertical position in the soil and in such a manner that the leaf surfaces were parallel to the incident rays of light. These, as well as the previous experiments showed the production of buds from both surfaces, In the case of whole leaves the buds appeared only near the periphery and within the leaf margin, the cells of the border never producing any growth. The cutting of the leaves trans- versely did not alter their power of regeneration, both rhizoids and buds being produced in as great abundance as in the whole leaves. In order to show whether it was possible for the cells from the costal region to give rise to buds, the lateral halves *3 Rey. gén, de Botanique 3 : 406-411. 1891. 178 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEP1 EMBER were split away from the costa, and both portions cultivated. The result was that buds appeared from the costal region as well as from the lateral halves, showing that in the whole leaf the power to produce buds was only suppressed. Again with refer- ence to the power of young and old or fully mature leaves to regenerate. Series of leaves from the mature to the very small- est that could be dissected from the end bud were subjected to culture, with the result that the leaves from ordinary size to about half way through the series produced buds and rhizoids in abun- dance. Those from this point on to the very minute leaves pro- duced only rhizoids, and these mostly from the region of the costa. It was evident that the plastic material was not present in sufficient abundance to produce a further development, or that being an embryonic organ, the young leaf used its available supply of food material towards the growth of its own cells. So far as I have observed, the leaves of Mnium in nature never give rise to rhizoids when still in connection with the stem. In order to afford experimental proof of this, whole plants were subjected to exactly the same conditions as the detached leaves, but no rhizoid productions resulted. Again, it might be thought that the formation of rhizoids and buds was called forth by the injury to the leaf. That the cutting of the leaf is not effective in the production was shown by those experiments in which the leaves were cut and still left in con- nection with the stem; even in these leaves no new growth resulted. Another series of experiments was made in which the costa was cut near the base of the leaf while the lateral halves were still left in connection with the stem, with the idea that the severing of the costa might cut off the path for the transport of food material.’ No rhizoid growth was called forth, and hence the previous experiments show that nothing but the complete separation of the leaves from the stem is able to call forth the power of the leaf to regenerate. When the leaf is still in con- nection with the stem, the plastic material can be transported to other younger and growing parts; in the detached leaf on the other hand the escape is cut off, and thus may favor the produc- 1898 | REGENERATION AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES 179 tion of rhizoids and buds. The simple cutting of the leaf in itself seems to be, however, the important factor, that is, the complete separation of the leaf from the stem affords the stimu- lus for growth, which is then applied to the production of rhizoids and new leafy shoots. When the stems of Mnium are stripped of leaves and kept in conditions favorable for growth, they will produce new shoots which originate as axillary branches. As is often noticed in nature, the stems produce an abundance of rhizoids and these in greater abundance from the region of the stem which has given rise to a shoot. In no case, however, was a production of protonemata direct from the stem to be observed, and the rhizoids grew for months without giving rise to any protonemal branches. The production of new shoots from the stems occurred as well in the dark as in the light; in the dark, how- ever, the new shoots produced smaller leaves, and were more slender and elongated. The shoots used for experimentation were laid horizontal, and the lateral shoots grew erect, both in the dark and in the light, thus showing a well marked negative geotropism. The production of the new shoots was not called forth by the defoliation, but only accelerated thereby, since whole plants subjected to the same conditions produced new shoots as lateral branches, according to the manner of branching in nature. The stems also showed quite a distinct tendency to the production of shoots from the region of the morphological apex. Defoliated stems were grown in a vertical position in a moist chamber, part with the morphological apex uppermost, part with it directed downwards. The result was that in the majority of cases the new shoot appeared a short distance below the apical end. In some cases the stems gave rise to several shoots, and some of these were often well removed towards the basal end. The new shoots produced from the stem as well as those produced from the leaves were distinctly positively helio- tropic. By reversing the leaf cultures from time to time after they had reached the length of a few millimeters, the stem was made to assume a zig-zag form due to the heliotropic curvatures. 180 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER It may be noted here that the leaves generally formed ten to fifteen buds, but only two or three of these continued their devel- opment to any considerable size. It has been already noted, that leaves in which the bud production was prevented by darkness, produced protonemata from the apical portion of the rhizoids when subjected to light. In case, however, the normal produc- tion of buds direct from the leaf-was allowed to be carried out, the rhizoids did not produce any protonemata, and ceased growth soon after the new plants had been formed. 2. FUNARIA HYGROMETRICA. The production of protonemata by the leaves of Funaria has already been mentioned in the references to the researches of Schimper, Goebel, and Klebs. Goebel states that he obtained protonemata in great abundance from Funaria leaves, but my experiments do not show the leaves to be endowed with a very great power of regeneration. The plants used were taken from the greenhouse and were apparently in vigorous condition. Cul- tures of leaves were made in the same way as for Mnium, and placed in both light and dark. On an average of about one out of every six leaves showed signs of protonemata. In all the cases noted in the first series of experiments, the growth was entirely from the cells of the base and only from those which. had been directly attached to the stem. The cultures which were grown in the dark showed growths of a decided protone- mal nature, the cell walls colorless, the cross walls generally a little inclined and cells filled with bodies irregular in outline, and without any green color. The filaments remained long and almost unbranched, and reached a length of about 1°. Several cells of a filament grown in the dark are shown in fig. g for com- parison with those grown under normal illumination. In one or two cases the leaves produced structures which were more rhizoidal in nature, and these in the cultures both in the light and in darkness. In all of the cultures no buds were produced in the dark, while under normal illumination they appeared after ten days to two weeks. The protonema * 1898 | REGENERATION AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES 181 very soon after its origin from the leaf, often gave rise to a bud as a lateral branch, and numerous cases were observed in which this bud formation occurred from the second protonemal cell. This is illustrated in fig. 8. In two cases out of all the experiments which I carried out, I found a protonema production from other than the basal cells, so it would seem that the cells of the basal portion of the leaf are more inclined to produce protonemata than those from other parts. In the preparation of the cultures the leaves were stripped from the stem with a pair of forceps, and occasionally portions of the stem were torn away with them. A very abun- dant production of protonemata occurred from these portions of the stem. In order to show whether the power of regeneration was localized more in the basal cells of the leaf, a series of cul- tures was made in which the entire basal portion of the leaves was cut away. These cultures were kept for six weeks, and at the end of that time no formation of protonemata had occurred. That the power of protonema production is not confined entirely to the basal cells is shown by the two cases already mentioned where protonemata were produced from the region of the tip. Hence, the experiments only show that the leaf cells adjacent to the stem produce protonemata more readily. Whole plants brought under exactly the same conditions as the detached leaves did not produce any protonemata from the leaves, and again plants with the leaves cut away at the tip showed no signs of protonema production. From the experi- ments it must be concluded that the complete separation of the leaves from the stem is necessary in order to call forth the formation of protonemata. The experiments with the leaves which had portions of the stem torn away with them showed the stem cells to have a remarkable power of protonema production. A series of cultures was made in which the leaves were entirely stripped from the stems and the stems cultivated in both light and dark. The stems produced new shoots as lateral branches with remarkable rapidity. After a lapse of only three days the new shoots had 182 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER reached a length of nearly two millimeters. No distinct tendency to the appearance of the new shoots from the region of the mor- phological apex of the old shoot could be detected. Generally, however, a shoot was formed just back of the apex, but in the majority of cases they were produced at other points along the stem, and even from the very base. Occurring at the same time with the production of new shoots was an abundant growth of protonemata from the stem for its entire length. The regen- eration by new shoots was always in the way of axillary branches, in a manner similar to that which often occurs in nature. The protonemata were not, however, confined to the leaf axils, but grew as well from cells removed from the axillary regions. In the cultures in the light they originated generally from the side of the stem which was uppermost, while rhizoids were produced from the contact side and in greater abundance from the region of the stem which had formed a new shoot. This is shown in fig. z2. The cultures in the dark showed very rarely a protonema production, and in neither light nor dark was any bud formation noted from the stem protonemata. In sev- eral cases where the receptacles with the perichaetial leaves were placed in culture an abundant protonema production was noted from the end cells of the receptacle. A dissection showed these protonemata to originate from the cells lying between the base of the antheridia, archegonia, and paraphyses, and also from the basal cells of the paraphyses as shown in figs. zo, zz. All attempts to obtain protonemata from the paraphyses when sepa- rated from the stem were without effect. The material for growth was evidently drawn from the stem, and when this sup- ply was cut off the cells were not capable of independent growth. In order to determine whether the production of new shoots and protonemata was called forth by defoliation or not, whole plants were placed in exactly the same conditions as the defoli- ated stems. Regeneration by means of new shoots occurred, but not in the abundance that was noted in the defoliated stems, while no production of protonemata occurred and only occasion- 1898 | REGENERATION AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES 183 ally rhizoids. The production of protonemata was then called forth by defoliation; the formation of new shoots was only accelerated by the defoliation. A fact which must be of importance to Funaria was shown in the experiments in which whole plants and defoliated stems were placed under earth at a depth of 37". The stems in both cases formed lateral branches which grew erect from the stems which had been buried in a horizontal position. After a lapse of two weeks these new shoots first made their appearance above the soil. Considering the habitat of Funaria the power of regen- eration in this manner is of considerable importance in nature, since the plants often become covered with soil and would other- wise perish, The new shoots from the stem as grown in dark were about twice as long as in the light cultures, and the leaves were much reduced in size. The cultures in the light showed the new shoots to be strongly positively heliotropic. In the dark the new shoots grew erect from the prostrate stems. Stems were placed in a Petri dish in the ordinary horizontal position, and the dish then inverted. The new shoots curved around so as to grow upwards, showing them to be distinctly negatively geotropic. 3. BRYUM CAPILLARE. The leaves of this plant show a very remarkable power of regeneration. Cultures of the leaves were made the same as for Mnium, and part placed in the light and part in the dark cham- ber. At the end of a week the majority of the leaves used had produced new growths, and these mostly from the basal portion of theleaf. The first growth from the leaf cells was of neither a pronounced rhizoidal or protonemal nature; the walls were col- orless, the cross walls occasionally perpendicular, but more gen- erally slightly oblique. With exposure to light the filaments tended to a growth of a more decided protonemal nature, the cross walls were predominantly perpendicular in the abundant lateral branches, and quite often in the main axes also, and the cells soon developed an abundant chlorophyll content. With 184 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ SEPTEMBER time the walls of the main axes turned brown, and the chloro- phyll content disappeared, so that eventually the main axes, even though exposed to the light, came to resemble rhizoids. With the continued exposure to darkness the filaments soon became brown; no chlorophyll was formed, and the lateral branching was very generally suppressed. In the cultures in the dark no buds were formed, while in the light cultures the first buds were noticed at the end of seven days, with the more abundant pro- duction as growth continued. The buds originated as side branches of the main axis soon after the filament had grown from the leaf cell. In the further growth the buds appeared at different points along the main axis and were homologous with the lateral protonemal branches. The lateral branches might also in their turn give rise to buds as lateral branches, and after six weeks an enormous number of new plants were produced in this way. The protonema production occurred generally from the cells of the leaf base, either from the marginal cells or from those of the lacerated base, more generally than from the cells in the interior of the leaf. Although protonemata originated from the cells removed from the periphery, no distinct tendency to pro- duction from a certain side of a leaf was noted. Part of the protonemata would originate from the contact surface and part from the free surface, sometimes more from the contact surface, sometimes more from the opposed surface, so that no constant effect of contact was demonstrated. Leaves which had remained in the dark for two weeks had produced long, sparsely branched rhizoids without any signs of buds. They were then placed in the light, and after the lapse of ten days abundant protonemal branches were produced from the distal portions of the rhizoids, and also an abundance of buds, thus showing that light was necessary for the formation of buds. Luxuriantly growing protonemata without any buds were placed in the dark and allowed to remain for two weeks. The specimens were grown upon pieces of flowerpots, and at the end of the two weeks no buds had been formed, although the protonema from its previous 1898 | REGENERATION AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES 185 exposure to light must have contained a considerable supply of plastic material, which was used in continued growth rather than in the formation of leafy shoots. No structures at all resembling rhizoids were produced, and at the end of the experi- ment the protonemal filaments were beginning to die from lack of food material. From these results it will be seen that in the case of Bryum capillare a continued exposure to light is neces- sary for the production of buds, In order to determine whether the cells removed from the basal region of the leaf were able to produce protonemata as readily as those of the base, a series of cultures was made in which the leaves were cut transversely through the middle, and both basal and apical portions retained in culture. The basal half of the leaf produced protonemata from both the proximal and distal ends, but only rarely from the cells occupying the interior. The apical half of the leaf also produced protonemata from the cells next the cut base. (figs. 77, 78, 79.) Another series of cultures was made in which the leaves were cut length- wise, and these showed protonema production from the base and also from the cut margins. These experiments then show that almost any cell of the leaf may grow out into a protonema, but that in the cells with one side next the margin, the tendency to form protonemata is greater than in those cells which are sur- rounded on all four sides by others. The experiments with whole plants placed under like condi- tions as the separated leaves, showed no protonema production whatever from the leaves, and when the tips of the leaves in whole plants were cut away, even then the leaves formed no protonemata. Thus nothing more or less than a complete sepa- ration of the leaves from the stem would suffice to call forth the power of the leaf cells to grow out into protonema filaments. Experiments with leaves grown in blue and red light brought a different result from that found in the case of the Mnium leaves. The leaves in the red light produced buds, apparently with as great readiness as in normal illumination, while in the blue light no buds whatever were formed. When we reflect that 186 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER it is only in the red light that photosyntax takes place to any extent, the importance of this process as furnishing material for the formation of buds is at once made evident. That the prod- ucts of photosyntax are necessary for the formation of buds is shown by the fact that leaves grown in a CO,-free chamber also produced no buds. The results of these experiments with Bryum leaves accord with those of Schostakowitsch* for the foliose Jungermanniezx, and those with Mnium agree partially with the results for thalloid liverworts. Experiments with Mar- chantia and other thalloid liverworts showed that regeneration occurred in the dark as well as in the light. I have also con- firmed these results in the case of Marchantia, but in the case of Lophocolea bidentata my results were different from those obtained by Schostakowitsch for the same species. I found that the detached leaves produced buds from the marginal cells of the leaf, and that this production occurs quite abundantly in the dark, as well as when the leaves are exposed to light. This result is more in accordance with the observation of Klebs.% According to Klebs the leaves of Lophocolea bidentata produced buds in a weak light at an intensity which was not sufficient to produce the germ disk in the case of spore-protonemata. Men- tion may be made here of the cultures of Plagiochila aspleniotdes leaves. Greenhouse specimens showing every appearance of vigor were used, and the cultures were kept for over two months, but although the leaves remained green and vigorous, no sign of any bud or rhizoid production was observed. This was one of the species which Schostakowitsch grew successfully, and it is apparent from these results that there are conditions of the plant, when although apparently vigorous, the power of regeneration may be suppressed. The defoliated stems of Bryum produced some protonemata direct from the region of the leaf axil, but in the case of speci- mens grown in the dark no distinct protonema growths were noted. The abundance of production was much less than in the case of Kunaria hygrometrica. The paraphyses here also were *4 Flora, Erganzungsband 1894: 380-384. *5 Biol. Centralblatt 13 : 649. 1893- \ 1898] REGENERATION AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES 187 able to grow out into rhizo-protonemata by the continued growth of the distal cell. This occurred, however, only when they remained in connection with the stem, all attempts at cultivating the detached paraphyses being to no avail. The stems produced rhizoids quite abundantly, both in light and darkness, and the production was not confined to any particular portion of the stem. From the rhizoids an abundance of buds was formed as lateral branches, and ina light intensity which was not sufficient to pro- duce vigorous protonemata. New shoots were produced by the stems as lateral branches the same as in Funaria. These appeared without any distinct localization of the point of origin, coming now from near the tip and now near the base of the stem. The production of protonemata was due mostly to defolia- tion of the stem, since only in rare cases was a protonema pro- duction noted from the whole plants which were kept in the same conditions as the defoliated stems. Rhizoid production was quite abundant from the whole plants, but the growth in general was more abundant from the defoliated stems. The pro- duction of new shoots was not called forth by the defoliation of the stems, but was only accelerated thereby, since whole plants also formed lateral axillary branches, a mode of growth which is often resorted to in nature, the new branches afterwards becom- ing separated from the parent plant. The whole and defoliated stems, when buried under 3™™ of earth and kept moist, also gave rise to lateral branches, which grew in the normal way, and by rapid growth soon appeared above the soil, the same as in Funaria. The importance of this power of regeneration in nature has already been emphasized in the case of Funaria. The statements in regard to the elongated growth of the new shoots in the dark, with the development of reduced leaves, and the well-marked negative geotropism and positive heliotropism, hold good here as well as for Funaria. 4. BRYUM ARGENTEUM. The manner of regeneration from the leaves of B. argenteum is so similar to that already described for B. capillare, that a 188 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ SEPTEMBER detailed account will not be necessary. The whole leaves pro- duced protonemata from the basal portion, and the cut leaves from all of the cut edges. The character of the growth from the leaf cells was practically the same. The formation of buds occurred in abundance in the light cultures, but none in the dark. The formation of protonemata was due to the separation of the leaf from the stem, and not to the mere cutting. An abundant protonema production occurred from the defol- iated stems, the growth taking place from the region of the leaf axil. The protonemal nature was generally suppressed in the dark cultures, only in a few cases long, unbranched, protonema- like growths being noted. The protonemata in the light pro- duced buds in great abundance, and often as lateral branches of the first cell of the protonemal filament. No buds whatever were formed in the dark. The protonema production was called . forth by defoliation, since whole plants only produced rhizoids, and not in the abundance which was noted in defoliated stems. As opposed to the other species studied, the defoliated stems did not produce new shoots as lateral branches, while whole plants under exactly the same conditions did. This is presum- ably explained by the small weak stem, which when robbed of its leaves is not able in itself to afford material for the growth of new shoots, in addition to what is used to produce the abun- dant growth of rhizoids and protonemata. 5. BARBULA MURALIS, The leaves of Barbula produce protonemata with great readi- ness. Cultures of the detached leaves were made for both light and dark, and the best results were obtained from those upon pieces of flowerpot. After a lapse of about a week an abun- dant growth had appeared in the cultures in the dark as well as in the light. The first growth was colorless, with slightly oblique cross-walls, and no chlorophyll except what was derived from the leaf cell. Those which remained in the light for the entire period soon showed a very vigorous growth, with luxurl- ant branching and the absence of any bud formation. The walls 1898 } REGENERATION AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES 189 of the main axes after a time turned brown and had more of a rhizoid nature. The side branches, although at times slender and tapering and now with oblique cross-walls, now with per- pendicular walls, were decidedly protonemal in character and possessed an abundant chlorophyll content. < a x< x< x< Bryom capillare. >.< ..<..65 ck x< x< ~x< pe er pe Barbula and Phascum produced protonemata with as great vigor at 32° C. as at I9-21°, the temperature of the ordinary experiments; but at 36° no growth resulted. At 29.5° the Bryum leaves produced no growth but were not killed, since when exposed to the ordinary temperature, protonemata were 1898 ] REGENERATION AS EXHIBITED BY MOSSES 203 produced. At 32°, however, the leaves were killed. At 27° a slight growth resulted but with a very marked retardation. At 24° the growth was to all appearance quite normal. That moss plants are able to be dried completely for some length of time and still retain their power of regeneration has been demonstrated by Schréder.*? By way of confirmation Bryum capillare was dried thoroughly for three weeks, then moistened and the leaves stripped from the stems and placed in conditions favorable for development. In the same time as usual protonemata made their appearance. Barbula muralis was dried for two weeks without the loss of protonema production. The foregoing experiments have shown that in nearly all conditions, the only requisite for the development of protonemata from rhizoids has been the exposure to light. Either the main rhizoid axis has given rise to side branches which were dis- tinctly protonemal in nature, or the continuation of the main axis has become decidedly protonema-like. There may, however, be conditions in which the rhizoids, even though exposed to light, do not produce protonemal branches. The rhizoids from Mnium leaves, in case the normal development of buds is allowed to be carried out, produce no protonemal branches. In the same way the rhizoids from the stem did not give rise to protonemal branches, but if the growth of the stem is interrupted the rhi- zoids undertake the regeneration of the plant and produce new leafy shoots and protonemal branches. This manner of growth is quite common when tufts of various plants are inverted so that the rhizoids are exposed to the light and the shoots killed by being covered with soil. The experiments which I have carried out show that the protonemata do not produce rhizoids with as great readiness as the rhizoids do protonemata. This is in opposition to the view expressed by Frank,®*since he says in regard to the protonemata : “Eben so leicht kann der Faden wieder in ein Rhizoid sich umwandeln.” Mr. A. A. HELLER has resigned his position at the University of Minne- sota, to give all his time to collecting. Correspondence in reference to the Exchange Bureau should be directed to Professor Conway Macmillan. THE DEATH is announced of Dr. Anton Kerner, Ritter von Marilaun, professor of systematic botany and director of the botanical gardens and museum of the University of Vienna. He is best known as the author of Pflanzenleben, of which a second edition is now in course of publication. The first edition was recently translated into English and published as Ze Natural History of Plants. PROFESSOR FERDINAND Conn, director of the institute for plant physi- ology of the University of Breslau, died on June 25 of heart disease, at the age of 70. He has been professor of botany at Breslau for almost forty years. His series of popular lectures, issued under the title Die Pflanze, went through several editions and were models of accurate and elegant pre- sentation. He was editor of the series of monographs entitled Beitrége zur Biologie der Pflanzen, which came to a close a few years ago. PROFESSOR Dr. SIMON SCHWENDENER, director of the botanical institute of the University of Berlin, has been made a knight of the order Pour le merite,in the class of science and art. This order was founded by Fred- erick the Great, as a mark of distinction for military service, but the statutes were revised in 1842 by Frederick William IV to include scientific men an artists of distinction. The latter class is limited to thirty Germans and the Same number of foreigners. The order is practically conferred by vote of the members. Schwendener is the only botanist thus honored. 1898] 223 224 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER 1898 Dr. E. Lewis SturTEVANT died at his home in Framingham, Mass., on the 30th of July, at the age of 56. While not a professional botanist, he was a special student of plant variation under cultivation, and was thor- oughly informed of the bearing of botany upon agriculture. He accumulated one of the finest collections of prelinnean hooks in existence, and donated this, a few years ago, together with his notes on the genus Capsicum, to the Missouri Botanical Garden. The study of this genus, for which he stipulated, was published in the last report of the garden, shortly before his death. HERBERT Lyon Jones, professor of biology in Oberlin College, died at his father’s home in Granville, Ohio, Saturday, August 27, 1898, after an illness lasting for two months. Professor Jones was born in Granville February 11, 1866. He graduated from Denison University in 1886, and followed this with a year Of special study at his a/ma mater. His graduate’ work was taken at Harvard University, where he was highly esteemed in his department. He taught for several years in Radcliffe College, until about a year ago, when he was chosen to the chair in Oberlin. 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ANTHONY & CO, 45, “ee re 'E. phe key Fes Cade tm At ttl hl hint ch ch ete de te hb eh hh hhh hbhbababbanana pial ns 2 aia A IR A SS I A I SIR A i li ae tt a | tn ies eee ee a ci Pees is ae ears ee rare a ae et ee O } i te ee See ee ee ee Water We know if the American public ever really awakens to the rea importance 0! of di stilled | water) WE we ill have t though we are the large facture of 1 water sails excl Siv ve. ely in t' world, We kno’ er from distilled Feast are those who do the actual work in the ft : h S Sti ll : : Moran gai of Fy it on . this work . ¢ anit ary = . a cient lime, *‘ the germ of old age.” Only safe rend ae SMITH PREMIER or the family, Will Si ios pet rheumatic “troubles, s, because # TYPEWRIT ER . is the greatest solvent ever known. Health, beauty, — c Y cat wae © = and a ripe old age (you can live roo years) follow the ¢ | of distilled water. _-__ Philippine Expedition Fully Eqn Only stil Recugaived by VS Double Capacity — Same Price. ple as The Sanitary Still fits on a ood, coal or gas stove. Sim * ten kettle, easily cle: aned, lash ad a lifetime, produces pure, sparkling to two cents a gallon. + hart W te for booklets toutanity letters from prominen Ay har and pastors from every State in the Union an ore 2 countries, a THE CUPRIGRAPH CO., | Tog North Green Street, CHICAGO, ILLS. VOLUME XXVI NUMBER 4 BOTANICAL GAZETTE OCTOBER 7898 KARYOKINESIS IN THE ROOT TIPS OF ALLIUM fs Joun H. SCHAFFNER. (WITH PLATES XXI AND XXII) For several years the writer has desired to study in detail the formation of the achromatic spindle in the root tips of Ad/ium Cepa, having frequently seen interesting figures in the early stages of division while investigating the subject of centro- spheres in this plant. Especially was the desire increased when the interesting series of papers appeared from the Bonn Botani- cal Institute? dealing especially with the origin of the nuclear spindle. Accordingly a set of preparations was made, the material being killed in several fixing fluids, and stained in vari- ous ways, so that any irregularity due to technique might be eliminated. Flemming’s weaker and stronger fluid and chrom- acetic acid seemed to give the best results, although several others worked fairly well. So far as the appearance of the spindle was concerned there did not seem to be any great difference in the effect produced by the several fluids. Chrom-acetic acid is without doubt the best for general purposes, as it preserves the structures of the dividing nucleus just as faithfully as Flem- ming’s, and does not interfere with the action of the stains used. ‘Contributions from the botanical laboratory of Ohio State University. IL. * Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Bot. 30: 159-422. I 226 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER The proportions were as follows: Chromic acid, 0.8”; acetic acid, 0.5°; water, 99.0%. The combinations of stains giving the best results were anilin-safranin and gentian-violet; iron- alum-haematoxylin; and anilin-safranin and iron-alum-haema- toxylin. ANILIN-SAFRANIN, GENTIAN-VIOLET. 1, Anilin-safranin alcoholic (50 per cent.) solution prepared by combining equal parts of anilin water, and saturated alcoholic (95 per cent.) solution of safranin. 2. Gentian-violet 2 per cent. aqueous solution. Stain from two to four hours in the safranin, and from two to four minutes in the gentian-violet. The slides must be taken through the alcohols quite rapidly or the stain will be lost. HEIDENHAIN’S IRON-ALUM-HAEMATOXYLIN, 1, Ammonio-sulphate of iron 2 per cent. aqueous solution. 2. Haematoxylin, a % per cent. solution obtained by dissolving in hot water. Keep the sections from two to four hours in the iron-alum, and then from eight to twelve hours in the haematoxylin, afterwards taking out the excess of stain with the iron-alum until the sections are of the proper color. ANILIN-SAFRANIN, IRON-ALUM-HAEMATOXYLIN. This was by far the best combination used, bringing out with remarkable distinctness chromatin network, chromosomes, nucleoli, spindles and centro- spheres. The centrosomes were especially distinct in some pollen mother cells of Sagittaria variabilis, showing as large, black, spherical granules at the poles of the spindle. The sections are stained in the usual way in the anilin-safranin for two or three hours, and then carried through the iron-alum- haematoxylin in the same manner as when this combination is used alone. This method, although tedious, will amply repay in results for the long time necessary for the staining. The combination is improved a little, perhaps, by staining for two minutes after the anilin-safranin in gentian-violet. The material was imbedded in paraffin, sectioned from 10-184 _thick and stained on the slide. The root tips of Allium Cepa L. are very favorable objects — for the study of karyokinesis, and in making a critical investiga- tion of the structures and activities of the cell during division hy 1898] KARYVOKINESIS IN THE ROOT TIPS OF ALLIUM CEPA 227 it was thought best to take some such common object, which could be followed easily in the class room, and tested as to its accuracy. Accounts and figures of karyokinesis in plant cells are very scarce, and the so-called diagrammatic or schematic figures and descriptions given in most of the text-books are buta poor guide for the student and young investigator. For these reasons a rather complete account of the whole process has been given. The most typical resting nuclei occur some distance back of the tip beyond the actively dividing region. Here, in good stained material, the nuclei usually have one or two large nucleoli and a very distinct chromatin network, with large irreg- ular chromatin granules, which usually appear at the crossings of the meshes (fig. 7). In these cells there are large vacuoles, and it is rarely that the cytoplasmic contents or the centrospheres show to advantage. However, if one goes near the tip, in the actively dividing region, it is easy to find cells showing all the various cell organs usually present. The cells mostly divide in but one plane by transverse walls, and at the upper or lower side of the nucleus there is usually a depression in which two small bodies lie (fig. 2). The presence of this depression, and two characteristic bodies in it leave but little doubt as to their nature. They are to all intents and purposes centrospheres. Just at the time when the nucleus begins to divide it generally stains much deeper, and around it may be seen radiating streams of cyto- plasm (fig. 3). While the nucleus is in this condition the finer chromatin threads disappear. Just how this disappearance takes place it is not easy to tell. The finer meshes seem to be drawn into the coarser threads, or if this is not the case the whole thread shortens and thickens, thus becoming more evident, and also giving the appearance that there are fewer threads present. While this process is going on the centrospheres separate and take up their positions on opposite sides of the nucleus, being closely applied to the nuclear membrane (fig. 4). As the chro- matin thread continues to shorten and thicken the incept 3 of the 3The word incept is used as the equivalent of the German An/age., 228 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER achromatic spindle makes its appearance. This arises as two flattened, dome-shaped prominences on opposite sides of the nucleus. These seem to inclose the nucleus completely, and at their summits can usually be seen two spherical bodies, the centro- spheres, each with a dark center, the centrosome, around which there is a series of cytoplasmic radiations (jigs. 5,8, 71). Some- times there is an outer granular zone near the limit of the radia- tions ( figs. 8,24). Thus it seems that the spindle originates from the two opposite centrospheres. The spindle usually arises on the two flattened sides of the nucleus ( figs. 5, 10, 12), but some- times it originates on the ends of the long axis of the nucleus. It is nearly always very much rounded and flattened at first, except in cases of long narrow cells, in which it seems to be pointed from the very first. In the younger stages the radiations are often not very marked, in other cases they are very distinct and very thick but few in number. In case the spindle is formed on the ends of the long axis of the nucleus it cannot be seen as early as usual, since it then lies very close to the nucleus ( fg. 7). Although the centrospheres generally separate quite early and take their position on opposite sides of the nucleus, they may sometimes be considerably delayed. Fig. 9 seems to be such a case, where the chromatin band is well formed but the two cen- trospheres are still close together and their centrosomes have begun to divide. This figure may be explained by supposing 4 late separation of the centrospheres and a precocious division of the centrosomes. There are beautiful, delicate radiations pass- ing out into the cytoplasm. In some cells the incept of the spindle remains dome-shaped and very much flattened for a long time, and frequently no bodies can be seen which look like cen- trosomes. It need not be implied, however, that centrosomes are not present in such cases. In cells of about the same age the spindles are often becoming pointed and show a centro- sphere in close contact with the spindle fibers, and having well developed radiations around the poles ( figs. rz, 73). In jig. 10 there is a system of streams of cytoplasm passing out from the young spindle to the cell wall. These are no doubt ordinary 1898] KARYOKINESIS IN THE ROOT TIPS OF ALLIUM CEPA 229 delicate streams of cytoplasm and are of the same nature as those shown in fig. 3. They have nothing to do directly with the formation of the spindle. The incept of the spindle is very sharply differentiated from the surrounding cytoplasm and the Space between it and the nuclear membrane appears very clear and transparent, like the achromatin of the nucleus. After the chromatin band has become considerably thickened it loops up into sixteen definite loops, the heads of which, in typical cases, point toward the two poles ( figs. 13, 7g). The loops, however, do not always seem to have this position in relation to the poles, as is shown by figs. 75 and 76. When one looks down from one pole nothing is seen of the nuclear spindle ( fig. 74). The dome-shaped spindle gradually extends out- ward and becomes pointed, until the time of the breaking of the chromatin coil into a definite number of chromosomes, accom- panied by the disappearance of the nuclear membrane ( figs. 75-20). In these stages the centrospheres become more prom- inent, probably through expansion or growth previous to divi- sion. The fate of the nucleoli was not discovered. They have generally disappeared by the time the chromatin coil has seg- mented. In some cases they appear quite vacuolate (fig. 77), in others of the same consistency throughout (figs. 75, 76). It will be seen from an examination of the figures that the spindle is bipolar from the first. It arises as two closely applied caps on opposite sides of the nucleus at the summits of which are well defined centrospheres. These centrospheres gradually extend outwards, drawing the spindle into a sharp pointed bipolar structure. In the case of the onion, therefore, it is an impossibility for the spindle to arise by an aggregation of many cytoplasmic radiations which first form multipolar structures passing out on all sides of the nucleus, as has been described by Mottier, Osterhout, and others. The spindle is so sharply defined from the very first that it can be traced step by step in all its Stages of development, its limits always appearing with proper staining very distinct and sharply differentiated from the cytoplasm. In some cases, where the cells are very flat in 230 BOTANICAL GAZETTE . [OCTOBER longitudinal diameter, the spindle also appears very much flat- tened (fig. 2r). Were such a spindle sectioned it could easily — give the appearance of a multipolar structure. No such cases, however, were found. Ifthe spindle extended clear across the cell so that it touched the opposite walls it might give the appearance of the threads ending in the cell wall. Although the nature and origin of the spindles in figs. rg, 2z and 22 are exactly the same, there is a striking difference in their shape, and very suggestive of how the shape of the cell may influence the appearance of the karyokinetic figures. The same is evident _ from a comparison of figs. 6 and ro. Often the two poles of a spindle are not 180° apart. This is caused no doubt by the centrospheres not becoming exactly opposed (fig. zg). After the nuclear membrane has disappeared the V-shaped chromo- somes are gradually drawn down into the equatorial plane, with their heads toward the center, until they form quite a symmetri- cal figure ( figs. 22-26). The centrosome usually does not divide until after the formation of the mother star, but some- times the division may occur earlier ( fig. 23). The longitudi- nal splitting of the chromosomes takes place about or during the time of the formation of the mother star (figs. 27, 28). When the cell is very long and narrow there does not appear to be @ typical mother star formed ( fig. 24). Insuch cases the chro- mosomes do not appear to be drawn symmetrically into the equatorial plane. The chromosomes appeared quite homogene- ous throughout, nothing being visible having the appearance of chromatin granules. It was not possible to tell exactly how the chromosomes are arranged on the achromatic spindle threads, but the threads seemed to be in bundles running continuously from one pole to another, ending in the hyaline area of the cen- trosphere and having the chromosomes attached by their heads | ( figs. 28-30). When the chromosomes have been brought into the equato- rial plane, and longitudinal splitting is complete, the daughter chromosomes are gradually pulled apart, and the central spindle begins to appear between them in the equatorial region. Some- 1898] KARYOKINESIS IN THE ROOT TIPS OF ALLIUM CEPA 231 times the figures of the metakinesis stage are remarkable for their symmetrical development (figs. 29, 30). Such symmetry could not be present were the two ends of the spindle formed at haphazard from variable numbers of irregular smaller ele- ments. The centrosomes usually divide during metakinesis (figs. 31, 32). By the time the daughter chromosomes have arranged themselves around the poles, the centrospheres, as a general rule, have divided and the radiations show more promi- nently than in the earlier stages (fig. 23). The chromosomes now begin to contract and the free ends turn inwards, while at the same time the threads of the central spindle become thick- ened and stain much deeper than before. The polar radiations also become more widely separated because of the outward pres- sure exerted by the chromosomes (fig. 34). At the time when the chromosomes are curving inward the central spindle threads begin to bulge outwards, and the cell plate is formed from the center, appearing at first as granular thickenings in the spindle threads. In this stage the centrospheres often appear still united but containing a double centrosome (figs. 35,36). In Jig. 37 only one centrosphere is visible at the upper pole, the other one lying immediately beneath the one in view. The central spindle continues to bulge outward and the cell plate becomes larger, until finally when it reaches the cell walls the spindle has a very,flattened appearance (jigs. 38,39). The spindle threads continue to stain very dark at the center until the cell plate is complete. What the cause of this dark stain- ing may be was not discovered. It was probably due to the presence of various materials in the thickened spindle threads which are used in the formation of the cell wall. It is not easy to understand how the threads of the central spindle extend outward until they are sometimes almost doubled on themselves. But whatever the direct cause, they are considerably longer than they were at first. The central spindle threads disappear as soon as the cell wall is well formed, being absent in the center while they are still prominent in the outer regions (fig. 39). As soon as the cell wall is complete the threads disappear 232 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER entirely. Whether they remain in the cytoplasm, or are with- drawn into the nucleus, or furnish part of the material for the nuclear membrane, are all matters of mere conjecture. The nucleoli begin to appear a little before the time when the cell wall has been completely formed. fig. 47 is an interesting case in that it shows the centrosome not yet divided in a very late stage. This body appears as a long, black, rod-like body forming a slender dumb-bell. The chromatin bands seem to be distributed again or spread out in a fine network, and the nucleus continues to swell out and become more rounded until the complete resting stage is again attained. The depression formed at the pole, however, remains, and in this there can often be seen exceedingly distinct centro- Spheres. Although the cases in the resting condition are not numerous where these bodies appear very distinct, yet in such cases as fig. 42 there can be no doubt of the continuance of the centrospheres into the resting stage of the nucleus. In the example given in Jig. 42 the whole cell is remarkably clear and free from granules, the two prominent bodies lying alone in the polar depression. To claim ‘that these bodies are not centro- spheres would be exceedingly dogmatic, and the only recourse left would be to name and describe two new organs of the cell which have the same appearance and occupy the same position as do real centrospheres. The general process of karyokinesis for the onion root may be summarized as follows: I. PROPHASE, I. The division begins with the separation of the centro- spheres, and when these have moved apart nearly 180° the incept of the achromatic spindle appears, forming two dome- shaped projections on opposite sides of the nucleus, at the sum- mits of which the centrospheres are situated, forming the poles around which are cytoplasmic radiations. At the same time the chromatin network is transformed into a continuous ribbon or spirem producing the figure known as the close mother skem (figs. 2-70). , 1898] KARKYOKINESIS IN THE ROOT TIPS OF ALLIUM CEPA 233 2. The continuous spirem shortens and thickens and is looped into a definite number of loops, the heads of which, in typical cases, point toward the two poles of the spindle. The nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear and the dome-shaped spindle becomes more pointed by the outward extension of the poles. This stage ends with the breaking of the chromatin loops into separate chromosomes, and it may appropriately be called the looped mother skein (figs. 11-19). Il. METAPHASE, 3. After the nuclear membrane disappears, the separate chromosomes are drawn down, with their heads toward: the center, into the equatorial plane, while the spindle continues to become more pointed (figs. 20-25). This constitutes the /oose mother skein stage. 4. When the chromosomes have come into the equatorial plane, there is a pause resulting from the seeming pull of the spindle fibers in opposite directions, which holds the chromo- somes rigidly until the longitudinal splitting of the chromo- somes is complete, when separation of the daughter chromo- somes begins (figs. 26-28). This constitutes the mother star stage. III. ANAPHASE. 5. After the longitudinal segmentation of the chromosomes which, as a general rule, does not begin until the chromosomes are in the equatorial plane, the daughter chromosomes are grad- ually pulled apart, the separation beginning at the heads of the loops. The centrosomes usually divide during this stage, though in some cases the division may be considerably earlier. This Stage is appropriately known as metakinesis ( figs. 29-31). 6. The daughter chromosomes having been completely pulled apart, now travel to the poles and arrange themselves in Star-shaped figures around the poles, while the central spindle appears between the two stars. The radiations around the cen- trospheres, which now contain two separate centrosomes, become more prominent (figs. 72, 37). This is the daughter star stage. 234 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER IV. TELOPHASE. 7. The chromosomes having oriented themselves around the poles, now begin to contract, becoming wavy in outline, and the free ends curve inward. The threads of the central spindle begin to thicken preparatory to the formation of the cell plate. In the center of each thickened thread a granule appears, these being formed first in the central strands, and as the spindle bulges outward the cell plate gradually enlarges until it reaches the surrounding cell wall. In the meantime the nucleoli begin to appear in the daughter nuclei. This stage may be called the loose daughter skein, and may be considered to end when the cell plate is complete (figs. 34-39). 8. After the daughter cells are completely separated by the new cell wall the threads of the central spindle disappear, and the daughter nuclei appear with complete nuclear membranes. The chromosomes begin to be transformed again into the chro- matin network; the radiations disappear from around the cen- trospheres, which have now usually divided completely into two separate bodies; and the two daughter nuclei in the meantime expand and take on amore spherical form until they enter again into the resting stage (figs. go-g2). This stage may be known as the close daughter skein. _4ig. 1 may be taken as a typical nucleus in the tissue beyond the growing point, showing in detail the actual arrangement of the chromatin network, chromatin granules, and nucleolus, fig. 2 represents a typical cell in the active part of the meristematic region. To illustrate the normal order of karyokinesis, the following figures may be taken as a complete series: 2, 4: 5,8s11, 13, 16,17; 20, 22,25; 20,27; 29,391 321 33 * 34,3536,38 ; 39, 40,42. A briefer series may be represented by the following: 2, 5:8, 13,27, 20, 25, 20, 27, 70, 72, 33, 74s FOr 39s $s SAGITTARIA VARIABILIS. The anilin-safranin, iron-alum-haematoxylin combination was also tried on dividing poilen mother cells of Sagittaria. The results were even more striking than in the onion. Inthe mother star stage the centrosomes at the poles look like large black 1898] KARYOKINESIS 1N THE ROOT TIPS OF ALLIUM CEPA 235 spherical granules, but the attraction sphere is usually not very well differentiated. The poles usually lie very close to the wall of the cell, giving little or no room for polar radiations (figs. 43, 44). The figures drawn are not exceptional cases, but scores of similar figures can be seen in a single section across the flower bud. From a careful estimate, I have a single slide which will show several hundred figures of the same nature as those given. A careful search was again made for multipolar spindles, and in this material they are frequently seen. This is not at all sur- prising, however, and is exactly what must necessarily follow the sectioning of tissues where the spindles do not all lie in the same plane. Especially in thin sections is the pole often cut away, giving the appearance that the spindle does not end ina single point. Since the spindle threads in Sagittaria pollen mother cells are massed into definite bundles, any injury to the spindle will produce a multipolar spindle. Such a case is shown in fig. 45, where the cell has been crushed at one end, producing four apparently separate spindles on the lower side, while the upper end is practically intact. The centrospheres appear at the two original poles. At the present time, in all the material examined by the writer, multipolar spindles seem due entirely to two causes : first, to pathological conditions ; and second, to injuries of the spindle produced by improper manipulation in preparing the sections. The latter may be due toa variety of causes. Among the more common of these may be mentioned improper killing and treatment of material, sectioning the cells into such thin slices that the poles are entirely lost or injured, cutting off the poles from the spindles which lie diagonally to the plane of the section, and finally, injury by crushing the cells in such a manner that the spindle is spread out and torn. CoLtumpsus, O. EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXI, XXII. The drawings have been reduced three-eighths of their original size. They were drawn with an Abbé camera, and except in one instance combinations of Zeiss and Bausch and Lomb oculars and objectives were used. 236 it BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER _ PLATE XX1. Fic. 1. A resting nucleus from a cell beyond the growing rans Anilin- safranin, iron-alum-haematoxylin. Zeiss oc. 18, B. and L. obj. + = a Fic. 2. Resting cell with centrospheres from the growing nie Anilin- — safranin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. +y | Fig. 3. Cell just before division, stained very deeply. Iron-alum-haema- toxylin. Zeiss. oc. 12, B. and L. obj. 7y. 1G. 4. Nucleus with centrospheres on opposite st in early stage of division. Iron-alum-haematoxylin. Zeiss oc. 12, obj. 2™™ ap. hom. im. Fig. 5. Cell with incept of achromatic spindle and centrospheres at sy poles. Iron-alum- haematoxylin. Zeiss. oc. 12, B. and L. obj. +s Fig. 6. Long cell with bipolar spindle having sharper ends than usual at this stage. Acid fuchsin, methyl- -green. Zeiss. oc, 12, B. and L. obj. +s. Fic. 7. Close mother skein with no spindle visible, but with radiations at the two ends of the nucleus. Anilin- safranin, iron-alum-haematoxylin. Zeiss oc, 12, B, and L. obj. yy. Fie. 8. Cell with centrospheres and granular zones outside of the polar radiations. Iron-alum- -haematoxylin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. py. . FIG. 9. Cell with late separation of centrospheres and precocious division of the centrosomes. Delicate radiations around the nella ates Anilin- safranin, gentian-violet. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. ‘0 Fig. 10. Nucleus with very flat dome-shaped iets and cytoplasm radiations or streams. Acid fuchsin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. +: Fig. 11. Cell with centrosomes and distinct coarse radiations. oe safranin, gentian-violet. Zeiss oc. 12, B.and L. obj. + Fic: 12, Early dome- -shaped spindle with no centrosomes visible. Iron- alum- “haematoxylin, Zeiss oc. 12, obj. 2™™ ap. hom. im : Fig. 1 . Looped mother skein showing radiations around the poles of the = spindle. Acid fuchsin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. +y - End view of looped mother skein. Anilin-safranin, iron-alum- Seg I Recast: Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L, obj. +y. : FIG. 15, Dome-shaped spindle with centrospheres. Anilin-safranin, gen- tian-violet. Zeiss oc. 12, obj. 2"™ ap. hom. im Fig. 16. Dome-shaped spindle becoming pointed, with prominent radia- tions around the une ee iron-alum-haematoxylin. Zeiss 0c. 12, B. and L. obj. + Fig. 17. Dimesdajcd spindle with prominent centrospheres. Anilin- safranin, iron-alum- -haematoxylin. Zeiss oc, 12, B, and L. obj. +s. Fig. 18. Spindle epee Fe — Anilin-safranin, gentian-violet. Zeiss oc. 12, obj. 2™™ ap, hom BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI. PLATE XX. SCHAFFNER on KARYOKINESIS. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI. PLATE XXii. SCHAFFNER on KARYOKINESIS. 1898] KARYOKINESIS IN THE ROOT T/PS OF ALLIUM CEPA 237 Fic. 19. One-sided spindle with looped spirem. Anilin-safranin, iron- ee alum-haematoxylin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. +4. Fig. 20. Loose mother skein with centrosomes at the a of the spindle. Iron-alum-haematoxylin. Zeiss oc. 12, obj. 2™™ ap. hom. Fig. 21. A flat cell with a very flat spindle. One end shows a centro- some. Anilin-safranin, picric nigrosin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. 7s. FIG. 22. Spindle much as in fg. 20, but more pointed. Anilin-safranin, gentian-violet. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. +s. Fic. 23. Loose mother skein with large centrospheres in which the cen- trosomes have divided earlier than usual. Anilin-safranin, gentian-violet. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. py Fig. 24. Long cell showing a sharp-pointed spindle with centrosphere and an outer granular zone in the radiations. Anilin-safranin, iron-alum- haematoxylin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. +. PLATE XXM, Fic. 25. Loose mother skein showing spindle with typical centrospheres and wetidiiona: Iron-tannin, safranin. Zeiss oc 12, B. and L. o Fic. 26. Typical mother star. Anilin-safranin, gentian-violet, Gram’s iodin piatscent atk iodid. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. yy. Fic. 27. Segmented mother star. Acid fuchsin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. Fic. 28. Segmented mother star from large cells of central strand. One end shows a very marked centrosome, the other none. Anilin-safranin, gen- tian-violet. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. +1y. Fic. 29. Early stage of metakinesis with spindle still somewhat dome- shaped because of the flatness of the cell. Centrosomes divided. Anilin- safranin, Ags nigrosin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. . Metakinesis en showing radiations around the poles. Anilin- sabvenis, paces -violet. s oc. 12, obj. 2™ ap. hom. im. Fic. 31. Last stage = metakinesis ; centrosomes pe Anilin- safranin, gentian-violet. Zeiss oc. 12, obj. 2™ ap. hom. i Fic. 32. Daughter star stage; centrosomes dividing. Anilin-safranin, iron-alum-haematoxylin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. ty. Fic. 33. Daughter star. Prominent radiations around the poles. Anilin- safranin, gentian-violet. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. +s. 1G. 34. Beginning of loose daughter skein. Anilin-safranin, iron-alum- haematoxylin, Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. 7 Fic. 35. Loose daughter skein with coarse radiations. Gentian-violet, eosin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. +s. 238 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ OCTOBER Fic. 36. Loose daughter skein with early stage of cell plate and promi- nent centrospheres. Anilin- estas eg violet, Gram’s iodin potassium iodid. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. 4 Fic. 37. Loose daughter skein am prominent centrospheres. At the upper pole one centrosphere is hidden. Iron-tannin, anilin-safranin. Reichert oc. 12, Leitz obj. +y. Fic. 38. Loose daughter skein with large cell plate. Anilin-safranin, picric nigrosin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. yy. FiG. 39. Close daughter skein with cell plate about complete. Acid fuchsin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. +4 Fig. 40. Close daughter skein with ae plate complete. Anilin-safranin, iron-alum-haematoxylin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L L. obj. +. Fig. 41. Close daughter skein with dumb-bell- shaped centrosome delayed in division. Anilin-safranin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. 7. Fig. 42. Resting daughter cell with remarkably distinct centrospheres. Iron- a Soi ale Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. +5. . 43. Sagittaria variabilis. Microspore grandmother cell showing cuahe with large centrosomes. Anilin-safranin, iron-alum-haematoxylin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. o Fic. 44. Same as oi 43. Fig. 45. Sagittaria variabilis, Microspore grandmother cell somewhat Secied resulting in a distinct multipolar spindle. Centrosomes still visible. Anilin-safranin, iron-alum- -haematoxylin. Zeiss oc. 12, B. and L. obj. ay CELL DIVISION IN PINE SEEDLINGS: By EDWARD L. FULMER. (WITH PLATES XXIII AND XXIV) TuE chief purpose of the following investigation was to determine the origin of the achromatic spindle, especially as to whether it originates as a bipolar or a multipolar structure. Along with this the subject of centrospheres was considered and also such other points of interest as might be observed in con- nection with karyokinesis. The greater part of the work was done on Linus laricio Poir., P. silvestris L. being used for comparison. The cell structures in the two species were found to be so nearly identical that it was not considered necessary to make any distinction between them in presenting the results of the investigation. The material was obtained by sprouting the dry seeds, and when the embryos were from 0.5-3™ long the root tips and cotyledons were cut off and killed in the usual manner. The fixing agents used were Flemming’s stronger solution and chrom-acetic acid. The sections were imbedded in paraffin, and cut 10, 5, and 4 wthick. Various combinations of stains were used ; but the best results were obtained with analin-safranin gentian-violet, and orange G; iron-alum-hematoxylin; and Delafield’s hematoxylin. The sections were usually stained so dark when killed in Flemming’s solution that it was necessary to let them stand in turpentine exposed to the sunlight for some time in order to remove the black color which otherwise inter- fered greatly with the proper effect of the staining reagents. After this treatment the sections stained very well, and the details of protoplasmic structure were well differentiated. My thanks are due to Dr. W. A. Kellerman and Mr. J. H. Schaffner for valuable assistance and criticism. aac. Contribution fromm the botanical laboratory of Ohio State University. IV. 1898] 239 240 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ OCTOBER The cells of Pinus are moderately large and the karyokinetic figures distinct, but usually there is a considerable amount of oil present which is stained readily by most of the stains used, and thus interferes with the observation of the finer details of structure, especially with the centrospheres. In the resting nucleus (fg. z) the chromatin is arranged in a granular network with rather large meshes. Several nucleoli of various sizes are usually present, surrounded by hyaline areas. In normal cells of this stage no centrospheres were observed, although a diligent search was made for them. This might be taken to indicate that centrospheres are entirely absent in the resting stage, which would be contrary to the condition Schaffner? reported for Allium Cepa, where centrospheres are said to occur in resting cells as well as in the stages of division. However, the cytoplasm usually contained many oil drops and other granular contents so that if centrospheres were present they could not be distinguished very easily. In the outer layer, near the epidermis, elongated cells are some-. times found (jig. 3) which contain greatly elongated nuclei having spindle-like projections with bodies resembling cen- trosomes at the outer ends. Sometimes these bodies have radiations around them which make them strongly resemble the . poles of atrue spindle. Although the nucleus is in the resting Stage the bodies might represent the poles of spindles which formed earlier than usual. However, the cells in this region seldom divide, and the phenomenon may be only an accompani- ment of the elongation of the nucleus, the centrosome-like bodies representing accumulations of cytoplasm. In the stele the elongated cells (fig. ¢) contain very large nuclei having numerous nucleoli. In such cases the nucleoli are usually very large and filled with vacuoles. The nucleoli stain very dimly, so that the chromatin network is hardly visible even in well stained sections, while the nucleoli take a deep red stain with safranin, and are arranged in a line within the nucleus at somewhat regular intervals. 2 ?Bor. Gaz. 19: 445-459. 1894. * 1898 ] CELL DIVISION IN PINE SEEDLINGS 241 In some of the preparations very definite and distinct radia- tions surrounded the nuclei (jig. 2). These radiations are rather thick strands of cytoplasm, and do not show the fine structure found in spindle threads or in radiations around the poles. In the preparations where such radiations were seen nearly every cell showed them, whether in the resting condi- tion or the early stages of division ; indicating that they were produced by the fixing agent. If not caused by this means they are probably the result of a streaming of the cytoplasm similar to that found in the cells of hairs, on Tradescantia stamens. Just before cell division commences the nuclei stain very readily. The first change to take place in the structure of the nucleus is the transformation of the chromatin network into a long thread or spirem. When the spirem is almost formed, and while the nucleoli are still visible in the nucleus, and before the nuclear membrane has disappeared, the spindle begins to form. When first seen it consists simply of two rounded or dome- shaped prominences (fig. 5), one on each side of the nucleus (figs. 6-10). These dome-shaped spindles gradually become elongated and pointed until they extend outward to two definite points at which centrosomes are often visible (jigs. 10-12). These appear as small deeply stained bodies placed just at the point of the spindle (figs. 24, 25). In fig. 16 the centrosome appears to be lying in a hyaline area which is surrounded by a darker portion of protoplasm. At about the time the spindle becomes pointed the spirem breaks into a definite number of chromosomes and the nuclear membrane disappears. At this time the nucleoli are no longer visible, having disappeared in the early prophase of division. They are not found again until cell division is about complete. The poles are usually approxi- mately on opposite sides of the nucleus from the first appear- ance of the spindle. In a few cases, however, they were less than 180° apart (fig. r2),.and did not become directly opposite until quite a late stage of karyokinesis. Radiations are fre- quently seen around the poles (figs. 6, 77)- 242 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER F’. Rosen3 describes spindles quite similar to the above in the root tips of Hyacinthus orientalis. He finds the spindle aris- ing as acap-shaped prominence which is formed on two opposite points of the nucleus by the concentration of “kinoplasm” which had formed a hyaline area around the nucleus. This spindle originates before the dissolution of the nuclear mem- brane. I examined carefully a large amount of material in search for radiations around the nuclei and for multipolar spindles in the prophases of karyokinesis as figured by Osterhout,‘ Mottier,' Juel,° and Debski,” but I was unable to find a single cell in these early stages that showed such structures. However, as above observed, in some preparations strands of cytoplasm were seen around the nuclei of nearly every cell. This was observed in cells both in the resting stage and during karyokinesis, These radiations were very coarse and could not, I think, be instru- mental in spindle formation. In some injured or sliced karyokinetic figures I found, though very rarely, spindles which appeared to be multipolar. The cells containing such spindles were all in the anaphase, mainly in the metakinesis and mother star stages (fig. 27), at which time the spindle is elongated and is more likely to be sliced in sectioning than those which are in other stages of karyokinesis. In the material examined many cells were observed in the prophase, a large number of which showed definite spindles. In every case the spindle was bipolar, being short and rounded, or dome-shaped, when first visible near the nuclear membrane. The evidence furnished by my investigation is opposed to the theory that the spindle of Pinus originates as a multipolar structure. With the segmenting of the spirem the metaphase begins. The spirem is scattered throughout the nucleus in the outer 3 COoHN’s Beitrage zur Biologie der Pflanzen 7 : 225~312. 1895. 4 Jahrbiicher fur wiss. Bot. 30: 159-168. 1897. 6 Ibid. 30 : 205-226. 1897: * Ibid. 30: 169-204. 1897. 7 Ibid, 30 : 227-248. 1897- 1898 ] CELL DIVISION IN PINE SEEDLINGS 243 part of the achromatin (figs. g-rz), and segments just before the spindle elongates to definite points. The nuclei in which I was able to count the segments contained sixteen chromosomes (fig. 14). They are somewhat difficult to count as they are usually massed together. Strasburger® counted twelve chromo- somes in the pollen grain of Pinus silvestris. Dixon? found eight, twelve, and twenty-four chromosomes in the gametophyte of Pinus silvestris, with eight as the prevailing number. The nuclei in the primary meristem of the growing point of Pinus Laricio and Picea orientalis were found by the same author to con- tain sixteen chromosomes. The chromosomes are at first scattered throughout the nucleus, but are gradually drawn toward the center to form the mother star (fig. 75). They seem to be arranged somewhat irregularly during this and the metakinesis stages (figs. 15, 20, 22). The longitudinal splitting of the chromosomes takes place about the time of the mother star’stage. The daughter chromo- somes then move toward the poles where they arrange them- selves into the two daughter stars and form the network of the resting nuclei (figs. 28, 29). The spindle is usually quite pointed during metakinesis (fig. 22).. Sometimes, however, when the cell is short, the spindle does not become pointed but remains dome-shaped (fig. 78), giving an appearance similar to that which would be produced by the spindle fibers passing through the cell wall. The centrosomes, however, show that the poles lie very close to the cell wall. /ig. 77 shows one end of such a spindle with a double centrosome. In fig. 24 the sides of the spindle are concave. This shape was probably produced by the protoplasm contracting near the lower end of the spindle. Radiations are more prominent during the anaphase than dur- ing either the earlier or later stages (figs. 19, 23; 25). The centrosomes in Pinus appear as small but definite and readily stained bodies lying at the poles. Sometimes a hyaline area is visible around them in which the spindle threads termi- ® Ueber das Verhalten d. Pollens. Hist. Beitr. 4: —. 1892. ° Ann. Bot. 8: 21-34. 1894. 244 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ OCTOBER nate. In other cases no such area can be observed, the spindle fibers appearing to meet at the centrosome. These bodies, on account of their common occurrence at the poles, should perhaps retain the name of centrosomes whether they are permanent bodies directing cell division or whether they are only temporary structures. Whatever these bodies may be they certainly seem to be the same in character as the bodies found at the poles of cells in animal tissue. They are not only the points to which spindle fibers converge, but they are also the centers for a system of radiations which pass outward into the cytoplasm. H. L. Smith” is perhaps the first to have figured centro- somes in plants. He found a small body in diatoms, especially in Surirella splendens, which he called the germinal dot. This was no doubta centrosome. Guignard™ figured and described these bodies in resting cells as well as during karyokinesis. In his recent paper’ he finds centrosomes in all phases of nuclear division in Nymphea alba. Hé finds multipolar spindles also in Nuphar luteum, and says they are very frequent in Limodorum abortivus, but he does not give any explanation of their origin. In the early part of the telophase the cell wall between the two daughter nuclei begins to form. It starts as a gran- ular thickening of the middle of the central spindle fibers (fig. 26). This thickening gradually extends outward and the spindle at the same time gradually increases in diameter (figs. 27, 28) until its middle portion touches the cell walls. The cell plate then completely divides the daughter cells and the spindle soon disappears. In fig. 28 traces of it may still be seen. Two centrosomes are now found at each pole, the single ones having divided. While the network is being formed the daughter nuclei change from an oval to a spherical form, sometimes hav ing radiations around them (fig. 29). Cotumpsus, O. *° A contribution to the life history of Diatomaceze, Proceedings American Society of Microscopists 1886 : 1-37 * Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.) VIL. 14: 163-296. 1891. * Bot. Gaz. 25: 158-164. 1898. 1898 ] CELL DIVISION IN PINE SEEDLINGS 245 EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXIII, XXIV. The figures were drawn with combinations of Zeiss and Bausch and Lomb objectives and oculars by the aid of a camera lucida, and are reduced to about # of their original size. The initial letter of the objectives and oculars are used to designate them. The four following combinatians were employed : Z 2™ ap. Z 18 (x 2250); Z 2™™ ap. Z 12 (X 1500); B & L yy Z 12 (x 2600); B& Lys, B & L }(X 1400). Figures 1, 16, 17, 18, 26, and 29 were taken from Pinus silvestris ; all the others from Pinus Laricio. PLATE XXIII, Fic. 1. Resting nucleus with large oil drops in the cytoplasm. B& L yy Z 12. Fic. 2. Resting cell, with radiating streams of cytoplasm around the nucleus. B&Li;; B& LP Fic. 3. Resting cell containing an elongated nucleus with a spindle and centrosome-like bodies. Z2™™ ap. Z 18. Fic. 4. Part of cell containing a very large nucleus in which are several nucleoli with vacuoles. B & L yy Z12. Fic. 5. Early stage of division showing first appearance of spindle. B&L+Z 12. Fic. 6. Spindle elongating showing centrosomes and radiations. B & L +s Z 12. Fic. 7. Same stage, somewhat later, showing few radiations: B& Ly E2. Fic. 8. Dome-shaped spindle showing neither centrosomes nor radiations. B& L +5 Z 12. FiG. 9. Dome-shaped spindle showing centrosomes and a few radiations. B& Ly Z 12. ~ ~ Fic. 10. Same stage more advanced. Z 2™™ ap. Z 12. Fic. 11. Spindle becoming pointed showing centrosomes and radiations. Ae aa Ape) Fic. 12. Spindle pointed but poles not entirely opposite. B&L+Y 12 Fic. 13. Nuclear membrane absent; spindle not so much pointed as is usual at this stage. B & L yy Z 12. Fic. 14. Loose mother skein stage showing appearance and number of chromosomes. Z 2™™ ap. Z 18. 246 | BOTANICAL GAZETTE PLATE XXVI, Fig. 15. Mother star stage. B& L yy Z 12. ; _ Fig. 16. Showing one end of spindle with a large centrosome ; chromo- somes massed together. Z2™™ ap. Z 12. oe 17. Same as above with pole of spindle near cell wall. Z oe 7 Fre, 38. Metakinesis; poles of spade crowded against cell walls. z nm : ap. Z 12. Fig. 19. Metakinesis; pole with centrosome and distinct radiations. es B & L +4 Z 12. Fic. 20. Metakinesis. Z 2™™ ap. Z 12. _ Fig. 21. Metakinesis; injured, showing multipolar spindle ; chrome _ are partly displaced. B& L +; Z 12 Fic. 22. Metakinesis. B & L yy Z12. FIG. 23. ag close of metakinesis, showing centrosomes and radiations. Z2™™ ap. Z 1 Fie. 24. Same as above. Z2™ ap. Z r2, es Fig. 25. Daughter star with centrosomes and radiations. B & L yy Z 12. Fic. 26. Loose daughter skein. B& L yy Z 12. Fic. 27. Close daughter skein ; cell plate formed, Z 2™™ ap. Z 18. Fig. 28. The same but somewhat more advanced. Z 2™™ ap. Z 18. FIG. 29. 2g end of close daughter skein; nuclei are becoming globule ; B&LYWZ1 PLATE XXIII. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI. “ EVEL OO UE DC., Jamestown weed, thorn apple, Cal. Lycium vulgare, Dunal., Washington's bower, Southwestern oa Nicandra physaloides, Gaertn., globe, Sulphur Grove, One Nicotiana glauca, Graham, tobacco tree, Cal. Physalis, sp., cherry tomatoes, Eastern end of Long Island. 1 Confounded with Galium. 2 From a tradition that the Indians thus utilized its root. : rom a popular custom among young people of throwing a portion of this plant backward over the head of another plant, and naming it for some one. If it lives, that one loves them. * Sold by J. Lewis Childs, Floral Park, N. Y., under the name of “ hardy tuber- ous-rooted moonflower.” 5 The seed is made into an intoxicating drink by the Arizona Indians. 250 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ OCTOBER Solanum Carolinense, L., bull nettle, Southwestern Mo. Solanum Dulcamara, L., myrtle vine, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. wood nightshade, West. ~ Solanum nigrum, L., bonewort, West. Solanum radula, Vahl, soap berry, Florida keys. Solanum rostratum, Dunal., Kansas thistle, Southwestern Mo. Solanum triqguetrum, Cav., potato jasmine, Waco, Tex. Solanum verbas:ifolium, L., mugged (? mug-weed, mug-wood, mug- wort), Florida keys. . SCROPHULARIACE#, Castilleia sessilifiora, Pursh., honeysuckle, Burnside, S. Dak. Linaria vulgaris, Mill., Jacob’s ladder, Long Island. ladies’ slippers, Mass. butter and eggs, Auburndale and Cambridge, ass. Pedicularis Canadensis, L., chickens’ heads, Southold, L. I. Pentstemon Digitalis, Nutt., dead men’s bells,! West. Pentstemon gracilis, Nutt., beard-tongue, Greene County, Mo. Pentstemon, sp., foxglove, Tex. Scrophularia nodosa, var. Marilandica, Gr., carpenter’s square, South- western Mo. Verbascum Blattaria, L., slippery mullein (in distinction from fuzzy mullein, 1 Thapsus), Southold, L. I. Veronica Virginica, L., black root, Southwestern Mo.’ Veronica, sp., speedwell or brooklime, Harding’s “ With the Wild lowers.” OROBANCHACE. Aphyllon or Boschniakia, sp., squirrels’ grandfather, Cal. BIGNONIACE. Chilopsis saligna, Don, desert willow, Ariz. and Colo. catalpa willow, Tex. VERBENACEZ. Avicennia oblongifolia, ?Nutt., black wood, Florida keys. Calicarpa Americana, L., French mulberry, Miller County, Mo. Lantana involucrata, L., var. Floridana, sage tree, Florida keys. Lippia cunetfolia, Steud., chapparal, Mexican heliotrope, Tex. Verbena Aubletia, L., sweet William,? Southwestern Mo. Verbena augustifolia, stricta, and urticefolia, L., bur-vine, South- western Mo, Verbena stricta, Vent., thimble-weed, St. Joseph, Mo. 1 From growing on graves. ? Flowers have a sweetish taste when eaten, like the flowers of phlox. 1898 | POPULAR AMERICAN PLANT-NAMES 251 LABIATA. Brunella vulgaris, L., wild sage, Paris, Me. hearts’ ease, Cambridge, Mass. cure-all, West. Galeopsis Tetrahit, L., Keays-weed, Bisbee-weed, bur-weed, Paris, M ce. Hedeoma pulegioides, Pers., pudding grass, West. Lycopus sinuatus, Ell., rattlesnake weed,! Southwestern Mo. Lycopus Virginicus, L., archangel, Dixfield, Me. sprig-of-Jerusalem, South Berwick, Me. Mentha Canadensis, L., wild bergamot, or bergamont, Oxford County, Me. Mentha piperita, L., manzania, Cal. Micromeria Douglasii, Benth., good herbs, “ yerba buena,” Cal. Molucella levis, L., Molucca balm, shell flower, old maids’ bonnet, Sulphur Grove, Ohio Nepeta Glechoma, Benth., Gill-run-over-grass, run-away-Jack, blue bells, Cambridge, Mass. run-away-Nell, Medford, Mass. Origanum vulgare, L., wild marjoram, West. Salvia Columbaria, Benth., wild sage, chia, winter oat, Cal. Scutellaria laterifolia, L., hoodwort, West. Teucrium Canadense, L., betony, head betony, wood betony, West. PLANTAGINACE®. Plantago lanceolata, L., nigger-heads, hock cockle, Southold, L. I. soldiers, Cambridge, Mass. NYCTAGINACE. Abronia latifolia, Esch., yellow sand verbena, Cal. Boerhaavia erecta, L., jigger weed, Florida keys. Mirabilis Falapa, L., pretty-per-night,? Sulphur Grove, Ohio. AMARANTACEZ. Amarantus Albus, L., tumble weed,’ Southwestern Mo. Amarantus retroflecus, L., light-houses,* Southold, L. I. curls, red root, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. wild beet,> Oxford County, Me. : Herb said to be an antidote for the bite of amas Not pretty by night, although it means the s : * From its habit of drying in a round mass, sia hele rolled about by the wind. _ * From speed with which they tower above crops in the fields. ® Said to taste like beets when cooked for “ greens.’ 252 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocTOBER Gomphrena globosa, L., globe amaranth, bachelor’s button, Sulphur Grove, i0. bachelor’s button, Ala. CHENOPODIACE. Chenopodium album, L., black weed,! Eastern Long Island. Chenopodium capitatum, Watson, garden strawberry, Paris, Me. Salicornia ambigua, Michx., lead grass, lead weed,? Southold, L. L PHYTOLACCACEE Phytolacca decandra, L., poke berry, poke root,? Sulphur Grove, Ohio. cocum, pocum, pigeon berry, West. ink bush, ink-berry bush, Southold, L. E haystack weed, Conn. POLYGONACEZ. Polygonum aviculare, L., dog-tails, St. Joseph, Mo. Polygonum-convolvulus, L., wild bean, Oxford County, Me. Polygonum dumetorum, L., var. scandens, Gray, wild buckwheat, Burnside, S. Dak. Polygonum erectum, L., goose grass, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Polygonum orientale, L., Gentleman’s cane, prince’s feather, Sul- phur Grove, Ohio. kiss-me-over-the-fence, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. ragged sailor, Paris, Me. Polygonum Persicaria, L., heart weed, Oxford County, Me. black heart, Lubec, Me. ; Mass. ; South- ern Vt. Polygonum terrestre, heartsease, Nebr. gles eet (twining species), pull-down, blind weed, Sulphur Grove; io. Polygonum, sp., heart’s ease, Erie County, Pa. Rheum Rhaponticum, ., wine plant, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Rumex crispus, L., narrow dock, curled dock, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Rumex obtusifolius, L., sour dock, poison dock, Sulphur Grove; Ohio. ARISTOLOCHIACE. Asarum Canadense, L.., colt’s foot, West. CAMBRIDGE, Mass, 1 Because it stains the fingers black. * From its weight in the salt-meadow hay. * The friends of J. K. Polk used this plant as their symbol when he was ~~ ning for president, and marked their hats with juice of the berries. POPULAR AMERICAN PLANT-NAMES. VI. FANNIE D. BERGEN. LAURACE. Umbellularia Californica, Nutt., pepper-wood, Cal. THYMELECE#. Dirca palustris, L., Indian wickape, West. wickopy, Hartford, Me. ELAAGNACE. Shepherdia argentea, Pursh, buffalo berry, Nebr. EUPHORBIACEZ. Euphorbia corollata, L., milkweed, Madison, Wis. Euphorbia Cyparissias, L., milkweed, Vermont. raveyard moss, Ind. Euphorbia hypericifolia, and £. maculata, L., corn-pusley, Southold, | ae Euphorbia maculata, L., French pursley, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Euphorbia marginata, Pursh, snow-on-the mountain, Sulphur Grove, Ohio; N. Dak. milkweed, ghost-weed, snow - on- the- mountain, Waco, Tex. Fatropha stimulosa, Michx., bull nettle, South. Ricinus communis, L., castor-bean, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Simmondsia Californica, Nutt., pig-nut, Arizona. Tragia nepetefolia, Cav., stinging nettle, Southwestern Mo. URTICACEZ. Laportea Canadensis, Gaudich, wood nettle, Southwestern Mo. Maclura aurantiaca, Nutt., Osage orange, hedge-tree, “ bois d’arc,”’ Southwestern Mo. Pilia pumila, Gray, water weed, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Ulmus Americana, L., red elm, white elm, Southwestern Mo. Ulnus fulve, Michx., slippery elm, white elm, Southwestern Mo. JUGLANDACE®. Carya alba, Nutt., walnut, New England. black hickory, Southwestern Mo. Carya microcarpa, Nutt., black hickory, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Carya porcina, Nutt., spignut,! Ind. . 1 A corruption of pignut. 1898] a 254 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER Carya sulcata, Nutt., shell-bark hickory, Southwestern Mo. Carya tomentosa, Nutt., white hickory, Southwestern Mo. pull-nut, mocker-nut, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Fuglans cinerea, L., oil-nut tree, West. white walnut, Southwestern Mo. CUPULIFER. Betula balsamifera, sycamore, black poplar, West. Carpinus Caroliniana, Walt., swamp beech, hornbeam, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Fagus ferruginea, Ait., white beech, red beech, black beech, West. Quercus coccinea, Wang., and var. tinctoria, Gray, black oak, South- western Mo. Quercus imbricaria, Michx., swamp oak, pin oak, Southwestern Mo. Quercus rubra, L., red oak, Spanish oak (lowland variety), South- western Mo. SALICACE®. Salix cordata, Mubl. var. vestita, And., diamond willow, Burnside, S. Dak. Salix, sp., with catkins very prominent, pussy willow, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. EMPETRACE®. Empetrum nigrum, L., squirt plum, Rumford, Me. CONIFERZ. Abies alba, Link, cat spruce, Andover, Me. Funiperus communis, L., juniper, West. Funiperus Sabina, L., juniper, West. Funiperus Virginiana, L., juniper, West. Larix Americana, Michx., juniper, West. cypress, Oxford County, Me. Pinus Banksiana, Lambert, shrub pine, West. Pinus resinosa, Ait., Norway pine, hard pine, Oxford County, Me. Pinus strobus, L.., yellow pine, West. Lorreya Californica, Torr., California nutmeg tree, Cal. ORCHIDACE. Arethusa bulbosa, L., swamp pink, meadow pink, Mass. Cypripedium acaule, Ait., valerian, nerve root, Paris, Me. ; Indian slipper, Oxford County, Me. Cypripedium spectabile, Swartz, shepherd’s purse, Lepreau, N. B. Goodyera repens, R. Br., adder’s tongue, Paris, Me. Habenaria psycodes, Gray, and Habenaria fimbriata, R. Br. wild hya- cinth, Woodstock, Me. Spiranthes cernua, Richard, hens’ toes, Paris, Me. 1898] POPULAR AMERICAN PLANT-NAMES 255 IRIDACE. Tris versicolor, L., blue lily, Madison, Wis. Sisyrinchium angustifolium, Mill., forget-me-not, Hartford, Me. AMARYLLIDACE. Agave Parryi, Engelm., century plant, Ariz. Cooperia Drummondit, Herb., rain lilies, star flowers, Waco, Tex. Narcissus (all species), Easter flowers, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. LILIACE. Camassia esculenta, wild hyacinth, “ kmass,” Cal. Chlorogalum pomeridianum, Kunth, soap root, soap plant,! “amole,” Cal. Clintonta borealis, Raf., hound’s tongue, calf corn, Hartford, Me. wild corn, corn flower, Oxford County, Me. Dasylirion Wheeleri, Watson, bear grass, Ariz. Erythronium albidum, Nutt., tulip, Southwestern Mo. Erythronium Americanum, Ker., wild yellow lily, Norridgewock, Me. jonquil, cornflower,? Oxford County, ¢. Hemerocallis flava, L., lemon lily,3 Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Flesperocallis undulata, Gray, California day lily, Cal. Lilium Philadelphicum, 1., freckled lily, South Berwick, Me. Maianthemum bifolium, DC., wild lily of the valley, Fairhaven, ass. Muscari racemosum, Mill., var. plumatilis, feather hyacinth, sugar loaf, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Oakesia sessilifolia, Watson, wild oats, Paris and Hartford, Me. corn-flower, Oxford County, Me. Smilax Bona-nox, L., bamboo vine, stretch-berry, Waco, Tex. Smilax rotundifolia, L., horse brier, dog brier, Mass. Streptopus roseus, Michx., Jacob’s ladder, Paris, Me. Solomon’s seal, West. Trillium erectum, L., red Benjamin, Woodstock and Paris, Me. wild peony, or “ piny,” Oxford County, Me. Trillium erythrocarpum, Michx., white Benjamin, Woodstock and Paris, Trillium recurvatum, Beck., cowslip, Parke County, Ind. Jack-in-the-pulpit, Central Ill. Trillium sessile, L., nigger-heads, Ind. 1 Used in washing. 2 Sometimes used for “ greens.” 8 Lemon-colored. 256 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToOBER Veratrum viride, Ait., Indian poke, Oxford tees Me. Xyrophyllum setifolium, Michx., turkey-beard, N. J. : Yucca crea "e Adam’s needle and thread, Harding’s “ With the Wild Flower Yucca gloriosa, L., Ros candle, the Lord’s candlestick, So. Cal. PONT CEA. Pontederia cordata, L., moose-ear, Grand Lake, N. B. - COMMELINACEZ Tradescantia crassifolia ieee Jacob’s ladder, Wandering Jew, Sul- rove, io. (striped), Joseph’s coat, Sulphur Grove, io. Tradescantia, sp., in greenhouses, small white flowers pointed like corn, corn lily, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Tradescantia, sp., Indian paint,! Mineral Point, Wis. ARACE. Arisema Pi avilen Torr., wake-robin, West. og onion, Rumford, Me. memory root, Rutland, Mass. Calla palustris, L., water arum, West. ALISMACE&. Sagittaria variabilts, Engelm., water lily, Southwestern Mo. arrow-head, swan root,? Cal. CYPERACE. nt (all grass-like species), ornamental grass, Sulphur Gran Scirpus lacustris, L., cat-tail flag,? Cal. j & GRAMINE®. Agropyrum repens, L., witch grass, Oxford and York counties, Me. | Andropogon furcatus, Muhl., and related species, blue-stem ey Southwestern Mo. Cenchrus tribuloides, L, sand spur, Fla. sand bar, Waco, Tex. ne spicata, Beauv., witch grass, Oxford and York counties, 1 The juice said to irritate the skin and make it red. 2 Used as food ndi ® Used as food by Indians. * : Re ‘ ; : F 1898 ] POPULAR AMERICAN PLANT-NAMES 257 Panicum capillare, L., tickle grass, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Panicum virgatum, L., switch grass,! Central Neb. Setaria glauca and viridis, Beauv., barn grass, Oxford County, Me. Sorghum, sp.. cane, sugar cane, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Sporobolus Buckleyi, Vasey, crawly grass, tickle grass, Waco, Tex. Sporobolus serotinus, Gray, blue ruin, Oxford County, Me. Triticum repens, twitch grass, dog grass, Oxford County, Me. Zea mays, L. (yellow striped with red), bloody butcher, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. (hard grains without dents), flint corn, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. EQUISETACEA. Equisetum hiemale, L., gun-bright,? Penobscot County, Me. snake weed, Jones and Delaware counties, owa. FILICES. Aspidium Noveboracense, Swartz, bear’s paw, Plattsburg, N. = Cystopteris, sp., bladder fern, N. Onoclea sensibilis, L., polypod brakes,# Oxford County, Me. sugar brake, Penobscot County, Me. Polypodium (a Florida species), resurrection fern,° Fla. Pteris aquilina, L., poor man’s soap,° Ala. Woodwardia, sp., chain fern, N. Y. OPHIOGLOSSACE. Botrychium Virginianum, Swartz, indicator,’ Jackson, West Va. LYCOPODIACE. Lycopodium rhigaiin, L., stag-horn evergreen, Concord, Mass. Lycopodium complanatum, L., saat Christmas Green, West Va. trailing, running, or creeping vine, Ferrisburgh, Vt. evergreen, Oxford County, Me. L ycopodium, sp., fox-tail, St. Andrews, 1 Also called “ wild red-top” by the farmers. * Very troublesome to the mower, eluding the scythe. 8 Said to have been used by the Indians for polishing their guns 4 It would be an interesting investigation to trace out the origin of this applica- tion of a name evidently derived from Polypodium. 5 From its habit of unrolling upon being wet with rain. ® Because it will make a lather with wate 7 Name derived from the fact that its mone is thought to indicate the pres- ence of ginsen 258 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER MUSCINEZ. Polytrichum commune, bear's grass, Penobscot County, Me. bird’s wheat, Kennebec valley, Me. FUNGI. Boletus, sp., cow mushroom, N. H. Exobasidium, sp., May apple, N. J. Phallus, sp., carrion flower, Mass. ALGE. Spirogyra, sp., frog slime, N. H. Ulva latissima, glit, Mace’s Bay, N. B. CAMBRIDGE, MAss. —The foregoing papers are reprinted, at the request of the author, from Nor plates ses furnished by the editor of the Journal of poles Folk-Lore. Their original publication was in that ioe 10:49-54, 143-148.—EDs. ii i ia OBSERVATIONS UPON THE NEWER BOTANY. ByrRON D. HALSTED. THE LEAF A LIGHT-RELATED ORGAN, Unper life relations it may be an advantage to some that an instance be stated even though it be in brief terms. Let us take the leaf as it is, one of the three vegetative organs. The leaf is divided into three parts—the stalk, stipules, and blade. Furthermore, the blade is made up of the framework, the pulp, and the skin that envelops all and holds the parts together. It has been stated that the leaf is a light-related organ, and it will be to the point to consider this relationship. It is the pulp that interests us in considering the leaf as related to the light, and this is the soft portion lying between the upper and lower skin, and supported by the framework. It consists of minute cells somewhat loosely placed. It is now that the microscope lends valuable assistance, for by it it is seen that the cells consist of three parts, the wall or sac, the liquid, and the green granular contents. It is these minute masses of protoplasm, colored green by chlorophyll that interest us ina study of the light relation, for it is in these that the energy of motion is transformed into energy of position—kinetic into potential. Within these chlorophyll granules the energy of the vibrat- ing rays of the sun splits up the molecules of water, coming from the soil through the roots and stem, and those of the car- bonic dioxide from the atmosphere driving off a portion of the oxygen. Thus, if we should have six groups of the carbon dioxide molecules (6 CO,) and five of water (5 H,O) there might be a separation of twelve atoms of oxygen, and the union "Remarks following a paper upon Botany for the Secondary Schools, by Dr. J, M. Coulter, before the Natural Science Section of the National Educational Associa- tion, Washington, D. C., July 1898. 1898 ] 259 260 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | OCTOBER of the remaining portion would give a molecule of starch (C, H,,0O;). This is food making reduced to its simplest terms, and the chlorophyll granules that float in the semi-liquid- plasma are the centers of synthesis of organic compounds. Each starch granule, whether of wheat, potato, sago, or rice, represents a potential energy that may remain unnoticed until the occasion for oxygen to unite again with the elements in the compound when it ceases to exist as starch, and with the libera- tion of sensible energy carbon dioxide and water result. In other words, the sun’s force raises the inorganic compounds to a higher plane by deoxidation and union, and from that plane they may fall back, yielding, in the descent, an energy that physicists tell us is equal to that by which it was raised. In considering the leaves in their relationship to the sun and the whole realm of life upon the earth, it is evident we are face to face with the most potent of vital activities, and are getting at the heart of the forces that move the world. We might well, with much solemnity, approach the subject that lies before us, for the green leaf, as it stands upon its sup- porting twig, is a minute laboratory in which a noiseless chemist is constructing compounds that possess a potency peculiarly their own. With these facts in mind it needs be a very heedless child who will not be impressed with the worth of the wealth of green- ness that is met with in the living vegetable fabric that is woven with sunlight to clothe the otherwise barren earth. From this central thought concerning light relations of plant foliage there are a thousand starting points for study, and time permits of but the briefest mention of a few. Many plants have no green color, but doubtless prosper. These are the parasites, plants that have long ago formed the habit of gaining their nourishment at secondhand, and from those who do their own work of synthesis. The golden-threaded dodder, the sickly- hued mistletoe are of this class. They form no exception in the true sense, for they steal instead of labor for their living. The mushroom, toadstools, molds, and mildews are other 1898 } OBSERVATIONS UPON THE NEWER BOTANY 261 low forms of plants that live upon organic matter similar to the more exalted flower-bearing parasites. There are many plants that, while making their own food, are seemingly without green: This is only a seeming, for beneath all the bright color there is an abundance of the chloro- phyll, which may be as readily extracted from the showy coleus leaf as from the green grass. There is a long list of questions that naturally arise in the thoughtful mind as to the behavior of plants in relation to the sunshine. To illustrate this we will go out in imagination into the woods and clearing. A BIT OF FIELD WORK. It is possible that a little study like the following may be made. Let me draw the outline of the problem that is to be investigated. Imagine, if you will, you are standing upon a slope of land facing the north, that the sun may not blind your eyes. To the right is a wood lot, with its oak, hickory, chestnut, birch, and other trees, standing neighborly, with arms inter- locked, not too closely for comfort, and through the branches the broken shafts of light reach the shrubbery and herbaceous vegetation beneath. There are the alders, huckleberries, and their close of kin, the Virginia creeper, running upon the ground and over the smaller trees in the vicinity of a sleepy rivulet bordered by skunk cabbage and jack-in-the-pulpit. Where it is not quite so marshy the ground view of the woods is delightfully obscured by a luxuriant growth of the cinnamon fern, for it is* midsummer. To the left is a similar piece of young wood lot, not a prime- val forest in either instance, and here the wild grape clings to the young maple, and the poison sumach may be lurking in the low land. In front of you, however, lies a strip twenty rods wide, where the woodman’s axe has done its destructive work, and the clumps of small growth you see are the sprouts from the maple and other stumps. This is the second season from the time of clearing. 262 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER Have you the picture before you? A rectangle of veyeta- tion stretching down to the rivulet that is lost under the direct rays of the summer sun and then on up the slope beyond, all framed in by right lines of forest trees and grateful shadows. If you have located the clearing from my brief outline you are ready to enter in and possess it botanically. If such a piece of land, even though it be but a single acre, is close at hand, you have a treatise upon vegetable ecology and physiology that con- tains no ends of treasures. Not that it bears any long list of species, but that it does possess the various conditions that, taken in connection with the border land, are more interesting than books, for it is the living volume, that vitalized cyclopedia of facts and the suggestion of principles, that make plant analysis seem tame and useless, save as it may help to catch the convenient handle to hold the subject that is undergoing some delightful transformation. Let that clearing be your field of study day by day. When the days are long and the heat is intense make notes, and with speci- mens there gathered retreat into the shade of the wood lot upon either side. Compare the port of the sun-kissed, and it may be sunburned, herb with that of its shaded neighbor of the same species. Both were once alike, but the axe of the woodsman has let in the full sun upon the one, with drying effect upon the soil surroundings. One bears or attempts to bear the burden and heat of the day while the other is nursed in broken sunshine and a moister soil. The Osmunda in the sun has its fronds strict and upright, the pinne uplifted and twisted to lessen the direct exposure. In the shade the habit is that of some other species, with the fronds gracefully curved outward, and the delicate pinne So placed as to catch every broken shaft of the sunlight that pene- trates the tree tops. The ferns in the open are bleached, while those in the shade are deep green; the former are tough and the latter delicate. Every plant in the clearing that has survived the ordeal of the exposure is a study of adaptation, the reason for the change 1898 | OBSERVATIONS UPON THE NEWER BOTANY 263 in some instances not being upon the surface; but this only adds to the interest that is centered in the clearing and its sur- roundings. This is the newer botany. It is not yet in the books, and, in one sense, never can be. It inheres in the plants themselves, and any attempt to lodge it elsewhere must needs be futile. I trust each teacher of the science of botany may find a field for study in the sense of the clearing above briefly outlined. It may be more convenient for some student and teacher, and one needs to be both to be the latter, to have a garden patch where plants may be asked various questions. If it is in the line above indicated, a shading total or partial may be easily arranged. For example, a half shade may be provided by plac- ing frames of lath upon stakes. The frames may be made, for a few cents, by nailing ordinary carpenter’s laths to cross laths at the ends with a single lath interwoven through the middle. If half shading is desired, let the vacant spaces between the laths be equal to the width of the laths. Under such a shading ordinary plants, like bush beans, lettuce, etc., may be grown, and the variations in time of germination, size of plant, of leaf, time of blooming, size of fruit, longevity, etc., can all be studied with no small amount of interest and profit at a minimum of expense. Should you like to make a record of the difference in thick- ness, for example, between the exposed and shaded leaves it can be done by actual measurement, but there is another way not mentioned in the books. Place the bean leaflets, one from the open and one from the shade, upona slip of clean glass ina photographer’s printing frame, and over the two specimens lay a sheet of sensitized paper, and expose them to the sun. When the work is done you will have a print of each, but the thinner one from the shade will have recorded the fact in the darker print. In short, the sun will have made its own registration of its own penetrability. Nothing that has been named in the way of apparatus 1s expensive in the ordinary sense. Anyone who can afford to have a bicycle and keep it in repair is able to follow up the gestions. That a child of niné years can be interested in study of plants is certain, for it has been tested by the writer pe entire satisfaction. _ Rurcers COLLEGE, : New Brunswick, PO F ? is a ‘ e ; , BRIEFER ARIICGCI ES NOTES AND NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS EUPHORBIA. EUPHORBIA STICTOSPORA Engelm., Mex. Bound. Bot. 187. The following characters are drawn from the type. Involucral glands irregular, transverse, the fifth represented by a small lobe or absent; lobes triangular, hairy, the two flanking the deep EUPHORBIA STICIOSPORA AND VAR. TEXENSIS.* sulcus columnar ; appendages three-lobed, rudimentarily one-lobed, cre- nate, a mere semblance to an appendage, or entirely absent. Seeds pinkish-ashen, elongated-tetragonal, 1.4-1.5™" long, .5"" broad, section more triangular than tetrangular as the ventral angle is obscure, dorsal and lateral angles prominent, rounded, dorsal facets concave, the ven- *In the cuts the portions of plants and the leaves are natural size ; the involucres enlarged and diagrammatic, and the seeds enlarged. 1898 ] 265 266 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER tral convex, linea ventralis slight; surface marked with short and irregular interrupted rugae, not pitted. Type from Kansas, Fendler no. 789, co-types New Mexico, Santa Fé, fendler no. 797 and Dofia Ana, Wright no. 59 (omnia visa). The following specimens agree well with type: Colorado, Marcus E. Jones no. 786 (1878); Durango, Mexico, Dr. Edward Palmer no. 43 (1896), Bor. Gaz. 25:19, 1898 ; Chihuahua Mexico, C. G. Pringle no. 1076 (1886) and his Coahuila, Mexico, no. 80 (1885). Var. a. Texensis, var. nov.—Similar to the species in general habit, but less hairy and of looser growth, with longer internodes. Lobes of the involucre columnar, pseudolobe a deep sulcus with a long linear pseudo- gland at its fundus; appendages very narrow, entire, and generally pres- ent. Seeds bluish-ashen, strongly tetrangular, 1™™ long, .6"™" broad, the dorsal facets concave, the ventral plane, all marked by strong, sharp, transverse rugae, that show only a tendency to anastomosis and interruption. Texas, southern portion, altitude 1600-2000 ft., 4. A. Heller, nos. 1913, 1918 (1894). : EUPHORBIA COROLLATA L. In this species, the most showy of the eastern United States, there is almost unlimited form variation in the general appearance of the plants from different localities, among which those given below may be considered good varieties by strong and reproducing differences in their leaves and glandular appendages. Inall the forms and varieties the seeds maintain their full and distinctive characters ; they are white- cinereous, ovate-pyriform with a strong nipple-like tip, sub-globular in section, 2.5"" long, 2™™ broad, linea dorsalis a rounded evident keel, linea ventralis a dark evident groove, the surface marked with irregular, very shallow, pits. Sp. COROLLATA L., Ameen. Acad. 3:122.—Leaves sub-petiolate, spatulate oblong, glabrous, green both sides, 3 long, 2™ broad. Floral pedicels 4™™ long, strict and filiform; appendages oval, plane 3-7"" long, 2.1™ broad. Var. a. GRANDIFLORA Boiss., DC. Prod. 157: 67.— Leaves strongly sessile, lanceolate to narrow-lanceolate, glabrous, green both sides, 2.8™ long, 1.4™ broad, less veined than in the species. Floral pedicels 8™ long, strict and filiform, appendages broadly ovate, spreading and drooping, 3.3™" long, 4™ broad. 1898 ] BRIEFER ARTICLES 267 Var. B. SUBPETIOLATA Boiss., Joc. cit—I have not been able to - recognize this form. Var. y. PANICULATA (Ell.) Boiss., Joc. cit. (Z. paniculata Ell, Sk. 2:660.)— Leaves petiolulate, hairy at the petiole only, green above, paler beneath, ovate, 5.5 long, 3™ broad. Floral pedicels 3™" long, erect and sarcous appendages broadly oval, 1.6" long, 2” broad. EUPHORBIA COROLLATA AND FORMS. * Var. 8. ANGUSTIFOLIA EIll., Sk. 2:659.— Open and widely spread- ing, openly paniculate-branched above. Leaves sessile, linear, the margins revolute, dark green above, pale beneath, veins not evident, 2-2.3™ long, 3™™ broad. Floral pedicels filiform, ascending, 3-7" long ; appendages, ascending, oval 1.4" long, 1.7" Var. ¢. molle, var. nov.— Hairy throughout, 25™ high; root fusi- form : stems erect, denuded below, branches unbelliform, short, with leaves as on the stems: leaves petiolate, green above, pale green or lurid beneath, soft downy both sides but especially beneath, oblong ovate, 3.5™ long, 1.6™ broad, inflorescence solitary at the bifurcations, peduncles sarcous, 1.3-2.5°™ long ; involucres large ; appendages broad and generally partially incised into more or less equal lobes 2.2" long, 3-1™ broad. Alabama, Zarle & Baker no. 13 (1897 Var. ¢. glauca, var. nov.— Glabrous, 35-45™ bight: stems denuded below, branches unbelliform, nude except a single leaf at the base: ~ 268 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER | leaves sessile, pale above, glaucous beneath, strongly oval to ovate, few veined, 3 long, 1.6™ broad or smaller: inflorescence solitary at the bifurcations of the branchlets, peduncles filiform, 8™"-2™ long ; appendages drooping, broadly oval, 3.2™ long, 4™™ broad. Alabama, Dr. Vasey, 1880. Var. . Joori Norton, Rept. Mo. Bot. Gard., 9: 155. 1898.— Low, 10-14 high, branching from the base, glabrous or pubescent: leaves ovate or oblong, subpetiolate, 2.2 long, 8-1ro™™ broad : inflorescence sol- itary in the bifurcations of the upper branchlets, peduncles filiform, 1o- 25"" long; appendages elliptical, 3™™ long, 2™ broad. Milano, Texas, Dr. Joor. Var. 0. apocynifolia (Small). Luphorbia apocynifolia Small, Bull. Torr. Club 25 : 467. 1898.— Leaves oblong, tapering at the base into a hairy petiole 3-6™ long ; inflorescence open umbelliform, rays ascend- ing, wiry, dichotomous ; involucre small, globular-bell shaped, hairy in our specimens, glands roseate like those of vars. paniculata and angustt- folia; appendages 0.7 to 1™ long, 0.9 to 1.2™" broad, shaped like those of var. paniculata. This form manifestly connects var. angustifolia, through Pollard’s Mississippi 1289 (1896), with var. paniculata; it has no characters suf- ficiently prominent to consider it a species, while its seeds are not dis- tinguished from those of Z. corollata. Florida, Nash no. 2567 (1895), distributed as Z. corollata paniculata. . Euphorbia Nelsonii, sp. nov.— Fruticosa, glabra, longe et corymbose ramosa, ramis teretis, internodiis longis, cortex maculatis, macule oblongis roseus. Foliis inferioris fasciculatis, petioliis longis filamen- tosis, pagina tenuis ovato-cuneatis, obtusis, apiculatis, foliis floralibus Oppositis, orbiculatis petiolis limbum aequantis. Involucriis terminali- bus corymbosis, pedunculatis, campanulatis glabris, lobis latis truncatis irregulariter 6—8-fimbriatis, glandulis 5, transversis oblongis integris, ‘ appendicibus minutis vel nullus. Stylis longis revoluto-circinalis. Capsule luride profunde tri-sulcate, semine sub-globosis pallide-fuscis, scrobiculatis, linea media nigra geminatis, rugee anastomosantis tuber- culatis 2™ long, r.9™ lat. Ad Insula Maria Madre, Insule Tres Marie, Mexici, coll. E. W. Nelson m. Maius 1897, num. 4284. Internodii 1o—12™ long., petiolo 3-4.5™; pagina 1.5~2 long, 1.3-1.5% lat., prox. Z. petiolaria. Euphorbia Hellerii, sp. nov.— Glabra, caulibus pluries ascendentibus laxis foliatis, foliis alternatis spathulatis petiolulatis obtusis, umbelle 3- 1898] BRIEFER ARTICLES 269 radiate, radiis 2-tum 3-fidis, foliis plus minus carnosis e basi sessili orbiculatis cuneatis obtusis apiculatis integris. Involucris breviter tur- L i oes ries! : 11 ae : As mt) at i i ’ x , tenuissmus translucidis et laxis, lobis incurvis truncato-spatulatis, ad EUPHORBIA NELSONII. Dd apice fimbriatis, ad sinus minor et erectis, glandulis 4, bicornatis quintus, pseudolobis columnaro-fimbriatis in sinus involucris substitutere. Stylis recurviis as apice in lobis claveo-stigmatosis bifurcatis. Capsulz profunde trisulcatz coccis dorso-rotundato laevis. Semine laevis ciner- eus vel virido-cinereus, ovato in sectio triangulo-subsphaerico 1.7" long, 1.2™™ Jat., linea dorsalis notatis, caruncula conica tenuissima depressa. Ad Corpus Christi in ditione Texas. A. A. Heller, m. Martius, 1894, num. 1509. Folius ramulosis, 1.7 long., 6" lat., fol. radiis 6-8"™" long. et lat. Habitus £. Peple, sed. prox. £. multicaule. Symboli in herb. C. F. M., et herb. U. S. Nat. Mus., num. 213 et 921. EvupHorsia Hirsuta (Torr.) Wiegand.—In raising this form of £. Preslii Guss.? to a species in Bor. Gaz. 24: 49-52. p/. 3. (Britt. & Brown Illustr. Flora N. A. 3:518, fig. 2347@), Mr. K. M. Wiegand resurrects an old specific name, and adds one more synonym to the unfortunate American relative of that puzzling triune (?) Aypericifolia- 270 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OcTOBER freslit-nutans, the types of which have never been studied closely by any American. £. hirsuta Kit. ex Boiss. in DC. Prod. 15?:-116; and £. hirsuta Schur., Verh. Sieb. Ver. Nat. 4:66 are plants of a sec- tion far removed from Dr. Torrey’s £. hypericifolia var. hirsuta which, EUPHORBIA HELLERII. for the present, at least, it is better to let alone. Professor Greene noting this synonymizing of Mr. Wiegand (Pitt. 3: 207) adds one more name for good measure, &. Rafinesquit, and all because the good Linné did not mention the fact that his type of Z. hypericifolia was hairy! EupHorsia BrasiLiensis Lam.—In making up his Durango sets for distribution, Dr. Edward Palmer mixes this species with his £. Pres/it Guss.? under no. 894. The black seeded specimens are Z. Preslit, the cinereous ones Z. Brasiliensis.— Cuartes F. Mitispaucu, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago. JOSEPH F. JOOR: THE south has always been a land of peculiar botanical interest. Its vegetation, bordering on the tropical, many years ago attracted the “While working with Dr. Joor’s plants, purchased by the Missouri Botanical - 1898] BRIEFER ARTICLES 271 attention of the pioneers of American botany. Since those times, except for the work of a few, the south has been much neglected. Scientific and other educational work was broken into by the war, and since then there has been little to excite botanical activity, except natural love for the work, and the inspiration of the rich flora. It was in this land, and under these conditions, that the subject of this sketch spent his active, but unassuming life as a botanist and collector. Joseph F. Joor was born on the Comite river in East Baton Rouge parish, Louisiana, on August 9, 1848. His parents removed to Illinois when he was quite young, where, as a boy, his botanical tastes were Garden, I collected all the notes regarding him and his work that could be found with the specimens. Thinking it would be of some value, I have since completed this sketch of his life by the aid of Mrs. Joor anda number of botanists and other scientific men who knew him. To these I am indebted for the facts presented. 272 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER developed. Each holiday and Saturday when free from school duties he might be found engaged in his favorite study, wandering over the Illinois prairies. His Latin teacher, one of that honored class of botanist physicians to whom we owe most of the early botanical work of this country, assisted him much in his botanical recreations. In 1865 his parents returned to Baton Rouge, where he continued his studies under the tutorship of Professor McGruder, but soon after- ward left school to enter a drug store in Baton Rouge, where he began to read medicine, and soon surprised his preceptor, Dr. Day, by the rapidity with which he acquired knowledge. He was soon a resident student in the Charity Hospital of New Orleans, and in the New Orleans School of Medicine, graduating in 1870, when he was only a little over twenty-one years old, and receiving an offer of an assistant professorship in his alma mater. Dr. Joor’s duties were to begin the following autumn, but the disastrous end of a law suit, which closely concerned the college, resulted in closing its doors forever. Through these years of hard study the young physician by no means lost his interest in botany, but kept adding collections from the southern flora to those made in Illinois. In October 1870, Dr. Joor obtained the position of Assistant Quarantine Surgeon at Ship Island Station. Here and at other places along the Gulf coast the rich flora so attracted him that he sometimes even endangered his life to obtain desirable plants. His health, broken down by study, was much restored by this outdoor life, and he soon entered into private practice in Thibodeaux, Louisiana. In 1873 we find our physician-botanist practicing his profession on the Texas prairies in the midst of the rich flora of eastern Texas, first at Harrisburg and then at Birdston. Here, when Nealley was collecting grasses in Texas, they met and were together at every Opportunity in their work. But the life of a practicing physician on the plains was too much for his naturally weak constitution, and for years he was hindered by severe illness from carrying on his work. In preparation for the World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition at New Orleans in 1884-5, Dr. Joor was appointed Assistant Commissioner for Texas to prepare an exhibit of woods and other plants from that state. At the close of the Exposition, where he had charge of the collection he had made, Dr. Joor prepared the woods for a permanent exhibit at the state capital, where they now are. At the same time a smaller collection was made for the Geo- } 1898] ; BRIEFER AKTICLES 273 logical and Scientific Association at Houston, of which he was a member. In the preparation of the New Orleans exhibit he traveled much in Texas and Louisiana, adding at the same time to his private collections and much improving his health. At the Exposition he met a number of botanists whom he had known before only by corres- pondence, and was especially delighted’ to meet Dr. Vasey, who went in search of him. They both had a common interest in the southern grasses then, and the inspiration of this meeting renewed Dr. Joor’s activity in that direction. It is said that at this time he probably had a better field knowledge of Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, than anyone else. The next year Dr. Joor was appointed Commissioner of Forestry in his native state, but soon accepted a position in Tulane University at New Orleans, and in October 1888, assumed charge of the Museum there as Assistant Curator. He spent much time arranging and enlarging the neglected herbarium of the institution, which already contained the collections of Hale, RiddeH, and Carpenter. Dr. Joor increased it much by exchanges and additions from his own herbarium. Three months later he was elected Professor of Botany. As there were no classes he never taught in the University, but is said to have taught some botanical classes in the New Orleans high school. He held the position at Tulane until death ended his labors, July 25, 1892, at the age of forty-four. Though Dr. Joor.was naturally retiring, he inspired in those who knew him that regard for himself and his favorite study which the true student of nature always does. He was a close observer and an intensely enthusiastic collector, but had no means of describing the new things he discovered. ‘ Very little from his pen has ever been published. A single paper, “Forests and Climate,” in “Papers read before the New Orleans Academy of Science,” 1: 72—80, 1887, is the only one I have seen. He is said to have published an article in the Medical Record concerning a supposed medicinal tree in Louisiana with which he had experimented ; and also one in the Texas Farm and Ranch discussing a plant being sold in Texas as the tea plant. Reports of his work in connection with the Exposition were prepared, but I cannot find that they were ever published. He long contemplated publishing a flora of Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, the lists of plants having been 274 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ OCTOBER prepared in manuscript, but his enthusiasm was far greater than his strength and resources. With very few facilities for successful botanical work, and a weak physical constitution, he was compelled in discourage- ment to give up this large undertaking. Dr. Joor’s herbarium, which is the main record of his work, is not large, but is rich in specimens from the region where his life was spent. It is especially valuable because from that part of the south not well known to botanists, and covered by none of our manuals, A part of his collections, as before stated, were incorporated into the herbarium of Tulane University when he was connected with it. The rest were purchased from Mrs. Joor in 1897 by the Missouri Botanical Garden. Most of the collections were made about New Orleans and Baton Rouge, Galveston bay, and other parts of Harris county, Texas, where he lived, and in Navarro and adjoining counties when he lived at Birdston, with occasional excursions into other parts of the south. In the last year of his life he spent several weeks along the Mississippi gulf coast, making large collections and preparing a list of the plants of that region. His herbarium was also enriched by the collections of botanical friends and others in whom his own devotion had inspired an interest in plants. Dr. Joor was a correspondent of Vasey, Engel- mann, Mohr, Chapman, and other botanists of this country. He was the first collector of several new southern plants. Though he described none himself, his herbarium notes show that some afterward described by others were recognized by him as new. Among others of which he was the first discoverer, Panicum Joortt Vasey, Carex Joorit Bailey, Barbula Jooriana Miiller, and Euphorbia corollata Joorii Norton, bear his name.—J. B. S. Norton, Missouri Botanical Garden. FOUR GENERATIONS OF BOTANISTS IN ONE FAMILY. Ir is seldom that the names of more than one generation of a family appear in connection with any one branch of scientific research. The history of science appears to show that genius or ability is not handed down, at least to any remarkable degree, in most families from one generation to another. Asa general thing the pursuit of science is not lucrative enough to keep more than one generation from becom- ing paupers, and even where there is some wealth and ability the suc- 1898 ] BRIEFER ARTICLES 275 ceeding generation, as a rule, is not fortunate enough to inherit the characteristic traits necessary to follow the calling of its predecessors. However, exceptions occur where similar traits have shown themselves in a decided manner for more than one generation in a single family. Among these may be mentioned the Darwin and Schimper families, and the DeCandolle family offers one of the most striking illustrations. Indeed, the history of science scarcely shows another name represent- ing so many illustrious and able workers in one family, devoting them- selves to one branch of science. It was my fortune to stop a few days at Geneva during the summer . Of 1896, where I had the pleasure of spending some delightful and profitable hours with the DeCandolle family. The family is one of the oldest as well as one of the most highly esteemed in Geneva, having fled from Provence to Geneva in the year 1591, where they have been held in esteem for many years as public spirited and highly accom- plished citizens. Augustin-Pyrame De Candolle is known to botanists as a rare genius, who accomplished a prodigious amount of work, and who left behind him a name second only to that of Linnaeus. The charming traits which this renowned botanist is said to have possessed are known only to the younger generation of botanists through his memoirs. However, these traits are quite readily realized by those who have met the present members of the family. It is not my intention to mention the various works of the elder DeCandolle or of those of his son Alphonse, as such an enumeration would be quite unnecessary. The name of Casimir DeCandolle, the son of Alphonse, has also long been familiar to American botanists, but the name of his youngest son Augustin, who is now devoting his attention to botany, is probably not familiar on this side of the Atlantic. M. Augustin DeCandolle, who now represents the fourth botanical generation in this family, and who bears the name of his illustrious great-grandfather, is about 27 or 28 years old, and was born and edu- cated in England, which was formerly the home of his mother. He studied a number of years at Rugby, and after finishing his course there he spent a year at Heidelberg, going from there to the University of Leipzig, where he took a course in jurisprudence. Although he did not take the university course in botany while at Leipzig, his interest in the subject was quite marked, and his oppor- 276 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER tunities and associations were always such that he naturally acquired a considerable knowledge of this subject. Since his return from Leipzig he has spent most of his time assist- ing his father at the herbarium in Geneva, besides carrying on some original work along histological lines, some of the results of which have already appeared as abstracts in the Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles, of Geneva. M. Augustin DeCandolle occupies a villa pleasantly situated in the suburbs of Geneva, which also includes about sixty acres of land; while that of his father is on the shores of Lake Geneva, near Versoix, and about ten or twenty minutes’ ride from Geneva. Both residences are provided with greenhouses and gardens. One of the most interesting features connected with Geneva for a’ botanist, however, is the herbarium and library which is contained in the old DeCandolle homestead at Cour de St. Pierre, and which was formerly occupied by the elder DeCandolle. The building is situated in the older parts of the city, and is not far from the University and Botanical Gardens, which were laid out by the elder DeCandolle; and here is to be seen avery good life-size statue of its founder. The herbarium and library and working rooms occupy the upper stories, and, with the exception of the large number of cases which have been added, the rooms are just as they were when occupied for residence by the elder DeCandolle. Here one can not only find interest in the large herbarium, but he will find the rarest and most valuable collection of old botanical books © in existence. The library contains many other interesting features, such as photographs and autographs of nearly all the botanists the DeCandolles have known. It contains also all the prominent periodi- cals and recent botanical literature of various countries up to date. The expense of maintaining the herbarium and library is met entirely by the DeCandolles. It is the desire of M. Casimir DeCandolle to _ make the library as complete as possible, and he is always pleased to receive contributions from American botanists. New plants are continually being added to the herbarium, which are placed in the general collection. The special collection relating to the Prodromus is kept by itself. As this work is of considerable consequence, an experienced curator is employed to look after it, sci with the many details connected with the ever increasing ibrary. 1898] BRIEFER ARTICLES 277 It is here that Casimir DeCandolle and his son Augustin do their botanical work, and although the library and collection is a private one, the keeping up of which involves considerable expense, they are always willing to have other botanists avail themselves of any appoint- ments which the large collection offers. M. Casimir DeCandolle speaks English fluently, and his intense interest in all matters pertaining to botany, and his characteristic modesty, together with his exceedingly broad and comprehensive knowl- edge, afford astriking contrast to what one often meets in other parts of the continent. As in the case of the other DeCandolles, he has con- tributed to every department of botany. We find the name associated not only with an enormous amount of systematic investigation, but also with the physiology, histology, morphology and aad of plants.— G. E. Stone, Mass. Agric. College, Amherst. SOME RESULTS FROM THE STUDY OF ALLIUM. DurING the summer of 1897, at the University of Chicago, I began a morphological investigation of certain species of Allium, being attracted chiefly by the often quoted polyembryony of A. ¢ricoccum Ait. My results in the case of this species indicate that if polyembryony occurs at all, it is very rare. Besides A. ¢ricoccum, | examined more or less thoroughly A. cernuum Roth, and A. Canadense Kalm, with the same general result. Seventy-five embryo-sacs of A. ¢ricoccum were examined at the stage in which both egg apparatus and antipodal cells ought to have been found. The egg apparatus was found in seventy of them, and the appearance of the sacs in which it was not found would indicate that it had been lost by accident, as all other structures were normal. Of the seventy-five sacs, only sixteen contained antip- odal cells, and these antipodal cells were usually small, and it was seldom that more than one or two could be found. In one sac there were three antipodal cells in a row, but in other cases where three were found they were crowded together irregularly. Wherever antip- odal cells were found, they had a shriveled, dead appearance, and Stained with difficulty or not at all. Twenty-six embryos were examined, all of which had developed from the egg cell. No trace of antipodal cells could be found in any sac in which the embryo had begun to develop. 278 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER The results from A. cernuum were nearly the same as for A. ¢ricoc- cum. Ninety-five embryo sacs were examined in the eight-celled stage. The egg apparatus was found in all of them, while antipodal cells were found in only twenty-nine; and, as in A. ¢ricoccum, these were invari- ably small, and apparently about to disappear. It was seldom that more than one or two could be found. Of the ninety-five specimens, thirty were collected on or after August 16, and no trace of antipodal cells could be found in any of these. Fifteen embryos were examined, all of which were normal in position and number. No antipodal cells were present in any sacs in which the embryo had begun to develop. My collection of A. Canadense was made from a patch covering about half an acre, at West Pullman, Illinois. In nearly every speci- men the nucellus had died long before the stage when fertilization might have taken place; and later in the season it was found that only six embryos had developed from the whole patch in which there had been thousands of blossoms. All of these embryos, however, were in the normal position. Since in A. fricoccum only about 21 per cent., and in A. cernuum about 30 per cent. of the sacs examined contained antipodal cells, and these cells in all cases were small and not found at all except in the earlier stages, the development of embryos by antipodal cells in these Species seems very doubtful CLARENCE J. E_tmore, Crete, Vebraska. OPEN LEti Go, THE AMERICAN BOTANIST. UNDER THE TITLE of “The American Botanist, vol. I, no. 1” a four- page octavo leaflet was issued September 15, 1896. While no place of publication is stated, the editor of this newly launched periodical gives his temporary address as the Gray Herbarium, Cambridge, Mass. It is true that he has received such facilities of reference to books and specimens as are usually accorded to visiting botanists, but to prevent a possible misunder- standing, it seems necessary to state that his publication has no official con- nection whatever with this establishment.—B. L. Ropinson, Curator of Gray erbartum. ESCHSCHOLTZIA MEXICANA-PARVULA. ESCHSCHOLTZIA finds its extreme eastern limit in the Organ mountains of New Mexico, and the adjacent region about El Paso. The pretty little species there found, which I have had occasion to study in connection with its bee-visitors, is commonly known as £. Mexicana Greene, Bull. Cal. Ac. Sci. 1 : 69. 1885. 1 want to know why it is not to be designated Z. farvuda (A. Gray), for it is assuredly the £. Douglasii var. parvula Gray, Plante Wrightiane 2: 10. 1853. The few words of description given by Gray, with the locality, readily identify the plant. There is no other parvuda of prior date. Is it not just a little absurd to refuse to recognize a name fora species, because first applied in a varietal sense? Such a course seems hardly to accord with a Darwinian conception of species, nor is it supported by the codes of nomenclature. : Another principle which is generally recognized, in zoology at any rate, is that the specific name must be at least as old as the names applied to vari- eties of the species. Thus it will sometimes happen that the type form of a species is by no means the commonest form ; it may be quite a rare variety. On Darwinian grounds I see no objection to this, as the oldest (and therefore true) type of a variable species is hard to ascertain, and the probabilities are perhaps against its being the most common. It follows from the above that Philibertella Hartwegii (Vail, 1897) hetero- phylia (Engelm., 1856-7), as given in Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 24 : 308. 1897, will not do, The species must stand as Philibertella heterophylla (Engelm.), and the Hartwegii form, if properly belonging to the same species, can be treated as a variety.—T. D. A. CocKERELL, Mesilla Park, NLM. 1898] CURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REVIEWS. Plant Life.* THIs is the suggestive title of a new text-book of elementary botany, for its standpoint is function rather than structure. There can be no question as to the usefulness of the book, and as to its value as a contribution to our: botanical texts. The style is clear and simple; the presentation is very logical; and many things are said which needed to be said. Teachers apart from the universities are in constant danger of holding to abandoned views, and a book is needed now and then to bring a rapidly developing subject up to date. The book before us has done this service admirably, and its four parts present a clear elementary statement of present views of the vegetative body, physiology, reproduction, and ecology. This division of the subject enables the author to present these great subjects continuously, without breaking them up into fragments, and the comparative view thus becomes very promi- nent. Only less commendable is the comparative and separate presentation of vegetative and sexual reproduction, which are in great danger of being con- fused in elementary instruction. In this part it was necessary to adopt some consistent terminology. How successful the author’s suggestions will prove remains to be seen ; they certainly could not be simpler. Five appendices give information as to laboratory study, collecting and preserving material, apparatus and reagents, reference books, and an outline of classification, signori Cartes Rer.—Plant life, considered with special reference to form and function. Pp. x + 428, with frontispiece and 415 figures. New York: Henry Holt & Co. $1.12, 280 [ocToBER 1898} CURRENT LITERATURE 281 However admirable the book may be as a general statement of the essen- tial facts of botany, it will suggest criticisms from the standpoint of teaching, The most important of these the author has forestalled by stating that “ this is not a book to be recited.’”’ In the text the same plant is discussed several times under different headings, a method that would not commend itself either for recitation or for laboratory work, but in the directions for labora- tory work all the essential structures are called for while each plant is in hand. It is very evident, therefore, that the intelligent teacher is to use the book for assigned readings suitable to the material under examination in the laboratory and supplementary to it. It is hard for some teachers to get away from the idea of the recitation of consecutive pages Another criticism will be that the book is better designed for schools as they ought to be, than for schools as they are. The author practically con- fesses that he is writing for a somewhat ideal condition, and probably he is ; certainly for a condition less realized in the east than in the west, where ele- mentary instruction in science is so much further advanced. However, it is a matter of doubt to the reviewer whether any but the exceptional secondary schools will ever be able to do completely such morphological work as this book calls for; and also whether it is the most desirable work for them, handi- capped as they are by lack of equipment, time, and age. First impressions must be correct, but it may not be necessary to include at first recondite things even if they are essential. There cannot be too much of ecology and physiology in elementary work, but it has seemed to the reviewer that recon- dite morphological structures are in danger of being pressed too far with ele- mentary students.— J. M. C The Illustrated Flora.’ WirH the appearance of the third volume this important work is com- plete, and the authors should be eh ae eR, its prompt publication, the first volume having appeared in 1896. ine one wal peprees 70° GAZETTE 22:269. 1896, volume two in 24: 120. 1897, and little need be added in reference to the present volume, which contains the great sympetal-" ous families. Use of the work has proved its adaptation to the needs of those who wish to determine plants, and it should certainly find a place in the library of all interested in taxonomy. When it is remembered that 4162 species are described and illustrated, representing 177 families and 1103 genera, it is surprising that the illustrations are so well done. The present volume, in an appendix, adds the descriptions and illustrations of eighty-one 2Brr , NATHANIEL Lorp, and Brown, Appison.—An illustrated flora of the Notting ities States, Canada and the British Possessions. In three — Vol. III. Apocynacese to Composite. 8vo. pp. xiv-+ 588, fully illustrated. New _ York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. $3.00. 282 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER species, mostly western, which are new determinations or new discoveries made while the work was going through the press. Certain special features of the volume deserve mention, such as a gen- eral key to the orders and families, a glossary of special terms, a general index of Latin names with very full synonymy, and an English index includ- ing popular plant names. This last is the completest compilation of Ameri- can plant names hitherto published, containing about 10,000 names, and over 12,000 references to the illustrations. It will be remembered that the territory covered by the work extends from Newfoundland to the parallel of the southern boundary of Virginia, and from the Atlantic ocean westward to the 102d meridian, a territory extend- ing somewhat further to the north and west than that covered by the sixth edition of Gray’s Manual. A comparison of the number of species of spermatophytes recognized by the two is interesting, and is shown in the following table : Gymnos, Monocot Archichlam. Sympet. Total Manual 22 785 1226 1022 3055 Ill. Flora 27 1058 1601 1361 4048 This difference of a thousand species is explained partly by the more extensive range of the ///ustrated Flora, but is most largely due to a differ- ent conception of species. The two works may be considered as comple- mentary, and both are very useful.— J. M. C Report of Missouri Botanical Garden. THE ninth annual report of this very active establishment was issued last March, and continues its valuable contributions, chiefly to taxonomy. Thomp- son's paper on Lemnacez has already been noticed in the GAZETTE (24! 440. 1897). The other papers are as follows: Beek GLATFELTER, N. M.: “ Notes on Sadix dongipfes Shuttlw. and its rela- tions to S. migra Marsh.,”’ in which the author attempts to prove their title _to be considered distinct species. 2. IntsH, H. C.: “A revision of the genus Capsicum with especial refer- ence to garden varieties.” . This is really the completion of work undertaken by the late Dr. E. L. Sturtevant, for which he collected a great amount of material and literature, all of which with his drawings, notes, etc., were given to the Missouri Botanical Garden in 1892. The work was further prosecuted by F. W. Dewart and then by J. G. Smith, and finally, in 1896, was under taken by Mr, Irish. The last revision of the genus was that of Dunal in 1852, in which fifty species were recognized ; and but three new species have 1898 } CURRENT LITERATURE 283 been described since. The /udex Kewensis cites about ninety specific names, and recognizes fifty-four as good. Students of the genus have long suspected that most of the so-called species are but forms of a few exceed- ingly variable species, and Mr. Irish has reached the conclusion that there are but two species, C. ammuum and C. /frutescens, the one annual or biennial, the other perennial. He has preserved the well-fixed types of cul- tivated forms as botanical varieties. Twenty-one plates fully illustrate the paper, which is a remarkable piece of patient work in a very perplexing subject. 3. HiTcHcock, ALBERT S.: “List of cryptogams collected in the Bahamas, Jamaica, and Grand Cayman.” These collections were made the winter of 1890-1, and a list of the spermatophytes and pteridophytes was published in the fourth annual report of the Garden. The list of crypto- gams contains seventy-three species, some of them new, and all determined by specialists in the several groups. OSE, J. N.: “ Agave Washingtonensis and other agaves flowering in the Washington Botanic Garden in 1897.” The large collection of agaves in the Botanic Garden at Washington has never been critically studied, and promises to contain several undescribed species, one of which Mr. Rose and J. G. Baker describe and figure in the present paper. 5. THOMPSON, CHARLES HENRY: “ The species of Cacti commonly cul- tivated under the generic name Anhalonium.” Mr. Thompson has done good service in supplying full notes and excellent photographs of living plants of these disputed forms. He regards the group as consisting of two genera, Ariocarpus Scheidw. (Anhalonium Lem.) and Lophophora Coulter. The report closes with a series of ‘‘ Notes and observations ”’ as follows : “ The Epidendrum venosum of Florida,” by W. Trelease, with full descrip- tion and two plates; “ Miscellaneous observations on Yucca,” by W. Tre- lease, with four plates; “The Missouri dogbanes,” by W. Trelease, with two plates ; “ A coloring matter found in some Borraginacez,” by J. B.S. ae “Notes on some plants chiefly from the southern United States,” by J. B Norton, with five plates and three new species; “A new disease of mee vated palms,” ce W. Trelease ; and “ Parmelia molliuscula,” by Henry Willey.— J. M The flora of Africa. THE activity, not to say rivalry, displayed by taxonomists of Belgium, England, France, and Germany in the publication of the African flora is remarkable. The book before us? is a Belgian contribution, the first part bee TH. ed ste Me HANS: Conaperctas Flore Africe. Vol. I, part 2. eae 8vo. pp. 268. Berlin: R. Friedlander and Soha: Paris : Paul Klincksieck. /7. 12.50 284 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER - of which (Vol. V), containing monocotyledons and gymnosperms, appeared in 1895, 4nd was noticed briefly in the GAZETTE (20: 278. 1895). The long delay in the appearance of a second part was due to various reasons, but has had its advantages in permitting the authors to include the results of the recent extraordinary activity in the study of the African flora. As the present volume has been in process of publication since 1895, the authors have Wisely indicated the date of publication of the different parts of the volume, extending from October 1895 to April 1898. The work is not descriptive, but is simply a catalogue of described species, with bibliograph- ical citations, synonymy, distribution, and occasional critical notes. The work will be complete in six volumes of about 500 pages each.— J. M. A new botanical text. A RECENT French work,+ which is a valuable contribution to botanical texts, iS that of Professor L. Courchet, of the School of Pharmacy at Mont- pellier- The author purposes only to write a treatise for the use of students in the Professional schools of France, which seem to demand mainly work with spermatophytes. The first part is devoted to the general morphology (in the old sense) of spermatophytes, and a second much larger part to a systematic description of the natural families. The most striking feature is the unusual space given to the dicotyledons, a proportionate space unequaled in any English text we have seen. Thallophytes are given 130 pages of amply illus- trated text, to bryophytes are allotted 12, pteridophytes are presented in 44 pages, While spermatophytes occupy 1540 pages, 1356 of which are devoted to the dicotyledons. Such a distribution of space in a general text must make the plant kingdom seem like a huge mushroom to the observing stu- dent. The text throughout is accompanied by good illustrations, and the keys and summaries which accompany each family are worked out with great completeness.— J. G. COULTER. The study of lichens. ‘THIS group has few special students in America, and certainly receives but little attention from amateurs. As lichens are found almost everywhere, they would speedily attract collectors and students if some suitable book were provided as an introduction. Such a book Dr. Schneiders has prepared, stating that it “is especially written and arranged for the use of amateurs in the study of lichens.” Just how useful it will prove remains to be seen, but we wish it all the success that its purpose deserves. The author’s general 4COURCHET, L.— Traité de Botanique. 2 vols. 8 vo. pp. viii +1320. figs: 5/# Paris: J. 8, Bailliere et fils. 1897. /r. 12. SSCHNEIDER, ALBERT.—A guide to the study of lichens. Small 8vo. pp- xii + 234, pl. 47, Boston: Bradlee Whidden. 1898. 1898 } CURRENT LITERATURE 285 views in reference to lichens were fully stated in a review of his Zexrt-do00k of general lichenology, published in the GAZETTE (25 : 284. 1898), and there is no need to repeat them here. On account of existing difficulties of nomen- clature, the author omits all citation of authorities, stating that “the names given are well authenticated, so that those who have the desire and the oppor- clature controversy.” A selection is made of the more common forms of lichens occurring in the United States, those with which the collector is most likely to come in contact. The first part of the book discusses lichens in general, under such head- ings as “The history of lichenology,” “The use of lichens,” “ What are lichens,” “The morphology and physiology of lichens,” “ The occurrence and distribution of lichens,” and “Lichens and the naturalist,” under which last title directions for collection, study, and preservation are given. The second part is devoted to the systematic presentation of the group, an artificial key being provided for the more important genera, and a natural key for the families. A check list of lichens occurring in the United States is also given, useful to those who wish to make exchanges or to get some knowl- edge of the extent of the group and its various genera.— J. M. C. MINOR NOTICES. A NEAT MANUAL of seventy-nine pages and half a hundred cuts has been recently issued by W. Edgar Taylor, professor of biology in the Louisiana Industrial Institute, for the use of his classes. The printing was done and many of the drawings were made by pupils of the school, and the result is creditable. It is intended solely to meet local needs, including lessened cost to the pupils, and, although in book form, is of the nature of extended labora- tory notes. It goes over the ground of the cryptogamous plants and uni- cellular animals, with an introduction on the cell.—J. C. A. Justenia, and Chalazocarpus) and fifty-eight new species being described. The only other new genus is Campylochiton (Combretacez).— J. M. A LITTLE BOOK before us by Clarence Moores Weed, entitled Seed travel- ders, has been prepared as a supplementary reader in connection with nature 286 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER study in the schools. The author recommends “that this little book be used in connection with observations upon the specimens treated of; that the studies be read by the individual pupils, either with the objects in hand or for the purpose of inciting them to search for the specimens. .... It m then be advisable, after most of parts have been read, to review the wie subject by having the pupils begin at the first of the book = read it through SAPP high with or without studying the objects again.” With this purpose mind the author has described the way in which the wind and birds act as dieters of seed. He has, also, very briefly shown the method of seed distribution by spines and hooks. The book is attractively written and is accu- rate as to its facts. The illustrations, as a whole, are fairly good, but are very unequal in quality. The style is not always simple, but the book gener- ally will be quite intelligible to children. This is an addition to the list of available nature readers, and as such is to be warmly welcomed.—C. R. B. THE GENUS Cyclamen has been studied by Dr. Friedrich Hildebrand, whose results have recently been published.? The necessity of associating ecologic and taxonomic studies is becoming more and more apparent, and the monograph before us is a worthy type of the most effective method of investi- gating plant groups. The genus was very favorable for such study, contain- Ing only thirteen species, and all of them accessible, being restricted to the ‘ Mediterranean region. In the disentanglement of herbarium material and literature, the author has found sufficient names already provided, except in the case of C. alpinum. It is the so-called “ biological’ part, however, that is of chief interest, and that deserves especial commendation to our tax- onomists. Any adequate review would mean a synopsis of the work.—J. M. THE SERIES of classics in various exact sciences, which are being pub- lished by Engelmann, has been enriched by the addition of no. 95, which includes four papers by Ernst von Briicke.2 These papers are as follows: I, Bluten des Rebstockes; II, Bewegungen der Mimosa pudica (1848) ; Il, Elementarorganismen (1861); IV, Brennhaare von Urtica. All these papers are interesting, especially to show how at an early period in the study of plant physiology exact and careful experimentation led to well-founded and stable results. Probably the best known of the four papers is the second one, which Sachs calls a model of accurate experimentation and clear presentation. Briicke was trained for medicine, and in 1843 became an assistant in the Museum of Comparative Anatomy through his relations with Johannes Miller. ° WEED, CLARENCE MoorEs.— Seed travellers : study of methods of distribution of various common seeds. 12mo. pp: vii 53, fgs. 36. Boston: Ginn & Co. 1599- 7 HILDEBRAND, Dr. FRIEDRICH. — Die Gites Cyclamen L., eine systematische und ene goto ae pp. 190. fl. 6. Jena: Gustav Fischer. 1898. 4. 8. ®Ostwald’s Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften no. 95. Physiologische Abhandlungen. 12mo. pp. 86. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1898. 4/. 1.40. * a 1898 | CURRENT LITERATURE 287 Shortly he turned his attention to physiology, and was soon made associate pro- fessor at Koénigsberg. In 1849 he was called to the professorship of physi- ology in Vienna. Here he remained to his seventieth year as teacher and indefatigable investigator, surrounded by numerous pupils, who were inspired by his vigor and enthusiam. In 1889 he retired from active work, and died in 1892. His industry and success are somewhat indicated by the long list of scientific papers —one hundred and thirty —which he published.—C. R. B. NOTES FOR STUDENTS. A THIRD ARTICLE, by the colonial botanist, F. M. Bailey, enumerating the fresh-water algze of Queensland, is issued as Botany Bulletin XV by the Queensland Department of Agriculture. The thirty-eight pages are accom- panied by seventeen excellent plates from pen drawings.—]J. C. A. ITEMS OF TAXONOMIC interest are as follows: In the last fascicle of Pittonia (3: 329-344. 1898) Professor Greene continues his descriptions of new species of Convolvulus, nine of which are described ; proposes four new species of Canadian violets, from Macoun collections; and describes a fascicle of new labiates, thirteen in number.—S. B. Parish has begun in Erythea (6:85-92. 1898) a series of important papers on new or little known plants of southern California. The first one discusses about fifty plants, describing five new species and six new varieties.— J. M. C. A NEW SPECIES of Pleodorina, P. ///inozsensis, is described by C. A. Kofoid in a recent Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural His- tory, and illustrated with two plates showing form and development. Com- parisons are made with P. Ca/ifornica, now known from Indiana and Illinois as well as California. It is also pointed out that there are some reasons for thinking that the new form may be only a stage in the development of Eudorina, probably of £. e/egans. We note an omission in the bibliography of the article by Severance Burrage on ‘A new station for Pleodorina Cali- fornica” in Proc. Ind. Acad. 1895: 99—I100.—J. C. A. AT A RECENT meeting of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in agente Dr. Wilhelm Figdor, assistant in the institute for plant physiology o. University of Vienna, read a paper entitled “Investigations upon ee nomena of sap pressure (Blutungsdruckes) in the tropics. « A summery - his results is translated from the Osterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift 48: 359. 1898. ; “1. In the tropics in contrast with the prevalent relations in our latitudes, there is always a positive sap pressure, which shows a very dilterenk SeneTy in the various plants observed. . ms “2. The amount of sap pressure attained in general is two or three times 288 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | OCTOBER as great as with us. The strongest pressure observed was somewhat more than eight atmospheres in Schzzolobitum excelsum Vog. “3, The sap pressure varies, often very markedly, in one and the same plant within twenty-four hours. This phenomenon cannot be ascribed to daily periodicity alone, but must be referred to the influence of external factors, especially to the transpiration, which even in the tropics, is very copious."’— C. R. B. PROFESSOR WIESNER presented at the June meeting of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna a memoir entitled “Contributions to the knowledge of the photo-chemical climate in Arctic regions.’’ His results (translated from Osterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift 48:360. 1898) are as follows : “1, In high northern regions (Advent bay, Tromsé) the chemical intensity of the total daylight, with equal elevation of the sun and equal cloudiness, . is greater than in Vienna and Cairo, but less than in Buitenzorg, Java. At rondhjem the same is true, but with a considerably greater approximation to the conditions at Vienna. “2, With a completely overcast sky, the intensity of the light was observed to increase much more regularly with the height of the sun at Advent bay than in any other vegetation region observed. “3. At Advent bay with equal elevation of the sun and equal cloudiness, the chemical intensity of light in the morning and afternoon were nearly equal; however, in most cases the afternoon intensity is somewhat greater than the morning. “4, The greatest intensity of the total daylight and the diffuse light is to be observed in all regions upon a vertical surface, which faces the sun; the smallest upon the opposite vertical surface. The intensity upon the inter- mediate planes lies somewhere between that of the first two. “5. Even with a completely clear sky, the distribution of the light inten- sity upon the illuminated vertical plane is not completely symmetrical. 6, With increasing elevation of the sun, the direct light (Vorderlicht, bt5 the average light falling upon the vertical plane) in comparison with the sky light (Oder/icht, 7. e., the total daylight measured upon a horizontal plane) diminishes. In Advent bay at the beginning of August, the ratio of the direct light to the skylight is as 1:1.5-2.2, whereas in Vienna in May this ratio may exceed 1:4. “7. For days of equal elevation of the sun at midday the daylight totals in Arctic regions are considerably greater than in temperate latitudes. At the beginning of August the average daylight total at Advent bay is about two and one-half times greater than on similar days in Vienna (at the begin- ning of November and February). “8. The light climate of the high northern vegetation region is charac- TS ASE RSS eA i er 1898 ] CURRENT LITERATURE 289 terized by a relatively greater uniformity of light intensity than is attained in any other vegetation region. This great uniformity expresses itself first in the low maxima and the high minima of the intensity of the total daylight, which again is dependent upon the course of the daily position of the sun, The daylight totals rise from spring to summer in the high Arctic regions much more slowly, and fall from summer to autumn much more slowly, than in temperate latitudes. Besides, the intensity of the direct light (Vorder/icht) in the north is nearer to that of the sky light (Oderdich¢) than in other regions. The strength of the light, with complete cloudiness, increases with increasing elevation of the sun in no other region so uniformly as in the Arctic. Finally, the fact that the midnights of the north are most strongly, and those of the south most weakly, illuminated contributes to the uniformity of light intensity. : ‘“‘g, The observations made at Advent bay establish the point already made by the author, that the share of the total light which plants obtain is greater the smaller the intensity of the total light is; of course, except in those regions in which the rays of the sun actually retard the development of plants (steppes and deserts). The greatest amount of the total light is light excludes any self-shading of plants (z. ¢., by their own leaves) in extreme northern regions, and in the neighboring southern regions (¢. g., in Hammerfest) only a minimal (physiological) branching of woody plants is possible.” A later memoir will concern itself with the connection of the climate thu described with the character of the vegetation.—C. R. B analogy in the culture of molds. Mr. Susuki’s full paper will be published in the bulletin of the Agricultural College of Tokyo.—C. R. B. IN GENERAL STYLE, Mr. F. N. Williams’ recently issued Revision of the genus Arenaria® is not unlike his synoptic treatment of Silene, already noticed in these pages. Arenaria, however, is from its nature capable of more satisfactory division into subgenera and sections than Silene, and Mr. Williams seems also to have made a somewhat more detailed statement of the minor varieties and forms than in his earlier paper. He limits the _ aioe Arenaria to the species which have estrophiolate seeds and divided or biden- tate capsule-valves, thereby ‘excluding Alsine, Mcehringia, Honkenya, etc. But, even as thus restricted, Arenaria includes the following reduced eid Alsinella S. F. Gray, Bigelowia Raf., Brachystemma Don, Brewerina A. *Journal of Linnean Society 33 : 326-437. 1898. 2g0 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER ied Dolophragina Fenzl, Dufourea Gren., Eremogone Fenzl, Euthalia Rupr., obill. & Cast., Leptophyllum Ehrh., Lepyrodiclis Fenzl, Odontos- to show the widely divergent views which have been held as to the generic limitations of the group. Mr. Williams recognizes seven subgenera of which the salient characters may be summarized thus: Euarenaria. Glands of disk obsolete; capsule-teeth 6. Eremogoneastrum. Glands prominent; capsule dehiscent to below the middle by six valves; mostly cespitose perennials. Pentadenaria. Glands 5; capsule 6-toothed; perennials, often suffruti- se. Dicranilla. Glands present; capsule dehiscent beyond the middle by six valves ; flowers solitary, terminal, minute; S. American tufted alpine species. Arenariastrum. Capsule dehiscent by 4 teeth ; glands inconspicuous. Odontostemma. Capsule dehiscent by 4 valves; filaments bidentate near the base. Macrogyne. Capsule dehiscent by 4 valves; styles much exserted. All but the last subgenus are again divided into two to five tolerably well marked sections. Our interest naturally centers upon the treatment of the North American species. Of these Mr. Williams recognizes fourteen, which he arranges thus: Subg. EUARENARIA, Euthaliana (with seeds granulate-tuberculate). A. Benthamii. A. serpyllifolia, § Leiosperma ene smooth globose, reniform, or lenticular seeds). A. an Sat osa . Saxosa. ya eee (with smooth, compressed, pyriform or oblong seeds). - congesta. A. Franklinii. Subg. PENTADENARIA. A. ursina. A. capillaris. A. macradenia. A. Fendleri. A. ciliata This subdivision is certainly natural and theoretically clear. It is to be feared, however, that the gland distinction between Pentadenaria and Euare- a ; ] ee iB 4 ‘ 1898 CURRENT LITERATURE 2g! naria § Eremogonez will prove difficult, if not impossible, in practice. It will be noted that in the number and limitation of our North American species, Mr. Williams suggests scarcely any change. Of A. Benthamii he proposes a var. diffusa, based upon Mr. Heller’s no. 1686 from Kerr county, Texas. Concerning A. serpyllifolia he says, “introduced into North America, but scarcely naturalized there;” but certainly no introduced caryophyllaceous plant except the cerastiums has taken more kindly to American soil, for it is frequent from Maine to the Pacific coast and may often be found in places quite remote from dwellings. In the subdivision of this species, var. Zenuior Koch does not appear even in the synonymy. On page 412, A. ursina is again separated from A. cafi//aris, on the ground that “none of the many forms of A. cafil/aris have glaucous leaves and emarginate petals.” But the emarginate character of the petals is not a strong one and on a succeed- ing page Mr. Williams himself says, ‘As Ledebour points out, typical A. capillaris, which is widely distributed in Siberia, is a glabrous plant with short barren shoots and rigid glaucous leaves.” rom Mexico Mr. Williams recognizes nine species and six varieties, his A. megalantha (A. lanuginosa var. megalantha Rohrb., A, alsinoides vat. ovalifolia J. D, Smith) being new in conception. In a prefatory note it is stated that in the spelling of geographic names the “Times” atlasshas been followed. We are unacquainted with this work but should not place implicit confidence in it if “ Chinautla” and “ Sempaal- tepec”’ are samples of its orthography. Once more it must be said that Mr, Williams could add greatly to the value of his papers through citing by numbers a few authentic specimens under each species and variety. However, the treatment of Arenaria shows on the whole even more to praise and less to criticise than that of Silene. —B. L. Rosinson. A RECENT work of Cavara™ deals largely with the finer structure of the nucleolus. Ornithogalum umbellatum, Cucurbita maxima, Crinum =— teum, Narcissus poeticus, Lilium Martagon, and others, furnished material. Absolute alcohol, alcoholic corrosive sublimate, Carnoy’s fluid and Merkel’s fluid were the principal fixing agents. Zimmerman's iodine-green and fuchsin was recommended for staining on account of its rapid and effective work, but many other stains were used including the methyl-green-eosin- orange of Erlich, and Flemming’s safranin-gentian-violet-orange- Pgh es was used for embedding. He believes that nucleoli are not thrust out but are taken up by the nuclear jagrammatic, represents thread. A series of figures, apparently somewhat d ; does not receive equal the nucleoli in great detail, but the nuclear ‘thread ‘ . . ico * Cavara, F,— Intorno ad alcune strutture nucleari, Atti dell’ Istituto botant della R. Universita di Pavia II. 5: 1-49. pl. 2. 189 292 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ OCTOBER attention. During mitosis the structure of the nucleolus is lost, its staining power is lessened and it breaks up into.small pieces which show no staining capacity. These pieces are taken up by the nuclear thread and are to be regarded as condensation bodies of nutritive material. They may form plastin for spindles or chromatin for chromosomes. He says that this view resembles that of Hertwig, Flemming, and others. If it should be correct, it argues against the individuality of chromosomes.— C. J. CHAMBERLAIN. N THE WINTER of 1895-6, Bérgesen and Paulsen carried on some impor- tant ecological studies in the West Indies. The results of their investiga- tions have been published only recently.* The work is divided into two main parts: I. The halophytic vegetation, by Bérgesen; II. The forests and thickets, by Paulsen. In addition there is an appendix containing a statement of the new spermatophytes, and a list of the alge and fungi observed. The book is fully illustrated with eleven full-page plates from Bérgesen’s photographs, and many text figures. The halophytic vegetation is treated of under five heads: 1. The sea weeds. Of chief importance are the Halimeda and Caulerpa forms, growing ‘so densely as to form a solid mass. Some extraordinary Caulerpas are ‘described, one closely resembling Carex arenaria in its external form. Its creeping, sharp-cornered stem sends out assimilation shoots and rootlets. 2. The vegetation of the sandy beaches. These beaches are composed principally of coral fragments, lime, and particles of limy alge. On account of the weight of these sand grains no dunes are formed, even by the strongest winds. All the plants are protected in various ways against loss of water. The blades of grass are rolled up, and on other plants the leaves are bluish- gray and often very fleshy. Their elliptical or spatulate forms also give @ small proportion of leaf exposure. The runners are above ground, as there is no danger of harm by flying sand. The Canavalia has dorsiventral leaves, the epidermis is provided with glandular, bristly hairs, some of the cells are arranged as stomata but do not function as such, and become crystal bear- ing. The Cocoloba has brilliant, upward turned leaves, the upper epidermis is strongly cuticularized, without stomata, and is impregnated with tannic acid. Many other forms are described, some having water cells, oil glands, cells containing calcium oxalate crystals, etc. 3. The vegetation of the rocky coasts, consisting of characteristic agaves, cacti, bromelias, and croton forms. 4. mangrove vegetation, surrounding and encroaching upon all the bays, brackish lakes, and salt ponds, wherever there is found protected water. One of the most prominent forms is the Rhizophora, which has two kinds of aerial roots. Some spring from the principal stem standing at right angles “The vegetation of the Danish West Indies, Copenhagen. 1898. C ae" Centralbl. 74 : 143. 1898. . 1898 ] CURRENT LITERATURE 293 and later turning downwards. The others grow from the branches of the tree perpendicularly downwards, branching at the surface of the water where the tips die and decay.. The structure of these aerial roots is fully described. 5. The vegetation of the salt clay plains. These stretches surround the lagoons and salt ponds and upon them is an overflow of some of the forms described above. In drier localities live some herbaceous forms and some of those growing erect on the beaches are here recumbent. Under the forest and thicket vegetation each island is discussed sepa- rately. The Hurricane island, which forms the western boundary of the harbor of St. Thomas, is sparsely inhabited and mostly covered with a xero- phytic vegetation, whose density is increased by thorn growths and lianas. The trees are generally smooth leaved, the shrubs hairy leaved, and the most important succulents are the agaves, bromelias, and some opuntias. n the interior of the island of St. Thomas grow many croton bushes, as well as forests of larger trees, a long list of which is given. Epiphytic orchids, arums and ferns also abound, Cuscuia Americana being especially widespread. St. John is very fertile, though little cultivated on account of the indolence of the natives. Lately some promising experiments with the cultivation of coffee and cocoa have been undertaken. The croton underbrush has been pretty well crowded out of this island, and there are great grassy stretches near the deeper forests. St. Croix is the most important of the Danish Antilles, and is the chief seat of the Danish cane-sugar industry. In the uncultivated por- tions the vegetation is similar to that of the other islands. Upon the fallow fields the weeds are always woody. The gray crotons cover most of the east- ern half of the island, and are more xerophytic and smaller than elsewhere. Only a few trees are found, and lianas are scarce, but the succulents richly supply their place. The chief characteristic of the vegetation is its xerophy- _ tic adaptation. With the exception of the legumes, the leaves are entire, stiffy haired, usually ovate and short stemmed. Thorns of every sort abound. In the valleys we find the luxuriant vegetation of the tropics, oranges, figs, etc. Upon the trees was seen the Tillandsia, and in damp places Psilotum and Pilea macrophylla. In the last division of the second part the author treats of the anatomy of the xerophytic foliage leaves>-having investigated three groups: (1) the decidedly hairy leaves; (2) the slightly hairy and smooth leaves, (3) two types of leguminous leaves. He thinks the structure of the smooth leaves not anatomically different from that of the hairy leaves, but the outer epider- mal walls are very much thicker. This is also true of the leguminous leaves. The abundant glandular hairs are depressed on the smooth leaves, and stand among the other hairs on the hairy leaves. They closely resemble the hyda- thodes described by Haberlandt. The leaf anatomy of Evolvulus nummu- faris and of Loranthus emarginatus is fully described.—S. M. COULTER. mata, NEWS. PROFESSOR L, H. BaILEy has returned from Europe before completing his proposed year abroad. THE PENN PUBLISHING COMPANY announces a booklet by Mrs, Julia McNair Wright to be called The story of plant life. Mr. E. O. Wooton has been appointed professor of botany at the New Mexico Agricultural College and Experiment Station. From £rythea we learn that Dr, Marshall A. Howe has nearly com- pleted an illustrated monograph of Californian Hepatic. Henry Hort & Co. announce for publication this fall an elementary botany by Professor George F. Atkinson, of Cornell University. PROFESSOR STANLEY COULTER, of Purdue University, who spent most of the time of his vacation trip in the botanical laboratory at Bonn, has returned to his home. Dr. CHARLES R. BARNES was elected vice president, and chairman of section G (botany), A. A. A. S., for the fifty-first meeting, which is to be held at Columbus, Ohio. PROFESSOR A, F. W. Scuimper, of the University of Bonn, has been called to Basel as the successor of Professor Dr. George Klebs, who goes to the University of Halle. Mr. F. O. Grover, of Harvard University, has been appointed instructor in botany in Oberlin College to succeed Professor H. L, Jones, whose untimely death we chronicled last month. THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION of Dr. Franz Lafar’s Technical mycology, already published in England, is announced for fall publication by the Lip- pincott Company, of Philadelphia. Dr. O. BREFELD, director of the Botanical Garden and Institute at » Miinster, has been unanimously: called to the University of Breslau, to suc- ceed the late Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. R. O. LOEw, of Munich, has accepted a call to the Department of Agriculture at Washington. He brings to the department his thorough knowledge and high reputation as a chemist devoted to the problems of plant physiology. The department is to be congratulated upon procuring the : 204 | ocTOBER 1898] NEWS ° 295 services of a man whose contributions to chemical physiology are so widely and favorably known. Mrs. WILLIAM STARR Dana is shortly to add another work to the series of which she is author. This one is to be entitled How to know ferns. It will be published by Charles Scribner’s Sons. THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN has received a legacy of £15,000 for founding the Cruickshank Botanical Garden. The director of the garden will be James W. Traill, professor of botany in the university. Mr. W. T. SWINGLE, who has been spending the year abroad, part of the time in the laboratory of Professor Pfeffer at Leipzig, will remain away several months longer before resuming his duties in the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Mr. M. A. CARLETON is now in Russia as an agent of the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture to study the cereals of that region. The results of his extended investigations upon the rusts of cereals were sent to press before his departure, and will be issued as a Bulletin of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. THE LLoyp MycoLoGicaL Museum was increased during 1897 by nearly a thousand named specimens, and a list of the species and donors is given in the third report of the museum just issued. Fleshy fungi, both dry and preserved in alcohol, are desired. Correspondence should be addressed to Mr. C. G, Lloyd, Cincinnati, Ohio. Dr. DANIEL Morris, assistant director of the Kew Botanical Gardens, has resigned this post to accept a government appointment as Imperial Com- missioner of Agriculture for the British West Indies, having in charge the newly established “ Botanical Department.” We are not informed what the relations of the commissioner to the present garden directors is to be. Natural Science suggests that he “will not be welcomed with open arms by the many botanists in those parts, which already have an excellent botanical garden and staff in Jamaica.” Dr, Morris sailed from England September 21st, for Barbadoes, where he will establish his headquarters. THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA elected the following officers for the coming year: President, Lucien M. Underwood, of New York; Vice President, Benjamin L. Robinson, of Cambridge; Secretary, George F, Atkin- Son, of Ithaca; Treasurer, C. Arthur Hollick, of New York ; Councillors, Charles E, easy of Lincoln, and Wm. P. Wilson, of phere The following were elected ieebers of the society: Robert A. Harper, Univer- Sity of Wisconsin, Madison; Edward A. Burt, Middlebury es Middle- bury, Vt.: Herbert J. Webber, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.; L. H. Pa mmel, Iowa Agricultural College, Ames; Albert S. Hitch- 296 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocTOBER 1898 cock, Kansas Agricultural College, Manhattan; Herbert Maule Richards, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; David G. Fairchild, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.; David M. Mottier, University of Indiana, Bloomington. THE MACMILLAN Co. announce for early publication two books by Pro- fessor L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University, one a 7ext-book of Agriculture for Schools, and the other a volume entitled 7he Evolution of our Native Frutts. Among their other volumes announced for the autumn is the one upon the Evolution of Plants by Dr. Douglas H. Campbell, of Leland Stanford Uni- versity, and a new volume of the Rural Science series on the Physiology of Plants by Dr. J. C. Arthur, of Purdue University. Welcome information to physiologists, also, is the statement that a translation of Verworn’s Ad/ge- meine Physiologie is in preparation by Dr. F.S. Lee, adjunct professor of physiology in Columbia University. THE STATE OF HAMBURG has just established at Freihafen a station for plant protection. Dr. C. Brick has been transferred from the Botanical Museum of Hamburg to the direction of this station, and Dr. L. Reh has been appointed zoologist. Occasion for the establishment of the station was afforded by necessary investigation of American fruits imported into Ham- burg in order to protect orchards against the San José scale. Besides this, the station will look after the introduction of injurious insects with the ship- ments of living plants from abroad. Its duties will include, also, the com- bating of plant diseases, the oversight of the schools of viticulture, and the inspection of vineyards and orchards in the Hamburg region, together with such questions as arise in the prosecution of this work. THE FIFTH annual meeting of the Botanical Society of America was held in the Rogers Building of the Massachusetts Institute of “Technology, Boston, August 19-20, 1898. The sessions of the society on the 1gth were devoted to business matters. ‘The literary sessions on the 2oth were presided over by president N. L. Britton. The address of the retiring president, John M. Coulter, in his absence, was read by Dr. B. M. Davis, and is pub- lished in full in this issue. The following papers were read before the soci- ety: Reducing division of the chromosomes in Avisema triphyl/um, by ting and tetrad formation during sporogenesis: Geo. F. Atkinson. Symbiotic saprophytism: D. 7. MacDougal. Sporogenesis in Trillium grandiflorum : Geo. F. Atkinson. Forest distribution in New Jersey and its relation to geology: Arthur Hollick. The centrosphere in Corallina: B. 4. Davts. Tetrad formation in Tsuga Canadensis: W.A. Murrill; presented by Geo. F. Atkinson. Notes on a Helianthus from Long Island: WV. L. Brition. Preliminary note on fertilization in the white pine: Miss M. C. Ferguson, presented by invitation of the Council. A fossil moss from the state of Washington: Mrs. E. G. Britton.—G. F. A. Extra Quality Mounting Paper enus Covers In quantity for the Herbaria of Educational Institutions at very low prices. Please write... ..-. +++ ses Bausch & Lomb Optical Co. cece ee Rochester, N. Y. 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Eighth St., Fulton & Pearl Sts., & CHICAGO, CINCINNA NEW YORK. : Y ro) “A PERFECT '-FOOD—as Wholesome as { Delicious, Walter Baker & (0's Our Trade-Mark on Every Package, DORCHESTER, MASS. TABLISHED 1780 Costs jess than one cent a cup Walter Baker & Co. 1. ' ( ( { ' ' { f f f ' f “a & ee Biot ed I Chicago Office: 144 RAnGeR STREET Vol. XXVI NOVEMBER 1898 No. 5° THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE EDITORS JOHN M. COULTER, 7ke University of Chicago, Chicago, Til. CHARLES R. BARNES, Zhe University of. Chicago, Chicago, Ii. J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. ASSOCIATE EDITORS GEORGE F. ATKINSON FRITZ NOLL rnell Untoersity CASIMIR DECANDOLLE University of a VOLNEY eh Delesrani neva qwersity of Michigan gee J. B. DeTONI ROLAND pemnt ER | University of Padua Harvard University — ADOLF ENGLER WILLIAM TRELEASE . Cae Uni: ibid of Berlin Missouri Botanical Garden ce LEON GUIGN ; H. MARSHALL WARD ee oe . Pharmacie, Paris cag Cambriage Py JINZO MATSUMURA EUGEN. WARMING cee Imperial University, Tokyo miversity of Copernic Se ae VEIT WITTROCK ; Royal Academy of ‘Gieeces, Stockholm CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Published by the Gnidversity of ehirage. Che Bnivecsity of Chicage press COPYRIGHT 1898 BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO tik i Botanical Gazette a Montbly Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science Subscription per year, $4.00 Single Numbers, 40 Cents The subscription price must be paid in advance. No numbers are sent sei the expiration he time paid for. No reduction is made to dealers or agen FOREIGN AGENTS: Great Britain — Wm. WESLEY & Son, 28 Essex Germany — GEBRUDER BORNTRAEGER, Berlin. sate, ae London. 18 Shillings. SW. 46, poiaiehekviats 17a. 18 Marks. Vol. XXVI, No. 5 Issued November 19, 1898 CONTENTS THE COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF THE PISTILS OF THE RANUNCULACES, ALISMACE, AND ROSACE (wiTH PLATE xxv). rast A. Bessey 297 THE EMBRYOLOGY OF ALYSSUM (wiITH PLATES XxvI-xxvill). 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The Committee reserves the right to w tubes the offer or raise the “ee ny time after thirty days, inasmu 9 54 books will become more valuable and rare be, day, but the price cannot be vaio aie on: applications filed within that tim ij i ations SPECIAL NOTICE.—A set of the books will be set aside and reserved pending further in vente 4 Oe ee rioki, ad accompanied by a Sevan | o ~ poss DOLLAR as a guarantee of good faith. The work evil then nt for examinati may be returned and m unded within ten days, if not as recommended. Address all comr masioationl nef AIN SWwo TH R. SPOFFORD, General Secretary, . COMMITTEE ON DISTRIBUTION, WASHINGTON, D. & Department_S VOLUME XXVI NUMBER 5 BOTANICAL GAZE EEE NOVEMBER 1898 THE COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF THE PISTILS OF THE RANUNCULACEA, ALISMACE&, AND ROSACEA: ERNST A. BESSEY. (WITH PLATE XxXV) RANUNCULACE. THERE are two types of pistil present in this family. In the first there is but a single ovule in each pistil; in a specialized form of this type there are, besides the one principal ovule, two to six rudimentary ovules subsequently developed, but never _ Teaching maturity. The second type consists of those pistils which have two to many ovules, all or nearly all reaching matu- tity. Pistils of the first type are found in the Ranunculez, Anemonee, and Clematidez, and of the second type in the Hel- leboree and Paconiex. The species studied to determine the mode of development of the pistils were the following: Ranunculus abortivus L., R. eremogenes Greene, R. delphinifolius Torr., R. ovalis Raf., R. glaber- rimus ? Hook., and Myosurus minimus L., all representing the Strictly uniovulate type; and Anemone Caroliniana Walt., ie cyl- indrica Gray, A. Canadensis L., Pulsatilla hirsutissima (Pursh) Britt., and Clematis ligusticifolia Nutt., representing the uniovulate type where rudimentary ovules are developed. For the study *A thesis for the degree of Master of Arts, in The University of Nebraska, 1898. 298 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER of the multiovulate type, use was made of Delphinium Carolinia- num Walt., and Caltha leptosepala DC. RANUNCULUS ABORTIVUS. The pistil first makes its appearance as @ slight rounded projection from the surface of the then small receptacle. This projection enlarges, as does the recep- tacle, until it is almost hemispherical. It then begins to elongate, and during this process a second, rounded projection appears in the axil of this as yet only slightly developed carpellary leaf (fig. 1). The second rounded mass of cells is produced asa result of the rapid division of the hypodermal cells, and is not epidermal, but is covered with epidermis. At this time a cross- section of the pistil shows that the upper side is slightly flat- tened. This flattening becomes more pronounced until, in a short time, the pistil is seen to be slightly concave above, 7. é., the edges of the carpellary leaf are beginning to fold around, eventually to meet to form a closed pistil (fig. 2). . In addition to this lateral folding, the outer part of the pistil soon begins to bend upward, until its apex, which was at first directed at right angles to the surface of the receptacle, now points in a direction parallel to it. The lateral folding, also, continues, nearly closing the upper part of the pistil (jigs. 3, 4)- In the meantime the axillary mass of cells has been growing, especially at the side towards the receptacle, causing its apex to turn away from the receptacle and down into the cavity in the upper part of the pistil, which has been bending upward, and towards the receptacle. It has now become possible to distin- guish two parts in the axillary mass of cells; a thicker basal part (which I will call the “axillary placenta,” since it arises in the axil of the carpellary leaf) and a slender apical part, the ovule, which bends down between the laminae and thus into the hollow of the pistil (figs. 5, 6). The axillary placenta itself is really not within the pistil, but forms part of the wall on the ventral side. The laminae of the pistil extend to it and are continuous with its outer layers of cells, and extend from it to the apex of the carpellary leaf, which has bent around almost in a semi- circle. When these laminae finally come together to close the 1898 | COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF PISTILS 299 pistil, they curve in over the top of the axillary placenta, form- ing a forked suture shaped like an inverted letter Y. While the carpel has thus been curving upward, the growing nucellus has been bending downward, the former describing an arc of 180°, while the latter passes through only 120°. A short time before this stage is reached the archesporial cell is differen- tiated, the exact time being very variable. The wall of the pistil furthest from the receptacle now elongates considerably, with the result that the longest axis of the pistil instead of being, as at first, at right angles to the surface of the receptacle, is now parallel to it. The ovule still continues to bend until it, too, lies in the main axis of the pistil, but with the micropyle pointing down. The last small opening of the pistil is now closed by the meeting of the edges of the laminae. It is the line of meeting of the laminae with the upper side of the axillary placenta, or in other words, one of the arms of the inverted Y-shaped suture, that shows so distinctly in all median or almost median sections of the pistil (jig. 8, a). The main fibrovascular bundle supplying the pistil divides just after entering it. One branch passes around in the median line in a position corresponding to the bundle of the mid-rib of a leaf. The other passes up into the axillary placenta, through the funiculus and into the base of the nucellus, also in ‘the median line ( fig. 8). Later other branches run to the side walls of the pistil. RANUNCULUS EREMOGENES. The development of the pistil in this species is almost identical with that in &. abortivus. -The pistil begins as a rounded outgrowth from the receptacle (fig. 9,2), which is more developed in this species at this stage, than in the preceding. Immediately above the base of this outgrowth there arises another, eventually to become the ovule. This is shown in fig. 9, at 6, which is a rudimentary pistil, with the still more rudimentary ovule three or four cells higher. The pistil flattens dorsiventrally and the edges begin to fold together, while the apex also curves upward. The axillary papilla at the same time elongates and the distinction of ovule and placenta 1s 300 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER made. The ovule bends down into the space between the lami- nae of the carpel. The single integument now begins to make its appearance, and the archesporium becomes visible as a spe- cialized cell. By this time the ovule has described an arc of 120° from the position held by the axillary papilla when it first appeared. The development is now so rapid that by the time the archesporium has divided into two cells and each is begin- ning to divide again, the ovule has bent 30° more (fig. zo), and at the completion of the division has bent another 30°. At the - same time the apex of the carpel has passed through an arc of 180°, and the main axis of the pistil has become parallel to that of the receptacle. A noteworthy fact in connection with the development of the archesporium is that the two megaspores nearest to the micropyle lie in a line nearly at right angles to the main axis of the nucellus (fig. zo). Soon after this stage is reached the pistil becomes closed through the meeting of the edges of the laminae. A front view of a nearly mature pistil shows that in this species, as in R. abortivus, the suture is haus like an inverted Y (fig. 79). Ranunculus ovalis, R., glaberrimus ? and R. delphinifolius show in their later stages the same structure as described above, indi- cating that they probably have a similar course of development. Myosurus minimus. This species has a long, narrow recepta- cle, in strong contrast to the short hemispherical one of Ranun- culus. On it is shown more vividly what is apparent to a slight degree on the receptacle of Ranunculus, viz., the acropetal development of the pistils. In Ranunculus the difference in age of the pistils on the different parts of the receptacle is only slight, and soon disappears. On the other hand, in Myosurus, even when the pistils on the lower part of the receptacle are well developed, others are just appearing at the top. As in the pre- ceding genus, the pistil appears as a slight papilla on the surface of the receptacle. As it elongates, its apex is directed slightly downwards. On the upper side of the pistil, next to the recep- tacle, is then developed an ney papilla whose axis, at first, forms an angle of about 35° with the surface of the receptacle, 1898 ] COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF PISTILS 301 while the apex of the pistil is directed so as to form an angle of about 90° with the axis of this papilla (fig. zz). Even at this stage the outer part of the pistil is flattened above (figs. 12, 13). This flattening progresses until a longitudinal groove is formed in the upper surface of the carpellary leaf, extending back to the axillary placenta. The apex of the carpel now begins to bend upward, while the ovule begins to grow downward. By the time that the ovule has bent 45° from its original position, the archesporium appears. The outer part of the pistil has also changed its direction by 45°, thus bringing the ovule partly within the cavity formed by the laminae which connect the axil- lary placenta with the apex of the carpel (fig. rg). At the time that the first traces of the single integument appear, the arche- sporium has divided into two cells and the ovule points directly down, 7. ¢., in its curving it has described an arc of about 145°. The apex of the carpel has in the same time described an arc of only 125°, so that it lies parallel to the receptacle (fig. 75). For some time further the pistil does not change much except in size. The ovule, on the other hand, is active in its changes. By the time that the megaspore furthest from the micropyle has by its enlargement destroyed the others (two or three in num- ber), the ovule has curved go? more (figs. 16,17). This process continues until at the time that the embryo sac is ready for fer- tilization the ovule lies with its axis parallel to that of the receptacle, a change in direction of about 325° (fig. 78). To accommodate the ovule thus bent upon itself the lower part of the pistil elongates somewhat, so that the fibrovascular bundle of the median line of the carpel, after leaving the receptacle and giving its branch to the ovule, passes first downward, then outward, and finally upward. The bundle going to the ovule passes first upward, then outward, then downward, and finally inward to the base of the nucellus. From this time on until the seeds drop, the position of the nucellus remains the same, so that by making longitudinal sections of the flower, it is easy to obtain longitudinal median sections of all the ovules, from one hundred to two hundred in number. As in Ranunculus, the 302 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER pistils are not entirely closed until a very short time before fertilization, and then in the same manner. The further devel- opment of the pistil after fertilization is, however, a little dif- ferent in the two genera. In Myosurus, instead of enlarging rapidly so as to leave a large cavity which the ovule fills only in part, the pistil enlarges only as does the ovule, leaving no cavity. The walls, too, do not become stony, thus allowing (what is very difficult in Ranunculus) the study of the devel- opment of the embryo. ANEMONE. In the first stages of the development of the pistils this genus resembles Myosurus very closely. In fact, the development throughout of the single large ovule is as in that genus (figs. 20-23, 26). A slight difference in the shape of the pistil is noticeable, in that the cavity is prolonged somewhat above the ovule. In Anemone Caroliniana, after the ovule has curved down into the cavity of the pistil, there appear on the edges of the laminae, which are now closing together, two pro- jections. These increase in size, growing down into the cavity of the pistil above the first ovule. They remain merely few- celled papillae in this species, one on each lamina, the central cells resembling archesporial cells (fig. 2¢). This occurs also in other species of this genus, the papillae in some species often becoming well-marked, rudimentary ovules. This isso common that Baillon describes? Anemone as being provided with five ovules, four being aborted and one descending and fertile. CLEMATIS LIGUSTICIFOLIA. The pistils in this species are even more elongated than in Anemone, and have the cavity corre- spondingly elongated above the ovule. Unfortunately, it was impossible to obtain the younger stages, but the close agree- ment of the older stages with those found in Anemone makes it practically certain that the course of development is the same. The mature ovule is situated exactly as in Myosurus and Anemone. Like the latter, however, on each side above the large ovule the lamina bears one or two rudimentary ovules which project into the space above it (fig. 25). The only dif- *BAILLON: Mémoire sur la famille des Renonculacées. Adansonia 4:50. 1864. 1898] COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF PISTILS 303 ference between this and Anemone Caroliniana is that the ovules are further developed, some of them in fact having embryo sacs with two or four nuclei. Guignard describes3 and figures these accessory ovules in Clematis cirrhosa with embryo sacs containing two and four nuclei, showing conclusively their ovular nature. Some species of Anemone, too, have these accessory ovules developed to this extent, showing that in this there is no dis- tinction between the two genera, DELPHINIUM CAROLINIANUM. Owing to the ease with which the material could be obtained, this species was the one chiefly used in the study of the multiovulate type of pistil. Caltha leptosepala was used to corroborate the results obtained from the study of this species. It was evident from figures and descriptions of the pistils of this type, published elsewhere, that these two species give us typical examples, and it was accord- ingly decided that it would be unnecessary to make careful study of other species. Unfortunately it was impossible to obtain specimens of those genera with biovulate pistils, forming perhaps the transition from the uniovulate to the multiovulate genera. The pistils arise at the top of the nearly hemispherical receptacle. The stamens develop acropetally. The pistils do not show any signs of appearing until all the stamens have begun to develop. Each pistil first appears as a small conical papilla with rounded apex, and increases in size very rapidly. As this increase in size progresses, the ventral side begins to be hol- lowed out, until by the time that the pistil is a millimeter in height, and a little narrower than high, it has become closed by the meeting of the laminae (figs. 27, 28). Soon the ovules begin to make their appearance as small papillae on the inturned edges of the carpellary leaf. These increase rapidly in number and size until the edges of the laminae of the pistil are occupied entirely by horizontally growing ovules (fig. 29). In Delphi- nium the. ovules arise opposite to each other, but later, owing to the crowding due to their growth in size, they become alter- 3GUIGNARD, LEON: Récherches sur le sac embryonnaire des phanérogames angiospermes. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VI. 13: 163. pi. 5. 1882. 304 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER nate. The lowest ovule, having no ovule below to sustain it, may descend into the hollow at the bottom of the pistil. In Caltha leptosepala the ovules are mostly alternate, and are fewer in number than in the pistils of Delphinium, the difference being apparently compensated by the greater number of pistils in the former. The only other difference worthy of mention is that the ovules of Caltha are two-coated, while those of Del- phinium have only one integument (fig. 37). ALISMACE., The two genera studied were Sagittaria and Alisma. These are in the main, alike so far as the development of the pistils is cerned, for the slight differences that do occur are easily explica- ble by the difference in number of the pistils, involving their relations to each other and to the receptacle. Thus in Adsma Plantago aquatica L. there is but a single whorl of pistils, while in Sagittaria latifoha Willd. the ovules are very numerous and arranged spirally over the whole surface of the receptacle. SAGITTARIA LaTIFOLIA. In this plant, as in Myosurus, the pistils are developed acropetally. Each pistil makes its appear- ance as a papilla on the side or summit of the spherical recep- tacle. As this papilla enlarges it grows so as to leave a hollow onthe upper side. In its axil there now appears a second papilla, which grows out into the space between the laminae of the pistil, which has now become somewhat curved. As _ these laminae increase in width they surround the ovule entirely except the very slightly developed ‘axillary placenta.” Asa result of this the ovule appears to arise from the floor of the pistil, as indeed some descriptions aver (figs. 33-35). While the pistil has been thus developing, the ovule has not remained unchanged. It has increased in length, and about half way from base to apex makes a sudden turn, at which place the two integuments arise. The ovule continues to bend upon the funiculus until by the time that the integuments have reached the apex of the nucellus the latter lies parallel to the surface of the receptacle, with its apex pointed away from the apex of the receptacle (fig: 1898 | COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF PISTILS 305 36). Within a very short time the position of the ovule becomes permanent, with the apex of the nucellus directed towards the receptacle (fig. 37). Subsequent changes are mostly those in size and such modifications of shape as are caused by the pres- sure of the surrounding pistils. ALIsMA PLanTaGo aguatica. In the very young flowers of this species the receptacle is much broader above than below, and has a rounded top. It is from the narrower basal part that the stamens arise, while the pistils are produced at the edge where the receptacle is widest. They appear as projections, at first small, later larger (fig. 38). This gives the receptacle, viewed from above, the appearance of a toothed wheel. The receptacle grows rapidly in height, as do the apex and sides of each pistil, thus forming a hollow in the upper side of each (fig. 39). Into this rapidly deepening cavity, there pushes out from the receptacle a rounded mass of cells (fig. 40). The apical part of the pistil grows very rapidly until the laminae connecting it with the receptacle at each side of the ovular out- growth are in sucha position that their edges are nearly vertical. The ovule continues to elongate and curve towards the bottom of the pistil, eventually gaining a position in which its apex is directed downwards. During this process the nucellus has become differentiated and the two integuments have appeared. The funiculus has also been clearly distinguished (figs. 47, 42, 43). Up to the time of fertilization there has been no organic connection between the edges of the two laminae, although for a little while they have been in contact for a part of their dis: tance. At the time of pollination there is still an opening between the laminae at the bottom of the line of meeting. This is due to the fact that the laminae arise with enough distance between them to allow for the formation of the ovule. Now, when their margins approach each other they are separated furthest at the bottom and require a longer time to come fully together (fig. 44). Inthe mature pistil the funiculus. is long and ascending, carrying the ovule well up into the cavity of the pistil. In the young pistil the funiculus is short, and it Is 306 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | NOVEMBER only as the pistil grows that the funiculus also increases in length. ROSACE., This family contains representatives of many types of flower- structure. Of these types the Potentillee have been regarded hitherto as the simplest. In this tribe the pistils are very numer- ous, on a rounded receptacle, which is expanded below into a shallow cup, on whose edge are borne the numerous free stamens, the petals and the sepals. In Fragaria and Potentilla each pistil is uniovulate, while in Geum it is biovulate. As a rule through- out the family the pistils are biovulate, and in some genera even multiovulate. The only genera studied as representatives of this family were Potentilla and Fragaria, it being the aim to determine whether the remarkable similarity that these show to Ranunculus is also found in the processes of development of the parts of the flower. POTENTILLA Monspe.iensis L. The pistils first appear, as in Ranunculus, as small papillae on the surface of the pistil-bearing part of the receptacle. The first to appear are at the base and the others arise successively towards the top of the receptacle (jig. 45). As the pistils enlarge they become hollowed out above. A comparatively small opening is produced on the upper side of the pistil (fg. 46), which is made still narrower by the thickening of the edges of the laminae for about half the distance from base to apex. This thickening is sometimes accompanied by a more active growth in width of that part of each lamina, so that viewed from the side it appears as a rounded lobe, as shown in fig. 47, where the dotted line shows the more usual form. From one of these thickened edges or lobes a small papilla begins to grow inward and downward, later turn- ing upward again. This is the ovule. It is at first lateral in its position, but the lamina to which it is attached grows more rapidly than the part opposite, so that the ovule finally occupies a median position (fig. 48). The ovule, when the pistil is ready for pollination, is anatropous, with the funiculus on the ventral 1898 | COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF PISTILS 307 side of the pistil, instead of on the dorsal as in Myosurus. The ovule has but a single integument, and in the large size of its nucellus, as well as in its position in the pistil, much resembles that of Ranunculus (fig. 50). : FRAGARIA VIRGINIANA. The development of the pistil in this species is practically identical with that in the preceding. The only important difference is that the line in which the laminae meet is shorter, so that the style arises from well down on the front of the pistil. In this species is also found what probably indicates an advance in development beyond that shown in Potentilla, namely, quite often a pistil contains two ovules instead of one. This doubling is acomplished by the formation of one ovule on each of the thickened laminae, instead of on one only. Possibly this is the way in which the uniovulate genera, like Potentilla, have developed into the typical biovulate genera of the family (jigs.57-53). GENERAL DISCUSSION. A comparison of the structures exhibited by the pistil in these three families shows that each family includes genera with uniovulate as well as those with multiovulate pistils, and that the course of development of the uniovulate pistils is very similar in the three families, although in Potentilla and Fragaria it has been somewhat modified. It has been shown above that in Ranunculus the first sign of the ovule is the growth of a mass of cells in the axil of the developing carpel. The carpel elongates and becomes hollowed above by the upward growth of the laminae, which do not grow up Over the axillary mass of cells, but rather extend from it on each side to the apex of the carpel. By the elongation of the distal part of the axillary body the ovule is formed, and curves down mito the cavity of the pistil, while the proximal part remains in its original position, growing only in height and thickness. The laminae which extend from this body (called above the “axil- lary placenta’’) to the apex of the carpel, now approach each other at their edges, and meet in the median line, thus completely 308 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | NOVEMBER closing the cavity of the pistil. The suture along which the laminae meet is like an inverted Y, for before they close they are separated at the bottom by the axillary placenta(see fig. 79, R. eremogenes) . If we now compare with this the conditions found in Poten- tilla and Fragaria, we see the following modifications. There is no axillary mass of cells developed, for the ovules have their origin on the edge of one or the other lamina. Probably this originated as follows: in some plant whose ovules were borne as in Ranunculus, and in which the suture along which the lam- inae met formed an inverted Y, a variation appeared by which the axillary placenta lost its median position, one arm of the suture becoming elongated and the other shortened. This resulted in a placenta attached to one lamina and free from the other, which is precisely what we find in Potentilla. Even in Ranunculus it occasionally occurs that the axillary placenta is not strictly median but slightly shifted to one side or the other. This suggests that the mode of origin indicated above is not improbable. In the uniovulate pistils of Fragaria as well as of Potentilla the ovule is borne sometimes on one lamina and sometimes on the other, being very variable in this respect. Under such con- ditions when neither lamina is especially modified for the pro- duction of ovules it is probable that sometimes an ovule might be borne on each lamina, as happens in Fragaria. It seems probable that it was by such a variation that the majority of the genera of the Rosacee became biovulate. When once each lamina began to be ovuliferous it would be but a short step to the condition in which several ovules are borne, instead of only one. In this way the multiovulate pistils may have arisen. Probably in this way, too, the multiovulate Ranunculacee wefe — developed from the uniovulate Ranunculus, possibly through a biovulate form close to Callianthemum, or even Hydrastis. From the description of their development as given above it must be evident that Sagittaria and Alisma are quite similar to Ranunculus. Of these two genera, however, Alisma is much ENE saps ae Se eee ae en pantie sen iedreos: 1898 ] COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF PISTILS 309 less like Ranunculus than is Sagittaria, for the ovule is hardly axillary with respect to the carpel, but arises from the recep- tacle, in this respect much resembling the origin of the sporan- gium of Selaginella. The condition found in Sagittaria is one about midway between that in Alisma and that in Ranunculus. In the latter the axillary placenta is in reality only an outgrowth from the receptacle, and this prepares us to find (as in the Alis- macez) the ovule developed directly from the receptacle. In other cases, as in Potentilla, this axillary placenta loses its indi- viduality by fusion with one of the lamin of the carpel. The presence of the accessory ovules in Anemone, Pulsatilla, Clematis, and other genera is difficult to explain. If it were not for the peculiar origin of the one ovule which reaches maturity, it might naturally be supposed that Anemone is descended from plants with multiovulate pistils. However, if this were the case it would be necessary to consider also that Ranunculus and Myosurus had a similar origin, which seems highly improbable in consideration of their close resemblance to the Alismacee, which show in other characters no signs of having had Anemone- like ancestors. Furthermore, there are no existing multiovulate Ranunculacee that seem to be as simple in other respects as Ranunculus, for their pistils are fewer in number and close much earlier, an evident unsimilarity to the theoretical pteridophytic ancestors of the angiosperms. Perhaps the best solution of the problem is the supposition that some plant of the Ranunculus or Myosurus type after the development of its first ovule varied so as to develop in the space above the ovule one or more acces- sory ovules which were unable to reach maturity. These acces- sory ovules being in the unoccupied upper part of the pistil out of the way of the large ovule, and yet protected by the carpel wall, would have no part in the struggle of the plant for exist- ence, and so might persist. This would be the more likely to be true if this modification happened to occur in a plant which, owing to other modifications, was enabled to maintain itself against all enemies, and to be well distributed. This seems ’ have been the case here, for these accessory ovules are found in 310 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER those genera in which the ripe achenes are furnished with hairs to aid in their distribution. Evidently under such circumstances, where they occupy a neutral position they would persist although not yet functional. The uniovulate types might be summed up as follows. These all represent a type of pistil in which an axillary structure appears, developing directly into the ovule in some cases, or in others forming an axillary placenta on which the ovule is borne, or in still others uniting with one lamina of the pistil and bear- ing at its summit an ovule. The multiovulate types are not sufficiently different to require discussion beyond the statement that they are probably developed from a modification of the last mentioned case among the uni- ovulate pistils. THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, Lincoln, Nebr. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV. NotE.— All the figures were drawn by the author, by means of the camera lucida, with one or two exceptions, from sections 7 to 18m in thickness, cut upon a Reinhold- Giltay microtome. Some of the material was fixed with 1 per cent. chromic acid solu- tion, some in various gee chloride mixtures, and the remainder in various osmic acid mixtures, imbedded in paraffin, sectioned, and mounted in Canada balsam. All sections were stained on ihe slide, many different stains being used. The sections were examined by means of Reichert’s objective 8, and oculars 2 and 4. In making the drawings only the outer layer of cells or merely the outline is given hen not otherwise stated all sections called “longitudinal ” are aidan longitu- dinal sections. he magnifications given are those of the drawings, which were reduced one-half in engraving. Ranunculus abortivus L. Fig. 1. Longitudinal section of a very young pistil. x 565. Fig. 2. Cross section of a slightly older pistil. x 565. Fic. 3. Longitudinal section of a pistil showing the axillary mass of cells. % £65, : Fic. 4. Cross section of a pistil from the same flower as fig. 7, in the co a-a. X 565. Fig. 5. Longitudinal section of a pistil at the time of formation of the archesporium. X 565. 1898 | COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF PISTILS 311 Fic. 6. Cross section of a pistil in the same flower as fig. 5, in the line d-é. x 565. Fig. 7. Longitudinal section of a pistil at the time of formation of the four megaspores. X 224. Fic. 8. Longitudinal section of fully developed pistil. x 250. Ranunculus eremogenes Greene. FiG. 9. Longitudinal section of two very young pistils. x 565. Fic. 10. Longitudinal section of the ovule during the formation of the four megaspores. X 565. Myosurus minimus L. Fic. 11. Longitudinal section of a very young pistil. X 565. Fic. 12. Cross section of apical part of a pistil from the same flower as Re 21. XK 655. FiG. 13. Cross section of the basal part of a pistil from the same flower. 565. Fic. 14. Longitudinal section of a pistil at the time of the appearance of the archesporium. x 565. Fic. 15. Longitudinal section of a pistil at a later stage than in the pre- ceding figure. X 265. Fic. 16. Longitudinal section of a pistil amen maturity, but with the embryo-sac not far developed as yet. X 2 Fic. 17, Longitudinal section of a pistil a tle older. X 205. Fic. 18. Longitudinal section of a mature pistil. X 125. Ranunculus eremogenes Greene. Fic. 19. Longitudinal ventral section of a eons showing the formation of the suture shaped like an inverted Y. x 250 Anemone cylindrica Gray. FIG, 20. Longitudinal section of a young pistil, showing the beginning of the formation of the axillary body. X 540. Fig. 21, Longitudinal section of the pistil at the time of the formation of the archesporium. x 535. Anemone Caroliniana Walt. 1G. 22. Longitudinal section of a pistil at the time of formation of the archesporium. x 2 50. FiG. 23. Longitudinal section of a pistil with the embryo sac developed about halfway. x 120. IG. 24. ppietes of a pistil from the same flower as the preceding, in the line c-c. x 1 312 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER Clematis ligustictfolia Nutt. Fic. 25. Longitudinal section of a mature pistil, showing. the accessory ovules. X 75. Anemone Caroliniana Walt. Fic. 26. Longitudinal ventral section showing the formation of the inverted Y-shaped suture. X 120. Delphinium Carolinianum Walt.. Fic. 27. Longitudinal ventral section of a pistil before the appearance of the ovules. X 12 1G. 28. Cross section, in the line dd, of a slightly older pistil, but with as yet no ovules. X 125. FIG, 29. Cross section of a pistil showing avates, a 75s Fic. 30. Longitudinal ventral section of a pistil. « 75. Caltha leptosepala DC. Fic. 31. Cross section of a pistil ready for pollination. x 75. Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Fic. 32. Longitudinal section of an ovule with two archesporial cells. X 520. 1G. 33. Longitudinal section of a pistil showing a single archesporial cell. X 540. FiG. 34. Cross section of a pistil in the line e-e of fig. 77. XK 525- Fic. 35. tela section of a pistil a little further developed than the preceding. x 4 a FIG. 36. en section of a pistil with an embryo sac containing two nuclei. x 1 155. Fic. 37. Longitudinal section of a pistil ready for pollination. X 75. Alisma Plantago aquatica L. G. 38. Longitudinal section of a young flower showing the young pistil. The nies line shows the level of the surface of the receptacle. X 155. FiG. 39. Longitudinal ventral section of a pistil slightly older than the preceding. X 555. Fic. 40. Longitudinal section of a young pistil in which the ovule is just beginning to appear. x Fig. 41. Longitudinal section of a pistil showing the archesporium. The section is slightly to one side of the median plane. X 555. G. 42. Longitudinal section of a pistil at a further stage of development 3 than a preceding. x 400. 4 = ca Pal X a SRLS Om oe sgna7es “ey 200 A lee ee cg ee \> Ree rae Fa ‘‘ BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXV1 PLATE XXV SS a5 Oe Se AY S, CO = ee » anaes BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI cae : *. COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF PISTILS 313 : G. 43. Longitudinal section of a pistil at the time of pollination. The Shaded portion represents the part where the laminae have not yet met. X 75. Fic. 44. Longitudinal ventral section of a pistil from the same flower as Jig. 43, in the line 6-8. « 12 Potentilla Monspeliensis L. Fie, 45. Longitadisal section through a young flower showing the.devel- cee Les x 145. G. 46. Ventral view of a pistil from the flower shown in fg. 45, showing the ae X 330. Fic. 47. Lateral view of a pistil from the same flower, showing the lobe- like growth of the part of the lamina which bears the ovule. The dotted line shows the normal development. X 445. Fic. 48. Ventral view of a pistil showing the excessive growth of the lamina which bears the ovule. The dotted line outlines the attachment of the ovule. X 255. FIG. 49. Longitudinal section of a pistil sheorily before pollination. 255. FIG, 50. Longitudinal section of a mature pistil. X 150. Fragaria Virginiana Duchesne. Fic. 51. Longitudinal section of a half-grown pistil. X 210 Fig. 52. Longitudinal section of a pistil of about the same age as the pre- a but showing two ovules. X 295. G. 53. Longitudinal section of a | pistil ready for pollination. X 175. THE EMBRYOLOGY OF ALYSSUM.* LUMINA COTTON RIDDLE. ra (WITH PLATES XXVI-XXVIII) Tue following study of Alyssum macrocarpum was begun late in October when a large and thrifty plant was brought into the greenhouse. Cuttings were made which began blooming about the holidays and a constant supply of material was thus fur- nished, | My original intention was to study Capsella bursa-pastoris and to verify or modify the account of its embryonic development, since Capsella has usually been taken as a type for the dicotyls. While Hanstein’s method of studying the embryo by squeezing it from the ovule and staining with iodine might appear incapa- ble of yielding any results of a detailed character, it seems nevertheless in his hands to have given rather accurate results. The close relationship of Alyssum to Capsella, and the resemblance in embryonic development, which was evident from the first comparison with Hanstein’s familiar figures, became a constant stimulus to careful and accurate investigation. While I am not wholly positive as to the invariability in the formation of certain portions of the young embryo plant, the most of my work points to a certain definite course of development, though there are sometimes remarkable variations. My sincere thanks are due to Professor W. A. Kellerman and Mr. J. H. Schaffner for their continued encouragement and valuable suggestions. METHODS. Greenhouse plants did not seed profusely, probably because there were no insects present to assist in pollination. Before killing the material, the sepals, petals and stamens were removed, *Contributions from the Botanical Laboratory of Ohio State University. V- [ NOVEMBER 1898] EMBRYOLOGY OF ALYSSUM 315 except from very young buds, to insure rapid penetration. Chrom-acetic acid, and a solution of corrosive sublimate, acetic acid, and 70 per cent. alcohol were the two fluids used. For general purposes the first seemed preferable, though satisfactory results were obtained from both. The material was imbedded in paraffin and cut into sections 124 thick. It was difficult to orient the ovaries so as to get sections parallel to the plane of the embryo sac, since the ovule of Alyssum is campylotropous and the embryo sac soon becomes curved like a horseshoe nearly parallel to the septum of the silicle. Anilin-safranin, alone or in combination with gentian violet, and sometimes with a third, orange gentian, was used in stain- ing. Acid fuchsin and iron-alum-hematoxylin were also employed. The latter was very useful in bringing out early Stages of the embryo sac, but it was not so good after endo- Sperm was present. Combinations with anilin-safranin were most Satisfactory for general purposes. A Bausch & Lomb microscope with 2, 4 and ;'; objectives, and 2 and 1 inch oculars, was used, and drawings were made with the aid of a Bausch & Lomb camera. DEVELOPMENT OF MACROSPORES AND EMBRYO SAC. The archesporial cell (fig. 7) is hypodermal in origin and can be recognized in the nucellus before the two outer integu- ments have entirely surrounded it. The nucleus of the arche- sporial cell is larger than those in other cells and the contents are more granular. By a transverse division a tapetal cell (Ag: 2,¢) is cut off, and this apparently undergoes no further division. The macrospore mother cell, however, divides into four cells, three potential macrospores (jig. 2, /) and a vital macrospore (jig. 2, m), which is the lowest of the series and develops into the embryo sac, destroying the entire nucellus in its grow ( figs. 2-12). : hone The two-celled embryo sac (fig. 3) is nearly straight, with nuclei at Opposite extremities and a well marked vacuole in the 316 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | NOVEMBER center. The embryo sac increases in width in the four-celled stage (figs. 4, 5), and when it has reached the eight-celled stage it has a decided curvature (fig. 6). Many of the eight- celled embryo-sacs were destroyed or rendered worthless for camera drawings because they were cut and scattered through too many sections. The one figured has been sectioned so as to cut off the antipodals. It is probable that one is looking at them from above rather than in side view, as the rest of the figure appears. During the last divisions of the embryo sac the tapetal cell disappears ( figs. 5, 6). Up to this point the nuclei are uniform in size, but after the conjugation of the polar nuclei the definitive nucleus is easily distinguished by reason of its superior size, the presence of numerous refractive particles in its large nucleolus, and _ the readiness with which it stains. The presence of refractive bodies is not peculiar to the nucleolus of the definitive nucleus alone, but is found in less degree in the endosperm nuclei and in the large nucleus of the basal suspensor cell. It may also be true of other nuclei, but is not noticeable on account of the diminutive size. After the definitive nucleus is formed, the egg apparatus (figs. 7-9) is readily distinguished, but in the majority of cases the antipodals have entirely disappeared. They are either absorbed or destroyed by the progress of the embryo sac in its encroachment upon the lower part of the nucellus, crushing and crumpling them out of shape. In many cases the lower part of the nucellus is contorted and pushed aside by the advance of the embryo sac, indicating a remarkable degree of force exerted from within (fig. 72). Where remains of antipodals were found, that end of the embryo sac had evidently slipped between the nucellus and its integuments and had not been subjected to the usual ordeal ( figs. 35-36). The oosphere is well concealed by the synergids (igs. 8,9) until after fertilization, when its nucleus descends into the lower part and the oospore (fig. ro) begins to elongate rapidly (jigs. r1, 12). Upto this time the definitive nucleus remains 1898 | EMBRYOLOGY OF ALYSSUM 317 undivided, but after fertilization takes place endosperm is formed very rapidly and is especially abundant around the proembryo, obscuring it and making it difficult to distinguish the early stages of embryonic development if the section was cut diagonally. DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO. The first division in the proembryo is transverse and cuts off a basal suspensor cell which does not divide again (fig. 13, 2). The cell at the end divides very soon into a terminal cell, a true embryo cell ( figs. 73, 74,c) and an intermediate cell ( figs. 13, 14,6). The terminal embryo cell divides by a longitudinal wall into two cells (fig. 75, c), and the two following longitudi- nal divisions at right angles to the first cut it into quadrants (jig. z6, eh The third division is a series of transverse walls in the cells of the quadrant and produces an octant (/ig. 17, c). The dermatogen is the first tissue to be differentiated and is cut off from the octant by a series of periclinal and anticlinal walls (figs. 78,79). Division in the cells of the octant is evidently almost simultaneous, for I could find no instance where any one seemed to have priority in the process. The terminal embryo cell is now represented by two well developed tiers of cells (figs. 19, 20, ¢, da). In each tier, while the dermatogen divides radially, the inner cells undergo a longitudinal division. Meanwhile the intermediate cell (fig. 74, 4) has been divid- ing by a series of transverse walls, and in the cell next those derived from the terminal embryo cell ( fig. 79, ¢), the wall has become somewhat rounded. This cell divides, first into two and then into four cells by longitudinal walls, making a quad- rant. These divisions and the transverse divisions which follow and form the octant correspond to those which take place in the terminal embryo cell, and, since this cell develops into the lower part of the embryo, I shall henceforth refer to it as the basal embryo cell. The whole embryo is therefore developed from two original cells, a terminal embryo cell and a basal embryo cell, both of which first form quadrants by longitudinal walls, and subsequently octants by a series of transverse walls in 318 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER each of the quadrants. /zg. 27 represents a peculiar variation or abnormality in the development of the i es of the basal | embryo cell. To the inner cells of the tier d, fig. 20, one can refer the origin of plerome and periblem, the central cells forming the plerome and the single layer between this and the dermatogen giving rise to the periblem. The transverse division begun in the dermatogen has extended throughout this tier d (fig. 27), and is followed by another radial division in the dermatogen, while a longitudinal division occurs in the innermost cells of tier c (fig. 2g). Aseries of longitudinal walls also begins to appear in tier d, followed by irregular transverse divisions (fig. 25). The entire embryo is now develop- ing rapidly. The basal embryo cell has undergone the third and transverse division, forming two tiers of four cells each next the suspensor (fig. 25, fand g).. In the region where the cotyledons arise, diagonal division has occurred, while in the region of the stem tip it has been longitudinal. The plerome is quite distinct and is shaded in the figure. A more adyanced stage is shown in fig. 28. The cotyledons develop more rapidly and the embryo becomes obcordate (figs. 29-31). The plate of cells nearest the suspensor undergoes a series of transverse divisions as well as longitudinal ones. This division extends to some of the adjoining dermatogen cells (jig. 30), and gives rise to’the calyptrogen, which becomes continuous with the dermatogen and by successive transverse divisions cuts off the root cap. The inner plate, by longitudinal divisions, contributes to that part of the root tip from which the periblem of the radicle is developed (fig. 33, f, g). Beyond this stage i is impossible to get central sections through the entire embryo. The cotyledons fold together and curve upward toward the antip- odal region ( fig. 34), and in the mature state the embryo fills the entire cavity of the embryo sac. THE SUSPENSOR. The basal suspensor cell never divides after the first trans- verse division of the oospore. The intermediate cell contributes 0 | j 1898] EMBRYOLOGY OF ALYSSUM 319 toward the suspensor by a series of transverse divisions, which at first apparently occur in acropetal order ( fig. 75), but later stages seem to indicate intercalary division (figs. 22, 23). The number of cells is variable, some large embryos having only eight- or nine-celled suspensors, while in others the number of cells reaches fifteen. In a few cases, instead of the normal transverse division in the suspensor cells, a longitudinal division occurs, giving a peculiar abnormal appearance (jigs. 22, 26, and 27) The function of the suspensor seems to be that of an absorb- ing organ, supplying nourishment to the rapidly growing embryo and serving the purpose of the root in mature plants. When stained with anilin-safranin or its combinations, the suspensor and the cells arising from the basal embryo cell stained much less deeply than those derived from the terminal embryo cell. This was of great advantage in clearly determining the origin of calyptrogen, root cap, and root tip. The suspensor persists until the embryo is mature, although it becomes shriveled and apparently functionless some time before the resting period of the embryo is attained. ENDOSPERM. The definitive nucleus divides immediately after the formation of the oospore: The endosperm accumulates very rapidly in the region of the proembryo and often obscures it, especially in the early stages. Early in my work I concluded that endosperm was formed previous to fertilization, because I frequently found it when I could not distinguish any embryo, But later research showed that endosperm was not present until after the proem- bryo appeared; and, whenever found, remains of a badly sectioned embryo were evident. Several instances in which. unfertilized oospheres were found in the same silicle with well developed embryos showed the definitive nucleus distinct and undivided in the shriveled embryo sac, and an entire absence of endosperm. The endosperm forms a complete lining for the embryo sac (fig. 12), and a passing through the well-known radiations, 320 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER forms cell walls. Some of the free cells accumulate in the antip- odal region and form a peculiar thallus-like mass, which further assists in obscuring whatever remains of the antipodals might otherwise be found (figs. 35-39). This growth was for some time a puzzle as to its origin, whether the result of division of the antipodals, or a growth of endosperm arising from the first division of the definitive nucleus and cut off by a cell wall from other endosperm, as is the case in Sagittaria.? All doubt was dispelled when the remains of the antipodals were found (gs. 35,36) while this thallus-like growth was in early stages of development. In many cases the appearance was so peculiar and the connection with all other endosperm so obscured, while the entire mass stained so similarly to the embryo, that it might easily deceive one as to its nature. Its function is not clearly evident, unless it may be considered as a reserve of food material , after the suspensor ceases to supply nourishment. COMPARISON WITH OTHER DICOTYLS. Chamberlain? says the archesporial cell in Salix divides into a tapetal cell which sometimes gives rise to a tier of five or six cells but occasionally does not divide; and a macrospore mother cell which may or may not divide. If it does’there is a potential macrospore which sometimes divides and a vital macrospore which develops without further preliminary division into the embryo sac, In Aster Novae Angliae+ he reports that after the expected division resulting in four cells, the lowest usually develops into the embryo sac. Coulter’ says of Ranunculus multifidus: “In no case was @ primary tapetal cell cut off, the archesporial cell dividing directly into mother cells.” Alyssum might therefore be considered more primitive in this respect than any of these except Salix, which shows a very unsettled state of affairs. In the development of the embryo of Alyssum there is much ? Schaffner, Bor. Gaz. 23: 252-273. 1897. 4Bor. Gaz. 20: 205-212. 1895- 3 Bor. Gaz. 23: 147-179. 1897. 5 Bot. Gaz. 25: 73-88. 1898. ee = 1898 | EMBRYOLOGY OF ALYSSUM 321 more regularity than in that of any other dicotyledonous embryo yet studied. Capsella is undoubtedly quite symmetrical and Alyssum comes very close to it in many respects. I regret that it was not possible for me to make comparisons directly with Han- stein’s text and figures, as there is so much variation in the illus- trations and reprints given in text-books. In Vines’s Text-book of Botany, p. 443, the terminal embryo cell is figured as dividing first transversely, then longitudinally, while the text reverses this. In Goebel’s Outlines, p- 397, the figures represent the first division as longitudinal, the second as transverse, while the text gives the first and second as longitu- dinal and the transverse divisions as a third series. This corre- sponds to Alyssum. In Sachs’s Tezt-book, p. 516, 1875, the figure is the same as in Goebel’s, but in the text the third series of divisions is given as tangential and cutting off the dermatogen from the quadrants. Whether this statement is due to faulty translation or is so in the original German edition, I cannot say. It does not agree, however, with the German edition of 1882, for there it is distinctly stated in the text that the first three series of divisions are in three directions at right angles to each other, although in the explanation of fig. 446, J-IV, he gives the second series of divisions as transverse, and does not figure Or mention the second longitudinal division. Confusion likewise exists with regard to that portion of the embryo of Capsella which Hanstein designates as the ‘ hypoph- ysis.”’ Its origin is uncertain. It is thought to arise from the last division of the suspensor cell; 2. ¢., the cell which gives rise to the greater part of the embryo remains dormant after the first division in the proembryo, while the suspensor cell continues to divide. The last cell arising thus contributes to the embryo. Chamberlain® doubts the accuracy of this theory, but thinks it Probable that the terminal cell in which the first longitudinal division appears is wholly embryonic, while there may be - varying number of cells in the suspensors formed before this division occurs. This agrees with Alyssum. Hanstein’s * Bor. Gaz. 23: 147-1709. 1897. 322 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER “hypophysis,”’ whatever its origin, has fallen into much the same confusion as the terminal embryo cell. While the majority of text-books give its first division as transverse, fol- lowed by longitudinal divisions, the figures and texts disagree as to the subsequent development of its tissue. In Goebel’s Outlines, while the text describes the plate of cells, 2, of fig. 326, as dividing to form calyptrogen and root cap, in the figure itself 4%’ is divided instead of #. In Sach’s 7ext-book, h' is so figured and the text corresponds. It is unfortunate that such confusion exists in the embryol- ogy of Capsella, and however careful and accurate Hanstein’s original work may have been, he is either ambiguous in his statements or he has been mistranslated. It seems quite prob- able that Capsella is very close to Alyssum in its embryonic development and the many resemblances existing between some of the stages shown in my drawings and those of Hanstein seem to lead one to the conclusion that their embryology is very similar. Perhaps a re-investigation of Capsella would show its development to be the same. SUMMARY. 1. The hypodermal archesporial cell divides into a tapetal cell and a macrospore mother cell which gives rise to four macrospores, three potential macrospores and a vital macrospore, the lowest of the series, which develops into the embryo sac. 2. The embryo sac passes through the usual cell divisions, : increasing in size and becoming much curved, until the entire nucellus is destroyed. 3. The antipodals are ephemeral, disappearing during the early stages of embryonic development. 4. The endosperm appears soon after the fertilization of the oosphere. 5. The first division of the proembryo is transverse and the basal suspensor cell never divides afterward. 6. The end cell divides into the intermediate cell which contributes both to suspensor and embryo, and a terminal embryo cell. “TES ips oer ‘ / \ Te ee Pe Oe Tek ee a a ee eee he é aes iin pada 3 1898 | EMBRYOLOGY OF ALYSSUM 323 7. The first and second series of divisions in the terminal embryo cell are longitudinal and form a quadrant. The octant is formed by a series of transverse divisions. 8. The first three series of divisions in the basal embryo cell correspond to those of the terminal embryo cell, also giving rise to an octant. 9. The dermatogen is the first tissue which is differentiated and is cut off by tangential walls in the cells of the octants. 10. The plerome and periblem arise in the basal hemisphere of the terminal embryo cells; the cotyledons and stem tip from the terminal hemisphere. 11. The calyptrogen and root cap are formed from the basal hemisphere of the basal suspensor cell, while that part of the root tip which forms the periblem of the radicle arises from the hemisphere lying next to the terminal embryo cells. 12. The number of cells in the suspensor varies from six to fifteen. The number beyond six apparently depends upon the number of intercalary divisions, some of which may be longi- tudinal. 13. The endosperm lines the entire embryo sac with a single layer of cells, but is more abundant around the young embryo and forms a peculiar growth in the ancpede region. Cotumus, OHIO. EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXVI-XXVIII. Drawings redyced to three-eighths; the magnification given with each figure refers to the original magnification before reduction. PLATE XXV1, Fic. 1. Nucellus and integuments ; archesporial cells. X 1060. Fic. 2. Nucellus with tapetal cell, 4; potential macrospores, #; and vital Macrospore, 7. 1060 FIG. 3. Two-celled embryo sac; tapetal cell, 4. X1060. Figs. 4-5. Four-celled embryo sac. X 1060. Fic. 6. Eight-celled embryo sac. ae Fic. 7. Seven-celled embryo sac. X10 Fic. 8. Egg apparatus and definitive ae xX 580. Fics. 9 and 9a Embryo sac — fertilization ; antipodals, a. X 1060. * 324 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER: Fic. to.. Embryo sac after fertilization; oospore, 0; synergids, s. X 1060. Fig. 11. One-celled proembryo; pollen tube, Zz; synergid, $258 peatias endosperm nucleus, ed. nu. Fic. 12. Embyo sac showing relative size of proembryo and the distribu- tion of endosperm. xX 1060. . PLATE XXVIII. 1G. 13. Three-celled proembryo ; basal suspensor cell, a, intermediate cell, 6, terminal embryo cell, c. x 1060. * 1G. 14. Same, farther advanced. 1060. oa Fig. 15. First longitudinal division of the terminal embryo cell, c. X 1060. — Fic. 16. Second longitudinal division of c. 1060. Fic. 17. Octant stage, two nuclei cut away in sectioning; intermediate cell, 6 much divided. x 580 Fic. 18. Embryo with dermatogen. x 580. Fig. 19. Same, with more cells in suspensor. 580. Fic. 20. Embryo showing remains of pollen tube, # 7; basal embryo cell; _e, the terminal embryo cell is divided into two distinct tiers, c and d. X580. Fic. 21. Embryo showing a series of transverse divisions in tier d, and- two longitudinal divisions in basal embryo cell, ¢. 580. ; ~ F1G. 22. Suspensor which seems to indicate intercalary division. 1060. F1G, 23. Abnormal suspensor in which intercalary division has been BP instead of transverse ; plerome shaded. G. 24. More advanced enbryo showing longitudinal division in plea X 1060. Fic. 2 5. Transverse division ees the longitudinal ; basal embryo cell divided: into two tiers, fand g. Fics. 26. and 27. Embryos Rodin same silicle, showing abnormal suspensor and basal embryo cell. Shaded and light areas show difference in staining where triple staining was used. X 1060. Fic. 28. Embryo having four tiers in plerome and two in the region vices the stem tip and cotyledons originate. 580. .* PLATE XXVIII. FIG. 29. Pus with four tiers in plerome; a series of longitudinal walls appearing in the inner tier ; three rows in region of cotyledons. 1060. FIGs. 30—32. Large aenbieis showing development of calyptrogen, root eae cap and root tip. x580o. eee Fic. 33. Section through ah tip, showing plerome, periblem, dermato- - : gen, calyptrogen, and root cap. 1G. 34. Nearly mature bie howl suspensor still persisting. x90. Figs. 35-39. Antipodal end of embryo sac, showing antipodals disappear- ee ing and endosperm forming thallus-like growth. hic 35-38, X 10603 Ao os 39. X 599. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI | PLATE XXVI RIDDLE on ALYSSUM PLATE XXVIT RIDDLE on ALYSSUM BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI BOTANICLA GAZETTE, XXVI PLATE XXVIII Le Cy a, cy ev acy, peel) 7 ee eerel) a \ Big NS Ra =. ©, D5 aos uae A eS El ty 3] 7 \e 3) Py oAG BRS peor qe ES ee ei rey NS) AO oGe. 4G) KES nS i Bs NS os SK or) (\ He fs ay, (3 Ba, FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE EASTERN ACAU- LESCENT VIOLETS: CHARLES LOU TS. POLLARo In a paper published two years ago in the Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington,” I presented a tentative revis- ion of the purple-flowered, stemless violets found in the north- eastern United States. Since that time I have been engaged in field study of the genus in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, the District of Columbia, and Virginia, a territory from which the larger proportion of early types was obtained. The excellent library of Professor E. L. Greene, of the Catholic University, has been kindly placed at my disposal, and the opportunity thus afforded of studying the unpublished colored drawings of Le Conte, illustrative of the latter’s well-known monograph of the genus, has been of great value in clearing up doubtful determinations. The herbarium of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, con- taining specimens ticketed by Nuttall, Schweinitz, and Darling- ton, has also afforded material assistance. Many friends and correspondents, to whom I am deeply indebted, have aided me with living and dried plants. In the paper above referred to nine species and one variety were enumerated among the purple-flowered, acaulescent class. As a result of subsequent study this number must be increased at least twofold, and Professor Greene’s investigations have shown that the violets of Canada and the Great Lake region are as yet but imperfectly understood. Mr. Macoun’s observations during the past season, communicated to Professor Greene, have enriched the genus by five species, all natives of Canada; and I doubt not that similar results would follow an exploration of the southern portions of British Columbia. * Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. *10: 85-92. 1896. 1898 ] 325 326 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER Before discussing certain species in detail it may be well to outline briefly the characters upon which we must depend for any thorough understanding of this genus. At the outset I wish to emphasize the importance of unremitting field work, and the absolute uselessness of herbarium material unless one is fortified by previous familiarity with the growing plant. It should not be forgotten that the value of a herbarium for purposes of syste- matic research lies in the advantage thereby gained of having material convenient for morphological and histological study, and not in that it provides in any sense a proper substitute for the - living individuals. Habit as well as habitat, the texture of the | herbage, color of the flowers, position of the cleistogenes, ner- fis vation, shape and degrees of pubescence of the leaves, nature of the surrounding vegetation; all these will be taken into consid- eration by the careful ionologist, and they are each best derived from outdoor investigation. Moreover we should not be content with superficial glances at occasional plants. A large number of individuals should be observed, and every feature of their environment noted; then it will be impossible for any discrimi- nating botanist to makea comment such as I recently heard, that Viola ovata is “nothing but a hairy sagittata with ovate leaves, growing in dry ground.” In recognizing the variability of leaf-outline often presented by a single individual, there is a tendency to misapprehend or to overlook the fact that in all of the heterophyllous violets the a earliest leaves are practically uniform and similar in all.the 7 ao Species, and as they are immediately succeeded by others of a ae totally different type, should never be taken into account 11 ~ critical diagnoses. Thus the first leaf of V7. sagitfata is cordate-_ reniform, obtuse and crenate, exactly like the corresponding ne organ of V. palmata; yet in the one case the characteristi¢ = foliage has lanceolate, sagittate and glabrous blades, and in the — other broadly cordate, pubescent and more or less lobed blades. T am not aware that anyone has ever proposed to unite these twe Species on account of the similarity of their primitive leaves, and yet my attention has frequently been called to these exam- ple of early vernal foliage as an illustration of so-called “inter 1898 ] EASTERN ACAULESCENT VIOLETS 327 grading characters.’’ Indeed in a recent important volume dealing with systematic botany in this country the statement is made in a footnote that ‘‘the contour of the leaf, varying upon the same individual from reniform to ovate and acute, affords no satisfactory distinction.’”’ Such a remarkable variation can scarcely be manifest to the ordinary observer unless the charac- terless primitive foliage is taken into consideration. With equal consistency and discrimination we might attempt to compare the various species of Ipomoea upon the basis of their remarkably uniform bilobed cotyledons. In two or three of our eastern violets leaf-contour, with respect to the mature foliage, plays an important part in differentiating the species. If it were not for the trigonous outline of the leaf of V. emarginata, for example, that species might by those unfamiliar with the habits of violets be confused with V. sagittata; but the elongated lanceolate blade of the latter cannot fail to render it distinct to any observer. In the subjoined key I have followed the primary division of Dr. Gray and other authorities, separating V. pedata as a distinct class on account of the characters found in the rootstock and stigma. The remaining divisions are somewhat arbitrary, as I fully realize the futility of constructing any key inthe hope that it will afford conclusive determinations of every unusual form. To the larger divisions have been given group names, partly for the sake of convenience, and partly in order to make clear the affinities of each species. A knowledge of these primary groups is often indispensable in determining a violet of doubtful rela- tionship. The key includes all the acaulescent species east of the Mississippi now known to me, with the exception of the Canadian forms recently described by Professor Greene? In the notes following the key are mentioned only those 7 aaa deserving special comment. SECTION I. Leaves and flowering scapes directly from a short, erect caudex ; plants not stoloniferous ; cleistogamous apetalous newer apparently wanting ; _ Petals beardless, blue; stigma large, not rostrate. CLASS 1, Pedate. ‘ 1. V. pedata $ Pitt. 3 : 333 ef seg. 328 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER SECTION II. Leaves and scapes from a horizontal or ascending, often multicipital root- Stock ; plants not stoloniferous (except in CLass 5), but bearing numerous cleistogamous apetalous flowers; petals more or less bearded, purple; stigma small, rostrate. CLASS 2. Heterophyll2. Leaves on the same individual entire or variously lobed, from cordate-ovate to reniform in general outline ; scapes of the cleis- togamous flowers deflexed or ascending, not erect (except in V. Brittoniana). ‘Plants always more or less pubescent 4. V. palmata and vars Plants comparatively glabrous, or at most with pubescent petiole. Western campestrine species. Leaves divided aimost to base with narrowly linear lobes ie V. pedatifida Leaves parted scarcely to the middle with rather broad lobes : 3. V. Bernardi : Eastern coastal plain species. : Southern ; leaves very irregularly lobed and incised. Plant succulent 7. V. esculenta Plant not succulent 8. V. insignis Northern ; leaves symmetrically lobed. Leaves large, pedately 5~7-parted to base 6. V. septemloba Leaves with a large median lobe and pinnately arranged lateral lobes 5. V. Brittoniana CLASS 3. Communes. Leaves on the same individual similar or nearly $0, rarely pubescent (except in villosa), in general outline cordate-ovate ; scapes of the cleistogamous flowers either erect or deflexed. Woodland species ;+ peduncles of the cleistogenes deflexed. Plants small (less than 1 high), . Leaves reniform-orbicular, silvery-hirsute above 15. V. ville Leaves deltoid-triangular, apparently glabrous above : 16. V. Langloistt — Plants large (more than 14™ high). Leaves broadly asariform ; cleistogenes hypogaeous in fruit. 5. 10. V7. domestica Leaves usually broadly cordate; cleistogenes not hypogaeous. — Keel-petal cuspidate; leaves hirsutulous 11. V. cuspida f Keel-petal not cuspidate ; leaves glabrate 9. V.communts — Bog-meadow species; peduncles of the cleistogenes strictly erect. Leaves markedly cucullate 13. V. cucullata * By this expression is meant all dry or merely moist shaded localities as dis: tinguished from open, sunny bog-meadows and partially shaded water courses. The 4 Position of the cleistogenes in nos. 11, 14, and 16 is uncertain. : 1898 ] EASTERN ACAULESCENT VIOLETS 329 Leaves scarcely at all cucullate. Leaves yellowish-green, prominently veined, obtuse 14. V. affinis Leaves bright green, not prominently veined, acute 12. V. obligua CLASS 4. Sagittate. Leaves all similar, ovate-sagittate or ovate-lanceo- late in general outline; entire or slightly lobed; peduncles of the cleistogamous flowers strictly erect; flowers dark purple. Plants distinctly villous-hirsute. Spur of the corolla saccate-dilated; leaves with a deep sinus 21. V. Carolina Spur of the corolla not conspicuous; leaves with a shallow sinus or 20. V. ovata none Plants glabrate or only ciliate. Leaves elongated-oval, of nearly similar diameter throughout ; basal lobes conspicuous 17. V. sagittata Leaves ovate-triangular, nearly equilateral, the base truncate, not often lobed; petals emarginate 18. V. emarginata Leaves clongated- -ovate, tapering to apex, slightly dentate at base 19. V. dentata CLASS 5. Odorate. Plants stoloniferous; leaves reniform-cordate; flowers purple Rootstock thickened, scaly; plant introduced 22. V. odorata Rootstock filiform ; species native, far northern. Leaves hirsute-pubescent, crenate 23. V. Selkirkis Leaves glabrous, crenulate 24. V. palustris SECTION III. Leaves variable in outline; plants mostly stoloniferous from filiform root- Stocks; spur short and saccate; stigma short, pointed; petals yellow or white, usually veined with purple; position of the cleistogenes various. CLASS 6. Blandz. Corolla white. Leaves from ovate to orbicular; cleistogenes deflexed. Leaves reniform, pubescent 29. V. . rentfolia Leaves cordate-ovate, glabrate. Petioles red-spotted; leaves pale beneath 30. V. amoena Petioles not red-spotted ; leaves green beneath 28. V. banda Leaves from ovate-lanceolate to narrowly linear ; cleistogenes erect. Leaves linear or Rape Blade and petiole coalescen Blade and petiole distinct, of nearly equal length 26. V. lanceolata Leaves ovate-lanceolate, the blade decurrent 27. V. primulaefolia 25. V. vittata 330 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER CLASs 7. Orbiculares. Corolla yellow ; cleistogenes deflexed 31. V. rotundifolia VIOLA PEDATA L. Sp. Pl. 933. 1753. V. digitata Pursh, Fl. Am. Sept. 1:171.. 1812. V. pedata bicolor Bursh, fide Raf. in DC. Prodr.1: 291. 1824. V. pedata inornata Greene, Pitt. 3:35. 1806. This, the common bird’s-foot violet, appears, as is well known, in two forms, in one of which the petals are pale blue and concolorous, in the other the uppermost petals deep velvety- purple. It is the latter form, so long known as the variety bicolor, which is figured by Plukenet, and on which Linnaeus based his type. Between these two extremes one finds in Mary- land and Virginia every possible variation. Professor Greene considered the pedata of New England, which is usually the concolorous form, distinct from this variable southern plant, and bestowed on it the varietal name inornata. I have not been able to find characters upon which to base such a separa- tion. VioLa BERNARDI Greene, Pitt. 3: 260. 1898. As synonym. V. pedatifida var. Bernardi Greene, |. c. Professor Greene applies this name to a violet very familiar to me from a specimen in my own herbarium, collected in Wisconsin by Professor S. M. Tracy some years ago, which has since passed into the possession of the National Herbarium. The plant was so remarkable that Dr. Britton originally considered it distinct, and gave it a manuscript name. In the states of Michigan, Wisconsin, and northern Illinois it seems to be the prevailing form, and apparently entirely replaces V. palmata. Recently specimens have come to me from Chicago collected by Dr. Moffatt, which in addition to Dr. Greene’s material show the — plant to be a species intermediate between the Pepat# and the HETEROPHYLL#, having the foliage and aspect of the formet, together with the rootstock and variable leaf-contour of the latter. I have been unable to discover cleistogamous flowers upon the material thus far examined. 1898] EASTERN ACAULESCENT VIOLETS 331 VIoLa PALMATA L. Sp. Pl. 933, 1753. V. palmata var. a vulgaris Ell. Bot. S. C. & Ga.t: 300. 1817. V. palmata var. B fragrans Ell., |. c. V. cucullata var. palmata A. Gray, Man. 78. 1867. [Ed. 5.] Concerning this species there is a substantial agreement among the early authorities. Mr. Edmund G. Baker in a recent issue of the British Journal of Botany discusses the Linnzean type, which was based upon a poorly drawn figure of Plukenet; this might indeed stand for any of the HETEROPHYLL&, but Mr. Baker points out that both of Plukenet’s specimens are pubescent and adds that the figure in Britton and Brown’s Flora fairly matches the types, although these have leaves slightly less lobed. The true palmata, then, is a plant of rich woodlands, usually distinctly pubescent, with rather dark purple flowers, and leaves exhibit- ing a great diversity of lobation. I recognize in addition two well-known varieties, both of which are referable to older author ities, and abundantly represented in most herbaria. VIOLA PALMATA pILATATA EIl., 1. c. V. triloba Schwein., Am. Journ. Sci. 5: $9... 1034, V. congener Le Conte, Ann, N. Y. Lyc. 2: 140. 1828. The leaves in this variety are uniformly three-lobed, though occasionally some of them will be found nearly entire, as often happens in the type. The lobes vary in shape, and are frequently dentate or incised, but the central one is constantly the largest. In the District of Columbia this is the prevailing form ; indeed the range of palmata and its varieties is so strongly marked as almost to warrant a separation of dilatata and the type as two distinct species. V. palmata in its typical form I have not seen South of Harpers Ferry, except in the Blue Ridge mountains. In the lowlands it seems to be entirely replaced by dilatata. Schweinitz argues very strongly in favor of the specific identity of V. triloba, as he called it, and inall probability he had observed the difference in range between the two. The character of Elliott’s description, and the habitat cited for his plant, leave little doubt as to its identity. 332 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER VIOLA PALMATA sorRoRIA (Willd). V. sororia Willd. Enum. 263. 1809. : V. asarifolia Pursh, Fl. Am. Sept. Suppl. 732. 1814. V. villosa var. B cordifolia Nutt. Gen. 148. 1818. Dr. Britton has recognized this species in the ///ustrated Flora and is still inclined to maintain it, but I fail to perceive in sovoria, if the name be correctly applied, which is somewhat doubtful, anything more than an entire-leaved state of V. palmata. This variety seems remarkably distinct in its early vernal stage, but I have seen individuals put forth occasional lobed leaves, and it is not uncommon for specimens of fal/matfa in cultivation to develop large, asariform, unlobed leaves late in the season, and in this condition they are absolutely undistinguishable from | typical sororia. Among the early writers Pursh and Schweinitz ) were the only two that retained sovorta in specific rank. Nuttall named it as a variety of villosa, which it somewhat suggests in habit. Viola Brittoniana, nom. nov. V. Atlantica Britton, Bull. Torr. Club 24:92. 1897; not V. Atlantica Pomel, Nouv. Mat. Fl, Atlant. 215. 1874. The specific designation originally assigned to this plant being clearly ahomonym under all accepted rules, it is with great pleasure that I have associated Dr. Britton’s name with it, the type coming froma region in which he has long lived and worked. It is essentially a maritime species, ranging practically the entire length of the Atlantic seaboard. Although I have not seem specimens from the Atlantic coast below Virginia Beach, it certainly occurs on the Gulf coast near Mobile, and probably at intermediate stations. It is a succulent, glabrous plant, exhibit- ing a fondness for saline soils. I have often had misgiving aS to whether it might not, after all, be the true septemloba of Le Conte; but that is both described and figured as having flowers nearly two inches in diameter, and the cut of the leaves is also different. The plant is thriving in cultivation at the New York Botanical Garden, and when examined during the latter part of Nh te le ee 1898 ] EASTERN ACAULESCENT VIOLETS 333 the past summer was found to possess erect cleistogenes. This furnishes us with a connecting link between the two groups of SacitTaTt# and HeErTEropHyLLt&. Dr. Robinson has recently kindly communicated to me specimens of a violet discovered near Boston by Mr. H. A. Purdie which I consider undoubtedly referable to this species, although there is astonishing diversity in the lobation of the leaves. VIOLA SEPTEMLOBA Le Conte, Ann. N. Y. Lyc. 2:141. 1828. I have applied this name, although with some hesitation, to a rather local violet which at once attracts attention on account of its ample, flabelliform, and deeply divided leaves, which attain in late summer an enormous development. Le Conte remarks onthe great length of the peduncles and the large size of the flower, features which I have noticed in the plants obtained about Washington. He assigns it to ‘Carolina and Georgia, in pine barrens only,” and this habitat again agrees with my observations. Finally there is a plant in the herbarium of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, labeled, I believe, in Darlington’s hand- writing ‘ V. septemloba.”’ VIOLA EScULENTA EIL., l. c., as synonym. V. heterophylla Muhl. Cat. 25. 1813; not Poiret nor Bertol. V. palmata var. 8 heterophylla Ell., |. c. I have not seen Elliott’s type of this species, and am depen- dent upon a colored drawing of Le Conte’s, and a specimen from Louisiana which Professor Greene has seen in the herbarium of r. Mohr. The leaves are wonderfully diversified in outline and lobation after the manner of the following species, but it is stated by Elliott that the whole plant is extremely succulent, and is used by the negroes as a pot-herb. In the National Herbarium is a specimen from Elmira, New York, which would seem to match these characters, but ] should hesitate to call it V. esculenta without having seen individuals from intermediate stations. The habitat of this violet is given as swamps, and in this prefer- €nce it is distinct from all other members of the HETEROPHYLL& . 334 ’ BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER Viola insignis, n. sp. Acaulescent, glabrous, 2-5°" high: stipules linear-acumi- nate, slightly ciliate; leaves long-petioled, the early ones cor- date-ovate, the later broadly trigonous, with truncate base and very obtuse apex, variously 3—5 lobed, the central lobe largest ; margins obscurely crenate, denticulate or nearly entire ; venation distinctly palmate: flowering peduncle usually bibracteate, not surpassing the foliage: flower very large (4°™ in diameter), deep purple, the petals oblong, and of nearly equal size ; lateral petals conspicuously bearded with glistening white hairs; spur short ; sepals narrowly lanceolate and acuminate: capsule and apetalous flowers not observed. Dry pine barrens, northern Florida. Types in U. S. National Herbarium, Curtiss no. 45 18a, Jacksonville; A. Fredholm no. 425, Duval county. I would also refer here Nash’s specimen from Eustis, no. 203, the leaves of which exhibit a form of lobation akin to that in Brittoniana, a pinnate arrangement of small lateral lobes on either side of a large central one ; in this case, however, the two posterior lateral lobes are decidedly runcinate, as shown in the detached leaf shown in the accompanying figure. The species is the sole representative of the HETEROPHYLL2 in Florida, so far as I have observed ; and although from the illus- tration it may appear to resemble palmata it is most conspicuously distinct from that species. Apparently all the members of the HeTERopHYLL® (with the exception of V. Lrittoniana) produce their cleistogamous apetalous flowers on horizontal, or at most ascending, peduncles. The tendency of the ripening capsule is to seek the surface of the ground where it sooner or later becomes partially buried. In the matter of pubescence the species are divided, palmata exhibiting nearly constant pubescence, while the remaining species are glabrous or only sparsely hairy. The term glabrous must be used in a comparative sense where violets are concerned, since there is rarely a case in which traces of pubescence sy ciliation cannot be found. With respect to leaf-variation it will 1898] EASTERN ACAULESCENT VIOLETS 335 is fi i also be noted that the primitive leaves in nearly every species are alike, and differ widely from the mature foliage. | a Sk aa li Ny i ge VIOLA INSIGNIS, 2. Sf. 336 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | NOVEMBER In the species of the next class, the COMMUNES, lobed leaves are rare exceptions. The position of the cleistogamous flower- ing peduncles is horizontal in the woodland species, and strictly erect in those growing in bogs or swamps. The physiological reasons for this are not clearly understood ; but it is hoped that a series of experiments to be undertaken next season may shed light on the matter. Viola communis, nom. nov. V. obliqua and V.cucullata of recent authors; not of Hill nor of Aiton. This, the commonest of our eastern violets, is separable from the below-mentioned segregates by the following combination of characters: Plant very stout, at flowering time low, but in late summer attaining a height of from eight to twelve inches; herbage bright dark green: leaves quite glabrous, cordate to reniform, more or less cucullate, very regularly crenate and dis- tinctly obtuse at apex ; nervation pinnate, with several additional primary nerves from base; stipules broad and foliaceous, laci- Niate: flowers deep purple, borne on peduncles almost invariably shorter than the petioles ; cleistogamous flowers on horizontal peduncles, the oblong, scarcely angled capsules ripening on oF beneath the surface of the ground.— Inhabits various situations, but prefers rich, moist soil in open places. I have emphasized these well-known characters in order that they may be borne in mind in comparison with the species discussed below, and I shall attempt to show that neither the cwcullata of Aiton nor the obliqua of Hill can be regarded as identical with this plant unless we follow the lead of conservative botanists and continue to treat the species as an aggregate. VioLa Domestica Bicknell, Britton and Brown, Illust. Fl. 3° 519. 1898. This peculiar violet has frequently been the subject of dis- cussion between Dr. Britton, Mr. Bicknell and myself. I had concluded to publish it as a variety when I heard that Mr. Bick- nell’s specific description was already in type; and it very prob- 1898 ] EASTERN ACAULESCENT VIOLETS 337 ably is better regarded as a species, although the strange habitat, which is invariably rich, cultivated ground in the close vicinity of dwellings, suggests that it originated as a cultivated variety. The range should have included the District of Columbia, for it is not uncommon here in congenial situations. Mr. Bicknell did not call attention to a very conspicuous peculiarity of the cleisto- genes, namely, the tendency to bury themselves deep in the ground instead of remaining close to the surface. The leaves attain enormous proportions, frequently attaining a breadth of eight inches. VIOLA CUSPIDATA Greene, Pitt. 3: 314. 1898. I have seen only young flowering specimens of this plant in cultivation at the Catholic University. Professor Greene con- siders it allied to palmata, but aside from the pubescence, the characters are those of the Communes. It is a native of the Lake region and of Canada. Viova osrigua Hill, Hort. Kew. 316. pi. 72. 1769. Not of Aiton nor of Pursh. In assigning Hill’s name and figure to a certain slender plant of wet rills and shaded rocks, with glabrous foliage, narrowly ovate, cordate and acute leaves, I believe we can be certain both of matching the type and finding ourselves in general agreement with the botanists of the early part of this century. It is fully as likely that this little plant may have been discovered by some collector and sent to Kew as the hedgerow species which I have called communis, especially since the latter does not properly . agree with Hill’s figure. : VioLa cucutxata Ait., Hort. Kew. 3:288. 1789. Professor Greene was the first (o separate this species from the commuuts-obliqua aggregate, and additional observations _have amply justified his conclusions. Dr. Britton has included the plant in the appendix to the //ustrated Flora, and there seems 338 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER no doubt that it is the original cucullata. It is remarkable for the very pale blue flowers and light green foliage, which does not thrive in late summer like that of other members of the Communes, but often collapses so that it is difficult to secure specimens showing thc erect cleistogenes. The leaves are broader than long, with margins only slightly crenate or dentic- ulate, the apex obtuse, and all or most of them cucullate. In obliqua, on the other hand, they are rather longer than broad, with sinuate-crenate margins and scarcely ac all cucullate. Both species grow in moist soil, and both produce erect cleistogenes, very different, it will be observed, from V. communis. 1 think I have now shown the specific differences existing between the latter and its allies. There remain only two other names which could be possibly taken up for communis; one of these is V. papilionacea of Pursh, which I have seen figured by Le Conte, and which is totally different from any violet now known to us; the other is V. afinis Le Conte, discussed below. VIOLA AFFINIs Le Conte, |. c. p- 138. In an issue of Pittonia’ which has just come to hand. Pro- fessor Greene makes the following statement concerning V. affinis: “ This fine species, common enough in most woodlands of the District of Columbia and adjacent Maryland, was identified by me to my own satisfaction by Le Conte’s excellent description, nearly two years since.” Inasmuch as the description referred to is exceedingly brief and the characterization of the foliage as “‘foliis ovatis subacuminatis, crenato-dentatis ” might be applied with equal propriety to many other violets, it is difficult to under- Stand the grounds for Professor Greene’s preemption of the name a@ffinis for a species ‘common in most woodlands of the District-of Columbia.” It has always seemed to me that Le Conte himself places a very effectual obstacle in the way a our understanding when he observes at the close of his descrip-_ tion “ Nimis praecedenti affinis; nullos characteres distinctivos praeter pedunculi brevitatem et latiora calycis sepala invenire °3: 337. A 1898] EASTERN ACAULESCENT VIOLETS 339 possum.” In the light of this declaration I had always con- sidered V. affints a synonym of V. cucullata, the “ preceding species ’’ referred to by Le Conte. Nevertheless, having since examined the latter’s colored drawing of PV; affinis, | am inclined to agree with Professor Greene that the species is a distinct one, but I would refer to it a plant which to the best of my knowl- edge does not grow in the District of Columbia, but is of north- ward distribution. It is an inhabitant of shaded wet rocks, and has pale bluish-purple flowers (‘‘ basi albidis ’’ as Le Conte says), and yellowish-green leaves shaped more like those of ovata (‘foliis ovatis cordatis ”’) than like those of most violets belong- ing to the CoMMUNES. VIOLA VILLosA Walt. FI. Car. 219. 1788. V, cucullata var. cordata Gray, Man. 78. 1867. [Ed. 5.| V. palmata var. villosa Robinson in Gray, Syn. F]. N. Am. 1: 196. 1895. In spite of the undivided foliage of this plant it suggests the HETEROPHYLL& more than the Communes. Happily there is no difference of opinion of the applicability of the name, although the latter is not well chosen as the leaves are hirsute rather than villous. The flowers show more of a reddish tinge than those of any other violet with which I am familiar. Vioxa sacitrata Ait. Hort. Kew. 3: 287. 1789. This species was thoroughly well known and understood until it was made a general receptacle for other species of the same group. It was never characterized as ‘“ polymorphous ” by either Elliott, Schweinitz or Le Conte, although in recent years it has been a stumbling block for many a student of the Violacee. As a matter of fact there is no violet more constant or unvarying either in foliage or habitat. It may be recognized by the very dark purple flowers, distinctly sagittate, narrowly oval, usually glabrous leaves, the petioles of which always exceed the flower- ing scapes. It chooses wet, springy spots along brooks as its favorite location, although it is frequently found in moist meadows. 340 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER VIOLA SAGITTATA SUBSAGITTATA (Greene). V. subsagittata Greene, Pitt. 3: 316-317. 1898 Professor Greene thus explains his description: ‘‘I here pro- pose, for a new subspecies, what is known throughout a great extent of country west of Lake Michigan, as V. sagittata.” He further states that the differences consist in the marked pubes- cence, the larger flowers, and the smaller dimensions of the plant. I infer from his characterization of it as a subspecies that Dr. Greene would agree with my disposal of it as a geo- graphical variety. : VIOLA EMARGINATA (Nutt.) Le Conte, |. c. p. 142, excl. char. V. sagittata var. 8 emarginata Nutt. Gen. 148. 1818. It is unnecessary to add anything to the very elaborate description of this plant published, with figures, in Pittonia 3+ 255, especially as Dr. Britton has also admitted the species in ; the Appendix to the third volume of the Mlustrated Flora, It should be observed that although Le Conte raised Nuttall’s variety to specific rank, and hence must be quoted as authority for the name, the plant which he had in mind, as shown by his figure and description was the following: VIOLA DENTATA Pursh, Fl. Am. Sept, ¥; 172. Lois: V. Porteriana Pollard, Bull. Torr. Club 24: 404. 1897. Misled by Le Conte’s reference of Pursh’s dentata to emar- ginata, | redescribed this imposing violet last year, after abun- dant specimens had been secured on an excursion of the Torrey Club to Bushkill, Pa. While its relationship is with V. ovata, I do not think the two plants can readily be mistaken for each other, and there is the further fact to be noted that dentata is 4 species of high altitudinal distribution, all the material that I have examined having been collected either in the mountains of eastern Pennsylvania or the Blue ridge in Virginia. VioLa ovaTA Nutt., l. c. p. 148. V. primulifolia Pursh, Fl. Am. Sept. 1: 173. 1812; not V. primulae- olia L. 1753. 1898 | EASTERN ACAULESCENT VIOLETS 341 V. ciliata Muhl. Cat. 26. 1813, without synonymy or description. V. sagittata var. B ovata T.& G. Fl. N. Am. 1:138. 1838. In the typical form, as shown by contemporaneous collec- tions in the herbarium of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, the leaves are oval rather than ovate, tapering somewhat at base as well as apex. Viova ovata Hicks Pollard, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 10:92. 1896. V. sagittata Hicksii Pollard, Bot. Gaz. 20: 326. 1895. Leaves distinctly deltoid-ovate, rather truncate at base. The prevailing form in the District of Columbia. VrioLa CAROLINA Greene, Pitt. 3:259. 1898. I have not yet seen material of this species aside from the type sheet in Professor Greene’s collection. It is apparently quite distinct from other members of the group in the south. VIOLA oporata L. Sp. Pl. 934. 1753. V. Thompsone Chapm. FI. S. States 34. 1897. [ed. 3. ] A specimen of this violet was sent to the National Herbarium by Mrs. Thompson at the same time that it was placed in Dr. Chapman’s hands, and was immediately recognized as V. odorata, a familiar escape in the north, but evidently not hitherto reported from the southern states. VioLa viTTaTa Greene, Pitt. 3:258. 1898. This replaces danceolata throughout the extreme southern States. The leaves are unlike those of any other violet in that they are so short-petioled as to appear almost sessile ; hence when they have attained full dimensions they bear a strong resem- blance to the fronds of Vittaria lineata as the describer of the species has already observed. VIOLA PRIMUL&FOLIA L. l. c. A somewhat variable species. I have ventured to segregate asa variety the southern material as follows: 342 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER | VIOLA PRIMULFOLIA australis, n. var. Leaves much larger and thicker, decurrent on the reddish-_ tinged petiole; flowers larger than in the type (1-1.5™ broac odorless. Throughout the southern states. Type in the National Herbarium, A. Fredholm, no. 431, Duval county, Florida. : VIOLA AMcENA Le Conte, |. c. p. 144. V. blanda var. palustriformis A. Gray, Bot. Gaz. 11.255. 1886. A much larger and more robust plant than d/anda, usually _ more pubescent, with reddish petioles and odorless flowers. It is frequently stoloniferous, which is rarely the case in dlanda, and prefers moist cliffs and shaded regions rather than the wet, grassy meadows in which d/anda abounds. WASHINGTON, D. C. 2a ne ee = t8 2-20 A NEW SELF-REGISTERING TRANSPIRATION MACHINE. EDWIN BINGHAM COPELAND. TRANSPIRATION is so important and conspicuous a function of ordinary land plants that the number of papers dealing with it, as a whole or in part, sufficed already a decade ago to justify the compilation of ‘the materials for a monograph.”” No contribu- tor to this literature can have failed to feel the need of some device by which he could record the plant’s loss of water, with such ease and accuracy as various auxanometers, for instance, make possible for its growth. Several contrivances for this work have been described, and a few have been put to actual use by their inventors; but none has as yet been well enough adapted to the purpose to bring it into general use, or make it any stand- ard part of laboratory equipment. Pfeffer* refers for such apparatus to papers by Vesque, Eder, Krutizky, Marey, and Anderson. Eder? measured only the absorption of water. A tracer fastened to a cork floating ina burette from which the water is drawn makes the absorption self- registering. The apparatus used for investigation by Vesque was not self-registering, but was simply a glass siphon with the shoot being tested in one end, and filled to a given point in the other arm with water, and weighed ; after a time it was reweighed, showing the weight of water transpired, and filled to the original level and weighed, showing the weight absorbed. Absorption and transpiration are not necessarily equivalent, for any given time-interval. Krutizky’s* apparatus consisted of a siphon into * Pflanzenphysiologie ¥.5 224. 1897: [id 2.) * Untersuchungen iiber die Ausscheidung von Wasserdampf bei den Pflanzen 106. Leipzig. 18 3 L’absorption comparée directement a la transpiration. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., VI. ‘Beschreibung eines zur Bestimmung der von den Pflanzen aufgenommenen und verdunsteten Wassermenge dienenden Apparates. Bot. Zeit. 36 : 161. ne 343 344 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER one end of which a leaf or shoot was sealed, while the other was connected with an areometer. The water absorbed by the shoot was drawn from the areometer, which would then rise, and its rise could be recorded by a needle attached to it and traveling on a smoked cylinder. As far as I know, this apparatus has_ never been used at all. Pfeffer’s citation of Marey is ‘‘ Methode Graphique, 1st ed.,” which I have not seen. In the second edi- tion, 1885, pp. 255-258, are brief descriptions of several machines for the automatic registration of changes in weight, used in - meteorology to measure rainfall, but equally adapted to use in measuring transpiration, as is illustrated by a curve obtained by Marié-Davy with one of them. Anderson’s’ plan is to collect the transpired water by means of an absorbent on a scale pan. When the balance is sufficiently disturbed, an electric circuit is closed, which drops a weight on the other pan, restores the equilibrium, and makes a record of the time. Woods® has used a rain gauge to measure transpiration, the machine being set up so that the plant’s loss of weight opens an electric circuit, this moves the tracing pen and also a counter- weight, which closes the circuit again. A sample of the record shows the soundness of the device. Francis Darwin’? speaks of an attempt to construct a self-registering balance by placing 4 spring under one pan and prolonging the knife edge as a tracer. All of these devices except Darwin’s, which was never applied to measuring transpiration, are founded on one or the other of two principles: the use of the areometer, as in the apparatus of Rédier and of Salleron, cited by Marey, and of Eder, Krutizky, and Vesque; or the imposition of counterweights at the instant demanded by the change in weight of the subject, as in the apparatus of Ragona, described by Marey, and of Anderson and Woods. They have employed both of the reliable methods of measuring the transpiration, namely, weighing the plant, and collecting and weighing the evaporated water. Eder made a 5 Minnesota Botanical Studies 1: 177. 1894. ® Recording apparatus for the study of the transpiration of plants. Bot. GAZ. 473. 7 Annals of Bot. 7 : 461. as . 1898 | A NEW TRANSPIRATION MACHINE 345 mistake in measuring the water absorbed, and Krutizky’s appa- ratus is inapplicable for the same reason. The apparatus now to be described was made for the Indiana University, from my plan, through the Cambridge Botanical LOL LLZE SE Za ZA Sey ga BZ —— = rs <= aoe + ES —— a Z es / a ta. TER RRR Soa ——— , Pigg Ome —__ A SELF-REGISTERING TRANSPIRATION MACHINE. Supply Company, by Professor J. C. Arthur. The cost is about $35. The frame, made of iron tubing, stands twenty-five inches high, and is fifteen inches wide. Each arm bears at the end a piece of plate glass, which must lie with its upper face exactly horizontal. Two wheels of aluminum, cut out so as to 346 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER be as light as possible and perfectly centered, have a common axis, whose ends are slender cylinders, rolling on these plate-glass supports. The wheels are six and twelve inches in diameter, and absolutely true; when not loaded they are at rest anywhere on the supports. Over one of the wheels—the smaller one, as I have used the apparatus—runs a thread or string, which carries — on one end the plant whose transpiration is to be tested. The other end is fastened to an areometer, weighted until it is partly submerged. For this areometer I use a bottle partly filled with mercury, with a tight-fitting cork, into which is sealed a glass rod or tube. It is convenient to use a tube, so that the load of mercury can be adjusted without. disturbing the cork. For the string I used double heavy silk thread, boiled in beeswax, and rubbed until it would not stick to the wheel. It was fastened to the upper end of the glass tube, out of contact with liquid water, and altogether was pretty well protected against hygroscopic — changes in length. Now, as the plant transpires it becomes lighter, and the areometer sinks, displacing exactly the mass of water at that end of the string which has been lost by evaporation at the other. If, for example, the area of a section of the tube be i, it will sink 1™ while the plant loses 1% in weight. The larger wheel carries a thread, with a tracer which leaves its record in the same way as that of an auxanometer. What are the limitations of the working of the machine ? When it is used with proper care, there is practically but one, the inertia of the resting load which the wheel carries. Friction is practically eliminated. The axis turns more easily than would be feasible on ball bearings. The only remaining obstacle to perfect ease of movement is the surface tension of the waters but the capillarity is not very considerable even at its theoret- ical maximum, which is never reached, and if the tube is unr form and clean it will hardly vary as the tube descends. Jats and irregular drafts must of course be avoided. It has been possible to put the apparatus to an unfortunately brief test. Both potted plants and water cultures were used j E. a iy 1898] A NEW TRANSPIRATION MACHINE 347 the latter are rather more convenient since there is only the top of the containing vessel from which evaporation must be pre- vented. Several attempts were necessary before a large enough tube was used on the float; 2. ¢., the apparatus was at first set up so as to be too sensitive. A slender tube is appropriate when the intervals of time are short; but it sank so fast that it reached bottom within a few hours. The results introduced below were obtained by the use of a tube whose cross section was 54%"; one, therefore, which would sink 8™ while the plant lost 5°. in weight. As the areometer sank, the water it floated in rose a very little, but this is not a source of error because the water was in the same vessel when the value of a unit of movement was determined. I did not guard against evaporation from this water, as would be advisable if the clover plant instead of the apparatus were the real subject of experiment.’ For the same reason, the temperature and relative humidity do not concern us here. The plant was a red clover with about ten leaves, grown in soil, but transferred to water two days before the experiment began. The data are derived from an experiment on June 15 and 16, and are given in measurements of vertical distances on the smoked cylinder, and in grams of water. Hours in light-face figures are a.m., those in bold-face figures P.M.: How | Reow | Weict om | Beam | We 9-10 25.6 0.800 1-2 2.9 0.091 I0O-II 20.3 0.635 2-3 a7 0.116 I-12 14.6 0.456 3-4 pe 35 papinbd ti aa | 22:3 0.697 4-5 3.9 0.122 | ae | 29.5 0.922 5-6 4.6 0.144 2-3 4.0 0.125 6-7 14.2 . 0.444 3-4 3.8 0.119 7-8 22.9 6.716 45 4.0 0.125 8-9 26.6 0.831 5-6 5.9 0.184 g-I0 3LI 0.972 6-7 4.2 0.131 10-11 23.0 0.719 7-8 3-9 0.122 II-12 9.9 0.309 8-9 3-7 0.116 12-1 8.7 0.272 9-10 3.0 0.094 I-2 11.9 0.372 10-11 2.7 0.084 2-4 15.2 0.473 II-12 23 0.072 4-5 6.3 0.197 12-1 3.0 0.094 5-6 5.5 _— etc —_—, 348 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER In measuring the distances registered on the smoked cylinder I attempted accuracy to 0.1™", which is rather finer than is safe. I believe that the real limit to the accuracy of the results to be obtained with this apparatus lies in our ability to measure the trace. The weight on each side of the wheel in this test was only about 700%", less than would often occur in practical use. It has not been practicable to make a test with a greater load than 3.5"%, with which, under proper conditions, it responds to a change of not more than 50" in either direction. It is a merit of this apparatus that it will register equally well a decrease or an increase in weight, without any change in the set- ting up, except as the areometer will be set deep in the water if a continued increase is anticipated. It can be used to measure the changes in weight of fruits, etc.; and with some modification in details, the plan of the experiment is a good one for delicate and accurate measurements of the pressure of growing roots, the lifting power of prostrated grass stems, etc. Finally, one comment on the table, introduced only as an illustration, a further discussion being reserved for a future time : the remarkable transpiratory activity during a few hours of both forenoons is not an error, nor does it seem to be am accident ; for four different plants of red clover showed the same striking behavior, MADIsoN, WIs. BRIEFER ARTAGRES THE SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS OF SOME AMENTIFERAE (WITH PLATE XXIX) APPARENTLY few observations have been recorded upon the seed- lings of this group. Sir John Lubbock? briefly describes seedlings of Juglans and Pterocarya, and some representatives of the different genera of the Fagacee and Betulacee. There has been much con- fusion regarding the seeds of the Juglandacez. De Candolle? inter- preted the parts of the embryo correctly, as did Kronfeld* and Lubbock, but most writers on systematic botany have misunderstood them. The seeds and seedlings studied represented the following genera: Juglans, Hicoria, F agus, Castanea, and Quercus. Some of the seedlings were grown in moss in the greenhouse and were not sub- jected to frost action or cracking. Other seedlings of the same Species were grown in the garden from seeds planted in the fall. Juglans nigra and J. cinerea were the only ones that would not grow in the greenhouse. T hey obviously required the frost action to break their shells. JUGLANDACE®. As is well known, the fruit in this family is a nut, enclosed in a fleshy pericarp, endosperm is absent, and the embryo is straight. The pericarp ruptures into four valves in Hicoria and is normally indehiscent in Juglans. The wall of the nut is bony and Splits into two valves on germinating. The embryo is large and fleshy, two large lobes which appear like cotyledons stand erect on a short hypocotyl. De Candolle* well describes the condition: “The cotyledons are always opposed to the valves of the nut, each of the chambers in the nut contains the halves of two different cotyledons.” In Hicoria, the cotyledons are two-parted and intricately folded, and a lobe of one cotyledon unites with a lobe of the other by a peculiar * LUBBOCK, SIR JouHN: A contribution to our knowledge of seedlings. *CANDOLLE, C. DE: Mémoire sur la famille des Juglandées. 3 KRONFELD, M.: Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Walnuss. ; DE CANDOLLE, of, cit. 1898 349 350 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER turning over of the edges (figs. g-8). The cotyledons are separated for some distance near the tops of the lobes. In Juglans the cotyle- dons are deeply two-parted (fg. 7); the cotyledon in the nut being U-shaped (fig. 3) and their lobes united to the summit (fg. 2). In Hicoria the shape of the embryo varies greatly in the different species. Hicorta_glabra and Hicoria microcarpa, which in this region are not sharply separated, have the embryos much alike, but in Aicoria glabra, the division between the cotyledons is twice as deep as in Aicoria microcarpa. _ In germinating, the seed splits from the micropyle and the tip of the radicle and the two or four basal lobes of the cotyledons push out together. The petioles of the cotyledons lengthen and carry the plumule out of the nut. The cotyledons remain in the nut and do not decrease to any appreciable extent in size, but become very rancid in taste and are filled with a yellowish oil similar to that found in the husks of walnuts and butternuts. The valves of the nut usually remain slightly connected at the hilum but often are split entirely apart, and in one specimen of Juglans cinerea where the nut was on the surface of the ground, the two valves had separated and lay one on each side of the stem. The cotyledons, where exposed to the light, were green and could be easily drawn from the nut. The root of the seedling becomes greatly thickened. In one specimen of Hicoria glabra, it was 6™ long and 1.3™ in diameter, and others were nearly as large. The outer portion becomes brown and fissured, the fissures extending to the endodermis. In older seedlings ment. As the seedlings naturally germinate under trees where ” nuts would be buried under leaves, and as the internodes have not - power to lengthen much, Lubbock’ suggests that the first leaves - 5 LuBBocK, SiR J., of. cit. 1898 ] BRIEFER ARTICLES 351 reduced to scales and only those that would be sure of reaching above the covering expand as true leaves. No stipules are produced. The young stem and leaves are glandular pubescent. In a number of seedlings of Juglans cinerea examined, the first two to four leaves were of five leaf- lets, the next two or three of seven, and the next ones of nine. A few had the first leaf above the scales of three leaflets. Often one leaflet of the uppermost pair of leaflets was obsolete. In /uglans nigra the first two to four leaves were of five leaflets, the next two or three of seven, the next two of nine, and where others were present they were of eleven leaflets. In Hicoria the first leaf was often entire or three- lobed and the next three-lobed or of two leaflets, but usually the first four or five leaves were of three leaflets. In the seedlings in the garden three or four leaves developed and then a terminal bud was formed. About the middle of July many of these buds opened and two or three more leaves developed, which were often of five leaflets. In the seed in Hicoria the plumule is made up of ten to twelve leaves. Probably not all of these develop in the first season. In the seedlings of Hicoria in the garden the main stem was often killed in some way near the surface of the ground, and the growth of the axis continued by a bud from the axil of the cotyledon or of one of the scales. In the seedling of. Hicoria ovata figured (fig. 72) the main stem and the branch from the axil of one cotyledon had both died and the bud from the axil of the other cotyledon taken its place. Often in this way two, or even three, stems of about equal vigor arise. Facacre®. In Fagus the cotyledons are broader than long, notched at the apex and the two folded together into a triangular form completely filling the nut. This folding varies in different nuts. Basal lobes of the cotyledons surround and nearly cover the radicle. In Castanea the cotyledons have two to six basal lobes that nearly cover the radicle and the cotyledons are broadly ovate, thick, and entire. In Quercus the cotyledons are oval to orbicular, very thick, and entire, varying in size and shape in the different species. e basal lobes, two to six, completely cover the radicle. In Fagus the shell splits in germinating along the three angles and the root pushes out, then the cotyledons expand and enlarge and Split the shell more and throw it off. The hypocotyl lengthens con- siderably and raises the sessile cotyledons well above the ground. In Castanea the cotyledons swell where their petioles join them so as to force the two apart and split the shell. Then the basal lobes push out 352 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER and spread apart and the radicle grows out. The petioles of the cotyledons elongate and carry the plumule out. In Quercus germina- tion takes place as in Castanea. In the seedling of Fagus the root does not become greatly thick- ened as in the Juglandacez, but secondary thickening soon occurs. The cotyledons expand and become green but drop off soon after the first leaves expand. The stem and leaves are hairy; the first leaves are of the same form as the mature ones. In Castanea the root soon thickens and has longitudinal fissures extending down to the endo- dermis. The stem bears several scales, two to six, below the leaves, and the first leaves are of the same form as the mature ones and bear deciduous stipules. In Quercus the seedlings resemble those of Castanea, but there are often more scales on the stem, the uppermost _ of which bear stipules. The leaves in Quercus velutina, Q. platanoides, - and Q. macrocarpa are all serrate and much alike, but the older leaves become more like the maturé ones, but are not deeply lobed or cut. - The stem and leaves are pubescent. Conciusions. The cotyledons in Juglans and Hicoria socal with the valves of the nut and are deeply two-lobed. The two divi- - sions of the embryo resembling cotyledons are each made up of halves of the cotyledons. The seeds of Hicoria germinate without frost action; those of Juglans only with frost action. The tap root is very thick in young seedlings, and very long ” older ones. In Castanea and Quercus the shell is split in germination by a _ Swelling of the cotyledons. In the species of Quercus studied, the leaves of the scodaT were much alike and not deeply cut or lobed. Fagus is the only one in which the hypocotyl lengthens, or - the » cotyledons become aerial.— W. W. RowLee and Grorce T. HAsTINGs, 8 Cornell University. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIX. Fics. 1-3. Cotyledons of Juglans cinerea. X2. IGS. 6-8. Cotyledons of Hicoria glabra. X3. FiGs. 9, 10. Seedlings of Hicoria glabra, Nat. size. { BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXVI PLATE XXIX ROWLEE and HASTINGS on AMENTIFERA: 1898] BRIEFER ARTICLES 353 Fic. 11. Seedling of /uglans nigra. Nat. size. Fig. 12. Seedling of Hicoria ovata. Nat. size. Fics. 13, 14. Seedlings of Quercus velutina. Nat. size. Fig. 15. Seedling of Quercus platanoides. Half nat. size. Figs. 16, 17. Seedlings of Fagus Americana, Nat. size. Fic. 18. Seedling of Castanea dentata. Three-fifths nat. size. Fic. 19. Seedling of Castanea dentata. Nat. size. A GRAMINICOLOUS DOASSANSIA. Or the species of Doassansia enumerated by Setchell in 1892* eight are American. Of these four find their host in Sagittaria, two in Potamogeton, one in Alisma, and one in the quite dissimilar Epilobium. ° In 1894 Setchell described another species on Sagittaria*. In 1895 Ellis and Dearness published another, also on Sagittaria,* while a Ranunculus was the host of a species described by the writer in the same year‘, To the list of hosts may now be added one of the Graminez. : Doassansia Zizanie, n. sp. Subgenus Doassanstopsis as emended, BOTANICAL GAZETTE 19:186. 1894. : Sori globose to ellipsoidal, black, the diameter varying nearly 100 from the average which is about 200m. Cortex of one crowded row of cells which are thick walled, dark brown, nearly opaque, more or less irregularly globose, about 6m in diameter. The spore layer beneath the cortex is irregular in thickness but generally about — spores deep. Spores lighter brown, rather thin walled, globose to polyhedral, crowded, 6-10min diameter. Central portion of the sorus composed of pseudoparenchyma, the cells of which are but edie larger than the spores. Sori also occur in which the spore layer is bounded within by cells like those of the cortex, the pseudoparen- chyma being absent and the central part of the sorus empty. In the culms of Zizania aquatica L.., Racine and Kenosha, Wiseon: sin, September to December. The sori are most common and abun- dant in the central cavity of the culm, to the walls of which they are loosely attached, but they are often abundant in the looser tissue in the * Annals of Botany 6:21. * Bor. Gaz. 19: 185. Bulletin Torrey Bot. Club 22 : 364. 4 Bor, Gaz. 19: 416. 354 - BOTANICAL GAZETTE [November middle of the culm wall and also in the sheaths. Two or three sor sometimes coalesce to form a large sorus. No spots are produced on the culms, but those containing the fungus are usually weaker and more of two years to secure the germination of the spores in the moist chamber but without success, and as the species is soon to be distributec in Ellis and Everhart’s Fungi Columbiani this description is published without the germination characters. The analogue of D. Zizanieis intermedia Setchell. The figure accompanying the description of tha -species* shows the same general structure of the sorus. The presen species differs especially in the thicker walled and more rounded c _ of the cortex, thinner walled spores and smaller parenchymatous ce —J. J. Davis, Racine, Wisconsin. SBot. Gaz. 19:f/.78. fig. 1. - OPEN LETTERS, TWO CORRECTIONS. THE SOURCE OF WELWITSCHIA. READERS of the BOTANICAL GAZETTE are requested to correct an inad- vertence in the August number, page 152, where it is stated that the inflor- escence and dissections of Welwitschia ere given by us were made from a plant growing at Kew. The specimens were sent to me by Mr. Dinter, a German botanist and Ssecreaunee now settled in German S. W. Africa. The details are given in his letter published in 7he Gardeners’ Chronicle 24:27. 189 After making some gross dissections, I handed the material to Reotouace Farmer for more minute investigation: — MAXWELL T. MAsters, London. CONFUSED SPECIES OF AGROPYRON. I am indebted to Mr. Jared G. Smith, of the Division of geen! of the Department of Agriculture, for calling my attention to an error in the article “‘ Vegetation Regions of the Prairie Province”’ in the Sees for June 1898. The grass referred to on page 385, oth line from the bottom, should be Agropyron spicatum. A. spicatum should also be read instead of A. pseudorepens on page 394, 4th line from the top. A. pseudorepens is a grass of the meadow formation as stated on page 389; the xerophyte of the foothill region is 4. sficatum. The same correction should be made in the Phytogeography of Nebraska in the discussion of the foothill grass formation. This removes what seemed to be an anomaly in ecology. That the same a xerophyte of the table lands of the foothill region, was a puzzle. Con- fusion of two closely related species, which have commonly passed under the same name of 4. glaucum, was at the root of the matter. It is very grati- fying to have the systematists clear up ecological problems in sis Maly ner.— Roscoe Pounp, Lincoln, Neb. ot). 355 CURRENT LITERATURE, BOOK REVIEWS. Plant Geography. - THOSE WHO are interested in plant geography are extremely anxious to see new numbers of Engler and Drude’s Vegetation der Erde as often as se sible. The first volume included the results of Willkomm’s exhaustive studies in the Spanish peninsula.t/ The second volume deals with the flora af the Carpathians and is from the hands of the well-known botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Pax of Breslau. The area covered by this monograph is much more limited than that which is included in Willkomm’s work, comprising the mountain districts in the eastern part of Hungary. Pax began his studies in this region in 1882 and has continued them at short intervals up to the present time. Only a short time ago he published some of the results of his study, 4 short preliminary sketch dealing with the various elements which make up the Carpathian flora.3 The volume under consideration discusses the plant geography of Wie district in a general way only, while the author contemplates a second volume which will give a more special and detailed account of the smaller areas which make up the Carpathian region. ae The introduction gives a very complete history of botanical research in the Carpathians from the sixteenth century to the present time, The histor- ical account is subdivided into the period before Linnaeus, the Linnaean period, the period between Linnaeus and 1850, and the period from ee the present. Among those who deserve especial mention are Winter], ms es first professor of botany in Hungary; Kitaibel, a student of Winterl’s as ae published a monographic work on the flora of Hungary; more recently eee - investigations of Borbds, Hazslinszky, Kanitz, Staub, and others, n addition = to the careful work of Pax, have made this interesting region one of the be known to geographic botanists. The bibliography is unusually comple Z including more than 1200 titles. * See Bor. Gaz. 22 : 63. July 1896. ? Pax, F.— Grundzuge der Pflanzenverbreitung in den Karpathen (Es Drude, Die Vegetation der Erde, II). I. Band. 8vo. pp. 269, figs. 9 helio ,mapt. Leipzig: W. Engelmann. 1808. took! ‘ + AX, Fr Ueber die bike ps Karpathen-flora. Jahresb. Schles. Geeelle Vaterl. Kultur. Breslau. 1896. | NOVEMBER : gler and gravures ~~ 356 1898] CURRENT LITERATURE 357 The physical geography of the Carpathians is the title of the first part of the work, under which head are discussed the geographic features of the area, especially as they are related to the physiognomy of the vegetation. A short treatment of the climatic conditions closes this part of the work. Part two, the plant formations of the Carpathians, forms the body of the work. The formations are subdivided into three series, those of the lower hills, those of the higher mountains up to the tree line, and those above the tree line. The first two series are subdivided into formations with and with- out trees. The treeless portions of the lower hills are especially character- ized by pastures rich in the beauty of their flowers; these pastures pass lower down into meadows where greener tints predominate. Some pastures (Pusztaweide) are more xerophytic and have a lower more open vegetation. The other treeless formations are those of the rocks and hydrophytic areas. The conifers have a very subordinate display on the lower hills, the domi- nant forest landscape being made up of mixed deciduous woods, in which the oaks are the most characteristic trees. ith the oaks are birches, elms, hornbeams and maples. Besides these forests, there are sometimes pure growths of the beech, and mixed woods along streams, made up of the ash, alder and oak. There are also marginal thickets and xerophilous juni- per formations in the hill region. Inthe mountain region below the tree line there are mountain meadows which pass into swamps in the lower places. The open rock formations assume a more prominent place than lower down and the species present depend upon the chemical nature of the rocks, whether calcareous or not. The mountain forests are largely dominated by the beech in the lower stretches, while higher up the spruce becomes the characteristic tree and ascends to the tree line. There are also mountain woods (Buschwald) where the beech predominates but no longer as a tall tree. Above the tree line appear the subalpine formations, in which there are extensive areas covered by dwarf shrubs, especially the dwarf pines, junipers and alders, and the rhododendrons. There are characteristic mats, ‘Meadows, and rock floras in the alpine regions still higher up. At the close of the second part Pax considers the influence of man on the vegetation, especially as it finds expression in the ruderal and culture floras and in injury to the floras. The third part is entitled “‘ Die Vegetationslinien der Karpathen und ihre Gliederung in Bezirke.” These mountains form the east or northeast limits of many European mountain plants and also the south or southeast limits of Some eastern and northern plants. The reasons for this are both topographic and climatic, and there results a notable mingling of divergent floral types. Pax finds that the vast majority of the vegetation lines are closely associated with the Kaschau-Eperjeser fault line, which follows in general the trend of the mountains ; in fact the close relationshi p between the vegetation and the 8eological features is constantly emphasized. After a brief treatment of the 358 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER species common tothe whole Carpathian district, the author goes more in detail into the subject of endemism. A great majority of the endemic forms are isolated, well-marked types and for the most part related to Alpine or Balkan plants. Most of the endemic plants are found east of the fault line, though those of northern origin occur throughout the district. The fault line makes a natural geographic division of the region into the east and west Carpathians and the author makes still further subdivisions of a geographic nature. In the last part is to be found a discussion of the relations between the Car- pathian floras and those of neighboring districts. The closest relationship is to the flora of central Europe, a relationship which is most strikingly shown in the forest trees. The relationship to the flora of Russia and Siberia is quite evident, though of less physiognomic value. A number of other floral elements are represented in the Carpathian flora but to a much less degree. — Pax next considers the distribution of the endemic plants, and finds almost complete harmony between the two. The volume closes with a presentation : of the historical development of the Carpathian flora from the Tertiary to the 4 present, the discussion of the influence of the ice age on the vegetation hav- ing special interest and also the conclusion with regard to the paths along which migrations have occurred.— Henry C. COWLES. | Flower ecology. AFTER INDUSTRIOUS work on the pollination and insect relations of the floras of the North Frisian islands, Hallig islands, Helgoland, Rigen, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Westphalia, Nassau, Thiir- ingia, Switzerland and Capri, and the investigation of many special cases, the distinguished anthoecologist of Kiel has undertaken a general review a s the fundamental propositions of the subject, the literature and the results of | : of the various modes of pollination and correlated phenomena: \') ~ of pollination and separation of forms of flowers; (2) Autogamy) (3) = Geitonogamy ; (4) Xenogamy ; (5) Heterostyly ; (6) Cleistogamy, (7) 5 thenogenesis ; (8) Flower classes ; (9) Flower visiting insects ; (10) Me . of investigation. The extent to which these topics are elaborated may ee indicated by the note that 262 pages (including index) are devoted to ee ; ‘KnurtH, PauL: Handbuch der Bliitenbiologie unter Zugrundelegung _ ere mann Miiller’s Werk “ Die Befruchtung der Blumen durch Insekten.” Vol. I. PP: pei Vol. II, part 1. pp. 697. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1898. i 1898 } CURRENT LITERATURE 359 The second part of the volume gives a bibliographical list of 2871 titles - to April 1, 1898, with a special index. \ As a frontispiece the volume shows a portrait of Kélreuter. There are 81 figures, most of which are familiar to those who have used Miiller’s Befruchtung. Fig. 7 is a reproduction of the title-page of Sprengel’s Entdechte Geheimniss. The second volume considers the results of observations made in Europe and in the Arctic regions; of Aurivillius and Ekstam in Nova Zembla ; Burkill, Scott-Elliott and Willis in Great Britain; Delpino, Comes, Nicotra and Ricca in Italy ; Dalla Torre, Kerner and Schulz in the Tyrol; Heinsius in Belgium ; Kirchner at Stuttgart ; Loew in the Berlin Gardens ; Lindman in Greenland and Scandinavia; MacLeod in Flanders and Pyrenees; Miiller in Westphalia, Thiiringia and Alps; Verhoeff in the West Frisian island, Norderney ; Warming in Greenland and Denmark. The first part includes the families Ranunculacee-Composite. A contemplated third volume relates to investigations made in other parts of the world. The whole ground is gone over in so thorough a manner that it will not be necessary for con- tributors to go through so much drudgery in looking up the literature, nor will it leave much excuse for offering contributions which have no relation to the present state of what is called “ our knowledge.’— CHARLES ROBERTSON. Fungicides and insecticides. IT HAS BEEN but a few years, scarcely more than a dozen, since the range of fungicidal agents embraced little more than bluestone for steeping wheat, sulfur for dusting upon foliage, and a_somewhat uncertain application of copperas. But in these last years the number of effective fungicides has excellent treatise by Lodeman on the spraying of plants, published two years ago, to feel that the amount of practical knowledge the scientist now lays before the cultivator in a field where his needs are great is of astonishing . Proportions. The United States has borne a proud part in the development of this subject, being in fact an acknowledged leader, while France, Italy, Switzerland and Germany have, in the order named, become actively inter- ested in'vegetable pathology and prophylactic measures. Germany, although somewhat tardy in taking up this department of investigation, now puts forth a volume on the methods of combating plant diseases by means of chemical preparations that will prove of interest to all Students of the subject, as well as to the cultivators and investigators of Ger- many for whom it'was prepared. It emanates from Halle, that city of experiment stations, and is written by Dr. M. Hollrung,’ director of the SHOLLRUNG, M.: Handbuch der chemischen Mittel gegen Pflanzenkrank- 360 BOTANICAl GAZETTE | NOVEMBER experiment station for plant pathology of the agricultural bureau of Saxony. e work is compiled from all available sources, American methods being extensively quoted. It devotes three pages to preparations in which the chief ingredients are of animal origin, such as fish oil, lard, soap and glue ; twenty pages to those with vegetable substances, such as cotton-seed and other plant oils, resin, tar, pyrethrum, tobacco and hellebore; and the remainder of the work, 141 pages, to those with mineral ingredients. Although primarily a volume of recipes, the metric system of weights and measures being exclusively employed, yet their uses and methods of appli- cation are clearly and succinctly set forth, with an estimate of their efficiency, -and references to the source of information. The work is admirably conceived and executed, and as closely up to date as any general work is likely to be. The classification makes it handy for reference, which is further aided by a full index.—J. C. A Bryology of Madagascar. SINCE THE publication in 1879 of Bescherelle’s Florude bryologique de la Réunion et autres tiles austro-A fricaines de 1’ Océan Indien, a number of papers on the mosses of Madagascar and allied regions have been published by Miiller, Bescherelle, Brotherus, Wright, Mitten, Warnstorf, Renauld, and Cardot. Collections by French officials, missionaries, and others have accu: mulated. M. F. Renauld has sought to bring all this scattered information together in a sumptuous volume published by order of Prince Albert of onaco.° In preparing this work he has had abundant cooperation of bryologists who have been working in this field, or those who have charge of collections from South Africa, A preface on the generic nomenclature and the value Specific characters contains nothing novel. The geology, topography, : climate of the islands are briefly described. The chapter on the distribution : of the mosses is very unsatisfactory because knowledge of the region is still much too imperfect to allow adequate treatment. M. Renauld calls the bryological flora south tropical; holds that the islands constitute an inde- pendent domain, each island having its own individuality but unequally _ marked; and sees relations on the one hand with the flora of the In os - Javanese archipelago through allied species, and on the other with that the mountains of South Africa both by allied and by identical species. The flora of the whole group is enumerated as follows: Acrocarp! 413, heiten; Herstellung und Anwendung in Grossen. 8vo. pp. xii-+ 178- Bere as Paul Parey, 1808.. nee *RENAULD, F.— Prodrome de la flore bryologique de Madagascar, des M ee careignes et des Comores, publié par ordre de S. A. S. le Prince Albert I*. Ow couronné par l'Institut de France. Small gto. pp. viii-++ 300. Monaco. 1897- | | | 1898 ] CURRENT LITERATURE 361 Cladocarpi 6, Pleurocarpi 306, Sphagnum 21; total 746 species—not very ar short of the enumeration of North American species given by Lesquereux and James in 1884. One is surprised at this large number even when he recalls the tropical climate and the large size of Madagascar. If laid down upon the United States the island would stretch from New York to St. Louis, with an average width equal to the length of the state of Indiana. The Prodromus contains descriptions of many new species and validates a number of xomina nuda by furnishing diagnoses. It is a pity that these new things were not figured. One could have cheerfully forgone the lux- urious margins and hand-made deckel-edge paper, if necessary, for the sake of plates.— C. R. B. Kerner’s ‘‘Plant Life.’’ THE FIRST edition of Kerner’s Pflanzenleben is well known to English and American readers through Professor F. W. Oliver's translation, entitled The Natural History of Plants. Kerner issued the first volume of a second edition in 1896, the second volume appearing in 1898, almost simultaneously with the announcement of the author's death.? Inasmuch as the second edition follows the same general methods as the first, an extended review seems unnecessary. The divisions and subdivisions are generally the same as in the older edition, although all of the subjects treated have been recon- sidered and brought more into harmony with the botany of today. A very some of the new illustrations are red show, dodder, nullipore banks, luminous moss, reed swamps, Eucalyptus, lianas, lichens, etc. In many chapters con- siderable additional matter is to be found. The most noteworthy change is the omission of about 100 pages on the classification of plants. This classification always seemed out of place in a work-of this kind. The book closes with an entirely new chapter on the relation between man and plants — economic botany in the broader sense. Those plants which are used in the industrial arts are first discussed, then those which are used as food by man and by domestic animals and those which are employed in medicine, and for ornamental purposes. A historical sketch of gardens follows, beginning with the ancients and ending with the botanical and other gardens of the present day. At the close of the 7 KERNER VON MarILAUN, ANTON.— Pflanzenleben, zweite, ganzlich neubear- beitete Auflage. 8yo. Erster Band: Gestalt und Leben der Pflanze. 8vo. pp. xii o- Ppp. xii + 778. figs. 233. pl. 30 (19 colored). map 7. 1898. Leipzig and Vienna: Bibliographisches Institut. 362 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER topic, plants as motives in art is discussed, and such unusual botanical sub- jects are introduced as plants in tapestries, sculpture, painting and poetry. This last chapter is not without its value, even for botanists, especially nowa- days when people are laying so much stress on the interrelationships of all subjects.— HENRY C. COWLES. MINOR NOTICES. AN EXCELLENT SERVICE has been rendered the collector of fleshy fungi by Mr. C.G. Lloyd® in the publication of a twenty-two page pamphlet on the American Volvz. There are included 38 species of Amanita, 12 of Volvaria and one of Chitonia. The necessity for much field study and close, critical work is evident from the author’s statement that in the genus Amanita there are in this country five common species, nine occasionally found and definitely known, and twenty-four that are either doubtful identifications of European species or only recorded by the discoverer, many being described from dried specimens sent to Europe tor that purpose. The author gives concise diagnostic characters for each species, with many helpful notes, and in another place gives the full description for all species not found in Stevenson’s British Fungi. The author evidently had in mind _ the encouragement of inexperienced collectors, and such will find that many of their difficulties have been anticipated ; but the omission of the authority for the Latin name seems an unnecessary and inconvenient concession. One is surprised to learn that the author does not approve of the applica- tion of the Rochester rules to cryptogams, and thinks that ‘it would result in an endless confusion in regard to nomenclature, and retard the study fifty years.” In a work intended for assistance in field study, where the most familiar names serve best, it is doubtless only necessary to follow the pees prominent authorities; but critical monographic study requires the applica- tion of the Rochester or similar rules, if reasonable stability is ever to be attained.—J. C. A. A List of the spermatophytes and pteridophytes of the Upper Susque: hanna region has been published by Mr. Willard N. Clute.? This volume “IS art of a general plan for an extended study of the flora about the head- waters of the Susquehanna river.” It seems that this is the first compilation of the flora of the region, although a number of well-known botanists have been interested in it at various times. The author promises to record sequent observations in annual supplements, recognizing the fact that the list ¢ *Lioyp, C. G.—A compilation of the Volvz of the United States. 8vo- PP» eee ae Cincinnati, 1898. 9 ill. from photographs. : : oe LUTE, WILLARD NELsoNn: Flora of the Upper Susquehanna and its tributaries pp. xix-+ 142-++x. Binghamton, N. Y.: Willard N. Clute & Co. 1898. rs 1898 | CURRENT LITERATURE 363 is far from complete. An excellent introduction presents the characteristics of the region, in the way of general topography, geology, rivers and streams, lakes and ponds, bogs and swamps, mountains and ravines, altitudes, tem- perature and rainfall, and general characteristics of the flora. resent volume enumerates 1105 species, the nomenclature of the “ Check list” and the sequence of Gray’s “ Manual”’ being used. Common names of the region, notes useful to collectors, and a certain amount of synonomy are given. The region includes several counties in southern New York and northern Penn- sylvania, and the taking up of a natural area rather than an artificial one cannot be too strongly commended. The book is well printed, and is admi- rably adapted to its purpose.—J. M. C. = @ i=] Mr. AvEN NELSON has just published an interesting report on the vegetation of the “Red Desert” region of Wyoming. The area referred to extends “from the Platte bluffs on the east to the Green river bluffs on the west, from the northern limit of Sweetwater county to the hills and mountains separating Colorado and Wyoming.” This large area is distinctly and strongly halophytic, and although its investigation had primarily in view the economic problem, the results are of interest to ecologists. During the summer the area is practically uninhabitable, but it has proved to afford excellent winter pasturage. The amount of this winter forage is very large, and is of six kinds: “the salt-sages” (various species of Atriplex), “the sage-brushes” (artemisias), ‘‘ wheat grasses” (species of Agropyron) “Indian millet” (Eriocoma cuspidata), ‘‘giant rye-grass” (Elymus conden- satus), and “ desert juniper” (/. Knightii). The much more abundant vege- tation of the hill country, or summer range, is also fully described.—J. M. C. THE FIRST PARTS of Ascherson and Grebner’s flora of the North Ger- man Lowlands™ have appeared. The work was begun as the flora of the Brandenburg province alone, but the urgent need of a new presentation of the entire flora of the North German plains becoming apparent the authors have undertaken the longer work, which is to be published in periodica fashion. Beginning with the pteridophytes, the three parts already received include the pteridophytes, gymnosperms, monocotyls, and almost all of the Archichlamydez. A field handbook for popular use is evidently the aim, and to secure it there has been generous cooperation by the taxonomists of the region. The work is sparsely illustrated, and the fact that very few cita- tions are made, and that the names of authors of species are omitted, is *° The Red Desert of Wyoming and its forage resources. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Agrostology, Bulletin 13, Grass and forage plant investi- gations, 1808. . - *T ASCHERSON, P. and GRABNER, P.: Flora des Nordostdeutschen Flachlandes (ausser Ostpreussen). Liefg. 1, 2, 3. Small 8vo., pp. 480. Berlin: Gebriider Born- traeger. 364 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | NOVEMBER evidence that nothing is intended beyond a current field manual for work of the most general character.—JOHN GAYLORD COULTER. Dr. CarL HOLTERMANN ” has just published, with the assistance of the Royal Prussian Academy of Science in Berlin, an elaborate account of his mycological studies in Java and Ceylon. The morphology and in many cases life-histories of some forty forms, chiefly Basidiomycetes, are described and illustrated with a dozen fine plates. Two new genera, Oscarbrefeldia and Conidiascus, and one new species, Ascoidea saprolegniotdes, are added to the Hemiasci. The author is not willing to follow strictly Brefeld’s views in respect to the derivation of the conidium from the sporangium. His studies upon the tropical forms indicate that the two structures may be phylogenet- ically quite independent of one another. He believes that each has its own Antage, and that the direct influence of external conditions determines the development of one or the other or both upon the same mycelium.— BRADLEY OoRE Davis. Parts 175 and 176 of Engler and Prantl’s Dée natirlichen Pflanzen- familien contain the completion of the Umbelliferee by Drude, and the Cor- nacee by Harms. This completes the Archichlamydez, a cause for con- gratulation among taxonomists. The parts of this great work have been noticed briefly from time to time, as they appeared, and the general purpose and its execution warmly commended. It is certainly an epochal work, and supplies a much needed compact and illustrated presentation of known gen- era. The breadth of the plan has not been approached by any other “ Gen- era Plantarum.” The necessity of bringing together the work of so many collaborators has made the editorial work onerous, and of course there is great unevenness of presentation. It is impossible to criticise such a work in general. The students of different groups must pass judgment upon the work in their particular fields.— J. M. C. NOTES FOR STUDENTS. BY GROWING plants of Indian corn from sterilized seeds in sterile nutrient fluid, to which he had added glucose, Laurent has determined that their roots are capable of absorbing organic matter in this form.%-—C. R. B. Mr. Davip WuiTe“ has described and figured a new lepido genus, Omphalophioios, from the Lower Coal Measures of Missouri, upon the problematic Lefidodendron cyclostigma of Lesquereux. —]. dendroid founded 2G HOLTERMANN, CARL: pepe mtas Untersuchungen aus den Tropem- “ pp. viii++-122. f/. 72, Berlin: Gebriider Borntraeger. 1898. 47. 25. 7. 1897. ™ Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. g: 329-342. pls. 20-23. 1898. 1898] CURRENT LITERATURE 365 R. J. WIESNER has published * a short paper on He/iotropism produced by di oe daylight. In this paper he lays emphasis upon the fact that although the plant parts possess often an enormous capacity for heliotropic reaction, they always react to the strongest light, although illuminated by diffuse light and, therefore, impinged upon by rays from all sides. It thus comes about that the heliotropic organ places itself so as to divide sym- metrically the area from which the light comes. The immediate cause of this is to be found in the fact that the direction is dcveniioes by those impulses which are not counteracted by exactly equivalent impulses.—C. R. B. A PAPER by Hermann Barth has been running for some weeks in the Botanisches Centralblatt entitled Studies upon the micro-chemical recognition of alkaloids in commercial drugs. Barth finds the alkaloids in all parts of the drugs; as for example, in the pericarp of Conium maculatum, in the seed coats in Peganum Harmadla and Colchicum autumnaie ; in endosperm of Areca Catechu, in both endosperm and embryo of Aconitum Napellus, and in the embryo alone of Physostigma venenosum. He concludes from the occurrence of the alkaloids that it is to be expected that their functions must be very various. When they occur in the periphery of the plant organs as excretions it is reasonable to suppose that they are then protective substances against the eating of such parts by animals. Those occurring in the endosperm and embryo serve, according to Heckel, as reserve foods. In most cases, however, it appears to be beyond doubt that the alkaloids are to be considered excretions, as has been commonly believed. Some useful reactions for the recognition of alkaloids are described.—C. R. B Dr. A. NESTLER has presented to the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna a memoir on “ The traumatropic movement of the nucleus and proto- plasm.” A summary of the results as given in the Botanisches Centralblatt 76:43. 1898 is as follows: The different orientation of the nucleus and yledons, and alge, and occurs in like fashion in leaves, stems, and roots. The orientation exhibits itself in a few hours after wounding by the move- ment of the nucleus and protoplasm close to that wall which is nearest the surface of the wound. The maximum stimulation was observed in most cases after two or three days. The return of the nucleus and protoplasm to their normal position is less definite. In some cases it was observed after five or six days, in other cases they appeared to remain fixed even in the intact cells immediately bounding the wound. This transposition, which according to Tangl may be designated as traumatropic, cannot be explained upon mechan- ical grounds, but seems to be a peculiar stimulation movement, not more exactly definable, which is connected with the living protoplasts. The trans- *S Berichte d. deuts. botan. Gesells. 16:1 58-163. 1898. | * 366 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER mission of the stimulus is observed with diminishing strength to the distance of 0.5 to 0.7" from the wound. The movement takes place in similar manner in the air and in the water. It is influenced by light and perhaps also by temperature; no influence of gravity could be determined. In the guard cells of the stoma the transposition was never observed. In some cases the effect of the stimulation caused the nuclei to increase considerably in size.—C. R. B ITEMS OF TAXONOMIC interest are as follows: Miss Alice Eastwood has published (Prec. Calif. Acad. Sci. 111. (Botany) 1: 89-146. 1898) a second fascicle of her “Studies in the herbarium and the field.” A study of a collection of eighty or more species of plants from San Nicolas island results in the description of nine new species and three varieties, the new species belonging to Abronia, Astragalus, Hosackia, Peucedanum, Amsinckia, Lycium, Plantago, and Malacothrix. Three new species of Cnicus from southern Colorado and Utah are described. Two new species of Synthyris from the alpine region of southwestern Colorado are added to the solitary alpine species heretofore recognized as occurring in the mountains of Colorado. Two new species of Eriodictyon are recognized as having been included heretofore under £. somentosum. New species of Pacific coast plants are described under Campanula, Romneya, Sedum, Cercocarpus, and Calochor- tus.—In the Journal of Botany (36 : 361-378. 1898) S. Schénland and E.G. Baker describe twenty-six new species of Crassula from South Africa, and R. . A CAREFUL investigation of the phenomena of fertilization in Onoclea™ by Mr. W. R. Shaw has brought some interesting facts to light. All previous accounts of fertilization in plants agree in making it consist of the fusion of two germ-nuclei in the resting condition; and similar descriptions ate given by zoologists of fertilization in animals. In Onoclea, however, the sper™- nucleus does not pass into a resting condition before uniting with the egs- nucleus, but enters the latter without visible change either of form or struc ture. Within the egg-nucleus it slowly enlarges and becomes granular before the final building of the nuclear substances. Mr. Shaw was not able to deter: mine with certainty the fate of the cilia and band of cytoplasm, which, together with the nucleus, make up the spermatozoid; though from certain appearances he conjectures they are left outside the egg-nucleus. This con- 6 Annals of Botany 12: 261-285. 1808. 1898 | CURRENT LITERATURE 367 jecture he has confirmed more recently in the case of Marsilia” in which the behavior of the sperm-nucleus is as in Onoclea, and the cilia and cytoplasmic band are unmistakably thrown off in the cytoplasm of the egg. Another result of Mr. Shaw’s investigation is well worthy of note. Con- trary to what has been seen in many cases and assumed in others, there was no evidence that a membrane is immediately formed about the oosphere after the entrance of the spermatozoid. It is suggested that in Onoclea the exclusion of other spermatozoids is accomplished, not by a membrane but by plasmolysis of the oosphere. It is highly desirable that further observations should be made on the pro- cess of fertilization in zoidogamic plants.—WILSON R. SMITH. NEW SPECIES of the genus P/eodorina Shaw has been described ana figured by Kofoid in the AuZletin of the Illinois State Laboratory 5: 273. 1898, and named Pleodorina Iilinoisensis.® The account of the structure and habits of the species is very full and interesting. . ///inotsensis is distin- guished chiefly from Shaw’s P. Ca/ifornica because the vegetative cells are always four in number at the anterior end of the ccenobium instead of constituting about one-half of the cell colony. The number of cells in the ceenobium is also smaller, usually 32 instead of 64 or 128, and the repro- ductive cells (gonidia) are two or three times the diameter of the vegetative cells instead of being only slightly larger or twice as large as in the Cali- fornian species Pleodorina Disavieesiees is found in the back waters that cover submerged lands along the Illinois river. Quantitatively it does not form an important part of the plankton, and is not as abundant as Eudorina. Dr. Kofoid realizes that in the incompleteness of our knowledge of the life history of Pleodorina we cannot be sure that it is not a form of Eudorina elegans. There is extensive variation in both species, and such similarity of form and measurements that the younger stages of the two are indistinguishable. The presence of four vegetative cells at one pole of the ccenobium is the character- istic mark of Pleodorina Iilinoisensis, the remaining 28 cells becoming repro- ductive. In Zudorina the antherozoids are formed in a similar grote of four polymorphic conditions we should expect those 28 cells to be reproductive (gonidia), and the group of four at the anterior pole might remain vegetative. uch a form, if it existed, would be identical with P/eodorina 1llinoisensis.— _ BRADLEY Moore Davis. THE MOST IMPORTANT series of exsiccati for American mycological Students so far issued has come to a close with the thirty-sixth volume of sed oe d. deuts. bot. Gesells. 16: 177-184. 1898. he form of the specific name is barbarous !—Eps. 368 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER Ellis and Everhart’s North American Fungi,° which appeared a short time ago. For twenty years the work has been issued with an average regularity and a uniformity in make up and quality rarely attained. The immediate cause of the discontinuance of the work is the sad illness of one whose name never appears in connection with its publication, but whose untiring zeal and labor have contributed largely to its success. The volumes for the whole series (except the first installment of sixty copies) have been made by Mrs. Ellis, the packets folded and the specimens put in place by her; and we may well believe that without her assistance and encouragement this splendid contribution to American mycology would never have been realized. The last issue, like each of the preceding ones, contains 100 specimens of dried fungi belonging to various groups, placed loosely in folded packets and provided with printed labels. These are attached to the leaves of a volume containing title page and table of contents. The labels occasionally bear brief critical notes, and still more seldom diagnostic characters. The naming of the specimens has been done with care, and if errors occur, they are few and unavoidable, The Fungi Columbiant, by the same authors, of which thirteen centuries have been issued and which have been, heretofore, a sort of duplicate of the N. Am. Fungi, will hereafter contain species that have not yet appeared in that work, and will thus in a measure be a continuation of it. The packets in this work are not fastened into volumes.—J. C. A. S. H1Ras&’s second paper on Gingko® adds an important contribution to the subject of spermatozoids in gymnosperms. The development of the; pollen grain, pollen tube and antherozoid are treated in detail. Three cells are cut off in succession from the main body of the pollen grain. The first of these is soon resorbed ; the second persists but does not seem to take ree active part in the processes which follow ; the third divides into a ‘‘stalk cel and a “body cell.” As the body cell increases in size two attractive spheres appear at the poles of its nucleus and somewhat later two larger spherical ie bodies resembling nucleoli are found between the attractive spheres and the” me nucleus. These bodies which are surrounded by a dense mass of granules may possibly aid nutrition but further investigation is necessary before any" thing definite can be said of their physiological or morphological value. bees . body cell divides parallel to the long axis of the pollen tube, giving ™S€ ee two cells in which the antherozoids are organized. A beak put out by sa nucleus becomes joined to the centrosome which then makes three spiral *ELLIs, J. B. and EVERHART, B, M.—North American Fungi. 2d Ser. Cent Ha Pub. by the editors, Newfield, N. J. 1898. $7.00. Etudes sur la fécondation et l’embryogénie du Gingko biloba. Jour, of tHe Tokyo Coll. of Science 12:102-149. 1898 , 1898] CURRENT LITERATURE 369 turns in the cytoplasm, in this process becoming drawn out into a spiral band along the edges of which cilia are developed. The antherozoids escape from the mother cell and swim freely in the liquid contained in the pollen chamber. According to Webber the-antherozoids in Zamia are themselves ciliated mother cells and the pollen chamber contains air only. Antherozoids in gymnosperms have now been described by Hirasé™ in Gingko biloba, by Ikeno” in Cycas revoluta and by Webber® in Zamia integri- folia. All three find a pair of spherical bodies in the cell which is to give rise to the two antherozoids. Hirasé and Ikeno agree in calling these bodies centrosomes but Webber not believing that they are centrosomes calls them centrosome-like bodies, and later proposes the term blepha t ies probably homologous with these centrosomes or blepharoplasts have recently been described by Belajeff and Shaw in several pteridophytes ile Gingko» pollen grain structures they present considerable variation in details, espe- cially in the history of the body cell and the formation of the antherozoid. These investigations have added so much to the evidence accumulating from other sources, that Engler has removed Gingko from the conifers and put it by itself in the Gingkoales, a group coordinate with cycads, conifers and gnetums.—Cuas, J. CHAMBERLAIN, NUCLEAR DIVISION IN SPIROGYRA has been studied for a long time and the most contradictory results have been obtained, especially in regard to the chemical nature of the nucleolus and its réle in karyokinesis. Some claim that the nucleolus is fully analogous with that of the higher plants, while others think it very different both in chemical composition and its réle in karyokinesis. Some believe that the nuclear plate is formed exclusively at the expense of the chromatic network of the nucleus, others that it comes from the nucleolus and still others that it is formed partly from the nuclear network and partly from the nucleolus. The origin of achromatic parts is also in dispute, some claiming a cytoplasmic origin, others a nuclear origin and still others a mixed origin partly cytoplasmic and partly nuclear. L. Mitzkewitsch™ has recently presented a thorough discussion of pre- _Vious literature and added a most important contribution to the subject. The most modern killing and fixing agents were employed. After washing in water, alcohol was added to the water drop by drop at intervals of a minute or more until the material was dehydrated. The transfer from alcohol to xylol and from xylol to paraffin was equally gradual. The investigations deal almost exclusively with the nucleolus and the * Loc. cit. and Bot. Cent. 69 : 33-35. 1897. * Flora 85 : 1. ce and Bot. Centralbl. 73 Bot. Gaz 451-459 and 24: 16-22, 225-235. 4 Ueber die Secathatlens bei Spirogyra. Flora us mie “124. 1898. achromatic parts of the mitotic figure. Spirogyra subeqgua and S. jugalis were the principal forms studied. The sequence in .S. subegua is as follows: The resting nucleus has a large nucleolus surrounded by a very evident nucleolar membrane and the threads of the nuclear network are very faint. As division begins the nucleus elongates, the nucleolus loses its membrane and puts out processes which extend to the periphery of the nucleus. At this stage striations are distinctly visible in the plasma heaps at the poles of the nucleus. The nucleolar processes are now withdrawn and the nucleolus shows a differentiation into intensely Staining granules and a less deeply = Staining ground substance. Achromatic threads now appear inside the nucleus and represent a continuation of the achromatic threads outside. The granules continue to stain more deeply and the nuclear membrane disappears, begin- a ning at the poles of the nucleus. The granules, or chromosomes, become oF | arranged in a single layer_in the nuclear plate, while the less deeply staining substance takes the form of bows with sides resting on the chromosomes and the apices, to which the achromatic threads are attached, turned toward the poles. The chromosomes split and as the halves of the nuclear plate separate, granular threads connect them for a time. After the formation of a new nuclear membrane the material of the nuclear plate still shows the intensely staining chromosomes imbedded in a less deeply staining mass from which processes reach to the nuclear membrane. The processes are gradually withdrawn, the chromosomes gradually become indistinguishable from the rest of the mass, the nucleolar membrane appears and the nucleolus assumes the ordinary aspect of the resting condition. The other species studied differed only in unessential details.—Cnas. J. CHAMBERLAIN. 370 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER | A MONOGRAPH of the Caul p *has recently app d from the Annales of the Botanical Garden of Buitenzorg. Madame Weber-Van Bosse presents a complete taxonomic account of these interesting plants, based upon a per — sonal and very extensive examination of the various scattered herbaria. There is perhaps no group of alge more difficult to handle than the cauler- pas, and the skill with which the author has reduced the immense number = c described forms and varieties to sixty-four species is admirable. The specific descriptions seem excellent and fifteen fine lithographic plates greatly at the reader. One must regret, however, the absence of an index to Pe and synomyms, for an index, although a clerical detail, is indispensable to es the complete usefulness of such a work, oe It is exceedingly interesting that this genus Caulerpa, immense 1? = number and diversity of its varieties, and cosmopolitan in its dite oe through the warmer waters of the globe, should apparently reproduce Ae : *5 WEBER-VAN Bosse: Monographie der Caulerpes. Ann. d. Jar. Bot. d. B ; 20T§ 15 > 243-401. 1808. 2 1808] CURRENT LITERATURE 371 entirely vegetatively. No zoospores have ever been seen, the supposed obser- vations of Montagne and Gardiner apparently having beén erroneous.— BRADLEY M. Davis. AT THE MEETING of the Academy of Science of St. Louis on the evening of October 17, 1897, Mr. C. H. Thompson spoke of some interesting stylar movements of certain Marantacez connected with their pollination. In the course of his remarks Mr. Thompson said : “Generally speaking, the flower of Marantacez is a more or less evident tube, with the calyx and corolla inconspicuous and the stamens changed into irregular petaloid staminodia, except a single fertile one. My studies of the order have been confined to three genera, Maranta, Calathea, and Thalia, and refer to about eight or ten species. In all of the species, one of the staminodia is developed into a keel-like structure, not unlike the keel of a papilionaceous leguminous flower. At maturity of the flower, this keel holds within its fold the style. On one margin of the keel, about midway between the apex and the base of the staminodium, is developed a tentacle-like body which is extremely irritable. This tentacle, in the open flower, guards the passage to the nectary. If the tentacle is irritated, the impulse is conveyed to the sheathing basal portion of the keel, which holds the style, opening the sheath and allowing the style to escape its embrace. This movement of the style is probably due to the unequal turgescence in the cells between those of the upper side and those of the lower side of the style, the greater turgescence existing in the latter. This, when the style is liberated, causes it to curve upward with considerable force. In Maranta the style forms a semicircle, coming to rest with the stigma firmly pressed against the upper staminodium, In Calathea and Thalia it makes a complete spiral revolution, bringing the stigma, in the former, into firm contact with the style, and in the latter placing it securely ina pocket formed by a fold of the inner wall of the upper stam- inodium. In each instance, the contact is so secure that the stigma can be reached only by destroying the flower. The sensitive tissues seem to be located in the outer cell structure of the sheathing base of the keel. An irritation from an outside agency directed against the tentacle is conveyed by that organ to the sensitive tissue, causing the sheath to open, and liberating the style, which it has been holding under great tension. “This complicated differentiation of the flower is undoubtedly an adapta- tion to insure cross-pollination. To understand this better, a detailed descrip- tion of the essential organs is desirable. In the flower bud the stamen lies parallel with the pistil, with its one-celled anther placed just back of the stigma and on the style. Immediately preceding the opening of the flower, the anther dehisces, shedding its pollen on a viscid disk which is located on = Style at the point of contact. Here the pollen adheres till scraped away in the operation next to be described. a7e BOTANICAL GAZETTE ‘A bee alights on the platform formed by one or more of the staminodia, thursts its beak forward to secure the drop of nectar, 5 doing so strikes the sensitive tentacle. The pistil suddenly coils and the bee. First the stigma is brought in contact, and scrapes off an that may have been previously deposited on the bee at that point. the style continues coiling, it brings the viscid disk in contact with th point of the bee’s body, depositing more pollen, which will be scraj another flower visited. In Maranta and Calathea, the visitor is bee of the size of the hive-bee, and the pollen would be deposited on th inal surface of its body. The visitors to the Thalia flower are of bumble-bee type, and the individual receives the pollen deposit at and on one side of its beak. Previous to the coiling of the style, the is covered by one or more of the lower staminodia; at the end of tion, in each case, it is again covered securely, so that it has but one ¢ to become pollinated. After pollination, the flower rapidly withers. TRELEASE. NEWS. Dr. W. F. R. SuRtNGAR, Professor of Botany and Director of the Botani- cal Garden at Leiden since 1862, died on July 11 at the age of 66 years. Dr. CARL FRITSCH has been appointed director of the Botanical Museum of Vienna as the successor of the late Dr. Anton Kerner von Marilaun. PROFESSOR Dr. KARL GOEBEL, director of the Institute for Plant Phys- iology in Munich, is absent upon a journey to Australia and New Zealand. PROFESSOR VOLNEY M. SPALDING, of the University of Michigan, has been granted a year’s leave of absence. Dr, Julia W. Snow has been appointed instructor in botany in the same institution. PROFESSOR L. M. UNDERWOOD of Columbia University. returned on October 4 from his vacation trip in Europe, where he examined many herba- ria for type material of Pteridophyta and Polyporei. Mr. C, F. BAKER of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute sailed from New York on November 5 for an extended collecting tour in South America, beginning at the northern border of Columbia, the region first visited by Jussieu and Bonpland. He will touch at Jamaica on the way. THE IMPORTANT investigations by W. Belajeff upon the male prothallia of the water ferns (Hydropteridez), published in Russian in 1890, have been made more available to botanists in general by their republication in German. See Bot. Zeit. 56°: 141-194. AZ. 2. 1898. THE Lioyp series of photogravures of American Fungi has been increased by the issue last month of two numbers, one of Polyporus umbellatus Fr., and the other of Strobilomyces strobilaceus Scop. The latter, showing a common species known as black boletus, is from a remarkably perfect photograph. PROFESSOR Dr. PAUL Knuth, of Kiel, started in October from Genoa upon a scientific tour of the world. He will be absent from eight to ten — months, going through India to Java, where he will remain in Buitenzorg for Some time, thence to China and Japan, and finally by way of Honolulu to this country, Mr. E. W. D. Hotway, who spent six weeks in Mexico during September and October, has brought back many new and interesting rusts and other 1898] ; 374 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER fungi. He collected in the region about the city of Mexico, somewhat at Mt. Orizaba and Vera Cruz, and northward, the last stop being made at San Luis Potosi and vicinity. , ProFEssor W, F. GANONG, of Smith College, Northampton, Mass., wishes to obtain seeds of Cactacez collected in the-field by botanists who can vouch for the accuracy of their determinations, particularly from localities - outside of the United States. They are wanted for studies upon the embry- ology of the family in continuation of a work upon the subject now in press. ee Exchange will be made if desired. Tue NATIONAL HERBARIUM at Washington recently received the entire = collection made by Dr. W. H. Forwood in western Wyoming in the years ie 1881-2. These plants form the basis for two reports published by the War Department, both of which are now quite difficult to obtain. Many of them, also, are reported upon in Mr, Frank Tweedy’s Flora of the Yellowstone. THE REPORT of Dr. D. Prain, the Director of the Botanical Survey of India, for the year 1897-8, is largely occupied by a continuation of Professor Woodrow’s Flora of Western India. He records the botanical explorations which have been made during the year, of portions of Assam and Burma; in the latter of which great assistance was rendered by Lieut. E. Pottinger, R. A.— Nature. A PRIZE OF 4000 MARKS is offered by the Economic Society of Mohrun- gen, near Kénigsberg, for the best work on the relations of electricity to living organisms. This work must discuss either fundamentally new phenom — ena in plant or animal electricity, or, from the point of view of physics, dis- cuss the sources of organic electricity, or its significance for life in general or for certain functions. eine UNDER THE AUSPICES of the New York Botanical Garden Mr. S. — Heller will shortly leave for Porto Rico to make collections of the eae ectly our newly acquired territory. The flora of this island is very impertechy represented in herbaria either in this country or in Europe. Arrangements 3 will be made for preserving specimens both dried and in formalin. The expenses of the expedition will be borne by Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt. IN HIS ADDRESS before the Section of Botany of the British Association, — Professor F. O. Bower, President, discusses the homology of the members 0 a the plant body at large with special reference to the question of bo involved in the alternation of generations in green plants. The paper Is sei that will be of large interest at the present time. It includes, also, suggestive remarks upon the methods to be used in terminology. Prof ae Marshall Ward read a paper upon Penicillium as a wood destroying a in which he showed that this plant, one of our commonest molds, ue 1898 ] NEWS 375 edly plays an important part in the reduction of plant offal to the vegetable mold which makes up largely the soil of our forests. It was not determined in how far the fungus could initiate the destruction of the wood, if indeed it does not merely follow the attacks of other fungi and bacteria. EDWARD TATNALL, one of our best local botanists, died somewhat sud- denly at Wilmington, Del., on the 30th of May last in his eightieth year. Almost from childhood he had strong botanical tastes, and, as these increased, they were fostered and appreciated by his association and correspondence with such botanists as Darlington, James, Gray, Engelmann, and many others. He was the author of the “Catalogue of the plants of New Castle county, Delaware,” which passed through two editions. Many herbaria in this and foreign lands have been enriched by his collections. He retained his active interest in botany to the last day of his life, and his death was much regretted by all who knew him. Carp's Bush fruits, one of the “Rural Science Series,” is just off the press. It is very full in botanical matter, containing descriptions of all forms of Rubus and Ribes, wild and cultivated, in North America, with very many illustrations, following, in this respect, the precedent of Fuller’s Smad/ fruit culturist. It also has full lists of fungi which attack blackberries, raspberries, currants, gooseberries, etc. Bailey’s Evolution of our native Sruits, just pub- lished, contains a revision, with new names, of American blackberries and dewberries. Two of Professor Bailey’s works, the Forcing book and Plant breeding, are now being translated into French. They are the first American horticultural books to be republished in France. THE BOTANICAL expedition to the LaPlata and San Juan mountains of Colorado was in the field four weeks last summer, the time being unexpect- edly shortened. During that time the three collectors, Professor F. S. Earle, C. F. Baker, and S. M. Tracy, secured about 25,000. specimens. Eighteen uniform sets (all sold in advance) will be distributed shortly, beside which there will be a number of partial sets (a few yet remaining unsold). It is believed that the series is more than usually valuable, both on account of the biological importance of the region, and from the care exercised to secure all available forms and variations. There are also a number of new species, and quite a _ number of rare ones, including Ranunculus Macauleyi, in flower and fruit, Astragalus Wingatensis, Cerastium arvense Fuegianum, Fendlera rupicola, and others. The sets will form the basis for a report upon the season's work, to be issued with the aid of Dr. E. L. Greene. ACCORDING TO THE Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information of the Kew Gardens, the duties of the new department in the West Indies to be admin- istered by the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture, Dr. Morris, are to induce the people, as far as possible, to substitute other industries for sugar 376 : BOTANICAL GAZETTE | NOVEMBER 18 raising, which is the almost universal occupation. Besides this, the depart- ment is to deal with all questions concerning economic plants and the botani- cal stations in all the islands. For the first year a grant of £4500 was mai by Parliament with the expectation that the annual charges hereafter for the department will be £17,000. The establishment of this new department i an experiment in the hope of again placing these colonies ina self-support- ing condition by diversifying the agriculture. It is intended, also, that t means of communication between the islands and the markets should greatly improved. The government purposes establishing a line of steam between the islands and New York, and also to secure, if possible, better communication between Jamaica and London. Fortnightly communicatio between the different islands is also to be established. The grant f urposes, however, is to be separate from that intended for experimental agricultural work. : Extra Quality Mounting Paper Bausch & Lomb motical Co... ..4 and Genus Covers In quantity for the Herbaria of Educational Institutions at very low prices. Please write. .... pe eg ae ge State and Washington Streets hicago Rochester, N. Y. 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BARNES, Zhe University of Chicago, Chicago, Mil. J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, Lafayette, ind. ASSOCIATE EDITORS GEORGE F. ATKINSON FRITZ NOLL nell University Oni ented oe ae CASIMIR DeCANDOLLE VOLNEY M. SPAL Geneva University 2 wikia J. B. DETONI ROLAND THAXTER Un eta of Padua Harvard University — ADOLF ENGL WILLIAM TRELEASE Oni nar of Berlin Missouri Botanical Garden LEON GUIGN 9 capi sg sv WARD SPs . Pharmacie, Paris Untiz mig Cambridge JINZO MATSUMURA EUGEN. WARMIN Imperial University, Tokyo niverstty fo Copenhagen VEIT WITTROCK é Royal Academy of Sciences, Stockholm CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Publisher by the Bniversity of Chicago Khe Bniversity of Chicage Press COPYRIGHT 1898 BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO :

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AINSWORTH R. SPOFFORD, forme erly Libraria an of Congress, has accepted the Pte tion of Genera “anion ’ of Nag Committee appointed to distribute the work. Ifa pri ould cost Sn eatnes ers Se aera naiaaiaah ole 2 eas at if he could gain access to the Government records, itW ae Ten not less ast a rite. dollars o arias €, and he could not afford to sell it fur less than work a to . . th at er volume. The Committee on Distribution has, moe it undertaken to merease, oni applications, and sev heh gnificent pened athe ptlaed in the w equests pps of ONE oleae arenes | handle pea and if ‘you ecide within ten days n refunded. All requests for "hone: information will Pode ‘AINSWORTH R. SPOFFORD, Gen’! QELS psi ARS sh taco VOLUME XXVI : NUMBER 6 BOTANICAL GAZETTE DECEMBER 17898 THE EFFECT OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS UPON THE GERMINATION OF FUNGUS SPORES.* Fe-L. STEVES: OBJECT. THE primary object in the work here related was to establish with some degree of accuracy the strengths of various solu- tions which are necessary to prevent the growth of fungus spores, The bearing of this question upon the relation of a fungicide to its efficiency is apparent, and from the wide use of these compounds it seems important that all knowledge possible should be gained regarding the principles underlying their action. Incidentally, new evidence bearing upon the theory of the hydrolytic dissociation of the molecule is adduced; also facts which may throw some light upon the structure of the cell wall PRELIMINARY. Before work bearing results could be practically undertaken, it became necessary to select the best manner of working, and the materials to use, and to become familiar with the sources of error most common. * Contributions from the Hull Botanical Laboratory. XI. 378 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER After various means of culture had been tried, the van Tieg- hem hanging drop proved the most satisfactory. In the selection of material such fungi were chosen as could be obtained in abundance, could be easily kept in stock culture, were not liable to become seriously impure, and, of most impor- tance, such as would uniformly grow in the kind of culture medium used. Botrytis vulgaris Fr., Macrosporium (sp. ?) from the fruit of Datura Tatula, Gleosporium Musarum C. & M., and Uromyces caryophyllinus (Schrank) Schr., were selected. Penicillium crus- taceum (Linn.) Fries was useful in tube cultures. Many other fungi were tried but presented disadvantages which prohibited their use. Several hundred cultures were made to ascertain whether there was any toxic effect from the cells, cement, or oil used to seal the cell, and to note whether or not nourishing materials were useful in the solution. METHODS. The cultures were made in hanging drop in van Tieghem cells used in the usual manner with vaseline as an adhesive. It was not found necessary to place them ina moist chamber, as they did not dry if carefully sealed. Cultures were uniformly examined about twenty-four hours after their preparation and every time that a series of cultures was made, a series of check cultures in distilled water was prepared. In every case where the checks failed to grow, all negative results were discarded The cells themselves were frequently thoroughly cleansed and the cover glasses were carefully wiped each time before using washed in alcohol and wiped again. In order to facilitate the making of cultures a tube was bent as shown in the figure on opposite page. By slightly raising the long end the liquid rises in the short end and a hanging drop of any desired size is readily placed on the cover glass. This tube was washed, then rinsed with the solution under observation, then filled with that solution. This and all other " 1898] GERMINATION OF FUNGUS SPORES 379 tubes and bottles used were, of course, very thoroughly washed before introducing another chemical or one of different strength. The drop being upon the cover glass, a clean teasing needle or platinum needle was touched to the stock culture, and then to the hanging drop. Before using this needle with another chemical it was washed. Sterilization was nowhere necessary, as the culture was to be of such short duration that bacteria or other fungi did not develop. The cultures of Penicillium crustaceum (Linn.) Fries were made otherwise. A small piece of bread 2X 1X1™ was soaked in the solution under experimentation, then placed ms > oe tube where it was about three quarters immersed in the solution. It was then inoculated with the Penicillium, evaporation being prevented by a stopper to the tube. Readings were made with this fungus when the checks had begun to grow well. In order to insure that a proper planting had been made, and to be sure that no spores had been germinated previous to being placed in the solution, each slide was microscopically examined before placing away. The series of cultures being made, the slides bearing them were placed away in a thermostat on a metallic slide holder. SOLUTIONS. Inasmuch as the object of the work was to investigate the effect of the salts upon the growth of the fungus, it was deemed advisable to prepare solutions the composition of which should be based upon their molecular weight rather than upon a per- centage basis. To do this the molecular weight of the salt, base, or acid was estimated, and this weight taken in grams was dissolved in one liter of water. Such a’ solution is designated throughout this article as a normal solution. Thus, potassium 380 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | DECEMBER hydrate has the formula KOH. K, O and H have respectively the atomic weights 38.85, 15.88 and 1. Therefore the molecu- lar weight of KOH is 55.73. Then 55.738" of potassium hydrate dissolved in one liter of water constitutes a normal solution of potassium hydrate. It will be readily seen then that, the work being accurately done and the molecular formule being correct, a normal solu- tion of any substance will contain as many molecules per cubic centimeter as a normal solution of any other substance. In a few cases solutions of greater than normal strength were used, but generally, if the substance did not prevent growth when in one-tenth of normal strength, the substance was considered non-poisonous and was not experimented with further. Starting with a normal solution, dilutions were easily made till such strength was reached that the spores would germinate The various strengths used are designated as fractions of normal Thus ,%., signifies a solution of one eight-hundredth normal, a strength which could be prepared by taking one cubic centi- meter of normal solution and diluting it to 800%. Ten cubic centimeters of ,*. diluted to 80% would furnish exoy etc The atomic weights used are those given by Roscoe and Schorlemmer.? TABULATION AND DISCUSSION. In tables I-XVI appears a record of the cultures made, more than 1500 in all, each culture bearing from fifty to a few thou- sand spores. The fraction shows the strength of solution used, and the figure to the left of the fraction shows the number of times this strength was tried. If the fungus grew, the strength in which it grew appears in the corresponding column. Those strengths in which it failed are to be found in the column headed Failed. Reference to a footnote indicates some peculiarity regarding the culture, which will be found explained in the note. The numbers used in these footnotes are original numbers of the cultures. ? Treatise on Chemistry 1 : 52. 1895 [ed. 3]. 1898 | GERMINATION OF FUNGUS SPORES 381 TABLE I. MERCURIC CHLORID. Botrytis Macrosporium Penicillium Uromyces Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed I * Ww wm I a 2 112 2 n 2 n 6 PE ck 51200 4 12800 3 819200 81g2co 25600 3200 204800 6400 n n n n n n 3 102400 5 25600 5 409600 T 3 409600 . 12800 : 51200 n n n n n n 8 204800 - 51200 4 met ele 6 204800 . 6400 3 25600 n nt n n : 102400 / 102400 3 102400 6 3200 § 4 an 4 51200 ” 4 25600 * No. 436. Growth scattered. T No. 157. Four cultures normal and one slight but uniform. {| No. 200. Scattered growth. Mercuric chlorid.—Thus we see that Botrytis grew in syye00 . in eight different cultures, and there is no evidence that this Strength injures it. In eet eee threé cultures grew normally and one failed to grow. The growth here may be considered as normal. In 5,59) twice as strong as the last, growth was poor i one culture, two failed utterly, and the strength necessary to- prevent germination is evidently reached. Five cultures of twice this strength or ,.*,, were tried, but all failed to germinate. So it can be concluded that the strength which prevents most spores from growing is ;,%,,, and that 5,759 is a sure preventive. Then the range from sure prevention of growth to a normal growth is from ..%,, to +, : With Macrosporium the growth was normal for grgs00" pes toovoy and ,,7.,, grew but gave evidence of injury, and s1z00 Proved a sure preventive. With Penicillium, starting with 382 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | DECEMBER as weak as ;~”,,, the growth was normal, in as strong as 3y5 a killing strength was not reached. Uromyces, from a generalization made in my notebook, grew 2 : . : normally in ,,%,,, not quite as well in 355, and is prevented nn 2 e . by gzop €xcept in very rare cases, where a single spore grows. TABLE II. POTASSIUM CYANID. Gleeosporium Macrosporium Penicillium Uromyces cS ee Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed n n n n n id — 2 2 : 6400 t $00 : 25600 400 12800 ee 25600 S00 n n n n es 3 ‘ate ’ 3200 - 800 - 50 800 6400 3 G00 n n n n n es I * 2 Y Bacmmcers 800 I “a t rae 2 aoe 3200 106 n n n n 2 2 400 Too - 200 Z 800 n I 400 n 3 100 ee * No. 1369. Some grew poorly. Tt No. 1363. Nearly all grew to about half normal size. Potassium cyanid.— Potassium cyanid was tried upon Gloeo- sporium and other fungi, and, notwithstanding its great toxic action upon animal organisms, proved comparatively harmless to the spores. Starting with ,j%,, on Glceosporium, successively | stronger solutions were tried till ,%, was reached without pre venting growth. No stronger solutions were tried. Macrosporium with potassium cyanid was started at 35600" and successively stronger solutions taken till ¥%, was reached. in this strength one culture grew poorly and two failed, so that - the fatal strength was evidently reached. With Penicillium 45 proved fatal. Uromyces grew normally till a strength of s%y Was reached. In this the growth was much stunted in one culture, 1898 ] GERMINATION OF FUNGUS SPORES 383 and two failed. In ,*,, two cultures grew somewhat, while seven failed utterly. The unexpectedly low toxic action of potassium cyanid is puzzling, especially as other experimenters? upon spermatophytes find its toxic action about one-half that of mercuric chlorid. It is evident that the action of this salt upon fungi is not as vigorously toxic as upon higher plants and animals. TABLE III. HYDROCHLORIC ACID. Gleeosporium Macrosporium Penicillium Uromyces Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed n n n n ad cen een __. — 2 3 “Boo 2 6400 een 6400 : 6400 2 3200 800 hd at 2 n n a 2 pte eel I 400 a 400 3 50 - 400 + 800 400 nn I ied I n 2 nm 1 n 2 200 200 200 4 n n n I 2— 100 4 I00 og 100 - 100 100 n ve vid 2 = is2 2 os omar t Fe rat ree Re enc acer ote Ea * No. 1376. Not quite normal. No. 1358. Stunted.—1359. About 1 in 200 grew. Hydrochloric and sulfuric acids—These acids have about an equal status in the results of the work upon Gloeosporium. Starting with a solution of wey the. Spores Rew normally. Gradually stronger solutions were taken till growth was evident in ;4y with HCl, but H,SO, of this strength weakened the growth perceptibly. Glceosporium here became irregular in its behavior, and the killing point was not reached. The secondary Spores so common in this genus were produced, however, in KAHLENBERG and TRUE, On the toxic action of dissolved salts and their elec- trolytic dissociation. Bor. Gaz. 22:81. : H .D. HEALD, On the toxic effect of dilute solutions of acids and salts upon plants, Bor. Gaz. 22:125. 384 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | DECEMBER unusual abundance in these solutions, and may have been an indication of injurious action. The fact may also be significant that abnormal and distorted mycelium more frequently resulted than in ordinary nutrient solution. TABLE Ly, SULFURIC ACID. Gleeosporium * Macrosporium Penicillium Uromyces Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed n n n n n ” * 6ST I 3 800 8co 3 800 I Bs 2 6400 2 800 800 " n n n 2 2 2 I Saree 400 400 2 100. | 400 400 49° nm n n n n mm 2 I 200 4 200 t 2 50 - 200 ! 200 n n n n " I (= 100 - roo 7 100 100 100 n - 2 5° 50 * No, 1338. Poorly. T No. 1094. Stunted. f No. 1028. Ten in 100 grew poorly. - With Macrosporium and Penicillium neither acid prevented growth at so: Uromyces was exceedingly variable in its behavior with these acids, and the results, as far as they can be interpreted, seem to show H,SO, to be a trifle more toxic. The killing point of HCl apparently is ,",, while for H,SO, tis 44 Alcohol.—Glceosporium germinated. normally in alcohol of semi-normal Strength. Macrosporium even grew in five times normal strength, while Penicillium grew in semi-normal, but failed in normal. ‘Uromyces grew in five times normal. Stronger solutions were not tried, owing to the inability to secure hanging drops in stronger solutions. The low toxic power might be sought here in volatility, but this seems not to be the cause, as it was evident that the Uromyces, Botrytis, and Macrosporium 1898] GERMINATION OF FUNGUS SPORES 385 were stimulated by the alcohol. More spores grew, and they grew far more luxuriantly than in water. TABLE V. ALGLCORGis Botrytis Macrosporium : Penicillium Uromyces Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed 2 n 2 nw 2 n 4 20 2 " Bae) 10 5 I 10 2 = 2 = gap gon bs I I 2 I I 5 2 5%” 2 2 : *No. 480. Much knotted and distorted. TABLE VI. COPPER SULFATE. Botrytis Macrosporium Penicillium Uromyces Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed : = m n n n n n n oo 6 Sar Aa! —- 2 a 1 4 ek eee gee oo > bd nm nm n n n 2 ae ge | 7 oe eee TCP 7604 10 n n te steed oer ane oe 1 n n : 10 . 80 n 2 10 *No. 539. Growth slight. + No. 652. Growth slight. tT No. 611. Many failed, but those which grew were normal. Nos. 602, 604. Nearly every spore grew, but the tubes were about half the usual length, and the protoplasm was granular-and finally plasmolyzed. ‘I Nos. 640, 641. One in 200 grew.—No. 642. Two in 200 grew. Potassium chromate-—Uromyces failed in three cultures Zp. One culture in #, had one spore grow, but this grew with 390 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | DECEMBER remarkable vigor, producing a tube fully twice the usual length, while in two other cultures of the same strength respectively one in 100 and two in 200 grew. The fatal strength here is thus evidently #,, while ;%, has an appreciable toxic action, and yy is strongly toxic. TABLE XIII. POTASSIUM BICHROMATE. Botrytis Macrosporium Penicillium Uromyces Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed ao | 2 | 3 8 | 9 acM 9) eee 1280 3200 1280 3 1600 3200 1280 Ua n n n - 640 2 640 - 800 3 640 t : 640 ra n - 2 2 ee aoe : 320 : 160 320 nt n n as 2 * 160 - 160 2 Io 160 n n n 2 2 40 - 40 40 : n n n irene - Io @ ae 4 ro Bare * No. 715. - Grew poorly. { Nos. 712, 713. One in seventy-five grew normally. No. 634. Two spores grew well.—No. 635. One in eighty grew.—No. 636 Three in seventy-five grew. é Potassium bichromate —This would not allow the germination of Botrytis spores when of ;,,5 strength. No weaker was tried. Macrosporium would not grow in yore) and in the next weaker tried, 5/5, it grew poorly. Penicillium failed to grow in ye00 and weaker were not tried. Uromyces spores were nearly all killed by ,%,, would not grow in stronger, and were injured by even weaker. Penicillium grew in as strong as double normal, and killing strength was not reached. Uromyces was prevente almost completely by #, and stronger solutions absolutely pro- hibited germination. Weak solutions, such as z350) seemed to stimulate the early growth somewhat. 1898] GERMINATION OF FUNGUS SPORES TABLE XIV. AMMONIUM NITRATE. Botrytis Penicillium Uromyces Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed . Hx! 5 n n F ; n 4 2 2 2 * No. 654. Growth slight. TABLE XV. POTASSIUM HYDROXID. Macrosporium Penicillium Uromyces Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed n n 4 id n —. * a 2 i I = Pages i BE ee z wt nt n n - 100 . 20 t . 40 too SODIUM HYDROXID. nm n n a z 200 * 50 - 40 ‘ pA = 2 id 2 HT aaale 100 20 100 AMMONIUM HYDROXID. — *No. 825. Grew * n 2.78 - nm 5-56 n ed cantatas? 13-7 soar 1 28 not at all. TNo. 824. Grew luxuriantly. 392 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER Ammonium nitrate —This permitted the growth of Botrytis in ¢ but notin 4. Penicillium grew in %. Uromyces was pre vented by 4, but grew in ~. Potassium, sodium, and ammonium hydroxids— Macrosporium gave identical results with the first two of these chemicals and a killing strength was not reached at ,%,. Stronger solutions could not be tried in drop culture. With Penicillium the fatal strength may be considered as #, for sodium and potassium hydroxids. There is an apparent anomaly in the fact that in one tube the fungus grew finely in KOH ¥, while its mate failed utterly. This can be explained on the assumption that one spore or more found a lodging place in a fragment of» unsaturated bread, and thus attained a sufficient protection and TABLE XVI. POTASSIUM IODID. Botrytis Macrosporium Penicillium Uromyces Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed Grew Failed bed n n n I 20 ? 50 * Io z 50 * " n ; 5° 40 - 20 ; n 20 ERR AONE A Mee Loe ee POTASSIUM BROMID. n n n ad 2 2 20 : 20 = 10 20 Dittecemere ae SODIUM ACETATE. n m | n , n 2 ane 2 ‘o Mo | I / * No. 647. Some injured. + No. 645. Very few grew. 3 = 1898] GERMINATION OF FUNGUS SPORES 393 start to resist the further action of the toxic solution. With Uromyces results were somewhat variable, but undeniable proof was obtained that growth is not prevented by ,%,. Ammonium hydroxid was tried only with Penicillium, and 7 prevented growth. Potassium todid and bromid.—These agree in being non-toxic toward Botrytis, Macrosporium, and Uromyces at ¥%,, and to Peni- cillium at ,%. Sodium acetate-—This allowed growth of Botrytis, Macro- sporium, and Uromyces at +, and of Penicillium at normal, while z prevented Botrytis and Uromyces from growing. Magnesium sulfate, barium chlorid, ammonium chlorid, magne- . sium chlorid.— By two tests each, these all proved harmless to Penicillium at ¥%, strength. A general tabulation of these results is presented in table XVII which will be readily comprehended. The strength expressed represents the dilution of normal solution required to prevent most of the spores from germinating. If any growth occurred, there would be only a few isolated cases of germina-_ tion. In table XVIII the strength is indicated in parts per million. . The signs > and < are the common mathematical signs for “greater than” and “less than.’’ For example, the killing strength of KCN for Glceosporium is greater than ;/y, while that of potassium bichromate for Botrytis is less than ,f,- The molecular weight of the salt as used in making up the solutions is given, with formula of each substance. From the more interesting and important generalizations of this table a few may be indicated. Mercuric chlorid is by far the most poisonous substance used, while potassium cyanid has low toxic power. This may be partially explained by the evaporation of the potassium cyanid from the drop, but this explanation surely cannot apply in the 394 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER TABLE XVII STRENGTH REQUIRED TO PREVENT GERMINATION [Expressed as parts of normal solution ] Substance Botrytis Macrosporium| Gloeosporium | Penicillium _Uromyces ba wn at SEN a eas aes Be sae or i Wt nw at nw MAN 64.9 es. ot ae 100 100 Hel seig:......... Ss = |S oe = 50 100 xe) 5° w nw A n PGC 09-3405. 34. > es berger > os ae oS) 3 Me oP ere > > sn n > 5m nn A n n CuSO,+5H,O 247.54 sans Sis ses 3200 Cu(NOs)a+3 H,0 fe 5 n a PAO Os ga Celie wis aoe Bs Sos 200 3200 Cul nt n hd x u(C,H,0,). 179.96 oo as as ion CuCl ; oe ae “ uCl,+2H,O 166.96 3200 or less » 6400 acuta ae K,C ae sie - . 2CrO, 192.92 < tic pe < 640 40 K,C Oe. ce Bech “ 2 T20, meee = 1280 1280 ae 1600 8 NaCl S8.16.:.%..<.. > = >n >2n 2 KOH 54.74... s : . 54 74 ae > ts 40 > 100 POH 38.96 25s : . ——— a 38.76 an — 40 ? aa NH NO. 90.52... ed - : 2 2 RE. 26096). i5. 6:5. : : : : ms: 4.7 >— |>> deme rs o 20 © 3s.) 425... I Sort ~ = arare? , oa - 20 = 20 ¢ 9 “ Na(C,H,0,)+3 H,O n Lic) Vea ees = > > >n eee 4 MgSO,+7H,O 2457 >< BaCl,+2H,O 242.13 >— ED. tate is. > “4 ~ MgCl,+6H,O 201.88 se 10 K,Mn,0O, 313.94... am n poses 200 NH,OH © 34.82 2... ~ Be 25 | tala case of Penicillium, which uniformly grew in ,%,. So the fact must be accepted that KCN has a low toxic power for these fungi. 1898 ] GERMINATION OF FUNGUS SPORES 395 TABLE XVIII STRENGTH REQUIRED TO PREVENT GERMINATION [Expressed as parts per million] Substance Botrytis |Macrosporium| Gloeosporium| Penicillium | Uromyces MgCl 230.2 <2 3: 4.6 23 74 37 AIS PON oi ou 1294 > 162 647 647 OE 9010 ee ek. > 724 > 362 > 724 724 Rees O7.88 ks > 1947 > 973 > 1947 973 Meme AST oes > 45700 |> 228500 45700 |> 228500 CuSO,+5H,O 247.54] 49—77 25—38 791—1237 | 49—77 Cu(NO;).+3 H,O ip aee acne 58 > 58 930 58 Cu(C,H,0,), 179.96 56 56 225 225 CuCl.+2H,O 166.96 20 or less 20 656 41 K,CrO, 192.92..... <— 561 4823 < 301 4823 K,Cr,0,. 292.2..... < 228 228 < 183 456 DeGt. $8.58. ....., > 29090 > 59190 < 119380 29090 mie $494.55. > 547 1368 > 547 OOH. 38.96 25... 2. > 388 1938 > 388 NH,NO, 79.52..... 39760 39760 39760 RI 164.76..........]. > 8238 | > 8238 > 16476 | > 8238 ets) a > 5910 > 5910 > 11820 > 5910 Na(C,H,0,)+ 3 H,0 ot eee eS eet 45500 > 20250 > 81000 40500 MgSO,+7H,O 245.7 > 12554 BaCl,+2H,O 242.13 > 20637 MCL 53.192... > 5313 MgCl,+6H,O 201.88 > 9460 K,Mn,0, 313.94 392 > 31394 1570 POH 4485.-.._, H,SO, and HCl agree closely in toxic effect upon these fungi and are of also about the same toxic action as KCN. The fatal strength for H,SO , is nearly a one per cent. solution. 396 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER All of the copper salts agree closely in toxic action. Between potassium chromate and bichromate there is a remarkable variance; the bichromate has twice the effect upon Botrytis, thirty-two times the effect upon Macrosporium and sixteen times upon Uromyces that the chromate does. In all the cases considered so far, it will be noticed that with the exception of Penicillium, Uromyces will withstand as great or greater strength than any of the other fungi tried. With NaCl we have a case, however, in which the Macrosporium survives even a greater strength than the Uromyces. The same anomaly is observed with HCl and H,SO, upon these fungi. So it seems that although a fungus may, generally speaking, be more resistant to the action of salts or acids than other fungi are, there may be some particular substances which will affect this fungus at less strength than is required for the other and usually weaker fungus. This fact is especially important in the application of fungicides, in that a fungicide which is most effective for one fungus is not necessarily so for all fungi. It may also be noticed that although Uromyces is generally more resistant than Botrytis and Macro-_ sporium, Uromyces is the most susceptible to the action of NaCl. The hydroxids KOH, NaOH, and NH,OH gave quite uni- form results, and show a low toxic power. In the case of the hanging drop this might partially be explained by the neutrali- zation by CO,; but, substantiated as it is by parallel experi- ments in gross culture with a Penicillium, the fact must be accepted that the hydroxids are of low toxic action on these fungi. Potassium permanganate is of very low toxic power, but is of peculiar interest in that it has the power of coloring the uredo- spores a dense black, while the teleutospores were but slightly if at all darkened. The other records made in table XVII show that the solution is practically non-toxic. 3 An inspection of this table will show that, of the five fungt tried, Penicillium is usually more resistant than any of the others. This is rather to be explained by the means of culture than by any structural or selective difference in the fungi themselves. 1898 | GERMINATION OF FUNGUS SPORES 397 Single spores might easily have been protected from the action of the fungicide by the nutrient medium. This idea is further supported by the fact, frequently noted in drop cultures of Uro- myces, that often a spore in the midst of a close bunch would grow when others near it and unprotected would fail. This was of such frequent occurrence as practically to prove that TABLE XIX. SHOWING LIMIT PREVENTING SPORADIC GERMINATION. Substance Botrytis Gloeosporium | Macrosporium| Penicillium Uromyces SS eee a neta pad cd | 25600 51200 Faced 6400 : Nese as os ve i c pinto ( a 400 > 50 100 4 100 HCl 4 n n a ee ng Seite as = : 100 > 50 = 50 ” 50 ga easel Se ws us ad 100 ee 50 2 5° > 100 er Sn = Shy ee . Se 3 es, i Ss . sd - Ss 3200 3200 200 Ico ey mn 4 = 3200 200 3200 Cu(C,H,0,), . n n - = 3200 1600 800 Rie bhi aces ss: a s i 6400 6400 — 1600 K,Mn,0, Oe Ae MO ie - sd : 800 400 > 100 K,CrO, pies woo < ie 5 < is we 640 40 640 10 K,Cr,0, cn iar rors = ~ aut a = sree 1280 1280 1600 oped a: 0 Sa = cis ee > . > ge + : n KOH x Pee ee Oe Wee Swe & usd o non Fa on eae NaOH bee ee n bid a us es >. oe pea 100 MeO i; ~ : oot mn 28 ag OE ee be 398 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER close contact of the spores could prevent the toxic effect of the chemical. Generally speaking, Botrytis required a stronger solution to kill than did the Macrosporium, while Uromyces required much greater strength than either of them. This might have been expected from the relative thickness of their walls, and is further illustrated by table XIX, which gives the strength of solution required to prevent completely the growth of spores. Excep- tions to this generalization occur, however, as has already been pointed out, which indicate a selective difference. Some fungi on experimentation gave with some chemicals a sharp and defi- nite killing point. Others were gradually weakened or the number of germinating spores decreased as the strength of the solution increased. This second phase is particularly well illus- trated in the cultures of Uromyces. With each chemical a strength could be found which just perceptibly injured the fungus, and another which prevented most spores from germinating. This is what has previously been given as the killing strength. At this strength one of two things occurred: either about the usual number grew, but grew only slightly and in stunted or often distorted manner; or, in each culture, nearly all the spores failed utterly to grow, while one or a half dozen in the hundreds of a culture would grow and grow usually vigorously and appa- rently uninjured. In order to kill these few persistent spores much greater strength was required. Thus, in potassium chro- mate, for Uromyces, ,", killed or prevented most growth. But some spores grew even in .“,, and ,%, was necessary to inhibit growth completely. On the other hand ., did weaken growth somewhat. So there is established a wide range between the weakest solution injuring the fungus and the weakest solution surely preventing growth. Table XX shows the variation in range of susceptibility. In this table two concentrations are named for each fungus: At the weaker normal growth took place, while the stronget completely inhibited growth. It is here to be noticed that Uromyces gives a remarkable ‘ee 1898 ] GERMINATION OF FUNGUS SPORES 399 TABLE XxX. SHOWING RANGE OF SUSCEPTIBILITY. Substance Botrytis Gloeosporium |Macrosporium| Penicillium Uromyces n n mn ee 102400 819200 25600 n n n 25600 51200 6400 n n ose. a ee T00 200 | ~ 200 n x n > 50 100 a 100 n n FC). Too 800 n n er igi n H,SO, 200 > n 100 n aoe z n 2 n x n n ee 12800 12800 400 alco n nt n n 3200 3200 200 = 100 n n n Se a eat _ — n n n 3200 200 3200 n n n n GulC,H,0,), ...<.. 3200 6400 1600 oe ” n n n ‘ 6400 I 800 200 " n n CuCl, ah aC ona ear 12800 400 6400 n n _ ed 6400 200 1600 n n n K,Mn,0, Oe ye ee es “1600 = dae — n > # “Boo 100 n Pe ae. : ties n 10 n Pag “cl K,Cro, en aa eh ee a < 3200 a me n 1280 2 i n ieee 50 n = n 50 n 400 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER range, particularly with copper sulfate, in which most spores were killed at ;%,,. Some injury was done my rssoy Dut some spores grew in even so strong a solution as ,7, A general survey of the tables will wee that the following list of chemicals may be selected as having aaetnee no toxic action unless in great strength, as they were tried at .%, with no toxic action, and this was in every case greater hae: a % per cent. solution: K,Mn,O,, MgCl,, NH,Cl, BaCl,, MgsO,, Na(C,H,0,), KBr, KI, NH,NO,, NaCl, C,H,O. e HYDROLYTIC DISSOCIATION. Salts in aqueous solution present certain deviations regarding the changes of freezing and boiling point (and also other optical physical, and chemical deviations) which are not in accord with the general laws for solutions containing the number of molecules theoretically supposed to be present. ‘‘Thus a solution of KCl + 100 H,O, instead of showing a lowering of vapor pressure of .OI as required by the law, shows a lowering of about double this. Solutions in alcohol behave like other substances and give normal diminution of vapor pressure.”’4 _ In general the behavior of such aqueous solutions of salts, bases, or acids is such as might be expected if they contained more molecules than their formula indicates. These phenomena led Arrhenius: to the conclusion that each molecule or some of the molecules are separated into part mole- cules or ions, a term long used by the physicist. According to this theory of hydrolytic dissociation a solution of mercuric chlorid does not consist of water and molecules of mercuric chlorid, but does consist of water containing ions of mercury and ions of chlorin, designated as Hg+ and Cl~ , accord ing as the element is electro-positive or electro-negative in electrolytic dissociation. Careful distinction should be drawn between an element in the condition of dissociation and in a molecular condition. Thus 4OsTWALD : Solutions, trans. by Muir, p. 187. 5 Zeits. f. phys. Chem. 1: 631. 1887. 1898] GERMINATION OF FUNGUS SPORES 401 ions of sodium are very different in their chemical, physical, and physiological properties from molecules of sodium. Arrhenius, as quoted by Ostwald (2. c.), was thus led to the conclusion that ‘the properties of salt solutions must be capable of representation as the binary sums of the properties of the ions.” This generalization has later been made more particular and has been qualified slightly by Kahlenberg and True (Z:90; who extend their reasoning to the domain of physiological effects. They say: ‘Now, if, in the case of the solutions in question, all the chemical and physical properties are due to the properties of the ions plus those of the undissociated molecules it contains, it seems very probable that the physiological effects produced by such solutions are due to these.” The above proposition is then amply substantiated by these authors and by F. D. Heald (Z. ¢.) in a series of experiments upon seedlings of flowering plants. TABLE XXI. Non-poisonous | Poisonous Substance Cathion Anion Substance Cathion Anion MgSO# M 50, HgCl Hg+ BaCl, Ba - . Hcl’ H+ NaC] Na+ cir H,SO, H-+t Mg + Cl KCN CN — NaC,H,0, a+ |C;H,O,— CuSO, ot! = Br Cu(NO, Cu K + I—/. | Ca(C HO Cor K,Mn,0, K+ MnO, CuCl, u+ NH,NO, K,CrO, CrO, — NH,Cl K,Cr,0, Cr,0,— C,H,O KOH ean NaOH OH — NI,OH OH — In the first column of table XXI is given a list of salts . which have been proven non-poisonous. The strengths were Such that there were in the solution many undissociated mole- cules; many also of the molecules were dissociated; hence, as - these solutions proved non-toxic at the strength used, it may be 402 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER concluded that both the molecules and the ions, both negative and positive, are devoid of toxic action. The two next columns of this table show the ions into which the salts are separated. Here then is proof that to the fungi under investigation the cathions Mg, Ba, Na, and K are non- toxic. The anions SO,, Cl, Br, I, MnO,, and C,H,O, are non- toxic at the strength used. The second half of table XXI shows those salts which were found to have toxic action. As Gl-ions have previously been proven non-toxic the effect must rest with the molecule of HgCl, or with the ion of Hg*. The salt at the strength used was almost completely dissociated, hence the effect is due to the Hg* ion, which was the most pow- erful one experimented with. With the two acids, HCl and H,SO,, the anions had proven non-toxic; so, by similar reasoning, the poisonous property rests with the H+ ion. As H,SO, contains twice as much H* as does HCl it should have twice its toxic power in equi-molecular solutions. This statement has met no adverse results in experi- ment, but there has been slight, though by no means positive evidence, to sustain it. With KCN the cathion is non-toxic. The CN- then must be poisonous, and it has about the same toxic action as does mn With all the copper salts the anions are non-toxic, hence the poison is in the molecule or in the copper, and in the more dilute solutions it undeniably rests with the copper. As each copper compound has as many atoms of copper per molecule as the others it would be equally toxic. This expectation is almost fully met, with the exception of copper acetate for Penicillium and Uromy- ces, and of copper sulfate for Macrosporium. These three slight deviations from the theory stand against thirteen observations with the copper salts tending to support it. j In the potassium chromate and bichromate solutions the pol sonous action rests evidently with the anions. The bichromate is in every case more poisonous and in most cases far more poisonous than the chromate, as may be seen by tables XII and III. ' 1898] GERMINATION OF FUNGUS SPORES 403 With the hydroxids the toxic effect rests with the anion, and as far as positive results were secured, they agree precisely. It may be noted, in passing, that the Bordeaux mixture, 22-gallon formula, estimated on basis of copper content, would be of about % strength, whereas these experiments show ,#, for copper is sufficient to prevent growth, except in extremely rare cases, while 745 is usually fatal to the spores with which it comes in contact. It is possible, however, that in Bordeaux mixture the copper may enter into the formation of a complex molecule, pro- ducing in dissociation a complex ion containing copper which is inferior to the copper ion itself in toxic action. This subject, however, is now under investigation and will be treated of in a Separate paper. TABLE XXII. | Pisum | Zea Lupinus Penicillium Uromyces ee a: roi es ce a H,SO, oe a eee re me rt o Too Oe = — = a = oo, 5. a aes os Pe ca Ca(C,20,), 60. 5. = | | & : dos on —> var. Pruneau- 420 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER to read backward through Seringe, Linnzeus, Tournefort and Bauhin, and to see more clearly what those early botanists were describing. Ofcourse sucha method is always open to mistakes, and it will not do to be too sure that we have Bauhin’s exact view of the various groups. The following table will show, as accu- rately as I am at present able to trace, the relation of the vari- eties of Bauhin, Tournefort, Linnzus, and Seringe to one another. It is seen at once that Seringe had very little regard for Linnzus’ names in preparing the monograph for the Prodromus. Only three of the Linnean variety names are retained. The other groups given in Species Plantarum are totally disregarded. This is very unfortunate; for in coming to any understanding of the early botanical types of Prunus domestica, Seringe’s clas- sification offers much the best basis for study. I have thought it best to accept tentatively the eight varieties as given by Seringe, since they doubtless represent the most distinct, as well as the only well-recorded types, and to study these groups separately. A due respect to the rules of botanical nomenclature, however, makes it necessary to revise some of Seringe’s names. It will therefore be better if we give here with this revision 2 more complete record of the pre-DeCandollean synonymy. PRE-DECANDOLLEAN SYNONYMY OF THE VARIETIES OF PRU- NUS DOMESTICA LInN. 1, Var. MALIFORMIS Linn. (var. Armentotdes Ser.) P, fructu maximo, rotundo, flavo & dulci Tourn. P, rotunda flava dulcia Mali amplitudina Bauh. _ P, a Malis cognominata Caes. Var. amygdalina Linn? P. fructu Amygdalino Tourn. P, amygdalina Bauh. P, amygdalina Pliny. 2. Var. CEREOLA Linn. (var. Claudiana Ser.) fructu parvo, ex viridi flavescente Tourn. parva ex viridi flavescentia Bauh. parva serotina, cereola Gesn. . viridacia Gesn. verdacea Cam, we 1898 ] EARLY VIEWS OF PRUNUS DOMESTICA 421 3. Var. MYROBALAN Linn. (var. M/yrodalana Ser.) P. fructu rotundo, nigro-purpureo, majori dulci Tourn. P. fructu rotundo nigro-purpureo dulci Bauh. P. cognominata Myrobalanus Clus. (?) Cam. Tab. Ger. P. myrobalanus rotundus Eyst. Var. acinaria Linn. . fructu majori rotundo, rubro Tourn. P. magna robra rotunda Bauh. P, asinina Trag. Dod. Lugd. Caes. 4. Var. DAMASCENA Linn, (var. Damascena Ser.) fructu magno, dulci, atro-caeruleo Tourn. magna dulcia atro-caerulea Bauh. Damascena Trag. Matth. Dod. et al. Brunensia Clus. Ungarica duplicia etc. Matth. Gesn. Lugd. fructu parvo, dulci, atro-caeruleo Tourn. parva dulcia atro-caerulea Bauh. Var. hungarica Linn. P. fructu magno, crasso, subacido Tourn. P. magna crassida subacida Bauh. P. Ungarica praestantissima Gesn. Var. augustana Linn, ? (var. angustana Linn. Sp. Pl. 2d. ed.) P. fructu minori, austero Tourn. P. Augusto maturescentia minora & austeora Bauh. P, Augustana & Albanula Caes. Var. praecox Linn. ? P. fructu parvo, praecoci Tourn. P. parva praecocia Bauh. P. praecociora, a tempore avenacea dicta Gesn. P, averaria Taber. 5. Var. PERNICONA Linn, (var. Zuronensis Ser.) _ (Var. pertigona Linn, Sp. Pl. 2d ed.) P. fructu nigro, carne dura Tourn. P. nigra carne dura Bauh. P. Iberica & Pertigona vocata Trag. P. Hispanica Dod. P. Perdigona Ludg. P. pernicona vulgo Caes. ©. Var. juLtana Linn. (var. Juliana DC.) P. fructu oblongo, caeruleo Tourn. P. oblonga caerulea Bauh. P. dactyla purpurea & ovata Ludg. “qui Noberdiana et Juliana addit,” . ee ee eee 422 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER 7. Var. CEREA Linn. (var. Catherinea Ser.) P. fructu cerei coloris Tourn. coloris cerae ex candido in luteum palliscente Bauh. . cerea & Ceriola Trag. Dod. Lugd. Taber . cerea Cord. Gesn. . amygdalina Ger. Var. Eeigasla Linn. ? P. Brignoniensis, fructu suavissimo Tourn P. ex flavo rufescentia mixti saporis gratissima Bauh. 8. Var. AUBERTIANA, DC. eae g. Var. GALATENSIS Linn? (var. Pruneauliana Ser.) . fructu albo, oblongiusculo, acido Tourn. Pruneoli albi oblongiusculi acidi Bau P. Galatensia, sive Perani pruneoli Clus. As has been already said, one of the chief means of tracing these groups is through the cultivated varieties. Perhaps also the greatest good to be gained from an understanding of the botanical types is in the light it throws on the history and rela- tionships of the horticultural forms. Let us examine them in order. PRUNUS DOMESTICA MALIFORMIS.—For his types of this group (var. Armenioides Ser.), Seringe referred to the cultivated vari- - eties Abricotée, Mirabelle, Drap d’Or, and Abricotée-hative of Duhamel.* The citation of the first, Abricotée, is evidently an oversight, and incorrect, the same variety being given under the next head. Of these the Mirabelle seems to stand most clearly for the group in hand. This Mirabelle is not the Myrobalan known in this country and referred here to var. Myrobalana. Just what it is does not seem to be perfectly clear, thoue" Koch5 has discussed the distinction at length and Downing describes and illustrates the variety separately. Nearly all the leading works on pomology give the Mirabelle similar treatment; and though I am at present unacquainted with any such variety, * Direct references are given to Traité des Arbres Fruitiers 2:93, 95 and oe to op. idem, ed. nov. 5: 195. Figures are cited carefully. This is true for ali vari- eties. 5 Deutsche Obstgehdélze 151, ° Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, 282. 1847. [7th ed.] 1898 EARLY VIEWS OF PRUNUS DOMESTICA 423 it is not too much to expect that we may understand the char- acters of the group and presently find a modern representative of it. Seringe’s characterization of the group was as follows : ‘Fructibus rotundatis flavis vel viridi-flavescentibus, nucleo obtusiusculo.”’ The figures usually represent a small plum, somewhat ellip- soid, and with an evident suture. PRUNUS DOMESTICA CEREOLA.—The Reine Claudes, or Green Gages. This is one of the most distinct and important of all the groups mentioned, and one of the oldest. It seems to have been clearly understood as a separate group by all the early botanists, and is specially recognized in many of the herbals. It is particularly mentioned by almost every writer in Europe and America from the time of Bauhin to the present. A great deal of speculation has been spent on the problem of its geo- graphic and genetic origin, but no finally defensible conclusion has been reached. Its birthplace may have been southern Europe or eastern Asia. Koch 7,who is one of our best authori- ties on these questions, advances the rather unlikely hypothesis that it originated from a crossing of the Zwetsche and the Dam- son, 7. ¢., Prunus domestica galatensis X P. domestica damascena. Our first definite knowledge of the variety, however, comes from Italy, where it was cultivated under the name of Verdochia. It was brought to France about 1500, the story being that it was introduced by Queen Claudia, wife of Francis I. Thus it took the name of Reine Claude. It came early to England, both from Italy and from France. The plums from Italy were grown in England under the name of Verdoch, and under that name are mentioned by Parkinson in 1629.8 It was probably later than this that they were brought from France, at which time the labels were lost, and the variety was renamed Green Gage, a name Which has followed it to America, and which is now the one best known both here and in Britain. American nurserymen have 7 Deutsche Obstgeholze 1 50. 1876. " * This and divers other points in the history of the Reine Claude group are taken from Hogg, Fruit Manual 552. London. 1875. [4th ed.] 424 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER -also imported several horticultural varieties of this group from France under the names Reine Claude, Reine Claude de Bavay, etc., so that we have both names still in common use. Poiteau, a most excellent student of pomology, remarks ° that the Reine Claude is reproduced more or less true from seed, and the same statement is made elsewhere. The fact is still evident in the large number of seedling varieties in this country closely resem- _ bling the Reine Claude. All this justifies very well the work of Linneus and Seringe, while holding to their notions of species and varieties, in making a separate variety of this group. We have dozens of modern representatives of this type. One catalogue which I consulted gave approximately 50 separate varieties, and 149 synonyms. PRuNUS DOMEsTICA MyropaLana.— This is identical with Ehr- hart’s Prunus cerasifera, which is given as a distinct species in the revised Field, Forest and Garden Botany, and which will probably be generally accepted in this country. Linnzeus’ var. acinaria seems to belong here also, but this point cannot be determined with certainty. Prunus DoMESTICA DaMAsceNA.— The Damsons. This group is so distinct that it has often been given specific rank. If there were anything to be gained by it there is no reason why it should not be revived as a separate botanical variety at the present time. The Damsons as a class, come fairly true to seed, preserv- ing their group characters quite well enough for ordinary pur poses of classification. Var. hungarica of Linnzus is doubtless to be included in Seringe’s var. Damascena. , Var. augustana Linn., ought perhaps to fall into the same group, though it is very diffi- cult to see just what Bauhin had in view in Prunus Augusto maturescentia minora et austeora. The name in the second edi- tion of Species Plantarum was changed to angustana, but the deri- vation from Bauhin makes it clear that the earlier spelling is the one to be retained. Linnzus’ variety praecor has been referred to this group still more doubtfully. It falls here by exclusion from the other groups, rather than by any positive characters of ® Pomologie Francaise (no page). 1846. 1898 ] EARLY VIEWS OF PRUNUS DOMESTICA 425 identity. The group of Damsons is numerously represented in American orchards of the present day. PRUNUS DOMESTICA PERNICONA.— These plums have long been known in cultivation under the name of Perdrigons. Two hun- dred years ago they seem to have been as distinct and important as the Reine Claudes. The first edition of Species Plantarum gave this.name fernicona. In the second edition it was changed to pertigona. As both names appear in the pre-Linnean synonymy of the group it is apparent that this change was entirely arbitrary. The earliest spelling is therefore to be retained. None of the Perdrigons specifically so-called are in general cultivation in this country now, though Downing” describes White Perdrigon, Blue Perdrigon, Red Perdrigon, and some other varieties properly referred tothe same group. It is possible that further study of existing horticultural varieties will point out some good types of this group; but for the most part the Perdri- gons, as a definite type, seem to be lost from American gardens, though several of the old time varieties are still cultivated in Europe. Even those varieties like Goliath, Diamond, etc., which may perhaps belong here, are not favorites in this country. They appear to be generally large, round, coarse-fleshed fruits of poor quality. PRUNUS DOMESTICA JULIANA.—The St. Julian plums, at the time when the Prodromus was written, were plainly understood to belong to a separate type. They seem largely to have dis- appeared, however, from modern horticulture. Downing does not give the name, even as a synonym. Neither does Thomas. Hogg ** describes one St. Julian, and says that ‘‘it is scarcely ever cultivated for the fruit,” but makes a good stock. The St. Julian is still used as a stock in some parts of Europe. It has been employed to some extent in this country, but proved insuffi- : ciently thrifty to suit American commercial nursery methods. Pro- fessor Bailey tells me that the St. Julian, as he has seen it recently in European nurseries, is to be referred evidently to Prunus “Fr, & Fr. Trees Am. 287, 290, 312. 1847. [7th ed.] “Fruit Manual 570. 1875. [4th ed., London.] 426 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER cerasifera; and the fact that it grows from cuttings and its use as a stock may be held to strengthen this view. However, it is perfectly plain that in the view of early botanists the St. Julians were more closely allied to the Damsons, from which they were distinguished by their more ellipsoid fruit. PRUNUS DOMESTICA CEREA.— The St. Catherine plums form a considerable pomological group, and are fairly well represented at the present day. St. Catherine, still cultivated in some parts of America, is probably the same variety figured and described by Duhamel in 1768, and taken by Seringe as the type of his botanical variety Catherinea. Linnzeus’ var. Brignola per- haps also belongs in this group. PRUNUS DOMESTICA AUBERTIANA.—It seems impossible to refer any one of Linnzus’ varieties to this group of Seringe. Nor do any of the descriptions of Tournefort, Bauhin, or other early writers seem to suit. This is so very odd as to raise a fair doubt of our understanding, at this point, of the Linnean classifi- cation. The plum, Dame Aubert, figured and described by Duhamel and (doubtfully) taken by Seringe for his type, was certainly old enough to have been known by Linneus, and was altogether too conspicuous a thing to have been overlooked. The type is preserved to us in Magnum Bonum. PRUNUS DOMESTICA GALATENSIS.— This group was evidently intended to include the prunes, a class of plums which has often been felt, especially in Europe, to stand by itself. The frints are usually pyriform, with free stones, and are suitable for drying: Considerable confusion exists as regards the reference of many cultivated varieties to this group, but the type is fairly clear, permanent, and well understood. The common prunes of the Pacific states and the ordinary Italian Prune of eastern orchards may be taken as the modern representatives of the group. I ought now to hasten to say that, in recalling the early views of these varietal types, I do not wish for a moment to recom mend that they be revived for future use. Perhaps it would be worth while to resurrect the variety Damascena, but certainly botany has no use for the other variety names now, and hortt- 1898 | EARLY VIEWS OF PRUNUS DOMESTICA 427 culture is, I think, able to make a better classification out of fresh whole cloth. I have no doubt that a re-study and re-classi- fication of the horticultural varieties of Prunus domestica would be avery proper and profitable thing at this time. If any one is inclined to attempt that work, this review of the early history of varietal types ought to be of some use. In conclusion I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Professors W. W. Rowlee and L. H. Bailey for help in looking up these questions. The library of Cornell University has been of especial service. UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT. exit rPER ARTICLES. RECENT WORK UPON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ,THE ARCHEGONIUM.* IN a recent paper already reviewed in the Gazerre,? M. L. A. Gayet has presented the results of an extended series of observations upon the development of the archegonium in the Muscinez. These studies were pursued in part under the direction of Professors Van Tieghem and Flahault, and include the principal groups of Hepatice and Musci. Having covered much the same ground in a work published nearly three years ago,? I have followed with much interest the results of M. Gayet’s investigations. Inasmuch as these differ a good deal from my own observations in certain details} of the development of the archegonium in both liverworts and mosses, I have examined again a considerable number of my preparations to see how far these would confirm the results obtained by Gayet. ‘ Of the genera studied by Gayet, my own work included Riccia, Spheerocarpus, Targionia, Madotheca, and Anthoceros, all of which were examined in detail. On the other genera, Pellia, Marchantia, Preissia and Lophocolea, my own observations were either very incom- plete or entirely lacking, but a number of other genera were included. It has been generally supposed that the Hepatice differ radically from the Musci in the fact that the growth of the archegonium in the latter is mainly apical, while in the liverworts the growth in length is for the most part intercalary, the “cover-cells” of the archegonium being very early divided by intersecting quadrant walls. Gayet claims, in the first place, that he has demonstrated that this division does not take place until a late period, and that repeated segments are cut off from the cover-cell which add to the length of the neck; that is, in the *GaYET, L. A.: Recherches sur le développement de l’archegone chez les Musci- nées. Annales des Science Naturelles Bot. VIII. 3: 161-258. 1897. January 1808, 3 Structure and development of the mosses and ferns: Macmillan, London. 1895: [DECEMBER 1898 ] BRIEFER ARTICLES 429 Hepatic, as in the true mosses, the growth in length of the archego- nium neck is in part apical. On the other hand, he maintains that, contrary to the generally accepted view, the moss archegonium does not have the canal cells of the neck cut off from the base of the apical cell, but they are the result of the division of a primary neck-canal cell as in the Hepatice. In short, he recognizes no essential difference in the type of archegonium in the two classes of bryophytes. The first genus treated by Gayet is Riccia, of which he studied several species, including RR. glauca. He does not, however, make it clear in his figures from which species the drawings were made. I have drawn from one of my slides of &. glauca a longitudinal section of the young archegonium which is shown in the accompanying fg. 7. It is perfectly evident that here the cover-cell has already undergone the quadrant divisions and no longer can function as an apical cell. The archegonium here figured is about the same age as the one fig- ured by Gayet in fg. 7 of his first plate. The occurrence of two resting nuclei in the terminal cell, without any trace of a division wall, shown by him in fig. 5 of the same plate, is, to say the least, remarkable. It is extremely likely, however, that proper staining would have shown a vertical wall between them. did 3 4 : Fig. 1. Median longitudial section of the young archegonium of Riccia canes: d, d, the cover-cells.— Fig. 2. A similar section of the archegonium of Targionta hypophylla.—Fig. 3. Tran tion of the f cells of the young archegonium of Targonia.— Fig. 4. Cross-section of the neck of the archegonium of Spherocarpus terrestris, var. Californicus, showing the six peripheral cells.— Fig. 5- The four cover- cells from a young archegonium of Porella (Madotheca) Bolanderi.—All the fi drawn with the camera from microtome sections. The accompanying figures of the young archegonium of ed ee 2, 3, show that here too, the quadrant divisions of the terminal cell occur very early, and that any appreciable growth in length of the neck due to the activity of an apical cell is out of the question. | Of all the forms examined by me, the one which approached pe est the condition described by Gayet was Porella (Me adotheca) Bolandert. 439° BOTANICAL GAZETTE | DECEMBER While in this species there is an early quadrant division of the cover- cell (see fig. 5), the four resulting cover-cells are larger than is usually the case, and there may apparently be a limited number of the outer neck-cells which are cut off from these cells. Such a case is shown in jig. 46, E, of my Mosses and Ferns. That the cover-cells of the liver- wort archegonium may undergo one or two divisions subsequent to the original quadrant-divisions, has been long known, but I have been unable to convince myself that any apical growth, in the sense in which it is understood among the true mosses, can be demonstrated in any of the liverworts examined by me. Six rows of peripheral neck-cells are regularly found in the arche- gonium of the Marchantiacez while the normal number is five in the Jungermanniaceez. I have found that in Sphaerocarpus terrestris var. Californicus and the allied Geothallus, there are six rows of peripheral neck-cells, in which respect, as well as others they are intermediate between the Ricciacee and thallose Jungermanniacez. Gayet disputes the accuracy of my statement in regard to Sphzrocarpus, and it is possible that the European form of the species may show but five rows of cells. Neither of the two figures of Sphzrocarpus shown by Gayet is a cross-section, nor does he say whether he actually examined such sections. In the few cross-sections of the arche- gonium neck which I have made, the number of cells was six (see fig. 4), although it is possible that this number may not always be constant. It is to be regretted that M. Gayet has not given a more detailed account, as well as additional figures, of the archegonium of the thallose Jungermanniacee. He finds that in Pellia, as well as other Anacrogyne, there may be six rows of peripheral cells, instead of the usual five rows hitherto supposed to be constant in this group, aside from Spherocarpus and Geothallus. It is not strange that these primitive forms should show this approach in their structure to the Ricciace with which they are closely connected by Sphzrocarpus. It is to be hoped that we may soon have further information on t is interesting point. In regard to the statement that in the Musci the neck canal-cells are not cut off from the base of the terminal cell, as has been hitherto supposed, it cannot be said that Gayet’s figures are very convincing. This very difficult point can only be settled by means of very thin axial sections of young archegonia. Here, too, a proper staining of eS 1898] BRIEFER ARTICLES 431 of the division walls, such as M. Gayet seems to have considered super- fluous, is very essential. In studying M. Gayet’s technique it is evident that he has depended too much upon rather primitive methods. While he has had recourse to various fixing and staining agents, he admits that so far as possible he has depended upon free-hand sections or “dissociation,” 2. ¢., the dis- section with needles of material treated with a strong macerating fluid. Where objects were too small to be thus handled they were imbedded in celloidin, which was then included in a coating of glycerine-soap. He does not appear to have employed paraffin for imbedding, nor to have employed any but nuclear stains, and it is very evident from some of his figures, ¢. g., 5, 83, that cell-walls were in some instances entirely overlooked. In my own studies of the arche- gonium I have found such thin serial sections as can most readily be made by the paraffin method indispensable, and some good stain for the cell-walls, like Bismarck-brown, is necessary in order to differ- entiate the young cell-walls. The doubtfulness of conclusions drawn from a study of optical sections alone, from material rendered trans- parent by potash or other clearing agents, need not be insisted on here. In short, until some of the statements made by M. Gayet can be confirmed by a thorough study of properly stained serial microtome sections, his conclusions can hardly be accepted without a certain amount of reservation Doucitas HouGHToN CAMPBELL, Leland Stanford Junior University. THE HOMOLOGY OF THE BLEPHAROPLAST. rmatozoids have not only THE recent investigations upon plant spe development added immensely to our knowledge of the structure and of these organisms, but have brought out interesting suggestions as to the homologies of certain structures. no ce : Previous to 1894, writers were concerned largely in discussing whether the body of the spermatozoid consisted of anomie orate or of both nucleus and cytoplasm. All agreed that the cilia are dev from the plasma. Later contributors, Belajeff, Hirasé, Ikeno, We ee: Shaw and Fujii, have shown conclusively that the body of the mature Spermatozoid consists of both nucleus and cytoplasm ; and, further, 432 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER all connect the formation of cilia with definite organs which are variously designated Hocker, Kérnchen, Kérperchen, Nebenkern, attraction sphere, directive sphere, centrosome, centrosome-like body, and blepharoplast. It may safely be assumed that the various writers would now agree that the body described under so many names is the same morphological structure in all the forms studied. In this sketch Webber’s peculiarly appropriate term blepharoplast will be used, disregarding the terms used by the various writers. In Eguisetum arvense, according to Belajeff, there appears in the mother cell of the spermatozoid not only the cytoplasm and nucleus, but also a deeply staining body resembling a centrosome. This body stretches into a thread lying along the nucleus. The thread becomes differentiated into a row of granules (Hécker), each of which gives rise toa single cilium. In the fern, Gymnogramme sulphurea, in the cell which is to give rise to two spermatozoid mother cells, Belajeff figures two blepharoplasts at opposite poles of the nucleus, giving 4 very centrosome-like aspect, but the blepharoplasts do not divide like Guignard’s centrosomes, and each spermatozoid mother cell receives but a single blepharoplast. The further history of the blepharoplast is essentially the same as in Equisetum. It is suggestive to note that in Chara there are two Hdcker, each of which gives rise to a single cilium. Shaw’s figures of Marsilea vestita might lead one to infer that the . blepharoplasts have some relation to nuclear division, their position at the poles giving them a very centrosome-like appearance ; but we are assured that there is no ground for the assertion that blepharoplasts are homologous or analogous with the centrosomes of those plants which have centrosomes, and that whether they have any relation to the centrosomes of lower plants must be settled by an investigation of the spermatogenesis and zoospore formation of these plants. Shaw did not succeed in determining the origin of the cilia, but believed it to be as described by Belajeff for Equisetum. The blepharoplasts of Gingko, Cycas, and Zamia are of gigantic size in comparison with those already mentioned. In these three forms, as in the cryptogams mentioned above, the blepharoplast stretches out into a band which gives rise to the cilia. Hirasé’s figures and descriptions of Gingko show that the blepharoplast is surrounded by kinoplasmic radiations in nearly all stages of its history. i¥e blepharoplasts first appear at opposite poles of the nucleus of the body 1898] BRIEFER ARTICLES 433 cell and during mitosis maintain a position at opposite poles of the spindle, although at some distance from the spindle and from the daughter nuclei after division has taken place. Judging from the fig- ures, one might conclude that, while the blepharoplasts do not appear to be concerned in the formation of the spindle, they may perhaps determine its orientation. As a matter of fact, the wall between the daughter nuclei is at right angles to a line connecting the two ble- pharoplasts. Belajeff’s figures of Gymnogramme and Shaw’s of Marsilea show the same orientation. Hirasé believes that the blepharoplast is a centrosome. . Ikeno’s description of blepharoplasts in Cycas revolufa agrees in general with Hirasé’s account of Gingko. After reviewing Hermann’s work on the spermatogenesis of the salamander and the mouse, Ikeno comes to the conclusion that the blepharoplasts of the Characezx, Filicineee and Equisetacee, and also those of Gingko, Cycas and Zamia, not only bear a superficial resemblance to centrosomes but are genuine centrosomes which become enormously elongated and furnish a place of attachment for the cilia. Belajeff had previously reached a somewhat similar conclusion, although it was left for _Ikeno to formu- late it. Belajeff homologizes the blepharoplast of Characee, Filicinex and Equisetacee with the deeply staining body of the spermatid of the salamander and the mouse, while the middle piece of the animal -Spermatozoon corresponds to the elongated cilia-bearing band of the plant spermatozoid. The thread-like tail of the spermatozoon of the Salamander and mouse corresponds to a single one of the cilia of the plant spermatozoid. The blepharoplasts of Zemia integrifolia described by Webber are the largest yet discovered. Webber does not believe that they = centrosomes. It may be true that they take no part in the formation of the spindle, but an examination of the figures forcibly suggests that they either orient the spindle or are oriented by it. The centrosome of the alga Dictyota, recently de wp becomes elongated into a band which gives rise to cilia-like radiations. Mottier, as will be remembered, declares that in the higher plants there are neither centrosomes nor centrospheres in vegetative ns se secant ductive cells, whether in the resting condition or during division, and he further asserts that there are no bodies which have any resemblance whatever to these structures or which stand in any relation ipaaities to karyokinesis. In the paper on Dictyota, Mottier, referring to the scribed by Mottier, i BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER blepharoplasts of higher plants, states that they have nothing to do with spindle formation, a more conservative statement which, though probable, still remains to be proved, and even if proved determines no homologies. It is readily admitted that the presence of centrosomes is not established in any of these plants which have such conspicuous ble- pharoplasts, and that the blepharoplasts are reported only in the last two generations of cells concerned in the formation of the spermatozoid ; but it must also be admitted that the usually spherical centrosome may in certain cases assume other shapes, and that an increasing number of competent observers do not regard the centrosome as a permanent organ of the cell. Furthermore, the absence of the centrosomes from the higher cryptogams and the flowering plants is far from being established, and a most convincing demonstration is necessary before the testimony of Guignard, Rosen, Campbell, Schaffner and others can be disregarded. If our conception of the centrosome is formed exclusively from the familiar figures of karyokinesis and the function of the centro- some in this process, we shall doubtless look for a new name whenever we find a centrosome-like body performing any other function than that of the typical centrosome; but it seems probable that a thorough investigation of karyokinesis and the formation of cilia in the lower plants may support the theory that the blepharoplast is a centrosome. —Cnuas. J. CHAMBERLAIN, Zhe University of Chicago. BIBLIOGRAPHY. BELAJEFF, WL.: Ueber Bau und Entwickelung der Spermatozoiden. Ber. d. deutsch bot. Gesell. 7 : 121-125. 1 — Ueber Bau und Eutwicketong der Spermatozoiden der Pflanzen. Flora 79 : 1-48. 1894 — Ueber a Nebenkern in spermatogenen Zellen und die pee bei den Farnkrauter. Ber. d. deutsch. bot. Gesell. 15 : 337-339. 1597: — Ueber die Spermatogenesie bei den Schachtelhalmen. Be. d. deutsch. bot. Gesell. —. 339-342. 1897. r die Aehnlichkeit einiger Erscheinungen in der Spermatogenesis bei Thieren a Pflan Ber. d. deutsch. bot. Gesell. 15 : 342-345. 1897. GUIGNARD, L.: tichsctaeen et constitution des antherozoides. Rev. gén. d. bot. 1 + 11-27, 63-78, 136-145, AiR 1889. — Centrosomes in p Bot. Gaz. 25 : 158-164. 1898. HERMANN, F.: Beitrige zur poe der Spermatogenesie. Archiv. f. mikr. Anat. 50 : 276-315. 1897. 1898] BRIEFER ARTICLES 435 Hrrask, $.: Notes on attraction sphere in the pollen cells of Ginkgo biloba. Bot. gaz. Tokyo. 8 : —. 189 "Pindes sur la fécundation et l’embryogénie du a biloba. (Second mémoire.) Jour. of the Coll. of Science, Tokyo. 12 : 103-149. IKENO, S., and Hiras&, S.: Spermatozoids in gymnosperms. Ann. ay 11: —. 1897. IKENO, S.: Zur Se cnbtniss der sog. emis Korpers in Pollenschlauch der Cycadeen. Flora 85 : 15-18. MEVES, F.: Meher Struktur u. fase der Samenfaden von Salamandra macu- losa. Archiv. f. mik. Anat. 50 : I10-14I. 7 Mortier, D. M.: Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Kerntheilung in den ae ee einiger Dikotylen und Monokotylen. Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. 30 189 ScHOTTLANDER, P.: Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Zellkerns u. pte ‘Seven bei togamen. Cohn’s Beitr. z. Biol. d. Pflanzen 6: 267-304 SuHAw, W. R.: Ueber die ee dei Onoclea und Marsilia: ee d. deutsch. bot. Gesell. 16 : 177-184. The fertilization of paren Ann. Bot. 12 : 261-285. I SraASDURGER E.: Schwarmsporen, Gameten, poe fev ae u. das n der Befruchtung. Histolog. Beitr. 4 : cites. Hi: dope structures occurring in the ee tae of Zamia. 23° A Psa Bot. Gaz. Pe of the antherozoids of Zamia. Bot. Gaz. 24: 16-22, i, — Notes on the fecundation of Zamia and the pollen tube apparatus Ginkgo. Bot. Gaz. 24 : 225-235. 1897. ira LELIERS. ANOTHER QUESTION OF NOMENCLATURE. THE receipt of Mr. G. B. Sudworth’s Check-List of the Forest Trees of the United States (U. S. Dept. Agriculture), stirs me up to make a protest against a nomenclatural heresy which seems to find favor in certain quarters. It is this: that a varietal name must be changed if it occurs elsewhere in the genus, even as the name of another species, or of a variety of another spectés. This doctrine does not seem to me to be justified by the codes, nor is it con- ducive to the stability of varietal names. I have for many years had a good deal to do with the varietal nomenclature of animals, particularly mollusca, and have always considered it commendable to give the same name (é. 2+ minor, alba, elongata, hirsuta, etc.) to similar variations of different species. This plan is widely accepted among zoologists, and is found advantageous in every way. The first time I noticed any general application of the contrary plan was when I received Bull. 9 of the Minnesota Botanical Studies. o this work (1894) Mr. E. P. Sheldon proposes ten varietal names in Astragalus, all of which I consider quite needless. Mr. Sudworth, in his Nomenclature of the Arborescent Flora of the United States (1897), and again in the above- mentioned Check-List, has followed the same doctrine, and has made sixty- six substitutions of new names for old, which I think should not be accepted. He has also made a number of other substitutions which rest on other grounds, and are apparently valid. It is particularly important to decide at this time what we are going to do about the doctrine here discussed, because Mr. Sudworth has very excel- lently prepared a revised nomenclature of the cultivated varieties of our native trees, and unless some protest is made, it will doubtless become current as it stands. The desirability of a correct nomenclature for cultivated plants need not be urged, nor need it be pointed out that it must be for botanists = decide, eventually, what system shall be adopted. The system introduced by Mr. Sudworth, if supported, will logically compel us to make a review of varietal nomenclature in many other groups, productive of much incon- venience, and, as I believe, of no good good. : : append herewith a list of the Sheldonian names in the work cited, which ‘ Age : I I would reject, giving the corrected nomenclature in the second column. ey have also prepared a list of the Sudworthian names, but it is too long to prin here, [DECEMBER 436 1898] OPEN LETTERS 437 Other similar instances may be found in the List of Pteridophyta ana Spermatophyta in Northeastern North America (1894), particularly under vex. A reasonable rule, which would avoid these changes, would be: Only identical combinations shall be considered homonyms. CORRECT NAME ACCORDING TO NAME PROPOSED BY SHELDON. PRESENT WRITER Astragalus viridis tmpensus. A. v. elatus (Wats.). A. shetrocarpus curvicarpus. A. s. falciformis A, Gray. A. preussti laxispicatus. A. p. laxifiorus A, Gray. A. p. arctus. A. p. latus Jones. A. leucopsis curtus. A. 1. brachypus Greene. A. franciscanus longulus. A. f. virgatus (A. Gray). A. megacarpus prodigus. A. m. parryi A, Gray. A. sparsifiorus majusculus. A.s. major A, Gray. A. glabriusculus spatiosus. A. g. major A, Gra A. atratus arctus. A. a. stenophyllus Jones. It will be noted that Mr. Sheldon himself gives the same varietal name to two species. This may bean oversight, or it may be that he considers a varietal name invalid only when used (if not under the same species) in a specific sense elsewhere in the genus. At the same time, he changes a varietal name when the alleged homonym is a pure synonym, so long as it is a binomial. A curious case is that of A. crotalari@ var. virgatus Gray. both names are preoccupied in a specific sense, so Sheldon calls the species A. franciscanus. According to my views, Gray's varietal term virgatus may be retained as varieta/, though it cannot be applied to the species, because of the earlier 4. virgatus Pall. Thus we get A. /franciscanus var. Miia g an instance of a varietal name older than that of the species.—T. D. COCKERELL, Mesilla Park, N. M. It seems that GURKENT LITERATURE BOOK REVIEWS. The organography of plants. A FEW months ago we had the pleasure of receiving the first part of Goebel’s Organographie der Pflanzen. The hope that was then expressed’ is now in a measure realized by the publication of the first section of the sec- ond part.? This section is devoted to the bryophytes. In the general part the author sought to picture the fundamental principles of organ formation, illustrated by a few examples. In the special part he seeks to carry out the plan in greater detail, so far as concerns the archegoniates and seed plants. At the outset he meets the question, “in what relation organ formation stands to adaptation, or, in other words, whether the specific characters which separate the individual species, genera, etc., in any order, are of an adaptive* nature only, as the extreme believers in the importance (Bedeutung) of natu- ral selection think, or whether specific and adaptive characters are to be dis- tinguished.” Goebel expresses the positive conviction that the latter is the case, holding that, although “organization must, of course, always meet the life demands, the characteristic impress which it bears in every group, in spite of all the variety in the special adaptive external conformation, shows that the ‘inner constitution’—if we may use this expression to hide our ignorance — plays the most important réle, even were the polymorphism of organ formation not comprehensible.”’ When, however, an adaptive charac- ter appears in all, or almost all, the members of the group, é. g., the thallus structure in Marchantiacez, there arises a difficulty which the author dis- misses with these words: “this is to be considered more than an accidental coincidence with the specific characters; an agreement, indeed, which one can make thoroughly intelligible only when one supposes the adaptation to be ancient, having taken place before there occurred a separation of the group in question into forms developing in different directions.” This, of course, one of those “extreme believers in the importance of natural selec- tion”’ (from whose ranks Goebel excludes himself), would call a begging of * See review in this journal, 25:290. 1808. ? GOEBEL, K.— Organographie der Pflanzen, insbesondere der i STOP ni Saménpflanzen. Zweiter Teil: Specielle Organographie. 1 Heft: Bryophyten. °Vv% M 3.80. pp. 283-385. figs. 137-359. Jena: Gustav Fischer. 1898. [DECEMBER 1898] CURRENT LITERATURE 439 the question! Is it conceivable that the “inner constitution” is anything more than the aggregate result of ancient adaptations ? Here is another sentence which seems to strike a false note in its implica- tions. “All speculations, proceeding from the highly developed archego- niates, as to the connection of liverworts and mosses, bryophytes and pteridophytes, etc., are, therefore, only products of the poetic imagination, arising from our mental-necessity of assuming connections even where they cannot be directly observed, but having no adequate support in the facts of experience. Their sole value consists in that they incite to the raising of new questions.”” What higher value, we may ask, has any hypothesis ? We shall have concluded all adverse criticism when we further point out that in this section, much more than in the general part, the author yields to the seductive temptation to assign definite purposes to certain organs, and to say: this is an adaptation for thus and so, with the same airy grace to which we have become accustomed in Haberlandt’s Physiologisches Pflanzenanatomie. One can hardly help thinking, like Cato, “It must be so: Plato, thou reasonest well; else, whence this. ... .”’ Yet, all the while, there is a subconscious certainty that the solution is too easy, and that, in some measure at least, we are listening to fairy tales — “ lediglich Produkte dichterischer Phantasie,’’ to use the phrase Goebel has given us. We are unpleasantly reminded of the outgrown teleology by this new attempt to explain The reasons of things — Why Injuns wore rings, In their red aboriginal noses. We cite only one example (p. 242): “I entertain no doubt that the mucilage filling the neck-canal [of the archegonium] protects the egg chiefly against contact with water.” Can one avoid asking evidence that there is need for protection of the egg against contact with water, and, if that is furnished, demanding proof that water movement is restricted by this mucilage when it is not by other kinds? But it is in the clear stream that one discerns the snags along its bed, while turbid waters hide their dangers. On the whole, this section of the work is, like its predecessor, most interesting, suggestive, and valuable. The new point of view for the discussion of the bryophytes is the striking feature. We have grown used to the purely formal standpoint — even to the Standpunkt der Mtkrotomtechnik — which, the author well declares, “is greatly inferior to the apprehension of nature by the great bryologist of the preceding century, Hedwig, whose view was not yet narrowed by the verbal blinders, morphology and physiology.” And so the facts which the author sets before us are pre- sented in a new light. Seen in this way they are certain to suggest new investigations. No higher result can be sought or obtained from such a book, and none so sure to redound to the permanent fame of the author. 440 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER Moreover, the book is far from a review of already published facts. It sets before the reader a great number of new investigations of much interest, illus- trated by many new figures, whose freshness is as invigorating as a sea breeze. To one who restates in better form our old knowledge, and adds so much that is new, it is easy to forgive the possible slight distortion of perspective which we shall easily escape when at a greater distance from the facts. It is only bare justice to recognize in this work a master hand, and to hail it as one of the books predestined to become a classic. —C. R. B A new school botany. Ir is a good sign when university professors interest themselves in sec- ondary education. Too often text-books for high schvols have been prepared by those who do not know the subject; and it may be further stated that occasionally text-books have been prepared by college men who do not ools. That happy combination of experience which brings together the two kinds of knowledge is demanded for the preparation of such books. Almost every university will be represented presently by a botanical text- book for the secondary schools. In the opinion of the reviewer, the chie criticism to offer in reference to most of these books is that they attempt to present too great an abundance of material, and also material that is too dif- . ficult. It is hard for the average college man to appreciate how unfamiliar the material of modern botany is to the young student of the secondary school. A rapid succession of facts, all of which are new to his experience, is too apt to result in bewilderment rather than knowledge. The last candidate in this field is from the pen of Professor Atkinson,’ of Cornell University, who shows an appreciation of the situation, and who has certainly had a large and successful experience with elementary classes. The book is a hard one to criticise, as it is a combination of commendable and careless features. Some of the features that should receive warm com- mendation are wealth of illustration, short paragraphs with distinct headings, originality of presentation, and especially the ecological chapters upon soil formation, zonal distribution, and occupation of land. Certainly so many commendable features more than justify the publication of the book. On the other hand, carelessness of statement and want of logical organiza- tion are apparent. This carelessness amounts frequently to error. The lack of organization is indicated on the surface by such facts as that the division of the book devoted to physiology has received no title and part number, suc as have been given to Morphology and Ecology; and that the matter included 3 ATKINSON, GEORGE FRANCIS.— Elementary Botany. Small 8 vo. pp- xxiii + 444. figs. 509. New York: Henry Holt & Co. $1.25. : 1898 | CURRENT LITERATURE 441 under the various headings is frequently not what the heading indicates, as, for example, Chapter XII. This fault culminates in the division of the book given to ecology, which is in a remarkably indefinite condition. t may be that an occasional lapse into poetical style has its place in stimulating interest in the secondary schools, but the reviewer questions whether a sentimental interest should have any connection with scientific training. The introduction of photographs of typical plant associations is very commendable, but something must be done to make such photographs sig- nificant. This criticism has reference not only to the book in hand, but to the general use of such pictures. If ecology is to take the prominent place in’ elementary botanical education that it deserves, we must have publishers get beyond the dim and hazy landscapes which may be capable of interpreta- tion by the trained ecologist, but which mean little or nothing to the ele- mentary student. Professor Atkinson’s book is one of great interest, and will be a stimulus to proper botanical study in secondary schools. The weak points are such as often appear in the work of a very busy man, who may not lay special stress upon logical presentation and exact statement.—J. M. C Bokorny’s text-book.‘ THIs is the latest contribution to the long list of German text-books. It is intended for use in the technical schools and gymnasia, and seeks to present the subject without requiring of the student too great “expenditure of time or effort of memory.” To this end a novel approach to the subject 1s introduced. Thirty-five pages are devoted to the illustrated descriptions of some of the commonest seed plants, the violet, mustard, peat, etc. These descriptions are in the simplest language, and are evidently intended to be taken in connection with laboratory study of the types selected. saben remote such an approach may be from a logical presentation of the subject, there is some reason in the plea that the student may be thus gently induced to careful observations, and well oriented in the new field by learning first the technical interpretation of the plants he has always known. The 7 i the text suggests an effort to give good place to each of the schools with too great emphasis upon none. ‘It is an exemplification ot the ne eile ideas which prevail as to which interpretation of the plant olen! h be presented first to the beginner. The author, save for the ear ieet : first chapters, does not commit himself. The organs - eat ceustaat it taken up in logical sequence in the second part. This would serve Bae y ae OKORNY, TH.—Lehrbuch der Botanik. 8vo. pp. vi 226. figs. 170. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1898. J/. 2.40. 442 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER well morphology, taxonomy, ecology, physiology, what not. Thena few pages are devoted to minute structure, and a review of forms follows with the highest spermatophytes leading the procession, and in the usual modern proportion of about four pages of spermatophytes to one of the “sporophytes”’ (the author's word). The physiology is divided into the chemical and physical processes within, and the “biology,” z. ¢., relations to environment ; a separation not without difficulty. Three pages are devoted to “something about plant raphy,’ and a key for identifications completes the work. The text is Gesu clear, simple, and free from technical phraseology. Most of the illustrations are borrowed from the Natiérlichen Pflanzenfamilien, which is sufficient commendation.—JOHN G. COULTER. MINOR NOTICES. THE WRITINGS of Professor Dr. P. Magnus, of Berlin, include much mat- ter that is of moment to American botanists. Dr. Magnus is a student of fungi, but writes to some extent upon other subjects. His interests are catholic, and he has often contributed to the solution of problems arising in distant quarters of the globe. A number of separates (which he generously sends to all whom he knows to be interested in such subjects) have recently come to hand, and the opportunity istaken to give a brief account of their contents. In a communication to the Botanisches Centralblatt’ some criticisms are offered upon the treatment given the Hemibasidii and Uredinales by Dr. Dietel in Engler and Prantl’s Natirliche Pflanzenfamilien. It is pointed out that the sorus of Doassansia is never imbedded in the parenchyma of the host, as stated by Dietel (/. c., p. 21), but always lies immediately beneath and in contact with the epidermis. He reviews the genera Doassansia and Burrillia and their subgenera as characterized by Setchell, and holds them to be more logical and natural than the arrangement proposed by Dietel. Turn- ing to the Uredinee he states that Puccinia Schweinfurthii Magn. forms witches’ brooms, and should not be confounded with P. Mesneriana Thiim. or P. digitata Ell. & Hark., which never do so, although otherwise much alike. Exception is taken to the establishment of the genus Phragmopyxis with a layer around the spores that swells in water, while ignoring Schréter’s genus Uropyxis with just the same claim to recognition. It is pointed out that aside from this equivocal character, Uropyxis possesses good generic characters in the number and position of the teleutosporic pores. The suppression of the genera Xenodochus and Chaconia, and the grouping of some of the genera are not approved. 5Einige Bemerkungen zu P. Dietel’s Bearbeitung der Hemibasidii und Uredinales tm Engler-Prantl Natiirliche Pflanzenfamilien Bd. I.—Bot. Centr. 74: 165-170. 1898. 1898] CURRENT LITERATURE 443 An extended account of the structure and occurrence of some new species: Phleospora Jaapiana, from Germany,° Aecidium Opuntia from Bolivia,? and Aecidium Jacobsthalii-Henrict from the Straits of Magellan,® with fine detailed illustrations in each case, gives much information beside the usual diagnoses. In 1897 Dr. Magnus traveled in the United States, and he took the opportunity to make observations upon the lilac mildew ® so familiar to every- one in this country, and especially to all pupils in college classes in botany. In Europe the lilac is free from mildew, only one collection being recorded, and that proved to be Microsphera Ehrenbergii Lev., a common species on Lonicera tartarica. The American form was for a time referred by American botanists to J/. Fries? Lev., but since the study of it by Burrill in the preparation of his article on the Parasitic Fungi of Illinois, it has been called Mf. Adni(DC.) Wint. Dr. Magnus shows that although it is very closely related to JZ. A/ni of Europe, yet there are some morphological differences which indicate that it is geographically modified, and entitled to a separate name. Priority requires that it be called J. Syringe (Schw.) Magn., which he considers unfortunate in view of the fact that the American forms upon Betula, Corylus, Castanea and Ilex must also be placed under it, all being native plants while Syringa is introduced, and is therefore a com- paratively recent host for it. Attention is called to the fact that so far no cultural studies have been made among the Erysiphez to determine relation- ship. While in this country Dr. Magnus read a paper at Toronto before the British Association for the Advancement of Science upon the mycelium of witches’ brooms of the barberry ® in Europe. It had been asserted by Eriks- son that the mycelium of this Aecidium penetrates the cells of the host, and develops colored granules within, both being exceptional for members of the Uredinez, but both claims are shown to be errors. This 1 the Aecidium of Puccinia Arrhenatheri (Kleb.) Eriks. In a short communication to Hedwigia on Puccinia Lycii Kalchbr.," some €rrors in the original description are noted, and also an increase in the number of pores of the uredospores corresponding to an increase in size. °Eine neue Phleospora. Hedwigia 37: a as - 7Eine neues Aecidium auf Opuntia sp. aus Bolivia. 16: 151-154. 1898. ®Ein auf rhigiea auftretendes Aecidium von der Magellanstrasse. mm deutsch. Bot. Ges. 15; Ges. 9 Der — se Sethe ga vulgaris in Nordamerika. Ber. d. deutsch. Bot. 16 : 63-70, On spn graveolens (Shuttlew.), Ann. Bot. 12: sescee ‘Ber d. deutsch. Bot. Ges. d, 1898. dw. 37: kleiner Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Puccinia Lycit Kalchbr. Hedw. 37 1898. ° * Kin Beiblatt 91-93. 444 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER The teleutospores are also exceptional in having the pore of the lower cell at the bottom rather than in the upper part. Two articles before us are of local interest,” but another, the last to be mentioned, brings out the interesting fact that the production of lateral flowering stems from the base of the common century plant, Agave Amert- cana,8 when the central shaft has been injured, was recorded as early as 1705 —J.C.A THE ADVISABILITY of using pure cultures of yeasts in the process of fermentation in breweries has been clearly demonstrated by a number of writers. It has been suggested frequently that the same purity of yeasts is no less desirable in the manufacture of bread, and in order to determine whether this is true, Miss Katherine E. Golden has made a study of several commer- cial yeasts and their effects.“ It was found that almost all market yeast pack- ages contain corn or potato starch ; and that they are adulterated with alum which is added as an antiseptic against bacteria and molds. The bacteria were constantly present, however, and the molds in many of the packages. These greatly change the fermentative effect of the yeasts, and produce unpleasant odors which are indications of the less nutritious condition thus induced in the bread. Experiments were made to test the efficiency of various commercial yeasts, and of pure cultures made from the same. It was found that young cultures of pure yeast would bring a much greater fermentation in bread sponge in less than half the time required by ordinary market yeast. With such pure cultures the desired fermentation within the sponge is secured before there has been sufficient time for undesirable organ- isms to develop. This is not true with the yeasts usually employed, since by waiting for the necessary fermentation there occurs frequently a large and injurious growth of bacteria and molds which begin to induce putrefaction in the sponge. When pure and vigorous yeasts were used the bread was always sweet, and remained good much longer than when made with the adulterated cake. The flavors of good bread may be varied by the use of various kinds of yeasts. If the same care is used in this manufacture as is used in the 2 Zweiter Bug zur Pilz-Flora von Franken. Abh. d. Nat. Ges. Niirnberg 41: 23-57- pl. 7 Ein weiterer Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Porbreltuiy der Thorea ramosissima Bory im mittleren Deutschland. Deutsch. Bot. Monatssch. 1898 : 17-18. 73 Bliihen der Agaven an Seitentrieben, von Dr. Otto Kuntze. Mit Bemerkungen zu den Ae ga: Mittheilungen, von P. Magnus. Gartenflora 1898: 215-2! 16. ™% GOLDEN, KATHERINE E,—(1) Yeasts and their properties. 8°. pp- 28. (2) _ On bread ae bread-making. 8°. pp. 22. Purdue University Monographs; Series relating to food, nos. § and 6, 1898. (3) Pure yeast in bread. Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science 1897: 62-64. 1898. (Reprint repaged !) 1898] CURRENT LITERATURE 445 selection of yeasts for the manufacture of beer and other liquors, a very much finer quality of bread may be secured, and many deleterious effects may be avoided. Further work was done to determine whether the yeast cells live in bread after baking, and the conclusion was reached that yeasts are always killed by the heat necessary to bake the bread. If living yeast cells were taken into the alimentary canal, however, they would probably produce no bad results as experiments made seem clearly to demonstrate. The papers contain most careful and interesting descriptions of the many kinds of bread and the best processes of making them.—OrTis W. CaLp- WELL, THE FLORA of Costa Rica has been receiving its share of attention, the results appearing in parts under the title Primitiea Flore Costaricensis. Parts I-III were published at Brussels in 1891, 1893, and 1896, respectively, under the joint direction of Th. Durand and H. Pittier. These three parts com- pleted the first volume, and at its close M. Durand was compelled to with- draw from the undertaking. The first part of the second volume has now appeared,5 published at St. José de Costa Rica, under the auspices of the National Geographical Institute, and with M. Pittier as sole editor. Mr. J. Donnell Smith has contributed the part by preparing a list of the known Polypetalz, including descriptions of new or recently described species, and omitting those families which have been presented in previous parts. It is a great gratification to those interested in the American tropics that this important publication is to be continued.—J. M. C PROTOPLASMIC streaming in Characee has been again investigated and is discussed from a strictly physiological point of view by Dr. Georg H6r- mann in an extended paper, independently published.” He seeks a theoreti- cal explanation of the movement of streaming and the ccppuregee of impulses. An explanation of the direction and plane of streaming, both in cells of the axes and rhizoids, Hérmann finds in the advantage of securing we shortest route from the places of absorption or manufacture to the pisert o utilization of the materials, which thus, in their transfer, are Sangeet to 3 minimal loss. The larger part of the paper is devoted to a discussion 0 experiments to ascertain the causes and nature of the movement, ~ e conduction of stimulation impulses. In his experimental work ee tion and ingenious adaptation of the modern methods of animal physiology yield new and valuable suggestions as to the theory of movement. *S PITTIER, H.—Primitiz Flore Costaricensis. Vol. Il, pp. 1-126. Polypetalae. by John Donnell Smith. San José de Costa Rica. 1898. $1.00. *6 HORMANN, GEORG,—Studien iiber den Protoplasmastromung bei den Characeen 8°. pp. iv + 79. figs. 12. Jena: Gustav Fischer. 1898. 7/2. 446 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [| DECEMBER Finding that, just as in muscle and nerve, the nitella cell may be stimu- lated by the production of katelectrotonus and the disappearance of anelec- trotonus and that the stimulation wave is accompanied by the so-called “negative” wave, he concludes that muscle, nerve, and nitella cell must have some fundamental structural element in common. As the nerve has only conductivity he concludes that conductivity and contractility are properties of different substance. The conductive plasma, existing alone in the nerve, is accompanied in muscle and nitella cell by another substance, which con- ditions the phenomena of contraction and streaming. Nor has he over- looked the difference between muscle and nitella, in that a stimulus in the one case causes a resting organ to work, while in the other it brings a work- ing organ to rest. The explanation of this is to be found only in a fundamental difference in the structure of the mechanism of movement. The details of the discussion must be sought in the work itself.—C. R. B R. P. Sypow has brought together much useful information in a botani- cal calendar.7?7 Besides the astronomical calendar, there is a calendar for notes and memoranda for each day, with the birth and death days of many distinguished botanists; tables of equivalents in money, weights, and measures; post and telegraph rates; the Berlin rules for nomenclature; a list of the cryptogamic exsiccate which have been issued; a list of the botanic gardens and museums; and finally a list of the botanical collections to be found in the larger museums and herbaria. The difficulty of securing accuracy and completeness in the last three lists is very great. The author realizes that it has not been attained and appeals for assistance by correc- tions.—C. R. B. A VERY USEFUL ACCOUNT of the economic grasses, by F. Lamson- Scribner, has been published as Bulletin 14 of the grass and forage investiga- tions of the Division of Agrostology, ex eae of Agriculture. Brie descriptions and illustrations are given the more important economic grasses of this country, or those which re: been introduced because possess- ing some merit. Bulletin 15 of the same division isa report upon the forage plants and forage resources of the Gulf states, by S. M. Tracy, containing descriptions, comments, and illustrations, in addition to the general discus- sion of the forage problems of the south J. M. - H. KNowLTon has done Riccaine great service in the preparation of his Catalogue of the Cretaceous and Ti ertiary plants of North America.” € *7 Sypow. P.—Deutscher Botaniker-Kalender fiir 1899. 16mo. pp. 198. Berlin: a Bomtsger 1898. 3. *® KNowLTon, F, H.—Bulletin of the U.S. godin Survey no. 152. pp. 1-247- Washington, 1898. 20 cents, 1898] CURRENT LITERATURE 447 first catalogue of the kind was that of Lesquereux, published more than twenty years ago, and containing 706 species. The present catalogue testi- fies to the fact that since that time species have been described with great industry. Although no statement is given as to the number of species, it is remarked that the Potomac flora alone now numbers more than the total ‘Cretaceous and Tertiary floras known to Lesquereux. The catalogue is areal bibliography and must prove of great service.—J. M. C. NOTES FOR STUDER: H. H. Dixon has turned his attention to transpiration, and in Proc. Roy. Irish Soc. III. 4 : 618-635. 1898 discusses the effects of stimulative and anzs- thetic gases on transpiration, and transpiration into a saturated atmosphere. B. CZAPEK points out an interesting case of adaptation in leaves of Cirsium eriophorum. Plants growing in very sunny situations on the southerly moun- tain slopes in central Bohemia had the segments of their pinnatifid leaves erected into two comb-like rows, while in shady places these are transverse. The erect segments of the sun-beaten leaves were inrolled at the edges and : were different in structure from the shade leaves, having palisade cells 25 per cent. longer, and richer in chlorophyll. The same diffe was remarked between the erect segments and transverse portions of the same leaf.— THE CYTOLOGY of the yeast cell has been a difficult matter to investigate, but important results have been obtained by Janssens and Leblanc.* They used malachite green, dahlia, gentian violet, Delafield’s haematoxylin, and “black. hamatoxylin ” (black hematoxylin differs from Delafield’s in that the ammonia alum of the latter is replaced by iron alum). These a show that every yeast cell contains a nucleus anda nucleolus. During budding there is indirect division of the nucleus in some species, while in the common Saccharomyces cerevisie and some others the division is direct. Cells about to produce spores contain two nuclei which fuse. The resulting spore on germination shows a much modified form of division. The paper is illustrated by excellent plates.— CuHAs. J. CHAMBERLAIN, NDER THE TITLE Analecta bryographica Antillarum Dr. Karl Miiller- Halle has published” a long list of mosses from the Greater and Lesser © (Esterr. bot. Zeit. 48: 369-371. 1898. 2 TANSSENS, Fr. A. and LEBLANC, A.— Recherches cytologiques levure. La Cellule 14: 203-343. 1898. sur Ja cellule de ** Hedwigia 37 :(2—?) 266. 1898. 448 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Antilles, a publication which has special interest in view of the botanical col- lections now being made in Cuba and Porto Rico. These “crumbs” Miiller has swept up from various collections, some as old as Charles Wright's (1856). He enumerates 175 species, of which almost 100 are marked 2. sf. Of these, however, nearly one-fourth have been previously otherwise deter- mined by such bryologists as Sullivant, Mitten, and Bescherelle. In view of these ratios we are inclined to think the finding of so many “crumbs” is due rather to the fineness of the crumb brush than to the carelessness of other sweepers.—C, R. B BELAJEFF’s account* of the origin of the cilia of spermatozoids has been confirmed and supplemented by Dr. W. R. Shaw,? who has taken Onoclea and Marsilea as his types. In these plants, as in Equisetum and Gymnogramme, the cilia arise from a small cytoplasmic body lying in the mother cell of the spermatozoid. For this cytoplasmic body, which was designated ‘ Neben- kern ” by Belajeff, Dr. Shaw proposes to adopt the more expressive name “blepharoplast,” a name first employed by Webber to denote a similar struc- ture in Zamia. Dr. Shaw has sought to discover the origin of the blepharo- plasts and their behavior in karyokinesis. In the antheridia of Marsilea true blepharoplasts are found only inthe last two cell generations. In the early stages nothing like a blepharoplast is present, but in the karyokinesis inter- vening between the two- and four-celled stage a small body appears at each pole of the two spindles ; subsequently each of them divides intotwo. Since these bodies disappear into the cytoplasm and do not give rise directly to the true blepharoplasts, the author calls them “ blepharoplastoids.” About the time when the blepharoplastoids are lost sight of, the blepharoplasts make their first appearance as small granules situated in the spindle-poles of the nuclear figures which precede the eight-celled stageof the antheridium. Each of them divides into two. During the following resting condition of the nucleus these two halves gradually separate, at the same time increasing in size, and move round to the positions to be taken by the poles of the next following gine During the ensuing karyokinesis they remain practically unchanged. — n the mother cell of the spermatozoid the blepharoplasts become Si elon- gate, and probably undergo the same transformations which Belajeff has described in detail. The accompanying diagram, copied from’ Dr. Shaw’s paper, will help to make clear the relations of the blepharoplast as, well as to explain his substi- tution of the zoological terms “ spermatocyte” and “spermatid” for the exceedingly cumbrous phraseology in use among botanists. While changes in terminology are difficult to secure, the advantages of the suggested modifi- cations are obvious. Indeed it would be almost ludicrous to speak of “ great- * Berichte der deutschen bot. Gesell. 15: 337-345. ae and 16: 140-143. 1898 *3 Berichte der deutschen bot. Gesell. 16: 177-184. I oa 1898] CURRENT LITERATURE 449 grandmother cells,” as would be necessary in describing the primary spermatocytes. Ist division x /\ 2d division /\ 3d division I central cell 2-celled spermatogenous complex . 4 primary spermatocytes, each containing a pair of blepharoplastoids , 8 "secondary spermatocytes or spermatid A mother cells, each containing two blepharcplasts. 4th division + ¢ 16 spermatids, each containing one blepharoplast Transformation * * 16 spermatozoids Naturally the question arises: Is there any relationship between blephar- oplasts and centrosomes? The identity of the two structures was conjectured by Belajeff and is accepted by Ikeno ; and certainly when one considers their similarity in staining reaction, position, size, and divisions, together with the analogies which animal spermitogenesis affords, it seems a not unreason- able conjecture to suppose the blepharoplast to be a centrosome modified for the performance of a new function. Such a view will probably be taken by those who share the opinions of Guignard and Schaffner, and by most animal cytologists. But those who hold with Strasburger and his assistants that centrosome and blepharoplast. Dr. Shaw says: “At present we can only express the view that the blepharoplast is a kinoplasmic body set ap Purpose of forming cilia."—WILSON R. SMITH. SINCE THE ANNOUNCEMENT by Treub in 1891 of chalazogamy 1n Casua- tina there has been on the part of morphologists @ persistent interest in knowing just how far this process extends in fact and in meaning. It was for a time Supposed that the phenomenon is shown by was used as the basis of a new classification —the ¢ ye by Casuarina, and the porogams represented by all other angiosperms. 450 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER such ideas had to be abandoned when Miss Margaret Benson reported chal- azogamy in Alnus, Corylus, Betula, and Carpinus. Later, Nawaschin announced that in /ug/ans regia the pollen tube takes an intercellular course within the ovule and agrees in a general way with the first reports of chal- azogamy. Since Miss Benson's publication it was supposed that this pecu- liar condition was confined to the Casuarinacez, Betulacez, and Juglandacee, until, in Nawaschin’s laboratory, the genera Urtica, Cannabis, Humulus, and Morus were found to have the pollen tube evading the micropyle and taking an intercellular course within the ovule, though not agreeing in details with the previous accounts of chalazogamy. New evidence is now furnished by Nawaschin,* the plants studied being Ulmus pedunculata and U. montana. The writer indulges in a discussion of the nature and location of the influence which directs the growth of the pol- len tube of the porogams. This influence may be entirely within the tube ; or within a secretion produced by certain cells of the style and nucellus which attract and nourish the tube; or these cells of the style and nucellus may serve only as mechanical guides, while the real impulse to growth rests within the tube. It is now probable, however, that a combination of all these factors constitutes the directing influence. Such might furnish an explanation for the porogams but not for the chalazogams. The behavior of the pollen tube of the elms is divided into three cate- gories. The first is given as the normal behavior, in which the pollen tube passes down the funiculus of the anatropous ovule, which is suspended from the top of the carpel cavity. From the funiculus the tube passes across above the short outer integument and through the inner one, reaching the top of the ‘nucellus, after which the regular behavior is observed. In the second cate- gory the tube may branch profusely and with no definiténess within the funic- ulus and the integument. This branching may occur out of the tissues after the pollen tube has reached the tip of the nucellus. In such cases the male cells within the tube always follow the newest branch. In the third category the tube grows down the funiculus near to the bases of the integuments, then rows up through the inner integument to a region on a level with the nucel- lus tip, when it turns across to the bottom of the micropyle as before. Or, instead of passing up between the cells of the inner integument, it may pass through the chalaza into the embryo sac as the tube of a true chalazogam. In no case was any tissue found which could be considered especially con- ductive or nutritive tissue. Nawaschin thinks these two species represent a region in which these tissues are not yet definitely differentiated, but that the chalazogamic habit is being dropped as is evidenced by the varied attempts of the pollen tube to reach the tip of the nucellus, and by occasional reversion *4 NAWASCHIN, SERGIUs : Ueber das Verhalten des Pollenschlauches bei der Ulme- Bull. d. Acad. Imper. d. Sci. d. St. Petersbourg 8 : 345. 1898. Among the shrub and tree formations there ar 1898 | CURRENT LITERATURE 451 to passage through the chalaza. He would look upon the elms as one of the transition types from the chalazogams to the porogams. Supplementing this work of Nawaschin, N. Zinger has found®* that in the ovules of Cannabinez the inner integument, which is elsewhere very delicate, over the apex of the nucellus becomes massive and is completely coalescent with the thick outer integument. The micropylar canal before fertilization is entirely closed by papillary outgrowths from the surface and marginal cells of the integuments. These outgrowths form a densely interwoven firm tissue above the apex of the nucellus, passing into the tissue of the ovary wall above. The pollen tube follows the central cells of the styles (conducting tissue ?) downwards, passes along the upper wall of the ovary, penetrates the outer and inner integuments or bores through the tissue filling the micropyle, and reaches finally the nucellus. Here it produces numerous sac-like tumid branches about the apex, until one very delicate tube penetrates to the embryo-sac.— OTIS W. CALDWELL. A RECENT MONOGRAPHIC work by Adamovic on the vegetation formations of eastern Servia adds greatly to our knowledge of the flora of that country.” Botanical research in Servia is a matter of the last two decades, because of the blighting rule of the Turkish government. The names of Pancic and Petrovic are about the only ones that need to be recollected, with the excep- tion of that of the author of the monograph under review. Servia is a mountainous country in the truest sense, even the river valleys being some hundreds of meters above sea level. The mountains belong to the Balkan and Rhodope systems and are of various geological ages trout Precambrian to Recent. The country is drained by the Morava and Timok rivers, tributaries of the Danube. The climate is intermediate between that of continental Europe and the Mediterranean climate to the south The author first discusses the formations of the plains and ; There are extensive rocky pastures, mostly along the slopes of ah 23 floral covering is sparse and the plants are decidedly xerophilous papers and periodic in their life functions. These rocky pastures a 4 steppes, where the soil is more gravelly or sandy than rocky. ra pees these formations euphorbias are characteristic. The meadows are iealvesst into valley or true meadows and swampy meadows, the latter grading Swamps. Rock formations are quite abundant and closely related to roc : pastures, though the rocks are larger and the vegetation se ese northern slopes have a richer flora because of greater enews : tr ‘ and water formations do not form a very large part of “ noe = i oe lower hills. *5 Flora 85 : 189-253. 1898. oe 76 ADAMOVIC, Luso.— Die Vegetationsformation Jahrb. 26: 124-218. 1898. en Ostserbiens. Engler’s Bot- 452 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER along streams are thickets with a dominance of willows; the only formations with tall trees are the poplar forests. The influence of man on the flora of the plains and hills has been very great, especially in the destruction of forests. On the mountains below the timber line mountain meadows are found quite commonly. In the calcareous regions there are peculiar funnel-shaped depressions formed by the erosion of the limestone. These depressions are called Do/inen, and their flora is more or less xerophytic. The rock forma- tions of course are well developed, and the author divides them into calcare- ous and eugeogenous, the latter with a much richer plant covering. term eugeogenous was introduced years ago by Thurmann; it means easily decomposed into good soil.) There are low forest thickets (Buschwald) in very many places, representing a second growth. There are two true forest types, the oak forests and the subalpine forests with a dominance of beeches. Above the timber line there are subalpine meadows, heaths and thickets. Higher up are alpine mats and extensive lithophytic formations. The influ- ence of man becomes less and'less evident as the altitude increases. The last chapter gives a short summary of the most important results. Adamovic Subdivides eastern Servia into four altitudinous regions based on barometric measurements. (1) The regions of plains and hills reaches up to 600", and is characterized by the almost entire absence of forests, a condition wholly due to the influence of man. The areas once wooded are occupied by culture plants, mainly cereals, hemp, tobacco, and melons. The hillsides are cov- ered by vineyards and fruit trees. The vegetation belongs to Drude’s Pontic type, mixed with some Mediterranean elements. The average annual tem- perature is 11.5°C., and the vegetation period is ten months, (2) The moun- tain region extends from 600™ up to 1100". Culture formations are much less abundant, the Mediterranean floral elements have disappeared, the Pontic elements are less abundant, and the characteristic vegetation of central Europe is preeminent. The low second growth timber is the most common formation. The mean temperature is 9.5°C. and the vegetation period nine months. (3) The subalpine region extends between 1100™ and 1660". The beech forests have replaced the oak and the second growth. The heaths and subalpine meadows are also prominent. The floral elements coincide mainly with the mountain zone of central Europe. The average temperature is from 7° to 8°C. and the growing period less than eight months. (4) The alpine region has no culture formations and the dominant landscape features are given by rocks and the variegated alpine mats. The floral elements are a mixture of the alpine types of central Europe and endemic types. The mean tempera- ture is about 6°C. and the vegetation period scarcely six months.— HENRY C. CowLeEs. 1898 | CURRENT LITERATURE 453 M. Cu. DASSONVILLE has made an elaborate study of the effect of min- eral salts upon plant structure.” A great number of experiments were made, in which direct control was had by germinating in solutions, while supple- mentary evidence was gained by germination in soil to which either solutions of asingle salt of graded strengths were presented, or complex solutions accompanied by check experiments in which the salt under study was omit- ted from the complex solution presented. Check experiments in distilled water accompanied those in which germination was effected in a liquid solu- tion. Certain mineral solutions induced more vigorous growth of both vege- tative and floral parts, but a period of life no longer than in aqua pura. Dassonville presents also the surprising results that cutinization, sclerification, and lignification are much more accentuated in young plants in distilled water than those of the same age in mineral solutions. The observations are not directed so much to general effects as to the most intimate histological alter- ations. One comprehends that the work must be most extensive to present reliable results. The effect of particular salts may be summarized as follows : magnesium sulfate retards normal development only at first, later becoming indispensable or it. In the castor-oil plant the retarding effect is chiefly upon the terminal root, which is atrophied. Later adventitious roots develop, the more the stronger the solution. In hemp there is no adventitious development, but the secondary wood is stimulated and the primary vessels retarded. Potassium phosphate is necessary at all stages. Its absence insured a characteristic abnormal development of the roots. Its presence stimulates the sclerification of the pericycle. Potassium silicate deepens the green ture and lignifies the peripheral cells of the root tip. The effect of nitrates varies in different plants, and with the strength of the solution and the stage of development. No attempt was imade t0 ane late a general law from the confusing results of the seven types - i However, the acetates of ammonia and potassium seem best for hemp an buckwheat, while sodium acetate is deleterious. No matter what the base, the acetates call forth a special tint in the leaves, which the author, attributes especially to acetic acid. Potassium stimulates growth, but retards t chyma, and may thus increase the liability of Sodium is less favorable to growth, but hastens preventing “lodging.” Calcium chloride and magnesium seem buckwheat, and the decreasing order of uti acetic, phosphoric, hydrochloric. of the leaves and affects their struc- he differentiation of scleren- «“Jodging ” in the Graminee. lignification of the stem-base, equally beneficent to hemp and lity of acids for these types 1S étaux. Revue 27 Influence des sels minéraux sur la forme et la structure des vég' générale de Botanique 10:15 sqq- 1898. 454 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER The author argues that the absence of high nutrition, z. ¢., germination in distilled water, induces the seedling to direct its energy chiefly to cell differ- entiation. And, vice versa, it is to be expected, and his results demonstrate, that a seedling grown ina rich nutrient medium, such as Knop’s solution, will multiply cells rapidly without differentiation. In other words, sterile ‘soil predicates precocious sclerification ; rich soil a later appearance of the ultimate structure, but a more rapid division of cells without differentiation. Apparent counter evidence is offered by the effect of single salts, which stim- ulate the differentiation of particular regions, as the effect of potassium phos- phate on the pericycle or of magnesium sulfate on the vessels of the root. M. Dassonville evades a contradiction of results, asserting the latter to be a differentiation of a particular region called upon to play a definite réle by the abundance of particular substance, and holding that, for the rest, the meris- tem reserves as long as possible the expenditure of energy in the way of differentiation. The author seriously questions the taxonomic value of anatom- ical characters, a challenge which, with the trend wholly in the direction of phylogenetic characters as the ultimate basis of classification, will find few takers. Such specific distinctions are altogether too cumbrous for taxonomic purposes. The value of these results is apparent and we recognize the great diffi- culties surmounted in their attainment. The deductions, however, are by no means final, because there is too little accord among even the few types studied. Results obtained from the investigation of lupine, wheat, oats, morning glory, egg plant, tomato, and pine, do not permit the induction of general laws. Though the methods show the work to have been stupendous, we are impressed with the impossibility of eliminating disturbing factors aside from the one under consideration. For example, the author concludes that ‘the optimum of potassium phosphate “augments only the quantity of water in the plant,” a result obtained from buckwheat. But, he adds, “sometimes the amount of dry matter is increased. It is so in hemp.’’-— JOHN GAYLORD COULTER. . ig eee ree NEWS. M. CAMILLE SAUVAGEAU has been appointed professor of botany in the University of Dijon. WE NOTE the recent death of Professor Joseph Gibelli, professor of botany at the University of Turin. Dr. DOMENICO SACCARDO has been called to Bologna as the assistant of Professor Fausto Morini in the botanical garden of the university. THE distinguished phycologist, J. B. Edouard Bornet, of Paris, celebrated his seventieth birthday on the second of September last. THE SECOND annual meeting of the Society for Plant Morphology and Physiology will be held at Columbia University, Wednesday to Friday, December 28 to 30. PROFESSOR Dr. C. SCHROTER, of Ziirich, began about the last of August a tour of the world, intending to visit North America, Japan, China, Java, Sumatra, India, and Egypt. ACCORDING to the newspapers Professor Dr. Oscar Brefeld of Miinster has accepted the call to the University of Breslau as successor to the late Dr. Ferdinand Cohn.— Bot. Zett. Dr. G. VENTURI, the well-known Austrian bryologist, died on’ the fifth of June. His moss herbarium, containing about 4000 species, and his library were bequeathed to the city of Trent. Dr. Ernst BAUER (Smichow bei Prag, N. C. 961) has begun the issue of a set of exsiccati, entitled Bryotheca Bohemica. In the issue of Century I Dr. V. Schiffner and other less known bryologists have cooperated with Dr. Bauer. The price per century is 1/14. From the Forester we learn that the New York College of Forestry has about thirty-five students taking advantage of its courses. Only va Brae regularly matriculated in the college, the rest being students of se wT who registered in College of Agriculture to escape fees, intending to change Over to the College of Forestry later. Dr. CARL FREIHERR VON TUBEUF, private docent in the university ra the technological school of Munich and director of the Bavarian cage ne plant protection and plant diseases, has been given sgeopescetn sh € 2 oe ment to take a staff position in the biological experiment station we att oe and forestry connected with the imperial bureau of hygiene sg ai will direct the botanical laboratory. 1898] : 456 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER 1898 PROFESSOR Dr. G. LEIMBACH, the editor of the Deutsche botanische Monatsschrift, announces that, at the end of the year, the journal again comes into his possession as publisher. It will be published as heretofore at 1/6 peryear. The office of publication is at Arnstadt, Thiiringia. THE Deutsche botanische Monatsschrift announces in its October number | (received late in November) that a most annoying delay has occurred in the issue of the Ascherson-Grabner Synopsis of the flora of central Europe. No explanation is given, but the Monatsschrift is authorized to say that, at all events, no additional part is to be issued this year. Mr. W. T. SWINGLE has been commissioned by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture to investigate the agriculture of the countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa which border on the Mediterranean. He is to study the plants cultivated and the methods of culture, in the hope of discovering plants which may be introduced to advantage into America. The work is to be done under Mr. Fairchild’s section of seed and plant introduction, and will occupy about six months, after which Mr. Swingle will return to America. During his absence letters may be addressed in care of Thomas Cook & Son, Ludgate Circus, London, E. C. Mr. D. G. FaIRcHILD, formerly special agent in charge of the section of seed and plant introduction, U. S. Department of Agriculture, has been assigned, at his own request, to duty as an agricultural explorer. He will visit both coasts of South America, in company with Mr. Barbour Lathrop, of Chicago, to investigate the economic plants of those regions and import stock of the more promising sorts into the United States. Mr. O. F. Cook, formerly Liberian agent of the New York Colonization Society and director of the college and the coffee experiment farm near Monrovia, has been appointed to take charge of the seed and plant introduction work, under the direction of the botanist of the department. Dr. C. F. MituspauGn, of the Field Columbian Museum, is to leave New York about December 20 for the West Indies, where he will spend the ~ winter months in botanical exploration. He is a guest upon the private yacht of Mr. Allison Armour, which will be largely under his direction as to the ports visited. Ample arrangements have been made for rapid and complete collecting, the purpose being not to obtain duplicates, but to secure as com- plete a representation of the flora as possible. Mr. E, P. Allen, the photog- rapher of the museum, will also accompany the expedition, and will pay special attention to the general ecological features. The places to be visited are as follows: San Juan de Puerto Rico; San Domingo; Santiago de Cuba; islands of Grand Cayman, Little Cayman, and Cayman Brac; Isle of Pines; Cape Corientes ; islands of Cozumel, Mugeres and Holbox ; interior of Yucatan as far as Buena Vista Xbac and Chichea Itza; the Alacran Shoals ; and Havana. GENERAL INDEX. ost important classified entries will be found under Contributors, Diseases, The Seectlogy: Personals, and s and names of new genera, species, and varieties are printed in bold. ea type; synonyms in adits A Abe sipeegs ppctieds of 295 owen ork of 45 oni um, n2 hay capillus- veneris 211 oer Schénland and Baker on plants Scovios. confused species of 355 Algz, of Queensland, Bailey on 287 Alismacez, pistils of 297 epa, karyoki- nesis 225; cernuum 277 ; tricoccum 277 123 oben si ccndlincs of 349 Amentifer American hk Aneimia Phylli iis SS fh Anemone Carolini 207, 3 Antennaria, Fematd = on I ay ; ieee on Anthracnoses, ascigerous forms 99 ; study Apples, disease of 71 shai onium, recent work on develop- nt of 42 Arenara, Williams on 2 r, J.C. 285, 287, 350% 362, 307, 4425 ersonal 296; “ Uni er” ’ 62 rabner’s “Flora des * 363; ee nglize 320 Astragalus, nomenclaturt of 436 Atkin nson, F., personal 294, 295; “Elementary botany” 440 Atrichum undulatum 190 B Bacillus flavus grandinis 213 1898] ae in hailstones 211 ley, F. M., work of 287 Bailey? s “Evolution of our na ative fruits” 375; “ Forcing-book” translated 375 ; “Plant br eeding ” trans sta 3753 = eae at 58; personal 294, 296 Bailey, W. W., per ersonal 152 Baker, C. F., personal ue 375 Baker, E. G., Banana, Pe tis fe) Barbula, fragilis 1 muralis 188; muralis, protonema 39 ; ruralis 170 Barnes, 61, 62, 63, 66, 215, 216, 218, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 360, 365, 438, 445, 446, 447; person “ Plant life” 280 Barth, H., of 365 Bartonia, iodandra 47; MMoseri 46, 47; on 46; tenella 46, 47, 48; verna Batodendron, acai? on 151 Bauer, E., personal 455 ‘Sean. ‘di sease 0 io Belajeff, W., personal 373; work of 149, 220, 432, 4 Bergen, F. D. 247, 253 Berlin Academy of carpe grants 152 Berula, Drude on Bessey, C. ee ay esl 295 Bessey, Ernst A oie Bleeding, Fi eis ce a Boon” s* — der Botanik ” 441 Bornet, J. B. E., pers nal 455 ; Borraginoide: 1 Fctsibation 137 Borgesen and Paulsen n, work of 292 Boeanical Society agi America, a5) ads n prothallia 287 anlnt of 431; Shaw Bow 74 Brachychecium: rutabulum 194; Bray, 219; person nal 1 Brefeld, 0 personal soe 455 Britten, ko Britton i 4 Brows! s 281 spores 28 152 - “Tilustrated flora” 458 Brood kg on moss leaves 170; on stem Bryo sai cares of spores 25 Bryotheca shee a45 ar 187 os 172; fabs; aryite carpum 171; pen ganas: spores nie ; pseudotriquetrum 169 Budgett, S. P., of 66 Bur EA A., perso ent 295 Besbennis aphylla 170 Cc so notages seeds wanted 374; Weber on pice disease of 82 Czoma nitens 81 Calakianiats Kearney on Caldwell, O. W. 444, 449; persona 152 California, Eastwood on plants of 366; 8 Calyptra, forming a . 171 e a | m, dis of I Cretae: development Of i in Pilularia 10; rotonem Card's “ Bush nits” 375 tea eee sphagnologique ” Car leton, M. A., personal 295 Castanea, seeds and oe. of 351 Castilleia parviflora, lo Id on 151 Caulerpaceze, Weber- pee on 370 Cavara, F., wor 3 Moseri 46, 47, 48 Centrosomes, ae pry on 244 5 ;in am it in Pinus 243; in plants Ceratodon cee 171, 199 Seiteoerk thalictroides, a os 42 Chalazogam oy Nawaschi Chamberlain, C. J. 149, oe ae 291, Chloris, Nash on mee Chloroplasts, Ewart on 148 sn peers colainibetiate: ‘distribution Chee disease 94 Citrullas hae ase 94; bles ag disease 88 Citrus aurantium, dise Chats. chen ser y Tigunticifodes 297, 302 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER Clute’s “Flora of Upper ido ist 362 36 , death of 2 Colletotrichum, cinctum 106; gloeosporo- 82, 87 ; lagenarum 88; linde- muthianam 90; lycopersici 953 rudt- colum 108 Gollan distribution I Color, ado, Baker and Earle’s collections In 375 Composite, Hiern on 222 Contributors : Arthur, J. ne Bess el 359° Z eb 7, 442; Darne R. O9,..66, 215,¢216; 218, gore 6, oe 288, 289, 360, 365, 438, 445, ae 447 ; M lain, C. J. 140, 216, -220, 291, 368, 200, 431; Cockerell, » 436; Copeland, E. T2825 Ba0, 160,45 3,:221, 2225 -260, 284, 285, 286, 362, ee 364, 366, 440, 445, 446; Coulter, S. M. 292; le H. C. 60, 356, 451: ; Davis -35 - 2773 D. ; Harrison, I; Hastings, ean pander Heald, F. D. a 69; Hil, E. J. 53>: Holm, "Theo. Joh ‘ “18: re age G. 284, 363, 441, 453 Coulter, J. 148, I Spr 150, 123, 125s oe Et ee , 282, 284, ya 286, 362, sts st 445, 4 Cou co Stasieg. personal 294 Coupin, Henri, work of Courc! het’s - Tra ité de botanique ” 234 peel SP oa: growth and sheep grazin teh a. C 60, 356, 361, 451; personal 152, 223 1898] Crassula, SS and Baker on 366 Cycas revoluta Cytology, 225, 23, ot 447, 448 Czapek, work of 4 ? D na, Mrs. Wm. S., personal 294 Be scnville, ‘Charl work of 453 avis, B. M. 364, 367, 370 Davis, 3 DeCandoile family, biographical notes 27 Delphinium Carolinianum 297, 303 Det etmer- jobs “Practical plant physiol- ogy” 215 Deutsche Botanische Monatsschrift 456 ca ane 74, 95; vanilla ae vile ne wate melon Distribution, contrivances for 124 Dix work of 149, 447 Doassansia 2 Zizani m 353 Drude, O., work o Durand and Schinz’s ee * Canepecon Flor Africee ” 283 E arle, F. S., personal 375 Dood Alice e, work of ot Ecology, Adamovic on 451; B esen and Paulsen on West Indies aha ‘correction 355; - nigra oin ot mey 0 222; light ig zo 283. Electricity, seleiic to perm 3743 n 66 Alyssum oo u Be » 364 Equisetum arv 4325 we gs 43 Bee dieteibutie Bschscholtzia, ‘Doulas 279; parvula 279; Mex Suphocbia,. apocymiftia poe Brasiliensis ; corol nN ie) otes and new species of 265; panicu- INDEX TO VOLUME XXVI 459 lata 267; Preslii 269, 270; Rafinesguti _ ; Stictospora 265; stictospora Tex- nsis 2 hutestien Grout on I51 Ewart; A. i. work of 148 F Fagacee, seeds and seedlings of 351 Fairchild, D. G., — nal 296, 456 of 221 Fernald, M Fertilization, ‘Shaw on 366 Figdor, Wm., gi i Fisiden bryoi bides Forestry, New Y are Cie of 455 Yomite Paulsen on West Indies 292 ‘orwood, collections of 374 hap ieee gost hee 201 ragaria Virginiana 307 Trankeniacee, distribution 131 *ritsch, Carl, personal 373 Fullmer, E Edward +» 239 sper inygrometi 170, 172, 180; es Fonai lls and Everhart’s North Ameri- Farlow on edible 221; ger- ae Peck on new See Diseas G Galium, Greenman on I5I : lore W. F., personal 374; “ Raised Gries “Crnickdbask Botanical 295; New ork Botanical 374 bie Campbell on work ee ; Ge ographical distribution 121, 2 — curvatures, Loeb on sells 7 Gannination sibel spores 377 455 peg 82 musarum 83, 378: cavicaliape necator 79; nervisequum 85, 100; is moides a piperatum 104; ribis 100; ;81; venetum fing’ é sbi Glucose, abso option y roo PRLS amcena I13; ar adr 100; : fimbriata 100 Gno moniops is 114; cincta 1 106; cingu- 460 lata 101; piperata 104; rubicola 108; vanilla t Karl, personal 373; “Organo- — ie der Supe 43 9 and bread-making” “Yeasts” 444 Gomphrenez, Seeden 124 Grasses, Scribner on 222 Gravity, Loeb on physiological action of Greene, E. L, shee of = 287 Greenman, J. M., ork of I51 Grout, A. J.“ Mons . Vermont” 62; ork of 151 Grover BP; ee S pai a 204 nogramme su Iphurea 432 Grcsnctccrms. origin of 153 Hainesia rubi 81 Halophytes, Borgesen on West Indian 292; extra tropical 136 Bi Dee Halsted, B Hamburg, Station for 296 Harper, Le a5 aor nal 295 Harrison n, Harshberger, J. W. , personal 152 Hartog, M., work o oer Geo. T. 349 d, F. - 25, 196 Heliotoiam, Weisner on 365 ere — A. A., personal 223, 374; work of Herbarium, Forw ood 374; Lloyd myco- 295; National Ceounchs s Ritteriana, distribution 132 Hicoria, seeds and s eedlings of 349 Hiern, W. P., — Nor ene of Afric can ate ate k of 222 Hildebrand’s “ Die Gattung Coctstons sé 368 pe ngaee of Baha. "283; “Flora of Kansa 218; hoe: Ler of Kans sas” ae: perso rir Hollick, € Arthur, personal 295 Hollrung’s “ Mittel gegen Pflanzenkrank- heiten” 359 Mykologische suchungen aus ae Tropen” 36 Holway, E. W. D., personal 373 Homology, Bower on 37 Hoérmann’s “ oe bei den Characeen” Hough, Walter, ial of 219 Howe, M. A., personal 294; work of 150 Unter- 4 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Hypnum, aduncum 171; cupressiforme 171; giganteum 170; serpens 171 I India, report botanical survey of 374 ons, Loeb o hues ro of 67 Trish’s apsicum ”’ 282 Irritability, Loeb on J aie work 3: 64 Johnson, D. S. ones, "TL. Loe death of 224 Joor, J. F., biography 270 Jour Ben ota oars Coe — sche Botan ero rift ee: gue: rican Bota oe Ju ae seeds and scree of 349 K Kain’s aie 218 Karsten, G., nal 223 Karyokinesis, in Alina aos in pine 241 Kearney, T. H., work of 2 Keffer, C. A 218 Kerner, A. Batty death of 223; “ Pflanzen- en” 361 Klebs, G., personal 223 Knowlton’s “Cretaceous and Tertiary 46 ote of 287, 367 Knu Paul, andbuch der Bliithen- knee Ae pee R73: L Labiates, Greene on Lafar’s “ Technical appease si Lamson-Scr oe foes e Scribne Lange, Joh of 68 pce Chilcosis, distribution 129 Lathrop, Barbour, ges Laurent, work it k o on relation of 4473 opment of, in Pilularia 2; forming hae’ ema 170; light-related 259 e, F. S., personal 296 ae oe 137 Leimbach, G., personal 456 Lepidodendroi d eae new 364 pease ate Ppa 195 Leucobryum um 170 Lewis and Clerk" s serra Meehan on 148 Library, sere oyd 63; Missouri Botanical Garden 68 Light, “Ceapel on relation of leaves 447; Loeb on physiological i of 66, 67; in Arctic zone, Weisner on 288 1898 | om vulgare, disease IO1 modorum, ete vus 244 cena How I gets library 6 " pyeolanical museum “Photogravures of Fun ngi? ” 373; “ Volvae of United § States” 362 Loasacez, —— 126 “ea Ja ep as a - 66 L ny per aan gan hay ae ae disease 74, 95 M Macrospores of Alyssum Ze Macrosporium, spores 378 Madotheca Bolanderi 429 Magnus’s “ Papers on fungi” 442 — gg ete: T25 Marantacee, Thompson on Pacharta polymorpha, spores 30, Marsilia, ae compared with Pilularia aS vestita Masters, M. °r. 355 Maxillaria eins gene 106 Me 14 are dic eesbution 126 os ns Min nesota Botanica Studies 223 Mitzkewitsch, L., work of 369 = bone med idatum , Spores 28; rostratum . Mailer, rs # eh ag al 68 “Practical plant physi- Moor’s ology” 21 215 Morris . D., personal 295, 375 Moser’ *Mosses of New Brunswick” Rack ot Antilles, Miiller on pad of Bohemia 455; regeneration in I Mottier, M., ee rso — 296 Miller, F., mem Miiller, as wor ph Musa para iiliiaca: disease 83 Myosurus minimus 207, “ase N Names, fe soar American 247 Nash, G. V., work of 151, 229 Nawasc , 5., work of 449 Necrology: Cohn, F. 223; Ghibelli, J. 455; ones, 224; Kerner, A. 223; Lange, Johan 68; Sturtevant, E 55. Nelson, oe work of 151; “ Red ‘desert of " 363 Wyomi INDEX TO VOLUME XXVI Neptunia, Robinson on 151 Nestler, A., work of 365 sss Susuki on assimilation 289 menclature, a question of 436 S.270: — of 283 movement of 365; of Spirogyra, Mitekewitech on 369 Nuphar luteum 244 Nutrition, Legient on 364 Nymphea alba 244 O Oak, disease of 85 Oaks, two noteworthy 53 is 76 untia, R Orange, disease of a ai Osmosis and toxicity 407 Ostwald’s ‘ smn no. 95” Ova ary, Ramirez Oxytheca dendiohies. “distribution 129 gr — . iS He Any 295 i work of 287 Pari is’s “ iis Bryologicus” 68 Paulsen (Bérgesen and), work of 292 Paxs uF undziige der atcanuerienits un Peck, C. H., work of 1 Anaad alesiaicn 5 psa: Soy crustaceum asia destroying wo ioe disease of Io Personals: Arthu a C. 296; Atkinson, - 295; V. K. 152; Cook, O. F. 456; Coulter, Sianley rsa Cowles, H. C352. 273; Dan . mG Earle, 'F 375: Soca b 96, 456; Fernow, Fe Og Fritsch Carl 3733 Co ohn, ee Ganong, W. F. 374; Ghibelli, 1 462 4553 Aes os 3735 Grover, F. O. 294; Harper 2955 a ea 374; Hitch- 295; Holli ok, ro Arthur 295; erner, A Paul 373; Set apt Barbou 456; Tataall ars tase C. sia 455; Under- 95, 373; Venturi, G. 455; Webbe er, Hy . 295; Wilson, W. P. 295; 5S. 223; Spal vant, E. : abiatdy 3733 Swingle, W. ooton, E. 24 Phases cuspi idat Lie . Phaseolus vulg ie. x oo Hartwegii ma hebiophyile Phylogeny, Belajeff on 149; Coulter on 153 Pilularia =e ig development of leaf Pimpincllasaa ere Pinchot, Gifford, perso uate 68; “Timb trees and forests of Ari Carolina” 218 nd cell alee nin Piper, C. oO ves Pistils, co co mparative morphology of 297 Pittier’s “ Primitiz Flora Costaricensis ” 44 Plasmolysis and toxicity 407 Pleodorina Illinoisensis, Kofoid on 287, 307 Pleuridium alternifolium 171 Plums, botanical v | of European 417; notes on America Pulenoutacae distribntion 141 Pollard, GC. 1. 32 Pollination } in Marantacez, Thompson on 371 Polycodium, Greene on 151 Polyembryony 27 richum commune 193 Porella Bolanderi 42 Porter’s sore ded et al. “Text-book of tan Pound, Ros Privet, distuse of 101 Potentilla Monspetiens 306 € 355 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | DECEMBER Prize, physiological 374 pe an er neseae - Prot z, Tassi o Pateids, © Susuki on formation 289 A stot Jeffrey on a, formation : armed Nestler on traumatropic movement sed ih i a ee a 49; —_— noe ner cerasifera 417; domest 417; hortulana 50; rivularis 50; a na 53; Watsoni 53 Pee toiictin, Hie 2 Pteridophytes, germinat ion of spores 25; of West Indies ; Sadebeck on nee Poccibis Pechiate Q Quercus, coccinea X palustris 54; palus- tris X imbricaria 53; seeds and seed- lings of ee velutina 53 R Ramirez, work o Ranunculaceze a ati of 297 Ranunculus, abortivus 297, 298; delphini- folius 297, 300; eremogenes 297, 299; seach 297, 300; multifidus 320; ovalis 297, 300 Raspberry, oibane va Phe 19s et 108 Relbunium, Green Re nauld’s “* Flore ‘esolowiqe de Mada- Bh cng 2S 218, Uniform water power” 62; Ascher- son and Grabner’s “ F ote des nordost- deutschen Flachlandes” 363; Atkin- on’s mentary tany” 440; Bailey’s “ Pruning-book” 58; Barnes’s “Plant Life” 280; orny’s “ Lehr- buch de ta ht ” aati; Britton and Brown’s “ Illustrated flora” 281; - dot’s “ Re vats sphagnologiqe ' Base poh ee — lora of Upper rehet’ s “ Traité de ‘botanique ” = orest grow 61; Det mer- er. s * Practical ca physiology” 215; tay and a nd Schinz’s “ pae De ee ze Afric 283; Engler and Pran us * Natirlichen Bhanenfamilien” 364; Ganong’s “ Raised pea Glatfelter’s “ soo snainas ” 282; Goe- bel’s “Organographie der Pflanzen” 438; , Golden’ s it Brea and bread-mak- in g” dig - wc ” 444; Grout’s “ Mos of t” 62; Hiern’s . Welwitsch’ s cues of African 1898 | INDEX TO VOLUME XXVI 463 pout a ne aera Se Die Gat ung Cyc 286; Hitchcock’s "Cryptogams = Bahamas, etc.” 283 “Flora of Kansas” 218, ‘Onag aceze it- suchungen au us den Tropen” 364; Hor- mann’s “ Protoplasmastrémung Bi den nena’ 445% soph * Revision of Cap Kains’s “ Chicor a8 i oe rs “ t Dilanisen leben” 361 ; lables s “t Piuses ous and Tertiary ” 446; ; Knuth’s “‘ Handbuch der 215% ittier’s ~ Prim tiz Flora Cos- taricensis” 445; Renaud’ Me feel oS each de Madagas 360 Rose’s “* Agay se Wastbaatoeiccais = abe Roth’s s “ Forestry conditi ons of baleen: n- sin” 61; Schneider s “Gui de o study i otany” 59; st tasburger Noll- ne -Schimper’s ‘Lehrbuch der Botanik” 216; Sydow’s “ Desué her R Richards, H. ML. ee 296 iddle, Toising Cc. 314 . Robinson 46, oe 289 ; personal 295; wee x of 151 Root pressure, Figdor on 287 Rosacee, 4 pintciephe 2907 elie ave Wa shingtoniensis ” 283 Roth’s “Forestry conditions of Wiscon- sin” 61 Rot, ripe of tomatoes 74 Rowlee, W. W. 349 Rubus, disease 76, 79, 81, 108 Ss Saccardo, D, ner gee! 455 Sadebe ok, © Sagittaria, tnatols ie variabilis, kary- okinesis in med Salix, archesporium of sre , 407 Salts, effects on. structure 453 Sargent, ¥. L. 219 Sauvageau, C., obSiape 455 Schaffner, He Schimper A. F, +; per 294 Sc hneider’ s “Guide to study ~ lichens” 284 ste nden al 223 Scribner, F. cape ae ge aes grasses” 446; work of 2 Scolopendrium wilgare, spores 27 Seed habit, origin of 1 Seedlings of Amentiferze 349 Seeds of Amentiferz 349 Servia, vegetation formations of 451 aie ‘distribution 1 Skank reek _. of 84 of I oe Sori palding, V. M., personal 373 Spathyema fee cetida, disease of 84 lin >phzerocarpus terrestris He 430 permatozoids, cilia of 431, 448 5 pirogyra, as test of toxicity a8 Mitz- kewitsch on 36 Spirostachys, ion 132 Sporocarp, development of, in Pilularia 6 Spores, O editions for germination 25; inati us 377 Stevens, F. L. 377 timuli, Loeb = — of electric 66 Stoneman, Bert Strasburger Nol " Gchenck = Schimper- Port “Lehrbuch der rime 216 Sturte vant E. Is., death of 2 Suringar, W. F. R. seine a Surirella ae 244 “hin bea r of Alyssum cs ki, U., work of 2 Swin gle, W. ‘Le pad 295, 456 Sycamore, disease of 85 464 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | DECEMBER Sydow’s “Deutscher Botaniker Kalen- obligua 336; odorata 329, 341; ovata der” 446 329, 341; palmata 328, 331; palmata Syntherisma, Nash on 151 pana 331; palmata heterophylla 33; palmata vz/losa 339; palmata a5 vulgaris 331; palustris 329; pedata Teenidia, Drude on 222 327, 330; pedata dzcolor 330; pedata - Targionia hypophylla 429 imornata 330; pedatifida 328; pedati- Tassi, Fl., work of 221 . fida Bernardi 330; Porteriana 340; Tatnall E. death of 3 primulefolia 329, 341; primuleefolia Taxonomy 150, 222, 287, 36 australis 342; primulifolia 340; reni- Taylor’s ‘ spe ik biology ” 285 ' folia 329; savage 330; sagittata Tetraphis pellucida 171 329, 339; Sagittata emarginata 340; Thomson’s “Cultivated Anhaloniums” sagittata icksit 341; sagittata ovata P28 341; Selki om 320; septemloba 328, Thompson, C. H., work of 371 333; Soraria 332; subsagitiata 340; Tomato, disease of 74, 95 Lhompsone "3413 triloba 331; villosa Toxicity, of sodium: =a Coupin: on 328, Sot villosa cordifolia 332; vittata ; of solutions 377, 4 Trabut’s “ Précis de Ssdiave médicale ”’ Violate disease of 96; Eastern acaules- 21 cent 325; Greene on 28 Transpiration, Dixon on 149, 447; new Volutella, citrulli 94; viol 96 self-registering machine © 343 Trees, anenclsiies of 436 W Tr as W. 371; “Ninth Report ~age Ward, H. M., work of 374 Watermelon, oes of 88 Waugh, F. A 417 Bh ge Aas & i tea 205 ouri Botanical Garden ” 282; work o 253 Troop, James 58 True, - H. 217, 407 We r, A., ork of 151 Tubeuf, C GR, person 455 Weber, van Bosse, work of 79 U Webera, annotina 171; Ludwigii 171 Weed’s “ Seed rere noe Ulmus, Nawaschin on ie Welwitschia, illustrations 152; source of hese ii Cc n 222 Und M., personal 295, 373; we D., work of 364 ai Study o St Stag Pe high schools” 61 Wiesner, J. ., work of 287, 365 Uromyces caryophyllinus 378 Willey, H., work o as Williams, F. N., of 289 V Wilson, ~ P., Pkt 2905 Vail, A. M., work gs ra Wooton =" personal 294; work of Vanilla, disease sat é “ Wright's 9! “Story of plant La, 294 ‘ae Fb dames s re Se de botanique Wyoming’ platits; Nelson on’1s1 Ven hte si death of 455 x Vermicularia circinans 98 ifr affinis. 329, 338; amcena 329, 342; Xerophytes 123; of Arizona, Hough on arifolia eae iirc as 332; blanda 21 palustriform ; Bernardi 328, 330, X-rays, research on 63 anda sit Beittonians 328, 330; eect 329, gpl zeae 341; com- ~ munis 336; I; cucul- lata 32 ae oo Pe ects Yeast, Janssens and Leblanc on 447 cordata 339; cucullata palmata 331; Z cuspidata 328, 337; dentata 329, 340; digt ‘ata 330; domestica 328, 336; Zamia oS p23 emarginata 329, 340; esculenta 328, Zinger _— 3333 Greene on 151; heterophylla 333; Zizani aquatica, Teawena on 353 insignis 328, 334; lanceolata 329; Sas. pltion of floral 121 Langloisii 328; obliqua 329, 337; Zygophyllaceze, distribution 132 ee a eg oer ap Ge ae ll le i i Mi Mi hi a i ie ry uwrurCeCCTC?r eC pee tae ee én yew es ey a As» le i i i i le te i he ¥ la li i i Mi hi i hi i i i i hi i i i AARP 3 1 ev The Pennoyer ‘5 OSHA n Lake Michigan WISCONSIN HEADACHE -HORSFORD’S ACID PHOSPHATE by its, action in promoting digestion and as a nerve food, prevents and alleviates headache arising from a’ dis- ordered stomach, or that of nervous origin. |The best insomnia and dyspepsia.§ Ls) remedyg for Pleasant to take. 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Rochester, N.Y. sasesass WW OY at aSOSIS SUSU UISUS SISOS USCS USS 1SISESUSIS TAUNTS ISSUES US AISPEISES TSISMIS ISAS TT TY OPHY OF THE HUMANITIES. pwoatte. | 4 - fee an H, Professor of Latin in the Uni i — THE® PHYTOGEOGRAPHY OF u 3 Be cirtese’ saonts anis 3 avoir.eppcis le Isdn- dy spabies | Ne eoee: ras General Survey. ie + Mais 2 appris e Jom Temps. ot RoscoE aay Pu.D., and interest Sole is scholarly and instructive and will be studied with 8vo, Clot p. xxit+ iY fgg =. " ne a Shen a7eviedesg nai of Education, Boston po “An ind indispenabie work to all yastelerag ote >°__Bot. schol: ’ ing, it must inevitably ma nk 3 ay - ce rgaereem all over this country. Ale 2 yg Austin, "Te: 7 ie Adis int am and valuable contribution to ecology.”——Am. f Latin.—Pof. < Monthly. seas hiilghe Aang PB 2 JACOB NORTH & CO., Publishers, 63 Pp. 50c. The University ‘of Chicago Press. oh li, LINCOLN, Nebraska. Reprints from | __ THE JourNaL oF GEOLOGY CORRESPONDENCE STUDY Studies for Students The University Copies of cn following “ Studies for Students ” of Chicago n be had for class use : through Dis tinct Glacial Epochs and the Criteria for The University Extension eir Recognition PROFESSOR S — : ALISBURY rs instruction by correspondence in Sie : 10 cents per copy Per a Graduate, and Divinity departments, nace instruc hysica i ies 1 Geography in the University a oph Hist ROFESS rIe = A é . at ssoR Davis 15 cents per copy Soci Semitics Church H Hi story 1 i r} i 2 o PROFES SOR CHAMBE BERLIN 10 cents per copy rees are not granted upon wo ork done wholly by corre- Degre spondence, but cre edit will be given for rea when complet ‘The , eee Its Characteristics and Rela- by examination at The University and t e time of resi- ionships | dence required for a degree may be sho pian PROFESSOR SALISBURY a ee Work may be commenced at any time Add —e. Special circulars will we sent on application to ress THE CORRESPONDENCE STUDY scoagemeipne = = Chicago Che University of Chicago The University of Chicago = uniopeils PRESS DIVISION Book Depa ™ Departmen . Chicago, Il. Special circulars explaining t the work of the Lecture- “Study ss EL f the University Extension will be sent on apple ca The University of Chicago Journals. The Biblical World The School Review - The American ~ Zournal of Sociology The American Journal of Theology The American Journal of Semitic Languages nd a Literatures Edited by President W. R. Harper. Monthly; about 80 pages, with special numbers in June and December. A_ popular monthly magazine ; illustrated ; devoted exclusively to biblical study. The best magazine published for the busy minister, Sunday-school teacher, and thinking layman. Regular depart- Contributions from the ablest thinkers; the editorial notes fearless and candid. One of the most popular publications issued by the University of Chicago Press. Edited by Charles H. Thurber. Monthly, except in July and ugust; averages about 80 pages. This publication is dis- tinctively the national representative of high school and academic work, It propagates sound educational thought and reports wise educational experiments. It is the only magazi t sively to secondary education. Its contributors are the ablest educators, It furnishes the only means of keeping fully abreast of progress in secondary work. Its distinctive features make it a very attractive publication to all interested in educational work. Edited by Albion W. Small. Bimonthly. This journal is the result of the increased popular interest in social questions. It presents to its readers issue by issue thz latest developments in sociological thought and in social endeavor. Each issue con- tains at least one illustrated article of timely interest concerning practical sociological endeavors. It has as advising editors and tributors tl t eminent sociologists in America and Europe. Edited by the Divinity Faculty of the University of Chicago. The only journal in the world so catholic in its scope as to cover the entire field of modern investigation and research in all the different lines of theological thought represented by special fields and particular schools. It does not propagate any set of ideas, but offers a medium of communication forall workers in the field of theological knowledge. The first volume comprises more one thousand pages. Its success has been unprecedented. Edited by President W. R. Harper. Quarterly ; about 80 pages. This journal is a continuation of the well-known “ Hebraica,” which during the years of its existence came into wide notice. The object of this journal is to encourage the study of the Semitic languages and literatures, to furnish information concerning the work of Semitic students, and to act as a medium for the publica- tion of scientific contributions in those departments, It publishes articles in German, French, and Latin as well as in English. (Continued on next page.) All subscriptions and requests for sample copies should be addressed to ALL REMITTANCES SHOULD BE MADE PAYABLE TO THE University oF CHicaco THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO THE UNIVERSITY PRESS DIVISION $2.00 a year Foreign: 2.50 Single copies: 20 cents $1.50 a year Foreign: 2.00 Single copies: 20 cents $2.00 a year Foreign: $2.50 Single copies: cents $3.00 a year Foreign: 3-25 Single copies: 75 cents $3.00 a year Foreign: $3.25 Single copies: 75 cents CHICAGO, ILL. The University of Chicago Journals. The Botanical Ga3ette The Fournal of Geology The Journal of Political Economy The Astropbysi= * cal Journal The University Record ecor (Continued.) Edited by John M. Coulter, C. R. Barnes, and J. C. Arthur, with American and foreign associates, Monthly, illustrated; at least 80 pages. Devoted to the science of botany in all of its depart- ments, containing results of research, book reviews, notes for students, and news items. Current numbers contain contributions from leading botanists of all countries; many of the important results of recent research are announced through the Gazette. The department of Open Letters affords opportunity for free discussion. Editea by T.C, Chamberlin. Semi-quarterly ; about 120 pages. Devoted to the interests of geology and the allied sciences, and contains articles covering a wide range of subjects. Under head of Studies for Students gives a series by specialists adapted to young ti advanced students and teachers. These have Sty commendation from experienced geologists. Curren aaiker contain papers on the history of the atmosphere oss the cause of climatic changes, embracing radical departures from current views; papers on rocks and their classification ; and the articles on Glacial Studies in Greenland are continued. Edited by J. Laurence Laughlin. Quarterly; about 140 pages. This publication promotes the scientific treatment of problems in practical economi also contains contributions on topics of theoretical and speculative interest. It devotes a large share of its space to the sifting and publication of facts that bear immediately upon business interests, banking, money, railway transportation, special taxation, socialism, wages, agriculture and the like. An international review of spectroscopy and astronomical phy- sics. Edited by George E. Hale and James E. Keeler. Monthly, — in July and September; about 80 pag Invaluable o all who are interested in the recent developments in astronomy and astrophysics. The journal contains numerous illustrations including reproductions from the latest astronomical photographs, and full descriptions and illustrations of the work carried for- ward at the Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago. It contains articles on literary and educa- tional topics, the Convocation Addresses, a and the Quarterly Statements of the President. An official weekly report is given of the affairs of the University, embracing the official actions and notices, the announcements of courses of instruction, and selections from addresses delivered at the University and papers of departmental clubs and societies. The work of the various boards and divisions of the University is summarized, including weekly announcements from each of the various Published weekly. All subscriptions and requests for sample copies should be addressed to ALL REMITTANCES D O THE “nadie OF CHICAGO THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO $4.00 a year Foreign 4.50 Single copies: 40 cents $3.00 a year Forei sa 3-5 Stage copies: 50 cents $3 r $4.00 a year Foreign: $4.50 Single copies: 50 cents $1.00 a year Foreign: $1.50 Single copies: 5 cents THE UNIVERSITY PRESS DIVISION CHICAGO, ILL. The HAMMOND TYPEWRITER is the ONLY ONE “for all Nations and Tongues.” By changing the shuttle, in ten seconds you 1. + “ I+(L ope | 1 It is especially adapted to Foreign Corres- | i se fP 1.1:.¢ 1 Send for new catalogue, and enclose a 5c. stamp for a correct Map of the World, THE HAMMOND TYPEWRITER CO., 403 and 405 East 62d St., New York, LV J IN THE WORLD doesn’t a man H me Jones it oe. se Paeipgs: hods wh he American Typew ke for aaa ? 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