THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE EDITORS: JOHN MERLE COULTER anp CHARLES REID BARNES, WITH OTHER MEMBERS OF THE BOTANICAL STAFF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO ASSOCIATE EDITORS: J. C. ARTHU Pats ue Sc plied CASIMIR DECAN eneva “Pay ofa: Bg 8 University of Padua. ADOLF ENGLE University of Berlin. LEON GUIGNARD, ge de Pharmacie. ROBERT. A. HA Ubiversity. of Wisconsin. * JINzO peal hee Imperial sioavsralty: Tokyo. Fritz NOLL ee of Bonn. VOLNEY M. SPAI University roe Michigan. ROLAND THAXT H sa University. WILLIAM TRELE Missouri Botanica Garden. H. MARSHALL ce ve Cambridge. EUGEN. WARM University of Copenhagen. VEIT WITTROCK Royal Academy of Sciences, Stockhol VOLUME XXXVIII JULY —DECEMBER, 1904 WITH NINETEEN PLATES AND ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY-ONE FIGURES CHICAGO, ILLINOIS PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO Wo. Bot. Garden wo05 PRINTED AT cdo The University of Chicago Press | | E : TABLE OF CONTENT=. Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in Ephedra trijurca. pee from the Hull Botanical Labora- LIX (with plates I-V). - W. J. G. Land The am relation of Puccinia asparagi. a contri- bution to the biology of a plate seni (with twenty-one-figures) : - Ralph E. Smith Delta and desert vegetation (with seven ‘apt’ - D.T. MacDougal Oogenesis in Vaucheria. Contributions from the Hull Botanical te nee LXI vias a VI and VII) - Bradley M. Davis A study of Tillandsia sachets vith one figure an plates VITI-XI) Frederick H. Billings Biological relations of certain sue see 1. The creosote bush (Covillea tridentata) in its rela- tion to water supply (with seven figures) - — - V. M. Spalding The development of the central cylinder of Araceae and Liliaceae. Contributions from the Hull Botanical Laboratory. LXII oe Pies XII- Mintin Asbury Chrysler The iia 2 ee sclgiianeldi of Monoclea. Contributions from the Botanical Laboratory of te Johns Hopkins ore No. 2. as plates XVI and XVII) - Duncan S. Johnson On the spores of certain Coniferae vith twenty -four res) - W. C. Coker The relationships of iu organs in platith end: butions from the Hull Botanical oe LXIII - - Bradley M. Davis A lichen eset of a asi aetatie ee (with sie ne ures Bruce Fink Transpiration of sun- oe kd a oon “f Olea europaea and other broad-leaved evergreens (with eleven figures) = - - Joseph Y. Bergen A fossil Sequoia from the Sierra Meads vith plate XVIII and XIX) -~ - - Edward C. Jeffrey Place-constants for Aster prenaataie Ciaieline tions from the Hull Botanical eae LXIV (with eighteen figures) - George Harrison Shull ¥ PAGE 185 206 241 321 333 vi CONTENTS [VOLUME XXXVIII PAGE The variation of some California agate te nine fig- ures) - Edwin Bingham Copeland 401 Klinostats and secacihinss for ey siological research (with three figures) - - Frederick C. Newcombe 427 Ecological notes on the trees of the hit Garden at Naples (with four figures) - . Grace E. Cooley 435 Relative transpiration of old and new eee of = Tyrtus type - - Joseph Y. Bergen 446 Regeneration in Zamia. een from the Hull Botanical caauicna LXV (with eight fig- ures) - - - John M. Coulter and M. A. Chrysler 452 BRIEFER ARTICLES— The aecidium of maize rust - - J.C. Arthur 64 An experiment on the relation of soil fe sics to plant growth. Contributions from the Hull Botanical Laboratory. LX (with three fig- ures) - “ Burton E. ape and Gerhard H. Jensen 67 Anew Gilia -— - . : Alice Eastwood 471 Notes on North Adie aa III and Ive = - - A. S. Hitchcock 139, 297 Carl Schrabia vt porte) a eee Janet Perkins 143 A correction - - - Charles J. Chamberlain 145 Artificial para a faints notice. = - George J. Peirce 214 The growth of Ramalina reticulata Runa (with one figure) - Albert C. Herre 218 Oogenesis and fertilization in Aduse I pomoeae: panduranae (with two figures) - F. L. Stevens 300 . A new sheep poison from Mexico - -_ - B. L. Robinson 376 Some western species of Agropyron - Elias Nelson 378 Note British Columbian dwarf trees (with three figures) - Conway MacMillan 379 Celloidin technique: a Aan E. C. J oh, c bhuirkes J.C. pa 381 An abnormal Ambrosia (with three figures) - .C. Life 383 New or babes —s from southern Cali- fornia - S.B. Parish 459 CURRENT LITERATURE - - = 73, 146, 220, 303, 385, 463 For titles see index aus ee name and Reviews. Papers noticed in “Notes for students” are indexed under author’s name and subjects. News 2 - - - - - - - 79, 160, 239, 318, 399 480 Oy sn abl iN DE ati 5 VOLUME XXXVI] CONTENTS vii DATES OF PUBLICATION. No. 1, July 16; No. 2, August 18; No. 3, September 23; No. 4, October 20; No. 5, November 19; No. 6, December —. ERRATA, VoLUME XXXVII— P. 450, line 19, for cones read ones. P. 450, line 3 from below, for as read or. P. 451, line 5, for fallen read galled. P. 452, line 7 from below, for found read formed. P. 454, line 17, for abuses read absence. VoLuME XXXVITI— P. 80, line 9 from below, for Pathology read Physiology. P. 83, line 4 from below, for he read the. . 89, line 8, for precesses read processes. . 89, line 8, for oogonesis read oogenesis. - 92, line 5, for oogonesis read oogenesis. - 160, line 2, for society read society. 163, line 10 from below, insert as after pericycle. . 298, line 11 from below, for Coixdactyloides read Coix dactyloides. - 391, line o from below, for mycological read cytological. i oo Mg Vol. XXXVII JULY, 1904 ss |e ae BOTANICAL GAZETTE ‘ : & : Ser ke. EDITORS : pees ; ae JOHN M. COULTER anp CHARLES R. BARNES, ae WITH OTHER MEMBERS OF THE BOTANICAL STAFF <3 BS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF Seca es si see y Pe J. B. DeTONI Ee THAXTER niversity of Modena ee Harvard University ADOLF ENGLER WILLIAM T TRELEASE University oj Berlin Missouri eee Garden LEON GUIGNARD ) H. MARSHALL WAR L’ Ecole de Pharmacie, Paris niversity of Cambridge ROBERT A. HARPER EUGEN. WARMING ‘ ” - University of ris rotate University of Copenagen JINZO MATSU . i Imperial Unters, Tokyo. * THE WORLD’ S FAIR Pears’ “So because itis matchless for the complexion. The: secret of Pears’ great success all over the world,is proauces Pears’ Soap alone has the peculiar quality which prowe x and preserves that matchless skin beauly which as made Pears’ famous. Pears’ Lavender Water, fr . > : r. agrantly refreshing—an ideal toilet wate “All rights secured.’ pe oe eect Si aT Mao Ni ut a Sime it ano Na ie otk Botanical Gazette A Monthly Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science wsbscription per year, $5.00. Foreign, $5.75. Single Numbers, 50 Cents European oo £1 4s per annum (post free), should be remitted to WILLIAM WESLEY & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, Sole European Agents. Vol. XXXVIII, No. 3 Issued July 16, 1904 CONTENTS PERMATOGENESIS AND OOGENESIS IN EPHEDRA TRIFURCA. ComreTepnions FROM THE Hutt BoTANicaL LABORATORY. LIX (wirH PLATES I-v). W. J. G. Land I E WATER-RELATION OF PUCCINIA ASPARAGI. A ga egy son ~ THE dame F A PARASITIC FUNGUS (WITH TWENTY-ONE FIGURES). Ralph E. S DELTA AND DESERT VEGETATION (wir SEVEN FIGURES). Daniel la MacDougal - 44 BRIEFER ARTICLES. Tue Arcipium oF Maize Rust. J.C. Arthur - 64 AN pocgrg teh THE RELATION OF SOIL on TO PLA ANT GROWTH. Cosrarsurions ROM THE BOTANICAL LABORATO oe THREE a. Burto tans Lhhaston sc Gerhard H. Jensen - ’ A New Guia. Alice Eastwood - - - - “ "i 70 SURRENT LITERATURE. | BOOK REVIEWS °— - e : ‘ ( 2 : : t s Mey ALASKAN CRYPTOGAMS 3 NOTES FOR STUDENTS . | “ - as ~ = a 73 VEWS - i S 2 i ui ne v < 79 4 Separates, if desired, must be ordered in advance of publication. Not less than 50 separates of lead- ig bn ie will be prin rinted, of which 25 Lneseg covers) will be furnished gratis, the actual cost of the der (and covers, if desired) to be paid for by the author. 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Write for Information—Dept.25 Home Office: NEWARK, N? “Visit THE PRUDENTIAL’S EXHIBIT, Palace of Education, World’s Fair, St "| . Louis. } VOLUME XXXVIII NUMBER 1 DHOTANICAL GAZETTE JULY, Fo0d SPERMATOGENESIS AND OOGENESIS IN EPHEDRA TRIFURCA. ng CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE HULL BOTANICAL LABORATORY. W. J. G. LAND. (WITH PLATES I-V) THE Gnetales are exceedingly important from a morphological standpoint because of many points of contact with angiosperms. That they have not received the attention their character warrants is probably due to the difficulty encountered in obtaining material suitable for critical morphological study. Ephedra, comprising about twenty species, is confined to the warmer arid regions of the northern hemisphere, and is evidently more nearly related to the Coniferales than is either Tumboa or Gnetum. s = - Important morphological literature dealing with Ephedra is extremely scanty. In 1872 Strasburger published an account of Ephedra altissima and E. campylopoda, dealing with the develop- ment of the microsporangiate and megasporangiate strobili. In 1879 he described stages in the development of the embryo in &. altissima. Jaccard (’94) described in a fragmentary way E. helvetica, giving most attention to spermatogenesis. He also gave some atten- tion to fertilization and early stages of embryogeny. The present study was undertaken with the hope of being able to follow in a fairly complete way the life-history of E. trijurca Torr. This account, dealing with spermatogenesis and oogenesis, is to be fol- lowed shortly by another dealing with fertilization and embryogeny. I 2 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yULY METHODS. Material was collected in the vicinity of Mesilla Park, N. M., from December 20, 1902, to May 11, 1903. The second collection was made one month after the first; and as development became more rapid collections were made at intervals of four days. The strobili, attached to a short piece of the stem, were packed in wet cotton, and on reaching the laboratory four days later were placed in a moist chamber to enable them to recover turgescence. That fixation immediately after removal from the tree is not absolutely necessary is shown by nuclei in all stages of division. Further treatment did not differ essentially from approved methods of microtechnique. THE STAMINATE STROBILUS. E. trijurca is monosporangiate, and the staminate as well as the ovulate strobili are borne in whorls around the nodes of the stem. Exceptional instances were noted in which the strobili were bispor- angiate (fig. 1). Strasburger figures such a strobilus in E. campy- lopoda, and refers to it as an abnormal inflorescence. In another instance two ovules were present in a staminate strobilus of E. trijurca, although one is the usual number in the ovulate strobilus. This last, however, has many exceptions. Shaw (’96) reports a strobilus of Sequoia sempervirens in which the upper part was ovulate and the lower staminate. Dickson (60) observed the same thing in Picea excelsa. Coulter and Chamberlain (or) figure strobili of Abies which are staminate at the apex and base and ovulate between. Goebel (’or) observed that in Pinus maritima the microsporangia were at the base of the strobilus and the megaspor- angia above. In the middle region he found rudimentary ovuliferous scales in the axils of the microsporophylls. In Tumboa the flowers are functionally monosporangiate, but in the center of a whorl of stamens there is a single functionless ovule with a spirally coiled micropyle. This seems to indicate that at a not remote period of its history the flowers were perfect. Ephedra, however, appears to — have gone a step farther, and has become wholly monosporangiate; and the occasional bisporangiate strobili are reversions. It seems that, instead of regarding such occasional strobili as abnormal, it is better to consider them as atavistic; as pointing back to a bisporangiate | ! —- —™ ~~ «~S a j j 1904] LAND—EPHEDRA TRIFURCA 3 ancestry. Atavistic tendencies should not be lightly passed over, for it is from such reversions that we may expect valuable hints as to previous conditions. THE MICROSPORANGIUM. In the first material collected, December 20, 1902, the group of cells which gives rise to the staminate flower is shown in jig. 2. No archesporial cells are yet distinguishable either by size or staining reactions, nor is the beginning of the perianth visible. Cell division is proceeding quite rapidly, and there is apparently considerable activity throughout the winter months. A month later the perianth is quite well developed (jig. 3). The cells immediately beneath the epidermis are about the same size as the adjacent ones, and as yet no differentiation into archesporium can be recognized. At the base of the strobili the flowers are much farther advanced than at the apical region. Later in the season all stages from rudimentary sporangia to mother-cells may be found in the same strobilus. . Fig. 4 shows a later stage in the development of an anther taken from the base of a strobilus. There is no positive evidence that the archesporium rises from a single hypodermal cell, but such is probably the case. The primary wall layer divides periclinally, giving rise to the wall layer and tapetum. The wall-cells do not divide peri- clinally, all divisions being anticlinal (figs. 5, 6). ‘The sporogenous cells do not divide in any definite plane (fig. 5). The stages shown in fig. 5 were common in basal sporangia February 9, 1903. Fig. 6 shows a more advanced stage of the sporangium. The wall layer and tapetum are completely separated, and the sporogenous ‘cells have ceased to divide; in fact, they are ‘spore mother-cells which have not yet taken on the appearance which is characteristic of older mother-cells (February 15, 1903). A little later the wall-cells become flattened by the growth of the mother-cells and the tapetum. No further anticlinal division of the wall-cells takes place after they begin to be flattened. ‘They become much stretched by the further growth of the adjacent cells. The tapetal cells increase in size and stain intensely, this last because of the presence of food in large quantities. Fig. 7 shows a more advanced stage. The wall-cells are 4 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY beginning to disintegrate, the tapetal cells are increasing in size and dividing anticlinally, and the mother-cells are in the resting condi- tion (February 15, 1903). In gymnosperms the number of wall layers varies considerably. In Cycadales, Lang (’97) found the wall of Stangeria to consist of from three to six layers; in Ginkgoales they number from four to seven. Chamberlain (’98) found the wall of Pinus Laricio to be almost constantly three-layered. Coker (’02) found three wall layers in Podocarpus, the cell-walls of which are very thin and ultimately collapse; and in Taxodium he found a single layer. In E. trijurca the wall is a single layer of cells, and Strasburger found the same condition — in the species studied by him. In E. trijurca numerous instances were observed in which indi- vidual tapetal cells were not distinguishable from adjacent mother- __ cells. This seems to indicate that the tapetum is potentially sporog- enous, and by virtue of its position has become sterile. With the appearance of the mother-cell the history of the sporophyte ends. In general the resting stage of the microspore mother-cell in gym- nosperms is long. Chamberlain (’98) observed mother-cells in Pinus Laricio, Cupressus Lawsoniana, and Taxus baccata canadensis in October. The reduction division occurred about May 1, thus giving a resting period of about seven months. In Ephedra the first observed reduction division was on March 12, giving a resting period of about one month. At the time of the reduction division the cells of the wall layer are reduced to nuclei, scarcely a trace of cytoplasm being present. The cells of the tapetal layer become conspicuously vacuolated and their nuclei much enlarged. The nuclei become usually about four times the volume of those of the epidermal cells (fig. 7). Two or more nuclei are present in many tapetal cells at the time tetrads are formed. These last divisions appear to be amitotic, and nuclei in all stages, from the dumb-bell stage to complete separation, can be seen. At this time the tapetal cells, especially those nearest the bottom of the loculi, become enormously distended and very vacuo- late (fig. 14). Soon afterwards they become a flattened plate and disappear. er Ne en Wy, 3 1904] LAND—EPHEDRA TRIFURCA 5 THE REDUCTION DIVISION AND MALE GAMETOPHYTE. As has been said, the microspore mother-cell remains in the rest- ing stage about one month. The mother-cells up to the late pro- phase are filled with starch, which now quickly disappears. ‘There does not at all times seem to be uniformity in the stages of division in the cells of a loculus. Instances were observed in which all the cells of a loculus were in the same phase of division. Again, those in the upper part of a loculus were in synapsis, those at the bottom had formed tetrads, while all intermediate stages were between. The spirem segments into twelve chromosomes (not all of which are shown in jig. 8), which as they come to lie in the equatorial plane of the nucleus are short and thick, closely massed, and can be counted only with extreme difficulty. The result of repeated countings made in various stages of the first division, as well as in the second, leaves no doubt that the gametophyte number is twelve. Jaccard reports eight in E. helvetica. Twelve appears to be the prevailing number of chromosomes in the gametophytes of gymnosperms. Three exceptions to this state- ment are to be noted: Overton (’93) reports eight for Ceratozamia mexicana; Strasburger (’04) finds eight in Taxus baccata; the other is E. helvetica, with eight according to Jaccard. Dixon (’98) reported eight chromosomes for Pinus sylvestris, but Blackman (’98) and Miss Ferguson (’or) have shown beyond doubt that the number in this species is also twelve. Each chromosome apparently consists of four rods lying in extremely close contact. In the heterotypic division (fig. 9) the chromosome divides longitudinally, the ends opening out to form the X, Y, V, and 0 forms which are characteristic of the heterotypic division in higher plants. A membrane (figs. 17, 12) begins to form between the daughter-nuclei, as if spores of the bilateral type are to result, but in the great majority of cases the membrane wholly dis- appears, and the spores are of the tetrahedral type; although instances were noted in which they are probably bilateral. ‘The second division in the pollen mother-cell is homotypic (fig. 73) and immediately follows the heterotypic division. In this second division longitu- ’ dinal splitting of the chromosomes can be seen with little difficulty. The J form is quite conspicuous. As the chromosomes separate, in 6 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY many instances they become quite irregular, being stretched almost to the point of breaking. It is quite possible that irregular numbers of chromosomes, which are occasionally reported in plants, may have originated by the breaking of an individual chromosome. The micro- spores, still within the wall of the mother-cell, quickly assume an oval form (jig. 14). After a brief period of rest (fig. 15) the nucleus of the microspore divides, and the first prothallial cell is formed. It has been deter- mined beyond a reasonable doubt that a wall is laid down between the two nuclei (jigs. 16, 17), although it is extremely difficult to differ- entiate. The prothallial cell is pressed closely against the end of the microspore by the growth of the other cell, its nucleus usually taking the meniscus form (jigs. 17-22). The other cell, still remaining at the center of the spore, enlarges, and dividing (jig. 17) gives rise to the second prothallial cell and the antheridium initial (jig. 18). The antheridium initial does not appear to be separated from the second prothallial cell by a wall, but both nuclei remain in the same mass of cytoplasm which originally surrounded the nucleus before division (fig. 18). Here again arises a great difficulty in making conclusive observations. It may be that a wall is laid down and almost immediately resorbed, as Juel (’00) has shown to be the case in tetrad formation in Carex acuta, where a cell plate is formed and immediately resorbed, leaving the tetrad nuclei free within the wall of the mother-cell. It is conceivable that such a wall may be laid down, for it must be remembered that the entire prothallial region of gymnosperms is undergoing modification, in that the prothallial cells are either more or less ephemeral or alto- gether wanting; and that when cells are becoming obsolescent the wall is the first to disappear, leaving the two nuclei free within the common cytoplasm; next, the nucleus occasionally fails to divide; and finally no division takes place at all. The second prothallial cell becomes flattened because of pressure _ due to the growth of the antheridium initial, and its nucleus becomes plano-convex or even meniscus-shaped, with its plane or concave face turned toward the first prothallial cell (jigs. 18, 20). The nucleus of the antheridial cell, still at the center of the microspore, enlarges very much (fig. 18) and divides (fig. 19), giving rise to the generative 1904] LAND—EPHEDRA TRIFURCA 7 cell and the tube nucleus (fig. 20). The tube nucleus, although lying in close proximity to the wall of the microspore, does not become flattened as do the prothallial cells. In all preparations examined there seems to be no break in the cytoplasm surrounding the tube nucleus and the second prothallial cell (figs. 20-22), nor is a wall laid down between the tube nucleus and the primary spermatogenous cell. The primary spermatogenous cell—or generative cell—lies in a mass of cytoplasm differentiated from the surrounding cytoplasm by a slightly denser zone (figs. 20, 21). This condition of affairs is doubtless comparable to that of the generative cell of angiosperms, where there is a well-defined Hautschicht, on the outside of which food material is conspicuous. The primary spermatogenous cell dividing (fig. 21) gives rise to the stalk cell and the body cell, both of which lie within the cytoplasmic ring previously mentioned as surrounding the primary spermatogenous cell. The male gameto- phyte at this time (April 1, 1903) contains five nuclei: two prothallial cells, tube nucleus, stalk cell, and body cell. The microspore will be shed ten to fifteen days later. The time periods in the development of the strobilus and male gametophyte are as follows: The strobilus appeared the previous season; on December 20, 1902, the group of cells which gives rise to the staminate flower is apparent, but the “perianth” is not yet visible; January 27, 1903, the “perianth” is well along and the primordia of the sporangia are clearly apparent; February 10, the primary wall cells are dividing; by February 15 many sporangia have mother- cells in the resting condition; one month later (March 15) the reduc- tion division takes place; by April 1 the spores are mature, and about April 15 the pollen is shed. These records are for one season only, and the periods may be expected to vary somewhat in other seasons, the variations being of course dependent on various external factors. It appears that Jaccard never saw the prothallial cells, for he says that at maturity the pollen grain contains three nuclei: “a large central nucleus representing the antheridial cell of Belajeff and of Strasburger; and two vegetative polar nuclei, of which one is the tube nucleus (noyau du tube pollinique, Pollenschlauchkern), and the other homologous with the Stielzelle of the German authors.” So, putting ' this into present terminology, what he saw at the shedding of the pollen 8 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY were tube nucleus, stalk cell, and body cell. It is hardly to be expected that two prothallial cells will be present in one species and wholly absent in another. The number of prothallial cells varies in gymnosperms. Those in which two have been reported are Ginkgo, Strasburger (’92); Larix europaea, Strasburger (’84); Picea vulgaris, Belajeff (93); Pinus Laricio, Coulter and Chamberlain (’o01); Podocar pus coriacea, Coker (02); Ceratozamia longijolia, Juranyi (’82), sometimes two, but more often one. Those in which one has been reported are Ceratozamia, Juranyi (’82); Zamia, Webber (’97); Cycas, Ikeno (98); Ephedra campylopoda, Strasburger (’72). No prothallial cells have been observed in Biota, Cupressus, and Juniperus, Strasburger ('92); Laxus baccata, Juniperus, Belajeft (93); Thuja occidentalis, Land (’o2); Taxodium distichum, Coker (’03); Cupressus (4 spp-); Taxus baccata and 4 vars., Juniperus (2 spp.), C. hamaecy paris (5 spp-), Callitris, Cryptomeria japonica, and Thuja orientalis, Coker (’04); Ephedra helvetica, Jaccard (’94). It is quite probable that in many gymnosperms two prothallial cells will be found eventually, and probably one at least will be found — in some of those forms where up to the present none have been demonstrated. THE OVULATE STROBILUS. The ovulate strobilus was first collected in December. It differs in external appearance from the staminate strobilus in that it is longer and more slender. The ovulate flower is not differentiated as early as is the stami- nate. On March 1, 1903, traces of the outer and inner integuments could be seen; a few days later the integuments presented the appear- ance shown in fig. 23. Much has been said concerning these integu- ments or perianths, as they are variously called. Transverse sections at different levels (figs. 24, 25) show that the outer integument results from a fusion of four leaves, and the inner integument from a fusion of two leaves. The outer integument becomes several cells thick, and in later stages quite hard. The inner integument is never more than two cells thick. A short time before the pollen is shed, the inner integument rapidly elongates and thrusts itself out through the apex of the strobilus. The exposed end is wide. open, and is also 1904] LAND—EPHEDRA TRIFURCA 9 slit a short distance down one side (fig. 44). The pollen enters the open end of the integument, and drops down to the bottom of the pollen chamber (fig. 44), where it lies in contact with the archegonial end of the female gametophyte. So far as known, there is no other gymnosperm in which the pollen grain is placed so near the arche- gonia. The archesporium could not be traced definitely back to a single hypodermal cell, but there are indications that such may be its origin. The earliest stage in which a suggestion of differentiation was observed is shown in fig. 26, March 8, 1903. The lower larger cell in this figure is beyond doubt the megaspore mother-cell. The large cell above will divide again and again, and thus place the megaspore mother-cell deeply within the nucellus. In jig. 27 the divisions of a similar cell are clearly apparent, and the conspicuous megaspore mother-cell is shown. In general not more than one megaspore mother-cell is organized, but instances were noted in which two and very rarely three mother-cells were present. Sometimes, but not always, each of these cells produce megaspores. In general one mother-cell soon gains an advantage over the others and causes their rapid disintegration. The mother-cell grows rapidly, meanwhile encroaching on the surrounding nucellar tissue. The reduction division occurred about March 8, 1903 (fig. 28). The second division quickly follows the first, and the more deeply placed megaspore alone functions. Accord- ing to both Strasburger and Jaccard, three megaspores only are pro- duced in the forms studied by them. In E. érijurca either three or four may occur (figs. 29, 30). In many instances the upper cell does not divide; again, the division may be incomplete, or it may be completed entirely. In no observed instance does the division of the upper cell take place until two lower megaspores are entirely separated; fig. 29 shows such a late division of the upper cell. It seems that the more deeply placed cell because of its relation to the food supply is enabled to divide first. From this it follows that the most favorably placed megaspore—the lower one—is enabled to grow so rapidly as to preclude much further development on the part of the others. The megaspore remains a very short time in the resting con- dition. The number of chromosomes at the reduction division is i fe) BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY twelve, thus confirming the observations made on the microspore series. Lang (’97) has shown that in Stangeria the mother-cell forms a row of three megaspores; Treub (’81) reports the same for Cerato- zamia; and three are reported for Ginkgo. Among the Coniferales four are frequent. In Pinus Laricio I have observed that either three or four are formed indifferently. Strasburger (’79) gives three as the usual number in Taxus, although four frequently occur; in his later work on Taxus baccata (04’) he says that four cells are formed from the megaspore mother-cell. Juel (’oo) finds four in Abies sibirica and Larix sibirica; Shaw (’96) reports four in Sequoia; Lawson (’o4) studying the same species of Sequoia finds three; Coker (’o3) finds three in Taxodium distichum and (’04) four in Thuja orientalis, where they are not arranged in a row, but in nearly ‘regular tetrad form. Strasburger finds three in Ephedra campylopoda, and Jaccard three in E. helvetica; in E. trijurca three or four are formed indifferently, dependent on the rapidity with which the func- tioning megaspore encroaches. This encroachment is probably the reason for the differences reported in the forms mentioned above. THE FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE. The two nuclei resulting from the division of the megaspore seem invariably to take the position with reference to the major axis of the ovule shown in fig. 37, for in no observed instance did the nuclear plate vary from this position. Before the spindle fibers and cell-plate have disappeared, a ring-like vacuole appears, entirely sur- rounding the cell-plate. The rapid increase in size of this vacuole is one of the chief factors concerned in the parietal placing of the free nuclei. These two nuclei divide simultaneously, and the result- ing four take equidistant positions at the periphery of the embryo sac (fig. 32). Successive simultaneous divisions (figs. 33, 35) rapidly follow each other until the maximum number of nuclei is reached, which in the present instance apparently does not exceed 256. It may be of interest to note that at only one time—immediately after the division of the megaspore—is the vacuole free from cytoplasm. Careful staining shows that at all later stages (figs. 32-35) it is filled with a delicate cytoplasmic structure, which gradually increases in density until free nuclear division ceases, which was about April 1, ee eee | eee! Se 2 1904] LAND—EPHEDRA TRIFURCA rT 1903. Free nuclear division, therefore, extends through a period of approximately twenty days. Simultaneously with the appearance of walls, the gametophyte is differentiated into two distinct regions: a micropylar or sex-organ producing region, and an antipodal or nutritive region. The behavior of the lower part of the gametophyte is strongly suggestive of the same region in Gnetum Gnemon, as described by Lotsy (’99). The cells of the antipodal region are only slightly elongated and are fairly regular in outline. As growth proceeds—and it is very rapid—this lower part is again separated into two physiologically distinct regions: storage and haustorial. The storage region comprises the greater part of the gametophyte, and is highly charged with starch and other foods. In the center are a few rows of thin-walled cells containing much more food than the surrounding cells, and extending up to the base of the archegonia. It is down through this thin-walled region that the embryo is thrust by the elongation of the suspensor. The - haustorial part of the gametophyte (fig. 44) is composed of one or two layers of the outermost cells, which are clearly haustorial in function. Those at the tip of the gametophyte are elongated to a point ending in a single cell. The haustorial cells do not have the great elongation shown by the cells in the same region of Zamia. The storage and haustorial region increases in size as long as the embryo continues to grow. The region in the immediate vicinity of the archegonia and for some distance below is very loosely organized, and the cell-walls are extremely delicate. In the central region immediately beneath the archegonia instances were noted in which the walls were late in appear- ing. The cells of this region are very vacuolate, and in consequence have little contents. This feebly organized region is significant from a phylogenetic standpoint. In Tumboa the upper part of the gametophyte is loosely organized, and the numerous cells which function as eggs never get beyond the archegonium initial stage. In Gnetwm Gnemon the same region never gets beyond the free nuclear stage, and these free nuclei function directly as eggs. It is possible that Ephedra, Tumboa, and Gnetum show stages through which the ancestral forms of angio- sperms in all probability passed. 12 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY THE ARCHEGONIUM. About April 1, 1903, the archegonium initials were first observed. They are the pyramidal form common to most gymnosperms. Two is the usual number, one is occasional, and three are rare. The primary neck-cell is quickly cut off after the initial becomes apparent (jig. 36), and almost immediately divides periclinally (fig. 37). Other periclinal walls follow (jig. 4o), sometimes as many as four or five tiers being cut off before anticlinal walls appear; and as many as eight tiers of neck cells have been observed. Each tier divides anti- clinally into four cells; later there may be six or eight in a tier, also the walls which come in later are no longer truly periclinal, thus giving the neck a somewhat irregular appearance (fig. 41). Thirty-two is probably the minimum number of cells, but it may go much higher. Fig. 39 shows a cross section of the neck 40 above the top of the central cell. Of all gymnosperms Ephedra has the longest-necked archegonium. This may be due to the fact that the archegonial end of the gametophyte is freely exposed to the air. Simultaneously with the appearance of the archegonium initials, a change is observable in the nucellus. Traces of disorganization become visible at the tip of the nucellus and gradually proceed down- ward, so that by the time the ventral nucleus is cut off, the cells at the apex of the nucellus have completely disappeared, leaving a pollen-chamber shaped like the frustrum of an inverted cone. The pollen-grains are thus enabled to come in direct contact with the gamet- ophyte and the necks of the archegonia. So far as has been reported, Ephedra is the only gymnosperm having any part of the gametophyte exposed freely to the air, except in the case of Cycas circinalis, where, according to Warming (77), if fertilization does not occur, the gametophyte continues to grow, ultimately bursting out through the micropyle and developing chlorophyll on exposure to light. Strasburger’s figures show a pollen-chamber in E. altissima, but not in E. campylopoda; and Jaccard finds one present in E. helvetica. In Cycadales and Ginkgoales the pollen-chamber, formed by dis- integration of the cells of the nucellar beak, is a conspicuous feature. In Pinus Laricio it is so small as to escape notice in most instances, while in Thuja occidentalis the tip of the nucellus at the time of pol- lination is an expanded stigma-like surface. i MLE i 2 re re rrr a ane eee ee Ee r i roe ee 1904] LAND—EPHEDRA TRIFURCA 13 The nucleus of the central cell lies in close proximity to the neck of the archegonium. As the central cell enlarges, it does not have a conspicuous vacuole in the center, like Pinus and the Cupressineae, but is almost completely filled with cytoplasm except in the immedi- ate vicinity of the nucleus, where there are a few small vacuoles. Later the cytoplasm in the lower part of the archegonium becomes almost homogeneous. A conspicuous kinoplasmic mass lies at a little distance below the nucleus (fig. gz). In the earliest stages it is coarsely granular, and later becomes dense, and is larger and sharper in outline than the similar body which is so conspicuous in some of the pines and in Thuja occidentalis. When two or three archegonia are present, one is usually smaller than the others, as is shown in fig. 38 (a cross-section through the middle region of the archegonia). When one archegonium is present it is very large as compared with the larger of two in a gametophyte. It is questionable if the eggs in the smaller archegonia regularly function. The jacket-cells are at first rectangular, with the longer axis at right angles to the long axis of the central cell (fig. go). Since peri- clinal division does not keep pace with the elongation of the central cell, the jacket-cells become much elongated (fig. 41). Their walls, never at any time thick, become so tenuous that they can scarcely be seen, and evidently offer little resistance to the passage of food into the central cell. There is evidence that at the time of fertiliza- tion the walls separating them from the egg break down altogether. Fig. 41 shows two archegonia at the time of pollination (April 15, 1903). The ventral nucleus was cut off about April 15 in the season of 1903. In material collected during the season of 1904 from the same plants, the ventral nucleus was cut off about April 1. This difference is probably due to the fact that the season of 1904 was unprecedentedly hot and dry. No trace of a wall can be seen between the ventral nucleus and the egg, although in some instances there is a suggestion of cytoplasmic thickening between the two nuclei. The cytoplasm at the upper end of the central cell is still quite vacuolate; in the lower part it has now become very dense, in fact almost homogeneous. 14 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY The ventral nucleus remains in the upper part of the archegonium, and enlarging (fig. 42) becomes very conspicuous. The egg nucleus passes to the center of the archegonium, enlarges, and surrounds itself with a mass of cytoplasm, slightly different from that farther away from the nucleus in that it at first consists of radial strands proceeding out from the nucleus in all directions. A thickening of the cytoplasm next appears all around the nucleus at the place where the radiations meet the general cytoplasm of the archegonium. This thickening is very pronounced in most instances, again it can be seen with difficulty; it very much resembles the first appearance of the membrane around the egg and synergids of angiosperms. SUMMARY. Ephedra trijurca is monosporangiate, but bisporangiate strobili occasionally occur. The beginnings of the staminate flower were clearly apparent in December, and the pollen was shed about the middle of April, the interval being thus a little over four months. The anthers develop in acropetal succession on a strobilus, and are surrounded by a perianth. Microspore mother-cells were observed about the middle of Feb- ruary, and the reduction division occurs about one month later. The gametophyte number of chromosomes is twelve. There are two persistent prothallial cells; the first is cut off by a wall; the second is not cut off by a wall. The primary spermatogenous cell surrounds itself by a membrane (Hautschicht?), and on the division of the primary spermatoge- — nous cell, the stalk cell and body cell continue to be surrounded by this membrane, and are not separated from each other by a wall. The only wall formed in the pollen grain is the one which cuts off the first prothallial cell. The male gametophyte at the time of shedding consists of two prothallial cells, stalk cell, body cell, and tube nucleus. The megasporangium is surrounded by two integuments, the outer of which consists of four fused leaves; the inner of two fused leaves. The megaspore mother-cell is deeply placed within the nucellus : a ee ee ee — as ere 1 : 1904] LAND—EPHEDRA TRIFURCA 15 and gives rise to either three or four megaspores arranged in a row, the most deeply placed megaspore being functional. The nuclei resulting from the division of the megaspore show polarity in that they are definitely oriented with respect to the axis of the megasporangium. A vacuole appears between the nuclei resulting from the division of the megaspore before the spindle has disappeared, and soon becomes filled with delicate cytoplasmic structures which increase in density until walls appear. The free nuclei are parietally placed from the beginning, divide simultaneously, and are presumably 256 in number before walls appear. The female gametophyte is separated into two regions: a loosely formed archegonial region, and a more compact antipodal region, the latter being composed of a haustorial and a storage region. The archegonia vary from one to three, two being the usual num- ber; the neck is composed usually of eight tiers of cells; and there are no archegonial chambers. The apex of the nucellus breaks down, and a conspicuous pollen- chamber is formed. The necks of the archegonia are thus exposed to the air, and the microspores are brought directly into contact with the female gametophyte. No wall is formed between the ventral nucleus and the egg; the former becomes quite large and takes a position a short distance below the neck of the archegonium. The egg takes a position midway in the ieee of the archego- nium, surrounds itself with a membrane comparable to the one which invests the eggs of angiosperms, and in this position awaits fertilization. At the time of fertilization the cytoplasm in the archegonium has become almost homogeneous and: very dense, except in the region immediately below the neck of the archegonium, where it is loosely vacuolate. Thanks are due Professor John M. Coulter and Dr. Charles J. Chamberlain for criticism and advice; also Mr. O. B. Metcalfe, Mesilla Park, N. M., for efficient collecting of material. THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. 16 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY LITERATURE CITED. Beajerr, W., Zur Lehre von dem Pollenschlausche der Gymnospermen. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 9: 196-201. pl. 12. 1893. Brackman, V. H., On the cytological features of fertilization and related phe- nomena in Pinus sylvestris L. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 190: 395-426. pls. 12-14. 1898. CHAMBERLAIN, C. J., Winter characters of certain sporangia. Bot. GAz. 25: 125-128. pl. rr. 1808. Coker, W. C., Notes on the gametophytes and embryo of Podocarpus. Bor. GAZ. 33:89-107. pls. 5-7. 1902. , On the gametophytes and embryo of Taxodium. Bor. Gaz. 36:1-27, 114-140. pls. I-Tr. 1903. , On the spores of certain Coniferae. Science, N.S. 19: 424-425. 1904. Coutrer, J. M., and CHAMBERLAIN, C. J., Morphology of Spermatophytes, Part I (Gymnosperms). New York. 1901. Dickson, A., Observation on some bisexual cones occurring in the spruce fir (Abies excelsa). Trans. Edinburgh Bot. Soc. 6:418-422. 1860. Dixon, H. H., Fertilization in Pinus sylvestris. Annals of Bot. 8: 21-34. pls. 3-5. 1894. FERGUSON, MarcareEt C., The development of the egg and fertilization in Pinus Strobus. Annals of Bot. 15:435-479. pls. 23-25. 1901. GorBEL, K., Organographie der Pflanzen. Jena. 1gor. IkENo, S., Untersuchungen iiber die Entwickelung der Geschlechtorgane und der Vorgang der Befruchtung bei Cycas revoluta. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 32: 557-602. pls. 17-18. 1898. Jaccarp, P., Recherches embryologiques sur l’Ephedra helvetica. Inaugural dissertation. Lausanne. 1894 JueEt, H. O., Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Tetradentheilung. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 35:626-659. pls. 15-16. Ig00 Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Pollen-Entwickelung der Cycadeen » L., g und Coniferen. Bot. Zeit. 40:814-818, 835-844. 1882. Lane, W. H., Studies in the development and morphology of cycadean spor- : angia, I. The microsporangia of Stangeria paradoxa. Annals of Bot. 11: 421- : 438. pl. 22. 1897. Lanp, W. J. G., A morphological study of Thuja. Bor. Gaz. 34: 249-259 pls. 6-8. 1902. LAwson, ANSTRUTHER A., The gametophytes, archegonia, fertilization, and : embryo of Sequoia sempervirens. Annals of Bot. 18: 1-28. pls. I-4. 1904. Lotsy, J. P., Contributions to the life-history of the genus Gnetum. Ann. Jard. E Bot. Buitenzorg II. 1:47-114. pls. 2-11. 1899. Overton, C. E., On the reduction of the chromosomes in the nuclei of plants. Annals of Bot. 7:139-143. 1893. SHAW, W. R., Contribution to the life-history of Sequoia. Bot. Gaz. 21:332- : 339. pl. 24. 1896. STRASBURGER, E., Die Coniferen und Gnetaceen. 1872. % PLATE I BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXXVIII LAND on EPHEDRA. ITANICAL GAZETTE, XXXVIII PLATE IT LAND on EPHEDRA. we. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXXVIII PLATE IV rf] SLID wee , ae DH o

chromosomes in anaphase of Boat mitosis in micro- spore mother-cell. < 1 IG. rr. Later stage see division of microspore mother-cell. X 1500. Fic. 12. Prophase of homotypic division. 1500. Fic. 13. Homotypic division. X 1500. Fic. 14. Tetrads and enlarged tapetal cells. 00. Fic. 15. A microspore shortly before the first Se x 1500 Fic. 16. Microspore after formation of first prothallial Ce xT ten Fic. 17. Division to form second prothallial cell and antheridium initial. Fic. 18. First and second prothallial cells and antheridium initial. * 1500. 18 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yuLY | Fic. e Division of antheridium initial. x 1500. Fic. 20. Two prothallial cells, primary spermatogenous cell, tush tube | nucleus. . 1500 Fic. 2 “oT eleion of primary spermatogenous cell. X 1500 Fic. 22. The two prothallial cells, stalk cell, body cell, ai tube nucleus. X 1500 showing the two integuments and nucellus with gametophyte. * 46 Fic. 24. Section through the strobilus above the nucellus showing the four parts of the outer integument and the two parts of the inner integument which later become tubes. X 46. 1G. 25. Section through the strobilus at level of gametophyte, showing the 46. 1G. 26. Megaspore mother-cell becoming differentiated. x 500. Fic. 27. Megaspore mother-cell, resting stage. 500. Fic. 28. Megaspore mother-cell dividing. X 500. 1G. 29. A row of four megaspores, showing late division of upper daughter 500. 1G. 30. A row of three megaspores; the upper daughter-nucleus has failed to divide. X 500 FIG. 31. First division of the megaspore, showing formation of the central vacuole. X 500 Fic. 32. ious celled stage of female gametophyte. x 5 Fic. 33. Simultaneous division of the nuclei; eight- celled stage. X 500. Fic. 34. Female gametophyte; sixteen cells. x 500 Fic. 35. Female gametophyte; simultaneous dividion to form sixty-four free , nuclei. X 500 Fic. 36. Archegonium with primary neck cell and central cell. x 500. Fic. 37. Archegonium showing the enlarged central cell and two neck cells. X 500. Fic. 38. Transverse section of gametophyte at level of central cell, showing a large, a small, and an abortive archegonium. x 75. Fic. 39. Transverse section through neck of an archegonium at a distance of 40 above the central cell. x 500. Fic. 40. An archegonium slightly older than fig. 37. X 500 Fic. 41. Two archegonia just before the division of the nucleus of the central Fic. 42. Egg nucleus and ventral nucleus lying in the upper part of the archegonium. XX 500 Fic. 43. Egg ‘yt near the center of archegonium and surrounded by a pares of thickened cytoplasm, and ready for fertilization. x 500. Fic. 44. Longitudinal median section through the ovule and integuments, showing reproductive, storage, and haustorial regions of the gametophyte x 48. Fic. 23. Median longitudinal section through a megasporangiate strobilus ea THE WATER-RELATION OF PUCCINIA ASPARAGI. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF A PARASITIC FUNGUS. RALPH E. SMITH. (WITH TWENTY-ONE FIGURES) WHETHER the use of the term ‘“‘ecology” would be consistent and proper throughout the present article, the writer must confess his inability to decide. With plants of independent existence ecology has become a well-defined branch of botanical science, but when complicated with the phenomena of parasitism there must be dis- tinguished two fairly distinct classes of life-relations; those which act upon the parasitic organism directly, and those which affect it, even more decidedly perhaps, in a secondary or indirect manner through their effects upon the host-plant. “‘ Biology,” in the European sense, seems on the whole a more fitting term for the present purpose; since at many points it is difficult to say whether we are considering the relation of the parasite to its environment, or to its host’s environ- ment, or whether its host is its environment. The subject is one of ecology in the broadest sense, yet a distinction must be made between the relations of an organism to natural influences, and its relations to the effects of perhaps the same influences upon another organism upon which it lives as a parasite. The fungus has no soil-relation, of course, but its connection with the host-plant is much more than this, though corresponding to a certain ev‘2nt. Without extended discussion on this point, it will suffice to say that it has seemed to the writer very desirable to establish upon a systematic basis the relations existing between parasitic fungi in general and the various influences exerted upon them in nature, either directly or acting through the medium of the host-plant. While many scattered observations of this kind exist, very little definite work has been done in establishing general principles or in drawing definite conclusions. The observations contained herein are offered as a modest contribu- tion in this direction. It is well established in a general way that the development of 1904] 19 20 BOTANICAL GAZEITE [JULY those fungi that live upon higher plants is favored by wet weather. This is so universally the case that we may almost conclude without further consideration that under normal conditions the water-relation of such parasites is of more importance in their development than any Fic. 1.—Asparagus rust, Puccinia Asparagi DC., in all stages. Milpitas, Calif. July 4, 1903. other condition. Considering this as established, there still remains 1 broad field for research in determining just why this is true, and in general in analyzing the conditions and their results. This has been the writer’s object in the case of the destructive parasite Puc- hed Asparagi DC. ., Which has proved especially favorable for such study. 1904] SMITH—PUCCINIA ASPARAGI ras The asparagus rust is caused by one of the Uredineae of the sub- division Auteupuccinia of Schroeter’s classification; that is, the spermogonia, aecidia, uredospores, and teleutospores all develop upon the same plant. This is shown in fig. spore forms may be readily recognized. Upon the stalks represented at the extreme right and left all four forms are present at once. This disease has long been known in Europe, but attained no prominence in this country until the fall of 1896, since which time it has spread entirely across the continent from Massachu- setts to California, with extremely disastrous results to the asparagus industry. The development of this rust is practically the same as that of others of the same class, the spermogonia and aecidia appearing in spring, followed by the uredo stage in summer, after which the teleuto or black rust appears. The development of the aecidial stage has varied, according to the writer’s observation, with the nature of the spring climate in various sections of the country. In Massachusetts, Where the spring is comparatively late and short, the aecidium of Puccinia Asparagi is not unknown, but is by no means common, and the development of this stage of the rust 18 decidedly limited. Going south to Long Island and New Jersey, the spring form is common, but by no means noticeable; while in California the “ spring rust” is almost as well known to asparagus-growers as_ the later stages, and upon old beds, volunteer growth, or beds too young for cutting, it reaches a development quite unknown in the east, some- times covering the main stalk and branches of the plant completely and causing consider- able damage. Fig. 2 illustrates a case of 1, where the various Fic. 2.—Aecidial de- velopment of the rust as seen in California. Bouldin Island, April 29. 1993- 22 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY this sort. The uredo and teleuto stages follow in order as the season progresses, and while the simultaneous occurrence of these forms is by no means unknown, it is usual, as with most similar rusts, for the uredo stage to develop almost exclusively during the summer, when the plants are most active, followed by a pure teleuto growth upon the dead stalks in fall. The latter stage in all the Eupuccinia group is regarded, therefore, as typically the fall rust, and as a form which develops to any extent only in the latter part of the season as a result of the approach of winter and the death of the host-plant. The relation of the development of the asparagus rust to soil and atmospheric moisture has received some attention in previous publi- cations. Stone and Smith’ found a decided difference in the preva- lence of the disease according to the moisture-retaining properties of the soil, the trouble being worse upon the drier soils. So marked was this difference in Massachusetts that in regions equally exposed to infection, and in fact equally affected with the teleuto stage in the fall, the beds upon heavier, moist soils did not show, and have never shown, any rust previous to September (when the plants mature in that climate); while those upon light dry soils became badly affected with the uredo stage early in the season. The difference not only appeared in different sections of the state in the same season, but also in the whole state in different seasons, the amount of rust in the most affected localities varying as the season was wet or dry, being least in the wet seasons. Although not universally accepted at first, this idea has received much support from subsequent experience over practically the whole country. n most of the large asparagus regions of the eastern states but little difference exists between the soils of the various plantations, the characteristic soil being of a light, sandy, dry nature. In the first violent epidemic of the rust everything was affected in such sec- tions, and differences in soil, as well as in varieties of asparagus and other factors now recognized by all, were overlooked or imperceptible. A tour of these districts at present, however, will convince the most skeptical that of the original beds those few which now remain are almost entirely upon the heavier soils, and of the new beds the most = * Bulletin 61, and Ann. Reports 12, 14, 15, Hatch Exper. Station of Mass. Agric. ollege. eo es te | ete? ee ee ee eee 1904] SMITH—PUCCINIA ASPARAGI 23 thrifty are likewise on the heavier soils, other things being’ even approximately equal. Most of the growers in the large eastern asparagus districts recognize this, and likewise attribute the marked freedom from rust of the past two seasons to the very unusual rain- fall, which fact is in itself strong evidence of the unfavorable effect of abundant soil moisture upon the fungus. This is, of course, contrary to the established principle above mentioned that such parasites are greatly favored by wet seasons. One of the most prominent features in the observations of Stone and Smith was the occurrence in the asparagus beds least affected of the teleuto stage alone coming on at the usual time, but not preceded by any trace of the other stages, so far as could be found by thorough search. These beds were, as just mentioned, upon soils of high water-retaining capacity. Furthermore, as brought out by two extreme seasons, in a very dry summer (1897) the uredo stage appeared upon some beds which never showed it before or since, while in a season of excessive rainfall (1898) some of the places most affected with red rust in other years had only the teleutospores late in the season. These facts were regarded as showing the indirect relation of the rust fungus to water. In the dry seasons and upon the drier soils lack of moisture unquestionably reduced the vitality of the asparagus plants. Consequently, they became more susceptible to disease and suffered in inverse proportion to the amount of soil moisture available. As to the direct relation of the parasite to water, the conclusion must be drawn from the observations of these investigators that the host- plant, depending upon the soil, felt the effects of unusual dryness to a more Serious extent than did the parasite, thus turning the balance more strongly in favor of the latter; while, on the other hand, in a wet season or heavy soil the asparagus derived more benefit from such conditions than did the fungus, and thus the activity of the latter was checked. In other words, the fungus appeared to obtain sufficient moisture for its requirements even in the dry season, and received no proportionate invigoration from an excess of moisture in seasons of abundant rainfall. It is also indicated by these observa- tions that the uredo stage is characteristic of conditions favorable to the fungus, while in the unfavorable seasons or localities no develop- 24° BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY ment of the parasite took place until the plants began their natural loss of vitality at maturity, and under these conditions, when little nourishment was left for an active parasite, only teleutospores appeared. Another side of the relation of Puccinia Asparagi to water was brought out particularly by Sirrine,? who, from his observations in New York, was led to conclude that the relation of the rust to atmos- pheric moisture in the form of dew or fog was the most important factor of this nature in the development of the disease. In the cases described by this writer the progress of the fungus seemed to be accelerated by excessive dew-fall, while with the absence of the latter the rust was less prevalent. In an asparagus bed upon a sloping hillside, for instance, the most rusty portion was at the base, decreas- ing with the rising grade. It has also been frequently observed that asparagus growing in the shade, as where a tree stands in the midst of a bed, remains free from rust when all about it is dead with the disease. This fact shows certainly that the protection thus afforded prevents infection by the fungus, and can be explained only on the ground of the prevention of dew being deposited. Stone and Smith maintained, however, that under ordinary conditions no such differ- ences existed in their section as were observed by Sirrine, since some of the least rusted beds were in regions most subject to heavy dews, and in the case of asparagus growing on a slope, that at the bottom was likely to be least affected, on account of the usually heavier soil there. They held in regard to the influence of dew that, ‘when plants are not resistant enough to stand uredospore infection, it is not difficult to understand how this might take place, but the presence of any amount of dew fails to infect some beds in this. state;” the beds referred to being those in heavier soil. In the writer’s opinion both of these theories as to soil and atmos- pheric moisture were correct, but modified by local conditions. In showed from the first more decided differences in susceptibility to the rust than in any other section. These conditions were studied with great thoroughness by field observation and mechanical analysis of soils all over the state, and the conclusions arrived at have been ? Bulletin 188, N. Y, (Geneva) Exper. Station. ' ' , 1904] SMITH—PUCCINIA ASPARAGI 25 repeatedly verified from year to year. In New York and New Jersey large asparagus districts exist of practically uniform soil and of the nature characterized by the Massachusetts investigators as most favorable to rust. In these districts the disease became exceedingly virulent at first and completely exterminated the original beds, with- out regard to slight differences in soil or other features which are well marked in the new plantations of the same districts, now that the severity of the attack has somewhat subsided. Since dew is neces- sary for infection, it is but natural that where other conditions were equal, the progress of the disease should be temporarily marked by varying amounts of atmospheric moisture, but it must be said that throughout the eastern states dew is so generally abundant, even in the driest seasons, that nothing of permanent value can be credited to this relation. That dew is absolutely necessary to the develop- ment of the fungus seems proved from the effects of tree shade in asparagus fields, and this is the direct water-relation of this parasite. Conditions in California with respect to soil and atmospheric moisture are totally different from those of any eastern state. On account of the long, rainless summers, marked differences in the natural conditions of various parts of the state, and the prevalence of irrigation, any question having to do with moisture problems can be followed with a degree of precision quite impossible under the natural conditions of the east. This refers particularly to the degree of dryness obtainable, both of soil and atmosphere, a degree approxi- mated nowhere else in the country save in the adjoining semi-arid states. The principal asparagus-growing section of California has proved to be especially well-adapted to a study such as that herein described, and a description of this portion of the state must be given at this point. If in the accompanying map (jig. 3) a triangle be imagined between the cities of Sacramento, Stockton, and Antioch, it will include, at a safe estimate, sooo acres of asparagus. This country is at the confluence of the two great rivers of California, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, together with a smaller stream, the Mokelumne, which enters the angle formed by the other two where they join. These rivers do not run directly into one another, but form, in the triangle just mentioned, a delta, composed of an intricate network of 26 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY channels, sloughs, and low islands. By extensive dredging and levee work much of this extremely fertile country has been reclaimed and brought into cultivation. The soil is a mixture of peat and - SACRAMENTO VALLEY SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY Fic. 3.—Map of central California, showing asparagus districts. river sediment in various proportions, from almost pure formations of each to an equal mixture of the two. After reclamation and con- tinued cultivation the level of these islands gradually sinks, and they become saucer-shaped, several feet below the river level outside 1904] SMITH—PUCCINIA ASPARAGI 27 the levee (jig. 5). The soil is naturally full of moisture, but with levees, drainage, and rainless summers it may become extremely dry unless irrigated. Fires frequently occur in the peaty formation and cause serious damage. Irrigation is a simple matter in most cases, requiring only the placing of gates in the levee to admit and shut off the water. While this country would at first seem to be one of excessive atmos- pheric moisture, the reverse is true in summer. Much of the reclaimed land becomes extremely dry, but most important is the position of this region directly at the opening of the great interior valley of California into San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean (see fig. 4). Through this opening, formed by the Golden Gate at San Francisco and the Carquinez Straits at Port Costa, there blows in summer the strong, steady, so-called trade wind, coming in from the west, passing up through the straits, and then dividing north and south in response to the currents caused by the extreme summer heat of the great interior valley. In this asparagus country there occurs almost every day in summer a strong, dry, west wind which rises early in the morning and quickly dries what little dew may have been formed, except in sheltered spots. This wind, therefore, is an important and perhaps the chief factor in the amount of dew forma- tion. Across the lower left corner of the triangle, where the wind is most constant, there is practically no dew in summer. Approach- ing the other two angles there is more, though much less than any eastern section. At various points on the margin of San Francisco Bay are other asparagus districts, most important of which is that near Milpitas, comprising some 600 acres. This is situated, as may be seen, in a Sort of pocket at the lower end of the bay, surrounded by high hills on both sides (fig. 6). The wind current coming in at the Golden Gate blows across the bay quite constantly and has a tendency to turn south toward Milpitas and the Santa Clara Valley below, but at Niles it is diverted into the interior valley through the Niles Cafion and Livermore Pass, which open through the hills at this point. Without lengthening this already extended description, it need only be said that this produces a condition at Milpitas much similar to that in the East as regards dew. Atmospheric moisture from the 28 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY Fic. 4.—Relief map of California, showing the great interior valley and position f asparagus districts; Niles-Livermore Pass also indicated. Adapted from U. Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1902 © 1904] SMITH—PUCCINIA ASPARAGI 29 Fic. 5.—Typical island country, showing low level ground surrounded by levee. Fic. 6.—Typical asparagus field at Milpitas; high hills in distance. 30 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY nearby bay and ocean is abundant; heavy dews are frequent in summer and remain until late in the forenoon. The soil here is also more like the typical eastern asparagus soils, being of a light sandy nature, drying excessively in summer unless irrigated, which can be easily accomplished from artesian wells. In both these districts the aecidial stage of the asparagus rust is extremely abundant in spring, fol- lowing the winter rains, the condition shown in jig. 2 being of ordinary occurrence in large areas. As the season progresses, this is followed at Milpitas with the usual development of the rust about as seen in the east; the aecidia are followed by an epidemic of uredo on the main cut- ting beds, which kills the tops quite generally and turns finally into black Tust as a final stage. In _,, the river country the prog- Fic. 7.—Aecidi- ‘ : al patch checked TeSS Of the disease is not by lack of atmos- so regular. As the season theric moisture. changes from moist spring to dry summer, the effect shown in fig. 7 becomes evident. This is an aecid- ial patch upon a young stalk which started in the usual manner, but as the air became drier and dews less abundant its develop- ment was checked. Soil moisture was abundant, but it is seen from this not only that the fungus requires atmospheric moist- ure for its Spore-germination, but that a o2 Certain degree is also needed for the divi on cee development of Spores from the aecidial ing spores; plant green and atches. At i ne . vigorous. Bouldin Island, pé this stage the mycelium is July 98, i607. 1904] SMITH—PUCCINIA ASPARAGI 31 vigorous and ready for development, as may be proved by placing such a stalk ina moist chamber, when the “cluster-cups” break out in great luxuriance. This is another direct water-relation of the rust, there- fore, being apparently a provision for developing aecidiospores only when conditions are favorable for germination. In the dry, windy districts such aecidial spots remain in this condition far into the Fic. 9.—Uredo infection on green, vigorous stalks, checked and changed to teleuto by lack of atmospheric moisture. Bouldin Island, July 28, 1903. summer, Finally, they pass into the state shown in fig. 8, the original aecidial areas drying out, leaving a feeble development of mixed uredospores and teleutospores about the edges. Through the period of midsummer, from June to September, but little trace of rust can be found in most of this country. Care- ful search, however, reveals here and there on volunteer growth in sheltered nooks the condition shown in jig. 9. These are green 32 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yuLy vigorous stalks, each with a single infection contracted earlier in the season, which now appears as an almost pure teleutospore formation directly on the green stalks. The value of these spores as reproduc- tive bodies is doubtful, as they will not germinate at any time during the summer. Apparently this is rather the form assumed by the fungus under unfavorable conditions, when infection could not take place, producing only the resting, teleuto stage. If such a stalk be placed in a moist chamber, there immediately breaks out at the outer edge of the infected area a circle of uredosori, with spores capable of immediate germination. The same occurs in nature later in the season as the dew becomes more abundant. Here again © uredo development, proving that the fungus not only requires mois- ~ ture for the germination of its spores and for infection, but has the same requirement for the production of spore forms capable of imme- diate germination. Experiments by the writer show that both the aecidiospores and uredospores of this fungus are comparatively short-lived, but that the teleutospores are capable of lying dormant for long periods and have a strong relation to the effect of frost in — their germination. This also shows the teleuto stage as not neces- — sarily a fall rust, but as occurring regularly under other conditions extremely unfavorable to the further development of the fungus. It is to be understood that these stages described are not indi- vidual cases, but the regular development of the asparagus rust in such a district as this. In September moisture becomes a little — more abundant, varying locally with the amount of irrigation and other conditions, ‘and now begins the regular uredo epidemic. Thi main beds in the open were affected. It is scarcely necessary to say that such places will be avoided by growers in the future. In the latter part of September the rust gradually works out into — the open fields. The trade wind is now subsiding, but blows fitfully for days at a time. The disease still seeks shelter from this drying influence and appears first on the east side of north and south rows ww ww SMITH—PUCCINIA ASPARAGI 1904] 1o.—Corner of asparagus field sheltered from wind by willows and levee. Fic. Bouldin Island. ds and iel house, surrounded by asparagus ! — Fic. 1t1.—Bouldin Island schoo harboring rust on east side. 34 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY or in the sheltered places among the thick tops. Here it starts in scattered spots, each very distinct, and if uninterrupted continues spreading until late November, passing into the teleuto stage in the ordinary manner. The feature shown in figs. 14 and 15 is, however, one of the most remarkable. In this particular instance the rust started in the uredo form in the scattering manner just described. Fig. 14 is in a mass of tops sheltered by taller growth toward the west, Fic. 12.—Old slough bed at Sacramento, with as of rust. August 14, 1903. paragus to left; starting point f and jig. 15 is the east end of an east-and-west row. Just as this was well started (the condition all over the district was mostl the wind revived in a very dry form and blew steadily for a number: of days, with quite cold nights. Immediately the uredo rust on the green stalks turned to teleuto, the rust stopped spreading, and the} fields looked exactly as though a fire-brand had been thrust into the , green tops here and there, producing a black, dead spot in the green, healthy growth. The to up through, and the fiel dead, teleuto-covered patches, surrounded by a y the same)\, nd in contact with ps being still growing, new growth came’! ds were spotted with these perfectly black, \ \ | eS ee 1904] SMITH—PUCCINIA ASPARAGI 35 green healthy growth. Fig. 16 shows a branch from the edge of the dead spot with pure teleuto development on the green thrifty branches. This condition lasted so long as the wind continued, then gradually reverted to uredo infection, and the tops all became affected. This shows more strikingly than anything else the effect of real atmos- Fic. 13.—Asparagus at Sacramento, sheltered on west by trees; same effect as in figs. IT, 12, 13. pheric dryness upon Puccinia Asparagi at this stage of its develop- ment, and the function of the teleuto form. At Milpitas, where dew was quite abundant, though probably scarcely as much so as in the east, and no summer rains occurred, no such effects could be seen. Early in September everything was badly rusted. Even here, however, one feature in connection with the dew-relation is marked. This is the progress of the rust from top to bottom of the stalks, seen in all cases of the disease in this State. Fig. 17 shows the condition well along in the season, the 36 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY 4.—Dead, rusty spot in green asparagus tops where fungus was checked by sind and changed to teleuto form. Bouldin Island, October 20, 1903. Fic. 15.—Same as fig. 14. ae || a 1904] SMITH—PUCCINIA ASPARAGI 37 top shading and protecting the lower portion. Fig. 18 shows the bed still later, a condition which in beds well cultivated often lasts until November. The writer has considered that this feature may be due to the absence of rains to drive the spores more rapidly down Fic. 16.—Teleutosori on green branches at margin of spots as in figs. 14 and 15. through the tops, as he has never observed it in the east. By the means shown in fig. rg the rust can be absolutely prevented in Cali- fornia, although in Milpitas the covering must be thicker than on the islands, where one thickness of light cheese-cloth is sufficient. 38 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY It may also be said here that from the writer’s observations he has concluded that heavy rainfall has little to do in any section of the country with producing infection by the rust, since there is evi- dence to show that by this means the spores are actually washed from the smooth surface of the plant to a great degree, rather than being afforded opportunity for germination and infection. A copious, misty dew, remaining until late in the forenoon on the thick asparagus = Sth SE Fic. 17.—Effect of rust at Milpitas, working from above downwards. Sep- tember 23, 1903. tops, appears to be the most important factor in producing infection. Experiments with uredospores, placed out of doors on dry glass slides night after night in various situations, support this view, as well as extended field observations. During rain the spores are washed from the slides and carried away. This would not occur so entirely upon the plant, but is true to a very large extent. During nights of very light dew no germination occurred. With slight dew, drying away early in the day, germination started, but the germ- tubes dried up before they would have had time for infection. Most 1904] SMITH—PUCCINIA ASPARAGI 39 Fic. 18.—Condition late in the season of many California fields; green strip at bottom. November 1, 1903. en Pa ee, wing up. Bouldin Island, July 14, Fic. 19.—Tent over asparagus; tops just gro 40 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY of these dews seem to form just before sunrise in California, so that they exist only a short time. On misty nights, with heavy dew, a most vigorous germination takes place, easily sufficient to produce infection. It has even seemed to the writer that germination in this way is more vigorous than in drops of distilled or tap water placed on the slide, though no exact comparisons have been made. Something remains to be said as to the influence of soil moisture upon the rust in California. In the island district the wind effects are so absolute that all other features are of secondary importance. Soil moisture increases the amount of dew, and since almost all this country has abundant natural subirrigation, it is desirable to keep the surface as dry as possible. In the case of one plantation, particu- larly, situated in the strongest wind belt and where the nights were particularly dry, no rust whatever has developed, though in a center of infection, although the soil became so dry through neglect that cracks opened six inches wide and four feet in depth, and the aspara- gus roots were almost killed. It should be fully understood, how- ever, that in this case there was absolutely no moisture in the air to germinate spores. A sheet of tissue paper lying on the ground would be as dry and crisp at sunrise as at noon. Such conditions are never approximated in the east. At Milpitas, with considerable dew on all the beds, differences in soil moisture are more apparent. Some of the beds here are left unirrigated and uncultivated in summer and become extremely dry. In these the rust makes much more rapid headway than in the irrigated beds, and the tops are killed to the ground, while the others still have the green bottom (jigs. 17, 18) late in the season. It is a general principle, in fact, that in this district, where conditions resemble those of the east, except for the absence of summer rain, the driest beds rust first and most completely, while those kept wet throughout the summer are the latest and least affected. This could not be shown more plainly than by the field in which fig. 20 was taken. In this case a stream of water was being run past the end of a very dry asparagus field for irrigating lower down. When the whole field back to the right was dead with rust, the end plants in each row, next the water, were green and vigorous, as shown in the illustration. It is difficult to imagine how more absolute proof 1904] SMITH—PUCCINIA ASPARAGI 4I could be found than this. Fig. 21 is along the same line, showing a low corner of a hundred-acre asparagus fleld, which portion remained green much after the tops in the drier portion of the field were dead. The water from irrigation accumulated here in the rusty season, with the effect described and illustrated. o.—Effect of Riga in region of dry soil and abundant dew. Near San jae Calif. , August 20, The water-relation of Puccinia Asparagi may be thus summarized: DIRECT RELATION. By direct relation is meant the effect of moisture (necessarily atmospheric, except possibly in connection with the germination of the teleutospores, which has not been touched upon) acting directly upon the spores or mycelium of the rust. This relation has proved to be of foremost importance when absolute conditions prevail. It has been attempted to show: That dew is of absolute necessity in infection by the rust and of More importance than rain. 42 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY That without moisture of this sort no infection can take place, regardless of all other conditions. That the effects of atmospheric dryness are not limited to the spore-germination, but produce the following effects upon spore production in cases of previous infection: Aecidial dev elopment is checked, no “cluster cups” appear, and the mycelium remains dor- mant for some time; if moisture conditions occur, spores are at once Fic. 21.—Showing same as fig. 20. Milpitas, August 20, 1903. ment is similarly checked and changes to a production of teleuto- spores in the sori already formed, without regard to season or condi-/ tion of the host; with moisture uredospore formation begins again. produced, otherwise the mycelium finally dies out. Uredo develop- | at once. That the teleuto stage is a provision for surviving any condition. unfavorable to the fungus, whether of food supply, moisture, tem- perature, or resistance by the host, without regard to season. That extremes of atmospheric moisture conditions are insufficient in most sections of the country to bring out or make effective this - direct relation. 1904] SMITH—PUCCINIA ASPARAGI 43 INDIRECT RELATION. By this is meant the effect of moisture acting upon the parasite through its effect upon the host, and limited therefore to soil moisture. It has been attempted to show in this respect: That under any but very unusual conditions of atmospheric moisture the indirect relation is of greatest importance. That an abundance of soil moisture during the summer has a marked effect in retarding the development of this fungus by giving the host greater vitality and resistance. That this is shown by the effects of the varying summer rainfall in different seasons, by the differences in the water-retaining capacity of different soils, and by the effects of irrigation. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, Berkeley. Calif. DELTA AND DESERT VEGETATION. DANIEL TREMBLY MACDOUGAL. (WITH SEVEN FIGURES) THE systematized discussion of the deserts of North America recently attempted by Mr. Coville and the author made it obvious that the southern extension of the Nevadan-Sonoran desert in Sonora and peninsular California around the head of the Gulf was practically a terra incognita to the naturalist. The waters of the Gulf have been surveyed and the more promi- nent features of the shore lines traced, but since this work was done thirty years ago, the charts, originally made from data collected by “Commander” George Dewey in 1873-75, are sadly in need of revision, especially in the region contiguous to the mouth of the Rio Colorado. The positions of the prominent hills and mountains visible from the sea have been plotted as range marks for the navi-_ gator, but the maps bearing the results are difficult of interpretation by the explorer on land. A fair share of attention has been paid to the animal life of the river and Gulf, but the extensive areas around the mouth of the river and the head of the Gulf have so far practically escaped investi- gation. These regions offer difficult problems of transportation and subsistence to the explorer. The southern part of the delta includes vast areas of muddy salt flats cut by a labyrinth of shallow pools and channels, and joining directly the desert slopes and plains of Baja California and Sonora. The water in the lower course of the river is brackish for a distance of 30*™ from the sea, while other sources of water are uncertain and widely separated, the tropical sun forming an additional factor to test the endurance of the unaccustomed traveler. In running the boundary on the long northwestward slant of the Arizona-Sonoran line after the Gadsden Purchase Treaty, the commission found it necessary to haul water nearly 200%™ to meet the needs of its camps. The trail which runs near the bound- t COVILLE, F. V. and MacDoveat, D. T., The Desert Botanical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution. November, 1903. Washington, D. C 44 [JULY 1904] MAC DOUGAL—DELTA AND DESERT VEGETATION 45 ary across a typical portion of the desert mesa was the route followed by Mexican prospectors rushing to the Californian gold fields in 1849, and in the waterless stretch of 1 50%" between Quitovaquito and Tinajas Altas may be counted over four hundred small circles and crosses of loose stones by the side of the trail, grim evidences of failures to negotiate this formidable “Jornada del Muerto.” Attempts to penetrate the desert directly from the coast. have met with equally serious difficulties. The shore is fringed with mud flats many kilometers in width, and numerous sand bars bare at low water; the tides rise 4-10™ and produce currents that run 4-8'™ per hour, forming waves or bores that sweep up the river, at times endan- gering all craft not in protected anchorages. But few sheltered anchor- ages are to be found in the upper Gulf, and nearly all of these are far from a supply of fresh water. The few expeditions to this region in Which attention was paid to the flora are easily recounted. Colonel Andrew B. Gray traversed the desert from the inter- national boundary to Adair Bay in 1854, discovering the singular parasitic Ammobroma Sonorae Torr.,? which fastens to the roots of Franseria and Dalea at depths of 60-120°™ in the sand, and sends its fleshy stems to the surface, on which the flowers appear to rest. Dr. E. Palmer traveled southward from Yuma to Lerdo near the head of tidewater in 1889, and collected about two dozen species of plants,3 but no general account of the expedition is available. Descriptions of a number of the plants are to be found’in the accounts of the boundary survey,+ in which but little attention, however, appears to have been paid to the flora of the delta. Les: Brandegees made a long journey overland, in the same year in which he traversed Baja California, for a distance of several hundred miles northward to San Quintin in about the same lati- tude as the southernmost point reached by my own expedition. How- ever, he did not reach the country east of the main divide north of San Luis Bay, 300*™ south of the mouth of the river. > Torrey, J., Ammobroma, a new genus of plants. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y. 8: June 1864, 3 Ross, J. N., Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb. 1:27. 1890. + Report on U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, Emory 2:21. 1859. SBR ANDEGEE, T. S., A collection of plants from Baja California, 1889. Proc. Calif. Acad. 2 fie eee 1889. 46 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY Mr. Edmund Heller made some explorations and zoological collec- tions for the Field Columbian Museum, February-December 1902, in which the western slopes of the Santa Catalina, San Pedro Martir, or Calamuie Mountains and of the Hanson Laguna Mountains were traversed. Mr. Heller crossed the main divide in about latitude 31° 30’, south of the main elevation of Calamahuie, to Parral, which lies about 600™ above sea level. One degree to the northward the main range was again crossed at San Matias Pass and his expedition reached the bay of San Felipe. The account of this work contains notes on the occurrence of many important plants, including the giant cactus and the Washington palm.° The author organized an expedition to this region early in the present year, under the joint auspices of the Desert Botanical Lab- oratory of the Carnegie Institution, and of the New York Botanical Garden. In accordance with plans made a year previously, Mr. G. Sykes, civil engineer, of Flagstaff, Arizona, proceeded to Yuma in November 1903, where the construction of a small sloop, 9™ in length with 2.4" beam, was begun and which was brought to com- pletion late in January 1904. This boat was of a flat-bottomed design suitable for floating down the muddy shallows of the river, and was furnished with a centerboard for use in sailing the rougher waters of the Gulf, being rigged with a mainsail and jib. : In addition to the camp equipment, which included means for storing and carrying. fresh water, and a special form of portable canteen, provisions, compasses, binoculars, cameras, aneroids, ther- mometers, hygrometers, and other material to a total weight of about 500 was taken aboard. The party included Prof. R. H. Forbes, Director of the Agricultural Experiment Stations of Arizona, and an assistant, in addition to Mr. Sykes and the author. A general narrative in which the detailed movements of the expedition are given has already been published’ and need not receive further atten- tion in this article. ; 6 Exuior, D. G., A list of mammals collected by Edmund Heller in the San Pedro Martir and Hanson Laguna Mountains and the accompanying coast regions of Lower _ California. Field Columbian Museum, Publ. 79. Zoological Series 3: no. 12. 1903. 7 MacDoveat, D. T., Botanical explorations in the southwest. Jour. N. Y. Bot. Garden 5:89. 1904. 1904] MAC DOUGAL—DELTA AND DESERT VEGETATION 47 THE DELTA. The expedition cast loose from the shore at Yuma at noon on January 28, and within a short distance below the sand bluffs on either hand curved away from the stream, and we were fairly in the great delta which extends from this point to the Gulf of California, a distance of about 140*™; while the coastal plains on the western side of the Gulf embrace mud flats that constitute an actual extension of the delta 5o'™ further. This delta probably offers more varied and striking features of natural history than any other watercourse in North America. The river which has formed it rises in the perpetual snows of Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado, and runs 2500'™, chiefly through arid regions, before it empties into the upper end of the sub- tropical Gulf, into which it carries sixty million tons of sediment yearly, building up the delta and extending it seaward at a rate visible to common observation within a single lifetime.’ Numerous wit- nesses among the Cocopa Indians, Mexicans, and river men are agreed that the various distinct associations of plants characterized by salt grass, willow, and poplar, have advanced about 12-14*™ to the southward during the last fifty years. The portion of the delta near the present course of the river con- sists of an alluvial plain, not more than 4™ above the low-water mark, subject to constant bank erosion, shifting, and remaking of the soil, cut in all directions by old channels existing as bayous and sloughs, and- flooded at high water in May, June, and July. Almost pure formations of willow and poplar (Populus mexicana) cover many square kilometers and furnish food for thousands of beavers that burrow in the banks. The poplar is thickly infested with a mistletoe (Phoradendron), and fungal parasites are abundant. arge areas are occupied by the arrow-weed (Pluchea sericea), and Mesquite (Prosopis velutinea), and the screw-bean or “tornilla” 2 af pubescens). Two or three species of Atriplex are also to be found in sections in which the action of the water prevents the estab- lishment of the woody perennials of greater size. In the upper part of the delta a cane (Phragmites) fringes the channel, and its closely interwoven roots act materially in preventing erosion of the banks. : Forzgs, R. H., The Colorado river of the west. Univ. of Ariz. Monthly 6: 112. 1904, 48 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY In the lower part of the delta, where the river is affected by the spring tides, the cane is partly replaced by a cat-tail “‘tule” (Typha angusti- jolia), which not only lines the shores for many miles, but extends back somé distance on areas free from trees, forming dense masses Fic. 1.—Scene on right bank of Rio Colorado, Baja California, a few meters from the margin of the stream, 10k" below Yuma; the conchoidal fractures of the clayey mud are 30-35" in depth; Salix and Populus in background; Station 1 of hygrometric observations. that afford shelter for a number of animals, including a peculiar sub- species of a small mountain lion. Large areas throughout the delta which were not covered by trees bore wild hemp (Cassia?) in great abundance. The slender stems reach a height of 3-4™, branch profusely above, and bear numerous pods. At the time of our visit, the plants which were annuals were 1904] MAC DOUGAL—DELTA AND DESERT VEGETATION 49 dead and dry, still retaining the seed pods, and progress through one of these plantations was accompanied by a shower of seeds which results from any disturbance of the plant. The clearings also fur- nished suitable conditions for a plant with a deeply buried bulb, prob- ably a Calochortus, which is eaten by the Cocopa Indians under the name of ‘‘chech,” and also forms an important article of food of the sand-hill crane, and of the wild hogs that infest the tules. The forests of willow and poplar begin to lose density at a dis- tance of 50-60%" from the Gulf, the willows extending farthest toward salt water, a few being seen near the mouth of the Hardy branch of the Colorado. Beyond these are the mud plains, the portions not actually subject to erosion being thickly covered with salt grass (Distichlis spicata) and Cressa truxillensis, and bearing small clumps and isolated specimens of salt bush (Atriplex), mesquite, and screw bean. Such areas are inundated at the highest tides; consequently . the soil solutions are heavily charged with salts, and whitish alkaline crusts appear during the winter dry season. The floods of spring and early summer from the rains and melting snows of the headwaters region of the river raise the level of the water until it flushes the innumerable old channels and covers the greater part of the delta. Most of the herbaceous species make their annual growth after the waters have subsided in July. Other species, which are less affected by the lower temperatures and low relative humidity of the winter season, are set in action by the favorable con- ditions of March and April, and come into bloom at this time, thus making two distinct seasonal groups of annuals. The main stream of the river cuts directly into the gravel plain or mesa of Sonora at four points on the eastern margin of the delta, and here are to be seen the striking contrasts of the isolated xero- philous plants of the dry gravelly soil of the desert within a few meters of the pure dense formations of the muddy soil of the alluvial plain of the delta (fig. 2). In places the creosote bush (Covillea) descends the gentler slopes to the margin of the moister soil near the margin of the channel, accomplishing a growth which carries it to a height of over 7™, the maximum size for the species. The above description applies most directly to the eastern and ‘Southern portions of the delta, which may be observed in the descent Mo. Bot. Garden 1904. 5° BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY of the river, but it by no means exhausts the interesting features of the region. If the low-lying contiguous areas to the westward capable of being flooded are included, the delta may be said to have an area approximately equal to the state of Connecticut. One arm extends over 200%" to the northwestward and includes the Salton Basin, with its exposed bottom more than 130™ below the level of the sea. Although the summer floods of extreme height find their Fic. 2.—View of Rio Colorado at a point where it cuts into the desert mesa of Sonora a few kilometers south of international boundary; looking downstream; Populus and Salix on right bank; dense forest of Populus in background on left bank; portion of mesa in foreground on left bank with Covillea, Stillingia, and Ephedra; Station 3- way by old channels into this basin, creating a temporary lake of great extent, yet the district affected must be classed as desert, since the highly saline character of the soil and prevailing low humidity and precipitation support representative types of vegetation (fig. 4).° Other basins ordinarily dry, with saline deposits, are to be found in various parts of the depressed area, which has the characteristics of a sea-floor of comparatively recent date. 9 See also COVILLE and MacDovucat, The Desert Botanical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution (November 1903), pp. 21-22. pls 1904] MAC DOUGAL—DELTA AND DESERT VEGETATION 51 Many parts of the delta and of the adjoining districts in the deserts of Sonora and Baja California show traces of recent earthquakes and of volcanic action, a tract 2 by 10°" being now occupied by a number of active mud volcanoes. 3.—View to southward on floodplain of Rio Colorado below mouth of Hardy’s t of Cressa truxillensis and Distichlis spicata; Fic . branch; R: ange Hill in distance; carpet Prosopis scattered over plain, which also shows great quantities of driftwood. The Cocopa Mountains rise directly from the delta to a height of over 1300™, and their granite slopes support an island of desert vegetation of the types induced by low humidity and precipitation. DESERTS. The arid region east of the delta, extending southw ard from the Gila River, consists principally of long gentle slopes or sandy gravelly plains rising gradually toward the interior, and broken here and there 52 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY by a succession of low mountain ranges, such as the Agua Dulce, Pinacate, and Santa Clara Mountains. The soil is particularly sub- ject to the action of the wind, but the irregular consistency of the sand allows the formation of moving dunes or ‘‘sables” in a few localities only near the delta. Mounds of a few meters in height, held together by the roots of Ephedra, Covillea, and other shrubs, are numerous, however, such mounds being due either to the erosion of the soil around them, or to its accumulation and retention by the Fic. 4.—View in Salton Basin, California; the surface of the soil is thickly incrusted with Saline matter in the open spaces; the vegetation consists chiefly of Spirostachys and Atriplex. clumps of plants. In addition to the few herbaceous annuals which arise during the season favorable for growth, the principal types are perennials with spinose branches and reduced deciduous leaves; although a few species with hardy leaves are included. Ephedra, . Gaertneria albicaulis, Oenothera claviformis, Lupinus mexicana; Abronia villosa, Astragalus Vaseyi, Plantago scariosa, Langloisia Schottii, Stillingia annua, Asclepias subulata, and Fouquieria splen- dens are typical examples; while a few forms with deeply lying bulbs are also found here, including Hesperocallis montana (fig. 5). 1904] MAC DOUGAL—DELTA AND DESERT VEGETATION 53 The character of the portion of the Colorado desert lying within the state of California is the subject of a recent paper by S. B. Parish,?° and need not be discussed further here. He says, concerning the delta: “the region bordering the Colorado River is too little known to permit exact statements regarding it.” The arid region of Baja California to the eastward of the main divide covers an area of much greater topographical diversity, but Fic. 5.—View to southeastward from Lerdo, Sonora; the gravel mesa bears scat- tering bushes of Covillea and Ephedra. With less rainfall probably than the Sonoran slopes across the Gulf, from which its flora is widely different in general composition. My examination of this part of the country was made from San Felipe Bay, which lies about 60%" south of the mouth of the Rio Colorado in latitude 31° N. The western shore of the Gulf between this point and the river is made up of a continuation of the mud-flats of the delta, and has great expanses covered with Cressa and salt grass. © ParisH, S. B., A sketch of the flora of Southern California. Bor. Gaz. 36:203- 222, 259-279. 1903. 54 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY The central elevation consists of the mountain ridge which culminates in the peak of Calamahuie at an elevation estimated at about 3300™. To the eastward it breaks into lofty precipices and steep slopes which have not been surmounted between 30° 30° and 32° 30’ N., no passes having been found in this wild stretch of 100%". Between the main range and the coast lie numerous minor ranges disposed in laby- rinthine complexity, which also have not been explored. So faras available information may be relied upon, no botanist had previously visited this region, and some care was taken to secure living and preserved specimens of the native plants whenever at all possible. The lower coastal slopes were found to be sandy and gravelly, the depressions and near the shore furnishing suitable conditions for Lycium Torreyi and Parosela spinosa, which latter becomes a tree 7™ in height. Asclepias subulata was abundant in clumps, and Ditaxis serrata grew on level areas. Other species, characteristic of the lower levels, were bervillea tonella, Croton californicum, Lupinus mexicanus, and the curious Frankenia Palmeri. The low alkaline pockets reached by the spring tides furnished conditions suitable for Spirostachys occidentalis. Covillea, with its enormous capacity of adjustment, extended from near the shore across the entire slope. and up the granite mountains through a range of over 600™ in eleva- tion. The various portions of the slope between the sea and the first range of mountains supported ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens), which attained its maximum height of 10", palo verde (Parkinsonia microphylla), palo fierro (Olneya tesota), Bursera, and Gaertneria ilici- jolia. The streamways leading down from the mountains were inhab- ited by a number of Eriogonums and euphorbiaceous herbs. A few Opuntias of the cylindrical arboreous type, an Echinocactus, a Mam- millaria, and a small Cereus were also seen. Pilocereus Schottii, which is found on the mainland far southward, here reaches the greatest density yet observed, forming dense forests, acres in extent. Perhaps the most notable feature from a geographical point of view was shown by the presence of a great tree cactus, having the appear- ance of Cereus pecten-aboriginis. Cereus Pringlei is known to be abundant under the common name of “cardon” farther south, but this plant appears to agree with the former, and makes a splendid picture in the arid landscape, finding here its extreme northern limit of known occurrence. oe pea T904] MAC DOUGAL—DELTA AND DESERT VEGETATION 55 The Jarge number of species with laticiferous juices was especially noticeable, but with the exception of the dozen Cacti no plants with organs for the storage of water were seen, a fact possibly connected with the extremely low precipitation and low water content of the soil at all times. Seeds of a Cenchrus were very abundant and were Fic. 6.—Desert of Baja California, looking westward from beach north of San Felipe Bay; Opuntia, Covillea, and Fouquiera. used by burrowing rodents as a means of fortification of the entrances to their burrows, in the same manner that the joints of the “‘cholla”’ are employed elsewhere. A mountain to the southwestward of San Felipe Bay was climbed and a summit reached at an elevation of over 1000". The granite slopes supported a sparse vegetation of such types as Mammillania, Ephedra, Bursera microphylla, Asclepias albicans, Eriogonum infla- 56 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY tum, Yucca, Agave, and Opuntia. So far as might be estimated by the instruments at hand, the mountain is probably the one on the hydrographic map of 1873-75 designated as a ‘‘sharp white peak 4288',”” which had not previously been ascended, and still bears no name. ; METEOROLOGICAL FEATURES. Data bearing on the climatic conditions in the delta and of the contiguous deserts are very meager. Records have been kept at Yuma for a long term of years, and some data obtained at Torres, Sonora, quoted in the recent contribution by Mr. Coville and the author,’* constitute the only information available. The following table taken from the records of the U. S. Weather Bureau’? gives the conditions at the head of the delta. The transcript of the record was furnished by Hon. Willis L. Moore Chief U. S. Weather Bureau. 4| 3 ali 1903 16142) 4191) 3)2 iB) si 8i si sis Simi Mia t Sl ate eLe ZlalelsZ Maxim perature. 6.0%... 76 | 82 | go | 97 |106 |112 [112 [113 |112 | 96 | 87 | 80 . Minimum temperature. .....5.. 33 | 29 | 38 | 47 | 50 | 60 | 69 | 72 | 50 | 51 | 42 | 34 o* Precipitation... . eis Be ee: SOF fied Pics tos 2.98 Average precipitation (1876-90).|}.39 |.45 |.18 |.12 |.06 13 |.40 |.13 |.23 |.35 |.64 '|3 . MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY. 8 A.M. Year Jan. | Feb. —_ April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. Dee. Ge ear | ee] ees es | 0 8 P.M. aati a) te ee eee It is to be seen that the delta and the contiguous districts have an annual precipitation of less than 7°™, and that less than 2°™ was ** Desert Botanical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, p. 23. November 1903- "2 GREELY and GLasrorp, Report on the climate of Arizona. Ex. Doc. No. 287: Washington. 1891. Climate and Crop service, U. S. Weather Bureau. Report for zona Section for 1903. 1904] MAC DOUGAL—DELTA AND DESERT VEGETATION 57 received during the year 1903, the relative humidity at all times being very low also. The rainfall is distributed throughout the year, so that only a small proportion of the total is received within any month; furthermore, this distribution is irregular in any series of seasons, so that the native plants have but little opportunity of acquiring a Fic. 7.—Desert of Baja California; view from San Felipe Bay; peak over rooom high, ascended February 14, 1904, in distance; the sloping plain which rises gradually to the foot of the mountain bears Fouquieria, Ephedra, Covillea, Bursera, Parosela, Parkinsonia, and Cereus. rhythm of activity in response to the annual supply of moisture, a fact not without its influence on the general anatomical character of the plants, as will be pointed out below. In no part of the country to the southward of Yuma did we find any evidences of a greater rainfall than that given above, upon noting the surface of the soil 58 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY and the state of resting vegetation, and no precipitation occurred dur- ing the month the expedition was actually in field. Attention is to be called to the table of relative humidity, in which it is to be seen that the minima are very low, yielding averages from 17 to 30 per cent. So far as a general inspection could be relied upon, it did not appear that precipitation had occurred at San Felipe Bay within three months, and it might well have been three times that period since any had been received. Dr. Edward Palmer visited the Raza Islands in the lower part of the Gulf, 225*" northwest from Guaymas, in February 1890, and notes that no rainfall had been received there for more than a _ year.*’ Nothing can be hazarded as to the extent of the region with this extreme limit of aridity on the Sonoran side of the Gulf, except that it does not include the mesa at an elevation of 300™ at Torres, and it does not appear to include the western slope of the central range in Baja California, although no definite information is available. So far as known at the present time, therefore, this region of extreme and constant drought, constituting the most pronounced type of desert in North America, lies on the eastward or lee side of the San Pedro Martir range of Baja California, and includes areas on the Sonoran mainland, the whole being a southern extension of the Colorado desert. It is evident, however, that a further investigation of the region is necessary to determine the exact meteorological status of this area, as well as the general character, derivation and rela- tionships of its flora. The extreme type of strict desert offered by the area in question points to the possibility of finding here the readi- est solution of some of the more important problems presented by desert vegetation. RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN DELTA AND DESERT. The relatively brief time during which the expedition was in the field made it impossible to secure records of value as to precipitation, although it has been noted above that no rainfall occurred, except perhaps on the higher peaks of the Cocopa Mountains and of the main range in Baja California. A Lamprecht’s hair hygrometer was carried, however, and observations were taken daily, the instru- *3 Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb. 1:79. 1890. 1904] MAC DOUGAL—DELTA AND DESERT VEGETATION 59 ment being compared before being taken into the field and after its return with other instruments for standardization. The data given below are corrected results, not direct transcripts from the notebook. Station 1. Camp on dried mud flats on shore of Rio Colorado a kilometer below international boundary in Baja California; observations taken twenty feet from margin of bank amid willows and poplars; wind blowing offshore; see fig. 1. Jan. 28 4:30 P.M. 60° F. 17% rel. hum. oon ie = la eae 15 . eae. Soo..." + aie 18 eee | 12:45 A.M age 41 : “ 29 I:20 “ 30 “cc 5° ia a Gon = a9 “ 66 : “29 6:25 “ 27“ i. fig. 2, that in medium sand; and fig. 3, that in coarse sand. The following table show i Ss the h = ese he three cultures on June 1 5. eight in centimeters of the plants in t 1904] BRIEFER ARTICLES 7% - Plant | Fine soil | Medium soil Coarse soil ‘Potentilla anserina, ........... 20-23 8-10 6- 8 (3 out of 4 dead) Potentilla argentea............ 20-23 4-5 3~ 6 MAT ena StriCta is cnr mk 8-15 2- 5 2- 4 Verbena hastata . hice 14-19 ach. iz Solidago serotina.............. 42-45 10-17 10-12 Helianthus st SUS! 5 pie tates 18-23 BRT? LO-1t Helianthus divaricatus......... 22-28 14-19 1O-17 Pom prateneig occ. i, (aoa. 15-20 ead dead © Pua eomapretaa ss, veka es 28-40 nearly dead dead While the above table ts strikingly significant in showing relative size, and therefore relative rate of growth, it does not express at all the equally prominent features of comparative size and numbers of leaves, the presence or absence of runners, the wealth or scarcity of flowers, and all the features which go to make one plant vigorous and the other barely existing. It will be realized at once that the experiment here described offers somewhat conclusive evidence in favor of the above-mentioned hypothesis of one of the present authors (Joc. cit.), as well as of that recently expressed by Whitney and Cameron: in regard to agricultural plants.. A fuller dis- cussion and analysis of the conditions here dealt with would be out of place in this announcement, the purpose of the latter being only to state the facts in regard to the experiment. Further work along these lines is in progress—BurtoN Epwarp LivinesTton and GERHARD H. JENSEN, The University of Chicago. A NEW GILIA. Gilia sapphirina, sp. nov. (HuGELIA).—Erect, paniculately branched from the base, the branches slender, sparsely leaved, the main stem and some of the principal branches inclined to be tortuous, viscid-glandular throughout, 30°" high or more: leaves (all but the uppermost) simple, subterete, tipped with a white bristle, often purplish, 1-5°™ long; upper- most leaves with two very short bristle-tipped divisions at base: flowers solitary or capitate in few-flowered clusters from most of the leaf axils, even those near the base of the stem, either sessile or on peduncles 1o-15™ long; involucral bracts broadly ovate and simple or 3-lobed, membranous on each side of the broad green rib, glandular and clothed with very few woolly hairs: calyx 8™™ long, the divisions one-third the entire length, the central green rib 0.75™™ wide, slightly narrower than the membranous 3 WuITNEY, M., and Cameron, F. K., The chemistry of the soil as related to crop production. U.S. Dept. of Agric., Bureau of Soils, Bull. 22:72. 1903. 72 BOTANICAL GAZETTE ; (yuLy fold between, glandular-puberulent and viscid, not at all lanate: corolla salverform, the tube 4™™ long, slightly surpassing the spine-tipped: tri- angular divisions of the calyx; border sapphire blue, throat yellowish, lobes broadly obovate to orbicular, retuse at apex, 7™™ wide, 10™™ long; filaments and anthers white, exserted about 7™™, the anthers oblong, sagittate, 3™™ long: style longer than the filaments but not equaling the anthers; stigmas 3 or 4, short, narrowly linear: capsule barely surpassing the calyx lobes, usually with only one seed in each cell, the other ovules present but abortive. Type collected November 1903 by Mrs. Blanche Trask, in the San Jacinto Mountains, California. Specimen 2630 of H. M. Hall’s collection from the same mountains, distributed as G. virgata Steud., is the same but is much younger than Mrs. Trask’s specimen. Neither can be prop- erly referred to G. virgata if the figure in Hooker’s Icones 200 represents that species. The paniculate instead of virgate habit, the glandular instead of white-lanate pubescence, the distinct and broad membranous sinus of the calyx, the broad retuse lobes of the corolla, the few seeds in the capsule, all serve to distinguish them.—Auice Eastw oop, California Academy oj Sciences. San Francisco. CURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REVIEWS. Alaskan cryptogams. THE FIFTH volume of the series presenting the scientific results of the Harriman Alaskan Expedition is devoted to papers on cryptogams.* It has been prepared under the general direction of Dr. William Trelease, who distributed the material to specialists and writes an interesting introduction to the volume. Dr. Trelease also shares with P. A. Saccardo and C. H. Peck in the section on fungi; the | lichens are treated by Miss Clara E. Cummings, with admirably simple keys; the algae by DeAlton Saunders; mosses by J. Cardot and I. Thériot; sphagnums by C. Warnstorf, whose determinations have been edited by Trelease; the liver- worts by A. W. Evans; and the pteridophytes by William Trelease Three of these papers, those on algae, mosses, liverworts, have PIGS been printed in the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. In this volume they are reprinted from the same electrotype plates, even to typographical errors. The utmost care has been taken to preserve the original pagination and plate numbers, so that from this volume the original publication may be quoted— a bibliographical precaution which deserves thankful recognition. It would be impossible to praise too highly the typographical elegance and beauty of this volume. No detail has been overlooked. Paper, letter-press, plates, and bind- ing combine to make it an example of the best work of American book-makers. And the contents, judging by the reputation of the authors of the various papers, is worthy of the perfect dress. About 75 species and 35 subspecies and varieties are described as new. Many are illustrated upon the 44 plates, of which those for fungi are colored. The clever and artistic head pieces were designed by Mr. F. A. Walpole, whose recent untimely death robs the Depart- ment of Agriculture of its most skilful botanical artist. The phanerogams are to be presented in two volumes, under the editorship of Mr. F. V. Coville, which are announced for the present year. Mr. Harriman deserves the cordial thanks of naturalists, not only for the expedition itself which extended so much the knowledge of the Alaskan region, but also for the ne style in which he makes it possible for the results to be presented.—C. R. B. as eee Ciara E. CumMIncs, ALEXANDER W. Evans, C. H. Peck, P. A. Saccarpo, DEALTON Sayienilees, I. THERIOT, AND WILLIAM TRELEASE, Alaska. Vol. V. Cryptogamic botany. Harriman Alaska Expedition, With cooperation of Washington Academy of Sciences. Imp 8vo. pp. x+424. pls. 43. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. $5.00. 1904] 73 “14 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yoLy NOTES FOR STUDENTS. KoeERNICKE finds that Roentgen rays, after first accelerating growth for a brief period, as do many injurious agents, later retard it? Experiments with radium bromid3 inclosed in glass, so that only the 8 and 7 rays acted (@ rays and the gaseous emanation being stopped by the glass), showed a strong retarda- tion of the growth of seedlings, but no fatal injury. Somewhat similar inhibition of growth occurred with certain fungi after prolonged action of the rays.—C. R. B Harvey‘ has made a study of the physiographic ecology of Mount Ktaadn, tracing the origin and development of the flora and noting the various factors operative in determining the present plant physiognomy. He also shows that the accepted goer ie of physiographic ecology hold in general in alpine as well as in lowland regio The associations discussed are the crustaceous lichens, the reindeer moss, se alpine-tundra, the ‘‘Krummholz,” the Picea-Abies forest, the “roches moutonnées,” the pioneer stage of the alpestrine meadows, the meadow stage, the shrub stage, ponds, and sphagnum bogs.—J. M. C BoopieEs has made an experimental study of the ecological anatomy of the leaves of Pteris. Leaves grown in dry and exposed situations are xerophytic and have a “hypoderm;”’ while those sheltered and shaded are of the “shade- leaf” type, having no hypoderm and either weakly developed or no palisade tissue. The same differences were developed by different leaves of the same plant, and by different parts of the same leaf. A plant grown first in a damp greenhouse and then in the garden produced shade-leaves in the former and sun-leaves in the latter. It was further noted that the mature type of structure is not determined at an early stage in the growth of the leaf —J. M. C SEWARD® considers the Carboniferous, Rhaetic, and Wealden floras of South Africa in an important paper. The Ecca beds are held to correspond in a general way with the Upper Carboniferous of the northern hemisphere, and are more definitely correlated with the Karharbdri beds of the Lower Gondwana in India. Evidence from the contained plants emphasizes the well-known simi- larity which existed during the Carboniferous between the floras of India, South ? KOERNICKE, Max, Ueber die Wirkung von Réntgenstrahlen auf die Keimung und das Wachsthum. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 22: 148-155. 1904. 3 KOERNICKE, Max, Die Wirkung der Raditenstrahien auf die Keimung und das Wachsthum. ibid. 155-166. pl. 10. 1904 a 4 Harvey, Le Roy Harris, A study of the physiographic ecology of Mount taadn, Maine. The University of Maine Studies, no. 5- pp. 50. figs. 6. Dec. i . 5 Boopte, L. A., The structure of the leaves of the bracken (Pteris aquilina Linn.). Jour. Linn. Se. Bot. 35:659-669. 1904. ARD, A. C., Fossil floras of Cape Colony. Ann. S. African Museum ~ 1-116. ey ie. fies. 8. 1903 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 75 Africa, and South America. The Stormberg beds are considered as of Rhaetic age, and four new species are described. The Uitenhage beds are considered as probably of Wealden age, and the fragmentary remains of nineteen species of plants are enumerated, of which two, a Nilssonia and an Araucarites, are described as new.—EDWARD W. BeErry. REED’ has made a cytological study of enzyme-secreting cells in corn and date seedlings. Sections of living tissue were compared with fixed material to avoid error. Torrey’s technique® is regarded faulty, and no evidence was found to support his observation that solid matter extrudes from the nucleus through interruptions of the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm. In addition to a careful study of the literature and some valuable data in technique, the observa- tions of special interest are: ‘‘(1) In the resting condition the secreting cells of both Zea and Phoenix are crowded with relatively small proteid granules. As secretion begins these granules gradually disappear. In Zea this disappearance coincides closely with consumption of the endosperm; in Phoenix, however, the granules disappear long before the endosperm is dissolved. (2) The chromatin of the nucleus is small in amount at the beginning of secretion and increases as germination progresses. te changes are more noticeable in the case of Zea than in Phoenix.”—Raymonp H. Ponp. WIELAND? has we together a large array of facts to support the thesis that polar climate has been the major factor in the evolution of plants and animals. He shows that climatic changes of a character affecting life must in the course of time be at a minimum at the equator and at a maximum at the poles. He also thinks it reasonable that the origin of life itself took place at the north or at both poles; and that the Palaeozoic for various reasons was a period mainly of ‘“gen- eralized origins.”” From the origin of life down to the Mesozoic the north and south polar areas may have played a well-nigh equal part in creating a certain southward and northward stress; but beginning with the Mesozoic and “extend- ing to the glacial period, overwhelming evidence points to the polar origin and continuous outward dispersion from the north polar area of most of the great plant and vertebrate groups.” Among the illustrations of this the author calls attention to ‘‘the outward movement especially of conifers and dicotyls from the Arctic area for long periods of time.”—J. M. C WaceR,’° in a preliminary paper, has discussed the much debated question of the cell structure of the Cyanophyceae. He concludes that the central body 7 REED, H. S., A study of the enzyme-secreting cells in the seedlings of Zea Mais and pleat dactylifera. Annals of Botany 18:267. 1904. RREY, Cytological changes accompanying the secretion of diastase. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 29:421. 1902. 9-WIELAND, G. R., Polar climate in time the major factor in the evolution of plants and animals. Am. Jour. Sci. IV. 16:401-430. 1903. 10 WaGER, Haron, The cell structure of the Cyanophyceae. Preliminary paper. Proc. Roy. Soc. 72: 401-408. 1904. 76 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY is a nucleus of a “simple or rudimentary type,”although not to be regarded as one of normal type, similar to the nuclei of the higher plants. He enumerates twelve main chemical and morphological characters that belong to the nuclei of higher plants, and claims that at least seven of them belong to the central body of the Cyanophyceae, as follows: (1) presence of a nuclear network, (2) reaction to nuclear stains, (3) behavior toward digestive fluids, (4) presence of phosphorus, (5) presence of masked iron, (6) amitotic division, and (7) presence of chromatin granules on a linin framework. It differs from the nuclei of higher plants in the absence of a true mitosis with spindle fibers, and in the absence of a nuclear membrane and a nucleolus, although in certain conditions both mem- brane and nucleolus are said to be suggested. The author evidently regards this central body as a developmental stage in the evolution of the nucleus of higher plants.—J. M. C. Because of their perishable nature fungi are rare as fossils, and yet Weiss™* finds the remains of a parasitic fungus on stigmarian rootlets from the Lower Coal Measures. Magnus has compared this type with the existing Urophlyctis, which it resembles not only in so much of its structure as is discernible, but also in its similar habit of growing on plants which inhabit marshy or at least wet situations. Weiss accords in this identification to the extent of naming the fossil Urophlyctites Stigmariae. The same author’? notes a mycorhiza from the same geological horizon. Janse is quoted as saying that 69 out of 75 plants in a tropical forest have their roots infested by symbiotic fungi, and while this condition argues considerable specialization on the part of both, the similar conditions that prevailed during the Carboniferous mitigates our surprise at finding symbiosis occurring so far back as this. The roots have not been associated with the plant which bore them; they are possibly lycopodiaceous and are referred to the form-genus Rhizo- nium of Corda. The hyphae are for the most part intracellular, but in no case is there any sign of injury to the host. The fungus is named Mycorhizonium, and is considered as possibly belonging to the Phycomycetes. Zoppa* records the finding of a cone of a species of Pinus still living, in the Lower Pliocene of Sicily—Epwarp W. BERRY. A HYBRID between Drosera rotundifolia and D. longifolia was investigated about a year ago by Rosenberg.'* He found that D. rotundifolia has ten chro- Mosomes in the pollen mother-cells, while D. longifolia has twenty; further, that in the hybrid there are found pollen mother-cells with ten, twenty, and ce: Weiss, F. E., A probable parasite of stigmarian rootlets, New Phyt. 3:63-68: * WEIss, F. E., A mycorhiza from the Lower Coal Measures. Annals of Botany 18: 255-265. pls. 18, 19. 1904. *3Zoppa, G., Pinus Pinea 1, fossile nel Pontico di Messina. Malpighia 17+ 488-492. 1903. *4 Review in Bor. Gaz. 36:152. 1903. 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE "7 fifteen chromosomes, the ten and twenty being the number characteristic of pure pollen mother-cells of the two parents, while the number fifteen is just what one would expect in the pollen mother-cells of a genuine hybrid. A recent paper's records the results of investigations upon the embryo sac mother-cells of the parent and the hybrid. The sporophytic cells of the hybrid always show thirty chromosomes. In the pollen mother-cells and embryo sac mother-cells, the number of chromosomes is twenty, a very surprising number. These twenty chromosomes are not alike, but of two sizes, ten being large and ten small. e large chromosomes are evidently double and the small ones single. D. rotundi- jolia is represented in the hybrid by ten chromosomes and D. longifolia by twenty. In the mother-cell the ten chromosomes of D. rotundifolia fuse with ten of D. longijolia, thus leaving the other ten chromosomes of D. longifolia single. These are the numbers as seen during the metaphase. The daughter nuclei of the tetrads contain quite regularly ten chromosomes, presumably five being single and five double. It is evident that these observations have an important bearing upon the problem of the reduction of chromosomes, and it is to be hoped that the full account of the investigations will not be long delayed.—C. J. Cuam- BERLAIN. WITH THE rediscovery of Mendel’s laws by Correns, Tschermak, and De Vries, there has been a revival of interest in the fundamental problems of heredity and hybridization, and many works of both experimental and speculative char- acter have appeared. One of the most active workers in this field is Correns. In several recent papers he has presented an account of some of his hybridizing experiments and has discussed questions of dominance. A very striking. result of experiments with Mirabilis hybrids*® was the pro- duction of characters in the offspring, which were found in neither parent. Thus the offspring of dark yellow or pale yellow Mirabilis Jalapa crossed with the pure white form, never showed either yellow or white, but all were red or rose-colored. In the second generation these red-flowered hybrids gave rise to a whole series — of forms, red-striped, white, pale yellow, rose, and red. Similarly M. Jalapa of whatever color crossed with M. longiflora (white with a red-violet throat), resulted in offspring having violet corollas, differing in the different cases only in the intensity of the color. n discussing dominance"? he points out that there may be every degree of dominance and Suggests that a character be considered dominant if it occur in 75 to Ioo per cent. of the offspring, and recessive if it occur in o to 25 per cent. of the offspring. Characters transmitted to 25 to 75 per cent. are intermediate; *S ROSENBERG, O., Ueber die Tetradenteilung eines Drosera-Bastardes. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 22: 47-53. pl. 4. 1904. 16 Correns, C., Ueber Bastardirungsversuche mit Mirabilis-Sippen. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 20: 594-608. I902. *7 CORRENs, C., Ueber die dominierenden Merkmale der Bastarde. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells, 21°133-147. 1903. 78 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY there is no dominance. Careful determinations of the intensity of color in par- ents and offspring showed that many errors have been made regarding dominance, through the neglect of Weber’s law. The intensity of the color does not meas- ure the amount of pigmentation. He concludes that complete dominance is much less common than has been supposed. In a second paper on dominance? he presents a number of cases which do show complete dominance; e. g., Hyos- cyamus annuus X niger shows absolute dominance of the biennal habit. Rimpau found, on the other hand, that the annual habit is completely dominant in Beta - patula X vulgaris; dioecism dominates monoecism in Bryonia alba X dioica. Correns opposes the statement by De Vries that dominance is characteristic of hybrids between races and that hybrids between species are intermediate. He shows that in form and color of root the hybrids between turnip races are inter- mediate, and he also gives examples of dominance in hybrids between distinct species. He discusses’? the unique suggestion of De Vries that hybrids which fail to “split” in the second generation have Anlagen in one parent unmatched by corresponding Anlagen in the other, and concludes that no such condition exists, and that if no splitting occurs it is due to some other cause than that there is nothing to split. Correns has recently reviewed?° the present state of our knowledge of the origin of species. He presents the experimental work which has been done, laying most stress on the work of De Vries and Johannsen. The presentation is fair in the main, but one cannot avoid feeling that he begs the question as to the significance of individual variations for evolution, when he distinguishes mutations as inheritable variations, however slight —G. H. SHuxt. " aE C. Weitere Beitrige zur Kenntnis der dominierenden Merkmale und der Mosaikbildung der Bastarde. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 21:95-201. 1903- *? CorrENS, C., Die Merkmalspaare beim Studium der Bastarde. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 21: 202-210, 1903. ei CORRENS, C., Experimentelle Untersuchungen iiber die Entstehung der Arten auf botanischen Gebiet. Arch. f, Rassen- und Gesellschafts-Biologie 1:27-52- 1904+ NEWS. W. A. Murritt has succeeded F. S. Earle at the New York Botanical Garden as assistant curator in charge of the fungi. PRroressor F. L. Stevens has been elected president of the North Carolina Academy of Science for the ensuing year. CoLumsia University has recently conferred the honorary degree of Sc.D. upon Professor Hugo DeVries, of Amsterdam. EpWwarpD W. Berry has been elected secretary of the Torrey Botanical Club in the place of Professor F. S. Earle, who recently left for Cuba. THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN at its recent Jubilee conferred the honorary degree of LL.D. upon Professor W. G. Farlow, of Harvard University. D. T. MacDouaat, director of the laboratories of the New York Botanical Garden, has been advanced to the position of assistant director of the institution. Dr. C. C. Hossevus left Berlin on June 22 for a collecting expedition in Siam. The sets of plants obtained will be sold from the Royal Botanic Museum of Berlin. A. F. BLAKESLEE of Harvard University has received a grant from the Car- negie Institution to spend next year in Europe continuing his mycological inves- tigations. JoHN Macovn, the veteran botanist of the Canadian Geological Survey, will spend this summer in the Rocky Mountains of Canada making extensive collec- tions of cryptogams. AT THE RECENT annual meeting of the Linnean Society (London) the supple- mental charter was laid before the fellows, one item of which gives authority to elect women to membership. Laetit1A Morrts Snow received the degree Ph.D. at the June convocation of the University of Chicago, the subject of her thesis being ‘The effect of external agents upon the development of root hairs.’ MEL T. Cook, formerly in charge of botany at DePauw University (Green- castle, Indiana), has been appointed plant pathologist at the Experiment Station of Cuba, newly established at Santiago de las Vegas. THE UNIveRSITY OF GOTTINGEN has awarded its Otto Wahlbruch prize, of the value of $3000, to Dr. Wilhelm Pfeffer, professor of botany at Leipzig. The prize is awarded for the most prominent contribution to science during the past two years.—Science. Mr. L. B. Exuiort, editor of the Journal of Applied Microscopy since beginning in 1898, has severed his connection with the Bausch & Lomb Biel 1904] 79 80 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ory =e Company to accept another position. He will continue his private work in labora- tory photography and biology as heretofore, his address being 17 Birr Street, Rochester, N. Y. Dr. F. L. Stevens has been promoted to the professorship of botany and vegetable pathology in the North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic A new building is about to be constructed which will provide a well- equipped bacteriological laboratory, a plant-disease laboratory, and an elementary laboratory, together with offices for the professor and assistants, research rooms, and greenhouses for experimental work. ANNUAL REPORT of the Secretary of the Botanical Society of America embodied in Publication 24 is a statement of conditions and record of progress during the first decade of the existence of the Society. The total constituency of the Society now numbers 58, and its accrued funds amount to nearly three thousand dollars, a large part of which is treated as permanent endowment, the income only being used. Recently the policy was adopted of making grants. from current funds in aid of investigations by members and associates. ‘Thus far grants to the amount of $840 have been made. In order to promote unity of botanical interests a committee consisting of B. T. Galloway (chairman), C. R. Barnes, and C. E. Bessey has been appointed and requested to prepare a plan for cooperation with other botanical organiza- tions, for consideration at the eleventh annual meeting. The increasing demand upon the time allowed by the Society for the presenta- tion of scientific papers has made necessary the action of the Council in accepting only papers from members, associates, and persons specially invited by the Council to contribute. ‘ You buy Staying Power a larger box, FOR THE Tl RED BRAI N it holds more powder and thus you econo- mize when you buy Horsford’s Acid Phos- phate keeps the mind clear, the nerve steady and the body strong—a boon to the Sozod O nt overworked officeman, teacher and student. Horsford’s Pcie? Acid HALL & R Phosphate. Aires ee farts PSOne eis! Germs develop rapidly in hot weather. Cesspools, closets, cellars, sinks, and all waste-carrying eT should be frequently disinfected revent sickness. Platt's Chlorides The Odorless Disinfectant RATED T ALCUM NI ¢.- Toilet Powder o |: nd economica al, A eg alge liquid; powerfu afe, Sold in quart bottles only, “i paar eh high-class grocers sot house-furnishing dealers. 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A 311 MARQUETTE BLDG., CHICAG Morgan Park Academy ———— FOR BOYS University of Chi- . a game yen part of Th cago, and is situated in the beautiful village of Morgan 1 = miles from the city site of e University. This situation is most oe affording healthful sarroundties and spacious- ness of grounds. ent The Faculty of the Academy consists of eleven men, a college sh tapra well-trained in ‘tan partments Round the World. Caiaogs departments. The « courses include Manual Training and Bausch é Lomb Opt. Co. OCHESTER aa Frankfurt, G’y meet the entrance sa ladles all the lead- WNew York Chicago Boston echnical scho dings, all of br ok hog itn Ss w to study and to torm habits of work, The students’ interests, athlet = " ortiate social, musical, and religious, are well mgr to ae eo irsined. Hyland’s Pencil Point Pens The enses vary from $250 © $450.00 4 tively do not scratc or beco: per year. Forty- five scholarships hes given in Fgh pee but atch, spurt “A a naetedinn We ae SAMPLES of the Englis 2 Men sre “pg will sei recognition of excellence of effor go YLAND PEN COMPANY reg L TERM BEGINS SEPTEMBER 20TH FRANGIS of" a Me Be on LUSTRATED CATALOGUE ADDRESS DEAN ‘WAYLAND J. CHASE, Morgan Park, III. PN sto aoe an * AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE PEeEYOCRICATL DEVELOPMENT . OF THE WHIT | | CORRELATED WITH THE GROWTH OF ITS NERVOUS SYSTEM By JOHN B. WATSON, Pu.D. IS STUDY is largely supplemental to that of Flechsig and spe to age spread ona ight upon the following questions: (1) How far is it possible to give a . a : account of the gradual unfoldin s in the rat? : ) Is whether or not medullated nerve ag Bee in the cortex of the rat are forming and retaining definite associations? (3) Is a conditio sine viet non of rat’s there any connection betw the increasing complexity of the psychical life se “nese of the senate fibers i in the cortex, together with their extension tow surfac 122 pp., with numerous text-figures and plates, $1.25, met; postpaid, $1.35 Che University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Tilinois ce The New Hammond Typewriter For All Nations and Tongues and used by All Classes of People. THE BUSINESS MAN - Because the New Hammond is the Best Letter Writer, Manifolder and Tabulator. THE SCIENTIFIC MAN - Because the Hammond has a practically unlimited range of service. THE LITERARY MAN - Because the Hammond allows the use of several Styles and sizes of type. THE LINGUIST - - - Because on one Hammond machine more than twenty languages can be written. PHI: LADIRG. coc 2, - Because the Hammond has a beautiful Script type and others in preparation. 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Keeps you fresh a : Make the test Goaesctt reeze; prevents sunburn and roughness THE PERFECT PURITY of H , AND Sapoio makes it 4 ad a toilet article; it contains no animal fats, but is made om the most healthful of the vegetable oils, Its use is a fine habit. Hanp Sapotio is r + isn elated to Sapolio only because it is made by - same company, but it is delicate, smooth, dainty, soothing, and eali ; it] ng to the most tender skin. Don’t argue, Don’t infer, Try : Ee a 5, BY OO se | )) have been established over $0, YEARM stances “se ts every family in moderate jn exch oem [ANO % OSE loos, We take old imetraseee” fee of We deliver de wow piano in your ‘ ie rite for Catalogue D and explanations. Pee oe ey ee oo Vol. XXXVIII AUGUST, 1904 No. 2 2 THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE = “ fa EDITORS : JOHN. M. COULTER AND. CHARLES R. BARNES, ras WITH OTHER MEMBERS OF THE BOTANICAL STAFE es aoe eas OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO ong ae Be cS fs ane kas i ilet. “AQ rights secured.” ender Water—A most refreshing luxury for the to Botanical Gazette A Montbly Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science Subscription per year, $5.00. Foreign, $5.75. Single Numbers, 50 Cents European subscriptions, £1 4s per annum (post free), should be remitted to Wi.1AM SLEY & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, Sole European Agents Vol. XXXVIII, No. 2 Issued August 18, 1904 CONTENTS etry IN VAUCHERIA. ee FROM THE sides — TAPOMALOR LXI ( H PLATES VI AND Vit). Bradley Moore Davi 81 A STUDY OF TILLANDSIA USNEOIDES (WITH ONE FIGURE AND PLATES VIII-xI). Frederick Hi. Billings - - - ~ nl “ y - ‘ 2 99 BIOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF CERTAIN DESERT SHRUBS. I. Tore Creosote BusH OVILLEA TRIDENTATA) IN ITS RELATION TO WATER SUPPLY (WITH SEVEN FIGURES). L - - - + - - - : - +. 199 BRIEFER ARTICLES. NoTEes oN NortH AMERICAN GRASSES. III. - — reba: - -. - oe CarL SCHUMANN (WITH PORTRAIT). J. Perkin - - - - 143 A Correction. Charles J. Chamberlain - - - : z a CURRENT pole gt i BOOK REVIEWS - - * -— ~ -* - - ar, ee ‘sheresheep she PLANT ANATOMY. SMOKE AND VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWERING PLANTS. NOTES FOR STUDENTS i : ‘ js - i 56g NEWS a 2 Z + * ws 3 < - +: 160 peo arpeager' if desired, must be ordered in advance of publication. Not less than 50 separates of lead- les will be pri nted, of which 25 (without covers) will be furnished gratis, the actual cost of the Seindovies (and covers, if desired) to ye paid for by the author. Separates of ae nas articles” (with or without covers) will also be suppli — The table below shows the appr cost of separates consisting of plain text or ioe with li vings. 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Pe a te | .. bs OS 4 Pitsioan th cond {£ntered at the cago, The U ti he . : "yee ¥; 7 : 2rUDIES IN : LOGICAL THEORY Edited by JOHN DEWEY CONTENTS Thought and Its Subject-Matter The Antecedents of Thought The Datum of Thinking The Content and Object of Thought By Joun Dewey Bosanquet’s Theory of Judgment By HELEN Braprorp THOMPSON Typical Stages in the Develop- ment of Judgment By Simon Fraser McLENNAN The Nature of Hypothesis By Myron Lucius AsHLEY Image and Idea in Logic By WILLarD CLark Gore The Logic of the Pre- Socratic Philosophy By Witan ARTHUR HEIDEL Valuation as a Logical Process By Henry Watcrave Stuarr Some Logical Aspects of Purpose By ADDISON WegsTER Moore xiv-+ 388 pp., 8vo, cloth, $2.50, nef a PUBLISHED BY Se Tas GRFOT TA OSG, 8 DET FS The University OF 1 fer ert mes Chicago Press Logical Theory.” I i 92:07 (17 Ce eee CHICAGO : : . ILLINOIS | Postage) in payment for same. COMMENTS + +. a Statement, homogeneous in spite of so many operating minds, or a view of the world, both theoretical ae practical, — is so simple, massive, and positive that, in spite of the fact that many Lovie of it ba need to be worked out, it deserves the title of a new system of philoso- phy, a it be as true as it is or ginal, its publication. must be reckoned a baportant event.. The Bapesc reviewer, for sped strongly etuibed cts it of being true.,... prefer to be exceedingly summary, and manele to io the send? s pitehsion to the ‘ig ghee of this output sade far sige Aegan Tak o Boe, what Ber es it eality with which iti is filled. bly thing’ see be proud, Professor Wil- hal, , TET liam 1 pe OE poaomcsaly in the P y Fs It may at once be said that we have here a weighty contribution t which x mm ably y prove of hich wt interest to the historian of p en roe da 1 $ es, an Is the Bes or ary ier _ sea nsseho se peal ee sm” of Willia Cary s and his friends, 0 close th ment can fail to rte agora of the =o Meat Nateral Selection by Darwin and ba h work is one with which students of | ie yp will ave carefully = har cont ng sees ssor F.C. S. Schiller, of Oz- ford, in Review and M ce — ? seems to Mm i ly ang Zs tributions all re ; 2 : et discussion ~ gre lati on of hoages to life as: reality It is a very tim . Its criticisms alike o and a Empiricism are peculiarly tellin onalytiealy. #0 of its ow n po sitive statement, so skilfully a “ ‘ tcaentive precisel articulated and so well saline with i per if of an Experimental Kiesles is it as must tax the i ing enui of its pe for ong tim is my — ian these Ar Studies’ in an Bote ‘way embod w that is bound to have attention; wen : be or Sy ae os may prove true of t ogee, faglae thelr ir coments they make a book that cannot fail to prs igams Alfred H, Lioyd, of The University of Mic ) _To me the book i is ‘Significant for its dynamic con ‘all ae tion 0 pts den categories of experience,— Professor H. Heath Bawae*, of Vassar Co leg ee e It is an important piece of work, whose gem ence will f salutary i - the a of making phi more concretely hum The Dia ral influ- losophy nd m et eeeeeeisciascnsreees Lantern Slides q its do not Skee spurt, stic to illustrate her in oe but infinite ely highe eo wil ed 38 SAMPLES othe : Educational and Scientific Subjects These lantern slides are selected from our enormo stock, verano tii over 40,000 bag ey are sapheeae and accura eae et er = many ¢ o accompany stand- ard T ave Lantern & etal <— phy Lantern Slides . Phys sical I Geography. Lantern Slides on G — mere - ~ Soraee, nte o2 atural eer: irds, The Place of Industries |) :2s#22 sce: inElementa ry Education anon teat co saigeg By KATHARINE ELIZABETH DOPP uantern Slides $Taetathan many other subjects in all parts of the Send se list of Educational Lantern Slides and descrip- ig te = “ oa can only wish that this ae tion of o ' ir New Bright White oa, es ane rae r : ble Light f agic Lanterns. i -rojecting Micro- may have the wide-reachi me influe per = Projecting Polarise copes sent on application, that it deserves.— The Nation We also rent Slides at low w 5 & EARLE, At all Booksellers, or order from Manufacturers of Stereopticons, Microscopes, etc., le 18 Chestnut St., Phila. The Halyersity of Chicago Press Dept. 24 9 ” hicago, Illinois ° ee Ani} i i al igh EXPERIMENTAL TUDY ON THE PS y CHICAL DEVELOPMENT e OF THE WHITE RAT, | } CORRELATED WITH : THE GROWTH OF ITS N By JOHN B. WATSON, Pu.D. light upon the alowne questions: (1) ris it p ) vi ea systematic ee gradual anisldtne of the ssapciatint pr met in the r ) possible to find out whether or not medullated nerve fibers in the cort e rat are any connection between the increasing complexity of the psychical life and the a. of the medullated fibers in the cortex, together with their extension toward its surf 122 pp., with numerous text- figures and plates, $1.25, net; postpaid, $1.35 T ALL BOOKSELLERS, OR ORDER DIRECT F University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Tilinois NOTEWORTHY BOOKS Laboratory Physics By DAYTON CLARENCE MILLER, Professor of Physics in the Case School of Applied Science. Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home By HERBERT W, Conn, Professor of Biology in Wesleyan University. Mechanics, Molecular Physics, and Heat A TWELVE WEEKS’ COLLEGE COURSE ‘ 2 oN . ee it , By ROBERT ANDREWS MILLIKAN, Assistant Professor of Physics in the University of Chicago. GINN AND COMPANY, PuBLISHERS 378-388 WABASH AVE., CHICAGO, ILLINOIS ne Methods in Plant Histology By CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN, A.M., PH.D., Instructor in Botany in the University of Chicago ml A CONSTANT HELP to Teachers and Students of Botany CONTAINS DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PREPARING PLANT MATERIAL FOR MICROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION T is based upon a cour be published on this subject. It is the r t the Universit i versity. It aims, therefore, to meet th ments, not only of the student who has the ¢ self a fully equipped laboratory, but also the student who must work by him and with limited appara Free-hand sectioning, the paraffin method, the collodion me an glycerine method, are treated in considerable detail. In later chapters species the tions are given for maki h prepara as are nee y those w " eas plant kingdom from the alg y to the flowering plants. Special attention is paid to ficult ing of karyokinetic figures, because the student who masters this problem will find little ditt the in differentiating other structures. go: x : . é Formulas are given for the reagents commonly us histological laboratory 160 pp., 8v0, illustrated, cloth, (e7) $1.50; postpaid $1.59 For sale by dealers or by the publishers The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, nis The Code ofHammurabi KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2250 B.C. Edited by ROBERT FRANCIS HARPER, Professor of the Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Chicago PART I, SECOND EDITION The best proof of the popularity of a book is its continued sale. If a work meets a popular demand, public interest in it is cumulative ; the narrow circle of its first friends widens and soon tends over states and countries. This has been our experience with The e of Hammurabi. The collection of these ancient laws of Babylon presents material of the pene value to those interested in social institutions, and contains many laws that in a modified form appear today upon our statute books. Students are giving this code most serious consideration, and many are undertak- ing acritical and comparative study of the details. The edition that we have put out is ideal for such use, as it contains an autographed text of the original inscription, a transliteration, and a very careful translation, all fully indexed and arranged in convenient form. OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO HISTORIANS, because the habits, customs, and traditions of the ancient Babylon- lans are crystallized in these laws; the direct light thrown upon social conditions makes it pos- sible to piece together a very satisfactory narrative leading up to the promulgation of the code. JURISTS will find a wealth of material bearing on all sorts of civil and criminal contro- versies ; also curious survivals of primitive customs, and many sections showing transitional sta ge in legal procedure ONOMISTSS wii fina very elaborate provisions bearing on property rights, wages land rents, interest, fers transportation, aca building, and many other interesting features indicative of advanced economic conditi SOCIOLOGISTS will be surprised at the advanced stage and complexity of social institutions in ancient Babylon. Slavery was well established and hedged about with many elaborate legal provisions. The status of master and servant is carefully defined. The position of husband and wife is discussed at great length. The army was highly organized. TH HEOLOGIANS will find in this code many similarities to that of israel and also marked contrasts. The two codes are written in the same literary style and present not a few cases of actual verbal agreement. A critical comparison of the two will be found very interesting. me a copy 0 r Part I of A second part will be published in the fall of the present year, at $2.00, The Code — containing a critical examination of the Code of Harimurabi ae of Hammurabi Mmparison with ope of Moses, by President William R. Harper, 0 University of Chica THE SECOND EDITION READY FOR DELIVERY JUNE FIRST Large 8vo, 104 plates + 214 pages, cloth. Price $4.00, wef; postpaid, $4.28 (28 cents for postage) in pay- ment for same, AT ALL BOOKSELLERS, OR DIRECT FROM THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS For Students of Botany Physics and Chemistry The Role of Diffusion and Osmotic Pressure in Plants By Burton E. LIVINGSTON HE first part deals with a clear statement of the physical principles of diffusion and osmotic pressure, and will probably be found of use to begin- ners in physical chemistry and theoretical physics. The second part presents the literature of the physio logical rdle of these factors in a connected and reada- ble form, and embodies the researches of the author as to the influence of the medium. “The treatment of the whole subject is clear and con- cise and forms an admirable addition to the literature of physiological botany. It will be found indispensable to all students along these lines.” — Zhe Plant World. xiv +150 pp., 8vo, cloth, zed, $1.50; postpaid, $1.60. THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS :: CHICAGO, ILLINOIS A —aHé—— Physical Chemistry inthe Service of the Sciences ‘By FACOBUS H. VAN’T HOFF (English version by ALEXANDER SMITH) In four groups Physical Chemistry as related to Pure Chemistry (First Group) Industrial Chemistry (Second Group) Physiology (Third Group) Geology (Fourth Group) Of special interest to Instructors in Chemistry Analytical Chemists Manufactur- ing Chemists Instructors in Physiology Physicians Geologists JACUBUS H. VAN’T HOFF BL fetcae Comments vel] rom the fact , probably, that the be te ectures 1 were ¢ originally given in _ lish, this version reads oothly than does Haag acharm This is an ee oe readable book, interest being sustained from first to last, The ** Phy sical Chemistry and Physiology” are par- ticula arly i inter mn ing ol the specific action = chemical ions in the physic | metabolism, the er taking up the ae t of — or and their effect as cata- ts rendidg toward chemical equilibrium. In the chapters on seology, PCat ty of the chemistry of spate is discussed, the forma- tion and stru 5 a olo nce Hr pt se tempera mend a particularly he senchers ad. advanced exadent nts. — The Technical World, PUBLISHED BY The Soirensity.. of Chicago Pres CHICAGO neta . . . . 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(WITH PLATES VI AND VII) THERE have been published two accounts of the development of the oogonium of Vaucheria, attempting to explain in fundamentally different ways the final uninucleate condition of the structure at the maturity of the egg. All authors have found the young oogonium multinucleate, and the problem has concerned the history of these nuclei as the egg developed and the oospore matured. BEHRENS (90), in partial agreement with Scuitz’s opinion that the material discharged from the opening of the oogonium represented a polar body, believed that the final single nucleus of the egg resulted from the fusion of numerous nuclei in the oogonium. KLEBAHN (’92, p. 237), in criticism of the results of ScumitTz and BEHRENS, held that the egg and oospore were multinucleate. OLTMANNS (’95) came to very different conclusions. He described the gradual withdrawal of all the numerous nuclei found in the young oogonium from that struc- ture into the main filament, with the exception of one which was left to become the nucleus of the egg. The view of BEHRENs was in general similar to those of HUMPHREY and Hartoc for Saprolegnia, since the latter writers believed that the numerical reduction of the nuclei in this form was the result of successive nuclear fusions. The explanation of OLTMANNS has no parallel in any process of oogenesis known to the writer. Neither of these accounts seems to be correct, and the processes of oogenesis 8 82 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST in Vaucheria are along very different lines, namely those of nuclear degeneration, which are in sympathy in all essentials with the events now known for gametogenesis in Saprolegnia (DAvIs ’o3), several members of the Peronosporales, and certain Ascomycetes. These facts give a high degree of interest to Vaucheria, which becomes the greater in view of the position which this form takes in the phylogenetic systems of many authors as representing a pos- sible point of origin of the Phycomycetes. This subject will be considered, with its bearings upon the writer’s theory of the origin and evolution of the coenogamete, at the end of the paper, under the head of “Theoretical Considerations.” The material, identified as Vaucheria geminala racemosa, Was collected at Chicago, the younger oogonia being abundant late in March and older stages a week or so later. Of the killing fluids employed, chromacetic acid after the formula of FLemMrnc proved to be much the most satisfactory (1 per cent. chromic acid 25°, 1 per cent. acetic acid 10°, and water 65°). This formula is } per cent. chromic acid and +! per-cent. acetic acid. Chromic acid in excess of 4 per cent. produced serious shrinkage. The weaker solution of iridium chlorid and acetic acid (Eisen) also gave fair results (} per cent. iridium chlorid and 1 per cent. acetic acid). The cytoplasmic structure and plastids were perhaps better preserved in the latter fluid, but the nuclei did not stain so readily. All mixtures with osmic acid baoiead objectionable, because the protoplasm of Vaucheria is filled with oils and fats which became so seriously blackened that they could not be thoroughly bleached. Chromic acid takes out much of these troublesome substances, or at least leaves the material s0 that it can be readily cleared. Paraffin sections were cut 5 thick and stained with safranin and gentian violet. The nuclei are 50 cpsanes as to require the best of lenses, and the Zeiss apochromatic objective 1.5" with the compensating oculars was used entirely: The oogonia are somewhat variable in number (2-6) and are oS . ce whorl near the end of short lateral branches just below cas a antheridium. They commence their development as Gf al’ Protuberances which from the beginning are multinucleate te ni : eal ein proceeds the process enlarges and takes a glob- end of a short sfalk (figs. 2-4). It is evident that . » 1904] DAVIS—OOGEN ESIS IN VAUCHERIA 83 the enlargement is accompanied by a stretching of the cell wall, which is always much thinner about the young oogonium than around the stalk and vegetative filament, a fact which is clearly shown in figs. 4, 5,6,and 7. The growth of the oogonium results from the accumu- lation of large amounts of protoplasm with numerous nuclei and chloroplasts, together with the formation of vacuoles which flow together, so that finally the protoplasm lies peripherally around a central space crossed by a few delicate strands and films of proto- plasm. The number of nuclei is variable, but always large; the range is probably from about 20 to 50. These nuclei are carried into the developing oogonium by the accumulation of protoplasm. They lie very close together at the tip of the young structure (fig. 1), but become scattered as growth proceeds, agreeing in this respect with the conditions found in all the growing points of Vaucheria. I have seen no indication of nuclear division in the oogonium, and am positive that it does not occur in stages as old or older than those shown in figs. 2 and 3. It is quite probable that mitotic figures are present in the vegetative branch before the development of the oogonia, but I have never seen the spindles. The nuclei are so very small and the plastids so numerous that studies of nuclear division in Vaucheria will be very difficult. It is important to note that there are no mitoses during the growth of the oogonium and none after its separation by the cross wall from the parent filament. In these respects oogenesis in Vaucheria is somewhat different from the pro- cesses as known in Saprolegnia and the Peronosporales, where there seem to be always one or two general mitoses after the oogonium is formed. The absence of nuclear divisions during oogenesis in Vaucheria presents serious difficulties for the theories of some authors that such mitoses indicate reduction phenomena in those fungi where they have been most studied. These speculations have been recently criticised by the writer (D&vis ’03, pp- 339-342) and the subject will be further considered later in this paper. We will now describe he development of the cross wall by which the oogonium is separated from the parent filament. It appears when the oogonium is about two-thirds its mature size. The wall is laid down between two plasma membranes, as was shown by HARPER (’99) for the 84 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST formation of sporangia in Pilobolus and Sporodinia, and by Dean SWINGLE (’03) in Rhizopus and Phycomyces. The plasma membranes are formed chiefly along the surfaces of flattened vacuoles. I have seen no evidence of furrows cutting inward from the surface as takes place in Pilobolus and Rhizopus, but such structures would not be seen easily in Vaucheria because the stalk is rather narrow. Fig. 4 ~ illustrates an arrangement of vacuoles at the base of an oogonium which would probably have determined the position of the cross wall, and fig. 5 shows a more advanced condition when the plasma membranes have definitely separated from one another. The stages shown in figs. 6-8 are all somewhat older than that of fig. 5, and there is evidence in all of them that the wall has began to form as a delicate film visible at certain points between the two plasma mem- branes. The oogonium at the time of the formation of the cross wall is multinucleate. Thcre is no evidence in my material of the with drawal of nuclei from this structure, as described by OLTMANNS, oe before the wall is laid down, and my preparations indicate that the _ oogonium contains as many nuclei immediately after the formation of the wall as before. These conditions are shown in figs. 5-7: The number of nuclei is always large, but is variable, ranging from 20 to 50. They may be readily demonstrated at this period when properly stained, but are very difficult to trace from this stage of development onward because of the remarkable and rapid nuclear | degeneration which sets in at this time. This interesting phenomenon is apparently exactly the same as that which takes place at closely corresponding periods of oogenesis in Saprolegnia and in several of the Peronosporales. The degeneration of the nuclei really begins a little before the oogonium is separated from its parent filament. At that time the nuclei in the oogonium do not stain as strongly as those in the anthe ridium and in neighboring portions of thé vegetative filament. The nuclear membrane is less distinct and there is very little substance in the nucleus except the large nucleolus. Fig. g presents a series nuclei from the same section of which fig. 7 is a single oogonium. n fig. 9, a is a nucleus from the antheridium, 6 from a region of es branch slightly below the antheridium, ¢ from near the oogonlums hd 1904] DAVIS—OOGEN ESIS IN VAUCHERIA 85 and d from within an oogonium. It will be seen.that a, 6, and c are nuclei which, although small (magnified 2,000 diameters), pre- sent the structure of the nuclei of higher plants; that is, each has a nucleolus lying among granules of a chromatic nature and linin. In c these structures are less conspicuous than in 6, while d shows unmistakable signs of degeneration, for its nuclear membrane appears very faint and there is scarcely any trace of chromatin or linin. The nucleolus, however, is generally large and stains deeply and is always the last structure in the nucleus to disappear. Figs. 6 and 7 show degenerating nuclei in oogonia shortly after the formation of the cross wall. It is very difficult to trace the degeneration and final dissolution of the numerous nuclei in the oogonia, because we are dealing with structures that become more and more difficult to stain and find. It becomes in the end impossible after the nuclear membrane dis- appears and the nucleolar material is scattered throughout the cytoplasm. These baffling conditions are identical with those in the oogonium of Saprolegnia which the author has recently described (DAVIS ’03, p. 239). The mature oogonia are finally uninucleate. There seems to be no doubt of this condition, and the factors governing the selection and survival of the fortunate nuclei are of interest. We know that the process in Saprolegnia (DAVIS ’03, p. 239-243) is intimately connected with the presence of organized structures in the protoplasm, the coenocentra, which are probably the morphological expression of dynamic centers. I have not been able to find a coenocentrum in Vaucheria. It is possible that the plastids might obscure such a structure, but this is not likely unless it were very small. But there are conditions around the surviving nucleus in the oogonium which closely resemble those of the Saprolegniales and Peronosporales. Before the formation of the cross wall the protoplasm in the oogo- nium is arranged quite irregularly. There is always the rather thick peripheral layer just inside the cell wall, but the interior region generally contains several irregular vacuoles which frequently open into one another. These conditions are partially shown in figs. 3-5, but of course they can be understood only by the examination of a number of consecutive sections. 86 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avcusr After the formation of the cross wall, the arrangement of the cell contents becomes more regular. The oogonium increases rapidly in size, and the peripheral layer of protoplasm grows proportionally — thinner. The strands and films of protoplasm that before crossed the oogonium irregularly become arranged so that there is a gradual accumulation of the protoplasm in the center of the -celly held in position by delicate strands which pass to the periphery, and the surviving nucleus always lies within this region. Figs. 10-12 illus- trate these conditions as they appear in thin sections (5 #), but they cannot show the numerous radiating strands that hold the central mass in place. The degenerating nuclei lie chiefly in the peripheral layer of protoplasm, but some may always be found in the larger strands that enter the interior of the oogonium. Although I have not been able to find any morphological evidence which would indicate that this accumulation of protoplasm is a dynamic center of the cell, there are good reasons for thinking that it really is such. The surviving nucleus of the oogonium is always found in this central mass surrounded by plastids and deeply stain- ‘ ing granular protoplasm, which suggests material of a trophoplasmic nature. The peripheral protoplasm forms a thin layer under the cell wall in which one may find for a long time traces of the other nuclei that have degenerated. F igs. 10 and 11 show some of these nuclei (d) so far reduced that there is nothing left but a deeply stained (with safranin) globule of nucleolar material apparently lying free in the protoplasm. No one would relate these structures to nuclei unless he had followed their history through the process of degen eration, for they are soon reduced almost beyond the point of recog: nition. But at this time the surviving nucleus (fig. 10) near the center of the oogonium increases rapidly in size until in the mature ¢&8 (fig. 11) it is three or four times as large as the original nuclei in young oogonia. The inference is plain that the central region of the oogonium is a much more favorable situation for nuclear growth and activities than at the periphery. - For this reason the author considers the dense central mass of protoplasm as comparable to the region of the egg in Saprolegnia and the Peronosporales which is dominated by the coenocentrum: It is apparently the region of the cell most favorable for nuclear 1904] DAVIS—OOGEN ESIS IN VAUCHERIA 87 growth and activity, and as such is a dynamic center. There is a very close resemblance to certain of the Peronosporales (e. g., Pythium) whose oogonia have merely an accumulation of dense protoplasm in place of the usual well-defined coenocentrum. The growth of the surviving functional gamete nucleus presents some interesting features. ‘There is a marked increase in the amount of chromatin which fills the interior with numerous small granules on a very delicate linin network. The nucleolus does not increase in size, so that it appears relatively much smaller in the older nucleus than in the younger (compare fig. 11 with figs. 3 and 4). Fig. 11 is of an oogonium almost at maturity, and jig. 12 is after fertilization and shows two gamete nuclei fusing and also the remains of three sperms which were unable to enter the egg. The final steps in the maturation of the egg, as has been frequently described, consist in the breaking down of a portion of the wall of the oogonium and the formation there of a pore through which the sperms enter. Much slime is developed, which partially exudes from the opening. Numerous sperms are attracted to the oogonium, and one may frequently find conditions such as are shown in fig. 13, where the slime at the opening is filled with sperms held in the muci- laginous matrix. It is possible that such conditions were interpreted by Schmitz as nuclear material thrown off from the egg as a polar body. The union of the gamete nuclei takes place slowly. The male nucleus increases greatly in size, apparently being nourished in the dense central region of the egg, and the great increase in the amount of chromatin is as conspicuous here as in the female nucleus. Although the male nucleus is much smaller at first than the female, the two are approximately the same size before they begin to fuse (fig. 14), and both show essentially the same structure at that time. As fusion proceeds the two nuclei become indistinguishable (fig. 12). The history of oogenesis in Vaucheria may then be briefly described as from a multinucleate gametangium, by a process of rapid and complete degeneration of all the nuclei except one, which is reserved with all of the protoplasm for a single uninucleate egg. In these respects Vaucheria offers certain important differences and yet some fundamental points of agreement with the conditions in the Sapro- legniales and Peronosporales, which will now be considered. 88 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS. The essential agreement of the processes of oogenesis in Vaucheria with those of Saprolegnia and members of the Peronosporales is most striking. The oogonium in all of these forms so far known— Vaucheria, Saprolegnia, Pythium, Peronospora, Plasmopara, Sclero- spora, Albugo, and Araiospora (KING ’03)—is differentiated from the parent filament as a multinucleate cell. There may be one mitosis in the oogonium (Saprolegnia), or two as in certain of the Peronosporales, or there may not be any (Vaucheria), but finally extensive nuclear degeneration always begins. From among the weakened nuclei one or more are selected to preside over the eggs. The position of these surviving gamete nuclei in relation to favorable dynamic centers of the oogonium determines their selection and leads to extensive regenerative growth. In Saprolegnia and some of the Peronosporales (i. ¢., Albugo, Peronospora, Plasmopara, Sclerospora) the dynamic centers are marked by the protoplasmic structures called coenocentra, which are apparently trophoplasmic in character, since they exert a chemotactic influence on the gamete nuclei near them and are obviously concerned with their later growth. Although there is no coenocentrum in Vaucheria, the surviving nucleus takes its position in a central mass of protoplasm which is evidently the most favorable situation in the oogonium for its growth, and as such 1s a dynamic center, although there is little morphological evidence of the condition. The fact that there are no mitoses in the oogonium of Vaucheria 18 Seriously against the view that they have relation to reduction phenomena when present in the oogonia of Saprolegnia and the Per- Onosporales. I have already expressed the conviction (DAVIS "03s PP: 339-342) that these mitoses in the oogonium have no such signifi- | een are so variable in their appearance << er a. ase oe evidence of such functions. ROSEN nee ( le che thet of thc oo believes that a synapsis condition me si form indicates ~ cas = oem ay aad del apg ee tetrad division of the « uction phenomena comparable to that in the ae . Pore mother-cell of higher plants. The author Tree < : : Fespects, which need not be repeated here, and the absence of mitoses — e . 1904] DAVIS—OOGENESIS IN VAUCHERIA 89 in Vaucheria offers further difficulties for such a theory. RUHLAND (703) is also unwilling to follow ROsENBERG in his theory of reduction. For these reasons the writer believes that the mitoses in the oogonia and antheridia of the Phycomycetes have no special significance, or are merely the remains of nuclear divisions that were formerly char- acteristic of simpler types of gametangia or perhaps the primitive sporangia that preceded these. The simple precesses of oogonesis in Vaucheria seem to prove conclusively that all of the nuclei in the oogonium are homologous and potentially gamete nuclei, and this supports HARTOG’s suggestion for Saprolegnia of many years ago. The author believes this to be equally true of the nuclei in the gametangia of the Saprolegniales and the Peronosporales. The mitoses in the last two groups have complicated the problem, but there seems now to be no special sig- nificance in these divisions, since they are not only variable in num- ber, but may be entirely absent. Thus there are two mitoses in Albugo and Plasmopara, but only one in Saprolegnia, certain species of Peronospora, and Pythium, and they are entirely absent in the species of Vaucheria just described. There are then excellent reasons for considering all of the potential and functional gamete nuclei in Vaucheria, Saprolegnia, and the Peronosporales as homologous, and there seems to be little doubt but that the oogonia of all these forms are related at least as game- tangia through remote ancestors, if not as fully differentiated oogonia. The problems then concern the exact relationships between the eggs of Vaucheria, Saprolegnia, and forms of the Peronosporales. Are these female gametes strictly speaking homologous, or have they been developed along somewhat different paths? An old view, and that probably held by most botanists, is one of strict homology, implying an intimate relationship between these fungi and Vaucheria. It is a problem of fundamental importance in all discussions of phylogeny in this region of the plant kingdom, and of special con- cern to those who make Vaucheria the starting point of a series of fungi beginning with the Peronosporales or the Saprolegniales and ending in the Mucorales. From all points of view oogenesis in Vaucheria is simpler than in the Saprolegniales or Peronosporales. It conforms perfectly to well- go BOTANICAL GAZETTE known principles of sexual evolution which the author has recent! discussed (Popular Science Monthly, February 1903, p. 300). Th tangium produced numerous gametes which were undoubtedly m ‘since the sperms of Vaucheria are biciliate and the Siphonales rn follow exactly the steps through which the ancestors of Vauche passed in their evolution from isogamy, because it is the only h ogamous type in the order, and there are few connecting links Ww the prevailing simple conditions among the Siphonales. However, we have in Bryopsis a form whose gametes, although both motile are of different sizes, those of the female being much larger and developed less numerously in the gametangium. This type exhib the first step toward the condition of heterogamy, but we do know exactly what would follow next. Probably the protop. cleavage in the female gametangium would become gradually redi and fewer gametes formed, until finally there would be no more clea age, all of the protoplasm going into a single gamete, which wh non-motile would become the solitary egg (Vaucheria). This centration of protoplasm for a lessened number of gametes or single egg must be accompanied by nuclear degeneration @/ the at tral gametangium were multinucleate. ‘There are of course types. gametangia among the algae which are uninucleate from the ning, and there cannot be any nuclear degeneration in these. the multinucleate gametangium is not uncommon in certain | and is apparently universally present in the Siphonales. It is possible that Sphaeroplea will be found to represent ¢ in sexual evolution intermediate between Bryopsis and Vauc without necessarily implying a relationship to these types. Kle (99) and Golenkin (’99) have given us the most complete acc¢ Oogonesis in Sphaeroplea. Klebahn found the eggs of S. Braunii to contain several nuclei (2-5), one of which beca! functional female gamete nucleus; the others remained ini : might be found in the ripe spore. It becomes an interesting Whether or not these would eventually degenerate. This: Sphaeroplea may illustrate the beginning of a process. 1904] DAVIS—OOGENESIS IN VAUCHERIA gt fewer eggs are developed than the number of gamete nuclei, but before a habit of nuclear degeneration has become fully established. It is altogether probable that the extra nuclei in the eggs of the var. Braunii do eventually break down. Besides Sphaeroplea, it is very important that we know the pro- cesses of oogenesis in Monoblepharis, since this form has a structure with many points of resemblance to the algae on the one hand and the - groups of Saprolegniales and Peronosporales on the other. LAGER- HEIM (’oo) states that a single large nucleus enters the developing oogonium to become the gamete nucleus of the egg. Such a history is not in sympathy with oogenesis in Vaucheria and the Peronosporales or Saprolegniales, nor is it in sympathy with his own description of spermatogenesis in Monoblepharis. The antheridium contains many nuclei, each of which enters into the development ofa sperm as in Vaucheria. The author cannot but think that LAGERHEIN’s account of oogenesis is incorrect, or else that the conditions here are very exceptional. It seems very probable that Monoblepharis and perhaps some of the forms in the Leptomitaceae are closely related to Vau- cheria. The problem of the relationship of the events of oogenesis in the Saprolegniales and Peronosporales to Vaucheria may be stated as follows. Have the conditions in these groups been developed directly from the relatively simple process illustrated by Vaucheria, or are there peculiarities in these two groups that would make necessary their derivation from more generalized types ? The Saprolegniales present conditions that superficially bear a very close resemblanee to Sphaeroplea, 7. e., there are several eggs in the oogonium. But these eggs are differentiated around ‘coeno- centra which determine the survival of a limited number of nuclei, while the great majority break down. There are fundamental differences between these events and oogenesis in Sphaeroplea, unless later studies should establish nuclear degeneration in the latter type. It would not be difficult to conceive the development of several metabolic centers in a large gametangium of one of the Siphonales, and the survival of several nuclei to form as many eggs which would give a condition exactly like that of Saprolegnia. So the present investigation with the discovery of a multinucleate oogo- 92 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST nium in Vaucheria tends to bring the Saprolegniales into a somewhat close relationship to Vaucheria, not directly of course, but probably through more generalized types of the Siphonales now extinct. The Peronosporales offer a more difficult problem than the Sap- rolegniales, yet there are fundamental features of oogonesis here in agreement with this group and with Vaucheria, namely a multi- _ nucleate oogonium and extensive nuclear degeneration. The advance of the process of oogenesis in the Peronosporales over that of Vaucheria lies in the differentiation of ooplasm and periplasm, the first being associated with a remarkably well-developed coenocentrum. The influence of this coenocentrum determines the survival of one or more nuclei in the ooplasm to give a uninucleate or multinucleate egg. The periplasm, containing numerous nuclei, becomes separated from the ooplasm, and although assisting in the deposition of the oospore wall its nuclei and cytoplasm finally become disorganized. The processes of oogenesis in the Saprolegniales and Perono- sporales seem higher than those of Vaucheria because of the remark- able activities of the coenocentra. But to derive the sexual organs of the first two groups from the last form, it would be necessary to postulate the suppression of two important activities in Vaucheria, namely, the development of motile sperms and the formation of pores in the gametangia for the entrance and exit of these structures. The suppression of the pore formation and consequent modification of the sexual cells, the establishment of several coenocentra in the 5ap- rolegniales, and the specialization of a periplasm in the Perono- sporales are peculiarities involving very important protoplasmic activities not represented in Vaucheria. ; We have in the Saprolegniales and Peronosporales the interesting association of complex female organs developing eggs, with organs that are much simpler. The antheridia in the first iwe groups are all mutinucleate and morphologically gametangia. certain forms (Albugo Bliti and A. Portulacae) the antheridia 4 because . 1904] DAVIS—OOGENESIS IN VAUCHERIA 93 with the female. All of these antheridia behave in the same manner whether there are one or many functional gamete nuclei. This condition must have been closely associated in its origin with the suppression of the habit of forming pores for the discharge of zoo- spores or motile gametes. We do not know enough about the pore-forming activity in zoo- sporangia and gametangia to understand how readily it may be given up, and whether its presence or absence is of great morphological importance. The activity is absent in the gametangia of the Muco- rales, Saprolegniales, and Peronosporales, but present in the spor- angia of the Saprolegniales and most Peronosporales (conidia which produce zoospores), although lacking in some forms (Peronospora and certain species of Pythium) whose conidia germinate by a tube. The sporangia of the molds may have at one time developed zoo- spores, but there is at present no hint of such possible activities, except a general agreement in the processes of protoplasmic cleavage by furrows with spore-formation in such zoosporangia as have been studied (Hydrodictyon, Saprolegia, etc.). If the suppression of the pore-forming activity may take place readily after some slight change in life-habits, there would seem to be no great difficulty in relating the processes of oogenesis in Sapro- legnia and the Peronosporales rather closely to Vaucheria or relatives of Vaucheria. But if pore-formation may be given up only under exceptional conditions and infrequently, then it becomes very ques- tionable whether there can be a close relation to Vaucheria, and we must look to another line of ancestry for the Saprolegniales and Per- onosporales. The author thinks the latter condition at least quite possible and deserving of further consideration. Such an ancestry for the Saprolegniales and Peronosporales would naturally be sought through simpler conditions, somewhat like those illustrated in the Mucorales whose gametangia are coeno- gametes. It is scarcely conceivable that the molds are very closely related to the first two groups, but their coenogametes illustrate such well-defined sexual conditions that they naturally enter into the discussion. It is possible that groups with coenogametes like those of the molds might gradually differentiate such structures until they would finally become male and female sexual organs. The female 04 . BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avcusr coenogamete would be larger and well supplied with food material, and might finally develop one or more eggs and thus become an oogonium; the male coenogamete in contrast would remain small or | perhaps become further reduced and would be called an antheridium when it bore a sexual relation to an oogonium. Thus conditions like these of the Saprolegniales and Peronosporales might arise from coenogametes resembling those of the molds, and a condition of heterogamy result, which would closely resemble that of Vaucheria and yet have no genetic relation to the latter condition. The eggs of the Saprolegniales and Peronosporales in such an event would have an origin entirely independent of any other line of sexual evolu- tion, and with the conspicuous peculiarity of coenocentra marking the position of dynamic centers during the process of oogenesis. A question sure to be raised in this connection is the possibility es, of undifferentiated coenogametes of the mold type arising through the simplification or degeneration of organs like the antheridia and oogonia of the Saprolegniales and Peronosporales. Such a line of evolution would demand the suppression of some very highly differ- entiated cell processes, such as the extensive nuclear degeneration, ie the formation of coenocentra, and the differentiation of periplasm. = _ There is no evidence of such tendencies among the forms in question, ns but, on the contrary, excellent reasons for believing that the direction — of sexual evolution is toward greater and more precise protoplasmic complexity rather than simplification. The point is especially weE illustrated in the series of species in the genus Albugo, where the limes is clearly from the multinucleate egg and small coenocentrum of A. Biliti to the uninucleate egg and extraordinary large coenocentra of es A. candida and A. Lepigoni. The author can see at present a probability of a line of sexual degeneration or simplification ah = higher forms toward the molds. a For these reasons we are driven to consider the possibility ofa es origin of the coenogametes of molds from gametangia that have - 7 passed the stage of isogamy. I have previously (DAVIS ‘00 Ps 777 and ’o3, p. 335) advanced the hypothesis that such coenog®” may have arisen from gametangia somewhat like those DOW" among the lower Siphonales and in Cladophora. These es genes : are generally terminal structures that discharge motile gamet i 1904] DAVIS—OOGEN ESIS IN VAUCHERIA 95 But should organisms of this type (whether algae or fungi) be placed under conditions unfavorable for the formation of motile gametes, the gametangia themselves might be expected to act as coenocytic units, and obeying the chemotactic influences of sexual cells fuse with one another as coenogametes. So the problems of phylogeny in this higher region of the Phy- comycetes become greatly complicated through factors that concern the environment and life-habits of the forms in question. The absence of pores in structures that at one time evidently formed motile gametes presents great difficulties: to the establishment of relationships between the Mucorales, Saprolegniales, Peronosporales, and Vaucheria. Yet, it may be that the suppression of this structure indicates little more than a change in life-habit from an aquatic, to an aerial existience (Mucorales) or to a parasitic life (Peronosporales), with the apogamous Saprolegniales presenting conditions peculiar to themselves. But until we know more about these life-habits and the possibility of an organism passing from one condition into another, it is pure speculation to lay out lines of relationship. And again, we lack knowledge of the processes of oogenesis in a number of forms which may have important bearings on these problems of phylogeny (especially for Monoblepharis and Sphaeroplea). In spite of the complications of the problems of phylogeny in the Phycomycetes, certain features stand out clearly which may be briefly summarized. The multinucleate character of the sexual organs in types of the Mucorales, Saprolegniales, and Peronosporales thus far studied, and perhaps some other forms as well (Monoble- pharis) is likely to prove universal in these groups. Numerical reduction of potential gamete nuclei takes place through degenera- tion, a process of great physiological interest which deserves careful study. The suppression of the pore-forming activity gives the closed oogonium and antheridium peculiar to the fungal groups. The coenogametes characteristic of the Mucorales and also illustrated by certain of the Peronosporales (Albugo Bliti, A. Portulacae) are morphologically gametangia and probably have had their origin by the suppression of the processes of cleavage to form many gametes and their assumption as coenocytic units of sexual attributes. The Saprolegniales and Peronosporales exhibit the further peculiarity of 96 BOTANICAL GAZETTE eggs differentiated around dynamic centers (coenocentra), bie the specialization of a periplasm in some forms. Perhaps the expression of periplasmic development is the cellular envelope w finally invests the egg of Araiospora. g SUMMARY OF THE INVESTIGATION OF VAUCHERIA. The oogonium arises as a process containing dense protoplasn with many plastids and nuclei. As the young structure increases i size, vacuoles develop in the protoplasm, which consequently forms = a peripheral layer next the cell wall. : The number of nuclei is variable, but always large, probably ranging from 20 to 50. There are no mitoses in the oogonium. — ‘The oogonium becomes separated from the parent filament by cross wall which is developed between two plasma membranes thal appear to be formed along the surfaces of flattened vacuoles. The oogonium is multinucleate at the time the cross wall is forn but even then there is evidence of the degeneration which becon much more pronounced later. In older oogonia the degenerating nuclei are found chiefly 3 in periplasm. They become exceedingly small, the nuclear membr disappearing first, and finally nothing remains but granular mat apparently nucleolar, which is finally lost in the cytoplasm of th a cell. A single nucleus survives the general processes of degenerati This becomes the gamete nucleus and takes its position near center of the egg, which is probably the situation most favora' its growth. There is apparently no coenocentrum in the 88 Vaucheria, but the surviving nucleus frequently lies in a cst rather dense protoplasm which may readily represent a Cen’ metabolic activity. There are excellent reasons for believing that all of the puck the young oogonium are potentially gamete nuclei, and that selected egg nucleus owes its survival and later growth ¢ enti the good fortune of a favorable situation in the cell. — The gamete nucleus grows rapidly. until it is finally thi times the size of the nuclei in the young oogonium. — marked increase in the amount of chromatin, which fills the DAVI8, DEL. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXXVIII PLATE VI @ o> ‘ ue O° <7 eee Lia Ds Ps fg 9 ae ron t oe a ia Ca mS Sibi te 2 se OD ie Be se DAVIS on VAUCHERIA. Vil 7 3 vi) PLAT XXXVII BOTANICAL GAZETTE, 3 of —« Hh te a ae “th ut ‘\ DAVIS, DEL. DAVIS on VAUCHERIA. 1904] DAVIS—OOGENESIS IN VAUCHERIA 97 of the nucleus with numerous small granules on a delicate linin network. After fertilization the nucleus of the sperm passes to the center of the egg, where it increases in size at the side of the female nucleus in the same region of dense protoplasm. The two sexual nuclei fuse slowly when both are approximately of the same size. THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICASO. LITERATURE CITED. BEHRENS ’90: Einige Beobachtungen tiber die Entwickelung des Oogons und der Oosphire von Vaucheria. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 8:341. 1890. Davis ’03: Oogenesis in Saprolegnia. Bor. Gaz. 35:233 and 320. 1903. GOLENKIN ’99: Ueber die Befruchtung bei Sphaeroplea annulina bad iiber die Structure der Zellkerne bei einigen griinen Algen. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moskow 343. 1899 HarPER ’g9: Cell division in sporangia and asci. Annals of Botany 13: 467. 99- KING ’03: Observations on the sty sae! of Araiospora pulchra Thaxter. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 31:211. 1903 KLEBAHN ’92: Die Befruchtung von Ondoswaein Boscti. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 24:235. 1892. KLEBAHN ’99: Die Befruchtung von Sphaeroplea annulina Ag. Festschrift fir Schwendener 81. 1899. LAGERHEIM ’oo: Untersuchungen tiber die nominees Bihang Svenska Vet.-Akad. Hand. 25:Afd. 3, no. 8. OLTMANNS ’95: Ueber die Pane ae a“ es bei Vaucheria. Flora 80: 388. 1895 ROSENBERG ’03: Ueber die Befruchtung von oe alpina (Johans.). Bihang Svenska Vet.-Akad. Hand. 28:Afd. 3, no. 1903. RUHLAND ’03: Studien iiber die od ated ie ‘Aiace Lepigoni und einiger Peronsporeen. wie Wiss. Bot. 39: 3: SWINGLE ’03: Formation of the spores in ee sporangia of Rhizopus nigricans and of Mieco. nitens. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bur. PI. jae Bull. 37. 1903. EXPLANATION OF PLATES VI AND VII. The sections were cut 5 thick and stained with safranin and gentian violet. All figures were sketched with an Abbé camera under the Zeiss apochromatic objectives 2™™ or 1.5™™ in combination with compensation oculars. e mag- nification is as follows: figs. 1-2, X 500; figs. 3-8 and 10-13, x 667; fig. 9, X 2,000; fig. 14, X1,334- 98 BOTANICAL GAZETTE Fic. 1. Oogonium beginning to develop. Fic. 2. Young oogonium. Fic. 3. Young oogonium, large vacuoles forming. ’ Fic. 4. Oogonium, flattened vacuoles marking the positions where wall would have been formed. i degeneration with the gradual disappearance of the chromatin and of the nuclear membrane: a, from antheridium; b, from just below thea ¢, from near the oogonium; d, from within the oogonium. : Fic. ro. Old oogonium with gamete nucleus in the central mass ¢ plasm and degenerating nuclei (d) in the peripheral layer. . Fic. 11. Oogonium older than fig. 10 and probably mature, degenerating nuclei (d) in the peripheral layer of protoplasm. ‘Fic. 12. Fertilized egg, gamete nuclei fusing in a mass of dense pr Fic. 13. Tip of oogonium showing mass of sperms in the slime at 5. 14. Gamete nuclei showing comparative size and general Structure when about to fuse. . A STUDY OF TILLANDSIA USNEOIDES. FREDERICK H, BILLINGS. (WITH ONE FIGURE AND PLATES VIII-X1) Tillandsia usneoides, popularly called “long moss,” “black moss,” or “Spanish moss,” is the most widely distributed representa- tive of the tropical and subtropical family Bromeliaceae. Accord- ing to SCHIMPER (1) it extends from southern Virginia, its northern limit, as far southward as the Argentine Confederation. It forms everywhere a conspicuous and characteristic object of the landscape, its long gray festoons adorning not only trees of the virgin forest but many cultivated ones as well. Although the beauty of the landscape is enhanced by its presence, its growth upon ornamental trees is regarded often with apprehension, a common impression being that it lives parasitically. A most casual examination, however, will reveal the fact that the moss is in no way connected with the tree, but merely wraps its dead, wiry stems loosely around the twigs in order to support itself. Old festoons which have hung in the same place for years occasionally show a connection with the bark, the annual growths of the limb finally enclosing some of the decorticated moss stems; much in the same way that an old horseshoe hung astride a branch and left unmoved for a long time will be partially enclosed. An indirect cause of the popular belief in the parasitism of Til- landsia is its preference for sunny exposures. This habit would tend to keep it from trees having a dense shade. In dark forests it hangs suspended from the higher limbs of tall trees, especially those that are dead. Many a cultivated tree when in perfectly healthy condition possesses too dense foliage to serve as a host for Tillandsia, but if for some reason the supply of leaves should be reduced, the light condi- tions might be such as to make the presence of the epiphyte possible. Should it make its appearance, the owner of the tree would be very apt to regard the moss as the cause rather than the result of the reduced foliage. A proof of the true epiphytism of the plant is its long- continued and vigorous growth upon decorticated limbs of dead trees. Near Baton Rouge are many such trees, killed by girdling long ago, 1904] - 99 100 BOTANICAL GAZETTE yet supporting a large quantity of moss. In order to den experimentally that the moss can live solely on what it ¢ air and rain, some festoons were supported by twine and I some branches of a tree upon which moss was already gro was expected, the festoons produced normal flowers, gave growth, and at the end of eighteen months looked as vigo on the tree, though they came at no time in contact with i . Because Tillandsia has no influence as a parasite, i follow that it exerts none in other ways, yet to just what extent a host tree is at present difficult to say. Aside from the slight done in breaking twigs and.small branches by its weight, it ful whether such objections as shading and cutting off the air are really worthy of consideration. It is almost certain objections are not sufficient to explain a reduction in f people so often ascribe to the presence of the moss. It i however, that this problem can only be answered satisfa experiments extending over a considerable number of yee The problem of the distribution of 7’. usneoides upon t Species of trees is one of the first to force itself upon the ob That certain trees of a given locality are abundantly supp others not far distant are not, is a well-known fact. On the case has already been mentioned, and that is the light But there are others to be considered, and the most important 's concerned with the method of dissemination. The epipt sie or by birds, which according to SCHIMPER (1) in utilize the plant in building their nests. There is a therefore, for a tree a little distant from others bearing the to receive its first detachment of the epiphyte. The character of the foliage also plays a part, in that sel According to PEIRCE (2) Ramalina ret h aving a habit and mode of dissemination similar to 7 1904] BILLINGS—TILLANDSIA USNEOIDES IO! is found more frequently on deciduous than on evergreen trees, . because, as he explains, the foliage of the evergreen trees interferes with its reaching the branches. The umbrella tree (Melia Azederach) has a remarkably dense foliage and is almost universally devoid of moss, yet near the university is a tree of this species with a scanty supply of foliage and an abundance of moss. It is reasonable to con- clude that any tree furnishing proper conditions for attachment and growth may become a host of the epiphyte. The source of the water supply of Tillandsia is atmospheric pre- cipitation, as in all epiphytes. Dissolved in the water are the neces- sary salts which have been dissolved by the rain from the dust in the air. Perhaps an equally fruitful source of salts is in many cases the washings from the tree, which in dry weather may accumulate much earthy material in the form of dust upon its branches. The plant itself even serves in collecting dust on account of the scaly surface, so that when wet the deposits beneath the scales yield a small amount of soluble material. A most remarkable characteristic of Tillandsia is its ability to retain water. The absorption of water is accomplished over the entire surface of the living parts by means of scales, as will be described further on, its retention being accomplished also by the scales, and of course by the cuticularized epidermis. It is much easier to under- stand how a melon cactus with its globose form and consequent minimum surface and enormously developed water-storage tissue can resist prolonged drouth than it is to see how Tillandsia with its small cylindrical leaves, much greater surface exposure, and compara- tively small storage facility can, without any water supply, endure drouth. A small festoon was hung in a closed dry room for nineteen days without water. It lost 23 per cent. in weight during the time, but when placed in water it absorbed as much as it had lost, and remained a healthy plant, showing that it had not really suffered injury by exposure to the drouth. There is occasionally, of course, a similar drying process in the open air when drouth occurs. During the dry spell in the spring of 1902, moss plants were known to have been subjected to two months of rainless exposure without injury. From an economic standpoint, Tillandsia is of some commercial value on account of its mechanical tissue. This forms a central 102 BOTANICAL GAZETTE cylindrical strand composed of reduced phloem and xylem, surrounded by a mass of thick-walled sclerenchyma fibers. When the paren- chymatous cortex is removed, the sclerenchymatous axis remains as a tough elastic fiber, which serves as a packing in upholstery. Th so-called curing process is a means of eliminating the parenchyma. One method largely employed is that of burying the moss in trenches or pits, allowing it to remain till the cortex is dead and in a condition to be removed easily. : DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO SAC. a The primordia of the ovules arise on the innermost wall of each loculus of the tricarpellate, superior ovary. By a one-sided growth each primordium becomes bent toward the base of the ovary, develop- ing into the anatropous type of ovule. When the bending has reached an angle of about 90°, the nucellus appears as a hemispherical mass of cells, at the base of which can be seen the beginning of the inner integument. Imbedded under two layers of nucellus cells, the single archesporial cell becomes differentiated in the usual way, by its slightly larger size and greater staining capacity ( fig. 2). As th ovule increases in size, the nucellus elongates, the outer integument appears, and the archesporial cell enlarges considerably, especially in length. There is no parietal cell formed, but by multiplicatio of cells the nucellus over the archesporial cell forms an additional | layer, making three (fig. 3). The archesporial cell is now elongated, and occupies the central region of the nucellus. I : filled with granular, longitudinally-striated cytoplasm, and has relatively large nucleus. The first and second divisions of | nucleus probably give rise to the gametophyte generation. more than one-third the length of the cell (fig. 4). ‘The chromosom were short, and closely crowded at the equatorial plate. i ditions were altogether unfavorable for ascertaining their nut on account of the small size of the figure. The number, howev was definitely made out from the second division of the pollen pa cells, and was found to be sixteen. A protracted search failed 2 yield a nuclear figure which definitely showed the chromosome | number in the sporophyte, though considerably over sixteen — observed. | ; 1904] BILLINGS—TILLANDSIA USN EOIDES 103 The first division of the archesporial cell is usually followed by a transverse wall and a resting condition of the nuclei (jig. 5); but a single case was observed, as reported by Smiru (3) for Hichhornia crassipes, in which a row of four nuclei was formed without sepa- rating walls (fig. 7). In Eichhornia the absence of the walls is said to be the rule, but in Tillandsia it is the exception. The division which gives rise to the third and fourth megaspores, thus completing the axial row, will be seen from fig. 6 to be in the cell nearest the micropyle. In the meantime, the basal of the two proximal mega- spores begins to elongate, and is destined to develop into the embryo sac. - A vacuole is formed in this cell as it pushes outwards crushing the other three megaspores, whose contents soon show evidence of breaking down. The remaining stages in development are the familiar ones of complete absorption of the non-functional mega- spores by the functional, and the internal division of the latter into eight cells. The two cells that are to form the synergids soon come to possess larger nuclei than does the egg cell. The egg nucleus in fact is smaller than is customarily observed. In the completed embryo sac, the egg often lies against the wall of the sac near one synergid, but may occupy a position between the synergids. The polar nuclei usually approach each other and fuse near the antipodal region (fig. 14). The antipodals occupy a pocket at the extreme end of the sac. FERTILIZATION. The pollen tube passes through the micropyle, penetrates the nucellus, and enlarges as it enters the embryo sac. It does not appear to pass between the synergids, but to one side of them, one synergid being disorganized in the process. The two male nuclei which have arisen from the generative nucleus during the develop- ment of the pollen tube lie near together and a little in advance of the tube nucleus. In no case observed did the male nuclei show the much elongated, spermatozoid-like form so often described for other plants. In fig. 15, which represents the tube before its rupture, they are elliptical; but when discharged they are slightly more elon- gated and may have pointed ends. The place of discharge may be cither at the end of the tube or lateral, though near the end (figs. 16-19). The tube nucleus is usually to be seen at the time of dis- 104 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUG charge of the male nuclei, but may be absent later, which wo indicate that it too was ejected. In one instance (fig. 19) the nucleus _ was observed after ejectment. The male nuclei are of about same size and appearance, and leave the pollen tube at about same time. The nucleus which is to fuse with the endosperm nuc can be seen in various stages of its passage to the antipodal end -the embryo’sac. There is no evidence that either nucleus incre in size after leaving the pollen tube. The time of fusion with- polars may be either before or after their complete union with each other; in fig. 18 it is before. In jig. 18 the fusion of the two m nuclei with the egg and polar nuclei respectively is seen to be simul- taneous. After fertilization the egg secretes a wall about itself and rests for a time. a The occurrence of darkly-stained bodies so frequently seen _ presence in the pollen tube. THE SEED. The most noticeable change that results from fertilization is the extensive elongation of the entire ovule. Part of the growth is of the canal formed by the outer integument (fig. 22). A sim elongation of the outer integument was observed in Puya chi by Hormeister (4). | Accompanying the growth of the embryo sac is the develop nen of the endosperm. It begins to form at once after fertilization, 2™ the nuclei resulting from the first divisions of the endosperm nuclet take position at either end of the sac, leaving, however, a few to f tae parietal layer between. At the antipodal end, cell for with walls begins at once, and a number of large cells form bie which stands out conspicuously in the cavity of the sac, which oN" wise contains only a few free endosperm nuclei. At first this issue 1904] BILLINGS—TILLA NDSIA USNEOIDES 105 was taken as an extraordinary development of antipodals, but cases were found where the three degenerate cells were lying beneath the tissue in the small pocket at the end of the embryo sac. The free endosperm nuclei gradually gather in increasing numbers against the endosperm tissue, finally forming walls about themselves but remaining readily distinguishable from the other tissue (fig. 24). The functions of the two tissues appear to be somewhat different. The originally formed cell-compact retains its richness of protoplasmic contents during the development of the embryo, probably serving in the conduction of food materials to the later formed tissue adjoining it, which soon shows signs of containing food deposits. The reserve materials thus laid down are not utilized by the embryo before seed germination, but exist as the endosperm of the ripe seed. The endo- sperm at the micropylar end of the embryo sac does not develop in large quantity, forming a tissue about the embryo only after the latter attains a considerable size. _ The egg cell remains dormant for a time after fertilization. In 1903 the period of blossoming lasted (at Baton Rouge) for a month following the middle of May. Material gathered about the first of July showed egg cells undivided, as well as embryos of only a few cells. Growth during the summer is slow, small embryos being found in material gathered about the tenth of August. It was not till the middle of September that large ones were observed, and even then there was much diversity in size. The first wall formed in the division of the egg cell is transverse, as is the second one also. The proembryo of three superimposed cells is therefore not different from the type that holds in so many monocotyledons. The divisions immediately following, however, vary considerably in sequence. The middle segment may divide sooner than the terminal (fig. 28), or the reverse may be true (fig. 27). The basal segment divides sooner or later by longitudinal walls into four cells—a variation from the Alisma-type, in which the segment is unicellular and vesicular. The terminal segment divides by longitudinal walls to form the quadrant, and by transverse walls to form the octant. The latter walls instead of being precisely transverse may be oblique (jig. 34). In many older embryos the arrangement of the cells in this segment 106 BOTANICAL GAZETTE indicates that the walls in question were originally oblique or els became so by unequal growth in different parts of the embryo (fi 36). The dermatogen usually forms first in the terminal segmen To distinguish the middle from the terminal segment soon becomes difficult matter, but from the position of the concavity in which stem apex is developed, it is safe to say that the apex arises fi Alisma. The middle segment also gives rise to the root-tip, hy cotyl, and part of the suspensor. A short time before the differen tion of the stem tip in the lateral depression, the region adjoining outside of the area where the stem tip is to appear grows upward in a ridge of tissue, which in the mature embryo encloses the growin point completely. If the figure of the embryo of Guzmannia, ¢ shown by Witrmack in Engler and Prantl’s Natiirlichen Pjlan: jamilien be compared with that of 7. usneoides (fig. 4o), the blance will at once be apparent. It will be noticed that what I called cotyledon in Tillandsia is called scutellum in Guzmam the term cotyledon! being reserved by WrrrMackx for the small 0 growth labeled c, near the stem apex. It is probable that the a in thus naming the two organs scutellum and cotyledon only wishes to emphasize the difference in function, one as an organ of absorp tion, the other as a rudimentary leaf, at the same time recogn the two as homologous with the cotyledons of the dicotyledo From a study of the seed germination of 7. usneoides, however, will be seen that it is extremely doubtful if the organ named cotyle in Guzmannia is really such. Further discussion of this point, ht ever, will be postponed till seed germination is considered. When the embryo of Tillandsia is about three-fourths g there occurs a degradation of certain cortical cells of either the | or the end of the hypocotyl nearest the root-tip. The cells in qt show at first a contracted protoplast, with incapacity to stain deep!y and by the time the embryo has reached its full size almost a €0 m absence of cell contents (fig. 42). This phenomenon undou stands in intimate relation with the complete atrophy of me obtains in the mature plant. ee ‘The index letter ¢ in the description of jig. 19, G of the Bromeliaceae found through correspondence to indicate cotyledon. a 1994] BILLINGS—TILLANDSIA USNEOIDES 107 Dispersal of seeds in the Tillandsia is accomplished by the assist- ance of long delicate hairs that beset the seed coat. These arise by elongation of the cells of that part of the outer integument which forms a portion of the body of the seed, and also from that part which extends to the funiculus. The hairs not only assist in wind trans- portation, but are also of use to the seed in enabling it to adhere to bark or festoons of moss. The adaptation for effective adherence consists in closely appressed barbs attached to the hairs at inter- vals (fig. 44). Soon after the opening of the capsules, numerous instances of seeds clinging tightly to limbs and to moss festoons may be observed. The time of discharge of seeds is in March (at Baton Rouge). I have no data as to possible variation of this time in localities widely distant, but suppose it is nearly uniform for the southern states. March, of course, is an unusual month for dehiscence of fruits in the north temperate zone, but in Tillandsia it stands in close relation to another property not generally possessed by seeds in temperate climates, that is, quick germination. Though lack of facts forbids positive statement, it may be conjectured that this relationship originated from ancestors living in tropical lowlands, where a dormant | period to withstand unfavorable conditions is unnecessary. GERMINATION OF THE SEED. Tillandsia produces seed in considerable quantity each year. Just what proportion contains fully-matured embryos has not been ascertained, but there is no doubt that a large percentage have them. The embryos appear perfectly normal, with the exception of the dead cortical cells in the root or hypoctyl, and show no apparent reason why they should not give rise to seedlings. The experience of inves- tigators, however, has been that seeds produced by the epiphyte are worthless, a condition which has arisen through the introduction of a vegetative mode of reproduction, whereby seed-production has degenerated. Nevertheless, I made efforts to induce seeds to germi- nate by placing them in a germinator, but without success. MEEHAN (5) reports having found the seed germinating in the hollow crotch of a tree in which vegetable mold had collected. He says that from the seedlings or young plants proceed stolons or runners, having buds 108 BOTANICAL GAZETTE every few inches, which push out into leaves and stems to form t gray-green moss. SCHIMPER (1) succeeded in finding one seedlin but he gives no description of it. Merz (6) states he was unab obtain any seedling at all. Realizing that the observations of Mx were worth consideration, I searched crotches of moss-laden tre which plenty of vegetable mold had collected, but without suce s. Fic. 1.—Seedlings of Tillandsia usneoides; on the right is a cluster of still attached by their coma to a partially opened — near the top of on the left a seedling is adhering to the scaly surfac I then planted seeds in the mold, but they could not be it germinate. On April 6, 1903, I observed Tillandsia the first time, and they were projecting from a partial capsule (fig. r). Out of the nineteen seeds in the capsule, | had developed into seedlings. They were held in place by of hairs from the testa to which they still adhered. An exam of moss festoons was then made, with the result that 1904] BILLINGS—TILLANDSIA USNEOIDES 109 seedlings were found either still attached to the capsules, or else hanging to the scaly stems and leaves of the mother plants. In every case the seed coat still adhered to the base, or root-end of the seed- lings, so as to enable the coma to keep them from falling to the ground, which they certainly would have done without this provision. When it is remembered that the capsules dehisced in March, and the seed- lings were found early in April, it will be seen that germination fol- lowed dehiscence quite closely. Of course the early growth was attained at the expense of the endosperm, but when it was exhausted, continued growth, which would naturally be expected from healthy looking seedlings, failed to occur. Material gathered in the summer and autumn yielded the usual crop of seedlings, but in no case were any found that were larger than those found in April. Festoons gathered the middle of January, nearly a year after the capsules opened, had numerous little seedlings hanging to them, all healthy looking, but no larger than any observed before them. It is expected that when the warm weather of spring comes, when Tillandsia puts forth its most vigorous growth, the seedlings also will increase in size. The question naturally arises here, why Tillandsia seedlings are not to be seen in all stages developing into mature plants, counting of course those which germinated previous years. As such is not the ~ case, it can only be conjectured that, as the spring of 1903 was an unusually rainy one, the conditions for germination were especially favorable. Seedlings exhibiting various stages in germination were imbedded in paraffin and longitudinally sectioned. In the earliest stage (jig. 45) the first leaf shows only a slight growth, the stem apex is still undifferentiated, while from the axil of the ridge of tissue that enclosed the stem apex, or else from its inner surface, a pair of organs have arisen. It is believed that the presence of these organs throws some light upon the morphological nature of the ridge of tissue. If a sec- tion is made through the nodal region of a mature plant (jig. 49), it will be seen that the leaf sheath which encloses the lateral shoot and main axis is double. The doubling is not due to splitting of a tissue once entire, but to bifurcation. A section through a very young sheath (jig. 49a) reveals an outgrowth, one to several cells in extent, from which a double layer of cells arises. These soon separate to 110 BOTANICAL GAZETTE form the double sheath. In older stages the base of the sheath is. composed of many cells in width, so that the sheath appears no longer _ to originate as a bifurcation of a single organ, but rather as two dis- tinct organs. Both organs or portions of the sheath may develop equally, though it more often happens that one portion becomes larger than the other. Occasionally, the inner scarcely develops all, but remains a tiny rudiment. The sheaths which arise in the seedling develop precisely like those in the mature plant and differ from them in no respect. The two organs that originate on the ridge of tissue, therefore, may be regarded without hesitation as the first sheath, and as every sheath appears i connection with a leaf, that leaf must be the cotyledon. From the section of the mature plant it will be noticed that the bases of each leaf and its sheath are at the same level on the axis. If a difference in level should occur, however, whereby the base of the sheath were elevated above that of the corresponding leaf, the cell growth pro- ducing that elevation would originate from the cortical parenchy lying immediately under the sheath. The parenchyma would giv in the embryo of Sparganium a sheath. While it does not requite # 1904] BILLINGS—TILLANDSIA USNEOIDES IIt stretch of the imagination to consider the growth in question asheath, there is at least one objection to this solution of the problem. The development of the sheath shows that it appears as a bifurcated organ almost from its incipiency, and that the base, at first narrow, subsequently increases greatly in width. Quite the reverse would be true in the embryo if the organ enclosing the growing point were regarded as a sheath, for the basal portion is first enormously devel- oped, leaving the upper bifurcated portion to appear comparatively late. The stages in germination are shown in figs. 45-48, which should be compared with jig. 49. The latter exhibits a difference in rela- tive time of differentiation of stem and leaf apex as compared with the seedling. In the mature plant the leaf is still quite small when the stem apex becomes distinguishable at its base, while in the seed- ling the leaf first attains considerable size. THE FLOWER. The flowers, which are produced in considerable quantity in May and June, present little of special interest. Each flower has a calyx of three sepals, and a corolla of three green petals. Having a fra- grant odor, it is possible that it is visited by insects, though no infor- mation has been collected by me on the subject. Thrips, however, inhabit many of the flowers and puncture the style in order to deposit an egg at its base. It is possible, therefore, that they may serve in cross pollination. Although the flower appears to be terminal, it is regarded by Mez (6) as a reduced indeterminate inflorescence. An examination of preparations made longitudinally through buds bears him out in his statement, for a growing point of considerable size is present, though having dead meristem tissue. THE LEAVES. The leaves of T. usneoides are acicular and with an approximately semicircular cross section. The epidermal cells do not have specially heavy walls, nor are the inner ones thicker than the outer, as in certain other Bromeliaceae. Sections through the leaf show it to have three fibrovascular bundles, each surrounded by a tissue composed of thick- walled sclerenchyma fibers (jigs. 50, 51). The principal portion 112 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [auG of the leaf is composed of parenchyma cells which do not show differentiatiation at all into palisade and spongy tissue. While cells have the shape of those in typical spongy tissue, the large inte cellular air spaces characteristic of most mesophytic leaves are he replaced by small ones, giving the whole tissue a much more com appearance. Not all of the parenchyma cells contain chloropl for there are interspersed cells without them, whose function of water-storage, having walls provided with large pits which fa the passage of water from one cell to another. Aside from acting in the capacity of mechanical tissue, the vase system has undergone a, process of degeneration. The ne for a functional xylem with its transpiration stream is eliminated the fact that there is a complete absence of roots, and also by the fa that the water-absorbing organs, the scales, are found over the enti exposed surface with the exception of some of the floral o There would appear also to be no need for a functional phloem all living cells either contain chlorophyll and are exposed to light, else are approximate to those containing chlorophyll. THE CHLOROPLASTS. One of the most interesting features of the leaf is the structur behavior of the chloroplasts. These bodies, instead of exhi the more or less homogeneous structure observed in most chloropl are seen to be composed of masses of smaller chloroplasts, meas about 2 long and about a third as wide (fig. 52). While a few cells in every cross section of the living leaf contain chloro of the usual type, the vast majority of them contain such been described above. The little chlorophyll bodies have @ if not quite, the minuteness of bacteria, and for convenience spoken of as microchloroplasts; the larger bodies, of which they to form a part, being distinguished as megachloroplasts. The significance of the formation of the microchloroplasts will be seen when it is stated that they may not remain in bunches (fs. | but can and often do separate from one another till the entire & plasm of the cell becomes dotted with them (fig. 53)- Under magnification such a cell appears uniformly green throughout. €ven enter the vacuoles, where a lively Brownian movement is set 1904] BILLINGS—TILLANDSIA USNEOIDES 113 It was at once suspected that the various phases in distribution of the microchloroplasts were conditioned by the light intensity, and hence their movements could be made subject to control. Festoons of Tillandsia accordingly were placed under different conditions varying from darkness to direct sunlight. Those placed in darkness were allowed to remain there 24 to 30 hours, and a similar period of expo- sure was allotted to festoons hung in the shade. Those exposed to direct sunlight were hung up early in the morning. All were exam- ined during the hours between 11:30 A. M. and 3:00 P. M. The examination was made by sectioning numerous leaves of vari- ous ages, and from as many different regions of each festoon as pos- sible. Plants were also sectioned at different times of day and also at night. The results in every instance were approximately the same. Sections were obtained from plants under the varying conditions of light intensity used in the experiment; sections in which the mega- chloroplasts were present; in which they were in the process of disin- tegration into microchloroplasts; in which there was distribution of the microchloroplasts uniformly through the cell; and in which all the foregoing stages were present in the same section. In fact, the same leaf varied in these respects in its different portions. There seemed to be no method of telling before examination just what condition the chloroplasts would be in. One of the best instances of complete uniformity of distribution of the microchloroplasts throughout the cytoplasm was obtained from the tiny leaf of a seedling. That the disintegration of the mega- into microchloroplasts is not the result of injury due to sectioning may be proven by an examination of the entire leaf through the epidermis. Sections also cut thick contain in their centers cells untouched by the razor. Homogeneous chloroplasts of the usual type were found which showed evidence of undergoing division. Megachloroplasts, in which the microchloroplasts were distinctly visible, were also found showing a deep constriction as though they too were undergoing fission. Owing to the difficulty of observing well the interior of the leaf through the overlapping scales, it was not ascertained whether the microchloroplasts return to form megachloroplasts or not; but if so it seems certain that the latter would not be constructed of identically the same microchloroplasts a second time. 114 BOTANICAL GAZETTE It is offered in explanation of this interesting condition of af that the supply of light of Tillandsia is considerably diminishec _ the presence of the overlapping scales, which are necessary for w absorption and for protection against too rapid transpiration. order to meet this diminution, it not only prefers sunny e3 but has modified its chlorophyll-bearing apparatus by caus occupy a much larger area in order to utilize to better advantage s light as penetrates to the interior of the leaf. It may be stated here that precautions were taken to exalt healthy festoons removed directly from moss-laden trees. In s instances these were examined immediately after such removal, confinement in the laboratory should in some way induce pa cal conditions. THE SCALES. eS The scales cover the entire living exposed portion of the plant the exception of the corolla, stamens, ovary, and a portion of calyx. Each scale develops from a single epidermal cell, the divisions of which occur while the young leaves and stems are within the leaf sheath. The first division is transverse (Ag. The proximal cell thus produced remains undivided, the dividing transversely till four cells are produced, of which the three form the stalk of the scale (fig. 57). The outermost | spherical cell becomes divided into four cells by two longitudinal perpendicular to one another (figs. 58 and 63). By periclinal' a central group of four cells becomes separated from four oute (fig. 64). The central cells divide no further. The outer ones by periclinal walls to form two concentric rows (fig. 65): : of both rows become eight in number by anticlinal walls, the row undergoing no further division, but the outer, by another anticlinals, finally has sixteen. A fourth concentric row * formed by periclinal walls from the outermost sixteen celles three inner layers consist of four, eight, and sixteen cells respet which numbers remain constant, but the fourth layer repeated divisions till a large number of cells are produce¢ These last lengthen greatly and form the wing of the surface view of the mature scale is seen in fig. 68, the lo section in fig. 70. All of the cells but the stalk cells and the 1904] BILLINGS—TILLANDSIA USN EOIDES. 115 basal cells undergo thickening of their walls in certain portions and lose their cell contents. SCHIMPER (1) was the first to call attention to the water absorptive function of the scales, and his experiments along this line were so complete as to leave little else to be done. That the leaves of Tillandsia can absorb water is easily demonstrated either by wetting them with water and then watching it disappear, or by noting the weight before and after allowing them to remain a short time in water. That the channel of absorption is through the scales is shown by using colored water, which stains the stalk cells. Unlike most similar appendages of the epidermis, the scales do not hinder the leaf from becoming wet, but actually conduct water into the interstices beneath them. When dry, the leaf is of a gray color, due to the air enclosed by the scales, but when wet, the air is replaced by water, and a deep green color results. From an examination of fig. 70 it will be seen that the outer walls of the scale are thickened. When water is absorbed by the cells with thickened walls, they become turgid, expand below, and raise the wing of the scale well above the epider- mis (jig. 69). The water absorbed by the outer cells of the scale passes to the stalk cells, which have thin walls and rich protoplasmic contents. Through these it passes through the basal cell to the water- storage cells of the parenchyma. If the plant be soaked in dilute potassium iodid solution for a day, the walls of the stalk, basal, and neighboring parenchyma cells will be stained. It should be noticed that no ordinary type of epidermal cell with its thickened cuticularized wall separates the scale from the parenchyma. The cell that repre- sents the epidermis beneath the scale is the basal cell resulting from the first division of the epidermal cell that gave rise to the scale. The walls of this basal cell are thin and uncuticularized. If a scale whose wing is raised well above the epidermis by the turgescence of its cells be treated with glycerin, the contraction due to loss of turgescence will draw the scale close down against the epidermis. This illus- trates the process that takes place when scales become dry from evaporation, as occurs in nature. Such a process cannot but assist the epidermis in checking transpiration, so that the scales may be considered not only as organs of absorption, but as serving to prevent too rapid escape of the water they have been instrumental in bring- ing into the plant. 116 BOTANICAL GAZETTE The effect of an absorptive system extending over the en face has already been mentioned in the reduction of the mecha and conductive tissues. As such reduction is found mostly in merged hydrophytes, it will be seen that 7. usneoides behaves in respects much like such plants. The scales stand in connection with the water-storage tissue. — cells of this tissue lie well distributed among the chlorophyll-b cells and keep them in a state of turgescence. Even after a plant lost one-fourth of its weight by transpiration, and the leaves | become grooved by contraction, the chlorophyll-bearing parend is unhurt. It is believed that the leaf shrinkage is due to a collapse of the storage tissue upon loss of water, rather than decrease in turgescence of the green parenchyma. There is no dence that the plant undergoes desiccation and subsequent as in the case of Polypodium vulgare.* . THE STOMATA. In addition to protection afforded by scales, hairs, and walled epidermal cells, xerophytes sometimes guard against | rapid transpiration by means of the position and structure of stomata. Sunken stomata, or those vestibuled by an epidermal space, itself with a narrow opening to the exterior, are all well kno In some xerophytic plants the usual closing of the pore by the cells is assisted in its function of checking transpiration by m tions in neighboring parenchymatous or epidermal cells. In australis, for instance, there is, according to TSCHIRCH,’ a large cellular space adjoining the stoma, partially filled with coiled cell ' ™Since this paper went to press, one by MEz (g) has appeared on the pl of water absorption in certain species of Tillandsia, among them T. corrects SCHIMPER’s observations as to the details of the absorptive process, © by the stalk cells (Aujnahmezellen) through the usual process of ae describes the scale of T. usneoides as having only one stalk cell ins st While it is true that two of the cells are very thin, their presence can £ out in good sections of mature scales and still more readily in sections wa *HABERLANDT, G., Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie. 2d ed. P- 399- 1904] BILLINGS—TILLANDSIA USNEOIDES 117 outgrowths of the parenchyma. The outgrowths do not stop, but merely hinder transpiration. Xanthorrhoea hastilis exhibits a similar contrivance. Camellia japonica and Prunus Laurocerasus have the faculty of filling up the air space as a result of excessive drouth or by death of the guard cells. In such cases tylose-like processes occur which block up all gas interchange. Pilea elegans differs from those mentioned above in that certain subjacent parenchyma cells develop thickenings on their exterior walls. One of these finally pushes up against the pore of the stoma and effectually closes it. There is no movement of the parenchyma cell away from the stoma, hence the aperture is permanently closed. From an examination of jigs. 72 and 73 it will be apparent that Tillandsia presents a condition of affairs not widely different from that of Pilea. The principal differ- ence lies in the fact that in Tillandsia the parenchyma cells undergo no thickening. Both longitudinal and cross sections through the leaf show outgrowths from the parenchyma cells lining the sides of the air space. The outgrowths turn upward and either stop up the opening of the stoma or else press directly against the guard cells. It will be seen that the enormously thickened walls of the guard cells preclude a possibility of change in their form. To show this experi- mentally some plants were placed in water and exposed to direct sunlight for a few hours. The leaves were then sectioned and the guard cells watched with a micrometer while glycerin was run under the cover glass. There was no measurable change. According to Mez (6) the guard cells have lost the power of functioning, this power having been transferred to certain cells of the subjacent tissue which operate the passive guard cells, thus opening and closing the stoma. There are two cells which come in contact with the guard cell and may therefore be the means of moving it. One is the cell to which it is attached and which extends from the hinge to the inner face of the guard cell. This cell is usually continuous, but may be divided by a cross wall into two cells. Should this cell, which is epidermal, become turgescent, it would tend to raise the guard cell, swinging its free side outwards. Such a movement, however, would close rather than open the pore of the stoma. The hinge is quite thick and may be much thicker than any shown in the figures. If the epidermal cell is divided the division wall would effectually hinder any movement of 118 BOTANICAL GAZETTE the guard cell. From these two considerations it would appear ful whether the guard cells move at all in either direction. Of co the glycerin experiment was repeatedly tried, but no motion discernible. The only other cells which by contact with the guard. can move them are the parenchyma cells whose processes push the guard cells on the under side. It was at first thought | parenchyma cells were operated by variations in turgescence epidermal cell, so that regarding the guard cells as immo not been experimentally proven by the glycerin test. Num instances were investigated carefully, but in not a single case di of the processes change their position. It is here confessed th reaction was noticed in any part of the stoma or adjacent Tesponse to the action of glycerin, nor was an instance found material where the guard cells appeared to be separated. experimental demonstration of the presence of a mechanism stomata, therefore, has not thus far met with success. are to be considered attempts on the part of the plant to close stomata permanently. It may be that not all the processes reach the center of the stoma and close it, so that, granted small opening exists between the guard cells, the number of func stomata would merely be reduced. The total number of per square millimeter was ascertained and found to be relatively s The estimate was made by counting the number of stomata 1 section of serial sections taken from a portion of leaf of known %@ For instance, a piece of leaf 3™" long contained 52 stomata. lating the surface from the circumference of the cross section, would be 7 per square millimeter, or, in round numbers, square inch, oe It must of course be taken into consideration that sections leaves were used for experiment and not entire ones. If vat . 1904] BILLINGS—TILLANDSIA USN EOIDES 119 the pressure of the water-storage tissue exert any influence on the opening and closing of the stomata it is very probable that the injury done to the tissue in sectioning would greatly interfere with the action of the mechanism. HABERLANDT (8) figures the stoma of Ti/landsia zonata, which in respect to guard cells, and their supporting cells, resembles that of T. usneoides. The guard cells have greatly thickened walls, and a thickened hinge. From Haberlandt’s account it is evident that he does not fully comprehend the mechanism. In 7. zonata no subja- cent parenchyma is mentioned as taking part in the opening or closing of the stoma. THE STEM. Aside from the vascular region, the stem differs in no essential particulars from the leaves as to structure. The stem, of course, has the added function of support, so that there is developed between and around the bundles a thick tissue of sclerenchyma fibers (fig. 74). The fibers measure about 750 in length. They do not impart rigidity, but flexibility and power to resist longitudinal strain. If a fragment of moss is blown from one limb of a tree to another, and succeeds in getting a hold, the cortex of that portion of the stem that passes over the limb dies, and then disintegrates, leaving the scleren- chymatous axis, which holds the plant in place for several and perhaps many years. It is upon the durability and elasticity of this tissue that the economic value of the moss in upholstery depends. What has already been said in regard to reduction in.the function of the xylem and phloem of the leaves could with equal truth be said about the stems. With a superficial absorptive system and no root, the xylem as a conductive system is useless. The pendent habit and method of dissemination are both closely associated with reduction in mechanical tissue, though they are more likely to be the result than the cause of the reduction. The parenchymatous cortex, as in leaves, is supplied with chlorophyll-bearing cells, all of which are exposed to light, so that a tissue like the phloem, to carry elaborated materials to cells distant from the center of photosynthesis, would be unnecessary. LovIstIana STATE UNIVERSITY, Baton Rouge, La. 120 BOTANICAL GAZETTE LITERATURE CITED. 1. Scuimper, A. F. W., Ueber Bau und Lebensweise der Epiphyten diens. Bot. Centralbl. 17: 192 et seq. 1884. , Botanische Mittheilungen aus den Tropen. 2. Die epiphyti tation Amerikas. pp. 162. pls. 6. Jena. 1888. 4. Hormetster, W., Neue Beobachtungen iiber Embryobildung Togamen. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 1: 82-188. pls. 7-10. 1858. MEEHAN, T., The Florida moss, Tillandsia usneoides. Proc. Acad. Philadelphia 1875: 466. . ee by Aa OO Monographiae Phanerogamarum. Editore et pro parte be Casimiro de Candolle. IX. Bromeliaceae. Paris. 1896. a 7- CAMPBELL, D. H., Studies on the flower and embryo of Sparganium. California Acad. Sci. III. Bot. r: 293-328. pls. 46-48. 1899. 8. HABERLANDT, G., Zur Kenntniss des Spaltéffnungapparatus. 97-110. pl. 2. 1887. 9. Merz, Cart, Physiologische Bromeliaceen-Studien. I. Die Was mie der extrematmosphaerischen Tillandsien. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot 229. 1904. - EXPLANATION OF PLATES VIII-XI. Fic. 2. Ovule fundament showing archesporial cell. a Fie. 3. Young ovule at period just before first division of archesporial ce Fic. 4. Spindle of first division. i Fics. 5-6. Stages in formation of axial row of potential megaspores. Fic. 7. Megaspores without separating walls. . Fics. 8-9. Enlargement of basal megaspore to form embryo sac ™ Fics. 10-14. Stages in formation of embryo sac. : Fic. 15. Pollen tube just after entering embryo sac. a Fic. 16. Fusion of polars before rupture of pollen tube: s, synergid Fic. 17. Lateral discharge of pollen tube: e, egg; ¢, tube nucleus; Fic. 18. Simultaneous double fertilization. a - Double fertilization with discharge of tube nucleus (#); & egs: Fic. 20. Fusion of male and endosperm nuclei. i Fic. 21. Ovule at time of completed embryo sac. Fic. 22. Elongation of ovule and outer integument after f : Fic. 23. First division in formation of chalazal endosperm tissue- Fic. 24. Chalazal endosperm tissue and portion of endosperm as reserve material in ripe seed. - Fics. 25-26. Two- and three-celled embryos. UL i ° © BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXXVIII PLATE VIII % LS Ny AS BILLINGS on TILLANDSIA. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXXVIIT PLATE [1X wan Hels ae Ss Ctr 2 —— Se Da, ineana cS a SH BY He BILLINGS on TILLANDSIA. PLATE X BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXXVIII a8 Sua en! Cy ‘ow ae ae = fet aa OS “ge ES. ' BILLINGS on TILLANDSIA. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXXVIII PLATE XI ey f 0 i 1 a 4 BILLINGS on TILLANDSIA. 1904] BILLINGS—TILLANDSIA USNEOIDES I21 Fic.%7. Formation of quadrant Fic. 28. Division of middle before terminal segmen Fic. 29. Unusually early development of basal and ae segments. Fic. 30. An unusual form of embryo. Fics. 31-36. Stages in embryo development; in jig. 34, the transverse walls in the terminal segment are oblique; the last three figures show beginning of dermatogen. 1G. 37. Embryo about one-fourth grown Fics. 38-40. Outlines of embryos in ‘ate stages of development; jig. 30 represents a mature embryo. 1G. 41. Region in vicinity of growing point of a nearly ripe embryo. Fic. 42. Root region of nary mature embryo, showing dead cortical cells. Fic. 43. Ripe see Fic. 44. Barbs on ‘die of coma. Fic. 45. Early stage in germination; outline of longitudinal section. Fics. 46-48. Stages in development of seedling; outline of longitudinal sec- tion. Fic. 49. Longitudinal section through the growing point regions of a mature plant: s, sheath; st, stem; /, leaf; sa, stem apex; Ja, leaf apex. Fic. 49a. Very young sheath. Fic. 50. Cross section of leaf; p, pit in water-storage cell. Fic. 51. Bundle of leaf enlarged to show phloem (p) and xylem (3. Fic. 52. Megachloroplasts showing division into microchloroplasts. Fic Stage in separation of microchloroplasts by which they become dis- inuted through the cytoplasm. Fics. 54-61. Stages in development of the scale seen in longitudinal section; fig. 54 shows the epidermal cell from which the scale arises. Fics. 62-68. Stages in scale development seen from the surface; fig. 68 shows a mature scale. Fic. 69. Scale in longitudinal section, after soaking in water for several hours; the wing is seen to be raised considerably above the epidermis. 1G. 70. Scale in longitudinal section, drawn from a aga section; it will be seen to lie much closer to the epidermis than the one in jig. 6 IG. 71. General appearance of the surface of the leaf, chit ‘the scales. Fic. 72. Section through a stoma; the guard cells are unquestionably closed; in addition a process has grown up from the parenchyma into the pore of the stoma; s, scales IG. 73. Section of stoma showing slight variation from that in jig. 72; figs. 72 and 73 were drawn from sections through living material. Fic. 74. Cross section through the vascular et of the stem: ~, phloem; x, xylem. BIOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF CERTAIN DESERT SHRUBS. , I. THE CREOSOTE BUSH (COVILLEA TRIDENTATA) IN ITS. RELATION TO WATER SUPPLY. . V. M. SPALDING. (WITH SEVEN FIGURES) THE general features of desert vegetation are well known and have been described in a voluminous literature. Certain striking pecu- liarities, such as the production of spines, development of tissue f These general and easily ascertained facts are by no means portant, and it is a decided advantage to botanical science that have been recorded in such numbers. A far more important | has become increasingly evident, namely that plants living to under present day desert conditions have each a history and | ter of its own, expressed in peculiarities of habits and physiolo activities, and evidence is not wanting that, with changing most complicated interrelations of organism and_ envirol rings the conviction that no general statement is an adequate & sion of the biological relations of any one of them, that each is to itself, and that its actual relations to the environment m determined for each species by critical study of its own struc and Physiological characteristics, one by one. It is from this of view that the present study has been undertaken, and for this Pose certain desert shrubs have been chosen—the creosote bush verde, and mesquite—all of which possess, each in its own Way; : [av 1904} SPALDING—THE CREOSOTE BUSH 123 remarkable adaptations to desert conditions, and present striking examples of survival in a region that has passed from widely different conditions at an earlier geological period to its present. extreme ~~ ‘s : hs J a ae at as ee ag. . _ ey, 4 ¥ = a? \N : % Te FE Covillea tridentata, near IG. Gard. No. 46° Plant World 6: pl. 36. i. 4 Tucson, Arizona.—From Contrib. N. Y. Bot. t the © ¢ ~ aridity. Work on these several species is now under way Desert Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, and as yet is incom- plete. It is thought best, however, to embody in the form of a report 124 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST of progress the following notes on the creosote bush and its relations to water supply. The creosote bush, Covillea tridentata, is, as is well known, one of the most characteristic species of the Lower Sonoran zone, and through its wide range, from California eastward to Colorado and Texas, and southward into Mexico, it is perhaps, of all the species of this zone, the one most constantly present and most firmly established (fig. r). It occupies extended areas where its removal would leave a bare waste, but at the same time shares, on mesa and foot-hills, a great variety of soils and exposure with other species that exhibit far less capacity of accommodation than itself. This power of accommodation is particularly noticeable as regards water supply. One has only to pass from the mesa east of Tucson, for example, to the low ground of the Rillito near Fort Lowell, obsery- ing the specimens of creosote bush as he goes along, to be convinced that the differences presented by them are due to the meager supply of water in the one case and its abundance in the other. More strik- ing still are the changes that take place when individual plants are well watered. In contrast with the specimens around them to which no water is given, their leaves become deep green and undergo a marked increase in size, while the whole plant presents the appearance of robust health and remarkable vigor, very different from the pinched specimens with narrow, pale leaves, branches more or less defoliated, and other marks of a struggle that, however successful, is manifestly one of great severity. Plants that have been well watered for @ period of years are far more fruitful than their companions standing in dry ground near by, and from their vigor, fruitfulness, and habit of retaining a greater number of healthy leaves and branches, there can be no question as to which is the normal condition; the creosote bush reaches its normal development where there is a full supply of water; arid conditions are indeed tolerated to a remarkable degree, but the plant is dwarfed and suffers in other ways while it endures them (jig. 2). These facts, though matters of every day observation, are highly significant. Provisionally they may be interpreted as indicating that the creosote bush, living over much of the territory where it is now found from the period of maximum precipitation to the present time, -+/o-masietstataiaibiccngianithnes 1904} SPALDING—THE CREOSOTE BUSH 125 has acquired habits that enable it to withstand excessive drouth, but has never lost its capacity to absorb and use large quantities of water, and attains its best development only under such conditions. The readiness with which this species accommodates itself to an over-supply of water is shown by a simple experiment. Seedlings of Covillea were grown in a flower pot, and after they had made a IG. 2.—Branches of Covillea; on the right from a well watered bush near St. Mary’s Sanatorium, north of the Desert Laboratory; on the left from the exceedingly dry soil of the mesa close by. good start were set into a can of water, the bottom of the pot having been broken through in several places. After three or four weeks it was found that some of the roots had grown down into the water and, in contrast with those growing in the soil, had taken the form of water roots, being entirely destitute of root-hairs. The epidermal cells exhibited plasmolysis with a 4 per cent. solution of potassic nitrate, thus indicating their capacity for active absorption. Seedlings grown in the Geneva tester also sent their primary roots down into the water without apparent injury. It is plain, then, that the roots of 126 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST Covillea are capable of growing in water, at least for a time, and carry- ing on normal absorption there. In order to observe the effects of too great and too small a supply of water on plants growing in soil, seeds were sown in two receptacles measuring 23°™ in depth, and were treated as nearly alike as possible except as to the amount of water given to them. Both stood where they received sunlight through a wire screen during the entire day. One lot received a very large amount of water, manifestly much more than they required, and the other lot was given very little, so little that at times they seemed in danger of drying up. At such times they were given a little more water, after which it was withheld again. — All the plants flourished, but in the course of a few weeks there was a marked difference between those that had received an exces- sive supply and the ones that had received a meager supply of water. April rath, eight weeks after the seeds were sown, the plants were carefully washed and examined. The seedlings of both lots pre- sented a fine, healthy appearance, and the roots of both had reached the bottom of the receptacle in which they were growing and had spread out upon it. They differed most conspicuously in the develop- ment of stems and leaves (fig. 3). Those that had received an excessive amount of water measured approximately 2°™ more in height than those to which a meager supply had been given, and the leaves were both larger and more numerous, numbering from 6 to 10° in representative specimens of the former as against 4 to 8 in the latter; while the largest leaflets in the two lots measured respectively 1.4 and 0.8°™ in length. Neither lot showed as strong a development of the root system as plants grown under the same conditions to which an abundant, but not maximum, supply of water had been given. Microscopic examination showed that while both lots were charac terized by abundance of root-hairs, these were most numerous and better developed on the roots that had received little water. It will be instructive to compare with this the record of two other lots of seedlings that had been under observation for a period of seve? weeks, during which one lot had been given an oversupply of water while the other received very little. On March 31st, when they were taken up and washed free from the soil in which they had grown, it was found that the plants to which little water had been given had 1904] SPALDING—THE CREOSOTE BUSH 127 a strong and well-developed root system, but that this was very poorly developed in those that had received much water. It was noticeable, too, that while the latter were not altogether destitute of root-hairs, they had not produced them in anything like the abundance character- izing those that had been given little water, there being long stretches on which no root- hairs whatever were to be seen. Both lots of root-hairs showed plasmolysis of epider- mal cells near the tip of the fresh root, and of the adjacent root-hairs, with 3 per cent. solution of potassic nitrate, but farther back in both cases plasmolysis was effected with difficulty or not at all. As for the parts above ground, both lots of seedlings had grown well, but those that had been given too much water were of a decidedly lighter green, approaching a sickly color. From these and other obser- ’ vations it appears that when df > given an excessive quantity of Ak ) water seedlings of Covillea make a remarkably rapid ~ growth above ground, but pro- duce a less number of root- a, hairs than those that have a ( meager supply, besides show- “ FIG. 3.— Seedlings of Covillea eight weeks old, showing effect of excessive and meager water supply. 128 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST ing other differences that may be passed over at present. The capi- tal fact, however, is that this species, whether as seedling or mature plant, exhibits an endurance of extremes in the matter of water sup- ply that apparently vety few species not possessing a storage system or. its equivalent have attained. This ready adjustment to differences of water supply, manifested not only in power of endurance but also in rate of growth and in other particulars, might naturally be expected to find expression in a corresponding varying rate of transpiration; it becomes, therefore, a matter of special interest to determine the habits of the creosote bush in this respect, particularly after long periods of drouth. Accord- ingly a series of experiments were conducted in which the hygro- metric method of determining transpiration, suggested by Dr. D. T. MacDoveat was chiefly employed. By permission of the Desert Laboratory some of the results are here given in advance of publi- cation elsewhere, in which a full account of methods employed by Dr. W. A. Cannon will be given by him. At the time these experiments were undertaken, late in April extremely dry conditions, both of atmosphere and soil, had long pre- vailed. The rainfall since September 1903, a period of nearly seven months, had aggregated only one inch, spring flowers had failed to appear, and during nearly all of the winter and spring an intolerable dust had filled the roads and risen into the air. Under such circum- stances it might naturally be expected that transpiration on the part of every plant not artificially watered would be reduced to a minimum; the facts of the case, however, by no means warrant this conclusion. Two specimens of Covillea were selected, one on the hill a little to the northward of the laboratory, the other at the foot of the hill in the same direction. The former presented the fresh appearance exhibited by most of the creosote bushes near the laboratory, indica- tive of a water supply, however limited, in excess of that in the plain below, where the bushes looked dull and dried-up, as if subjected to Most severe conditions, to which it seemed as if they must succumb. This consists essentially in direct reading of a specially constructed hygrometer Placed with the plant under a bell-jar, from which escape of moisture is prevented . oiled silk or a cement base. The correction for vapor-pressure is made once for 4 by weighing calcium chlorid before and after the saturated air of the bell-jar has a Passed through it. 1904] SPALDING—THE CREOSOTE BUSH 129 TRANSPIRATION OF THE CREOSOTE BUSH. No. 1. April 22, 1904. ee ae 10:51 17 26° C. 105 10:54 19.5 27 121 10:56 a3 27.5 149 | 10/58 25.5 28 177 | 11:00 29.5 28 198 11:02 25:5 28.5 256 | 11:04 40.5 29 300 | 11:06 48 29 355 11:08 54 29 398 II:10 60 29 444 11:12 64 29.5 487 II:14 67.5 29.5 514 11:16 70 29.5 532 11:18 72 29.5 548 11:20 74 29.5 564 11:22 75 30 582 No. 2. April 23, 1904. eee Temperature Aunt i 8:57 21 24.5° C. 62 9:03 22.5 25.5 69 9:08 25.5 25.5 72 9:13 24.5 26 76 9:18 26.5 26 84 9-23 29 26 gI 9:28 32 26.5 104 9:33 35-5 26.5 116 9:38 39-5 27 132 9-43 42.5 27 142 9:48 46.5 27.5 152 9:53 47-5 27-5 165 9:58 49 28 173 10:03 50 28 178 10:08 49.5 28.5 183 The above table gives in milligrams the aggregate amounts of watery vapor transpired during the indicated periods by each of the plants under observation, and the amounts given off are rep- resented graphically by the accompanying curves (fig. 4). The 130 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST readings of the hygrometer were reduced by means of the Smith- sonian meteorological tables and the appropriate correction then applied for the bell-jar employed. Later experiments indicate that the correction applied in the present case must be considered approxi- mately rather than quantitatively exact, but this does not affect the value of the comparisons that follow. From the tables here given it is seen that for the time of observa- tion the rate of transpiration of the two plants respectively was: no. 1, 924™6 per hour; no. 2, 102™£ per hour. Pa Te j 5 A Beit Mn a ‘Be 8 j it ina oe BT GS SB a i Eas | as 2 aR j= 5 ak SSG Ga 7 8 Ws SO eh WS + 2 a We a Try ea a | Sa a | OS ai | T | J ET Por TT aT cal Bs RE BY potty | | | Fic. 4.—Curves showing rate of transpiration of two creosote bushes and amount transpired by no. 1 in 31 minutes and by no. 2 in 1 hour and rx minutes. By counting the leaves of each plant and estimating their surface and that of the green shoots on which they were borne, the entire transpiring surface was estimated as: no. 1, 1533°™; no. 2, 660%. For equivalent surfaces, therefore, the rate of transpiration of no. 1, the plant on the hill, was 3.7 times that of no. 2, the plant on the plain below. Further experiments gave similar results. A branch of a creosote bush growing where the ground had been thoroughly soaked a few weeks before by the running over of water from the tank of the Desert Laboratory was exceptionally fresh and green, and its rate of transpiration, for equivalent surfaces, was found to be 8.9 times 4 8reat as that of the bush on the mesa. se From these and other detailed experiments not here reported; It 1s abundantly proven that after months of excessive drouth the 1904] SPALDING—THE CREOSOTE BUSH 131 creosote bush on the mesa and foot-hills is still transpiring consider- able quantities of water. The amount transpired appears to stand in direct relation to the amount of water available in the soil where the plant is growing, as is indicated by the following comparison of percentages of moisture given off by the soil when air dried. Samples of soil were taken at depths of 20 to 30°" below the surface from points near the plants on which the transpiration experi- ments were conducted. In each case the sample was weighed, then left in a shallow basin in the air, exposed to sunlight, but protected from draughts of wind, for three days, after which the weighing was repeated. It was found that the soil from the laboratory hill, taken at a depth of 30°™ below the surface, lost by air-drying during this period 8 per cent. of its weight, while that from the plain near the foot of the hill, which was much drier and in which the creosote bushes were evidently suffering from lack of water, taken from a depth of 20 to 25°™, lost at the same time 3 per cent. Another sample from the hill lost by heating over an electric stove 12 per cent. of its weight. The days when the drying was done the relative humidity of the atmos- phere ranged from 20 to 27 per cent. It is of course essential that much more extended and critical work in this direction should be carried out. Meantime the impor- tant fact is established that after months of excessive drouth the soil in which creosote bushes were living, taken only a few inches below the surface, gave up when air dried 3 to 8 per cent. of its weight of watery vapor, while a considerably higher per cent. was driven off by heat. This fact being proven, our interest chiefly centers in the capacity of the plant to utilize the available soil water after it has been so greatly reduced. This involves a study of the root system. By way of ascertaining first general facts, the roots of creosote bushes were examined by carefully removing the earth in which they were growing, and then following their ramifications as far as possi- ble. This is not an entirely satisfactory procedure, inasmuch as it is quite impracticable to follow the finest roots to the end without breaking them off. It is possible, however, to lay bare so large a part of the root system as to obtain a clear view of its direction of growth, mode of branching, and other characteristic features. Fig. 5 isa photograph of two seedlings of Covillea, a few months old, that 132 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST were taken up from the mesa east of Tucson, January 13, 1904. The soil where they were dug, though rather light, is relatively deep, eee Fic. 5 —Seedlings of Covillea from the mesa east of Tucson, Arizona. The Position of this particular plant wit It Is instructive, and May account in part and it is noticeable that while the lateral roots had attained only a slight eveloy t, the tap-root had reached a depth of over 31°™ in the one case, and upwards of 53°™ in the other. A much older plant, taken up from the plain northward of the Desert Laboratory,where the soil is underlaid by rock, shows a strong development of secondary roots, and the tap-root, instead of continuing vertically downward, turns off at a small angle from the horizontal, but finally, at 80°™ distance from the main axis, turns directly downward. The lateral roots in their tum continue near the surface only a short distance, and then, in spite of the rocky nature of the substratum, turn downwards, reach- ing 40 to 45°™ in dep where they were broken off, though probably extending to a consider- ably greater depth (fig-6)- h respect to those aroun for the distribution of 16 ee 1904] SPALDING—THE CREOSOTE BUSH 133 roots. Compare the diagram, fig. 7, showing the position and dis- tance of a Parkinsonia, Fouquieria, Opuntia, and another Covillea. The roots were traced more than half the distance to the Parkinsonia in one direction, and to the Fouquieria in the other. * 4 vot hy, Lag Fis. 6.—Covillea from plain to the north of the Desert Laboratory, showing char- acter of root system. From these and many other individual plants that have been examined, it has been found that the general plan of the root system is essentially the same in all; there is a strong tap-root which grows downwards until it meets an obstruction, or for some other reason changes its course, and slender lateral roots which run near the sur- 134 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST face for some distance. It has not thus far been practicable to ascer- tain the extreme distance to which either the main or lateral roots may extend. At the entrance of an abandoned mine the roots of a rather small plant were found exposed at a depth of 3™, and from their size at this point, it is probable that they extended 1.5™ or more =e farther. Larger specimens doubtless send their roots to much greater distances. In any case it is seen that the root system spreads widely and penetrates deeply into the earth, a disposition well adapted to secure what water is available through a comparatively wide area when there is a light rain, while the longer divisions of the root extend —_ to the water. brought by heavier rains that have i a reached lower levels. Such an arrangement is all ence to plants around the more advantageous in view of the lack of a it, on plain north of special storage system, the root as a whole being Desert Laboratory. manifestly incapable of holding any considerable quantity of water. The development of the root has been followed for some months by observation of seedlings grown in flower pots and larger recep- tacles. Some of the results have been referred to already in the dis- cussion of growth of seedlings as affected by water supply. There are other facts, however, particularly the behavior of root-hairs and their relation to absorption, that require separate consideration. Seeds germinated in a Geneva tester, so that the radicles grew moist air, gave opportunity to observe the early formation of root hairs under these special conditions. As was to be expected from what has been observed in other species, they were developed in the damp air of the tester while the radicles were still very short, there being in some instances numerous root-hairs before the radicle had reached a length of 3™™. In other cases it had grown to the length of 1°™, more or less, before any were produced. In some cases they were close to the root tip, in others farther back, all on one side of the tadicle, or projecting from all sides; in short here, where conditions were far more nearly uniform than often happens, there was such variety of habit as to render it extremely difficult to ascertain the factors actually determining the outgrowth of epidermal cells into root-hairs. —— ot I : f 1904] SPALDING—THE CREOSOTE BUSH 135 Much the same difficulty was experienced with seedlings grown in soil. In some cases the root-hairs arise thickly in complete zones, the rest of the root being free from them; in other cases, while they are abundantly produced, their distribution is extremely irregular; and in still other specimens of the same lot of seedlings the root is nearly naked, there being almost no root-hairs whatever. In examining a large number of seedlings grown under different conditions other possibly important data in regard to this matter have been obtained, but for our present purpose it is sufficient to emphasize the well established fact that the roots of Covillea, whether growing in the lighter soil of the mesa or the heavier soil of the labora- tory hill, ordinarily produce great numbers of root-hairs, and that their number becomes less if the plant is given a very large quantity of water. If grown directly in water root-hairs are altogether wanting. Whatever other conditions, then, may or may not afford the stimulus that results in the production of root-hairs in general, the quantity of water in the soil is, in the present case, a factor of prime importance. There is no doubt that the epidermal cells of the root of Covillea which would retain their original form if abundantly supplied with water do, as a matter of fact, promptly increase their surface greatly by pushing out root-hairs if the water supply is suitably diminished. Whether in this process the epidermal cell responds directly to the diminished supply of water in the soil around it, or to conditions arising from lack of water in the plant of which it is a part, is a ques- tion of theoretical interest well worthy of special investigation. The epidermal cells near the tip of the root, whether prolonged into root-hairs or not, function as the living agents of absorption. To what extent the older root-hairs may function in the same way, or may serve rather to soak up water like a sponge, when there is an abundant supply, is a question reserved for fuller discussion than can be entered into here. We are now concerned, first of all, with the degree of force with which the undoubtedly vital agents of absorption, the living cells near the root-tip, absorb water from the relatively dry soil in which, as we have seen, the creosote bush maintains itself alive and keeps up its transpiration “‘stream.”’ In the investigation of this subject, which is still in progress, seed- lings of Covillea, of different ages were carefully removed from the 136 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST soil and subjected to the action of plasmolyzing agents. A few of the experiments undertaken will be given in detail. A young seedling, with a slender primary root 2°™ long, showed distinct plasmolysis of the epidermal cells near the root-tip within five minutes after being placed in 3 per cent. solution of potassic nitrate, and the same phenomenon was soon after obtained as far back as 1.6°™ from the end of the root. Some of the root-hairs also showed plasmolysis, but not so strongly as the epidermal cells. In the latter it was particularly distinct. At the same time a number of good specimens growing in the Geneva tester were treated on separate slides with 2, 3, 4, and 5 per cent. solutions of KNO, at a temperature of 27°C. With the 2 per cent. solution plasmolysis was not observed; with 3 per cent. it was seen doubtfully or incompletely in a few of the epidermal cells; with 4 per cent. plasmolysis in many epidermal cells was strongly marked; and with 5 per cent. not only was plasmolysis promptly and strongly induced in the epidermal cells but also in some of the root-hairs. It is seen from this experiment, and from others not reported, that the root-hairs plasmolyze less readily than the neighboring epidermal cells. In the present case, while the application of 5 per cent. solu- tion of KNO, was promptly followed by plasmolysis of some of the root-hairs, others failed altogether to exhibit the phenomenon. Similar results were obtained from a lot of seedlings raised in soil in flower pots. They were strong and healthy, and at the end of five weeks’ growth, when they were taken up for experimentation, some of them had one or two leaves well developed Employing the secon dary roots of one of the best developed individuals it was found that plasmolysis did not occur in 3 per cent. solution of potassic nitrate; that it took place promptly and distinctly in 5 per cent., both in epr dermal cells and root-hairs; and that in 4 per cent. different specl- mens exhibited a marked difference of behavior. Of five specimens placed in 4 per cent. solution two showed plasmolysis ‘satisfactorily, both of the epidermal cells and root-hairs, while two failed to do 80, and one showed plasmolysis well in the epidermal cells but not in the root-hairs. In these, as generally in roots subsequently examined, it We found that the older root-hairs, farther back from the tip of the root ia ; : : ? I é f 1904] SPALDING—THE CREOSOTE BUSH 137 are very slow to become plasmolyzed, or for the most part fail alto- gether, in solutions that readily induce plasmolysis of fresh young cells and root-hairs near the tip. It was found, however, that some of the older root-hairs that are not too far back from the tip exhibited plasmolysis distinctly in a 10 per cent. solution of KNO,, but the great majority are not affected by this nor by higher percentages. In the course of the work it was repeatedly noticed that many of the older root-hairs presented the appearance of having undergone regeneration, the distal end being clear or semitransparent, in con- trast with the dark-colored basal part with its old-looking granular contents, the clear terminal portion being irregular in outline and not infrequently branched. In the course of experiments on an herba- ceous plant, Verbena ciliata, which showed the same phenomenon even more strikingly than did the creosote bush, it was found that regeneration of its root-hairs could be induced readily by supplying with water a plant from which it had been withheld for some time. It is probable that this capacity for renewed growth on the part of - cells apparently dormant may be an important factor in the absorp- tion of water from the soil. To sum up briefly the observed facts regarding the absorbing cells of the roots of Covillea: Root-hairs are, as a rule, produced in large numbers, thus increasing many times the absorbing surface. If the plant receives large quantities of water the number of root- hairs falls off, and when the roots grow in water none are produced, the creosote bush agreeing in this respect with what has been observed in land plants generally. The undoubtedly active absorbing tissue consists of epidermal cells and root-hairs very near the growing point of both primary and secondary roots. These cells fail to show plasmolysis with less than 3 per cent. solution of KNO, and are readily plasmolyzed with higher percentages; their osmotic pressure may accordingly be set down, with more or less variation, as equiva- lent to ten atmospheres. : The behavior of older epidermal cells and root-hairs is such as to throw doubt upon their functional activity as absorbing cells, though from their observed habit of regeneration under certain cir- cumstances, and from their action with plasmolyzing agents, there are 138 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST grounds for assuming provisionally that a considerable proportion of these are still capable of serving this purpose. If they are thus active, their osmotic force, as measured by plasmolysis, is several times that of the younger cells nearer the root-tip. It is apparent, in any case, that the osmotic force exhibited by the root-hairs and epidermal cells that are indubitably active is amply sufficient to account for the capacity of this plant to absorb water from the soils in the vicinity of the Desert Laboratory, even after such periods of drouth as those of the present year. Their absorption, however, is necessarily limited by the amount of water available. This, as we have seen, is also a determining factor of transpiration. The means by which the latter is controlled will be discussed elsewhere. That the creosote bush is able, through its absorbing cells, to abstract continuously a certain amount of water, however small, from such dry soil as that of the desert mesa, to maintain transpiration through many months of excéssive drouth, and at the same time to regulate nicely the amount of transpiration to correspond with avail able water supply, while all the time it is capable of living and does live as an ordinary mesophyte when given a suitable supply of water, is a remarkable fact. Its explanation involves more perfect knowl- edge not only of the physiological habits now under investigation, but also of the geographical history of the species, which still remains 1 be written. It need hardly be said that the data for both are to be sought first of all in the desert where this plant is at home. I desire to express my sincere thanks to Dr. W. A. Cannon, the resident investigator of the Desert Laboratory, and to Messrs. Coville and MacDougal of the Advisory Board for the admirable facilities that have freely been placed at my disposal. Desert BoTaNIcaL LABORATORY, ucson, Arizona. H | EEE 0 OO BRIEFER ARTICLES. NOTES ON NORTH AMERICAN GRASSES. _III. AGROSTIS STOLONIFERA L. In view of the recent tendencies to base species so far as possible upon type specimens, or in the absence of such specimens upon a definite idea to be interpreted from references to the older authors, it becomes necessary to investigate carefully the bases upon which are founded the Linnaean binomials. Two species of Agrostis are here considered. A. stolonifera was described in the first edition of Linnaeus’s Species Plantarum as follows (p. 62, under the second division, MUTICAE): stolonifera. 7. Agrostis paniculae ramulis divaricatis muticis, culmo repente, calycibus aequalibus. Agrostis culmo repente foliis radicalibus breviore, folii suprema vagina ventricosa, flosculis muticis. Roy. ludgb. 59. Fl. suec. 62 (61). Agrostis culmo repente vagina supremi folii ventricosa. Roy. ludgb. 59. Dalib. paris. 23. Gramen caninum supinum minus. Scheuch. gram. 128. Habi- tat in Europa. 4 There are three factors which enter into the determination of the type of a species: the specimen or specimens from which the description was drawn, the synonyms and citations given in the original description, and the description itself. Establishing types for Linnaean species is complicated from the fact that the descriptions may be not original with Linnaeus. His work has been that of an editor who has taken material at hand and rearranged it in accordance with his system of binomial nomenclature. Frequently he merely attached a trivial or specific name to species already well known under a polynomial designation. The older authors were not accustomed to give citations of definite specimens or definite localities. Let us examine in detail the data for determining the type of Agrostis Stolonifera. 1. The specimens.—In the Linnaean herbarium (in the rooms of the Linnaean Society of London) there is only one specimen labeled with this name. This is from “‘ Attica” and is marked in the handwriting of Linnaeus himself. This specimen is what has been going under the name of A. ver- 139 [1904 140 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust ticillata Vill. The species is common in southern Europe, but is not found in England or the Scandinavian countries. I found no other specimen labeled A. stolonijera, although Munro states that there was also one marked thus which was a form of A. alba (Proc. Linn. Soc. London, Bot. 6: 40. “The Herbarium contains one of the forms of A. vulgaris, which is called stolonijera, the Fiorin Grass; another, marked sfolonijera, by Linn., is A. verticillata Vill.”’). 2. Synonyms and citations —The first synonym is from Linnaeus’s Flora Suecica, p. 23, no. 61 (1745). The citation is as quoted, but lacks the words “‘flosculis muticis.”” The description agrees with A. verticillata Vill., especially ‘folii supremi vagina ventricosa.” To the description in this work is added: Gramen caninum supinum minus. Scheuch. hist. 128. Agrostis stolonifera vulgo. Suecis Kryp-hwen. Habitat in agris incultis ubique praefertim Upsaliae. The reference here to Scheuchzer is the same as given in the Spectes Plantarum. The description in Scheuchzer’s A grostographia is quite full and agrees well with A. verticillata Vill. Scheuchzer gives references to Bauhin, but the descriptions of the latter author are less satisfactory. ’ It is to be noted that the first citation given by Linnaeus (Sp. Pl.) 1 “Roy. lugdb. 59.” This is an error, as this does not appear in Royen, Flora Leydensis, the work referred to. ; The second citation (L., S p. Pl.) is correctly quoted from Royen. This is also referred to “Dalib. paris. 23.” This is also an error, as the first citation appears here. It appears then that the authorities “Roy. lugdb. 59” under the first citation, and “‘Dalib. paris. 23” under the second cita- tion should be interchanged. As the description in Dalibard, Flora Parisiensis, quotes Linn. Fl. Suec. 61, this still leaves the Flora of Sweden as the basis of the first synonym. It may be remarked that Dalibard also quotes the description from Royen and ‘‘Gramen caninum supinum minus.” Royen quotes a polynomial from Ray’s Synopsis which ee to an Irish plant, probably some form of A. alba. Going back to the Flora of Sweden, we find as the first synonym es citation from “Scheuch. hist. 128,” which is A. verticillata Vill. — i All the evidence under the head of synonymy, then, is in favor of A. vert cillata Vill. as being the basis of Linnaeus’s A. stolonijera, except that the description appears in a Flora o } Sweden, where A. verticillata does not occur, or at least not commonly, and yet is said to be common there in ee vated fields. Linnaeus evidently had confused two species—what We a e : i P f § EO 1904] BRIEFER ARTICLES 141 been calling A. alba and A. verticillata. It would seem best to dispose of this conflict by admitting that Linnaeus committed an error of determination in identifying the Swedish plant with the form common in southern Europe. In this connection it is interesting to note that Linnaeus has little to say about A. alba in the Species Plantarum. The description is: g. Agrostis panicula laxa, calycibus muticis aequalibus. Roy. lugdb. 59. Habitat in Europae nemoribus. . Royen adds as a synonym ‘‘Gramen nemorosum, paniculis albis. Vaill. par. Tab. 17. f. 5. opt.” The figure in Vaillant, however, is not an Agrostis, but apparently a species of Poa. There are several sheets of A. alba in the Linnaean herbarium, one of which is marked in his own handwriting and is the common form of what has been so called. 3. Description.—The part relating to the divaricate panicle refers better to A. alba, especially the variety vulgaris, but the part relating to the creep- ing culm and the eaual calyx refers better to A. verticillata. Taking everything into consideration, it appears that Linnaeus confused two species, but we are justified in taking the specimen in the Linnaean herbarium as the type of A grostis stolonijera L.=A. verticillata Vill. The identity of the Linnaean specimen has been pointed out by earlier authors, e. g., Parlatore Fl. Ital. 1: 180. AGROSTIS RUBRA L. The description given in the Species Plantarum {p. 62) is: rubra. 4. Agrostis paniculae parte florente patentissima, petalo exteriore glabro terminato arista tortili recurv. . suec. 60. Dalib. paris. 24. Agrostis panicula inferiore veatisiiatte laxa; superiore contracta. Fi. lapp. 46. Gramen serotinum arvense, panicula contracta pyramidali. Scheuch. gram. 1 Habitat in Europae arenosis subhumidis. - Specimens.—In the Linnaean herbarium there is one sheet marked by tus but the plant is a panicle of what appears to be S porob- olus junceus of our southern states. As this does not accord with the description or citations, it may be withdrawn from consideration, as there is selec an error somewhere. 2. Synonymy.—In the Flora Suecica the three citations appear as ah in the Species Plantarum, and in the same order, but “ Dalib. paris. 24” is omitted, as this is a subsequent work (1747). There is added, however: 142 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST Gramen serotinum arvense, spica laxa pyramidali. Raj. hist. 1288. Vail. paris. 88. Suecis Réd-hwen. Habitat ad ripas lacuum & in partis depressis ubique. In the Flora Lapponica. p. 27, no. 46 (1737) we find in addition to th quotation given above (in which injerne replaces inferiore) : Gramen segetum arvense, panicula contracta pyramidali. Raj. hist. 1288. Scheuch. hist. 148. a Ad ripas lacuum, tempore autumnali; rufescens occurrit. 8 Panicula, dum floret, secundum verticillos explicatur horizontaliter patens; contracta superius in eadem nondum florente. The references to Ray and Scheuchzer are based on Milium lendigerum, as are also those of Vaillant and two additional references which he gives. “*Plukenet Phytographia Tab. 33, fig. 6,’’ and “‘Tournefort Institutiones Rei Herbariae 515.” 3. Description—There is no description in the Species Plantarum aside from the synonyms given, but the habitat ‘“‘in arenosis subhumidis would not seem to apply to the plant going under the name of A. rubra Ls A. borealis Hartm., which is an alpine grass. The description given in the first citation, ‘Fl. Suec.,” does not apply to A. borealis Hartm., as the flowering glume (‘‘petalo exteriore”’) is said to terminate in a recurved twisted awn. The awn in A. borealis arises from the back of the glume. Itisto be noted that Linnaeus described the next species, A. canina, as having the awn dorsal (Sp. Pl. 62; Fl. Suec. 392, 2 1138). As the awn is terminal in Milium lendigerum, it is probable thet this part of the description was based upon that species, which beh some way confused with the Swedish plant. It is also to be noted that - describes in his Flora of Lapland only two species of Agrostis, A. capillar's and the species under consideration. It has been pointed out by sever European authors that Linnaeus evidently confused two or more bs gar: under A. rubra, one of which was A. vulgaris. ‘This, added to his e of determination in identifying the Scandinavian plant with Milium ! x serum of southern Europe and the consequent mixing of synonyms,has a - it impossible to determine with any definiteness the type of A. rus a. we this reason it is best to take up the next available name, A. borealis Hari Skand. Fl. Ed. 4. 23. 1843. ae Linnaeus evidently discovered his error in regard to Malium this serum, for in the second edition of the Species Plantarum he i oa and based the name on “Raj. Hist. 1288, Scheuch. Gram. 145. *! | I 1904] BRIEFER ARTICLES 43 cites “Pluk. Tab. 33 fig. 6,” but forgets to withdraw this citation from his synonymy under A. rubra.—A. S. Htrcucock, U.S. Department of A gricul- lure, CARL SCHUMANN A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ' (WITH PORTRAIT). Kart Moritz SCHUMANN was born June 17, 1851, in Gorlitz (Silesia). After attending the Real-Gymnasium of his native town until 1869, he studied at the universities of Berlin, Munich, and Breslau, devoting him- self at first to chemistry, later principally to botany and related sciences. The doctor’s degree was conferred upon him by the University of Breslau, July 19, 1873, the title of his dissertation being Dicken- wachsthum und Cambium. A year previously he had ac- cepted a position as assistant to Professor Dr. GOEPPERT, the famous authority on fossil plants, which he held until the spring of 1876. In November 1875 he passed with honor the Prussian state examination, and shortly afterwards took up the pro- fession of teaching. For eight years, beginning with 1876, he taught in the Real-Gymnasium “Zum heiligen 3 Geist” in Breslau. A work entitled Kritische Untersuchung iiber die Zimmilinder, which he wrote during this time, showed as much histori- cal and geographical as scientific knowledge. On account of this book he Was called in the summer of 1884 to Berlin, where he was appointed Curator of the Berlin Botanical Museum recently established by A. W. EICHLER. In June 1892 he was appointed professor, and in the spring of 1893 he obtained the right to deliver academic lectures on botany in the University of Berlin. On March 22, 1904, death closed his full and fertile life. The contributions by which ScHuMANN advanced scientific botany are extraordinarily numerous, and as the work of a single man most aston- iaidae’ Ave may divide them into purely systematic, phytogeographic, morphological, biological, pharmaceutical, didactical, biographical, and the work of reviewing. " Excerpt from a manuscript of Professor Volkens. 144 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST In Martivs’s Flora Brasiliensis he worked up Triuridaceae, Cactaceae, Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, Malvaceae, Bombacaceae, Bignoniaceae, and Rubiaceae; and for ENGLER and Prantt’s Die natiirlichen Pflanzen- jamilien, in addition to the above mentioned families, he treated Chlaena- ceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Asclepiadaceae, and Apocynaceae. Of mono- graphs there exist from his pen Marantaceae, Musaceae, and Zingiberaceae in ENGLER’s Pflanzenreich; and Sterculiaceae in ENGLER’s Monographien ausgewahlter afrikanischer Pflanzenjamilien. As an independent work he published the Gesamtbeschreibung des Cacteen and Iconographia Cacta- cearum. The new species he described may be numbered by hundreds, probably by thousands, especially notable among them being those of tropical Africa. For the most part they were published in ENGLER'S Botanische Jahrbiicher. Among the phytogeographic works of SCHUMANN are Flora von Kaiser- : Wilhelmsland, in which he was assisted by LAUTERBACH; Flora von New- Pommern; and Flora der deutschen Schutzgebiete. Of his biological and didactical treatises the most important are his investigations on myrmeco- philous plants, and two text-books on systematic botany, Lehrbuch der systematischen Botanik and Prakticum fiir morphologische und systemal- ische Botanik, the latter appearing after his death. Among his pharma- ceutical contributions are the new edition of BERG and ScHMIDT'S Allas der ojjicinellen Pflanzen, observations on Hydrastis and Podophyllum, and several articles on plants yielding caoutchouc and kola. An his biographical works are numerous necrologies of well-known botanists; and his editorship of Just’s Jahrbuch must not be forgotten. _ The starting-point of ScuumaNN’s morphological investigations deat his studies on the development of the organs of flowers. These inte him most deeply and allowed him to show in a striking manner his mast descriptive powers. On observations of this kind were based his pe on the borragoid, on the monochasia, on the ramification of Pandanus; as well as his studies in regard to the morphology of flowers, the fe of which he published in his voluminous work Ueber den Bliitenansoe" f the prev theory of the purely formal morphology of flowers. He showed solih comparison and the consideration of teratological facts lead to the erroneous ideas, if it is desired to account for the position o! in their causal connection. The only way to advance the ene morphology of flowers, he claimed, is to apply the principles w pie ieaves DENER had employed in his mechanical theory of the position pee ScHv- in relation to the vegetative organs. It must not be concealed Se ii -_-- ee 1904] BRIEFER ARTICLES 145 MANN later, in his Morphological Studies, I and H, did not strictly adhere to this view, and that he even began to doubt the basis of the mechanical theory of leaf position. To him, however, belongs the honor of having immensely advanced botanical morphology by means of a wealth of single observations, at a period when this branch of science elicited nowhere else the interest necessary to produce results. When we review the life-work of SCHUMANN we find ourselves con- fronted by a problem. How did a man to whom every day brought new professional duties still find time to occupy himself so fully with scientific work? The solution is to be found in his creative impulse, in his gift of easy comprehension, in his powers of clear expression, and in his con- scientious desire to crowd into his daily task the full force of all his intel- lectual activities. The honors conferred upon SCHUMANN were not in proportion to his scientific importance or his distinguished gifts as a teacher. He was not made unhappy by this, but contented himself with the recognition of his colleagues, and found abundant compensation in the love and veneration everywhere paid him for his human qualities, his bright and cheerful nature, his courtesy, and his never-failing willingness to help.—Translated by J. PERKins. A CORRECTION. IN THE June issue of the BoTaNicAL GAzETTE, Mr. PLOWMAN pub- lishes an article on ‘The celloidin method with hard tissues,” stating that it has been “‘developed and perfected by Dr. E. C. JEFFREY,” and that it “has been incompletely described at second and third hand elsewhere,” in this connection calling attention to my book on Methods in plant histol- ogy. The collodion method was ‘published in 1879, the celloidin method in 1882, and for nearly two decades both methods have been matters of text-book knowledge. Since I have used celloidin very little, except for woody tissues, I have made no effort to improve the method, but have simply followed more or less exactly and have described with slight varia- — the procedure in vogue in Professor EycLESHYMER’S classes at the U niversity of Chicago since 1893. Consequently, Mr. PLowMAN is mis- taken _ assigning my account so high a rank as second hand, when in reality it is an accumulation so old that it cannot claim to be anything more = an ordinary text-book account, culled from older text-book accounts. ndeed, the use of hydrofluoric acid is the only essential addition by Mr. PLOWMAN to the long used celloidin methods. —CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN. CURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REVIEWS. Physiological plant anatomy. Tar physiological anatomy is not one of those subjects that may be regarded as completed, so far as important new researches are concerned, is illustrated when one makes a comparison of the second and third editions of HABERLANDT’S well- known work.* The first edition of this important work appeared in 1884, and since then there has been no excuse for the presentation of anatomy in a dead and formal manner. A second edition was issued in 1896,? and now in a still shorter time we are favored with a third edition. In this the pages have been increased from 550 to 616, and the figures from 235 to 264. While the general plan of the work resembles that of the second edition, there are many noteworthy additions in most of the chapters, and the latter part of the book has been rewnit: ten, because the knowledge of these topics has been almost revolutionized, and in large part through the discoveries of the author himself. the treatment of mycorhiza, a topic concerning which vastly more is known in 1896. In the chapter entitled “Das Assimilationssystem,” Nore work on palisade cells is considered, but the excellent work of GrirFon and we receives little or no mention. Latex tubes are still regarded as conductive Ve*" 2 OTHERT’S studies on the structure of the fibrous thickenings of conduct vessels give material for an interesting additional statement. The most nO : ; bearbeitete und * HABERLANDT, G.., Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie. Dritte, neu re Engel- vermehrte Auflage. Imp. 8vo. pp. xvi+616. fig. 264. Leipzig: Wilhe mann. Igo4. rh ? See review in Bot. Gaz. 23:472. 1897. 146 reenact eel 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 147 additions to the chapter on storage tissues are a description of JONsson’s peculiar “‘mucilage cork,” water storage cells derived from phellogen; and a note regarding FiscHeEr’s work on inulin. Much new material is found in the chapter on aera- tion tissues: RACTBORSKI’s breathing organs in early leaf stages; WESTERMAIER’S remarkable but questionable lung-like organ on Sonneratia roots; BRowNn and Escomse’s brilliant work on gas diffusion; KAMERLING on liverwort pores; Porscu on adaptations for securing permanent closure in the stomata of sub- merged hydrophytes; and Devaux on lenticels. HABERLANDT disagrees in part with DEvavux’s results, and does not consider the paper as very important; he also rejects WIELER’s results concerning aerenchyma. T here is an excellent new figure of a lenticel, and another interesting new figure is that of the stoma of Nipa. Another chapter that is rich in new matter is that on “Die Sekretions- organe und Exkretbehilter.’”’ The hydathode figure is much improved, and the rich recent literature on hydathodes is well summarized; little or no credit is given to the views of SpANJER and LEPESCHKIN, insofar as they are contrary to the views formerly expressed by the author. One of the notable additions here is the discovery of glands in Ruta which discharge to the exterior by means of slits that arise between external cells. Far the most notable change of the new edition is to be found in the expansion of the old eleventh chapter, entitled “Apparate und Gewebe fiir besondere Leist- ungen.” The material there presented is now considered in three chapters, entitled respectively “Das Bewegungssystem,” ‘Die Sinnesorgane,” “Einricht- ungen fiir die Reizleitung.” In the chapter on motor tissues there is a fuller discussion of the hygroscopic tissues. ‘There is an entirely new section on cohe- sion mechanisms, embracing the contributions of KAMERLING, STEINBRINCK, and ScHropt, regarding the movements that are due to the cohesive force of water in the cell lumina of fern sporangia and liverwort elaters. Much is also added in the section dealing with living motor tissues, embracing in particular the contributions of Firrinc, SCHWENDENER, MOstvs, PANTANELLI, and HABER- LANDT. The topic which has been most completely recast is that of the sense organs, and in this field HABERLANDT himself has been a pioneer and major contributor. This chapter for the most part may be regarded as a summary of the volume on this subject which has but recently come from the author’s hand. After an introduction treating the general characteristics of sense organs in plants, there is a specific description of the tactile pits of Cucurbita and Drosera, the tactile papillae of various stamen filaments, and the tactile hairs of Centaurea, Biophytum, Mimosa, Aldrovandia, and Dionaea. Then follows an account of the sense organs for the perception of gravity and light stimuli; here there is a description of the statolith organs of plants, in which there is incorporated the chief results of Nemec, Nott, Jost, Darwin, and particularly those of the author. In the chapter on motor mechanisms, there is an entirely new section dealing with the intercellular and intracellular fibrillar structures, to which NEmec in particular has devoted so much attention. HABERLANDT 148 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST still holds to his former view concerning the motor mechanisms of Mimosa, in spite of the doubt cast upon his theory by the work of MacDovucat and Frrrine. The noteworthy changes that are to be found in this third edition make it necessary for all libraries. Many among us may not accept the teleological views that are to be found throughout the work, and it may occasion disappointment to find at several points, as stated above, that the author maintains his own unstable theories in the face of what will appeal to most botanists as conclusive proof against them. In particular, it is highly doubtful if we may longer believe in the condensing power of the aerial roots of orchids, conduction by the shortest route as explaining the elongation of palisade cells, the conductive function of latex tubes, the secretive rather than storage function of aleurone, or the hydro- static propagation of stimuli in Mimosa. The teleological views of the author are apparently not merely conveniences of expression, but purpose in plant structures appears to be regarded as an objec- tive reality, which operates as a cause in the development of plant organs and tissues. As a consequence, it may not be surprising that the author is almost violent in his opposition to the contributions of such men as DEVAUX, SPANJER, and WIELER, and gives no place at all or at most inadequate consideration to the work of such men as GRIFFON, BERNARD, and FRIEDEL. The trend of modern investigation is certainly away from the idea that purpose is the directive factor in the evolution of structures, as well as from the idea that all structures must have a definite and advantageous function. However, the vast majority of structures are certainly useful, and the study of function in relation to structure gives life and vitality to what is otherwise a dead and profitless study to most students. And for this reason HABERLANDT’s work fills a place that is taken by no other work. For this reason, too, it is much to be hoped that there will soon be available a translation of this third edition.—H. C. Cow Les. Smoke and vegetation. THERE have been a number of treatises dealing with the injurious effects of smoke on vegetation, but we are now favored with a monographic treatment of the subject by Hasetuorr and Linpav.3 There are first some general Bi siderations on the origin of smoke, the characteristics and extent of its injune to plants, the various causes of the formation of leaf spot, and the on of normal plant characteristics with in juries due to smoke. The body of the wor deals with the injurious smokes and vapors in detail. Particular atten pe paid to the effect of sulfurous and sulfuric acid vapors. Injurious € ace found to be associated chiefly with the foliage organs; little or no eS to the plant through vapors which may have been absorbed by the soil. 4 ia ful effects are made evident through the formation of leaf spots, the wes : leaves and young branches, the disorganization of chloroplasts, P — 3 HasELHorr, E., and Linpav, G., Die Beschadigung der Vegetation ap Rauch: Handbuch zur Erkennung und Beurteilung von Rauchschaden. Imp: PP. vilit+412. figs. 27. Berlin: Gebriider Borntraeger. 1903. M10- tion is 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 149 an increase of tannin deposits, and a reduction in the annual ring. An impor- tant point is that the stomata play no particular part in the absorption of the injurious vapors; the whole leaf appears to be involved in the process. ts vary widely in their power of resistance to noxious vapors; this might be anticipated in the case of different plant species, but it is strongly true as well among different individuals of the same species. Harmful effects are accelerated when there is an increase of light, heat or drouth, and as might be supposed therefrom, one of the first signs of injury is a drying out of the leaf, due to an impeded circulation of water. In a similar manner, though much less fully, the injurious influences of other smokes and vapors are discussed, e. g., chlorin, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, nitric acid, acetic acid, ammonia, hydrogen sulfid, bromin, tar, pyridin, phenol, fog, asphalt, illuminating gas, and dust. It will be seen from the list of subjects treated that the monograph considers all atmospheric elements apart from those which are commonly regarded as normal, whether or not they may be classed under the head of smokes or vapors. The book abounds in examples that have been taken from a wide field experience. For this and other reasons, the work will prove of great value to foresters, and to all who cultivate plants in the vicinity of cities or factories. And the botanist also will find here for the first time, perhaps, the injurious effects of smokes and Vapors presented in such a way as to permit of ready reference.—H. C. CowLes. Classification of flowering gases 4 Mr. A. B. Renpie has undertaken to present to the somewhat advanced student “a systematic account of the flowering plants,’ and the first volume, now before us, comprises the gymnosperms and monocotyledons. It may be said that the emphasis is laid upon classification, as the title would imply, rather than upon morphology. The essential morphology of the great groups is out- lined briefly, but systematically and clearly, the modern point of view and ter- minology largely dominating, although it did not seem possible for the author to eliminate sexual terms entirely from the terminology of sporophytic structures. The author regrets that “the means available did not allow of the prepara- tion of large figures,” for this feature of the book is out of all proportion to the value of the text. However, he has done remarkably well with the limitations that were set for him. of the most interesting panos in the book is the first one, dealing with is evolution of plant classification. The subject is one which the author’s experience has peculiarly fitted him to treat, and this chapter is one of the best compact presentations of it for the general student that we have seen Naturally the large usefulness of the book is in its full account of ‘he plant 8roups, in which there is brought together a mass of information that will be of atten et RENDLE, ALFRED Barton, The classification of flowering plants. Vol. I. ~ — and Monocotyledons. 8vo. pp. xiv+403. Cambridge Biological Series. mbridge: The University Press. 1904. $3.50 150 BOTANICAL GAZETTE - [aucusr great service to those who are not extreme specialists in the classification of seed-plants. The collated literature is supplemented by the large experience of the author, so that in a sense the presentation is distinctly a fresh one. This book and others like it serve to emphasize the increasing differentiation between the specialists in morphology and those in classification. It is no longer possible for one man to do justice to both subjects in a single book. One or the other dominates in accordance with the larger interest of the author, and the other phase receives comparatively scant attention. In the book before us taxonomy is dominant, and only that amount of morphology is presented which is supposed to be of importance to a specialist in taxonomy. In other books morphology is dominant and taxonomy reduced to a bare outline. There is an additional complication in the case of seed-plants because of an old morphology that belongs to them. The old morphology has more dealings with taxonomy than it does with the new morphology, and will doubtless continue to be exploited chiefly by taxonomists. Anatomy has already become distinctly differentiated as a subject, and the morphologist of either kind has learned to touch it very lightly —J. M. C. MINOR NOTICES. THE ISSUE of the twelfth edition of Pranti’s Lehrbuch der Botanik, under the editorship of Dr. Pax,5 indicates that this book holds an assured place among German text-books. The present edition has been very slightly enlarged, thou brought into line with modern work in many places. Improvements are noticeable in many figures and some new ones are introduced. : Of its kind the book is excellent, but the kind no longer appeals to sa botanists as a model. For it gives 122 pages to anatomy, 53 pages to physiology, and 279 to the dreary synopsis of plant families, which we suppose medical Be dents and other victims of the required “allgemeine Botanik” are te to study—else it would hardly form so dominant a part of all German text- : Tt might be well for our German friends to undertake a reform movement 1? botanical instruction —C. R. B NINETEENTH PART of ENGLER’s Das Pflanzenreich consists of a paar tion of Betulaceae by WrnKLER.® The usual critical discussion of st th geographic distribution, and systems of classification is followed by pan of 83 species recognized as representing 6 genera, all but 11 of the specs ing to Betula (37), Carpinus (18), and Alnus (17). In Carpinus 7 2€¥ ye are described, and in Betula 3, but none of them belong to the Ane Dr. Britton’s 4 new species of Betula recently described’ are referred to Addendum as not examined. The conservative tendency of he 78. oer stesatet lem _viiit4 5 Pax, F., Pranti’s Lehrbuch der Botanik. 12th ed. Imp. 8v- PP figs. 439 Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1904. oe WINKLER, ° ENGLER, A., Das Pflanzenreich. Heft 19. Betulaceae von Hus PP- 149. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1904. M 7.60. 7 Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 31: 165. 1904. — a = onal otiniinedil Ee UC CCC | 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE I51 not only by the few new species, but chiefly by the numerous varieties, especially in Alnus.— S To accompany his secondary school text-books, which imply a considerable amount of laboratory work in botany. Mr. J. Y. BERGEN has prepared a Notle- book,’ in which he has arranged directions for experiments, chiefly physiological, with various useful suggestions to the student, intending thereby to promote neat and thorough reports of the work. Most teachers will prefer the loose-leaf notebook, which permits criticism and correction without permanently marring the record. The laboratory directions of course minimize dictation and copying, but the forms also curtail freedom and initiative which it is equally important to cultivate —C. B. Miss Perxrys? has published the second fascicle of her contributions to the flora of the Philippine Islands. Numerous families are represented more or less extensively, the more important contributions dealing with Marantaceae, Legum- inosae (9 n. spp.), the genus Canarium (Burseraceae) with 14 new species, Tilia- ceae (g n. spp.), Sterculiaceae (5 n. spp.), Asclepiadaceae (by R. SCHLECHTER and O. WarsBuRG) with 24 new species and a new genus che poet and Gramineae (by C. Mrz and R. PrLcEr) with 4 new species.—J. M. C THE SIXTH FASCICLE of Roth’s Europdischen Laubmoose’° begins the Bryaceae, describing, with the help of ten plates, 21 species of Webera, 108 of Bryum, and 13 of other genera. The seventh fascicle completes the Bryaceae, Mniaceae, Meeseaceae, Aulacomniaceae, Bartramiaceae, Timmiaceae, and begins the Polytrichaceae. The ten plates, however, are almost wholly devoted to Brya- ceae.—C.. R. B. MAIpDEN,"' in the fourth part of his revision of Eucalyptus, presents E. incras- sata Labillardi*re and E. foecunda Schauer, the description in each case being followed by discussion of synonymy, range, and affinities—J. M. C. NOTES FOR STUDENTS. PoRODKO, as a result of his researches on the oxidases,’ concludes that they probably do not take part in the process of respiration. He also contributes some facts to the technique of the guaiac reaction.—C. R. B. 5 BERGEN, J. Y., Notebook to accompany Bergen’s text-books of botany or - general use in botanical —— of secondary schools. 4to. pp. 144- Boston Ginn & Co. 904. 75. 9 Perkins, J., sma florae sear oe Fasciculus II. pp. 67-152. pis. 1-3. Leipzig: Gebriider Borntraeger. 1904. ‘© Roru, Grorc, Die europaischen Laubmoose. 2 Band. 6 Lieferung. Imp. 8vo. pp. 1-128. pls. 1-10. 7 Lieferung. pp. 129-256. pls. 11-20. Leipzig: Wilhelm sects 1904. Each M 4. (Parts not sold singly.) ‘Maren, J. H., A critical revision of the genus Eucalyptus. Part IV. pp- 93-124. pls. 13-24. Government of New South Wales: 1904. '* Poropko, T., Zur Kenntniss der pflanzlichen Oxidases. Beihefte Bot. Cent. 16:1-10. 1904. 152 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avcust BERNARD adds his name’s to the increasing list of those who are unable to btain evidence of photosynthesis outside the organism. Using various methods — he “obtained no positive appreciable results.’””—C. R. B Lock"s has made some interesting observations upon a variety of Turnera ulmijolia that has become naturalized in Ceylon. The flowers are distinctly heterostylic and apparently absolutely self-sterile, and the pollinating insects are bees, notably Apis indica. The seeds are most commonly dispersed by the aid of harvesting ants—J. M. C. A NOTE in the July number regarding the experiments of KOERNICKE on radium emanations should have included reference to the experiments of DIXON, who found seedlings retarded in growth without serious injury. Experime on cultures of 48 species of bacteria by Drxon and WicHAM‘S showed inhibition of development, confirming the results of other observers.—C. R. B. Frres'® has published an interesting article on ornithophily in the South American flora, arriving at the conclusion that there is no distinct difference between ornithophilous and entomophilous flowers, and that the same species may be pollinated as well by insects as by humming birds in one place, while in another locality either of these agents may be acting.—P. OLSSON-SEFFER. INTERCELLULAR protoplasm in the cotyledon of Lupinus albus is reported by Kyy'?. This protoplasm does not seem to differ from that contained within the cells, except that it contains no nuclei, starch grains, or plastids. ipe seeds were used in the investigations. The behavior of the intercellular protoplasm during the germination of the seed will be described in a future paper. —CHARLEs J. CHAMBERLAIN. ‘ In A PAPER on the flora of the mountains of northern Finland, Borc” ote: the results of his studies of the plant distribution within two of the zones occurring in these mountains, none of them higher than 1200". The paper discuss = detail the composition of the mountian flora and the origin of its components: : . 16: 73 BERNARD, Cu., Sur l’assimilation chlorophyllienne. Beihefte Bot. Cent 36-52. 1904. *4 Lock, R. H., Ecological notes on Turnera ulmifolia Annals Roy. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya 2:107-119. 1904. radia- 1s Drxon, H. H., and Wicuaq, J. T., Preliminary note on the action yess NS. tions from radium bromide on some organisms. Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin 90% 10?:178-192. pls. 16-18. 1904. rikan ila iidame *© Fries, R. E., Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Ornithophilie in der te ischen Flora Arkiv for Botanik 1: 389-440. 1904. tsch. Bot- ‘7 Kyy, L., Studien iiber intercellulares Protaplasma. I. Ber. ease Gesells. 22: 29-35. 1904. finnische® . 8 Borc, VAINO, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Flora und Vegetation boost Fennica Fjelde (alpinen und subalpinen Gebirge). I. Acta Soc. pro Fauna . 25: no. 7. pp. 170. L., var. elegans Urban. i 5 ' : : 5 * + Ril ; a 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 153 The promised second part dealing with the vegetation will probably be of greater interest —P. OLssoN-SEFFER. Wiesner describes’? casting of leaves in summer due to deficient light and to consequent interference with photosynthesis, which is distinct from a similar effect of drouth and heat and not continuous with the autumn defoliation. The loss amounts to 8-30 per cent. of the foliage in sensitive trees. It begins, in those trees which complete their leaf formation in spring, when the midday sun has reached the same elevation at which foliation was completed, whereas it is almost imperceptible in trees whose foliation extends into the summer.—C. R. B Brarp?? has discussed “the track of heredity” in plants and animals, chiefly the latter. A‘ luminous statement in reference to plants is as follows: “In the embryo-sac of Pinus, which is the gametophyte, there are only four germ-cells. In the corresponding structure in flowering plants there are perhaps three, or at most six; while, as is well known, the male gametophyte of a flowering plant is represented by one or two vegetative cells and one or two germ-cells.”” ‘This may be clear to a zoologist, but its interpretation is beyond the powers of the plant ~ morphologist—J. M. C BLAKESLEE?" has made preliminary announcement of his results in a study of the methods of reproduction in Mucorineae. It seems that zygospore produc- tion in this group “is conditioned by the inherent nature of the individual species and only secondarily or not at all by external factors.” Two methods of zygo- spore formation are recognized, and upon this basis Mucorineae may be divided into two groups designated as “homothallic” and “‘heterothallic,” the terms corresponding to “monoecious” and “dioecious” among higher forms. The general conclusions are that the formation of zygospores is a sexual process, that the mycelium of a homothallic species is bisexual, that the mycelium of a heterothallic species is unisexual, and that among the heterothallic species certain ones have a distinct differentiation of sex. It is interesting to note that in conju- gation the swollen portions (‘‘progametes”’) from which the gametes are cut off do not “‘grow toward each other,” as commonly stated, but arise as a result of Me ies of contact between hyphae, and are from the outset adherent.— Masters”? has published a synopsis of the genus Pinus, the purpose of which he states is “to add to our knowledge of the species and to facilitate their deter- ne WL 7 oe Uber Laubfall pies ase des absoluten Lichtgenusses ieseaien, Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gese 2:64-72. 1904. 7° BEARD, J., The track of heredity in oi and animals. Trans. and Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinburg 22: 126-155. figs. 3. 190 : *" BLAKESLEE, ALBERT FRANCIS, ae formation a sexual process. Science N. S. 19:864-866. 190 _ 72 MASTERs, ERE T..A it ie view of the genus Pinus. Jour. Linn. Soc. t. 35: 560-659. pis. 20-23. 154 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST mination.” The genus is limited, as is usual now, to those abietinous forms in which both shoots and leaves are dimorphic. A somewhat full discussion of the value of the histological characters often used in classification reaches the con- clusion that they have no greater intrinsic value than any other characters, being useful but not infallible guides, likely to vary more than some other The two great divisions proposed are TENUISQUAMAE (with relatively thin cone- scales) and CrassISQUAMAE (with cone-scales notably thickened toward the apex). Under the former are the sections Strobus (10 spp.) and Cembra (3 spp.); under the latter the sections Integrifoliae (8 spp.), Serratifoliae (4 spp.), Indicae (3 spp.), Ponderosae (12 spp.), Filifoliae (7 spp.), Cubenses (5 spp.), Sylvestres (ro spp.), and Pinaster (11 spp.). A useful feature of the contribution is a chron- ological list of specific names, extending from 1753 to 1903. The author’s long study of the genus makes this contribution unusually rich in facts and sugges- tions.—J. M. C TRANSEAU*} has made a preliminary announcement of certain results in connection with the investigation of the causes of xerophily in bog plants. Using Rumex Acetosella, great modification in the appearance and structure of the leaves was produced by varying the conditions; for example, growing in moist conditions and in dry sand. Also, the marked xerophilous characters induced by growth in the latter substratum were also obtained by growth in an undrained wet sphagnum substratum of low temperature. Further, under these conditions the drops of oil or resin, characteristic of bog xerophytes, were formed in the epidermis and in the cells adjacent to the bundles. He concludes that these modifications in the case of the bog habitat are a response to the unfavorable conditions for absorption by the roots, due to low temperature and lack of aera- tion. It is also suggested that the development of palisade tissue in = to strong light is correlated with drouth rather than with light, resulting i” increased transpiration. ‘The elongated palisade cells, therefore, are an tation for the ready transfer of food materials in the leaf tissues, under the stress of a reduced water supply.”—J. M. C : HABERLANDT in reexamining the perceptive mechanism of heliotropi¢ pst finds three types:?4 (x) those in which the lamina alone is sensitive; €. £5 Beg es discolor and probably shade plants in general; (2) those whose lamme an a are perceptive; e. g., Tropaeolum spp., Malva verticillata (fide VocHtING) reas probably climbing and twining plants; (3) those whose petioles or motor pee are sensitive; ¢. g., Phaseolus. He suggests that in euphotometric foliage © the cells of the upper epidermis constitute a sensory epithelium for the perception of light. Sometimes all cells share alike in this function, but in some Po certain cells are specialized, forming a more localized sense organ- ; . U def e *3 TRANSEAU, E. N., On the development of palisade tissue and resinous In leaves. Science N. S. 19:866-867. 1904. Jatt. Ber- ANDT, G., Die Perception des Lichtreizes durch das Laubb ERL Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 22:105-119. pl. 8. 1904. Pea Ferme au 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 155 case the essential feature is a sensitive layer of protoplasm and an apparatus which concentrates the light upon this plasma, of which certain regions are either more or less strongly illuminated when the organ is out of its normal relation to the incident light. Two types are distinguished: those in which the outer face of the epidermal cell is convex, and those in which the inner wall is convex toward the mesophyll or is the frustum of a cone. The hypothesis is not supported by any experimental evidence, but is constructed merely from anatomical observa- tions and a priori reasoning. (See also p. 157.)—C. R. B. Wacer?s has studied the nucleolus during nuclear division in the root of Phaseolus. After a summary of the extensive literature and a description of methods, the subject is presented under the following heads: the resting nucleus, structure of the nucleolus, changes in the nucleolus during the prophase, and reconstitution of the daughter-nuclei. The main conclusions are that the nucleo- lus simply forms a part of the nuclear network, in which chromatin or chromatin- substance may be stored, and therefore is not an independent organ of the nucleus; that it is concerned in the formation of the chromosomes, and possibly also in the production of the spindle, and that a portion of it may in some cases extruded into the cytoplasm and there disappear; that in the reconstruction of the daughter-nuclei the chromosomes unite together in a more or less irregular mass or thick thread, out of which is evolved the nucleolus and nuclear network, the major part of the chromatin passing ultimately into the nucleolus, except in cases where division again immediately takes place. Attention is called to the fact that if these conclusions are correct, the part played by the chromosomes in heredity will need revision, and that the nucleolus as well as the chromosomes will have to be taken into account.—J. M. C. SaALmon?° has published the results of experiments with the so-called ‘‘bio- logic forms” of the Erysiphaceae, that is, races of individuals morphologically identical, but differing physiologically in possessing distinctive and sharply defined powers of infection. This specialization of parasitism has been found to be associated with both conidia and ascospores. The present experiments show that the restriction in power of infection characteristic of “biologic forms” breaks down if the vitality of the leaf is interfered with in certain ways, as b wounding. It was found also that conidia produced on a wounded leaf that was normally immune to such attack would infect uninjured leaves of the plant in question; by means of this “bridge”? passing from one host plant to another. Injuries to leaves in nature, resulting in such bridging, were observed to be made by the ‘green fly” (Aphis). Therefore, in the evolution of “biologic forms” two sets of factors are at work: one, called “specializing factors,” tending to Specialize parasitism and deriving from a single morphological species a number *s WaGER, Haron, The nucleolus and nuclear division in the root apex of Phase- olus. Annals of Botany 18:29-55. pl. 5. 1904- : SALMON, Ernest S., Cultural experiments with “biologic forms” of the Ery- Siphaceae. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London B. 197: 107-122. 1904- 156 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AuGusT of “biologic forms;” the other, called “generalizing factors,” bridging these differences and causing “‘the separate streams of evolving ‘biologic forms’ to flow into each other.” It is thought that these facts may explain the sudden appear- ance of a parasitic disease on plants which had hitherto proved immune.— BM, 2 Duvet?’ has been investigating, since 1899, the causes affecting the vitality — of seeds, with special reference to the conditions under which they are stored commercially. The general method pursued has been to store seed experimentally under all sorts of conditions, and afterward to ascertain the exact percentage of germination. The first factors determining the vitality of a seed are maturity, weather conditions at the time of harvesting (damp weather lowering the vitality), and methods of harvesting and curing (especially avoiding excessive heating). The life-period of a seed that has met these favorable conditions depends on environment, but the average life varies greatly in different families, genera, oF even species. There is no relation between the longevity of plants and the viable period of the seeds they produce. With proper precautions, the life of seeds may be greatly prolonged beyond the present record, and in co - handling moisture is the chief factor in shortening it. It seems that seeds can endure any degree of drying without injury, and that such a reduction in sid water content is necessary if vitality is to be preserved for a long period of yeats. It is said that “respiration” is not necessary to the life of a seed, and that the evidence goes to show that it “is not dependent on the preservation of the ee ticular ferment involved or on the zymogenic substance giving rise to the ne “The one important factor governing the longevity of good seed is dryméss: —~) MC. S. M. Courter?’ has published a preliminary account of his investigation of swamps. The paper is intended to collect and group together the facts con- cerning the swamp areas investigated as a basis for a future study of the problems involved. The data have been obtained from field studies extending ine three years and including swamps of six types: (1) a drained at Be Crooked River, in the northern part of the lower peninsula of Michigan; (2) undrained tamarack and black spruce swamp on North Manitou Island, pe Michigan; (3) a slowly drained arbor vitae swamp on the same island; — small, swampy lakes south of Chicago; (5) Horseshoe Lake, an old “ox cut off from the Mississippi River in southwestern Illinois; and (6) @ ac tupelo gum swamp in northeastern Arkansas. The discussion of gt consists of a description of the present topographical condition of . ‘ In together with a Summary of the principal plant forms that characterize ane Short, the paper is a brief comparison of certain widely separated swamp ©” Se een 96. Bull. 58: ” 7 Duvet, J. W. T., The vitality and germination of seeds, PP: Bur. = Industry, U. S. Dept. Agric. May 28, 1904. typical swam? ° COULTER, SAMUEL Monps, An ecological comparison of some areas. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 15:39-71. pls. 2g. 1904. mee 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 157 of different types expressed in terms of physiography and taxonomy, the history and dynamics of each being reserved for later treatment. A somewhat detailed account is given of Nyssa uniflora, special attention being called to the very much enlarged base, an enlargement which does not become conspicuous where the water supply is scanty; and of Taxodium distichum with its enlarged base and “knees,” neither of which phenomena appears in connection with dry soil. The half-tone reproductions of good photographs are excellent and form a substantial addition to the data presented by the paper.— a REGENERATION.—WINKLER’S *9 Senrees on Torenia show that detached leaves of this plant may produce buds from any part of the upper epidermis. The shoots proceeding from these buds bloom at once, independent of the age of the parent plant and of the place on the plant from which the leaf is taken. The term “regeneration” should be confined to cases such as this, where fully differentiated cells resume the embryonal state—S1mon°° has studied the exact region of regeneration in root tips, and determined by microscopic observation and by experiment that the pericambium is essential. He distinguishes direct regeneration or replacement of the tip from partial regeneration, where the peri- cambium grows out from the cut surface in the form of a ring and the new tissue eventually spreads over the whole cut surface. The latter variety of regeneration occurs when more than about 0.75™™ of the root tip is cut off; if 1-3"™ is cut off, no regeneration takes place, but lateral roots replace the primary root. Three periods of regeneration are distinguished: (1) reaction, time occupying about one day, (2) introductory phase, consisting in pericambial division, (3) definite formation of the new tissue—V6cHTING?! calls attention to the marked lack of plasticity in Araucaria excelsa. The bilateral branches of the first order when used as cuttings produce a plant which retains the bilateral habit; branches of the second order root slowly and grow in length without branching; only the tip of the main axis gives a plant of the regular radial habit. As to the nature of regeneration in general, the writer holds that the capacity to regenerate, though hot always of use either to the individual plant or to the species, is as character- istic a phenomenon as is growth—M. A. CHRYSLER. THE MODE in which light affects perceptive organs is awakening interest. In his paper summarized on p. 154, HABERLANDT suggests that perhaps light is perceived by reason of the difference in pressure between illuminated and dark watsraelliha c same suggestion is made by Jost,3? but neither mentions RaD1,*? asiatica. Ber. De are Bot ‘i 3° Smuon, S., SPELT a iiber die PRAT der Wirzelspitze. Jahrb. Iss. Bot. 40: sa 1904. Bo *' VécutINc, H., Ueber die Regeneration der Araucaria excelsa. Jahrb. Wiss. t. 40: sie as 1904. 0 WINKLER, H., Ueber — Lancs auf den Blattern von Torenia sells. 107. 1903 * Vorlesungen"iiber Pflanzenphysiologie 586. Jena. 1904. 33 Unters. iiber den Phototropismus der Tiere. Leipzig. 1903. 158 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST who seems to have ascribed phototropism in animals to the same fundamental — ‘ cause, though he thinks of the reactive pull rather than pressure. Utilizing — the figures calculated by Maxweti (1873) and recently determined experi- — mentally by NicHors and HULt,34 the pressure on a cell .or™™ square in full — sunlight would scarcely amount to 7X10~* milligram! To believe that a plant cell could discriminate between 0 and .000,000,000,07™ pressure (i. ¢, of darkness and of full sunlight) makes a severe test of one’s credulity; but when one — remembers that some plants discriminate between darkness and the light of one candle at a distance of 50™, and that the phototropic optimum of Vicia lies at 3 candles, the reason simply balks at any possibility of the perception of such differences of pressure. Rapt, who has enunciated this idea regarding phototropism in animals,® and who endeavored unsuccessfully to test it experimentally with them, has turned to seedlings for confirmation. In a late paper’s he endeavors to minimize” the objection grounded on the minuteness of the energy involved (which o— absolutely conclusive against the hypothesis), and describes briefly a —_ of experiments in which he hung seedlings horizontally in a moist chamber by 2 cocoon filament, so that they were poised at right angles to light admitted through a slit, while control seedlings were fastened in a like position. He then - whether or not the free ones were caused to rotate, directing their apices toward the light. Arguing that according to the extent of such rotation any curvatute they might also attain would be less than in the fixed controls, he interprets — 51 results as giving 39 cases in support of his hypothesis and 12 against it ae sources of error both in experimentation and interpretation are s0 ea and the results are so inharmonious as to leave the matter still in statu quo. author recognizes the inconclusiveness of his results, but thinks them s iggestive- ARB, M ‘ : ut forth by Dr. “UCH HAS BEEN written regarding the mycoplasm theory Pp exter JaKos ERIksson, of Sweden, to account for outbreaks of wheat rust whe . . . 7 i le. ie! nal infection from aecidiospores or uredospores is presumably Imp der to set recent articles’ ErrKsson gave a concise statement of his position, 1n 0” of his right his critics and opponents in regard to the fundamental conception ry a first instalment of his histological studies which form the soli theory. e publishing | He has now laid the botanical public under a debt of gratitude oe of his . ing is theory, and by illustrating them with excellent colored plates.*” | 34 Physical Review 17: 10r. 1903. Licht: Flora 93° 35 Rabi, E., Ueber die Anziehung der Organismen durch das : 167-178. 1904. | 3° Archiv fiir Botanik 1:1 39-146. Getreiderost Kongl+ : T 37 ERIKsson, J. and TISCHLER, G., Ueber das vegetative La ae pilze. I. Puccinia glumarum in der heranwachsenden WeizenP Svensk. Wet. Akad. Handl. 37:—. [no. 6. pp. 19-] pls. 3- 1994 [a ee eo a ee ee ee a i ee 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 159 made with a study of the vegetative life of the yellow rust of wheat, Puccinia glumarum, a species not known outside of Europe, and for which no aecidium. as been discovered. After an introduction, in which some of the difficulties in explaining infection and distribution are indicated that have arisen since DEBARy’s time, the materials and methods for the investigation are described. Modern histological methods were employed. Best results were obtained with FLEmMMING’s fixative, and FLEMMING’s safranin-gentian-violet-orange stain. From October 6 to October 27, 1902, and April 28 to June 18, 1903, no trace of mycelium was found in any of the microtome sections, but in many cells a protoplasmic mixture occurred, which the author has called mycoplasm, because he believes it to be a mixture of the common protoplasm of the cell and the protoplasm of the rust derived from the germinating seed. The mycoplasm does not at first interfere with the chlorophyll grains or nucleus, but these disappear after a time, and the cell wall is filled with a uniform granular mass. As the wheat plant continues to grow there appears in the intercellular spaces similar granular masses, which soon become filamentous, although possessing no walls ornuclei. As development proceeds, however, well-defined nuclei appear. This naked intercellular stage, whether with or without nuclei, the author desig- hates as protomycelium. This stage is soon followed by the appearance of bounding walls to the filaments, and after a time cross walls, when the ordinary vegetative state of the fungus is attained. Although the author has not been able to trace the transition between the form within the cells, mycoplasm, and the form between the cells, protomycelium, he is confident that the first gives rise to the second. : Whether or not this clearly stated and well-illustrated article carries conviction to the reader, it nevertheless is a satisfaction to be able so clearly to apprehend the grounds upon which the mycoplasm theory is based. In a recent article KLEBAHN3® has supplemented one of his earlier articles3? with details bearing directly upon the mycoplasm theory. He gives figures in the text showing essentially the same phenomena which ErrkssoN has so strikingly cet forth with colored plates. The lack of perfect agreemen* between the two authors can well be ascribed to manipulation of the preparations. But the conclusions drawn from these studies by KLEBAHN are wholly different from those reached by ERIKssoN, and favor a theory of abnormal and accidental conditions rather than a theory of mycoplasma.—J. C. ARTHUR. te 3 KLEBARN, H., Einige Bemerkungen iiber das Mycel des Gelbrostes und iiber — Phase der Mykoplasma Hypothese. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 22: 255-261. % Zeits. Pfl. Krank. 10:88 et seq. Ig00. NEWS. Dr. Cuartes J. CHAMBERLAIN has been elected a member of the German Botanical Society. a THE SIXTH session of the University of Montana Biological Station is progress at Flathead I.ake, Montana. : ‘ Proressor Dr. Gy. pr IstvANFri has been awarded the THorE prize by the Institut de France for his “ Etudes sur le rot livide de la vigne.” a Bureau of Government Laboratories of the Philippine Islands’ undertaken the establishment of a botanical garden at Lamao, across the bay from Manila. ' EMMANUEL DRAKE DEL CastTIL1Lo died at his Chateau de Saint-Cyran 00 May 14, 1904, at the age of 48. He was formerly president of the Bol Society of France, and a well-known systematist. ARKIV For Boranik is the title of a new botanical publication, issued Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in Stockholm instead of the previous “Oefversigt” and ‘“Bihang till Handlingar,” which have been tinued. se “ PROFEssor Crara E. Cumincs, of Wellesley College, has been gram ® sabbatical year, which will be spent in resting and studying the tropical pen Associate Professor FERGUSON will have charge of the department for the sc La Science. i Dr. WLapIsLaw RoTHERT, professor of botany in the University of is making a brief tour of the northeastern United States, in connection visit to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. He has had time - see ¢ botanical establishments at Washington, St. Louis, Chicago, New = Boston. PROFESSOR VoLNEY M. Spatprnc has resigned the he Department of Botany at the University of Michigan. He age work at the Desert Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution at Correspondence pertaining to the department should be addresse bie F. C. NewcomBe. 5 ae THE CLARENDON Press announces that it is preparing to pie of SOLEREDER’s Systematic anatomy of the Dicotyledones by : zs we by Ha F. E. Fritscu, revised by D. H. Scorr; EICHLER’s Flower diagram’, by Garnsky, revised by I. B. BaLrour; Knurx’s Pollination of flow? if | mson and ArnsworTH Davies; and Warmino’s Plant § the translation of the last will be made from a new edition which preparing. It is hoped that the translation will appear si es new edition. The name of the translator is not given. 160 Staying Power TIRED BRAIN Horsford’s Acid Phos- phate keeps the mind clear, the nerve steady and the body strong—a boon to the overworked officeman, teacher and student. Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. Cleanliness of person infers clean teeth of course. 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The A iT present volume aims to fill this gap; in ime ) doing this it avoids technical detail and in asimple and interesting manner re- and lates the progress of Russian political life. If one wonders, for example, why . a general acceptance of European in- interesiili stitutions has not appreciably curtailed the almost oriental despotism of the l) k czars, an answer may be found in the 00 fact that often the letter only and not the spirit of these European institu: a tions was adopted. 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The subjects covered are the © anc . © and development of the different theories of matter and composition 0 Stances €s, with a description of the researches of the great chemists. : lto a re degree the charm of the original text, if the hen once hee ans In *The tranc] ae See ont Drenerver ~-9'0N 15 not ys res 4 ve and ger ‘oo Strong; at any rate, the book is Bs rd to put down w Pe and general al ae nth ttentior f “se pdb ake- Ps : is 3 that it needs to be, and it is most ra ti it cl arenas et to the “a Lil Stude Ss Bes S 5 tudents. . P. Saunders in the Te urnal of Physical Ch », June, 1903 *V+-374 Pp., crown 8vo, cloth; nef, eon used $1.89 The University of Chicago Press. -- :: Chicago, Illinois lia Ol. at OD: PabstExtractis The Onginal Malt Tonic The original is always the best—for no man would imitate an inferior article—and no man wants the imitation when he can get the original, even though it is offered at a lower price—a E Ns Chea that stamps its Ce inferiority. 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D., sy rg ae oes ’ #4 Arm , and shh be of Diseases of ¢. ind a in Bright’s Disease Lider 3 bye ork Nervous iN in the sea be i Albuminuria Geo, Halsted Boyland, tor of Me cine of the hee of Parts, bes 4 oe ree ne rbacdoeeg in and < Baltimore Medical College. Post-Sea Wm. B. Towles, M. D., former Prof. of Anatomy and rlatinal Materia Medica in the reac Arb of the University of Va. Nephritis, E. H. Pratt, A. . D., LL.D., Prof. Orificial Surgery to the Chicago jena eg es Hlospital. . W. rock, M. D., £x-Pres. so Assn. Ratl- way ‘Surgeons and Member Medical Soctety of Vi % J. T. Davidson, M. D., £2x-Pres. New bites Surgical and Medical Assn. in Renal Calculi, Dr. A. Gabriel Pouchet, Prof. of ocean pe and St Materia Medica of the Faculty of Medicine of Paris in the he Fs wer af anaes M. D., Prof. of Montreal Clinic, Bladder and eee James % pie k, A. M., M. 0., Prof Clinical Medicine Inflammation of | and Clinica lek eicenorcn New York Post-Graduate Medical Schooh. the Bladder. Jos. Holt, M. 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Dorchester, Mass. 362 Fifth Are near sane ew HEINRICH CONE ; _ but all necessitate a visit to the tub, Make the bath a pleasure pe i pS seam the body, from the action of the muscles to the dig 5 _ undertake the former task-—that lies with yourself—but the latter oe 1 ee hoe it TENNIS, GOLFING, AUTOMOBILING, FISHING. All rest : » the only soap that removes all scurf, casts off staatly dying outer skin, and gives the inner skin a chance to 4 It liberates the activities of the pores, promotes healthy cireulation and WOULD You WIN PLAGE? Be ean both in and out. We 4 , 6 4 j i Vol. XXXVIII SEPTETIBER, 1904 No. 3 THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE EDITORS JOHN M. COULTER anp CHARLES R. BARNES, WITH OTHER MEMBERS OF THE BOTANICAL STAFF OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO ASSOCIATE EDITORS J. C. ARTHUR Purdue University CASIMIR DeCANDOLLE coe B. DETONI mons oj Modena i abeese Tokyo FRITZ NOLL University of Bonn Es teehana ech SPALDING ~ sity of Michigan H. MARSHALL W University a py EUGEN. WARMING | University of Copenhagen VEIT WITTROCK Royal Acadonn of Sciences ARS SO “ALONE CONTAINS THE QUALITY THAl An ideal “Ad rights secured.” ’ ater. addition to the toilet is Pears’ Lavender W < . ‘ | r 9 Botanical Gazette w Montbly Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science Subscription per year, $5.00. Foreign, $5.75. Single Numbers, 50 Cents European subscriptions, £1 4s per annum (post free), should be remitted to WILLIAM Westry & SON, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, Sole European Agents. Vol. XXXVIII, No. 3 Issued September 23, 1904 CONTENTS THE Pe een OF slat pee Moe CYLINDER OF ARACEAE AND LILIA- CONTRIBUTIONS THE HULL BRIE. LABORATORY, ans ark pains xu-xv). Mintin anak Chrysler - . 161 THE DEVELOPMENT AND RELATIONSHIP OF MONOCLEA. CoNTRIBUTIONS FROM TH CAL LABORATORY OF THE JOHNS smielacean sophlenmaiicle haa 2. (WITH PLATES XVIAND xviI). Duncan S. Johnson B 185 ON oe tte ag OF CERTAIN LONTEERAE Sag TWENTY-FOUR FyEeS). W. te b eiens: “a CLES. ARTIFICIAL Angee ITIsM: A PRELIMINARY NOTICE. Geisee J. Peire * on) ele THE OF ncommamaan PPC LAER: samc uc (wars ONE rIoURE). Albert C. Herr CURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REV. - . - = : zy ° - 220 FLOW. abe > LANTS AND FERNS. VEGETATION OF THE SIHL VALLEY. NOTES FOR STUDENTS - - - - - - - = = gee NEWS 3 s é po itate : i : CO oe = er Maan must be ghana in higee. of publication. Not less than 50 separates of lead- brian printed, of which 25 (without covers) will be furnished gratis, the aes cost of the = covers ne IE Geis d) tobe pal id for by the author. Separates of “briefer es” (with or ithout hes Belay supplied at cost. The table below shows the approximate oe ‘of separates consisting of plain Thsgsa or text wit € engravings. 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VAN’T HOFF (English version by ALEXANDER SMITH) In four groups OF special interes to Physical Chemistry as related to Instructors. in Chemistry Analytica Chemists | - 4 Manufactur Pure Chemistry (First Group) « Industrial Chemistry (Second Group) ne Chemists Instructor . in | Physiology Physiology (Third Group) Physica Geology (Fourth Group) Geologists JACOBUS H. VAN’T HOFF Press Comments The eight lectures presented in this volume This i ly readable book, interest being *siology "a 4 have already appeared in German and been tolast, The chapters on ‘* Physical Chesiy prt jes otic presse noted in this Journal, 24, 1217 (1902). The ticularly i ting, taking u the theories a2 hysical metabol : volume before us is an unusually el on and the specific action of chemical ions in bint ra their effect 28 } which makes a strong appea he booklover d chap king up the subject of en: brit m. Inthe chai aswell asthe chemist. From the fact, probably lytic agents tending toward c emical equili , , the foe that the lectures were originally given in Eng- Casthey: something of the chemistry of ange influence o “| os lish, this ver reads more smoothly than does _ tion and structure of geological salts, an book ¥ A r ization. - the German, and the former possesses acharm variations in temperature upon crystallizatio ced students which one does not find in the latter.—/Journa/ mend itself particularly to teachers of the American Chemical Soctety, Technical World, To Tit SEND THIS COUPON TO ANY BOOKSELLER, OR DIRECT | PUBLISHED BY | 4 i i : istry in the The University of Please send “= a copy of Payee ae Chicago Press Sciences. I will aa $1.60 in payment 2 ; eae ae ee Address The Code of Hammurabi KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2250 B.C. ited by ROBERT FRANCIS HARPER, Professor of the Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Chicago PART I, SECOND EDITION The best proof of the popularity of a book is its continued sale. If a work meets a popular demand, public interest in it is cumulative ; the narrow circle of its first friends widens and soon extends over states and countries. This has been our experience with The Code of Hammurabi. The collection of these ancient laws of Babylon shies material of the greatest value to those interested in social institutions, and contains many laws that in a modified form appear today upon our statute books. Students are giving this code most serious consideration, and many are undertak- ing acritical and comparative study of the details. The edition that we have put out is ideal for such use, as it contains an autographed text of the original inscription, a transliteration, and a very careful translation, all fully indexed and arranged in convenient form. OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO HISTORIANS, because the habits, customs, and traditions of the ancient Babylon- ians are crystallized in these laws; the direct light thrown upon social conditions makes it pos- sible to piece together a very satisfactory narrative leading up to the promulgation of the code. JURISTS will find a wealth of material bearing on all sorts of civil and criminal] contro- versies ; also curious survivals of primitive customs, and many sections showing transitional stage in legal procedure ECONOMISTS will find very elaborate provisions bearing on property rights, wages anc rents, interest, prices, transportation, ab iii, building, and many other interesting features eg of advanced economic condition sO CIOLOGISTS will be surprised at the advanced stage and complexity rf sey institutions in ancient Babylon Slavery was well established and hedged about i _ be ag elaborate legal provisions. The status of master and servant is carefully Gennec h The position of husband and wife is discussed at great length. T was highly organize ed. THEOLOGIANS will find in this code many similarities to that aiso marked contrasts. The two codes are writte the same mew Fy and present not a few cases of actual verbal acne A mparison of the two wit be found very interesting. on ae Y, coatainay be published in the fall of the present year, at $2.00, comparison wi nt thatot cal examination of the Code of Hammu rabi anda University of Chi ot Moses, by President William R. Harper, of the inclose r} will remit $4.2 (28 cenis Jed postage) in pay- ment for same. THE SECOND Large BVO, 04 plates EDITION READY FOR DELIVERY JUNE FIRST T 214 pages, cloth. Price $4,00, me/,; postpaid, $4.28 . AT ALL BOOKSELLERS, OR DIRECT FROM —_——_$_$_$_$_——— HE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Decennial Publications THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, 1892-190) 25a AMa Sonn Now Ready Quarto, SilK Cloth | VOLUME I cxliv-+574 pp., $4.50, ez The President’s Report, covering the pps of tel University during the first ten years of its existen tory a bs Pe stitution is presented inane exhausting introdala and t of the work ae ns many valuable statisiis oe on aap 6 first decenniu ace a II 185 pp., $3.00, 7e/ (In paper, $2.50, eZ) og President’s Report, containing a detailed and casi | st of the prsnsapeeti of the members of the University during ie period 1892-1 VOLUME III 244 pp., $3.00, mez Including a on Theology, Church History, Philosophy | and Educat A volume of great interest to theologiats students of philseaeiey and teachers in high schools, nome schools, colleges, and universities f VOLUME IV 353 pp.-, $4.00, ref Ptr omer to Political te Se Science, ao wl Sociology. 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P At all booksellers, or order direct from The University of Chicago Press Physical Chemistry in the Service of the Sciences Aacosus H. van’T HOFF English version by ALEXANDER SMITH 2Ss=eDAan GCAZ008D CHICAGO, ILLINOIS The University of Chicago Press: Please send me your special catalogue de- scribing both series of the Decennial Publica- A Tlistory of Matrimonial Institutions By GEORGE E. HOWARD, Ph.D. a 65-8 4 In Three Volumes GEORGE ELLIOTT HOWARD status of marriage and divorce is quite impossible without it. I.—An analysis of the literature and the theories of primi ee monial institutions. The patriarchal theory is first taken up, 4 and the ins then traced until the modern form of marriage is develope ed. II.—Presents a very full and carefully worked out << of matrimonial institutions in oe ae beginning with wie and ending with the present English law PART III.—Contains an exhaustive treatment of ar- triage and divorce in the United States. A// the legislation in a// the states since the Revolution has been examined, a and all essential details are recorded. The real status of marriage and divorce in the United States is nowhere else so clearly presented. NOW Tice, $10.00 net NOW READY Express prepaid $10.72 READY i Sy 4&a@- Send the attached coupon for a detailed prospectus <@& > THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS The Role of Diffusion and (Osmotic Pressure in Plants Lantern By BURTON EDWARD LIVINGSTON Slides This book would serve as a manual ee Educational and for both beginning and advanced students, as the first part is a thor- Scientific Subjects ough and concise treatise on osmotic These lantern slides are selected from our enormous 2 : : é stock, pop tone over 40,000 began and are baeotonene —— phenomena in organic life; while accurately arranged, in many cases to accompany 6 Pat ‘ G ard Te 300ks, We ha the second part is a more discursive Lantern Slides ipo es poasen Slides 0 on Sond ote al I Geography. ‘ > , ?Wriea) Lantern Slides on ¢ and equally thorough discussion of eee eithee on Renee ' — ie sf ste . Lantern Slides on Natural History the present status of knowledge in Lantern Slides on Native Birds. Tene Lantern Slides on Anatomy. re gard to the occurrence of these Lantern Slides on Astronomy, : ies Ee Lantern Slides on Amerie rot separa phenomena, together with a bibli- Lantern Slides on Paychol i Lantern Sli¢ on le nee ography > 1eC Lantern Slides on I an Ce theolinitia: gral hy on the subject. Lantern Slides on Details of Architectural Design, Lantern Slides on Mining. xiv + 150 pages, 8vo, cloth Mtparts eae clea strating many other subjects in a net, $I. et, $1.50; postpaid, $1.60 nd for list of Educational Lantern Slides and descrip- car n of our New Be bE Light,a New Brilliant P a able L Light for Magic ists of Projec ting ee scope = Projec ee ? dlarisco vig 8 sent on applicatior We ‘aie rent Slides at low ee UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO RES WILL MS, anon & EARLE, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Manufacturers of Stereopticons, Microscopes, etc. Dept. 24 918 Chestnut St., Phila. Methods in Plant Histology By CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN, A.M., PH_D., Instructor in Botany in the University of Chicago A CONSTANT HELP to Teachers and Students of Botany CONTAINS DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PREPARING PLANT MATERIAL FOR MICROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION I’ s oe sed upon a course in botanical micro-technique, and is the first complete ma anual to be published on this s subject. It is per esult of several years’ work with classes in residence i oc niversity of Chica si “artes ie hiv Extension classes away from the Uni- ance of an Fo therefore, to m Mii not only of the student who has the assist- and with i . =. in a fully equipped labo secs "but ~ the student who must work by himself and the Baan apparatus. hand sectionin g, t e paraffin method, the collodion method, ech ang le me ethod, are eekhed in ‘considerable detail. In later chapters specific direc- plant kingd =n ot Making such Be needed pele t a Mee wish to study the ™gdom from the algee u the flowering plants, Speci id t ain- roki in different; histolo ical labora g other structures. oles are given for the rea Senie 2 commonly used in the aboratory, 60 pp., 8vo, illustrated, cloth, (7e¢) $1.50; postpaid $1.59 For sale by dealers or by the publishers | The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois What Sterling is to Silver What Bessemer is to Steel PRUDENTIAL is to Life Insurant Tis the sense of saving that lays the Rock foundation of Prudential Protection. It will be a pleasure to explain if you will write us. lhe Prudentia INSURANCE CO. OF AMERICA. | JOHN F. DRYDEN, President. Home Office: ee "| DEPT. 25 “Visit The Prudential’s Exhibit, Palace of Education, World's F air, St. Low : F i | ee a ae a ee oe ee VOLUME XXXVIII ; NUMBER 3 BOTANICAL (GAZEERe SEPTEMBER, 1904 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CENTRAL CYLINDER OF ARACEAE AND LILIACEAE. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE HULL BOTANICAL LABORATORY. MINTIN ASBURY CHRYSLER. (WITH PLATES XII-XV) Tue fundamental unity of the vascular structures found in the higher plants was perceived by VANTIEGHEM, whose conception of the stele and its modifications, outlined in 1886 (17), displaced the earlier view of DeBary. But it became apparent subsequently that VANTIEGHEM’S assumptions were not sufficiently supported by observation. For example, it was shown by GWYNNE-VAUGHAN (3) that polystely does not arise by bifurcation of the protostele in the genus Primula, and JerrrEy (6) proved the same for_Pleris aquilina. VANTIEGHEM’s theory is also open to the objection that it is founded on the conditions occurring in a highly organized group of plants, while there would seem to be a better prospect of finding a primitive condition of the vascular system among pteridophytes. In 1897 JEFFREY (5) proposed a stelar theory in which this objection is met, the essential feature of which is the important influence on the cen- tral cylinder of the outgoing leaf or branch traces. Emphasis is also Placed on the study of the young vascular axis, on account of its recognized importance in accordance with the principle of recapitu- lation. - The following diagrams may serve to show the main differ- ences between the two theories: 161 162 BOTANICAL GAZETTE I. VANTIEGHEM. 1. Protostele eae Sie 2. Medullated monostele 4. Polystele “a ; 3. Astele (schizostele) 5. Gamostele IJ. JEFFREY (USING THE SAME NUMBERS TO DESIGNATE EQUIVALENT TYPES). (1) Protostele (5 and 4) Siphonostele with internal phloem and endodermis (amphiphloic siphonostele) (3) Siphonostele with internal endodermis (ectophloic siphonostele) (2) Siphonostele without internal phloem or endodermis. It will be noticed that Jerrrey derives the vascular structures characteristic of the seed plants from those of the pteridophytes by 4 process of reduction; further, he considers the pith to be simply fun- damental tissue which has intruded through the foliar or ramular gaps, while VANTIEGHEM assumes a stelar origin for the pith. The researches of JEFFREY (7) and GWYNNE-VAUGHAN (4) seem to place beyond question the view that the ferns possess an amphiphloic siphonostele derived from a protostelic condition by the bending in of phloem, endodermis, and cortex above the point of exit* of the foliar traces; but that the seed plants have primitively a central cylin- der built on this plan is a generalization which must be tested by the examination of representatives from a number of typical families m different regions of this great group. With this object in view I have undertaken, at the suggestion of Dr. Jeffrey, to investigate the devel- opment of the central cylinder in two characteristic monocotyledonous families, the Araceae and the Liliaceae. Such an investigation ought to answer the following questions: 1. What bearing on current stelar theories has the development of the central cylinder in these families ? 2. Are the amphivasal bundles found in so many monocotyledons to be considered a primitive type ? | ‘For the sake of clearness the leaf traces will be treated as if they originated “a central cylinder, regardless of the actual direction of their development, which in most cases has not been made out. 1904] CHRYSLER—CENTRAL CYLINDER 163 3. Does the structure of the young stele throw any light on the question of the origin of the monocotyledons ? ARACEAE. The number of forms which have been available in this inquiry has not been large, but they are sufficiently varied in their affinities, and appear to the writer to yield no uncertain result. Pothoideae. This subfamily is regarded by ENGLER (1) as the most primitive one in the family. Hence one of its most available representatives will be first described. Acorus CaLamus.?—In a seedling of this plant the central cylinder in its lowest region is a solid mass of vascular tissue, consisting of a core of xylem and a ring of phloem, surrounded by pericycle and endodermis, that is, it is a typical protostele. One trace is given off to the cotyledon, and usually three traces to each of the next three or four leaves, after which the number of foliar traces is increased. In the region where the traces of the second leaf are given off, the central cylinder is seen to possess a parenchymatous pith, which is continuous with the pericycle through the gaps in the vascular tissues caused by the bending out of the traces (fig. 1, which, however, represents a higher region of the stem). The endodermis does not nd inward through the gap with the pericycle, but remains unbroken, a portion of it surrounding the trace as it passes outward. Followed downward through the stele the pith either becomes nar- Tower and disappears above the point of exit of the cotyledonary trace, or in some cases enlarges at this point and communicates with the pericycle at the higher node; followed upward the pith widens out with the enlarging central cylinder. As the three traces of the third leaf bend outward, the pith again communicates with the pericycle; Since the median trace is the largest of the three, the gap it leaves in the vascular ring is the widest; in fact, the gap of one or both of the lateral traces may be filled only by a single row of parenchymatous cells or may not be present. Up to this point the vascular ring is Practically continuous, owing to the foliar gaps being so short, but in the higher regions of the young stem the gaps remain open longer, so that the central cylinder appears to be made up of a ring of sepa- *The nomenclature employed in this paper is that of Engler and Prantl. 164 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER rated bundles which are at first collateral, but soon become amphi- vasal. Fig.-1 shows this region of the stele. Not until a consider- ably older stage is reached do certain bundles turn inward and run for a distance in the medulla before turning out to the leaves. Fig. 2 shows part of a section through the mature rhizome; most of the bundles are amphivasal, and some of them run in the medulla; g isa gap through which a medullary bundle has lately passed, and it will be noticed that the endodermis curves inward around the edges of the gap for a short distance, thus making the cortical parenchyma continuous with that of the medulla. This intercommunication of cortex with medulla is even better marked in the base of the flowering axis, as is shown in fig. 3. It will be seen that the endodermis extends around the edges of the gaps for a short distance, and completely encircles one small section of the vascular ring. It seems reasonable to believe that if the gaps in the central cylinder of the seedling of Acorus were not so narrow the cortex might communicate with the pith as it does in the seedlings of other Araceae possessing a wider central cylinder. ANTHURIUM ACAULE.—In the hypocotyl the central cylinder is a hollow tube consisting of xylem, phloem, pith, and surrounded by an endodermis. Just below exit of the single cotyledonary trace the vascular ring breaks up into a circular row of five or six collateral bundles or meristeles. Above the exit of the cotyledonary tract the row is horseshoe-shaped, but soon becomes circular again owing to the reunion of the bundles on the two sides of the cotyledonary gap- The endodermis cannot be followed clearly owing to its poor develop- ment. The stele retains its form of a ring of about six collateral bundles through the first internode. At the upper end of the inter- node several bundles divide, and certain of these turn outward traces of the second leaf, while others turn inward and run upward through the pith, becoming traces of leaves higher up. In the young stem no concentric strands have been found. Monsteroideae.—Monsrera pELIcIosa.—The hypocotyledonary Stele consists of a circle of collateral bundles inclosing a parenchyma tous medulla. Nearly a third of these bundles bend outward at se side to supply the cotyledon; a little above this point bundles begin = to run in the medulla; in other words, the central cylinder early ‘ 1904] CHRYSLER—CENTRAL CYLINDER 165 assumes the characters seen in the adult stem. The bundles are collateral in all parts of the-stem. No endodermis can be distin- ished. Calloideae.—SyMPLOCARPUS FOETIDUS has already received some attention in JEFFREY’s preliminary studies of monocotyledons (6). he seedling at the age of one year consists of a spherical tuber about 1°™ in diameter; from the upper side of this rises a conical bud with a cylindrical base 4™™ in diameter, from which spring several roots. A transverse section through the basal region of the tuber shows an elliptical row of collateral strands, each surrounded by an endodermis (fig. 4). A little higher up several bundles at one side of the ellipse turn outward, so that at about the middle region of the tuber the bundles are arranged as a horseshoe. Opposite the open part of the horseshoe there is frequently a swelling of the tuber, and in some cases this part of the tuber separates off at a slightly higher level by an absciss layer; this part accordingly constitutes the cotyledon, and the opening in the central cylinder is the cotyledonary gap. Toward the upper part of the tuber the separate strands approach one another, as is shown in fig. 5.3 At g is the cotyledonary gap; most of the vas- cular strands have fused laterally, producing a hollow vascular cylin- der with an external and internal phloeoterma (using the term in STRASBURGER’S sense (15, p. 310)), broken by the wide cotyledonary gap and by several areas where the individual bundles have not yet fused; through these openings the external and internal phloeotermas are obviously continuous. The latter may persist for some distance upward, finally becoming indistinguishable, or may degenerate quite early, and, as is seen in jig. 7, the external phloeoterma runs for a short distance around the edges of the cotyledonary gap, and then disappears. Compare jigs. 2 and 3 of Acorus, also JEFFREY’Ss figure of Ranunculus rhomboideus (6, fig. 16). A little higher up the cotyle- donary gap closes and the stele forms a hollow tube with external and internal phloeoterma. Almost immediately, however, the vas- cular tissue aggregates into separate strands, the xylem of which is disposed circularly (amphivasal bundles), and a few of these turn into the central region of the stele (fig. 6). Each of these bundles is surrounded by a portion of the internal phloeoterma, if this has not 3Figs. 5, 6, 7,8, and 11 are from sections treated with sulfuric acid. 166 , BOTANICAL GAZETTE (exrnieanl already become invisible in this region of the stem, as is seen to be the case in the stem represented in fig. 8. These bundles soon become quite numerous and run upward for some distance before resuming their collateral structure and passing outward to the leaves. Two points of interest in this plant are the existence of a well- marked internal as well as external phloeoterma in the young stem, and the early disappearance of the internal phloeotermal layer. It can hardly be doubted that the thin-walled tissue forming the pith of the stele is simply extrastelar tissue which enters at the base of the stelar system, and through the cotyledonary gap. Absence of the protostelic condition is probably to be accounted for by the shape of the stem; it is in the region of the cotyledonary gap that the central cylinder shows its most primitive condition, namely a vascular tube possessing both external and internal phloeoterma. The spaces between the vascular segments in the basal region of the stem are not foliar gaps, as JEFFREY’s account seems to imply (6, p. 29), for this region of the stem is the hypocotyl, and further there are no outgoing bundles between the segments referred to. Separation of the seg- ments may be due to expansion of the young stem as it assumes its tuberous shape. CALLA PALUSTRIS has been sufficiently described by JEFFREY (6). | The development of its stele follows pretty closely the course out- lined for Acorus, though the endodermis does not seem to be well developed in Calla, also the foliar gaps extend for a greater distance than is the case in Acorus. Philodendroideae.—ScuizmatocLorris ROEBELINII seems bi show a scattered disposition of the vascular strands in all parts of its seedling. The material available has not permitted a satisfactory study. PELTANDRA VIRGINICA.—The seedling possesses a tuberous base consisting of a somewhat cylindrical axial portion with a thick coty- ledon applied to its side; the cotyledon is separated in its upper pat from the axial portion by a prominent absciss layer. In fig. 9, © represents, the-cotyledon, and r, r secondary roots. A section through the basalfpart of the tuber shows about eight collateral bundles arrangedtin’ a’ circle (fig. 10). Most of these bundles are given ¢ 4 to the cotyledon, so that only a few slender strands continue the ce | Ee ee ee eS a eS ee a eS ee eT 1904] CHRYSLER—CENTRAL CYLINDER 167 upward course; toward the upper part of the tuber these enlarge and each is seen to be provided with an endodermis whose cells show a cutinized band girdling the radial walls. The strands now unite laterally into a flattened arch whose hollow is turned toward the cotyledon; by continued increase in the vascular tissue the arch becomes more and more nearly a complete circle. In fig. rz the cotyledon lies to the right; the individual sheaths have fused to form a common endodermis which is continuous outside and inside the arch; r is the trace of a root, which as usual leaves no gap in the central cylinder. Fig. r2 shows the central cylinder at a slightly higher level; the opening to the right faces the cotyledon, and is undoubtedly the cotyledonary gap. Soon this closes entirely, and at this level the vascular tissue of the stele becomes partly broken up into separate strands, some of which turn into the medulla; each strand and segment of the stele possesses its own endodermis. Amphi- vasal bundles are found at this level and in the later formed regions of the stem, but they are not so characteristic of Peltandra as of Symplocarpus, to which plant Peltandra evidently possesses many resemblances with respect to its central cylinder. The medullary strands are connected with the traces of all leaves above the cotyledon, and each trace leaves the central cylinder through a gap, around the edges of which the external and internal endodermis are continuous. Eventually, however, the endodermis becomes obsolete, and an increase in the number of medullary strands gives the stele the appearance characteristic of monocotyledons generally. It should be mentioned that the ring of bundles is not always present in the lower part of the tuber; in such cases bundles are so poorly developed in this region that a central cylinder cannot be said to exist below the cotyledonary gap. AZANTEDESCHIA AETHIOPICA (the ordinary calla lily) and Z. ALBo- MACULATA may be described together, since the seedlings are very similar. As the stele of the root merges into that of the hypocotyl it assumes a pith into which several strands turn from the original vascular ring, and soon the whole stele is converted into a network of anastomosing strands. From this network about six bundles are Siven off to the cotyledon, whose base forms a sheath around the younger leaves. In the succeeding regions of the stem the bundles a BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEuner pursue the course ordinarily seen in a monocotyledonous stem. ion no part of the stem is an endodermis well developed. ae ot Colocasioideae.—ALocasIA opORATA.—Above the point of exit of the cotyledonary traces the stele is represented only by a scanty vascular mass of flattened form, its side being turned toward the cotyledon. Further upward this mass splits into several strands, and a ring-shaped row of bundles is completed by the appearance de novo of several delicate strands between those already present and the cotyledon. The flattened vascular mass referred to seems to represent the same condition as that shown for Peltandra in fig. 11, namely, there is an unusually wide cotyledonary gap, which is not closed in the ordinary way owing to the tendency throughout the plant for the vascular strands to lie widely separated. Ina slightly higher region of the stem several bundles come to lie in the medulla and some of the bundles assume the amphivasal shape. No endodermis was found in any part of the stem. CALADIUM BULBOSUM.—Departure of the cotyledonary trace causes no break in the narrow stele of the seedling; the stele soon becomes complicated by medullary strands which anastomose with’ one another. In many sections, however, it may be seen that the cH: cortex communicates freely with the medulla above the point of exit of a leaf trace. No endodermis has been demonstrated. . . Aroideae. ARUM ITALICUM.—The five traces which pass into the | sheathing base of the cotyledon arise from a complex vascular mass; and the succeeding traces run for a short distance in the medulla. The peculiar habits of sprouting described for another member of the _ genus by RimBacH (10) and Scorr and SarGAnT (13) have probably had the effect of modifying the vascular system; and no part of ne plant suggests a primitive condition, but on the contrary 4 highly specialized one. ae ARISAEMA TRIPHYLLUM.—The method of sprouting is essentially — a like that of Arum. The five cotyledonary traces rise from a V ae mass whose elements anastomose in a complex manner. Above ee . region the bundles pursue a more nearly vertical course, but areas mo arranged in a definite central cylinder surrounded by endodermis ts In older seedlings the bundles form an extensive network in rs = central region of the corm. It is probable that the phylogenetic 1904] CHRYSLER—CENTRAL CYLINDER 169 development of this corm has been accompanied by considerable changes in the vascular system, leading to complications which render this plant unsuitable for the purposes of the present inquiry. ARISAEMA DRACONTIUM, A, SPECIOSUM, A. INTERMEDIUM, and A. TARTARINOWII all resemble A. ériphyllum in having seedlings which show a complex network of bundles. They all likewise produce a corm. TYPHONIUM DIVARICATUM has a vascular system so similar to that found in Arisaema that it does not merit a separate description. In viewing in a general way the genera so far described the ques- tion arises: What characters are to be regarded as primitive? The answer must be, those which occur in the first formed part of the stem, unless there is reason to believe that this region has been influenced by the assumption of some special habit, such as the tuberous or bulbous habit. The stem of Acorus is relatively free from external influences, on account of its geophilous habit; its central cylinder is at first protostelic, then siphonostelic with a pith communicating with the pericycle through the foliar gaps. Judging from the condi- tions in Symplocarpus and in the mature organs of Acorus, we may infer that if the central cylinder of the Acorus seedling were not so narrow the endodermis and cortex might here also enter through the gaps, in which case the stele would differ from that characteristic of the ferns mainly in the absence of internal phloem, a feature which appears to be quite rare in seed plants. The simple siphonostelic Stage persists in Acorus for several internodes, and the stem looks much like that of a dicotyledon; higher up some segments of the stele become amphivasal, and this may be regarded as the first appearance of a monocotyledonous character; very soon certain strands begin — ‘o run in the medulla, and so the monocotyledonous nature of the stele is established. The steles of the various genera differ from the type Just described in a modification of the basal part of the stele in accordance with the tuberous habit, as in Symplocarpus, or in the tapid disappearance of the phloeoterma, as in Peltandra, or in the early appearance of the medullary strands, as inj Arisaema. What- “ver may be the nature of the pith in Acorus, there seems to be good reason for believing that in Peltandra and Symplocarpus the pith is 170 BOTANICAL GAZETTE simply fundamental tissue which has been inclosed by the gradual curving around of the edges of the cotyledonary gap until they meet; moreover, the stele is in open communication with the cortex in the | basal region of the tuber. It has been shown that in Symplocarpus _ the internal phloeoterma undergoes a more or less early degenera- tion, so that the included parenchyma comes to lie next to the xylem, ‘and so might be mistaken for stelar tissue in the upper part of the stem. It is of interest to note that from a general morphological study _ of Araceae ENGLER (1) places Acorus among the most primitive genera of the family, and members of the Aroideae, such as Arum and Typhonium, among the most highly developed of the family. My observations on the seedlings accord in the main with ENGLER'S classification; the young stem of Acorus possesses a simple stele, while members of the Aroideae early acquire the most complicated vascular system found in the family. C LILIACEAE. | In this family over fifty species have been studied, representing all the large subfamilies; in most cases both the adult plants and seedlings # have been examined. The search for primitive typés has convinced Z me that ancestral characters are most likely to be preserved ina — rhizome, since such a stem is free from the modifying influences ofan aerial life; hence the first subfamily to be treated is one in which most of the members have the basal portion of the stem a rhizome. ae. Asparagoideae—CrnTontA BOREALIS. —The plant is characterized ; by a horizontal rhizome which turns upward at the end, bears number of scales and several foliage leaves, and terminates in a Scape carrying an umbel of flowers. Fig. 13 represents a cross se a through the rhizome a short distance before it turns upward; fis be seen that the stele forms a tube perforated at the point of S a several leaf traces, also that there are no medullary bundles. Fig. 14 is a more highly magnified view of a portion of the stele. It _ that an internal as well as an external phloeoterma is present, oo that these are continuous through the foliar gap; also that some the meristeles are amphivasal. ; CLINTONIA UMBELLATA.—A cross section through the rhizome shown in jig. 15; two foliar gaps with their traces are to be = _ 1904] CHRYSLER—CENTRAL CYLINDER 171 here also is an internal as well as an external phloeoterma. Certain of the strands are amphivasal, and three of these have left the stelar ring and run immediately adjacent to it in the medulla. The vascular system of this plant evidently represents a condition slightly more complicated than that present in_C. borealis. Unfortunately seed- lings of neither species of Clintonia have been available, so that the origin of the interesting condition seen in the mature stem remains unknown. . MAIANTHEMUM BIFOLIUM.—The general habit of the plant is similar to that described for Clintonia, though the two foliage leaves arise from a higher region of the aerial shoot. Fig. 16 represents a section through the rhizome a short distance above where it turns upward. The heavily cutinized external phloeoterma is a prominent feature, and inside of it is a circle of collateral bundles; three amphi- vasal bundles run in the medulla, but these do not become leaf traces; on the contrary they end as they begin, namely, by joining bundles of the vascular.ring. Throughout the horizontal course of the rhi-. zome no medullary bundles are present. Several leaf traces are to be seen at various stages in their escape from the stele; it will be noticed that they cause no break in the continuity of the phloeoterma. In the seedling the stele contains pith even in the hypocotyl; as the single cotyledonary trace leaves the stele, the phloeoterma bends inward around the edges of the gap, but does not lose its continuity; the pericycle is continuous with the pith through the gap and no amphi- vasal strands are present. To the second leaf three traces are given off; the median trace causes the phloeoterma to bend inward, as does the cotyledonary trace (fig. 17); the lateral traces emerge exactly as in the adult stem (fig. 16). The third leaf receives three traces which . leave the stele as do those of the second leaf ; the same is true of the fourth and fifth leaves. Comparing the stele of this plant with that of Clintonia borealis, the absence of internal phloeoterma and the Presence of amphivasal medullary strands in the former are to be noted, though these do not make their appearance until a late stage of development. 2MILACINA STELLATA.—As the primary root merges into the hypo- cotyl, the stele becomes hollow and the vascular tissue aggregates in Several collateral strands at the periphery of the stele. An external 172 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [sepreiee phloeoterma is present and is not broken by the exit of a large strand of vascular tissue to the cotyledon. Fig. 18 shows the appearance of the stele in the first internode, and illustrates the tendency which the stele has to break up into separate strands. The three traces of the second leaf arise in the same manner as the cotyledonary trace; above this level, however, some of the strands become concentric, and one or two branches are given off into the pith, where they run only a short distance, join bundles of the vascular ring, and then pass out to leaves. Fig. 19 shows such a strand at m, and also a leaf trace (i) which is just leaving the vascular ring. Higher up other medullary strands run for a greater distance in the pith and turn outward to leaves without anastomosing with bundles of the vascular ring. The seedling of this plant shows clearly the gradual appearance of mono- cotyledonous characters in a central cylinder which in its first formed part closely resembles that of a dicotyledon. The mature stem both in its subterranean and aerial regions differs from the rhizome of Maianthemum in having a number of medullary strands. SMILACINA RACEMOSA.—In the youngest plants obtainable the central cylinder exhibited the characters of the adult stem, that is the bundles are scattered through the medulla. Seeds of this plant failed to sprout. : Smilacina stellata in that it consists of a ring of collateral bundles surrounded by a phloeoterma and enclosing pith; but the bundles early become concentric and afterwards some of them run in the medulla. Bundles of the vascular ring turn outward as leaf traces | . Hoa « without destroying the continuity of the phloeoterma. “ Potyconatum Birtorum and P. vERTICILLATUM.—The central | cylinder, at first a solid mass, becomes divided into about six widely separated collateral strands at a comparatively young stage; Mae n several medullary bundles appear; a phloeoterma is not distingws able. The wide separation of the strands is probably due to the fact q | that the subterranean stem (a horizontal rhizome) early bea a closes the stele becomes divided into six or eight meristeles arranged 4 swollen into ovoid form through deposition of starch. - MEDEOLA VIRGINIANA.—The cotyledonary gap is wide; 4 circularly, each provided with its own endodermis and having # | STREPTOPUS ROSEUS.—The stele of the seedling resembles that of ig ee ee a 1904] CHRYSLER—CENTRAL CYLINDER 173 collateral structure. The meristeles unite at the next node and a single strand turns outward, leaving a wide gap in the vascular ring. Again the meristeles separate widely, owing no doubt to the fleshy nature of the stem which by this time has begun to show its habit of a . horizontal somewhat swollen rhizome. As the stem turns upward into the air the meristeles approach one another and some of them become amphivasal. At about this point the internal endodermis disappears, but the external layer becomes strongly cutinized. The amphivasal strands resume their collateral structure at a slightly higher level; medullary strands are absent in most plants. TRILLIUM GRANDIFLORUM.—The subterranean stem is a vertical rhizome which becomes thicker and more ovoidal as the plant grows older, owing to deposition of stores of starch. In the young stem the central cylinder is a solid mass of vascular tissue for a few inter- nodes. The first leaves have three traces; the median trace is much the largest, and as it leaves the central cylinder the latter becomes somewhat crescent-shaped; the lateral traces are very delicate and by their departure leave no indentations in the stele. After exit of the traces of the third or fourth leaf, however, there is intrusion of fundamental tissue into the central cylinder, since the angles of the crescent above referred to curve around and finally close in on the side next the trace. This condition is shown in jig. 20; tis the median trace, t, is one of the lateral traces whose gap was narrower than that of the median trace and had already closed at this level. The writer fails to see how the thin-walled tissue inside the stele can be regarded as anything but a portion of the fundamental tissue inclosed by approximation of the vascular tissue at the sides of the gap. The appearance above described may be masked by the overlapping of two foliar gaps on opposite sides of the stele; in such a case the stele is broken into two halves (fig. 21),.a condition which has frequently been described for various ferns. In the upper part of the rhizome the stele becomes complicated by bridges of vascular tissue reaching from one side of the stele to the other; also certain of the leaf traces tun for a short distance in the medulla before turning outward. It should be remarked that these medullary strands are amphivasal. In some Seedlings the stele retains its solid or protostelic character for many internodes, and it is possible that the diversity noticed in 174 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER 4 the various serial sections of seedlings may be due to some of them belonging to T. erectum rather than to T. grandiflorum, since the seedlings of the two species are hard to distinguish in the field, and I have been unsuccessful in attempts to grow them from seed. In many instances a leaf trace arises from one side rather than from the __ base of the gap, as has been observed in many ferns, or the trace may run vertically for some distance before turning out from the stelar ring. This condition is shown by the trace marked #¢, in fig. 22; 1, and #, are the lateral traces of the same leaf; the last has not quite broken away from the stele. TRILLIUM SESSILE and T. RECURVATUM greatly resemble T. granti- florum in the seedling stage, but differ from the last species in having wider gaps and showing concentric bundles in a younger part of the stem. ASPARAGUS OFFICINALIS, A. VERTICILLATUS, A. SPRENGERI, A. VERTICILLATUS, A. BROUSSONETII, and A. MEDEOLOIDES do not appear to throw any light on the problems under consideration on account of the complications attending the formation of lateral buds. Ruscus acuLratus has a seedling much resembling those found in the genus Asparagus. In the seedlings available the stele had already assumed its mature condition. : Dracaenoideae.—Yucca FILAMENTOSA.—The hypocotyledonary stele consists of a hollow vascular tube from which about one-third of the vascular tissue turns outward to the cotyledon, leaving 4 U- shaped stele whose pith is in free communication with the cores No phloeoterma was observed. Almost immediately strands tum from the U into the pith, and before the cotyledonary gap 1s closed these medullary strands are quite numerous. These become tract of higher leaves, so that the stele in this plant quickly attains the char acteristic monocotyledonous condition. Nearly all the vascular strands are collateral. ee Yucca ANGustIroLIA and Y. BAccATA resemble Y. jilamentosa® the young state; in the first-named species the medullary bundles at somewhat later in arising than in the two other species. - Dracaena Draco, D. RUBRA, D. Verrcut, and CorDYLINE ot ft TRALIs differ in no essential respect from Yucca as regards the develop ment of the stele. = ee a 1904] CHRYSLER—CENTRAL CYLINDER 175 ASsTELIA sp. (funkia coerulea) offers no points of significance. Lilioideae.— LILIUM CANADENSE.—The young plant consists of a vertical axis upon which is set a spiral series of fleshy awl-shaped scales which are loaded with starch; to each of these three traces run from the tubular central cylinder, taking a course directly outward or even curving downward for a short distance after leaving the central cylinder. These traces, though slender, subtend foliar gaps which frequently extend the whole length of an internode, so that the central cylinder has the appearance of three separate collateral strands, except at the nodes, where a vascular ring is formed, and in the lower part of the seedling, where the scales are more crowded. Fig. 23 shows the appearance of the central cylinder at a node, ¢ is the median trace; bordering the vascular strands are cells differing from the surrounding parenchyma by their entire lack of starch; these may represent a phloeoterma. In the higher regions of the stem the usual medullary bundles appear, and some of these are amphivasal. ERYTHRONIUM AMERICANUM, CALOCHORTUS VENUSTUS, GALTONIA CANDICANS, SCILLA HYACINTHOIDES, CAMASSIA FRASERI, Hyacrn- THUS CANDICANS, and LACHENALIA PENDULA early assume the bulbous habit characteristic of the adult plant, hence the stem is flattened in the vertical direction. The complications produced in the vascular tissues by this habit render these genera unprofitable for study, and since there is no reason to believe that the bulbous condition is a primitive one, no description of these genera will be necessary here. Allioideae.—Artium Crpa, A. CANADENSIS, and A. ANGULOSUM have seedlings much resembling those of the last group in their bulbous habit and intricate vascular system. AGAPANTHUS UMBELLATUS has a stele much resembling that of lium. Asphodeloideae.—AspHopEeLus FISTULOSUS, ASPHODELINE LIBUR- NICA, BULBINE ANNUA, B, FRUTESCENS, ANTHERICUM Liz1aco, CHLo- ROPHYTUM ELATUM, KNIPHOFIA Tysont, K. BREVIFOLIA, and ALOE SP: agree in having short internodes and passing quickly through the early stages of stelar development, so that the medullary bundles are found near the exit of the cotyledonary traces. Further, an endodermis a: rarely discernible, so that these genera are unsuitable in the present Investigation. i 176 BOTANICAL GAZETTE ANEMARRHENA ASPHODELOIDES has been studied with much inter est because Miss SARGANT (11, 12) considers that the vascular system of the seedling represents a primitive type. The theory of this author considers chiefly the cotyledonary traces and their insertion; it is natural to inquire whether the stele of the older seedling shows features which may be regarded as primitive. The stele possesses a medulla below the exit of the two cotyledonary traces; these subtend wide gaps through which the cortical and medullary parenchyma freely communicate; the traces of the second leaf are three in number, and before they emerge medullary bundles have made their appear- ance. Except in the root an endodermis cannot be identified. This — fact, and the early appearance of medullary strands, and the presence — of a pith in the hypocotyl I do not regard as primitive characters, though it is evident that a plant may retain some ancestral features and lose others, so that the disposition of the cotyledonary strands may still represent an ancestral type. Melanthoideae.—Giortosa superBa—The peculiar habit of the subterranean portion of the stem has been fully described by QUEVA (9), and sufficiently accounts for the complications found in the lower part of its stele ; In the upper internodes of the seedling, however, the vascular strands are arranged in a simple ring, and - certain of the strands turn outward as leaf traces after anastomosing =| with adjacent members of the ring. Uvoraria GRANDIFLORA.—At the point of departure of the coty- ledonary trace a wide gap is left in the vascular tissues; here funda mental tissue enters and extends downward into the hypocotyl for @ short distance as well as upward. Fig. 24 shows the stele at level of the cotyledonary gap; the cotyledonary trace is not visible because By bends downward after leaving the stele; though no distinct phloeoterma is visible, the small-celled tissue surrounding the stele certainly an not seem to be continuous across the gap, as it is in some of the adult stems already described. At one place in the stele it will be nouce® — that the xylem surrounds a mass of phloem, so that the concentne bundles begin to show themselves at this early stage; they me : the whole vascular ring above the point of exit of the secon trace; some of them then turn inward and run in the medulla, =i > here they soon become collateral. sii 1904] CHRYSLER—CENTRAL CYLINDER 77 Viewing in a comparative way the genera of Liliaceae described in the foregoing paragraphs, it appears that Trillium exhibits very clearly the stages in development of the stele. These stages may be briefly enumerated as follows: (1) the protostelic condition is present in the basal part of the stem and persists through one or more inter- nodes; then follows (2) the siphonostelic condition in which cortical tissue is included in the stele above the point of exit of the leaf traces and thenceforth forms a medulla; (3) many segments of the stele take on the amphivasal character; (4) strands of vascular tissue, usually amphivasal, turn into the medulla where they run for a greater or less distance and may become connected with leaf traces. Though the stem of Trillium seldom shows any traces of a phloeoterma, Clintonia borealis presents a diagrammatic example of a stele which never gets beyond stage (3), and has external and internal phloeoterma which communicate through the foliar gaps. The internal phloeoterma is probably degenerate in Maianthenum except at the edges of the leaf gaps of the young stele; there may be a physiological correlation between the very heavily cutinized external layer and the absence of an internal layer; stage (4) is much delayed in this plant. In Smila- cina stellata stages (3) and (4) appear sooner; the phloeoterma is less distinct. Medeola and Lilium show the effect of long internodes combined with extended gaps in breaking up the central cylinder Into several strands arranged on the circumference of a circle. Uyu- laria and Streptopus quickly pass into stage (3). Many members of the family such as Allium have assumed the bulbous habit, and in the very short stem of these plants the medullary strands appear very early. They probably express the highest order of specialization shown in the family. As to the bearing of the foregoing observations on the central cylinder of the two families upon so-called stelar theories, it may at Once be stated that though the pteridophytes must be the critical era in any discussion of these theories, yet information from even Ye highly Specialized a group as the monocotyledons is of importance, if we acknowledge the descent of the seed-plants from fern-like ances- ‘ors. Many of the Liliaceae studied do not seem to afford any evi- dence on the points in dispute, which is not to be wondered at when 178 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [Serre one considers the adaptations which these plants show; but sey 1 - plants of both families show characters which, to say the least, are significant. es Concerning VANTIEGHEM’s types, the polystele need not be con- sidered, for no monocotyledon has yet been found with internal phloem; the medullated monostele may be present in such forms as Acorus and Smilacina, but the condi.ion may be equally well explained by assuming the degeneration of an internal phloeoterma, deriving this condition from that shown in Clintonia; what may be called an astele or schizostele is probably present in the mature stem of most members of the two families, but in none of the cases examined does t arise by the breaking up of the stele followed by the uniting of the broken ends of the external endodermis on the inner side of the — meristeles; on the contrary, wherever the endodermis is discernible in the region of splitting up of the stele, there is an internal as well as external endodermis which communicate at the leaf gaps (¢ 5 Clintonia) ; in Symplocarpus each strand which turns into the medulla is surrounded by a portion of the internal endodermis. Turning to the theory of JEFFREY, a consideration of the figures : We which accompany this paper shows that there is evidence in the case of the two families studied to support his fundamental statement that ag] the siphonostelic type of central cylinder “is primitively a fibro vascular tube with foliar lacunae opposite the points of exit of the — leaf traces” (6, p- 38). That the simple tubular condition is found for only a few internodes in most cases is due to the monocotyledons having acquired a new mode of insertion of the leaf traces, which has replaced the mode characteristic of ferns. However, in rhizomes, whose subterranean position has shielded them from the disturbing effects of aerial life,a more primitive type of stele is frequently found; : seedlings almost universally show a gap in the central cylinder above — the point of exit of the cotyledonary trace, unless indeed they are Protostelic at this level, as in Trillium. The siphonostelic nature of the central cylinder is often retained for several internodes, ae sooner or later the medullary strands appear, or the gaps. persist ft through an entire internode, in either case resulting in the masking © 8 | the essentially tubular nature of the stele. That the young © pe cylinder of so highly organized a group as the monocotyledons $ co 1904] CHRYSLER—CENTRAL CYLINDER 179 show fern-like characters is a fact of considerable phylogenetic sig- nificance. The evidence concerning the extrastelar or intrastelar origin of the pith is not so plain, but from the method of closure of the cotyledonary gap in Peltandra and Symplocarpus and of the foliar gaps of Trillium, I am led to believe that the tissue in question has been included; the hypocotyledonary region in Peltandra and Sym- plocarpus also suggests the unity of extrastelar and intrastelar tissues. Narrowness of the gaps would account for the failure of the endoder- mis and cortical tissue to enter through the foliar gaps in Acorus, and the absence of internal endodermis in such plants as Maianthe- mum may be ascribed to degeneration of such a layer as is found in the lower part of the stele in Symplocarpus but disappears in the higher regions of its stele. Thus it appears that the terms “cortex” and “pith” should be used only in a topographical sense, and not as implying a difference of origin, for morphologically they must be regarded as identical, as regions of the “(fundamental tissue,” using this term in the sense of Sacus and DeBary. Hence if the term “stele” is used, it should be restricted to the vascular elements of the central cylinder, as is insisted on by FARMER and Hirt (2). Further, the researches of ScHouTE (14) have shown that HANsTEIN’s derma- togen, periblem, and plerome do not correspond to VANTIEGHEM’S epidermis, cortex, and stele, so that there no longer appears to be any necessity for postulating a common origin for all the tissues found Inside the endodermal ring. On the whole, then, the development of the stele in the two families in question appears to support the gener- alizations made by JEFFREY. MEDULLARY BUNDLES.—The writer is inclined to believe that these did not originate as leaf traces, but as strands to which leaf traces subsequently became attached. This tentative view rests upon the following considerations: 1. The tendency of the monocotyledonous stele to break up into Segments makes it easy for a strand to leave its vertical course at the Periphery of the stele and run for a distance in the medulla; such a strand may at a higher level return to its original course, or may join the stelar ting at the opposite side. Both of these conditions are to seen in the young stele of Smilacina stellata. In Maianthemum the first medullary strands to appear do not come in contact with the - (16, p. 171); I have traced their formation in the young stele of Acoris 180 BOTANICAL GAZETTE leaf traces which arise in this region (fig. 16), but higher up retum to the stelar ring. It is probable that the anastomosing strands seen tf in Trillium, Zantedeschia, etc., are of the same nature. 2. VANTIEGHEM (16, p. 172) has shown that in Acorus gramineus after a bundle has run for a distance in the medulla it divides, one part bending outward as a leaf trace, the other pursuing the medullary course, again dividing further on, and finally passing out to a leaf. The bundle marked 0 in jig. 2 is in process of division into a medullary bundle and a leaf trace. - 3- Medullary bundles are either absent or few in number in thi zomes, but become numerous as soon as the stem turns upward into the air; this is not altogether due to the greater development of leaves in the aerial part. It is probable that these strands have an important mechanical function, which may explain their paucity in rhizomes; they can hardly have arisen in consequence of a crowding out into the medulla of the too numerous vascular elements of the stelar ring, for they occur in stems whose meristeles do not form a complete ring, @ Smilacina stellata (fig. 19). . AMPHIVASAL BUNDLES. The mode of formation of these was observed by VANTIEGHEM in the mature stem of Acorus gramineus { calamus and Smilacina stellata. Starting with a simple collateral — bundle of the vascular ring it may be seen that the tracheids increase _ in number so as to give the xylem a U form and finally an 0 form. — Some strands never go any further than the U stage, and some that ; have become concentric lose the tracheids of their outer side. tt mae | Plain, then, that amphivasal bundles are derived from collateral wen A | and are simply a modification of the latter type. Since phylogeneti¢ significance has been attached to the concentric and mesarch bundles found in the petioles and peduncles of cycads, it has been thougy worth while to find in what parts of the plant in the Araceae ® Liliaceae the amphivasal bundles occur. The result of a somewhi cf extensive investigation of this point may be briefly stated as — | (1) only collateral strands are found in the lowest part of the stem" the seedling; (2) amphivasal strands are found in the older stem nearly every genus; (3) the floral axes show only collateral 1904] CHRY SLER—CENTRAL CYLINDER 181 which may be arranged in a circle or scattered; (4) only collateral strands are found in the leaves. Hence amphivasal strands are to be regarded as cenogenetic structures. The observations recorded in this paper seem strongly to support the statement made by JErrREy (8) that neither the medullary course of the bundles nor their amphivasal nature are primitive features, but that they appear at a more or less late stage, and that they serve to distinguish monocotyledons from other groups. The plan of the young stele, e. g., Smilacina, bears a close resemblance to that of a dicotyledon, and differs from the older stele of a dicotyledon only in the absence of cambium. The resemblance between the two groups is further shown by the occurrence of medullary strands in several dicotyledonous families, e. g., Nymphaeaceae, and in the older sub- teranean stem of Ranunculus acris (6, p. 20); also by the occurrence of amphivasal strands in the mature tissues of such plants as Rheum and Campanula. These considerations lead to the conclusion that the monocotyledons are not an ancient group, but that they have branched off from the dicotyledons, or that both groups have sprung from a parent stock which resembled the modern dicotyledons more | closely than it did the monocotyledons. . CONCLUSIONS. 1. The members of the Araceae and Liliaceae have primitively a collateral tubular central cylinder, or ectophloic siphonostele, derived from a protostele, and interrupted by gaps above the points of exit of the foliar traces; through these gaps the external and internal phloeotermas communicate; the intrastelar parenchyma is to be regarded as having the same origin as the cortex, 7. e., both cortex and medulla are portions of the fundamental or ground tissue. 2. This primitive condition becomes altered (1) by degeneration of either the internal phloeoterma or both the internal and external Phloeotermas; (2) by the assumption of a medullary course by some vascular strands, with which leaf traces are connected; hence the scattered arrangement of bundles is to be regarded as a cenogenetic character. 3- The amphivasal concentric strands are not a_palingenetic feature, for they are derived from collateral strands and do not occur in the base of the seedling nor in the leaves and floral axes. * 182 BOTANICAL GAZETTE 4. Anatomical evidence favors the isreagee of monocotyledons . from dictoyledonous ancestors. The subject of this paper was suggested by Dr. E. C. Jeffrey, and the investigation has been carried out under his direction and that of Dr. J. M. Coulter; to both of these gentlemen I wish to tender my best thanks for valuable assistance in the work and in securing material. Thanks are also due Miss E. Sargant, of Reigate, England, for material; to Professor Ikeno, of Tokio, for seeds of Anemarrhena; and to Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, Dr. N. L. Britton, and Dr. W. Trelease for _ seeds of various species from the botanical gardens under their — direction. THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. LITERATURE CITED. ENGLER, A., Beitrage zur Kentniss der Aracex. V. Bot. Jahrb. 5: sari 287-336. 1884. . FARMER, I. B., and Hit1, T. G., On the arrangement and structure of the Leal . N vascular ends in Asigiobleris evecta and some other Marattiaceae. Annals of Bot. 16:371~-402. pls. 16-18. 1902. Biss. . 3. Gwynne-VaucHan, D. T., On polystely in the genus Primula. Annals of Bot. 11:317-325. pl. 14. 1897. - 4. , Observations on the anatomy of solenostelic ferns. II. Annals oe. | Bot. 17:689-742. pls. 33-35. 190 . JEFFREY, E. C., The morphology of the central cylinder in vascular plants. Rep. B. A. A. S. 1897 : 860. VL 6. , The morphology of the central cylinder in the angiosperms. Trans. Can. Inst. 6:1-40. pls. 7-II. 1900. - , The structure and epdicausecit of the stem in the pteridophytes : and mE Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London 195: 119-146. * : I~-6. 1902. ce 8. » in Coulter and Chamberlain’s Morphology of Angiosperms. 193 a 9. Queva, C., Contributions 4 l’anatomie des Monocotylédonées. I. Trav. et Ee Mém de PUniv. de Lille VII. 22:1-162. pls. I-11. I Io. Rrwpacu, A., Ueber die Lebensweise des Arum maculatum. Be Deutsch Bot. Cosils 15:178-182. pl. 5. 1 II. SARGANT, E., The origin of the seed leaf j in monocotyledons. New Pah = I:107-113. 1902. » A theory of tipricin of monocotyledons, founded on the sre of their eats Affnals of Bot. 17:1-92. pls. 1-7. 1903- : | 1904] CHRYSLER—CENTRAL CYLINDER 183 13. Scott, R., and SarGant, E., On the development of Arum maculatum from the seed. Annals of Bot. 12:399-414. pl. 25. 18098. 16. VANTIEGHEM, Pu., Recherches sur la structure des Aroidées. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. V. 6:72-210. pls. I-10. 1 , Sur la polystélie. Ann. Sci. ‘Nat. Bot. VIL. 3:275-322. pls. 13-15. 886. 17. EXPLANATION OF PLATES XII-XV. PILATE ATI. Fic. 1. Acorus Calamus; section through stele at point of exit of traces of third leaf. X go. Fic. 2. Same; part of mature stem: 6, bundle in process of division into leaf trace and medullary bundle; g, gap through which a leaf trace has recently passed; ¢, cortex; m, medulla. x Fic. 3. Same; central cylinder from base of flowering axis. X 35. Fic. 4. Symplocarpus foetidus; section through basal oa of tuber. X 15. Fic. 5. Same at region of the cotyledonary gap (g). Fic. 6. Same a short distance higher up; ee va closed. X 25. PLATE XII. IG aioli joetidus; specimen showing early degeneration of internal hildactenn < 36. Fic. 8. Same; region above closure of the cotyledonary gap. Fic. 9. Peltandra virginica; general view showing cotyledon a ae sepa- rated off; 7, r, secondary roots. X 7.5. Fic. 10. Same; basal region of seedling. X 30. Fic. 11. Same; region of cotyledonary gap; r, secondary root. X 25. _ Fic. 12. Same; cotyledonary gap closing. X 25. PLATE XIV. Fic. 13. Clistonis borealis; stele of eee rhizome. X 25. Fic. 14. Part of section shown in fig. 13. 5 Fic. 15. Clintonia umbellata; stele of ue rhizome. X 20. Fic. 16. Maianthemum bifolium; stele of mature rhizome shortly above region at which it turns upwards. X age Fic. 17. Same at the second node. 5 Fic. 18. Smilacina stellata; stele in . second internode. X 125. PLATE XV. Fic. 19. Smilacina stellata; higher region of seedling; m, bundle which has eft periphery of stele to run for a distance in the medulla; #, leaf trace. X 65. 184 BOTANICAL GAZETTE : Fic: 20. Trillium “prolong young stele: /, median , lateral trace of same leaf. : Fic. 2r. Same; Sails ghtiy higher then the pesos ing. X 50. Fic. 22. Same still higher; ¢,, median trace; #2, t;, lateral Fic. 23. Lilium canadense; node of seedling; right. x t, nei Fic. 24. Venlo grandiflora immediately above point of « trace. X 95. Pal =e await BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX XVIII PLATE XII CHRYSLER on CENTRAL CYLINDER. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, AXXVIM PLATE XD CHRYSLER on CENTRAL CYLINDER. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX XVII PLATE XIV @ U ys, S: els i “A ee M g 8 CHRYSLER on CENTRAL CYLINDER. AV PLATE AX X Vill BOTANICAL GAZETTE, TA IETY Rial t i) re oy sss. 24 CHRYSLER on CENTRAL CYLINDER. THE DEVELOPMENT AND RELATIONSHIP OF MONOCLEA.' CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE BOTANICAL LABORATORY OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, No. 2. DUNCAN S. JOHNSON. (WITH PLATES XVI AND XVII) WHILE studying and collecting the native Piperaceae of Jamaica, in the spring of 1903, I also preserved plants in various stages of development of the liverwort Monoclea Forsteri Hook. The results of the study of the material of this little known form are given in the following pages. : ; Monoclea occurs in Jamaica chiefly on wet rocks and banks in the mountain forests (CAMPBELL ’98). The most luxuriant growth of it seen by the writer was one of many meters in extent in a small depres- sion near New Haven Gap in the Blue Mountains. This depression was filled up considerably by living and decaying vegetation, but the water in it stood at such a level that the tangles of Monoclea and associated plants were practically floating upon its surface. The appearance of a mat of Monoclea is not so much like one of the more attenuated plants of Marchantia or Fegatella as it is like a mat of gigantic Pellia, though the edges of the thallus are often more crisped or curled upward than in the latter genus. The plants growing in the water at New Haven Gap were often 3°™ wide, in the case of the broader branches, while elsewhere they seldom exceeded 2°". The Stowing ends of these aquatic plants were almost erect, apparently because of the wet substratum, since this peculiarity did not seem to be attributable to the direction from which light reached them. A majority of the plants found were sterile, and in the case of the plants growing in wetter situations fertile plants were very scarce. In groups of plants growing in the damp ravines, where the substratum Was not so completely saturated with water, though the air was satu- tated with-water vapor, fertile plants of both sexes were easily found. we investigation pursued with the aid of a grant from the Botanical Society of 190 904] 185 186 BOTANICAL GAZETTE The older female plants were most readily distinguishable by the _ presence of the large tubular involucre enclosing the large sporogonia, Male plants were readily found, being slightly smaller than the female plants, but in most of them the antheridia had matured and dis. charged, and only the shriveled male receptacle remained. Careful sorting of large amounts of material was necessary at the season I was in Jamaica, in order to discover young male receptacles with developing antheridia in them. HISTORICAL RESUME. Monoclea Forsteri was originally described by HooKer (’20), from material collected (in “‘Insulae Australes?) by Forster while accompanying Captain Cook on his famous voyage. HOOKER was aided also by a drawing and a manuscript description of the plant — by Forster, who had named it Anthoceros univalvis. The general form of the non-costate thallus, the simple involucre, the lack ofa — female receptacle, and the structure of the open capsule, all features which were shown in HookeEr’s jig. 1. were apparently taken from ForsTer’s drawing. By study of the specimens HooKER made out that the unopened capsule was cylindrical, and that it opened by 4 single lateral slit. He also figured the spores and elaters and noted — the presence of three well-developed capsules in a single involucte, each with its own tubular calyptra. The removal of the plant from the genus Anthoceros, and the estab lishment of the genus Monoclea to receive it, was based by HooKes on the absence of the columella and the presence of but one valve In the open capsule: Ten years later Hooker (’30) described as Monoclea crispala ® liverwort found in the island of St. Vincent, in which he found a Ww valve capsule like that of Monoclea, and a columella like that Anthoceros. This latter led him to think that he had probably ove looked a columella in M. Forsteri, and to decide that Monoclea " probably intermediate between Anthoceros and the Jungermanniacesé Taytor (44, ’45), apparently after consulting HOOKER paper only, added two other species to the genus Monoclea. A year later NEEs von EsENBECK (’46) established - a 4 | Dendroceros to contain Hooxer’s M. cris pata and Taylor's ie | s later fF a 1904] JOHNSON—MONOCLEA . 187 but failed to recognize the full importance of the differences between the involucre, calyptra, and sporogonium of M. crispata and those of the other forms included in the genus by HooKER and Taytor, and apparently based the division of the genus chiefly on the columella. GOTTSCHE (’58) studied material of Monoclea from Chili. From this he described the gross and minute structure of the vegetative thallus, noting the presence of two types of (non-tuberculate) rhizoids and the occurrence of fungus hyphae in certain cells of the thallus. The involucre he thought completely closed at first. He also described the structure of the mature sporogonium, from the foot to the capsule, with its one-layered wall, unicellular elaters, and roughened spores. On the basis of these observations GorrscHE clearly distinguishes M. Forsteri from the species of Dendroceros with which it had been associated by Hooker, Taytor, and NEEs, and seems to find in it close resemblances to Pellia and Blasia, with which he frequently compares it. He also remarks on the outward likeness to Marchantia which had been noted earlier by Hooker (’20, p. 176). Nine years later still GorrscHE (’67) discovered the elevated, oval male receptacle on plants of Monoclea from Mexico. The next important worker on the genus was LEITGEB (’77), who confirmed the work of Gottsche on the structure of the thallus, calyptra and capsule, and insisted on the similarity in structure and branching of the thallus with that of Pellia and Symphyogyna, rather than with that of the dichotomous, areolate Marchantiaceae. He described the slender, thick-walled rhizoids, found by GoTTSscHE (’58), as gener- ally distributed over the under side of the thallus, and as lying parallel to it, while the larger, thin-walled ones are, as GOTTSCHE showed, confined to the median portion of the thallus and stand out perpen- dicular to the latter. LxrrcEs found that the involucre arises as a depression in the tip of the thallus, being closely like that of Pellia in origin and structure. He also discovered that the involucre is independent in its development of that of the sporogonium, and even of fertilization. No young archegonia or embryos were found. The mature archegonia occur in groups of eight or ten, have a large venter, and a long twisted neck. The capsule he thinks imperfectly four- valved. From these facts LeE1TGEB concludes that Monoclea is more closely related to Pellia than to any of the Marchantiaceae. 188 BOTANICAL GAZETTE In 1881 LeEITGEB studied alcoholic material of male and female plants of a Monoclea from New Zealand, the male plants of which — had earlier been described as Dumortiera dilatata, and found that, except in the larger size of the plants and of the involucre, they agreed closely with Monoclea Forsteri. In the male plants he found that the form and distribution of the male receptacles was as described by GorrscueE (’67). The receptacles he likens to those of Fegatella, and notes that the elongated, conical antheridia are secondarily sunken in the cavities of the receptacle. These characters of the male plant he thinks show as striking a resemblance to the Marchantiaceae as do_ those of the female plant to the Jungermanniaceae, but which set of characters is to preponderate as an index of relationship Lerrcrs does not definitely decide. SCHIFFNER(’93), in characterizing the genus Monoclea, apparently overlooks the later papers of both GorrscHE and Lerrces, and states that the male plant is unknown. He also says that the wall of the capsule is of two layers of cells, though both Gorrscue and Lett GEB say it is one-layered. Scurrrner is then naturally led to follow Leircep’s earlier conclusion (’77) that Monoclea is shown by the female plant and sporogonium to be closely related to Pellia. Coincidently with ScurrrNEr’s work appeared a paper by Ruck (93), in which he described the development of the male receptacle and the antheridium, as worked out on preserved material from Vene- zuela, more completely than had been done by LEITGEB. According to RucE several transverse walls appear in the primarily superficial t antheridium mother-cell before any longitudinal ones are formed. The series of figures given does not show the details of the further development of the antheridium clearly, and the series for the arche- gonium is still less satisfactory. In this description of the female plant RucE agrees with ee and LeircEs, but gives more details as to the development - ; archegonial cavity. RucE, for some reason not clear to the — described the slender rhizoids as being also thin-walled and the — ones as thick-walled, the exact contrary of the condition found . GortscHe, Lerrces, and the present writer. CAMPBELL (’98) in a short paper reviews briefly the be aring of the | work of Hooker, GortscHE, LeircEB, and RucE, and poe ee ain, JOHNSON—MONOCLEA 189 that the work of the latter (though RucE apparently failed to appre- ciate this) materially adds to the likenesses between Monoclea and the Marchantiaceae, which LEITGEB (’81) had already noted. From the presence of two types of rhizoids, the development of the male receptacle and the antheridium, and from the structure of the mature archegonium made out by CAMPBELL himself, he concludes that Monoclea is to be included in the Marchantiaceae. The absence of ventral scales and of the air chambers, characteristic of the Mar- chantiaceae, he thinks cannot be considered a greater objection here than in the case of Dumortiera, in certain species of which he has shown that the air chambers are not present at any stage of develop- ment. THE MALE RECEPTACLE. The male receptacle of Monoclea is a slightly elevated oval area, 4-10"™ long and 2~-3™™ broad, on the median line of the upper sur- face of the thallus (fig. r). In general appearance it is something like the male receptacle of Fegatella, but in origin it resembles more closely that of Fimbriaria (CAMPBELL ’95), since the receptacle is not sunken into the thallus and is not the product of several growing points, both of which features CAVERS (’04) has shown to be character- istic of Fegatella. The antheridia of Monoclea occur in groups of fifteen to fifty, arranged in four to six rather indefinite longitudinal rows along the receptacle (jigs. 1, 2, 4,6). They arise in acropetal succession, and the antheridia of the same receptacle may range in development from those of a few cells each at the anterior end to nearly ripe anthe- ridia at the posterior end (figs. 8, 9). The male receptacle arises by the upward growth of the cells of the thallus round about and among the antheridia of a group (jigs. 6, 9). This upward growth of the sterile cells is subsequent to the formation of the antheridium rudiments (fig. 6), and thus progresses, Be the development of the latter, from behind toward the growing point. ; When the formation of antheridia ceases for a time, the grow- ing point which has given rise to the antheridia pushes on, forming PR of vegetative thallus of normal thickness (fig. g). Thus a has an abrupt ending in front, with an elevated and i Y overhanging margin, like that on the lateral and posterior Bes (jigs. 2, 3, 8 9). 190 . BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPrewpeR Three or four successive series of receptacles may often be seen on the same plant (figs. 1, 3). The youngest of these appear as crescentic regions at the growing point, with only the posterior edge slightly elevated above the thallus (figs. 1, 4). Whether more than one series of receptacles arise in one year was not made out with cer tainty, but I am inclined to believe that one series may be formed in each of the two rainy seasons that occur in Jamaica each year. Not infrequently a receptacle is found which extends up each branch from the point of forking of the thallus. This is due to the division of the growing point into two after the formation of antheridia has begun. The series of antheridia from the two growing points are clearly distinguishable in the young receptacle (fig. 5). The older receptacles, after the ripening and discharge of their antheridia, become somewhat shriveled and brown, but finally dis- appear only with the progressive decay of the plant from the base (figs. 1, 3). ; THE ANTHERIDIUM. The mother-cell of the antheridium is first distinguishable when it is but a few cells back from the initial of the thallus, but the exact age or portion of the segment from which it arises was not determined. It is first recognizable because of its greater size and the darker staining of its contents, by its failure to divide by perclinal walls as early as the surrounding cells, and finally by the gradual separation of ils ” lateral walls from those of the surrounding cells (fig. 6). This sepa- ration of the lateral cell-walls begins at the outer surface, and om before it is completed the surrounding cells begin to push upw 2 more rapidly than the antheridium itself, and soon close in above It to a narrow pore (figs. 6, 8, 9, 13). Thus each antheridium finally comes to lie in a long-necked, flask-like cavity in the male receptacle From the cells lining this cavity, club-shaped unicellular hats are formed, which probably secrete the abundant slime that completely fills the older cavities around the antheridium and oozes on - ie neck of the ‘cavity (figs. 8, 9, 13). In paraffin sections this pre with the imbedded hairs, has the appearance of a shrunken cell | jacket. The similar mass of slime in the archegonial cavity GorrscHE (’58, jig. 16) to describe this mass as a structureless brane, bearing hairs. ne 1904] JOHNSON—MONOCLEA IgI Soon after the separation of the antheridium mother-cell from the surrounding cells, it divides transversely into a terminal or body cell and a basal or stalk cell. The latter remains attached to the cells at the bottom of the pit, while the former is free from all but the stalk cell (figs. 6, 10,13). The body cell soon becomes remarkable because of its denser contents and its more active division. It first divides twice transversely, and thus gives rise to four primary cells in the body of the antheridium (figs. 6, 10). Meantime the stalk cell of the antheridium divides into two, the upper one of which usually remains undivided for some time, while the lower one soon divides by a trans- verse wall (figs. 11, 12, 13). There are thus usually seven tiers of cells in the antheridium at this stage. Of these the three basal ones are concerned with the formation of the stalk, while the four terminal ones give rise to the body of the antheridium (figs. 11, 12, 13). The stalk is more evident in the younger antheridium, since Wie: the older ones, though it is several cells broad, it is usually crushed down by the rapid elongation of the antheridium, which pushes upward against the roof of the antheridial cavity and downward upon the stalk (figs. Oo; 23). The first longitudinal wall in each of the four cells of the body of the antheridium is a diametric one (fig. 15). Each of the two cells So formed is then cut by a radial, longitudinal anticline, and thus quadrants are formed (fig. 16). The next wall appearing in each quadrant is a pericline, which cuts off an outer wall cell from an inner ‘permatogenous one (jigs. 11, 13, 17). Next there appears in each ina radial anticline (fig. 17), and this is soon followed by other ri nee gR and some transverse anticlines, but no periclines are a aaa the wall cells except at the tip of the antheridium. Here tla ck A. group divide by one or two periclines, and thus give Dee fe ickened terminal area in the wall of the mature anthe- naa 85.9, 14). The rest of the wall of the mature antheridium wn throughout. The cells of the wall at maturity are eval a: ongated longitudinally to the antheridium and are about openi : — on all sides. The place and mechanism of the Th 7 the antheridium were not observed. ridium ‘Ant spermatogenous cell of each quadrant of the anthe- Up, at first in a pretty regular manner, by approximately . 192 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBEx Jongitudinal anticlines (jigs. 18, 19, 20). Then by the appearance of other longitudinal and transverse anticlines a very large number of spermatogenous cells are formed. The nuclear divisions in these spermatogenous cells occur simultaneously over larger or smaller blocks, commonly extending over one-tenth to one-fifth the area of a longitudinal section of the antheridium, but never over the whole of it at once. In several of the antheridia examined there were found to be from 35 to 50 of these cubical spermatogenous cells on a single diameter, and from 125 to 160 of them in the length of the antheridium. This means that there are from 100,000 to 250,000 of these cells in a well-developed antheridium. Each of these cubical cells divides later by a diagonal wall to form two triangular-prismatic sperma- tozoid mother-cells. There are thus formed from 200,000 to 500,000 spermatozoids in each antheridium. The organization of the spermatozoid in the mother-cell begins, as in other described liverworts, by the elongation and coiling of the nucleus. The presence of a blepharoplast was not demonstrated. When mature the spermatozoid is coiled to about one and a half tums in a flat spiral, whose axis is perpendicular to the broader side of the triangular-prismatic mother-cell. The most striking peculiarity shown in the development of the spermatozoid is the fact that the individuality of the chromosomes is visibly persistent in the ripe spermatozoid. Careful study of the mitotic figures in spermatogenous cells at various stages of develop- ment showed the number of chromosomes to be eight or ten. In preparations of ripe antheridia, which had been fixed in Flemming’s solution and stained in Flemming’s triple stain, when washed s0 as 10 show well the chromatin in the vegetative nuclei round about, the spermatozoids appeared as single dark blue coils. When wie the sections were washed out more completely, so that even the nu were of a faint blue, the color remaining in the spermatozoid was . fined to a number of fine threads of nearly the length of the sperm | tozoid. These threads were twisted about each other slightly 9° ” | each thread in its length made a complete turn about the n® cylindrical spermatozoid (fig. 8a). A careful count of these er which could best be made in optical transverse sections of iY ve of the spermatozoid, showed that the number is constant and dea 1904] JOHNSON—MONOCLEA 193 with that of the chromosomes in the spermatogenous cells (jig. 8b). The fact that no other part of the spermatozoid retained the stain, and the constant agreement in number just mentioned, seems to leave no doubt that these threads in the spermatozoid are the greatly elon- gated chromosomes. The significance of this unique individuality of the chromosomes in the nearly ripe spermatozoid might be discoy- ered by a study of the process of fertilization and the behavior of these chromosomes in the fusion nucleus of the fertilized egg. This I was unable to accomplish because of a lack of material of the particular stage needed. THE ARCHEGONIUM. The portion of the thallus from which the archegonia develop is not as much differentiated from the vegetative part as is the male receptacle. The archegonia arise in acropetal succession, in groups of six to ten, on the upper surface of the thallus just back of the grow- ing point. At about the time of origin of the first archegonia of a group, for these differ considerably in age, the thallus begins to thicken just behind the growing point. A longitudinal section of this region at this time would look much like that of a young male receptacle (figs. 26, 27). Soon the upper anterior edge of this thickening grows forward to form a hood-like involucre above the archegonia (jig. 28). This hood-like roof above the archegonia keeps pace with the advance of the growing point below, and thus is formed the long, tubular involucre, which may become 1 5™™ or more in length, though seldom More than 3-4™™ in width (figs. 22, 29, 30, 31). Though widely open at first the involucre is finally closed anteriorly except for a very harrow slit, the edges of which fit together closely (figs. 22, 29, 31): After a growing point has given rise to a single series of archegonia and has done its part in ‘forming the lower side of the involucre its caeaes ceases. Then a new growing point appears on each side of the involucre at the anterior end (fig. 22). By the activity of these * new branch is formed on each side and the involucre is left behind at the juncture of these two branches. Lining the walls of the involucre on the inner side, among the arche- mes ora large numbers of glandular hairs, which are outgrowths a : Superficial cells. These are usually cut off by a transverse tom the parent cell (figs. 28, 33). These slime-secreting hairs 194 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER seem, like those of the antheridial cavity, constantly more slender in form than the bent, club-shaped hairs which occur close to the growing point, as was noted by RUGE (’95). The early stages of the archegonium were not made out as com- pletely as were those of the antheridium, but the stages seen were sufficient to show that the archegonia of Monoclea agree essentially in the early stages of their development with those of other liverworts that have been carefully studied. ‘Thus in jig. 32 we have a young archegonium with wall cells, a cover cell, and three axial cells of which the lower is evidently destined to form the egg and ventral canal cell, while the upper are to break up into neck canal cells. The structure is in other words identical in all respects with that of the young arche- gonium of all the well-known Marchantiaceae and Jungermanniaceae (cj. CAMPBELL ’95, jigs. 2, 17, 46, and GOEBEL ’08, fig. 137): The mature archegonium (fig. 33) has a rather broad stalk, a well- marked venter, and, as noted by LerrcEes (’77, p. 67) and RucE (’93), has also a very long neck (figs. 28, 29, 33). In the cavity of the archegonium is found a large, oval egg, a small ventral canal cell, and an unusually large number of neck canal cells. The number of the latter is larger than ten, and in the case figured was apparently fourteen, though the cells shown in dotted outline could not be made out clearly, being located just at the level of juncture of the two adjoin ing sections from which the drawing was made. The number of cells seen in a transverse section of the neck of the archegonium is usually six, as shown by CAMPBELL (’98); but occa: sionally five and frequently seven or eight were found (figs. 355 34): The twisting of the cells of the neck of the archegonium was nearly so marked in my material as in that studied by LEITGEB (77) and RucE (’93). As noted above, the hood-like involucre begins its development long before the archegonia are mature, hence, as was pointed out by Lerrces (’77), it cannot be the result of fertilization as GoTtscH (’58) believed. The archegonium shown in jig. 33 was found in ie involucre shown in fig. 28. Since the archegonium is practically pe it seems evident that the fertilization of most if not all of the gonia must take place before the mouth of the involucre is much tracted. The size of many involucres containing embryos points 1904] JOHNSON—MONOCLEA 195 the same conclusion. It may still be, however, that the unusually long neck of the archegonium is of advantage in insuring fertilization, as suggested by LertcER (’77, p. 65) and RUGE (’93), though the involucre is not so nearly closed at the time of fertilization as they apparently supposed. The wall of the venter of the archegonium becomes two-layered before fertilization. After fertilization, as the embryo develops, the venter increases greatly in length and in thickness, forming thus a long tubular calyptra which may be twelve or fifteen cells thick near the base (figs. 32, 39, ar). This calyptra is ultimately ruptured near the top by the elongation of the seta, in such a manner usually as to leave it more or less two-lipped. THE SPOROGONIUM. The actual fertilization of the egg was not observed. At some time after the maturation of the archegonium, the neck shrivels at the tip, the wall of the venter begins to thicken; the egg then increases in size and cell divisions appear in it (fig. 38). Material was not available for the determination of the sequence of the earliest divisions of the embryo, and from the youngest ones seen it could not be discovered whether these were longitudinal or transverse. That longitudinal walls appear very early. is evident from jig. 36, and the transverse wall near the middle in this figure may be the primary one of the embryo, as is usual with other liverworts. That there is a quadrant formation in the upper part of the embryo Ss evident from figs. 41, 42. The differentiation of foot and capsule appears early in the develop- ment and is indicated by the more rapid enlargement in diameter °f the former and by the larger cells of which it is composed (figs. ay 39, 40). The capsule later increases in diameter so as ee to exceed the foot, and becomes elongated to eight or ten times a. (fig. 31). The seta is developed from just above the con- region that first marks the separation of foot and capsule Pay od ; ; 40). Later on this constriction is obliterated, the foot ee “ Hepaticae Antarcticae. London Jour. Bot. 4:96. 184 EXPLANATION OF PLATES XVI AND XVII. PLATE XVI. Fic. 1. View of upper surface of part of a male thallus, showing branching and three generations of male receptacles. X1.5. _ Fic. 2. Transverse section of a male plant through a mature receptacle. 5- : Fic. 3- Longitudinal section of male plant through receptacles of two gen- erations. x 2: : F 16. 4. Diagrammatic view of upper surface of a half-grown male receptacle ees growing point; the dotted outlines indicate the location of the anthe- | 2 Fic. 5. Similar view of a male receptacle with two growing points. X 25. Fic. 6, Upper anterior part of a longitudinal section of a young male recep- Pre wmig very young antheridia. X 350. Pos 9 . Longitudinal section of a young male receptacle, passing just at one ..- Sfowing point; the dotted lines indicate the position of the growing Point in an adjoining section. x 28, Fic. 8a, Surface view of nearly mature spermatozoid, showing the inter- twisted chromatin fibers. X 1500. : F . 15 Rldtion : ‘enseeag of an optical section of such a spermatozoid, showing the 7 rosa fibers still more clearly. X 4000. indicate s edian longitudinal section of an older male receptacle; the letters Nes — of origin of the antheridia. x 30. Beale ie ee Oung antheridium and surrounding cells from a section similar — 204 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER Fic. 11. Longitudinal section of a young antheridium, showing the seven primary tiers of cells and the separation of the wall cells from the sperma- togenous cells. x Fic. 12. stiins section of a slightly older antheridium. X 350, 1G. 13. Similar section of an antheridium and an antheridial cavity of the male receptacle. X 350. 1G. 14. Longitudinal section of an older antheridium. X 160. Fic. 15. Transverse section of a young antheridium and soe cells showing a primary longitudinal wall of the antheridium. x 650. Fic. 16. Similar section of an antheridium showing quadrant walls. X 650. Fic. 17. Similar section of an antheridium in which spermatogenous cells and the ons wall have been differentiated. x 650. 1G. 18. Transverse section of an older re showing the mode of division of fe four primary spermatogenous cells. X 350. Fics. 19-20. Similar sections of still older antheridia, showing multiplica- tion of spermatogenous cells. X 160. 1G. 21. Portion of longitudinal section of nearly mature antheridium, showing the wall and the three-cornered spermatozoid mother-cells. X 350. Fic. 22. View of the upper surface of part of a female plant, showing an involucre containing two young sporogonia, one containing a nearly full-grown sporogonium, and one from which a capsule has as already been extended. X 15. Frcs. 23-24. Optical longitudinal sections of tuberculate rhizoids. x 650. Fic. 25. Portion of the edge of the thallus with thick-walled marginal rhizoids. 160. Fic. 26. Longitudinal section through the growing point of a female plant, showing the beginning of the pit in which the archegonia arise. X 75- PLATE XVII. Fic. 27. Lower portion of the same section, showing the slime-secreting hairs and the cells which are to form archegonia. X 350. Fic. 28. Longitudinal section of an older archegonial pit, showing the half grown involucre and two mature archegonia. X 38. Fic. 29. Similar section of a full-grown involucre, containing an archegonium with a _ embryo. X8. Fic. 30. Transverse section of fertile branch of female thallus passing through an hits containing a nearly mature sporogonium. 8. 8 IG. 31. Longitudinal section of similar involucre and sporogonium. ” Fic. 32. Longitudinal section of a young archegonium. eee Fic. 33. Longitudinal section of a mature archegonium. eat Fig. 34. Transverse section of neck of archegonium, ene eight cells. X 160 Fic. ae: Similar section of ahaa at juncture of showing a normal six-celled neck. 300. : earlier Fics. 36-37. Longitudinal AS of young embryos, showing sc walls in the latter. x 350. neck and vente PLATE XVI Bethe). O) COTTE 2, Sarre _) am (ATS a8 Wi zat Stee lis es ata meer SH eee tol) v paw Stk rh S Kt BERN <4 cae =; BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX XVII [7 rr wo PLATE XVII XXXVI BOTANICAL GAZETTE, ae wanes SORES Sess QaIS= RXS A & XY ee a 1904] JOHNSON—MONOCLEA 205, Fic. 38. Longitudinal section of young embryo and archegonium. X 38. Fic. 39. Similar section with a slightly younger embryo, showing the differen- tiation of the latter into foot, seta, and capsule. X 160. Fic, 40. Longitudinal section of an older embryo, showing differentiation of capsule into wall and sporogenous cells. 160 Fic. 41. Transverse section of an archegonium and embryo of the age of that shown in fig. 37, showing arrangement of cells in the capsular region. X 160. Fic. 42, Similar section of another embryo. X 160. Fic. 43. Transverse section of an archegonium, with an embryo showing wall of capsule and isodiametric sporogenous cells. X 38. Fic. 44. Detail of last. x 350. Fic. 45. Part of longitudinal section of a capsule of the same age as the last. X 350. Fic. 46. Part of a similar section of an older capsule, showing elaters and their spindle-shaped sister cells dividing to spore mother-cells. X 350. Fic. 47. Similar figure from an older capsule, showing elaters and rows of spore mother-cells. x 350. Fic. 48. Longitudinal section of the tip of a nearly mature capsule, showing two-layered region of the wall and three-lobed spore mother-cells. X 160. Fic. 49. Elaters, tetrads of spores and a cell, from the wall of a still more mature capsule. X 350. Fic. 50. Single elater from a ripe capsule. 700. Fic. 51. A single spore showing structure of spore wall. x 1250. Fic. 52. Optical section of spore wall. 1250. ON THE SPORES OF CERTAIN CONIFERAE. We C. CeocER: (WITH TWENTY-FOUR FIGURES) THE POLLEN GRAIN.—There is much greater diversity in the male gametophyte of gymnosperms than of angiosperms. Such forms as Thuja, Taxodium, and Taxus have this structure so much reduced _as closely to resemble, in the number of cells formed, the pollen grains of the flowering plants. Others, as Ginkgo, Pinus, and Podo- carpus, contain, sooner or later, as many as six nuclei in the pollen grain and tube. In my paper on Taxodium I have summarized the present knowledge on this point in gymnosperms, and it is seen that much yet remains to be done before the structure of the pollen tube is understood in all genera. During the spring of 1902, while in Bonn, I examined almos daily the maturing pollen grains of a number of conifers, and followed them to the time of shedding. This was for the purpose of settling the point as to whether it were possible that a sterile prothallial ct or cells might be cut off early in development and, becoming disor- ganized, be overlooked in the ripe grain. In the following species it was found that no division whatel® occurred in the pollen grains while they were in the sporangiu and that they were shed in the one-celled stage: Cupressus Govemans C. macrocarpa, C. Benthamiana, Taxus baccata and vats. open : jastigiata, cuspidata, and adpressa, Juniperus sphaerica, J : ee In Cupressus sempervirens, pollen from a tree growing ™ tat warm-house showed a division while still in the pot this variation from the rule in this genus probably resulted from - in the dehiscence of the sporangium, caused by the unnat acct ditions. It could easily be seen that dehiscence did not ; promptly and in some cases was only partial. Pollen ee is C. Benthamiana placed in sugar solution divided in 4 few about a week. ‘ust In the following species there was one division of the pcs 206 at ee ia 1904] COKER—SPORES OF CONIFERAE. 207 before shedding: Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana pendula, C. sphaer- oidea, C. chinensis, C. obtusa, C. pisijera, Callitris sp., Cryptomeria japonica and var., Thuja orientalis. The fate of these pollen cells was not followed further, but the appearance of the small cell cut off before shedding is quite unlike that of a prothallial cell, and bears every resemblance to the single (generative) cell cut off at the same time in Taxodium, where certainly no prothallial cell is formed. Fur- thermore, in all cases where prothallial cells are known to occur, they are produced while still in the sporangium, and the divisions that cut them off are immediately followed by another which gives.rise to the generative cell. It is hardly to be doubted, therefore, that no prothallial cell is formed at any time in the species above mentioned. Jn jig. 1 is shown the mature pollen grain of Thuja orientalis, the She hot being drawn. The generative cell is of the usual structure and is sharply separated from the rest of the contents. Its nucleus is as usual more dense than the tube nucleus. In fig. 2 the pollen grain of Cupressus sempervirens is represented in division, while in Bi : _ division is completed. In this last figure a few starch grains own. In most cases the generative cell is free from starch even Fic. 1. Thuja orientalis; pollen grain ready to shed. I eet: “espa sempervirens; fig. 2, pollen grain in division; fig. 3, Ing; figs. 4 and 5, abnormal pollen grains. X 750. in pollen where Scattered grains Bt W., Studien tiber photonastische und thermonastische Beweg- * Wiss. Bot. 40: 230-278. figs. 20. 1904. 230 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocr erated growth of the “middle zone” which was found by him to characterize the haptotropic movements of tendrils could also be demonstrated for photonastic and thermonastic movements is entirely fulfilled. Fiscier’s assignment of Impatiens parviflora to the group of autonyctitropic plants is ratified. The plants best suited for investigation of photonastic movements were found to be Impatiens parviflora, I. glanduligera, and Chenopodium album; while Tulipa Duc van Toll and Crocus luteus are excellent for study of thermonastic movements The conclusions are based upon data obtained by the quantitative methods whia characterize the laboratory in which the investigation was made.—Raywonp # PonpD WS) 8 oe ee Oye. A SUGGESTION as to the formation of asparagin is advanced by PRIANISCHE KOw’° in a preliminary paper. He argues that as the decomposition of protelds tends to produce ammonia on the one hand, and amidoacids (perhaps eves aspartic acid) on the other, asparagin may be produced by the formation of amme nium aspartate from which a molecule of water separates. This secondary oigit of asparagin rather than its origination as a direct decomposition product of pe teids he infers from the following facts. ; He and others have found that the relative amounts of asparagin and aspalt® acid produced in germination and by hydrolysis of proteids are quite unlike, and they are the more unlike the later the stage of germination. In late ong the rate of asparagin production even surpasses that of proteid decomposition _Further it has been found that the decomposition of proteids by proteolytic enzymes (such as occur in the germinating seeds) gives rise to the same uate acids and bases as hydrolysis with mineral acids, but no asparagin ses Finally, the distribution of asparagin in the cotyledons and growing nen not such as would occur were it produced for migration out of the stored pres | in the cotyledons, since it is much more abundant in the growing parts than | the cotyledons.—C. R. B. | Gatins" has been investigating the development of the first se oe a mination of Archontophoenix Alexandrae and Phoenix canariensts. byputl mentioned follows the ‘“‘admotiva” mode of germination in which the nypoct scarcely elongates. P. canariensis follows the “remotiva” method, pst att elongating for the supposed purpose of burying the young plant. a sis embryo of A. Alexandrae possesses a root of which a rudimentary only is present. The cortex arises during germination from a 20n€ the tip of this axis and forming apparently an integral part of the ascular ass 8 tissue. The region lying directly in the path of growth of cond wo distinguishable into three parts. The innermost, lying ie the adja! the end ofjthe axis, forms the root-cap. The next, together w! gee sO om wen: ee cs Mit 3° PRIANISCHNIKOW, D., Zur Frage der Asparaginbildung- aaa : teilung.) Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 22: 35-43- 1904- «de Ja presi a 3t Gatin, C. L., Observations sur la germination et la formation - racine de quelques palmiers. Rev. Gén. Bot. 16: 1 77-187- : figs. # 1904- 5 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 231 epidermis, which forms the outermost, enters into the formation of a root sheath. The first root forms an angle of about go° with the axis of the shoot. A subse- quently formed adventitious root, which continues the shoot axis, exceeds the primary in growth and becomes the principal root at least fora time. The origin of cortex, cap, and sheath in P. canartensis is the same as in A. Alexandrae, but the axis of the primary root coincides with that of the shoot, so that the first root remains the principal one.—F. H. BriLirncs. Grrasstmow>? has investigated the influence of the nucleuson the growth of the cell. By exposing various species of Spirogyra with cells in the process of division for one-half an hour to one hour to a temperature a little above 0° C., he was able so to interfere with the processes of, mitosis that the following irregu- larities arose when the filaments were transferred and cultivated under normal al is greater than the average growth of normal cells; the non-nucleate cells are Gat lived and the growth ie slight; oy oe ambers are longer-lived and grow more than the non-nucleate ’ ving an excess of nuclear material may conjugate either with normal cells or with cells similar to themselves.—C. F. Horres. “ ca has described the most important insects and fungous enemies The following are noted here for refer- an whose systematic position is not ERASSIMOW, J. J.,Zur Physiolog; mie “ ap a der Zelle. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscow. ZMMERMANN A., Eini i i tn 2 ear pathologische en physiologische Waarnemingen over Mededel. lantentuin, no, 67. pp. 105. pls. 4. 1904. 232 BOTANICAL GAZETTE certain causes an injury termed “‘spiderweb disease.”” A number of other fungi, many of them new, described on the stems, roots, and fruit of the plant. Those on the fruit are mostly saprophytic molds. The last part of the report contains some observations on sterility of coffee flowers, variation in the fruit, polyem- bryony and the influence of light, and injuries due to nematodes.—H. Hasse1- BRING. ; THE INFLUENCE of chloral hydrate upon nuclear and cell division is described in a recent paper by NEmeEc.‘+ It is possible that very weak solutions may stimu- late division, but more concentrated solutions cause various disturbances. Some stages in mitosis are more readily and more profoundly influenced than other, The phragmoplast is most resistant. The stages of metakinesis are much les resistant, and the equatorial plate stages and stages in the formation of the spindle are the most sensitive of all. Root tips which have been treated for an hour in 0.75 per cent. chloral hydrate show a degeneration of the spindle fibers and an interruption of mitosis. If the solution be washed out and normal conditions restored, mitosis proceeds in the usual manner, but the interrupted mitoses give rise to cells with several nuclei, or an irregular nucleus and incomplete walls may be formed. In binucleate cellsthe nuclei may fuse, and the nucleus resulting from such a fusion has double the usual number of chromosomes. In cells ia which the two nuclei do not fuse, two mitoses may occur simultaneously. Cells | jvithout nuclei may be formed. Mitoses with double the number of chromosomes — gradually disappear from the root tip and apparently a reduction in the number of chromosomes takes place. There was no conclusive evidence that chloral ; hydrate causes amitosis. Figures which might be mistaken for amitosis were NON-SEXUAL NUCLEAR FUSIONS is the title of a series of short papers by normal mitosis and abnormalities become less numerous, — f the eight hours’ washing the processes are practically normal. The nuclet of binucleate cells fuse and some stages in the fusion might be mistaken = nyt © amitosis, however, was observed. When a nucleus which has resi of the fusion divides, it shows double the number of chromosomes characteristic : sporophytic cells. Nimec believes that the double number is not _ 34NEmec, B., Ueber die Einwirkung des Chloralhydrats teilung. Jarhb. Wiss. Bot. 39: 645-730. figs. 157. 1904. ; Mi Konig _ 33 NEMEc, B., Ueber ungeschlechtliche Kernverschmelzungen. Sita, Bet ae Bohm. Gesells. Wiss. I, 1902; II, July 1903; III, Nov. 1903: : abundant, but they could be interpreted as interrupted or modified mitoses — HARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN. : SE ge Wes auf die Kern und Zé 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 233 but soon becomes reduced. ‘The fusions resemble sexual fusions in the behavior of the chromatin. The nuclear fusion and the reduction may be regarded as automatically regulated phenomena. Reduction may sometimes be an atavistic er; it is a result of fusion rather than a preparation for it. Morphologically the most important character of fertilization lies not in nuclear fusion but in cell fusion. When the conditions for cell fusion are present the other phenomena (under certain conditions) follow necessarily as automatically regulated pro- cesses.—CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN. Tue extant theories of causality in leaf arrangement have been critically discussed in detail by WivKLER*° in two parts of a paper on this subject, of which we are promised a continuation in a third part. The author brings for- ward evidence from various plants that the mechanical theory of SCHWENDENER will not suffice to explain the formation and development of primordia. There appear to be many cases in which the primordia are not constant in size at the start, many in which contact or absence of contact between different primordia plays no controlling réle in development, and also many in which pressure of older parts has no influence. The various theories of teleological nature, such as the common one which attributes leaf arrangement to the need of having these organs so placed as to give best access of air and light, are discussed rather more fully than would seém necessary for intelligent readers. It is to be hoped that such theories may at length be accorded a decent burial and then allowed to rest. constructive part of this paper points out that any theory of leaf arrange- ment which is satisfactory must consider internal factors together with the external - ones. WINKLER is careful to indicate that by this term he refers merely to those Protoplasmic conditions (probably purely physical) of which we know absolutely ing at present except that they exist. The general conclusion of the paper i up in a paraphrase of the author’s words, that the formation (a t : Big tip is an extraordinarily complex process controlled by ina ) actors of different kinds, concerning the nature and influence of now practically nothing —B. E. Livrncston. - Se oat has just published the results of his study of the date palm, and lor Ps hap aeg not only in demonstrating the possibilities of a valuable crop ed States in regions otherwise apparently hopeless from an agricul- St a Ww, but also from their much larger practical bearing upon the dispute it? tap The following statement is vigorous, but who will ieeld nd the Present it is no exaggeration to state that the life history require- are far better sn . the power to resist unfavorable environmental conditions and tein own for many microscopic lower plants, such as bacteria, fungi, ———_” “Ven for species having no economic importance, than for the most a)” H., So micanigen zur Theorie der Blattstellungen. I. Jahrb. sian “igh §- 4. 1901; IT, ibid. 501-544. pl. 1. 1903. PP. 155. pls. 22, Sy date palm and its utilization in the southwestern states, * #1. Industry, U. S. Dept. Agric., Bulletin 53- April 28. 1904. 234 BOTANICAL GAZETTE ‘Sera important crop plants whose culture provides employment for tens of millions, and whose products constitute the daily food of hundreds of millions of human beings. Such a condition is discreditable alike to biological and to agricultural science and should not longer continue.” In reference to the date palm the following conclusions are reached: It ca endure any degree of heat and any amount of dryness in the air, and is even favored by hot winds and by a rainless summer. The best sorts can mature only in regions having a very long and very hot growing season. It can endure more alkali in the soil than any other profitable crop plant, and can thrive on soils containing from 0.5 to 1 per cent. of alkali, even when irrigated with brackish water containing 0.43 per cent. (430 parts per 100,000) or more of injurious alkali. It can withstand without injury accumulations of alkali at the surface of the soil that would kill all other crop plants, even those considered to be vey resistant to alkali—J. M. C. PorsILp5* gives an account of the expedition to Disko Island in 1898. ‘The account includes observations on the geology and topography of the island, incidental notes on the fauna, and detailed notes on the flora. In conclusioa he discusses the southern flora of the island, considering the questions of possible relict endemism from a warmer epoch, and migration in postglacial times. The upland vegetation consists of lichens and herbaceous plants with very few shrubs. Under this category are placed the windy plateaus, the sheltered terraces of the trap, the gravelly bottoms and deltas, and the raised sea bottoms. The Calluna heath is found on the talus and gradual slopes of the trap, on large hills poor in humus, or in depressions rich in water. The tundra is as a peculiar formation transitional between the moss-bog and the Calluna heath, the transition to one or the other depending upon the water content of the sol, Moss bogs are found where water stagnates and is sour, on gneiss, 0 csi basalt, and on undrained terraces, where the bog often goes above the ag In some cases the moss formation actually forms the climax type after a luna, and in comparison is relatively unmixed in its species. Halophytes occur along the sea strand. Cyperaceous meadows occur . along streams in very flat and moist soil. Dwarf birches and willows Be ea found along streams, the former occurring on a somewhat drier soil latter. when flowe : other ‘ ting plants are considered. Mosses, on the ee Sorces 2 Be Disko til- __ * Porsixp, M. P., Bidrag til en Skildring af Vegetationen pa@ pee 35° ligemed spredte topografiske og zoologiske Iagttagelser. Medel, 9 91-308. pls. I-6. 1902, 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 235 cyphus never occur on basalt or tuff, while Drepanium, Thuidium abtetinum, Brachythecium salebrosum, and Pottia latifolia are characteristic basalt plants. —G. H. JENSEN. IN A RATHER lengthy paper on embryonal substance, Nor13 discusses the various theories which have been announced regarding the controlling force in development, and presents some interesting observations on the protoplasm of the growing tip in Bryopsis, together with his interpretation of the latter. The facts, determined by very careful observation of the growing tips, are as follows: The protoplasmic circulation of the filament occurs throughout the whole plant, extending into the tip region as well as elsewhere; nevertheless the protoplasm of the apical portion is very different from that below. While the non-growing portions have only the usual thin protoplasmic layer lining the wall, that of the growing tip occupies the whole lumen. Also in the tip there are no chloroplasts, and the protoplasm is much more dense than elsewhere, while the nuclei are more numerous. Since the currents of cyclosis are constantly carrying new sub- stance into the tip and out again, there is a constant transformation of protoplasm at the limit of the denser region from somatic to meristematic and vice versa. At this limit the entering substance becomes more dense and the chloroplasts t Portions, it is impossible to suppose here that the meristematic protoplasm in the former region is fundamentally different from the somatic. The author concludes that, since the Hautschicht is the only part of the living substance which is constantly at the tip, and does not take part in the cyclosis, it must be in this that the controlling factor of growth is located. Thus he looks upon the Hautschicht of the tip as the only true embryonal substance here, and it does not contain nuclei. Therefore, he points out that in Bryopsis the factor producing Srowth does not lie in nuclei. The objection to this conclusion lies in the fact SPERMATOGE NESIS in Marchantia polymorpha has been reinvestigated by IkENno.4° In m any points this investigation has confirmed the earlier work of nd SCHOTTLANDER, but the more critical methods have made it D aS ; uring the early divisions in the young antheridium no nucleolus is demonstrated; saoithomncegadien| chromosomes is eight, as SCHOTTLANDER has already shown. oe eae ie Beobachtungen und Betrachtungen iiber embryonale Substanz. bs Sah 23: 281-297, 321-337, 401-427. 1903. Centralia se ey Die Spermatogenesis von Marchantia polymorpha. Beih. Bot. l. 15:65-88, pl. 3. 1903. 236 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SePreupee SCHOTTLANDER’S statement that centrosomes are present during the diaster and dispirem stages in young antheridia is also confirmed. Centrosomes were found throughout the spermatogenous divisions, during which they perform the ordi- nary functions of centrosomes. They do not persist throughout the life history of the cell, but appear at the beginning of each mitosis and disappear by the time the dispirem stage is reached. After the spermatogenous divisions have ceased, the centrosome reappears, functioning not as a centrosome but as a blepharoplast giving rise to the cilia. IkeENo interprets as genuine centrosomes the blepharo- plasts of various pteridophytes and of the cycads and Ginkgo. According to current accounts, the spermatogenous tissue, at the close of the spermatogenous divisions, consists of approximately cubical sperm mother-cells each of which gives rise to a single spermatozoid. The present investigation shows that there is still another nuclear division in a diagonal plane and not followed by the formation of a cell wall, so that each sperm mother-cell gives rise to two spermatozoids. This is true not only for Marchantia, but probably for other liverworts also. At this diagonal division, the centrosomes, after func tioning as centrosomes, do not disappear, but persist and function as blepharo- plasts. The blepharoplast elongates, and its body comes into close contact with the inner surface of the spermatid cell, so that it appears like a thickening of the Hautschicht. From this elongated centrosome, or blepharoplast, come the two cilia. Shortly after the diagonal division a peculiar spherical body, staining some what like the centrosome, appears in each spermatid mother-cell, but 1s readily distinguished from the centrosome by its larger size and its position. It is still distinguishable after the centrosome has given rise to the cilia. From the resem blance to the chromatoid body of some animals, the same name is suggested a this body. Occasionally each of the cells resulting from the diagonal ac divides. Such a division is accompanied by a division of the chromatid Po¥ and of the centrosome. Thus four spermatozoids would be formed from ¥! is usually denominated a sperm mother-cell. However, only (we spermat of mature, the supernumerary ones being used for nutrition. This homol the centrosome is fully discussed.—C. J. CHAMBERLAIN. ; PROBLEMS CONCERNING WATER ABSORPTION by epiphytic ea have been investigated by Mrz,4" who has gone carefully over the gre ersed a few years ago by Scuimprr. He agrees with SCHIMPER pe per lars, but is at variance with him regarding the behavior of the indivi ia oy during water absorption. ScurmpER claimed that the four central pi plant cells of the shield part of the scale are filled with air when the surface of hee is dry, and that the air is replaced by water when the surface is wet- vities of microchemical tests, as well as by direct observation, finds that the cass ete eee etn i _Qekonomit 4* Mrz, Cart, Physiologische Bromliaceen-Studien. I. Die ee figs: - der xtrematmospherischen Tillandsien. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 40: 157 € 1904. 1904] ‘ CURRENT LITERATURE 237 the four cells are always free from air, so that when dry conditions prevail they are in a state of complete collapse. ‘The much thickened upper surface of the shield part, or Deckel, is the active part concerned in absorption of water from the capillary spaces beneath the scale. It is composed of a mesh of cellulose containing large deposits of pectin. A layer of pure cellulose covers all. When wet, this Deckel absorbs water rapidly, and being resisted beneath by the epidermis, as well as on the sides by the cellulose wing of the scale, the only direction in which swelling can take place is upwards. As a consequence, the Deckel becomes convex, the cone-like processes on its under side straighten out and become more obtuse, with the result that the collapsed walls of the four cells separate, causing cavities into which water is drawn through thin areas in their outer walls, in response to the negative pressure. Water is thus absorbed till the scale is distended to its freatest extent, and the four central cells are filled with water. Mrz has calculated the amount thus drawn into one scale in Til- landsia streptocarpa, and found it to be approximately 0.000464°""™" or 1.451° for a given entire plant having 1,880,000 scales. The shield, or central region of the scale, lies in connection with a row of 1-4 living cells, which in part form the stalk of the scale. The uppermost of these is larger than the others and borders directly on the four water-filled cells. The transverse walls of this cell are cuti- cularized except in certain small areas. The water contained in the four cells adjacent above is drawn through these areas into the cell-by osmotic action due to the presence of sugar in the cell sap. The water is passed on through the series of stalk cells, whose cross walls have uncuticularized areas, till the mesophyll is reached. This continues till the water in the capillary spaces outside is exhausted, or until the plant is supplied. The water remaining in the four central shield cells is not available to the plant, as the tension of the scale overbalances the absorptive power due to osmosis. eg must pass off by evaporation from the surface of the scale. It will sie, that the scale acts like a suction pump in drawing water into the cells, M may be absorbed into the plant by the usual process of osmosis.—F. H, on 4 TAXONOMIC INTEREST are as follows: H. and P. SyDOW (Ann. establish lade 1904), among descriptions of many new species of fungi, ‘erocyclus, Phaeodothis, and Maurodothis as new genera of Dothi- Gliicacs GREENE (Ottawa Nat. 18:37-39. 1904) in a second paper on eins ennarias describes five new species.—T. S. BRANDEGEE (Zoe 5:179- as described new Mexican species of Thelypodium (2), Sperma- 185) h ra aay Castilleia, and Krynitzkia.—J. M. GREENMAN (ibid. ad Bapetccin;, as new species of Cerastium (3), Arenaria, Dalea, Nama, an other critical : rom Mexico.—KaTHARINE BRANDEGEE (ibid. 189-194), among ) Blarie otes on Cactaceae, has described new species of Cereus (4) and 1904), under tig Drets and E. Prirzet (Engler’s Bot. Jahrb. 35:55-160. itle “Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae occidentalis,” present 238 BOTANICAL GAZETTE . -[serrexne a list of the plants through Proteaceae, with critical notes, including descriptions of new species and the following new genera: Dielsia Gilg (Restionaceae) and Hydatella Diels (Centrolepidaceae).—KEnNETH K. MACKENZIE (Torreya 4:56- 57- 1904) has described a new species of (Enothera from West Virginia.—D. R. SUMSTINE (ibid. 59) has described a new species of Hydnum from Pennsylvania — Cuartes H. Peck (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 31:177-182. 1904) has published 16 new species of fleshy fungi—A .W. Evans (ibid. 183-226. pls. 8-12. 1904), in his fourth paper on the Hepaticae of Puerto Rico, has described Cyclolejewnea as a new genus containing four species.—H. Curist (Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 4:30 400. pl. 1. 1904) has described a new genus (Loxsomopsis) of Filicales (Loxso- maceae) from Costa Rica.—G. Linpav (ibid. 401-418), in his third and closing paper on American Acanthaceae, has described Juruasia as a new genus.—K. GIESENHAGEN (Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 22:'tg1-196. pl. 13. 1904) has described a new genus (Sorica) of Ascomycetes found attacking the sori of fems.— F. Heypricy (ibid. 196-199) has described a new genus (Stereophyllum) ol Corallinaceae. AvEN NELSON (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 31: 239-247. 1904) has new _ hew species of Polypodium from Jamaica—E. Rosenstock (Hedwigia 4 210-238. 1904) has begun a series of papers on the pteridophytes gore ~ Brazil—P. Hennivos (idem 242-273. pl. 4), in his second paper on UES” — n of fungi from the Amazon region, has described Hypoxylonopss _ (Wothideaceae), Parmulariella and Uleopeltis (Hysteriaceae), and Rehmiomyces (Bulgariaceae) as new genera.—F. von HOHNEL (idem 295-299) has psig new genus (A/ractina) of Hyphomycetes.—W. A. Murritt (Bull. Tort. pen 3: 325-348. 1904), in his seventh paper on the Polyporaceae of - 3), presents Hexagona (17 spp., 8 new), Grifola (6 spp., 1 new), Romellia (new gen a Coltricia (6 Spp-., I new), and Coliriciella (new genus)—O. F. Cook “—— in a discussion of the nomenclature of the royal palms, has described a a (Plectis) from Guatemala.—G. E. OsrerHout (idem 357-358) has ae M species of Arabis and Aulospermum from Colorado.—H. S¥DOW ase 2: 244. 1904) has described a new genus (Rickiella) of Ascomycetes. HOuNEL (idem 273-275) has described the new genera Kordya sci IV. 3: mycetes) and Debaryella (Hypocreaceae).—THEO. Hotm (Am. joe Columbia) 12-22. 1904), in a report upon a collection of Canadian (British Cyperaceae, has described a new Scirpus.—J. M. C. | NEWS. DURING THE RECENT MEETING of the British Association at Cambridge, th university conferred its doctorate of science on Professor ADOLF ENGLER and Sir W. T. TutseLron-Dyer. Proressor Juttus WIESNER and Dr. Lroprotp PortHEm, of Vienna, recently visited the University of Chicago on their way to the Yellowstone National Park; the former to study the light relations of plants, the latter the algae of the hot waters. THE DAILY PAPERS announce the death of Dr. Ruporpa A. Paruiprt, the eminent German botanist, who has for more than half a century devoted his energies to the development of scientific work in Chile, especially in connection h of * * with t t Santian o M. A. Curysier, of the University of Toronto, and later Fellow in the University of Chicago, has been appointed senior assistant in the Department of y of Harvard University. -For the past summer he has been conducting ecological field-work for the Maryland Biological Survey. THE PRELIMINARY program of the eighth international geographic congress, which convened in Washington, September 7-10, contained an announcement of a section for biogeography. In addition to papers by American plant geogra- phers, announcement was made of papers by Professor FLAHAULT, of Montpellier, Dr. Drug, of Dresden, and M. Curisten, of Bern. AT THE SUMMER CONVOCATION (September 2) of the University of Chicago the degree of Ph.D. was conferred upon three candidates in botany. The names . the recipients and the subjects of the theses are as follows: W. J. G. LAND, A morphological study of Thuja;” W. B. McCartum, “Regeneration and polarity in plants;” R. B. Wvyutr, “The morphology of Elodea canadensis.” THE INSTALLATION of Lanston monotype machines in the University Press = enabled the publishers to make notable improvements in the typography of current volume of the Boranicat Gazerre, to which we direct the attention our subscribers, It will also be noticed that as the cost of composition has ieee poe te prices quoted for separates are 20 per cent. lower than PROFEssoR N L - 4. Britton and Dr. J. N. Rose, having completed their monograph of the N J g orth American Crassulaceae, have undertaken a study of the Central oa Dr. Rose will spend considerable time in field work, especially in meetin Mexico, where the Cacti are in inextricable confusion. es brought together first in New York and Washington large collec- 239 240 BOTANICAL GAZETTE tions of living plants from which the descriptions will be drawn. is desired from all parts of the southwest, and the National Museum y furnish means for sending material to Washington. DovRING His visit to the United States, Professor Hees DeVriss has, compact and clear exposition of the mutation theory and the expe which it is based. At the University of Chicago, on September DeVriks delivered the convocation address, his subject being “ evolution,” and also received the honorary degree of LL.D. He i part in the ronal Congress of Arts and Sciences at St. Louis, $ 19-25. THE PRIVATE HERBARIUM of Dr. JoHN K. SMALL consisting of 21, fully representing his collections in the southern United States, has acquired by the Field Columbian Museum. The ha also con! LE _Reyyotp’s Florida plants; Orcurr’s Lower California plants; Poets sylvania plants; SMALL and HELLER’s Pennsylvania, Tennessee, North and Virginia plants; and WitKrnson’s Mexican plants. — Staying Power FOR THE TIRED BRAIN Horsford’s Acid Phos- phate keeps the mind clear, the nerve steady and the body strong—a boon to the overworked officeman, teacher and student. Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. No beauty can stand the disfigurement of bad teeth Take care of your teeth. Only one way— Sozodont ** Good for Bad Teeth Not Bad for Good Teeth’’ HALL & RUCKEL NEW YORK Fevers ee in nev Fall, due to germs developed during Summ t sickness and protect eg rgd purify the Pll iirinidiy sinks, closets and the cella Platt's Chlorides the odorless disinfectant. The daily use of just a little of this powerful liquid ensures re air in the home, and a bottle will last the average leiniey a month. Sold o sy in se fo ttles by cue and high-class grocers Prepar nly by HE PLATT, New York and Montreal. MODERN BUSINESS METHODS Betecan enterprise is nowhere more conspicuous than in commerce and industry. Goods made States are finding their way over the whole world; improved methods of manu- facture and transportation, together with the rapid advances in banking and insur- ance, make it possible for our manufac- turers to bid on closer margins and to guarantee quicker deliveries than those of other countries. These methods are the modern secrets of success. The Univer- sity of Chicago, in its College of Commerce and Administration, has recently made an effort to exploit these methods. Success- ful business men of large and varied ex- perience were secured to deliver lectures upon subjects in which they were experts. The lectures have been carefully edited and made available in book form under the title Lectures on Commerce This book comprises 340 8vo pp., is bound in cloth, and sells at $1.50, ~e¢; postpaid, $1.62. Herewith we give a detailed out- line of the contents and a few press com- ments. At all booksellers, or direct from The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois SPUeeeosiemcmmceaen eee Contents of the Lectures on Commere ____ INTRODUCTORY LECTURE F. Laurence Laughlin Higher Commercial Education RAILWAYS A, W. Sulliba Railway Managua and Operation George G. Tunell ew Mail Service: A Historical E. D. ‘Ken Railwar Consolidation Luis Fackson Railways as Factors in Industrial De velopment Paul Mort Some ead Problems TRADE AND INDUSTRY Franklin H. Head The Steel Industry H. F. J. Porter Pe iis of the Art of Forging A. C. Bartlett At Wholesale ohn Lee Mahin ic Fe The Commercial Value of Advertising Dorr A. Kimball The Credit Department of Modern Bus ness ee AND INSURANCE Fames Eche Ls mptroller of the Currency a cam nptr s of Banking D. oy fete Investments H. K. Brooks Foreign Exchange A. F. Dean ) Fire Insurance FROM THE REVIEWS moc?! The book contains an asl sonaing of inhrmaton. Chicago Je ) tation in commending =) e have no hesi spect | ccunan asa senile va! Outlook. - book es prac ana pot Hi — Sain Peal Pe, - A: of the most informin g si vn | ase rsi —Chicage D | of unusual int crest and ‘*These papers ; Phe beni tll | oh | ‘¢ The Mere ont cbs “ate, he oan | be foun caer omists inv pean Hg che tlw rr h that will ae ‘ont s muc improv : “The book ¢ nz oun, I pp burg Tim interests ses This voll is of nee ; lectures are on saber, aad comer aa | railroad men, ae y- Fournal { cators.’ —The Cour ville). a CHICAGO & ALTON RAILWAY “THE ONLY WAY” TO THE LOWEST RATES Our We id's Pair guide and rate 10thing rite for them. be | G «J. CE G “re neral ~ he Agent, Chicago, Zul, as skillfully eae pure and delicious as CANDIES THE SAME MAKERS THE SAME EXCELLENCE: BY Sno node Parlor and Dining ay a A... Gent ee ge aad tCa CHa AS +H . te Naago ion: J, REED, n. Pass, Agt, aR RR i i i 00 i i House Place, eacken ttt hee | 4Trains a Day } OF Fon ; ) 4 ! and C. H. @ D. Ry. / Only 8 Hours CHICAGO } CIN CINNATI Hl ; ‘a a: “RIDE ACOCKHORSE To Banpury Cross, To SEE A FINE LADY UPON A WHITE HORSE, RINGS ON HER FINGERS,AND BELLS ON HER TOES, SHE SHALL HAVE MUSIC WHEREVER SHE GOES? So SINGS THE FOND MOTHER IN NURSERY RHYME TO HER GLAD INFANT, THE WHILE KEEPING. TIME; AND SO CAN ALL MOTHERS WITH TUNEFUL REFRAIN DEUIGHT IN THEIR INFANTS WHOSE HEALTH THEY MAINTAIN. HROUGH MRS.WINSLOWS SOOTHING SYRUP OVER FIFTY YEARS SOLD To MILLIONS OF MOTHERS IN THE NEW WORLD AND OLD) “The Universal Perfume’’| Most delightful, Most refreshing, Most lasting, Most popular. MURRAY FOR THE: HANDKERCHIEF, DRESSING - TABLE AND BATH Is beyond a question the t of al Toilet Perfumes. : ——— ee The Pioneer Lin: From Chicago to IN DIANAPOLIs and CINCINNATI Is What is now known as the “Big Four Route Parlor Cars, and Dining Cars Pullman Compartment and Open Sieey Everything Strictly First Class cepest y For rates, tickets etc., call on or aes . C. TUCKER General Northern Agent GO, Le 238 Clark St. ans If your music dealer cannot supply you, SEND US 50c in U. 8, stamps and we will send (prepaid) one of the Ditson Half-Dollar Series Full folio size and the greatest values ever given in music collections Do not confuse these with CHEAP music They oh bee such composers as Mascagni, Bohm, Behr, Gabriel-Marie, Ascher, Braga, Boc- cherini, Mendelssohn, Rubinstein, Raff, uMmann, Handel, Burgmuller, Reinecke, etc., are beautifully printed on extra quality paper and well bound Any one of these For 5O cents Would cost $5.00 as sheet music S for the Piano, 64 pages. Easy Four-Hand Pieces (2d des). 62p. Easy Pieces in e Se yr apes ts - ery Easy Piano Piece 4p. Pour-Hand Recreations (3d grade). ae "i a hes an s fo 62 p. ery Easy Piano Duets (1st and 2d grades). 60p. Sold by Music Dealers or mailed as above. OLIVER DITSON COMPANY Dept. 11 B-151 150 Tremont St., Boston a : real Boston Send for Catalog ; i : Established 1860 150 Varieties Esterbrook’s Steel Pens Sold E verywhere The Best Pens Made The Esterbrook Steel Pen Co. Works, Camden, N, J. 26 John St., N. Y. —_—_—_—_—_— | aR THE IMPROVED ieee os a Warranted CUSHION BUTTON CLASP Slips, Tears nor Unfastens _ — GEO. FROST CO., Makers, ag for ri, Boston, Mass., U. S.A, Sample Pair. REFUSE ALL SUBSTITUTES » All overthe abate world IS KNOWN AND WORN} Lies flat to the leg——never 3 ———__ San F rancisco and Return —_—_—_—_—_—____. $61, OO {yf A y » Going one wa n Ps ifte } ay y., through Me “ious Ca inadian Rockies with ™ Stupendous M, oun. Png Awe aoe! ing Cafions, enty ( atara Tickets August arom to go § 15t ner th to 10th Pry 2 m all other A =. Gty ‘©. SHAW Chay AGenr, CHICAGO w LADIES = GENTLEMEN, I Wish pee girers you s not necessary to INSURE YOUR COLLAR BUTTON BUY A ONE-PIECE _“Rrementz” which carries automatic insurance. If os pon en to it your dealer will give you a new one. can happen. It is made in one strong piece. at foie No soldering. Will not bend or break, Easy to button sure you get the* “KREMENTZ.’ * Free booklet, “THE stipend sig - st iret Bsc 8 gives entertain- ng inform KREMENTZ @ CoO. 34 Chestnut St., NEWARH, N. J, a — 07 d The same thoughtful and careful investi- gation that is used in making other pur- chases will, if applied to typewriters place a TYPEWRITER in your office everytime. Simply because in building the Foxwe have not been satisfied with anything short of absolute perfection. The touch of the Fox is 50 to 100 per cent. lighter than any other typewriter. The speed is 25 to 50 per cent. greater. Every good feature that is common to other type- writers is found on the Fox and shows improvement. May it hi iny al OUT Cx- pense? We place Fox Typewriters on free trial everywhere. F ER CO., Ltd. 560-70 Front St., GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. Branch Offices and Agencies in Principal cities, (he you are having any trouble with & on your floors, or are not entirely oe with their appearance, it is certain you have used LIQUID GRANITE, the finest fhe ever introduced. t makes a finish so tough that, altho wood will dent under a blow, the finish # crack or turn white. This is the highest ate ment yet attained in a Floor Finish, a likely to be improved upon. Finished samples of wood and int pamphlet on the care of natural wood t free for the asking. BERRY BROTHERS, Lint Varnish Manufacturers, EW YORK PHILADELPHIA CHICAGO 51 BOSTON BALTIMO! CINCINNATI Factory and [Main Office, DETROM —— WY not use a clean Fountain Pen, one that will write and write always, without blotting, or scratching? The above Fountain Pen is and has been sold on its merits all over the world for sixteen years, and is unconditionally guaranteed, einer ee a7 SEE THAT CLIP? Ar : sill It costs you nothing t0 eg announcements and ot tising matter. Sim ie placed on our mailing : “hinago Eres Chics ier irface ? 1.25, nel; Animal Education | 28": By JOHN B. WATSON, Pu.D. number of the medullated fibers in the co AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE PS ¥ C3 it ss DEVELOPMENT NERVOUS SYSTEM rHis stupy is largely supplemental to that of Flechsig and attempts to throw some ht upon the following questi 1) How far is it possible to give a systematic count of the gradual unfolding of the associative processes in the rat? (2) 181 t a conditio sine gua non of the rat’s forming and retaining definite associations? (3) | here any connection between the inc creasing complexity of the psyc chical life and the ortex, together with their extension toward its 122 pp., with numerous text- figures and plates, postpaid, $1.35 ALL BOOKSELLERS, OR ORDER DIRECT FRO Che University of Mhicago Press, Chicago, Tilinois The Psychology of Child Development ee ae IRVING KING PRATT INSTITUTE ‘ r " wad od aed by helpful book, which should a a " intell; wd everybody who has to do =e he ber. wlan a. nce mh character of childre ’ "ume g Wd stay from, a ars ¢ tO approach the subject of © Rp eion a nd standpoint — not res sting on rhein. chile $s er mced to low ¥F : et eae ~ Meakin oar rms... , e€ rate,” 14° whe age . our child beychology , Jo ‘of Educatio ‘ “ee and es is 4 book ss Sound in theory, full of s itt ts ble alike to the ¥, tull of sugges- a “. The Edy pattene vf. teacher and the ew s. cloth, $1, oe net, aia $1.1 At ali ee : M bookseli : aay *8TS, Or order direct from J Yer: a rity of C vhicago Press, Chicago, Ill. Preserve Your Magazines Have them bound in Cloth or Leather. It will improve the appearance of your Library at a small expendi- ture. The University of Chicago Press has a well- equipped job bindery and will be pleased to quote nies: +e The University of Chicago Press Mfg. Dept. Bindery Chicago Your Beauty Sleep. The Beauty Doctors all agree that sleep is nature’s greatest aid to charming femininity. Famous beauties of this and other lands know the value of sweet, refresh- ing slumber—not the nerve-rack- ing tossing of a body physically exhausted. You can get the sweet sleep of a little child every af3 night of your life by taking, | ‘ee retiring, half a bottle of SIExiract The “BEST” Tonic, Serie day. It is a liquid nerve food; the concentrated goodness of malt combined Want it YAWMAN & ‘ERE . tt. hone: Central 138- tr Wabash ‘Ave with strengthening and quieting influence of health-giving hops. It is balm to the weary and worn- Out nerves. It quiets the rapid heart action and thus lulls, you into a gentle, refreshing, restful slumber, from which you will awaken in the morning with a daintier, rosier bloom of health. Sold by all druggists. Write for free apiiet Pabst Rate Dept., Milwaukee, Wis : ” “FOLLOW THE FLAG TAKE ™ WABASH : SAINT LOUIS) THE ONLY LINE TO ; re clit THE WORLD'S FA MAIN ENTRANCE: F he F. A. PALMER: #1 * 311 Blin neti: [HY LO saves — AShort Cut 4 == to jecemtanatell Pay z Dis tance Look for the mée HYLO and refuse im- | . tfations. >: Twe beg bore HYLO lamps. send forCatalogue and booklet How to Re: ad Your Meter.’ neal L Ky PHELPS COMPANY % STATE STREET DETROIT, U.S.A The New REMINGTON Billing Typewriter isa billing machine first and foremost. In addition, it’s the cheapest billing machine because it’s a Remington— you know how they ast. Remington Typewriter Company 327 Broadway, New York ZO ore Does M wf then arr type Writer ther THE WORLD'S aa ‘es ( Ball Bearin Lightest Touch * Longest Wear F * ST. LOUIS € sf ene mor me al cena = The New Hammond Type For All Nations and Tongues and used by All Classes of Peoples 3 THE BUSINESS MAN - Because the New Hammond is the Bes Writer, Manifolder and Tabulator. THE SCIENTIFIC MAN - Because the Hammond has a practically vail range of service. THE LITERARY MAN - Because the Hammond allows the ust of ene styles and sizes of type. machine more ™ THE LINGUIST - - - Because on one Hammond twenty languages can be written. THE LADIES - - - ~- Because the Hammond has 4 beautiful Script 7 and others in preparation. rite anylhid ee EVERYBODY - Because one Hammond will w ey style of type, language, oF color of size paper in any direction. THE HAMMOND TYPEWRITER COMPAR : 69TH TO 7OTH STS., AND EAST RIVER UFFALO Wms loRemedy of Ordinary Merit Could Ever Have Received Indorsations from Men Like These. Alfred L. Loomis, Prof. Pathology the Prtatioe oF Medicine in othe ig Fi dical 2 Dept. of the ‘Cnhersity of New Yor Wm, A. Hammond, ~ o; Diseases of the Mind See . 5 paler se my, and form Prof. of Diseases of the vA $ Disease Nervous System in the Untoer sity of New ~ ~ Mbuminuria Geo. Halsted Boyland, A. M., M. ps » Doctor of Medi- cine of the Faculty of Paris, and former Prof. of Surgery im and Baltimore Medical College. Wm. B. Towles, M. D., former Prof. y and Materia Medica in the Medical ‘Dept. of the Vinkoevaty of Vi Va, ae E. H. Pratt, M., M. D., Redes Frof- Orificial — cee Surgery to. the Chicage Homepathic Flospital faa C.W. P. Brock, M. D., £x-Pres. Wilicad die Bake: way Surgeons and Member Medical Society of Va. J. T. Davidson, M. D., Ex-Pres. New Orleans Surgiea ae and Medical Assn. Dr. A. Gabriel Pouchet, Prof of Phair iitoligy and oe sy Medica of the Faculty of Medicine of Parts. LeBlanchard, M. D., Prof. of Montreal Cline, cai, J. SM, oe Ja Rs k, A. M. aif D., Prof. Clinical Metcing oe and Clinical Diag New York Post-Graduate Medical School. - Jos. Holt, M. D., meget E foes Ligieiik Stats Board, of ithe By ete. Robert ort Bartholow, M. D.. M. A., ee ere Medica and Gener , Therapeutics, Jefferson som Medical College, | oo Cabell, M. ee . of Tos ry and Surgery tn the Me het versity aig and pritlgh' joa Ts scnaiete Dijk of the Univer Horati Cc. Wood. M. D., f : if. of Me gee bs , in the Medical Defi. re. a ers of F* has. B. cotoeee M. D., mie urgery, Medical A PERFECT FOOD | ima | MEDEA Director of the Conried Metropolitan Opera G, writes as follows? New York, May 12, “From time to time during the pate seas v i $ vith Che want ful resources of the Weber Piancs #a® ° have been using at the Metropolitan, : “Subjected to immense usage by =] our numerous rehearsals, these insutl™ nevertheless.retain their exquisite torre | “T know of no piano that woul oe" THE FINEST IN better satisfaction, ee it is my desire Og a2 ‘ THE WORLD. Weber Piano shall continue to b¢ See@ LOOK FOR TMIS Metropolitan Opera House.” TRADE MARK. HEINRICH CONRE Costs less than one cent a cup ee 41 GUROPE AND AmeRicn THE WEBER PIANO COMP! Walter Baker & Co. AEOLIAN HALL 2 New! 362 Fifth Ave., near 34th St... Established izso. | Dorchester, Mass. Mites THE DAINTIEST SOAP MADE is Hanp Sareun toilet and bath. Other soaps chemically dissolve the but 8 F AND SAPOLIO removes it. It contains no anim fats tt made from the most healthful of the vegetable oils. ee ay pores, liberates their activities, but works no chemical “ ge af those delicate juices that go to make up the charm ape | a perfect complexion, Test it yourself. THE FAME OF SAPOLIO has reached fat a8 So Everywhere in millions of homes there is a regard for Eee cannot be shaken. Sapolio has done much for yout now for yourself—have you ever tricd HAND SAPO and bath? It is related to Sapolio only because ‘Ling, a Same company, but it is delicate, smooth, dainty, soe" * healing to the most tender skin. It pleases everyon® | pie fF ITS USE IS A FINE HABIT__ITS COST BUTAT” PIANOS##22.= Write for Catalogue D and explanations. le st. @ YOSE & SONS PIANO co., 3 EDITORS we sot: ab ew | eee dened dition t Pe: r Ss ars’ avend e Ge@r walt fs Water is \ : Sa mosi st refres ishing < “Al right The Student’s Tool at \e \ Wy aS ~\ . Y AWN Ng] \ PER te terete , taking notes and writing \ ‘exams,’ it works (WHR quickly, reliably, con- \" Stantly. Easily kept in \N Order. It has always led 4 ; its class, and always will. ¥ FOR SALE BY ALL DEA > LERS ~ m smart Diar es of Dipn res is a rtly Free for the asking. “Martiy printed Booklet. ‘ L. E. Waterman Co. \ wet, 173 Broadway, New York ~. » Boston 138 Montgomery Street, San Francisco. VS Chicago. 12 Golden Lane, London. 107 St. James St., Montreal. ° Sch lhe 60 State St. Botanical Gazette a Montbly Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Seige ey Subscription per year, $5.00. Foreign, $5.75. Single Number, 9) ry European cso £1 4s per annum (post free), should be remitted to Wau WESLEY & SON, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, Sole European Agents. Vol. XXXVIII, No. 4 Issued October 2, CONTENTS THE i a a ay OF SEXUAL ORGANS IN PLANTS. Cor FROM THE Hutt Boranicat Lasporatory. LXIII. Bradley Moore Davi -s A LICHEN SOCIETY OF A SANDSTONE RIPRAP (wirH FIVE vical Bruce Fink - a TRANSPIRATION OF SUN LEAVES AND SHADE LEAVES OF OLEA EUROPABA AND OTHER BORE LEAVED Pahhigee histiaee 3: Cue ELEVEN FIGURES). ) ie ‘ en - BRIEFER ARTICLES. NOTES ON NorRTH AMERICAN GRassEs. IV. A. 5S. Hit ye y OOGENESIS AND ERTILIZATION IN aeeuag [POMOEAE-PANDURANAE (wim TWO mot Piacd tev ee, LITERATURE. 5 oy : : ETHODS OF ECOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. paasiags ECOLOGY. MINOR NOTICES - - : - ; es ; NOTES FOR STUDENTS : : . - : * oe NEWS Fa 4 a - Separates, if desired, must be ordered in advance of igi ie Not less than 5° 5¢ ae 4 ing psc aie will be printe ed, of which 25 (without covers) will be furnished gr a ‘efer articles” | remainder (and contin if desired) to be paid for by the shun Separates of “bri “ without covers) will also be supplied at cost. digg table below shows the pla the figures gv" consisting of plain poy or text with line engravings. The actual cost may vary ork, paper, are naib upon the amount of work in eerie the pages into forms, an the rats given, ates containing half-tones may be expected to cost somewhat more than depealing upon the number of cuts and the amount of work required upon them Number of copies 5° gid .; Letter-press, for 4 Paves OF leek $1.30 $1.60 ee —— er-press, for 2 iy sallh'g eo ee eae 1.80 i 4.65 ter-press, for16 pagesorless . . . . 3-20 babes 1.35 Single plates (1 Pe =2 single) .80 Eos 2.00 Covers, with title (pa aper like RS cover) . 1.20 1 -@ “9 st Manuscripts. —Contributors are requested to write scientific and d prope see oon and in 2 pane to follow the form shown in the pages of the GazeIT Editor of the Botanical Gaz ette, sai teat nym of Chicago, aii Books and Pamphlets for R. ould be sent to the same —— a thirty days alte umbers will be sepiaced rea only when claim is made wi number following. called to cial to For Subscribers,—The attention of foreign su subscribers : indicated 8 necessitated by the ore of extra postage. Until further notice the prices remitted to our for eign a f Cicad bea a tenses should be made payable to the order of The Neprie y aol oes geri regarding subscriptions, advertisements, and The U Univers ersity of Chicago Press, Chicag } {Entered at the Post-Office at Chicago, IIl., as second-class ne Light Waves and Cheir Uses Bight Lectures Delivered Before the Lowell Institute in 1899 Illustrated by 108 Text Figures and 2 Colored Plates By ALBERT A. MICHELSON vessor and Head of the Department of Physics Director of Ryerson Physical Laboratory ~~ sued as Volume III of the S cond 2.00; postpaid, $2.15 es Che University of Chicago Press CHICAGO, ILLINOIS _——_—_—— Notable Improvements Projection Apparatus. THE NEW RSEFLECTING LANTERN at- =e to any fy ge ote Lantern or Stereopticon, for showing upon the screen, prints, photos, engrav- ings, sketches, diagrams, flowers, Entomological and Anatomical ip pee ee, all in natural colors, cuts in nee i ay be show without injury to the book. ly NEW P ROJEC TING MICROSD Ore otiechabas to any projection Lanter eoptico with projection f= piece, bane manelin yo oho in large micro specimens and cooling cell. THE NEW PROJECTION SPECTRO- plead ter Rta! POLARISCOPES attachable to y Projection Lantern. peyieuhirs Slides to illustrate Educational and Sclentl- fic Subjects. Lantern Slides on Geography poe rn Slides = Physical ES ntern Slides eolog: i tern iene Lantern Slides Lantern Slides on rants ng. - pore nn ps - English “Cat edrals. La ~ Fe tails of Architectural Design. La - m tin a pe ws Slides 8 illustrating many other subjects in all parts of the We rent slides aire ve rates. Send for lists, naming particular subject of interest, IA BROWN & EAR Pe srt s of Stereopticons, Microscopes, etc., Dept. 24 91 Phila. 8 Chestnut St, i Methods in Plant Histology ay CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN, A.M., PH.D., Instructor in Botany in the University of Chicago eee A CONSTANT HELP to Teachers and Students of Botany cecyha pi DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PREPARING LANT MATERIAL FOR MICROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION t : sed y SS p bl upon a course in botanical micro- technique, and is the first complete manual to a ished oO e he th nive mee ct. It is the result of several years work with classes in grey verity, It ain id : hicago, pe = pcre ver oy Extension classes away from the t- ‘ce of an instructor j : em to meet the not on nly ar pre student who has the ee “Ad with ‘imited ap matullye pasate iaboreseee but = the student who must work by eset id the asad Pparitna. Free-hand sectionir ng. the paraffin meth hod, the nanan ge oO "S are given for m kin: are treated in con sae detail. In later chapters te ‘the ant kingdom from th a such preparations as are needed by those who wish to nee ag eg of Seriaty € alge upto the flowering plants. Special attention is pa aid tot iff ity ‘erentiating Ageia an the student who masters this problem will find little di tp ‘Ogical ei ‘i Formulas are given for the reagents commonly used in “Sal pe 8v0, illustrated, cloth, (ze?) $1.50; postpaid $1.59 The Un; For sale by dealers or by the publishers Qiversj ; : pea ee ety of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illino What Are the “Necessary” Books to Buy this Summ First, the STATESMAN EDITION: Theodore Roose Works WHY MUST I BUY ROOSEVELT’S WORKS? ECAUSE y 7 aha ste = ade air cig Gage a the Presidential campaign, #7 messages, the authorized ‘oaneel wile $i cone speeches aa} : edited by Dr Albert Sh: eae ec edition, revised by the a : stone Soma Ra ert Shaw, whom President Roosevelt selected for Be™ 1andsome octavo volumes of the Roosevelt works on AR® listory, civics, hunting, adventure, etc., belong in the ® of every American citizen as a permanent feature, Bea you will not have another chance to buy 4 1 4-volume om) illustrated edition of Roosevelt’s works on & . Ly suc q WHAT IS SO SPECIAL ABOVI : STATESMAN EDITION antee, two BP ptainel © With a gigantic guar publishing houses have ® that by offering at less than aise’ usual price 4 14-volume 08 trated copy right edition of : the President of the UAT: f just the time when Perr ea” these books, we c42 ; come out right, ever a j 4\ , " But wemust do itint tot GQ3,¢4 adeno ; contract, and you mus wish to get this e short © ort he sue a t ouy a + thia 02 dition 4 One doll . : ‘linc itil * nig co for 12 months, or $11 in cash. Half-leather editiO> ° at 7, ~ ) . : } a in the set, wei oe 12 months, or $23 cash. Remember, there wc ee so : ; @ eee ns : f » wae i g about 20 pounds, and you will see at et valle, si? as - interest ant such a set of : ; 5 JT a Copyris 3 r at n i pyrighted work of the most 1mI ediate “ | LOOK AT THE BOOKS WITHOUT COMMITTING MYSELF? ‘Certainly. We prefer you should simply send the coupon on this page, with your address written on it, and the entire set will be shipped at our expense. If you want them, eoi $1 within five days, and $1 a month. If you don’t want them, we will take them area 5 mack, paying express charge 2s. We have a few sets of a beautiful three-quarter leather eltion, too, at less than the usual price of good cloth books. Write for particulars. THE STATESMAN EDITION CONTAINS: CIVICS—2 Volumes Huntin «, 3rt Spe of a Ranchman: Ranc hing yimerican Ideals: True Americanism—The in the Bs ad Lands—Water-f fowi-s The “Gt rouse of t “) ‘irtues and Practical Politics—The College Northern Cattle Ph ains- Tied oud Deer of the River Bot. meaate and Public 1% Phases of Btate uegisie- toms—The Blacktail Deer—A Trip after Mountain pd Politics in New Yor EC ity- x Years Sheep—The Lordly Bu ai vi Law of Civiliz A form ‘the eenece Doctrine —The e Wilderness Hu The American vization and Dec Wilderness—The Whitetail Dee A "and the Blac tall . of the Connmhine Among the Hig ills; the Bi — horn or be te ain Sheep — Mountain Game; the heey White Goat—The Wapiti _or as peg ene Elk—The Beh : : Fd Moose ; The Beast of the Woodlan ting Lover. iy ADVE stators sg Be The Rough pb: Ra + ng the Regiment— jee) ToC uba~— General Yi valor s Fight at Las Guasimas— 1 The Cavalr cee s ggg oo n the Tren hes—The Re- yl} oe HomeThe 1e “Rov Robin” Letter—Muster- pose posit 6 Volum The Winn e West is a . eee c repre- sentation of na 6 ihe, yo alate step by. ep, year by year, of the sturdy frontiersmen n from the riginal shiseeon States across the Alleghanies into tne val- leys of ehh Ohio rhe “Mississippi Rivers, and in the region of the Great Lakes. It is history, authorita- tively related and interestingly told. ame Soames cc nee ees The Naval War of 1812 isa formals statement f those bm maaan facts which gav ve La our country indisputable prestige on the In two volumes the thrilling victories at our on-of-W. Pare vividly pictur red and narrated with baovad beh ad SPEECHES AND MESSAGES—? ul ma Presidential Addresses and Sta In two volumes, edited with an Aerie Albert Shaw. Include pag and eer ry Roosevelt ma various ne in addition, "the messages Sere Eecesaaseatil Tike somes = Neve —— 2 4 | 303 apers Sieton addresses of impor of < sessions of the second President to the first and second se i abe — be plein and to the first anc f the iy ican citizens in 1904. ert Photo copyright, 1903. T s : i” ie] by Ciinedinst, creus Life: ee 5 ngitud ‘ey Expansion = Peace— ke at The F ghth among Ref ers—Civil ff i Deo land Ni " ig Pies tr, Ptomise and d Nintt Commandments We Stn os Line cestion- Chri a anc a ~- National * Ses . — Mile —. (1 Stian Ay Sy Characte. er Lecettiin me : nEMing the saa oe Mae he Black Rezly: z 1so r Ame ‘ Mga ena Old Eph voy Sp bn esman “S with H A Poccars H raim, ‘the Grizzly rs Works by oun nds- -Wolk unt on the Nueces— be Weer say $1.0 on Land. ives and Wolf-hounds— ct ths aig a for 12 m pth Ty 0 UT THIS FORM AND MAIL IT TO Rey Is VIEW Of Rev; Astor Place, fe yon Co. For Students of Botany Physics and Chemistry | The Role of Diffusion and Osmotic Pressure in Plants By Burton E. LIVINGSTON HE first part deals with a clear statement of the physical principles of diffusion and osmotic pressure, and will probably be found of use to begit™ ners in physical chemistry and theoretical physics The second part presents the literature of the physio- logical réle of these factors in a connected and reada- ble form, and embodies the researches of the author as to the influence of the medium. “The treatment of the whole subject is clear = a cise and forms an admirable addition to the ee physiological botany. It will be found indispensable to * students along these lines.’— Zhe Plant World. xiv-+150 pp., 8vo, cloth, ze¢, $1.50; postpaid, $1 ee THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAG! PRESS :: CHICAGO, ILLINO TELS RS Rosy Spe a ae iain. So nnansed a In four groups Physical Chemistry as related to Pure Chemistry First Group) Industrial Chemistry Second Group) Physiology Thiet CC urd Group) Geology . arth ( sToup) Chuniver a .AGO PUBLISHED py By FJACOBUS H. VAN’T HOFF (English version by ALEXANDER SMITH) JACOBUS H, VAN’T HOFF i Physical Chemistry inthe Service of the Sciences Of special interest to Instructors in Chemistry Analytical Chemists -Manufactur- ing Chemists Instructors in Physiology Physicians Geologists Press Comments rnal end itself soe ag to teachers and adva rid, “niall of will remit : * LLIN( yIS Name_ ee niece ictianiaanliitinenenen CM rer nai) Address —=—— ee Please send me a copy of Physical Chemistry in Sciences, I inclose $1.60 in payment for same. tight le a. a —- ty appeared ieee In ages volume ly readable book, interest being ra pe from first en tn ee in German and been lay "The chapter rs on ** Ph nd Physiology Boat 2 ea ere us is an un vn ( 2). The — interesting, — up the theories of s« slution, 08 ie mee he vel net? Strong a “F y elegant one, nd the specific action of chemical ions in the physical metab cat sg atthe chemise re to the booklover second chapter taking bd the subject of nzymes and their ge as ge Lg UTES were oles ie fact, probably, lytic agents tending ard chemical equilibrium. In the pcm - * at Version reads at on ¥ given in Eng a eg me hing i ec istry space is. iscusse t “ a anal » wee and the (sccm: s tion and structure of geological salts, and the influence os will prow of the Mtr o* aon ad inthe later. — Journal ge in temperature upon rel agers yore a gies Th ste amereneasosinamasiumuiss saunas tainaseacsatascciananToa esas aaa SEND THIS COUPON TO ANY BOOKSELIER, OR DIRECT 10 THE _PUBLISHE _.. 1904 : dis apaae oe the 8 AN aoa ly, | Vr1'4. a rie | LUME XXXVIII NUMBER 4 BOTANICAL GAZETTE a OCTOBER, 1904 THE RELATIONSHIPS OF SEXUAL ORGANS IN PLANTS. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE HULL BOTANICAL LABORATORY. LXIII. BRADLEY MOORE DAVIS. _ Tuis paper will attempt a classification of the sexual organs of ‘Plants based upon certain evolutionary principles and involving genetic relationships in so far as these are understood. With Classification is presented a terminology new in certain respects Testricting some older names to a more precise significance. The lishment of a terminology is of course a matter of usage. The Present Suggestions are not offered through the desire to create a | REW set of terms, but rather as a means of making plain the funda- 4 mental characters of the classification. But there are some features E which if adopted would lead to much greater clearness of expression. ‘ Almost all of the sexual organs of plants fall into one of three PS; quite distinct from one another, each marked by fundamental ts so well defined that one form cannot pass into the other CRoept through great changes of structure and behavior. The only i. ©rgans whose positions do not seem to be clear in this classifi- aed the complex multicellular structures of the lichens and the beniaceae. The conditions in these interesting forms are eprint and much more must be known of their cell and oo and developmental history before we can hope to ei « ” relation to other forms. The three great groups of ; 5 a. plants are: : - a r structures developing uninucleate gametes.—These » May be called collectively gametocysts or, when sexually dif- 241 242 BOTANICAL GAZETTE —— foctosrr ferentiated, the male becomes the spermatocyst and the female the oocyst. They are restricted to the thallophytes and are generally characteristic of the algae, but are not the only types of sexual organs found in this assemblage. Il. Multicellular structures developing wuninucleate gameles— These organs comprise the antheridia and archegonia of the bryo- phytes and pteridophytes, which have probably been derived from a multicellular structure whose gametes were sexually undifferentiated (isogamous), which structure would be included under the more general term gametangium. In a harmonious terminology based upon the gametangium the male organ might be called a spermi- tangium and the female an oangium. Gametangia are represented among the thallophytes by the so-called plurilocular sporangia. Spermatangia (antheridia) are found in the Charales and Dictyota. III. Multinucleate sexual cells or coenogametes.—These remark- able sexual organs, named by the author “coenogametes” (DAV ’00, p. 307), are most typically illustrated in the Mucorales Gymnoascales, but are also found in a somewhat modified form i the Saprolegniales, Peronosporales, and certain Ascomycetes. Coeno- gametes are morphologically either gametocysts that have become changed directly into gametes, or they are restricted portions of such cells. These types of sexual organs will be consider brief summarized list at the end of the paper. ed in order, with @ I. GAMETOCYSTS, SPERMATOCYSTS, AND OOCYSTS- xual organs The terminology which we shall use for the simplest se of plants (unicellular structures. developing uninucleale gamelts) 4 based upon suggestions of VUILLEMIN (’o2) presented for the ae of clearly separating this group from the multicellular reproduc organs characteristic of plants above the thallophytes- lular sexual organ is well known to have had its origin from 4 cae! ductive cell which produced asexual spores, and such may be wll a sporocyst consistently with the other terms. The hist of eo hetet- reproductive organs leading to the high sexual conditions of the the ogamous algae, such as Volvox, Oedogonium, bin: Cyclosporeae, and the Rhodophyceae, is then as follows: 1904] DAVIS—SEXUAL ORGANS IN PLANTS 243 Sporocyst, a unicellular structure producing asexual spores. Zoosporocyst, a unicellular structure producing zoospores. Gametocyst, a unicellular structure producing uninucleate gametes. Spermatocyst, a unicellular structure producing sperms. Oocyst, a unicellular structure producing eggs. The terms sporangium, gametangium, antheridium, and oogonium, which have been applied to the above structures and to others as well, have been reserved for more precise usage, as will appear later in the paper. It should be noted especially that this list includes the sexual organs of almost all of the groups of algae, forms which illustrate the usual course of sexual evolution. The principal stages and steps in the origin and evolution of sex are fairly well understood. The writer has recently described them (Davis ’or, ’03@) and will not take up the matter further than to emphasize some facts which have important bearings on the subject of this ‘paper. The gametocyst came into existence with the origin of sex, and was derived from a zoosporocyst whose zoospores became physiologically sexual. Sex has probably arisen a great many times in the plant Kingdom, since it is fundamentally only a physiological condition, but so far as we know the origin has always been the same, namely through the conjugation of motile cells. Vith the gametocyst established, there is sure to follow a tendency ‘0 differentiate the structure according as the sexual cells assume more and more the characters of sperms and eggs. The differentia- te of sex is well known to be one of the results of plant evolution which has appeared in a number of divergent lines of ascent entirely “pendently of one another. The eggs and sperms of widely Same es in the algae, as for example those ending in Mods pra = oleochaete, and Fucus, can only be related through t Rae e the undifferentiated gametes or zoospores of a ae seal 0 the mother-cells, oocysts, and Spcreioryer ) re a nae are related in the divergent lines among the ag ti Sabi, an ancestry from the undifferentiated gametocyst 0 Th or the sporocyst. gu e ook ook Several groups of algae which offer interesting nee tons Gani Cture that demand special explanations. In the — Jugales we have the union of gametes while still contained 244 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [octonze within the cellulose walls of the gametocysts. This is far from a simple sexual condition, and it is a great mistake to present these types as illustrations of primitive sexuality. It is possible that the Conjugales have come by way of the unicellular forms related to the Volvocaceae, whose cells adopting quiescent habits gave rise to the desmids, through which the filamentous Zygnemaceae and Mesocar- paceae may have been derived. In many-of the desmids the gametes escape from the gametocysts to fuse as naked masses of protoplasm. The retention in the Zygnemaceae and Mesocarpaceae of these gamete protoplasts within the gametocyst, and the consequent fusion of sexual cells surrounded by a cellulose wall is a peculiarity identical in this respect with the fusion of coenogametes in the Mucorales, Peronosporales, and lower Ascomycetes, and is evidence of a highly specialized sexual condition. In the Rhodophyceae the spermatocysts have the peculiarity of producing each a single non-motile sperm, and the oocyst (carpog? nium) develops a long filamentous receptive outgrowth, the trichogyné, surrounded by the cell wall, with which the sperm fuses. There 1s here, therefore, as in the filamentous Conjugales described above, the fusion of gamete protoplasts while still surrounded by their respect® cell walls. Eliminating this peculiarity and the production of non motile sperms, the sexual organs of the red algae appear to bes to those of Coleochaete. There are some possibilities, howevel, which may complicate the problem of the classification of the sane organs of the Rhodophyceae, and may relate it to the puzzling siaiik tions in the Laboulbeniaceae and lichens. _I refer to the presene® trichogyne nucleus in Batrachospermum reported by my: self, and binucleate sperms described by SCHMIDLE (’99). We may find se and in other red algae peculiarities with direct relationships to the fungal groups mentioned above. The Charales present extraordinary conditions. The female organ is apparently an oocyst, surrounded, however, envelope of investing filaments; while the male organ 1 and consequently is not a spermatocyst, but falls i have group of sexual organs, although it can hardly be suppos aja ise genetic relation to these. The spermatangium (anthem ea Charales is certainly one of the puzzles of plant morphology: 1904] DAVIS—SEXUAL ORGANS IN PLANTS 245 The male organs of some other algae, as Oedogonium, are groups of closely related cells which constitute a simple tissue, and similar conditions are also found in the Rhodophyceae, but all of these structures are really clusters of spermatocysts, and can scarcely be considered differentiated organs of the plants, even though they sometimes have very definite form. Nevertheless, the structures frequently are so constant as to have taxonomic value, and conse- quently probably always will be called antheridia in the works which deal with such matters. The sexual organs of Dictyota present conditions that make their classification difficult. The cells producing male elements become divided (see figures of W1tL1aMs ’o4) into a very large number of compartments, each of which develops a solitary sperm. This struc- lure seems to be the same as that of the so-called plurilocular sporangia of the Phaeophyceae, in which case the male organs cannot be called ‘porocysts, but are true spermatangia (antheridia). The eggs, how- ever, are formed singly in the mother-cells, which are therefore eocysts. The significance of these mixed characters in the group is not clear. Either the spermatangia (antheridia) are derived from spermatocysts that have adopted the peculiar methods of extensive cell division characterizing plurilocular sporangia, or the oocysts stand as the final stage in a remarkable reduction and final suppres- “ion of such activities in an ancestral multicellular female organ (oangium), The desirability of some system and uniformity in the nomencla- ‘ure of a group of reproductive organs which are clearly homologous _ are the sporocyst, gametocyst, spermatocyst, and oocyst) lies of pe in the greater clearness and simplicity of the conception and *pression of these relationships. The adoption of a new termi *ology for these structures will depend upon how strongly botanists may feel the need of these changes. Such old names as sporangium, i antheridium, oogonium, and ascogonium would be they aah 4 Narrower application, but, as we shall presently explain, “¢ not be entirely discarded. It will be asked what are the particular advantages of the set of ious Sia (sporocyst, gametocyst, spermatocyst, and oocyst) erms, and why have not the latter been retained and new ei er 246 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocromm names proposed for the other great class of sexual organs, the mullti- cellular structures? The principal reason for the present suggestion is the desirability of naming unicellular structures in a manner indica- tive of their morphology. A better set of names would have been sporocyte, gametocyte, spermatocyte, and oocyte, but the last two terms have a special and precise significance in zoology. There is no evidence of exact correspondence between the events of spermato- genesis and oogenesis in animals and plants, but on the contrary many reasons for believing that the processes have not only had an independent origin, but have developed along quite different lines This subject cannot be treated at this time, but for these reasons we have avoided the term spermatocyte and oocyte, and instead have made use of VUILLEMIN’s suggest ons. II. GAMETANGIA, SPERMATANGIA, AND OANGIA. The second group of sexual organs comprises multicellular sire tures which develop uninucleate gametes. The fully differentiated organs are best illustrated by the antheridia and archegonia of the bryophytes and pteridophytes, but these heterogamous conditions must have arisen from a simpler type of gametangium, and this must be sought among the thallophytes. The writer (DAvIS ’03) has recently suggested their origin from a type of structure something like that of the plurilocular sporangium of the Phaeophyceae a the multicellular fruiting branches of such green algae as Schizome™ Stigeoclonium tenue irregulare, and the conditions sometimes found in Draparnaldia and Chaetophora. It will be difficult to displace such firmly established yen f antheridium and archegonium, but a terminology may be ae with sporangium and gametangium as a basis which is as cons! : and harmonious as that proposed for the first group i would be as follows: | Gametangium, a multicellular organ producing uninucle Spermatangium (antheridium), a multicellular organ prod Oangium (archegonium), a multicellular organ producing eggs ’02). pee ; 1904) ‘DAVIS—SEXUAL ORGANS IN PLANTS 247 The origin of the sexual organs of the bryophytes and pterido- phytes is necessarily a matter of speculation, but the relation that they bear to one another and the type of structure which they repre- sent are much more clearly understood than formerly. These game- tangia are essentially cellular capsules composed of an outer layer of sterile cells which encloses a central mass of gametogenous tissue. The development of the antheridium and archegonium generally starts from a superficial cell, which by various divisions differentiates a single terminal cell or a group of terminal cells that become the growing points of the structure, building it up from above. Thus the antheridium and archegonium are from the beginning and at all times tissues of a definite form whose cooperating cells establish the organ. They are not structures of the same class as certain assem- blages of independent gametocysts whose cells are massed into definite form, as for example many so-called antheridia of the red algae. It seems to be perfectly clear now that the central region of cells within the capsule wall of both antheridium and archegonium are phylogenetically gametogenous tissues and are homologous; or, expressed concretely, that the canal cells of the archegonium are reduced and degenerate gamete mother-cells which together with the fertile egg cell are homologous with the sperm mother-cells. This view, which has been held tentatively by many botanists for a long ime, is supported especially by observations by Hy and TREUB, and the recent studies of Hoxrerty and Lyon. GoesEL (’o2) in “n important paper has discussed the homologies of the sexual organs " bryophytes and pteridophytes, recognizing that the suppression of i division and a process of sterilization were largely responsible for the peculiarities of the female. He also clearly showed the difficulties = throw so much doubt on G6rz’s theory of a relationship between © archegonium and oogonium of the Charales. Fiat: i P- 121) noted that various species of mosses present occa- = y the transformation of archegonia into antheridia, a phenome- " apparently frequent in Atrichum undulatum. Treus’s (’86, PP. *07~108) observations on Lycopodium Phlegmaria are of the 3 — oo He found that the canal cells may eee THF ee ‘t - he figures an archegonium in which a canal cell is divide studinally so that the axial row is double at that point. A dia- 248 BOTANICAL GAZETTE focroner gram which the author introduced to illustrate a theoretical stage in the evolution of the archegonium (Davis ’o36¢, p. 4g1, fig. 21, ¢) unwittingly almost duplicated this figure (TreuB ’86, pl. 21, fig. 0), to which his attention was called after the publication of this paper. TREUvB also noted the transformation of archegonia into antheridia and archegonia whose tips remained closed and became abnormally swollen. Recently HoLrerty (’o4) has determined for Mnium that the series of canal cells is sometimes a double row for a greater or less _ distance instead of the single line usually present, that the egg and ventral canal cell are usually of nearly equal size, and that occasionally organs are found with mixed antheridial and archegonial characters, as when portions of an evident axial row break up into sperm mother cells. A number of observers have reported abnormalities among the mosses, such as archegonia with two eggs, with two venters, of with enlargements of the neck regions. These conditions all appeat to justify entirely the conclusions of the previous paragraph. Especially interesting are some illustrations of unusual conditions in the pteridophytes brought together by Miss Lyon (’04). There are the two canal cells that normally lie side by side above the ventral canal cell of Equisetum, a condition also found in Isoetes. Two eggs are occasionally present in the archegonium of Selaginella apus, and a pair of eggs, one above the other with two canal cells betwee? have been observed in Adiantum cuneatum. The most remarkable conditions, however, are those found in Lycopodium com planalum, whose deeply imbedded archegonia have sometimes as many as four: teen to sixteen cells in an axial row, over half of which, and se times the egg cell itself, are binucleate. Thus the observations is TREUvB (’86) on Lycopodium Phlegmaria are substantiated, — likely that others of the Lycopodiaceae have archegonia of a get - ized type, with large- amounts of potential gametogenous po They present conditions that may be expected in any poe’ 2 of bryophytes or pteridophytes. For male organs Miss Lyon © tributes a new fact in finding submerged antheridia in Ly annotinum. er The evolutionary tendencies of antheridia and archegon'as their most generalized conditions among the bryophytes; en gamel in the direction of numerical reduction of the number of 1904] DAVIS—SEXUAL ORGANS IN PLANTS 249 mother-cells and the amount of sterile tissue developed. These tendencies are plainly shown in comparisons of the sexual organs of the pteridophytes with those of the bryophytes. The antheridia of the former group are all very much smaller than those of the latter; the wall of the capsule contains relatively few cells and the amount of spermatogenous tissue is very much reduced. Thus where thou- sands of sperms are developed in each antheridium of the bryophytes, there are less than a hundred formed in most of the pteridophytes, and sometimes very few (four in Isoetes). The archegonia of the pteri- dophytes have a smaller number of cells than those of the bryophytes. The neck region is much shortened and the number of canal cells becomes reduced from a large number in the bryophytes to two or three in some pteridophytes. Physiologically this reduction in the number of gametes, together with the greater specialization of egg and sperm, follows a history generally parallel with that in the thallo- phytes, and is what should be expected in any series of plants subject ‘0 the conditions that lead to the high levels of sexual evolution. The history of the antheridium and archegonium in the reduced gametophytes of seed-bearing plants is not well understood, but this is not the time to discuss such difficult and highly special problems as the homologies of the stalk and body cell of the pollen grain or the 88 apparatus and antipodals of the embryo sac. It is certain from the transitional conditions presented in the gymnosperms that the ‘perm and egg nuclei of the spermatophytes are homologous with the same samete nuclei of the pteridophytes, and that they stand for _ and archegonia which have lost most and in some cases all : ‘ € sterile tissue characteristic of these organs as found in the "yophytes and pteridophytes. — to the origin of the antheridium and fy ssi vf a. of Hotrerty are strongly in support of the hypot 33 iMey be b s'Y Suggested by the author (DAvis’03¢). This a archego pniefly summarized as follows: Since the antheridium an eee. are multicellular structures from the beginning, and ai they ig units developing from well-defined ppt Be organs, ( ot have been derived directly from the unicellular yee mast ) generally present in the thallophytes. z ey arisen from a multicellular structure (gametangium), 250 BOTANICAL GAZETTE foctoser which was probably at the level of isogamy in its sexual evolution, because the gametogenous tissues in the antheridium and archegonium are essentially similar in structure, as is also true of the sterile tissue forming the surrounding capsule. The only multicellular reproduc: tive organs of the thallophytes which offer any possible points of relation seem to be the so-called plurilocular sporangia or game: tanga of the Phaeosporeae, and similar structures in certain green algae, Schizomeris, Stigeoclonium tenue irregulare, and conditions occasionally found in Draparnaldia and Chaetophora. Such multi cellular reproductive organs of course must be regarded only a representatives of a certain type of structure (sporangium or game ‘tangium), and not as direct ancestors of the sexual organs of bryo- phytes and pteridophytes. I have never associated the archegonium closely with any individual form as Miss Lyon (’o4, p. 281) might lead one to suppose. These sporangia and gametangia of the brown and green algae have the peculiarity that the original cells divide up into a great num ber of very small cells (loculi), each of which often develops but 3 singe zoospore or gamete. It is probable that the extensive cell division by which each zoospore or gamete is often given a separate compat ment in the general structure is responsible for the origin of a mult cellular reproductive organ (sporangium or gametangium) rigs bil type of unicellular structure (sporocyst or gametocyst). bane! angia and gametangia of the brown and green algae are known 2 ‘modified branches, generally somewhat smaller than vege branches. Should such gametangia be placed under environmen as from wale? conditions demanding protective coverings (as bya change 1™ i to a land habitat), the first expression would be the sterilization?” outer layer of cells to form a protective capsule around penne gametogenous tissue. Such an advance would give the por ture of an antheridium and an archegonium, and further spe@ pee need be only along the well-known lines of sexual eo dts by which one form of gametes would become son through small sperms, and the other form, by loss of motility a” erial for @ numerical reduction and consequent conservation of mr beet few gametes, would become large eggs. These yee discussed in full in the author’s paper on “The origin © 1904] DAVIS—SEXUAL ORGANS IN PLANTS 251 gonium” (DAvIs ’03¢) and the reader must be referred to that for a detailed treatment of the subject. Miss Lyon (’o4) has discussed the interesting problem of the rela- tion of the sunken gametangia, characteristic of certain pteridophytes (especially Lycopodium) and such liverworts as Anthoceros and Aneura, to the stalked archegonium and to my theory associating these structures with plurilocular sporangia. She is inclined to derive the sunken structure from an indeterminate region of gametogenous cells which later might develop into an emergence with the general characters of a gametangium (plurilocular sporangium). This view carries the origin of the archegonium still further back, and allows the organ to develop through an emergent gametangium into the stalked Structure, or to remain partially or wholly imbedded in the tissues of the gametophyte. In the first group the archegonia would become definite gametangia, comparable to plurilocular sporangia; while in the second they would remain as less defined or indeterminate regions of §ametogenous tissue. The chief difficulties in this view, in the author’s opinion, lie in the remarkable unity of structure displayed by the archegonium, in the presence of a single terminal opening, and the situation of the egg at the bottom of an axial row of gametog- fnous cells, which conditions imply an origin from some definite type of gametang'um whose fertile tissue was limited to a central on. The rarity among the known thallophytes of indeterminate regions of §ametogenous tissues present further important difficulties in Miss Lyon’s theory. hee 98 ('o4, Pp. 289), however, is inclined to pass lightly over readih § ficulties, believing that transitory conditions may “be br eo a. among the algae.” She discusses several types and consid “5 diagram of Ulva indicating a gametogenous tissue of ka thickness at the period of reproduction. This is a very a am, for not only are there no walls formed between latter are 84 segments of protoplasm in the mother-cells, but the its neighbo tmarkably well-defined sporocysts, each independent of 4 thallus several € membrane of Ulva is very far from constituting In Phyllitis * layers of cells thick, or even a differentiated tissue. Within the ere appears a successive segmentation of the protoplasm mother-cells with the formation of walls by which the 252 BOTANICAL GAZETTE focroser zoospores or gametes are finally developed, each in its own compart- ment, and this fact makes the group of cells derived from each mother. cella sporangium or gametangium. The groups are quite independent of one another and there is little hint of a tissue. Essentially the same conditions are found in Punctaria. Porphyra is probably very similar to Ulva in its methods of spore-formation, whatever may be the signili cance of the so-called antherozoids and carpospores. I am impressed with the exceeding rarity in the thallophytes, and indeed in all plants, of indeterminate regions of gametogenous tissue, and I know of n0 form that illustrates clearly Miss Lyon’s conception of primitive com ditions such as she has tried to illustrate by her diagrams of Ulva. Miss Lyon might have made her case appear stronger on fis glance by citing Schizomeris and Pylaiella as illustrations of “inde terminate masses of reproductive cells.” In these two types the sporocyst and sporangium or gametangium: come so close together that the general morphology of the respective fruiting filaments ® almost identical. The distinctions, however, lie in the presence of very numerous cell walls which are never found in sporocysts, and wi give the compartment structure to the sporangium and gametanglum. The development of cell walls following the segmentation protoplasm during sporogenesis may seem a very insignificant facie on which to base a broad classification, but I think that close exam tion will prove it to be of fundamental importance, because the a duction of these walls transforms a reproductive cell i s er however simple the arrangement may be. I doubt if tt is ar to derive a clearly defined structure from the mere associall group of sporocysts or gametocysts, without the cell divisions ™ above which immediately change the groups of i appese! into sporangia or gametangia. When a number of closely nsf ated reproductive mother-cells divide in this manner, the ner become quite extensive, and if these cells make up * yee is at structure, as perhaps a filament or some emergent region, of these once developed an organ. There are abundant illustrations - simple conditions, in various stages of relative complexity, Phaeosporeae; for example the Ectocarpaceae present @ yee from the generalized fruiting filaments of Pylaiella to the sporangia and gametangia (plurilocular sporangia) ne g ig toe a) ey pon 1904] DAVIS—SEXUAL ORGANS IN PLANTS 253 In this distinction of protoplasmic behavior during sporogenesis and gametogenesis (7. e., the formation of cell walls during the seg- mentation of the protoplasm) lie the fundamental peculiarities of the sporangium and gametangium. And in this distinction are based my views of the homologies and origin of these structures. Associated with the peculiarity is the fact that sporangia and gametangia are almost universally superficial, and perhaps always have their origin from superficial cells. There may be exceptions to this general rule, as the antheridia of Anthoceros and some sunken sexual organs of the Lycopodineae, but these have not been sufficiently studied to justify conclusions. Thus, Emma Lampa (703) has obtained Antho- ceros plants bearing antheridia of superficial origin, and regards these as Tepresenting primitive conditions, and one cannot guess what investigations among the pteridophytes may bring forth. The teasons for the superficial position of reproductive organs are probably at bottom physiological, although of course one may readily advance teleological explanations. : I do not find the same difficulty as Miss Lyon in deriving the gener- alized and sunken sexual organs of some pteridophytes, notably the Lycopodineae, from superficial structures. Of course one does not relate them to extreme emergent types, such as are found in the Jungermanniales and Marchantiales. But a simple type of arche- penitim, Sessile upon the gametophyte, might incorporate adjacent oe 8 structure, especially if these are so generalized in char- Ha A ave reproductive potentialities, and thus become a more thither ee oa The msnepeney of an archegonium depends a on coy ng out of a superficial cell, from which, so far as “pe if St heck region is derived as from a growing point. And a pales archegonia unquestionably takes its position ical J — cells develop an uplifted portion of the gametophyte nie metangia which are deeply sunken in the gametophyte, Yeopodium (and few have been reported), are perhaps as ‘xtreme in the direction of . ‘ ae Mosse ae ar i (9) suppression as are the gametangia oO o lverworts in the direction of emergence. These ioe ‘St ie present difficulties that demand special of the iia oly oe Orem, Thus, there may be an evolution gametangium in both directions, on the one hand 254 BOTANICAL GAZETTE leading to uplifted stalked structures and on the other resulting in a submerged condition. We know at present too little of the com parative structure and development of the archegonium and antherid- ium, to define safely the evolutionary tendencies throughout the various groups of the pteridophytes. Ill. COENOGAMETES. . Coenogametes (DAVIS ’oo, p. 307) are multinucleate sexual cil and are morphologically either gametocysts that have become change! directly into gametes or they are restricted portions of such cells Recent investigations have established their presence in varits Phycomycetes and Ascomycetes, and it is probable that future studies will show them to be a type of sexual organ common in these regions of the plant kingdom. We do not know enough to justi speculation as to the exact relationships of these structures, but it not likely that they are all closely related to one another, and it 8 very probable that various types of coenogametes may have ansea independently. Coenogametes fall into two classes: (1) those in which protoplasm of the parent cell is retained in the gamete; and (2) those in which only a portion of the protoplasm is thus utilized, the aoe der being devoted to other functions than that of reproduction is not perfectly clear as yet whether the evolutionary tendencies from the first group towards the second or vice versd, OF pee irregularly both ways. But from our knowledge of the lines of om evolution in the other two groups of sexual organs (gametocyss de gametangia), the author believes the general advance to be from simpler first class of coenogametes to the more complicat class. Coenogametes of the first class are best illustrated by os a organs of the Mucorales and the Gymnoascales. The latter h c . ? who finds that as been recently studied by Miss Date (’03); “ch earliest stage of the gamete is a uninucleate cell whi ae multinucleate as it increases in size. After the union of ee a gametes the ascogenous hyphae develop from a coiled p histor? of that grows out from the fusion cell. We do not eg ~ bet the nuclei in the fusing gametes of the molds or 7 G ; there is every reason to expect that most of them unite all of the rg 98 1904] DAVIS—SEXUAL ORGANS IN PLANTS 255 the case under similar conditions in Albugo Bliti and Pyronema. It is probable that the conditions in Gymnoascus will be found to be generally present in what are usually called the lower groups of the Ascomycetes. It looks very much as though such genera as Eremas- cus, Eurotium, Ceratostoma, Sordaria, and Ascobolus will be found to present sexual organs essentially similar to those of Gymnoascus. Their general agreement with the sexual processes of the Mucorales may have great significance in connection with the origin of the coenogamete and possible relation of the Mucorales and Ascomycetes to one another or to a common algal ancestry. Coenogametes of the second class are much better understood with respect to the details of protoplasmic structure and behavior than those of the first class. The development of the sexual organs and processes of fertilization are perhaps as well known in Albugo (STEVENS ’99, mt) and Pyronema (HARPER ’oo) as for any plant types. In Albugo Bliti and A. Portulacae the ooplasm contains numerous nuclei, and _@ equally large number is introduced into the egg from the male ®venogamete, these sexual nuclei then fusing in pairs. Other species of Albugo (¢. g., A. Tragopogonis) show a lessening number of func- — and potential gamete nuclei in the egg, until forms are reached nA. candida and A. Lepigoni (RUHLAND ’03) whose eggs are nor- mally uninucleate. This series in the genus Albugo, so well described preci (or), is very interesting and we shall refer to it again. _ _nl€r genera of the Peronosporales have, so far as is known, unmnucleate eggs (Pythium, Peronospora, Sclerospora, and Plasmo- ge ‘a “a ronema there is developed a conjugating tube that takes hada — Coenogamete many of its nuclei. But a very large ous male ii : in the structure, and these fuse in pairs with numer- tube = a el that enter the female cell by way of the conjugating (03), cuts ss Coenogamete of Monascus, according to BARKER eee i sterile cell and thus disposes of some of its protoplasm. Barker's fo a of [keno (03) as to the systematic position of ai tly 7 with the life history after fertilization. There Organs. Rin. of BaRKER’s account of the structure of the sexual lor heliec. oUS% Not positively established, there are good reasons Pairs ag im the numerous gamete nuclei of Monascus fuse in 80 Bliti, A. Portulacae, and Pyronema. . 256 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [october The Perisporiaceae, Lichenes, and Laboulbeniaceae among the Ascomycetes present sexual organs of a highly differentiated character. These are very much specialized groups whose morphology and life histories indicate a degree of development and differentiation far above most of the simpler forms that we have just discussed (Gym- noascus, Monascus, Pyronema). The gametes of Sphaerotheca (HARPER ’95, ’96) are uninucleate, and it becomes an interesting problem whether or not this form stands at the end of a series repre- senting nuclear reduction from a coenogamete, such a series as i illustrated by the species of Albugo. The recent studies of Baur (°98, ’o1) and DaRBISHIRE (’oo) on the lichens have clearly estab- lished the sexuality of these forms and the significance of the asco- genous hyphae. But we do not sufficiently know the nuclear conti- tions to justify any extended speculations on the homologies of the cells in the archicarp and trichogyne of the female sexual orga. And similarly the sexual organs of the Laboulbeniaceae (THAXTER ’96) present most interesting and puzzling complications of cell structure that cannot be explained until we know the detailed history of the nuclei in the processes of development and fertilization. In a discussion of the origin and evolution of coenogametes much depends upon the relation of the structures in the first and class. Which is the more primitive type? Some botanists will ‘claim that conditions of the first class (Mucorales and pas mycetes) illustrate degeneration from higher sexual forms. 7 author is of an opposite opinion, believing that the ec | the first class illustrate closely the conditions of very simple ma most primitive types of coenogametes. This view has been di oi in a previous paper (Davis ’o03 6, pp. 233-3273 and 331-339) but be summarized briefly here. The a the first class are morphologically se cysts which have given up the function of forming senor “a (represented by the many nuclei), but obeying chemotactic re Ww and their progenitors would be looked for among grou eee gametocysts discharged motile gametes that fused 1m illustrated among the isogamous Siphonales. An ane * i 1904] DAVIS—SEXUAL.ORGANS IN PLANTS 257 character under certain conditions, as through a change from aquatic to aerial habits, might give up the habit of developing motile sexual elements, which would be represented, however, by the numerous gamete nuclei fusing in pairs in the cytoplasmic union of the parent coenogametes. We have excellent illustrations of the sacrifice of motile spore-forming habits in the conidia of Peronospora and some species of Pythium, which germinate by a tube instead of developing zoospores. These conidia are morphologically sporocysts which have become coenocytic units, and coenogametes are gametocysts which have become coenocytic units. It must not be supposed that coenogametes are all related to one another. They might readily arise, according to our theory, from various types and at different times, thus making possible a number of developmental lines. The coenogametes of the second class are restricted portions of cells, which like those of the first class are morphologically gameto- cysts. Indeed in many cases the mother-cell is essentially a unit, even though only a part of the protoplasm is actually the sexual ele- rain because the remainder has some special relations or functions m connection with the sexual processes. Thus the periplasm of the Peronosporales and the conjugating tube of Pyronema hold such inimate relations to the sexual portion of the protoplasm that the ‘aire gametocyst is really a coenocytic unit, and might be called the "a _ of the restricted portion that is actually fertilized. ‘ian. 8 in the genus Albugo it would seem that some inc, we sig the second class follow the general law of sexual » Feducing the number of functional gamete nuclei until cae te The series from Albugo Bliti and A. apa a A. Tragopogonis to A. epee and A. Lepigont roe already —— ae and the author (Davis ’03), p. 323, 324) that the OSes Is agreement with STEVENS and RUHLAND order, from the wi opment in the genus is plainly in the above Wik ara ae ee to the uninucleate egg. We may hope cover Phe. veHES on the sexual organs of Ascomycetes to dis- insuffi-; ty lines in this group, but our knowledge is entirely “ent at present to justify conclusions. Thus, uninucleate fametes like those of Sph 7 : ; i Process of a... P aerotheca may represent the last stage in a reduction. And along a very different line such 258 BOTANICAL GAZETTE focihaak structures as conjugation tubes (Pyronema), accompanying sterile cells (Monascus), or an investing cellular envelope (Araiospora) might give rise to more conspicuous accessory structures. It need not be supposed that coenogametes of the second class are all derived from those of the first class, and in some regions there are good reasons for believing that this has not been the case, especially since the processes of oogenesis in Vaucheria (Davis ’o4) conform in the most essential features with those of the Peronosporales and Saprolegniales. These three groups agree inthe fundamental fact that extensive nuclear degeneration takes place in the gametocysis previous to the formation of the sexual cells. In Vaucheria all but one of the nuclei become disorganized. In Saprolegnia a number survive in relation to several coenocentra that determine the position of the eggs which are occasionally bi- and trinucleate. In the Pero nosporales the surviving nuclei lie in the ooplasm, and when only one is selected it is because of close proximity to the large coenocel trum. These conditions in the Peronosporales and Saprolegniales are so similar to one another and to Vaucheria in various particulars that there are evident relationships, but whether these are dined more general by way of a common ancestry among the lower Siphon- ales is a problem that perhaps may be better handled when we know more clearly the processes of oogenesis in such forms as Sphaeroples Monoblepharis, and some other types. Their processes of oogeness are likely t f in Vaucheria. e likely to conform to the type in Vau ypes of coeno> Whatever may have been the origins of the several t cae gametes representing the second class, problems which yee difficult and perhaps impossible to solve with the fragmentary ni of left to us, we can at least attempt to judge the probable men their development, and possibly establish some system OT 2 sat sexual evolution. As stated before, some botanists will bs even the simplest forms of coenogametes (Mucorales and are cales) have been derived from heterogamous algae by ‘eee plification or degeneration. The author cannot take pe seit believing as he does that the simplest coenogametes me i origin from isogamous algae, that they may tend to pass much the conditions leading to those of heterogamy, and that bse jn thi same factors are at work to differentiate the sexual eleme region of the plant kingdom as among the algae. 1904] _DAVIS—SEXUAL ORGANS IN PLANTS 259 The old group of the Oomycetes has been a favorite starting point for evolutionary lines in the Ascomycetes and Mucorales. DEBARY pointed out the resemblances between the Ascomycetes and members of the Peronosporales, and since his time a number of writers have - traced lines of relationship with greater or less detail. The most recent expression, that of BARKER (’03), considers Albugo as presenting sexual organs sufficiently primitive to be like the progenitors of the Ascomycetes. The less complicated sexual organs of Gymnoascus, Eremascus, etc., and the similar conditions in the Mucorales have very generally been regarded as derived from higher conditions (as in Albugo) by a process of simplification or degeneration, whereby sexually different gametes become essentially similar. The two regions of the algae most discussed in attempts to establish points of origin of the higher Phycomycetes and Ascomycetes have been Vaucheria and the Rhodophyceae. The resemblances of Vau- cheria to the Peronosporales and Saprolegniales are very striking, the more so since the recent studies in oogenesis have brought all groups = close sympathy. The author believes that that there are relation- ships here, although probably they are not direct. But when the Mucorales are annexed on the theory that the highly differentiated Sexual organs of heterogamous groups may become generalized to those of the molds, then difficulties appear which seem at present msurmountable. There is no morphological evidence of such a line * development, and the Process as a physiological event would be quite unparalleled and contrary to all known principles of sexual evo- ray And: similarly Barker’s view that Albugo Bliti presents at conditions simple enough for the most primitive ascomycete ar ag to the author justified by its cell and nuclear activities The Rage see Shidies able resemblances between the Laboulbeniaceae and ae ey ag have been noted by THAXTER ( '96), who has sug- t kined : Ee ettes may have arisen from this point in the Mg cei The similarity of the Laboulbeniaceae to the red very striking, and there are no more interesting ne region of plant morphology than those involving —. of the sexual processes and the development "PB 4Nd ascocarp in these two groups. There are indica- Of the 260 BOTANICAL GAZETTE foctons tions among the red algae in the trichogyne nucleus of Batrachosper- mum and its binucleate sperms (SCHMIDLE 99) of conditions which if found more generally may assist to a clearer understanding of these remarkable fungal groups and materially support THAXTER’s view. It is very difficult to conceive a relationship : between the sexual organs of the simpler Ascomycetes (Gymnoascales, etc.) and those of the lichens and Laboulbeniaceae. One can scarcely conceive of a pr cess of simplification by which the former could have come from the latter. On the other hand, the general principles of sexual evolution operating upon the simple sexual organs of the lower Ascomycetes would be more likely to result in the conditions illustrated by Monastts Pyronema, and Sphaerotheca than those of the lichens and Laboulber- laceae. Such an evolution would also be in sympathy with the general - ascending complexity of vegetative thallus and ascocarps in the forms under consideration. This view would place the progenitors of the simpler Ascomycetes in a region much lower than the Rhodophycett, and perhaps relate them to certain Phycomycetes. There is of course the possibility of the Ascomycetes being polyphyletic, removing the Laboulbeniaceae from the general assemblage, which might of these difficulties, but we must know much more pee! comparative development of the ascocarps in the groups before a view can be considered well-founded. sey The author cannot agree with any view that fixes the ee Mucorales and Ascomycetes from conditions illustrated by any living form. The problems of relationship involve so many Oe . , in Set, tions, those of taxonomy as well as evolutionary pam that arrangements of living types in series seems futile. ve in that the most hopeful line of speculation will be founded - foros study of the principles of sexual evolution and a comparison 0! 108 in this light, with such checks as may be furnished by the — morphology of all phases in the life history of the oR al orgats principles indicate to the author much simpler primitive sexu for the Ascomycetes and Mucorales than have been Sup 4 pert with their origin below the Peronosporales (Oomycetes); e honales finally, for the Mucorales at least, from the isogamous 43 (Davis ’o3, Pp. 335). cae € cannot at this stage in the progress of investigations . 1904] DAVIS—SEXUAL ORGANS IN PLANTS 261 precise statement of the evolutionary tendencies of coenogametes, but certain factors may be considered, of which the principal ones seem to be cooperative in both the Phycomycetes and Ascomycetes. Assuming that coenogametes may have arisen at various times inde- pendently of one another, and from an ancestry at approximately the level of isogamy or slightly above it, their evolution might proceed along three or more divergent lines. They all agree in having very numerous potential gamete nuclei, and there is strong evidence from the processes of gametogenesis in Saprolegnia, the Peronosporales, Pyronema, and Vaucheria that these are under conditions which demand extensive nuclear degeneration. Consequently the evolu- tionary tendencies are largely concerned with the disposition of superfluous nuclei and seem to present the following possibilities. I. General nuclear degeneration may result in the survival of a few gamete nuclei in relation to coenocentra and the development of a imited number of eggs, as in the Saprolegniales. II. Superfluous nuclei with some cytoplasm may be differentiated ‘$4 periplasm, with functions to perform in laying down portions of the spore wall, which conditions accompanied by numerical reduction of the nuclei in the ooplasm give the general tendencies in the Peron- osporales. There js apparently presented in Araiospora (KING ’o3) * modification of the habits in the Peronosporales, since the periplasm in this form develops a cellular envelope around the spore. — the Ascomycetes we have a much wider range of conditions, = portionally much less knowledge of the forms, so that the pag : os of evolutionary lines becomes very speculative. How- hin ag Hous Protoplasm with nuclei is used here to form acces- ae i . such as the conjugation tube of Pyronema and the mbection, wh: eer There is probably also numerical nuclear Sehiivite. oe culminate in uninucleate gametes, as in line aus a : € multicellular trichogynes. and archicarps of the logical aboulbeniaceae present some very difficult morpho- Rh reams with possible- relations, however, to conditions in establish ag ceae, especially should further study in the latter group Presence of multinucleate sexual organs. S of the paragraph above must of course stand the = Suggestion est extensi * . . Nsive Mvestigations on many more forms and with refer- 262 BOTANICAL GAZETTE focroue ence to points of general morphology as well as those that concern the sexual organs alone. The former would have been treated by the author had they appeared to present difficulties in his views, but they seem to be in general accord. Thus the simplest types of coen- gametes are found in the simpler groups of Phycomycetes and Ascomycetes, and the more complex conditions in forms above. If coenogametes may lead up towards a heterogamous level of sexual evolution, their sexual organs, while closely resembling those of the algae, might not be strictly homologous. Thus the eggs of Saprolegnia and the Peronosporales do not seem to be the exatt homologues of the eggs of any alga, and the female organ is unlike the typical oocyst because of obvious relations to coenogamete condi- tions. Their male organs differ from spermatocysts in their cone cytic behavior. Similarly the sexual organs of the Ascomycetes do not fall into the classification based upon the gametocyst. For these structutes the old designations of oogonia, ascogonia (archicarps) and antheridia are applicable, and they will be thus distin from the two main classes of sexual organs, the gametocysts and gametangia. IV. SUMMARIZED LIST OF THE SEXUAL ORGANS OF PLANTS: This summary presents the new terms introduced in our scenert of the sexual organs of plants. As stated in the beginning of the paper, the establishment of a terminology is a matter of usages importance will rest entirely on the value of the classification wae ability to express the characteristics. These new terms W in Het chiefly the morphologist who seeks to understand and an » tionships. Much of the work of taxonomy disregards dificult 26 lems of morphology, and in this subject the older descriptive a (oogonium, antheridium, sporangium, etc., among the a: ak are sure to be used, in some cases without regard to the exact ogies of the organs considered. Sporocysts are unicellular structures developing asexual spores: Gametocysts are unicellular structures developing uninucleate gam ssp unicellular structures that develop zoospores. Gamet differentiated into Spermatocysts, unicellular structures developing spe™s; Oocysts, unicellular structures developing eggs: and 1904] DAVIS—SEXUAL ORGANS IN PLANTS 263 gia are multicellular organs which develop uninucleate gametes, These are believed to be derived from zoosporangia, multicellular structures which form zoospores. According to the author’s hypothesis (Davis ’o3¢) the gametangia of groups of extinct Chlorophyceae leading into the bryophytes became differentiated into Spermatangia (anther'dia), multicellular organs developing sperms, and Oangia (archegonia), multicellular organs developing eggs. Coenogametes are multinucleate sexual cells, and are morphologically either gametocysts that have become changed directly into gametes, or they are restricted portions of such cells. In the Mucorales and Gymnoasceae the coenogamete con- tains all of the protoplasm of the parent cell. In the Peronosporales and certain Ascomycetes only a portion of the protoplasm of the gametocyst is utilized in the gamete, the superfluous protoplasm passing into sterile structures (periplasm, conjugating tubes, sterile cells, etc.). The sexual organs of these latter forms, which are probably higher conditions than the former, may very properly retain the old names of oogonium, ascogonium, and antheridium. The structure of the sexual organs of the lichens and the Laboulbeniaceae is not sufficiently known to establish their position in this classification. THE UNIvERsiry OF CHICAGO. LITERATURE CITED. Barker ’03, The morphology and development of the ascocarp in Monascus. Ann. Botany 17:167. 1903. Zur Frage nach der Sexualitit der Collemaceae. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 16: 363. 1898 ott 8, Die Anlage und Entwickelung einiger Flechtenapothecien. Flora D +319. Igor. aoe °3, Observations on Gymnoasceae. Ann. Botany 1'7:571. 1903. ? . Mf ARBISHIRE ’00, Ueber e Apothecienentwickelung der Flechte Physcia pul- verulenta Davis ’00, 3 ly 7a ’or, se ab The evolution of sex in plants. Pop. Sci. Monthly 62: 300. 1903. ’o4, Oogenesis in Vaucheria. Bor. Gaz. 38:81. 1904. licher ane Homologien in der Entwickelung miannlicher und weib- ; hlechtsorgane. Flora 90:279. 1902. : he Entwickelung des Peritheciums bei Sphaerotheca Castagnei. og Ves Gls 28S 95 joe erne bei der Fruchtentwickelung einiger Ascomyceten. Jarhb. Wiss. Bot. 29:655. 1898. 264 BOTANICAL GAZETTE focseas ’oo, Sexual reproduction in Pyronema conjluens and the morphology of the ascocarp. Ann. Botany 14:321. 1goo. HOLFERTY ik The development of the archegonium of Mnium cus pidatum, Bor. GAZ. 3'7:106. 1904. Hy ’84, Recherches sur l’archegone et le développement du fruit des Mucinées. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VI. 18:103. 1884. IKENO ’03, Ueber die Sporenbildung und die systematische Stellung von Mon- ascus purpureus Went. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 21: 259. 1903. KiNG ’03, Observations on the cytology of Araiospora pulchra Thaxter. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 31:211. 1903. Lampa, EMMA ’03, Exogene Lorering, der Antheridien von Anthoceros. Oester. Bot. Zeits. 53: 436. 1 Lyon, FLORENCE ’04, The evalintion of the sex organs of plants. Bor. Gu 37:280. I RUHLAND a Studien iiber die Befruchtung der Albugo Lepogoni und einiger Peronosporeen. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 39:135. 1903. Einiges iiber die Befruchtung, Keimung, Haarinsertion von Batrachospermum. Bot. Zeit. 5'77:125. 1899 STEVENS ’99, The compound oosphere of Albugo Bliti. Bor. Gaz. 28:149. 1899. ’or, Gametogenesis and fertilization in Albugo. Bor. Gaz. 34:77. 19%. THAXTER’96, Contribution towards a monograph of the Laboulbeniaceae. Mem Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. 12:187. 1896. Trevs ’86, Etude sur les Lycopodacées. 1886. VUILLEMIN ’02, Sporange et sporocyste. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 49: 16. 1902. WILLIAMS ’04, Studies in the Dictyotaceae. II. The cytology of the gametophyte generation. Ann. Botany 18:183. 1904. Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 5:87. A LICHEN SOCIETY OF A SANDSTONE RIPRAP. BRUCE FINK. (WITH FIVE FIGURES) Tur ecologic conditions governing the composition of a given lichen society are interesting and instructive, though often difficult to determine with any degree of certainty. The writer has in various papers attempted to trace in a general way some of these conditions, treating a considerable number of societies and attempting to show how the plants are adapted structurally. Among other societies thus studied, there are a number occurring on sandstone, all surrounded by very similar climatic but quite different edaphic conditions. Some of these societies of the sandstones are surrounded by other lichen societies, usually of trees, and show most interesting instances of tension lines and invasions of certain lichen species from one to another of two adjacent societies. Discussions of these societies may be found in the Writer’s papers concerning the lichen floras of Minne- Sota and Iowa. I. DESCRIPTION OF THE RIPRAP. The lichen Society to receive special attention in this paper is erg in a number of ways. For some time it has seemed desirable na 69 lichen societies of sandstone than those of ledges along a “a advantage was taken of the first opportunity for such gation far from a large stream by taking a society found sowing upon rocks Temoved from their native beds. Before con- it will be in order to state its location and to the surrounding conditions and antecedents existence possible. The riprap on which the brace and a protection for a high grade of the four miles west of Grinnell, Iowa. The rock lower Sic. is constructed is the ferruginous sandstone of the Westward on the ous, and was obtained at Kellogg, some thirty miles roadbed, and “poe railroad. The riprap lies on the north side of 1904) € form of a wall along the upper part of the grade 265 "ti °ccurs forms a ock Island railroad, of which th ak6 BOTANICAL GAZETTE focropeR and four bracing extensions running downward and away from the track, nearly to the base of the high grade (jig. 1). The riprap wall, running parallel to the roadbed and 1.2™ below it, is 60™ long, varies from 1.5 to 2.5™ in perpendicular height, and rises at an angle of 45 to 55°. The four bracing extensions run down the sides of the grade at right angles with the wall above and at an angle of about 30°. The length of the extensions averages about 21™, and they vary from 2 to 2.7" in width. A grass-sedge swamp lies to the north of the and portions of two of nd the general plan of Fic. 1.—View of a portion of the northward-exposed wall the extensions, showing something of the spermatophytic flora a structure of the ripra t seasons bout 12”; k bed, built society and contains a considerable amount of water in we The vertical height of the grade above the swamp level is a and the riprap extensions pass from within 1.2™ of the trac downward to within 3™ of the swamp level. The riprap Was in 1874 and is thus thirty years old. II. ECOLOGIC FACTORS. : SS The conditions as a lichen-bearing substratum are ee pe number of ways. Though the same rocks used for gee buildings and ten or more years older are apparently sound, the 1904] PINK-——A- LICHEN SOCIETY 267 laid and more exposed rocks of the riprap have weathered consider- ably and differentially, the rate of weathering depending partly upon position and in part upon the amount of cementing iron contained in each particular piece. In its position away from running water, a portion of the disintegrating sand of the riprap remains on the ground and in the crevices and forms a small amount of soil upon which plants may grow. Again the riprap is partly swamp-bound, with woods some 150" away. Also there are only two or three bowlders near by, the Kansan drift which covers the surrounding country carrying very few at the surface. Thus there are at present and have been since the establishment of the society no lichens, or at least none that can be detected readily, in the region immediately surrounding the society; for one would hardly look for lichens among the plants of the grass-sedge swamp or among the xerophytic spermatophytes of a gravelly railroad bed worked year after year. Hence we have here an isolated lichen society, which has developed to its present condition during the last thirty years, while separated from the nearest society by 150™, How each individual species of the society found its way to the Spot cannot now be ascertained certainly. Indeed, one well acquainted with lichens might pass the spot without examination, so complete is the isolation of the society and so barren do the rocks appear at first pection. In fact it is only after an examination of the rocks with ahand lens and a careful survey of the crevices that anything of special i iS discovered. Till recently cut, a group of oaks and other ea — Standing about 150™ distant from the riprap, and these fi foliose Parmelias and Physcias, the fruiticose Ramalinas, Ag lg Placodiums, Lecanoras, and Rinodinas. But the a foot in . ng when cut, the largest measuring scarcely more than a. oe and the majority about half this size, and were ese liche ‘when the riprap was made, surely not carrying any of trees of ae Pept perhaps some of the crustose forms. Were society : as and bearing lichens immediately surrounding the hee Je from the trees would now be gaining a foothold ities . > though not so well adapted to the substratum another r ichens. Were numerous bowlders near at hand, "ye of lichens might now be less sparingly represented in the 268 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [octoper society. But the lichens of the trees 150™ away are on the whole of a type very sparingly represented on the riprap, those of the trees being of the genera mentioned above and very seldom seen on the riprap, and in the main then by different species, while those of the riprap society are mainly a number of crustose species absent from the trees or only sparingly represented on them, and several fruticose species wholly absent from the trees. All of this will appear more plainly after a list of species of the society under consideration is given. The causes which have led to the possession of the riprap by certain types of lichens may also be discussed to better advantage later, the intention here being merely to bring out the fact that proximity has not enabled the lichens of the trees to gain possession of the rocks in face of certain unfavorable conditions, and that other types have consequently gained the ascendancy. As to moisture, the swamp brings an abundance of soil moisture, especially toward the lower ends of the riprap extensions. Thus at certain times, as in wet seasons and after rains, the fruticose Clad: onias grow well in the somewhat shaded and moist openings between the blocks of riprap, and pass into the desiccated condition without injury whenever the moisture becomes deficient. Since the soil moisture does not pass upward through the loose riprap to any great extent, and the small blocks retain very little moisture, the upp surface of the sandstone blocks becomes drier than would the uppét surface of a similarly exposed solid wall or natural exposure of the same kind of rock. Accordingly the conditions on the upper surfaces of the extensions are quite xerophytic, especially toward the uppe portion of each extension where farthest removed from the PS and where the vertical height of the extensions averages about gt Passing downward on the upper surface of the extensions, as height of each one gradually decreases and the soil becomes ee moist, the soil moisture works upward through the riprap i more and more, so that the conditions become gradually less * phytic. Passing to other considerations for the present, the ¢ i in lichen species upon the upper surface, resulting from the ¥ ecologic conditions, will receive attention below- ae society The conditions determining the composition of the ere are plainly quite different, surely drier and doubtless 0? the: 1904] PINK—A LICHEN SOCIETY 269 somewhat less varied than those affecting the seed-plants surrounding the lichens. Yet for those more accustomed to the considerations of societies of these higher plants, a brief statement of the types of seed-plants will be more illuminating than would a mere statement of physiographic conditions and the corresponding structural adapta- tions of the lichens. So although the conditions affecting the lichens are somewhat different, we will no doubt be able to consider the lichen society more intelligently after such brief view of the higher plants. On the upper surface of the extensions and along the northward- facing riprap wall, the xerophytic conditions are plainly seen in the few scattered seed-plants, including Onagra biennis, Lepidium inter- medium, Ambrosia arlemisiaejolia, Cassia chamaecrista, Hordeum juba- lum, Polanisia trachys perma, Polygonum scandens, V erbascum T hapsus, and Cenchrus tribuloides. The same xerophytes occur on the dry gravel of the road bed with Equisetum arvense, Chenopodium Botrys, and one or two others; and in passing downward one encounters dry meadow, wet meadow, and grass-sedge swamp conditions, all in the few meters, the hydrophytic flora of the swamp showing a num- ber of large grasses and sedges, Cicuta maculata, Typha latifolia, Alisma Plantago, Scirpus lacustris, some forms of Sagittaria, and a number of fresh water algae in the limited areas where water stands a larger part of the time. Ill. COMPOSITION OF THE LICHEN , SOCIETY. That such rapid transition in seed-plant flora should be accom- andl similar conditions in the lichén flora would be the ee “hag miprap does not extend down to the swamp, and in their _ do not grow on the soil, or when they do they have the aa "i poor means for secking moisture as compared with seed-plants n eshy and deep-growing roots of some of the xerophytic by the “eee above. . Hence the lichens are not so much affected ingly the Sa as - soil moisture as are the seed-plants. Accord- entirely aa ure-loving Collemas, Leptogiums, and Pannarias are is shown in Bi : a extreme xerophytic adaptation as to lichen flora driest Portions His myrtocar poides, which grows abundantly on the t a. the upper surfaces of the riprap extensions, this ng in the more xerophytic lichen society what the ) ee 270 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroser xerophytic seed-plants named above do in the spermatophytic society. The lichens composing the society, naming the genera in the order of the importance of one or more of their species as floral elements of the society, are as follows: Biatora myriocar poides (Fr.) Tuck. (Lecidea salvicola Flt.), the most common lichen of the society, and most abundant on the driest and most exposed portions of the riprap extensions; appearing as dark stains on the rocks, the nature of which can only be ascertained with hand lens. Bacidia (Biatora) inundata (Fr.) Kbr., replacing the last above to some extent in the more moist and shaded portions of the society, both on rocks and soil, the plant being as the name indicates somewhat hydrophytic in nature. This species also occurs sparingly mingled with the last in quite dry portions of the upper sur- face of the riprap extensions, where the thallus is more scanty than in its more natural habitat. The two plants, where occurring together, are very difficult to distinguish macroscopically. Cladonia mitrula Tuck., on earth and rock along the northward-facing wall; frequent; rarely on the extensions. adonia cariosa (Ach.) Spreng., on soil from disintegrated and somewhat shaded rock; rare. Cladonia cristatella vestita Tuck., on more or less disintegrated rock and usually on the lower and more moist portions of the riprap where more oF less shaded; rare. Cladonia furcata (Huds.) Schrad.; only one well developed plant seen and that in a well protected and moist place on the east basal part of the upper pore? of one of the riprap extensions. ‘ : Cladonia fimbriata coniocraea (Flt.) Wainio, in shaded or somewhat exposed places and more often toward the moist basal portions and sides of the nprap extensions; quite frequent; hitherto reported in Iowa under the varietal name tubaeformis Fr., which has also included the next. difficult Cladonia fimbriata apolepta (Ach.) Wainio, with the last, but rare and to distinguish. ; Cladonia fimbriata simplex (Weis.) Wainio, in well shaded spots; Tf; ei Towa, and easily confused with the second below, from which it differs in ef slender habit, its more sorediate condition, and its tendency to pe irregularly cylindrical forms of the last two above. 4 shaded Cladonia pyxidata neglecta (Flk.) Schaer., in more or less damp an places on disintegrating rock; frequent. Cladonia pysidata chlorophaea (Spreng.) Flk., in more or less os toward the base of the riprap extension; rare. ese two varieties previously been recognized in Iowa collections. Cladonia gracilis dilacerata Flk., on shaded or northw or less disintegrated surfaces: rare ard-facing and mo 1904) FINK—A LICHEN SOCIETY 271 Cladonia gracilis dilatata (Hoffm.) Wainio, occurring with the last; rare. These forms have not been recognized before in Iowa, but have been included under the partial synonym var. hybrida Fr. Stereocaulon paschale (L.) Ach. (?), on exposed and little disintegrated rock, but better developed toward the basal, damp, and more disintegrated portions of the riprap extensions. Small and perhaps as near S. coralloides. A northern species new to Towa. Frequent, but only once seen in fruit. Lecanora cinerea (L..) Sommerf. ( ?), on exposed and comparatively firm rock; once seen and sterile. : Lecanora muralis saxicola (Poll.) Schaer., occurring as the last; once seen and Placodium aurantiacum (Lightf.) Naeg. and Hepp, on firm rock of the riprap wall; once seen. Placodium vitellinum (Ehrh.) Naeg. and Hepp, on firm and exposed rock; rare, eee corinne (Ehrh.) Naeg. and Hepp (?), occurring as the last and rare; spores immature. Acarospora (Lecanora) cervina juscata (Schrad.) Fink; once seen on firm rock of the northward-facing wall : Acarospora (Lecanora) xanthophana (Nyl.) Fink, on exposed and firm rock; once seen and sterile. Mestina sophodes (Ach.) Kbr.; once noted on a firm and exposed spot where aoe Was especially hard because of the presence of a large amount of iron. 1 rapid field work the plant is not easily distinguished from the first of the list and _— be somewhat more common than appears at present. i Ach., on exposed rock, rare and easily passed over for the Siete muralis Ach., on exposed and comparatively firm surfaces; rare. P. juscella Fr., occurring with the last and more rare. 1a Borreri Turn., on quite firm, but somewhat damp and shaded rock; rare and sterile, a conspersa (Ehrh.) Ach., occurring as the last and also very rare and Physej . wall hyscia stellaris (L.) Tuck., once seen on the shaded, northward-exposed R : ia Ward ——< calicaris (L,.) Fr., on damp surfaces toward the base of the north- facing wall; once seen. Me of the r _ (Endocar pon) pusillum Hedw., on somewhat shaded rocks of ‘- "ptap extensions; very rare. id . : mh eg thirty forms listed above, there occurs commonly a "osum (fj "NS somewhat like that of Amphiloma (Pannaria) lanugi- 8 2). This thallus is without distinct cortex and seems Y as rudj Tudimentary as that of Amphiloma, but is verrucose rather 272 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [octosEr than finely granular, is chinky or subareolate and not so distinctly sorediate as the thallus of Amphiloma. This unknown thallus seems also to resemble that of Urceolaria scruposa in microscopic structure, but it is not so well developed. This lichen is a very conspicuous feature of the society and is common toward the basal, damp ends of the riprap extensions, especially the eastward two. _ It also extends upwards to the upper end of the extensions, but in passing upward is confined more and more to the damp sides and crevices. showing thalli of the Fic. 2.—Blocks of riprap at the side of one of the extensions, Amphiloma-like lichen. IV. TYPES OF THALLI REPRESENTED. : er ; ei ain the As to types of lichen thalli in the society, we have in the m rudimentary type with leprose or finely granular surface and ae of cortex, and the fruticose cylindrical type with pri strengthening pseudocortex of mostly parallel and gir ae hyphae. Other. types, as the foliose and the areolate oF a jcu- corticate-crustose forms, appear but rarely and do not — : gen ous portion of the society. The first type of thallus © ue us. by the first two lichens of the list, and by the Amphiloiie a ied to The first, Biatora myriocar poides, was doubtless the first 1904] FINK—A LICHEN SOCIETY 273 gain possession of any considerable portion of the riprap and is still abundantly maintaining itself in the drier places where the rock is not disintegrating so rapidly. The second of the list, Bacidia inundata, occupies similar but moister surfaces of both wall and extensions, its thallus varying considerably according to conditions of moisture, being well developed in the moist places where the species is usually found, but almost wanting in the dry, exposed places. These two species seem to prevail here instead of the better developed types of crustose thalli, because the rock disintegrates too rapidly for the possibility of extensive establishment of the better developed thalli. The better developed crustose thalli are the forms that prevail on such hard rocks as the Sioux quartzite, or as we shall see shortly, on riprap of similar sandstones where drier and disinte- grating more slowly, and are represented in the present society by the rare specimens of Lecanora, Placodium, and Acarospora. A hasty study of the similar thalli of the Biatora and the Bacidia above named scarcely reveals definitely why one should be more xerophytic an the other, though the thallus of the former is on the whole more closely adnate than that of the latter. However, the Biatora shows under the microscope a more pronounced xerophytic adaptation in the somewhat tougher, more lecideine condition of the hypothecium “iam and in the somewhat better development of the para- The cylindrical type of thallus is represented by the Cladonias ita single species of Stereocaulon. These lichens thrive best when so one here they may have a fair supply of moisture and shade, somewhat a lat protected from the wind, and on soil, or on rocks Protection oS The conditions as to moisture, shade, and the base of a eal fairly well met in the crevices toward blocks, and ; 4 northward-facing wall, in the openings between riprap block. hs i certain places protected more or less by a projecting themselves 2 been Stated, these plants are often able to maintain " Spite of disintegration, and when the product of dis- Temains in situ are actually invigorated by the process Mtegration and finally come to rest on a sandy soil 274 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [octosex V. VARYING ECOLOGIC CONDITIONS AND RESULTING DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY. Plainly the conditions on the upper surface of the riprap extensions become less xerophytic n passing downward toward the swamp below, and also because the riprap is not so high toward the lower ends. The gradual increase in amount of moisture influences per ceptibly the distribution of the lichens upon the riprap extensions. Biatora myriocar poides is more prevalent toward the upper portion of each extension, not because it is poorly adapted to the more moist conditions farther down, but because in the latter position the plant must compete with others as well or better adapted to the position. The Amphiloma-like hing, in its distribution upon the riprap, shows a most delicate adjustment to conditions of moisture. At the lower ends of the extensions it is more common, rises to the exposed ik face and forms a conspicuous portion of the flora; while in passing upward, it becomes less and less conspicuous, and toward the upper ends is scarcely noticeable on the exposed upper surfaces of the blocks, but is frequently seen in crevices and increasingly so the : deeper one may be able to look downward through the loose riprap- Bacidia inundata occurs on the northward-facing wall and competes with the last for position upon the upper surface toward the lower ends of the extensions, but from its inconspicuous character and Ie frequent occurrence does not form so conspicuous a portion of society. The Cladonias also are most delicately responsive t0 MO ture conditions in their distribution in the society (fig. 3)- — the lower ends of the extensions, they rise to the expo : il t» the riprap, and in passing upward are more and more case seek the more moist and shaded positions in the cracks betwee® blocks of riprap and along the sides of each riprap extensil © toward the base of the wall. It has already been noted neg moisture reaches the upper surface toward the upper “ — the extensions are higher, and it may be added here that ee lower surfaces are more exposed to the drying winds than those at the ends of the extensions and nearer the level of the general s of the ing surface, this condition also influencing the distribution Cladonias. 1904] FINK—A LICHEN SOCIETY ans VI. ORIGIN OF THE SOCIETY. Just how each species arrived at the spot or when it came is not easily stated. It is supposed that fragments of lichens carried in the wind fall in places favorable for growth.! Few of the lichens of the society are conspicuously sorediate, but it is probable that nearly all of them arrived at the spot from some place near at hand, through purely vegetative dissemination. In this way the species may even Fic, 3-—Somewhat shaded and disintegrated riprap blocks near ground on north Side on » “8 extension, with Cladonia fimbriata scattered throughout the field, C. /urcata at Paid le _ RC eis Statella vestita in the crevice at the forefront, and a few white thalli of mphiloma-like. plant wt eraved from stations quite remote from their present position. account the statements given above as to the scarcity the circle of 300™ in diameter and immediately sur- Society, this supposition seems quite probable, at least Pecies 8 ner of the species. Yet the inconspicuous, crustose Thus the Biator come from a few Kansan bowlders recently removed. a and the Bacidia may have reached their present ' Per IRCE, G. toa Calif, Acad. Sci cl, th og oe of the association of alga and fungus in lichens. Proc. 276 BOTANICAL GAZETTE {ocroBER habitat, and the same may be stated regarding the rarer crustose members of the society, such as the Lecanoras, the Placodiums, the Acarosporas, the Verrucarias, the Rinodina, and the Lecidea. Veta few of these crustose forms may have come from the trees some 1 50™ away, some of the trees no doubt being old enough to bear these lichens at the time when the riprap was built or shortly after. These species are the first and the last Placodium of the list, the Rinodina, and the Lecidea. As to the C adonias, there are not any conspicuous Cladonia-bearing substrata within a mile, except the loess and Kan- san drift of railroad cuts, on which the first Cladonia of the list is very common. However, all of the Cladonias except C. /urcal have been found within a few miles of the society, and in all probability arrived from various places not faraway. The northern Stereocaulon, not known elsewhere in Iowa, doubtless originated in the society through fragments of thalli brought to the spot on railroad cars, and very probably on ties or telegraph poles. It is not so common 4 member of the society as a number of the similarly constructed Cladonias, and is usually found on the more solid rocks, the more disintegrated spots having been previously occupied by other lichens or mosses, and the rocks on which it occurs not having had time 1 disintegrate conspicuously since its advent into the society. The fact that the Stereocaulon (fig. 4) is almost uniformly sterile = indicate either that it has only recently gained access to the society; or that it is poorly adapted to the climatic conditions of the AGB Also the position of this species on the northward exposure is ve y of note. The Ramalina, the Physcia, and the first Parmelia doubtless came as fragments from trees from one to several miles away, pir these rare members of the society may be thought to have come sy fragments blown from the trees some 1 50™ away, since the trees became large enough to bear these species. + te by 10 Before leaving this subject it must be pointed out that Its : ie means a matter of chance what species will reach such ” ae is lichen society and survive. But the matter is determined . sub- instance largely by adaptability and early access before oe Stratum is occupied. As has been noted elsewhere, where rock-lichen societies are adjacent to tree-lichen ag lichens of the trees, though scarcely so well adapted 1 me ties, the 1904] FINK—A LICHEN SOCIETY 277 because of proximity, get possession often of considerable portions of the rocky substratum. Excepting the Stereocaulon, there seems to have been in the present instance a pretty nearly equal struggle for place in the society, those lichens that are best adapted to the ecologic conditions gaining the ascendency, and entirely or nearly completely crowding out those less well adapted. That gaining pos- session is by no means a matter of pure chance will appear in the discussion next below of an adjacent society of a southward exposed riprap. Fic. 4.— Stereoca ay ulon paschale on a riprap block on the upper surface and toward the base of one of the es : extensions. ‘h The Amphiloma-like thallus has been purposely omitted from *S€ considerations of origin of the floral elements of the society, Since oe ‘ ‘ x ‘ ta ie very definite statement can be made till the species is ascer- ‘dinec . VIL, COMPARISONS WITH OTHER SIMILAR SOCIETIES. 7 A. The society of a neighboring riprap. : mh a number of ripraps at various places along the south Well as sie tailroad bed, and all of these have been examined, as 'S on the north side, the one selected for the present study sid 278 BOTANICAL GAZETTE foctoties being by far the most extensive and the best one for such an investi- gation. For a comparison of the effect of north and south exposures, we may select a smaller riprap, consisting of a single extension, and lying directly across the track from the one on which occurs the society studied above. Indeed, the plants of the single extension on the south side of the track might perhaps be considered a portion of the society on the north side, but it was thought a separate consideration of them would better show the marked difference in character of the flora. The single extension is of about the same length and width as each one of the four on the north side of the track and makes about the same angle. The land to the south of the track is a low meadow with conditions distinctly less moist than in the swamp the north. Yet more pronounced is the drying effect of southward exposure, and altogether we have distinctly more xerophytic condi- tions on this single riprap extension on the south side of the track. Plainly less shade is to be found on the southward exposed extension, and as a result of drier conditions the riprap blocks are much less disintegrated than those on the north side. A discussion of the spe cies of lichens on the riprap south of the railroad track will demon- strate a remarkably nice adjustment between lichen structures and ecologic conditions. The species are as follows: Acarospora_xanthophana (Nyl.) Fink, scarcely infrequent; A. cervina huxale (Schrad.) Fink, frequent; A. cervina cinereoalba Fink, frequent; Biatora mynioca poides (Fr.) Tuck., rare; Buellia myriocarpa (DC.) Mudd, frequent; Verrucan® fuscella Fr., frequent; Lecanora muralis Ach., infrequent; L. subfusca ) Ach., rare; Placodium cerinum (Ehrh.) Naeg. & Hepp, scarcely infrequent; P. vitellinum (Ehrh.) Naeg. & Hepp, rare; Parmelia conspersa (Ehrh.) Ach., one? seen in a somewhat protected spot; Cladonia fimbriata coniocraea (Fit.) Wain, once seen in a protected and shaded spot. cal Besides the above, the Amphiloma-like plant is sparingly f es on this southward-exposed extension, occurring in shaded spots especially toward the base, where it is sometimes in more © cee ° : . ith those of the positions. Comparing the lichens of the list above WI mere list for the northward-exposed riprap across the track, we ‘ifierest the general structure of the plants in the two societies 1S bec oa te Biatora myriocarpoides, abundant on the north side, 1s a os south side; and the Acarosporas, each once seen on the no eee: all frequent on the south side. In the more xerophytic © 1904] FINK—A LICHEN SOCIETY 279 the southward exposure, Buellia myriocarpa has in part replaced the Biatora. The better adaptation of the Buellia appears in the greater tendency toward disappearance of the thallus and the better development of such protective structures as exciple, hypothecium, and paraphyses. The Biatora is further replaced by the Acarosporas. This is due to two causes. Primarily, the disintegration being slower on the drier southward-exposed riprap, the more highly developed thalli of the Acarosporas have time for development and the production of apothecia on the more permanent rock surfaces, and are consequently frequent and often fruited. Secondarily, with their well-developed upper cortices the Acarosporas are even more able to endure extreme xerophytic conditions than is the Biatora. Also Lecanora muralis, once seen on the north side, was noted several "mes on the south side, where thalli with well developed cortices are better adapted to the conditions. Response to conditions is beautifully shown in that while Cladonias are common enough on the moister and more shaded north side, only a single specimen could be found on the south side. Also the total absence of the Stereo- caulon from the southward exposure is quite significant, especially sca of recall that it occurs commonly in quite exposed places a a. away on the north side. Finally, the response of lichens tons of environment, as shown here, is quite remarkable and fully justifies the detailed attention to a limited area. B. The Society of the sandstone ledges near Boone, Towa. — of lichen structure found in the societies of other sand- Megs studied in Iowa and Minnesota have been quite have bie the € places studied have been ledges along streams, which the rocks a. part either carried away the loose sand as fast as Which few ie sintegrated, or frequently subjected it to inundation, ose or fruticose lichens will endure. In such societies, faces rk a Cladonias found have been those growing on the of erosion “Se Bes, while in the present society some of the products row. Th, “"* Temained to make a soil in which these lichens could * Study of a ledge along a stream was recently carried out 8 tely at the “Ledges” (fig.5) in Boone county, Iowa, More com th wri ter has done elsewhere; and while the study of the col- an the ake BOTANICAL GAZETTE. [octoper lection made at the “Ledges” is not yet completed, enough has been dohe so that data for comparison are at hand. The “Ledges” have an extent of about two miles along a tributary of the Des Moines river and are fully 15™ high in.some places. They are well shaded in,many places and bear a higher plant flora quite different from that about the society especially studied above, and including such moisture-lovers as Camptosorus rhizophyllus, Woodsia obtusa, Asa rum canadense, Impatiens aurea, Anemone quinquejolia, Arisaema Dracontium, Adicea pumila, Aralia racemosa, Conocephalus conic, and a species of Grimaldia or Preissia; while the conditions at other points are more xerophytic and bear a number of ferns, composites, and trees or shrubs. The lichen species of the “Ledges” are for the most part quite widely distributed upon the rocks, so that the whole number recorded is about the same as for the riprap. The list is as follows: Usnea barbata Fr., infrequent; Ramalina calicaris farinacea (L.) Fr,, fre . - R. calicaris fastigiata (Pers.) Fr., infrequent; Parmela Borreri Tut common; P. crinita Ach., frequent; P. caperata (L.) Ach., infrequent, F268 = eae (Schreb.) Nyl., infrequent; P. speciosa (Wulf.) Nyl., rare; Peltier canina (L.) Hoffm., frequent; P. canina spuria (Ach.) Tuck., rare; Senechoblastus (Collema) nigrescens (Ach.) Stizenb., rare; Collema pulposum (Bernh.) Ach, rare; Leptogium chloromelum (Sw.) Nyl., infrequent; Pannaria nigra Nyl., common; Amphiloma (Pannaria) lanuginosum (Ach.) Nyl. abundant; Acarospora bi canara) fuscata oligocarpa Nyl., rare and new to Iowa; a muralis (Schreb.) Schaer., rare; Placodium aurantiacum (Lightf.) Naeg. Hepp, frequent;*P. cerinum (Ehrh.) Naeg. & Hepp, infrequent; P. seve (Ehrh.) Naeg. & Hepp, frequent; P. citrinum (Hofim.) Leight., rare; P velata (Turn.) Nyl., rare; Urceolaria scruposa Ach., ; 6 preng.) common; C. caespiticia (Pers.) Flk., rare; C. pyxidata ee spurl Fik., frequent; Bilimbia (Biatora) trachona (Flt.) Fink, at ee (Ach.) Arn., rare; Dermatocarpon (Endocarpon) pusillum Hedw., ¥. viridula Verrucaria muralis Ach., common; V. nigrescens Pers., frequent) Ach., rare and new to Iowa; V. fuscella Fr., rare. A comparison of the list above with that for the TipraP ee resemblance. The ‘most striking difference is the occ — shade- and moisture-loving lichens in the society at the ‘ ‘uel which are absent from the riprap society. These shade lichens are the Collemas, the Leptogium, the P annariay ‘aca The next most conspicuous difference is 1904] FINK—A LICHEN SOCIETY 281 solid and less rapidly disintegrating surfaces at the “Ledges,” the somewhat better developed crustose thalli, as the Lecanoras, the Placodiums, the Pertusaria, the Urceolaria, and the Buellia, have to some extent replaced the less differentiated thalli such as the first two of the list for the riprap. Because the disintegrating sand- stone of the “Ledges” falls to the ground and is covered with water Fig, 5.—} ‘atures and Sf a) : ortions of the “Ledges” on both sides of the stream, showing general ermatophytic flora. "yd away in high water, the Cladonias appear only The more ag of the ledge faces and are cop EE nee. and the Frti a occurrence of the foliose Parmelias and Physcias Mote shaded aap Ramalinas at the “Ledges” is due partly to the surroundin na moist conditions, and in part to the presence * The abo list from which they may easily wander to the rocks. Parison of the two societies is the more interesting ted that both are growing upon the ferruginous sand- ‘ame geological horizon, and that the differences noted ve com Wi . : ° NEN it is state 282 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroRer are not due in any degree to difference in rock composition, but entirely to other ecologic factors. C. Some other similar societies. The lichen societies of various other sandstones differ somewhat, from either of the two considered above. Of those hitherto considered, only a single one, that of the Sioux quartzite at Pipestone, Minnesota, is isolated in such a way as to show no tension lines or admixture of elements that so frequently intrude themselves from other adjacent lichen societies. The lichens that have established themselves here are a number of Acarosporas, Placodiums, Lecanoras, Rinodinas, and Buellias. These lichens in general have strictly crustose thalli, well developed and variously chinky, verrucose, and areolate, and some of them at least a well developed upper cortex. With these, two foliose but closely adnate Parmelias and two similar Physcias occur here and there in the society, but do not form a conspicuous portion of it. Much of the beautiful wind polishing of the quartaite was surely done at latest before the Wisconsin stage of the Pleistocene, or shortly after the retreat of the Wisconsin ice, and the writer finds the lichens growing on the smoothly polished surfaces, which are ® much polished below the lichens as elsewhere. Thus there has been no visible change in the surface of the quartzite since the advent of the present lichen society, and these lichens with well developed thalli have had an abundance of time in which to become establs® upon the hard surfaces. There is no doubt but that these species may reach an advanced age upon the quartzite, becoming much older than is possible upon the more rapidly eroding ferruginous ecsir of the riprap, and the finding of all the species in good fruit upon nt quartzite is quite conclusive evidence of considerable age. No re many of these lichens of the quartzite were growing when gee P was built. Yet we find mainly the same species upon the gree exposed riprap extension, and this shows that such thalli se iat established upon the softer sandstone in a comparatively time. ‘ 2 Fink, B. Contributions to a knowledge of the lichens ta Lichens of the Minnesota valley and southwestern Minnesota. Minn. 2:284. 1899. 1904] FINK—A LICHEN SOCIETY 283 Neither upon the softer sandstone nor upon the harder quartzite has the writer been able to observe any certain evidence of the pro- tection which the lichens have afforded the rocks against wind or other atmospheric agencies, though other observers find such evidence elsewhere on rocks of the same kind.3 But whether the acidic action of the lichen thalli upon the rocks, or the climatic, erosion-producing agencies acting upon the surrounding rocks causes the more rapid disintegration, in the end the two factors together act on the softer ferruginous sandstone with comparative rapidity; and as compared with the lichen population of the quartzite, that of the sandstone is quite transient, lichen thalli or portions of thalli disappearing and becoming replaced, except upon the southward exposed extension, more rapidly than the better developed thalli can become established and produce fruit. So it happens that when lichens having the better developed thalli are found, as they rarely are, in the society especially considered in this paper, they are likely to be sterile; while those with less differentiated and apparently more rapidly develop- ing thalli are the ones that are common and well fruited. The fruti- cose species, as the Cladonias and the Stereocaulon, are rather rarely established upon the firmer and more exposed rocks. In their more ~ or less shaded and moist habitat in the holes in the riprap, or in pro- vanes Places about the basal blocks, these fruticose species are able 0 maintain themselves in spite of disintegration, the wind not blow- ing them away as is the fate of the smaller thalli on the more exposed surfaces, aS soon as these thalli and the atmospheric agencies together disintegrate the rocks sufficiently. Finally, any of the fruticose forms that attempt to gain a foothold on the more exposed surfaces are Probably even more likely to be blown away as disintegration pro- ae than are the crustose forms, though the rhizoids of the former he Tate the rocks to greater depth than do the hyphal rhizoids of latter, ris _ Societies of the Saint Peter sandstone along the Mis- been consid er 034 Minneapolis and south of McGregor, Iowa, have ae ered in a previous paper‘, and are quite different from the discussed chiefly in this paper; and the same may be said of the * SHINER, B, Livi * Fink, B ng plants as geologic factors. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 10 : 42. 1902. +» Notes ©oncerning Iowa lichens. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 5 : 180. 1897: 284 BOTANICAL GAZETTE ~ foctone: society of the similar Jordan sandstone near Mankato, Minnesota,‘ However, these last three societies were not so exhaustively studied as the first three considered, and a further examination would bring to light some of the less conspicuous members of the societies and decrease the apparent differences. VI. CONCLUSION. The facts stated show clearly some very evident adaptations in lichen thalli, and as disintegration is going on with comparative rapidity at the spot where the society is found, the data herein estab- lished will be found useful in future studies. F inally, it may appear that undue attention has been given to a society covering a limit amount of surface. However, as the writer has stated elsewhere,’ it is impossible to deal with the details of the ecologic distribution of lichens over a large area, and he has purposely chosen to resttict himself, as in this instance, so that certain minute details might receive attention. Thanks are due Dr. L. H. Pammel for a — of the “Ledges.” Iowa CoLLEecE, GRINELL, Iowa. ichens 5 Fink, B., Contributions to a knowledge of the lichens of ago Foie : jor. of the Miinesots valley and southwestern Minnesota. Minn. Bot. sie4 18a9. Bryolo- 6 Fink, B., Ecologic distribution an incentive to the study of lichens. The So gist 5:40. 1902. TRANSPIRATION OF SUN LEAVES AND SHADE LEAVES OF OLEA EUROPAEA AND OTHER BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREENS. JosEerH Y. BERGEN. (WITH ELEVEN FIGURES) Tue structural differences between sun leaves and shade leaves of several species have been described in a classical memoir by E. STAHL." FR. JoHow has given an excellent summary of the adapta- tions of foliage leaves with reference to transpiration.?2, LEon DurouR has investigated many of the differences in the vegetative and the productive organs of phanerogams due to differences in the amount of light supplied to them.3 The writer has not at present access to any tolerably complete collection of botanical periodicals, but neither in ALFRED BURGER- = bibliographys nor in such journals as were accessible has he been able to find mention of any paper which discusses experimentally vt Subject of transpiration in leaves of the same individual, some developed in the sun and others in the shade. It would seem that the — of the relative activity of sun leaves and shade leaves must eae of value. For such an investigation no leaves can be more of what 305 those of such evergreens as the Mediterranean species and their etd calls the si artlaubflora, Olea, Quercus I lex, Myrtus, during ae For it is evident that leaves which are active t period ‘ar . from one to several years, and which during all of ({chntagy : respectively exposed to illuminations varying from may be expect °° per cent. of the total amount afforded by the sun, — ed to show far more notable differences in structure ite. Jenn ooh . - oder schattigen Standortes auf die Ausbildung der Laub- * Usher die oo 16: oes 1882. issen, Jahrb. ni einiger Eigenschaften der Laubblatter zu den Standorts- . iss. Bot. 15:—. 1884. Pot. Vi 5:31 ‘ne — sur la forme et la structure des feuilles. Ann. Sci. Nat. 4 pete . Zeal Bor. Geist he Monographie der Transpiration der Pflanzen. Verhandl. 1904) i n. 1887 and 1899. 285 and function, due to unequal illumination, than those leaves which flourish only for four or five months of the year. Broad-leaved ever greens, too, cast a denser shade than is afforded by ordinary conifers, and the leaves of the former therefore grow under more sharply con- trasting conditions than do those of the latter. The lack of suitable laboratory facilities has made it impossible for the writer to investigate the relative amounts of photosynthesis accomplished by the leaves of the species studied. It has been poss ble, however, to determine with a fair degree of accuracy the relative amount-of transpiration done by the sun leaves and the shade leaves of several species. The trees and shrubs mostly studied were: Olea europaea saliti, Pistacia Lentiscus, Quercus Ilex, and Rhamnus Alaternus. The obser vations, unless otherwise stated, were made upon leaves from thirteen to fifteen months old. Where sun leaves and shade leaves wert compared these were from different parts of the same shrub or {tee those which received only part of the total illumination being shaded wholly by their own foliage. s I. COMPARISONS OF COLOR, SIZE, SHAPE, AND STRUCTURE OF SUS LEAVES AND SHADE LEAVES. Out of ten trees and shrubs examined with reference to the effect of illumination on the color of the upper surface of the leaf, only one, Quercus Ilex, showed sun leaves always darker than the shade tt In this species the sun leaves when fully matured were gee to be of a very dark green, while shade leaves (1 to 2 per - nation) were of a grass-green color. ; - — Buxus dea ca no perceptible difference sacs to difference in illumination. ; Eight species (Arbutus Andrachne, A. Unedo, Citrus pet Myrtus communis tarentina, Nerium Oleander, Olea ee tacia Lentiscus, Rhamnus Alaternus) showed a much dar mes green in the shade leaves than in the sun leaves, though ae in shade leaves of Pistacia are lighter green. The shade lea per individuals studied received amounts varying from 1 we of the total illumination. d shade leave In comparing the relative areas of sun leaves 4™ 1904] BERGEN—TRANSPIRATION OF EVERGREENS 287 the author arrives at a result opposite to that which Durour’ obtained from the study of many herbaceous species, but agreeing with the results of Jonow.° : One species, Neriwm Oleander, has leaves extraordinarily variable in size, the smallest being bractlike and only 0.027 the area of the largest ones. It did not seem possible to make satisfactory estimates of the relative areas of the sun leaves and shade leaves of this species. All other species examined had shade leaves larger than their sun leaves. Exact measurements were made for only four species of these, as follows: : Ratio of areas Sun-+shade Citrus Aurantium — - - - : “ * 0.75 Olea europaea - : : . “ “ - 0.56 Quercus Ilex (large tree . é fc : 0.44 Q. Ilex (small bushy ipl) 20 cb . eee amnus Alaternus - : : - . 0.68 The comparisons were based on fairly typical twigs of the same age, and all the leaves of each twig, or an equal number of homolo- gously situated leaves from each, were examined. Baur shapes of the two classes of leaves in question were often of the a seey- The ratio of length to breadth for the blades bes ts was examined in ten species. In the pinnately compound oar islacia Lentiscus there was little difference in the ratios of ee &s and shade leaves, whether leaf was compared with leaf or with leaflet. The other nine species gave the following results: Ratio length+breadth Sun Shade (r) Arbutus Andrachne _- - - - + 29 2-35 . A. Unedo ‘ s : : ‘ 3.16 3-21 - Buxus sem tvirens* - - - : - 1.97 1.89 : a eee es 2.04 1.37 6 “aha a tarentina - - wie, et! stay: “Tum Oleander =~ rs () 0 kee ee =a 9 , lex (large tree) A eee eee 1.60 @) ’ (small bushy sapling) B- - - eae | 1.37 fe us Alaternus fae 2.05 Oh, DP. 3cr, 6 Loc. cit., p- 304. 288 BOTANICAL GAZETTE _ focroper It was not possible in every case to obtain the per cent. of total illumination for the shade leaves examined. Those noted were as follows: (4) 2.8, (6) 2.2, (7) 4.6, (8)A 1.8, (8)B 1.1, (9) 4.6. It is obvious from inspection of the results obtained that the sun leaves are usually narrower than the shade leaves in proportion to their length. This is especially true of the leaves of Citrus, Olea, and Quercus; and the Olea and Quercus are cer tainly among the most xero- phytic of the nine species in $15 Fic. 1.—Leaves of Olea europaea: a, the list above given. Fig. : sun leaf of very xerophytic form; B,sun leaf; _ sufficiently illustrate the differ- si shade leaf from another tree; D, sun leaf; nce in form of the leaves in E, shade leaf from another tree which is in ° constant partial shade. question. A..other difference between the sun leaves and the shade leaves of many species consists in the manner in which the margins of the former are recurved. In many instances the under leaf surface of sun leaves is, strongly conc while that of shade leaves is nearly plane. This is well shown in the cross sections of jig. 6. In the case of Olea the sun leaves and shade leaves differ remarkably in the manner in which they present their sur- faces to the light. The latter are arranged in a somewhat horizontal manner, that is with the lower surface approxi- A, soo _Mately parallel to the ground. Fic. 2.—Leaves te - But the former in many - weer: am ‘a D, instances oe with the a sae cee tree, XO4- ointing almost straight rox Sas . downward. ts debe words, the shade leaves 7 mately euphotometric and the sun leaves pan in 4 not appear that the edges of the leaves are present ints of the and south direction more frequently than toward other pe 1904] BERGEN—TRANSPIRATION OF EVERGREENS 289 compass. It is this approximately vertical position of many leaves, with the silvery under surfaces facing in all directions, that gives the shimmering effect of olive foliage so often described. Figs. 7 and 8 illustrate extreme cases of leaves standing vertically as above described.’ The thickness of sun leaves was in every case found to be greater than that of shade leaves, as described by Stanu and. others. In leaves of Quercus the ratio in thickness of the former to the latter was nearly 2.0; in Olea s> from 1.5 to 2.3; and in Pistacia y from'1.8 to 3-7. Ves In those species which are @ pubescent or scaly on the lower 4 surface the pubescence is much denser on sun leaves. It is gen- sie et, erally difficult to reduce the com- parison in this regard to a numerical basis, but an approximation of the kind can be made in the case of the leaves of Olea. The lower Surface of the leaf is always more or less completely covered with pel- late scales. On sun leaves the lower surface is so thickly scale-clad that the scales overlap considerably. Fic. 3.—Leaves of Pistacia Lentiscus: A, sun leaf; B, shade leaf. R54. found b bee ’ Y measurements with the eyepiece micro- : iin Be ea on Fic. 4.—Leaves of Pistacia Lentiscus (another tree): A, sun leaf; B, shade leaf. Xo0.4. ) The stomata were foy = than on shade ] 9 Per cent. excess for nd to be somewhat more numerous on sun eaves; an average of two determinations gave the former. 7 For these drawi ee : ngs the writer is indebted to Mrs. Herbert S. Jennings. 290 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [october : In none of the species studied were any such extreme differences between the internal structure of sun leaves and shade leaves noted as have been described by STaut and others. Since the thickness and texture of the leaves of Pistacia differed more under different amounts of illumination than did those of any other species examined, special attention was paid to the histology of these leaves. The fol- lowing points of difference, many of which can be verified by refer- ence to figs. g-t1,® were made 0 ‘ out: (1) cutinized layer of upper | epidermis much more developed in sun leaves; (2) palisade layer double in sun leaves and single in shade leaves, the cells next the epidermis longer in the former; (3) intercellular spaces smaller 1 upper portions of mesophyll of : | d sun leaves; (4) bundles much more highly developed in sun Jeaves; 5 (5) a palisade layer occasionally sun leaf, and B, shade leaf of Rham- developed next the lower epidermis nus; C,sun leaf, and D, shade leaf of Citrus. Xo.4. Fic. 5.—Leaves of Rhamnus in sun leaves. II. RELATIVE AMOUNT OF TRANSPIRATION OF SUN LEAVES AN SHADE LEAVES. a The three most obvious cases which present themselves for age gation are: (a) transpiration of both kinds of leaves, eee cht natural environment; (6) transpiration of both kinds 1n full s (c) transpiration of both kinds in shade. ch leaves No mode of determining the losses by transpiration ont f weigh ‘as those in question is free from sources of error. Tee reven ing detached leaves, with the cut end of the petiole sealed ae for accidental loss, is an admirable one for succulent a sai use leaves with a less amount of stored water it is un so or Wel 8 For these drawings the author is indebted to Dr. Grace B. Cooley College. 1904] BERGEN-—-TRANSPIRATION OF EVERGREENS 2g1 the transpiration of the sun leaf and the shade leaf would be measured for unequal and rapidly diminishing amounts of contained water. Weighing whole plants growing in sealed pots is out of the question for large shrubs or trees, since seedlings which were small enough ° to be handled would fail to shade their own leaves and would not a 6b C d Fic. 6.—Transverse sections of leaves: A, sun leaf, and B, shade leaf of Olea; C, sun leaf, D, shade leaf of Quercus Ilex. Natural size. furnish leaves of typical adult form, size, and structure. Weighing leafy twigs with the cut ends immersed in water is not likely to afford the same absolute amounts of loss by transpiration as would be given by the same twigs supplied with water by the normal root pressure Fic. 7.—Sun leaves of Olea: the branch makes an angle of about 60° with the verti- cal, most of the leaves pointing somewhat vertically upward; in many other instances one leaf of each pair was found to point upward and the other downward. ee But the leaves are in a normal atmosphere, and their Same as *Sses (as compared with each other) may be very nearly the under absolutely natural conditions. the Mab: adopted in the experiments here recorded was to immerse ¥ cut ends of the leafy twigs studied in water contained in y. 292 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroBeR small test tubes. Each stem was carefully sealed into its tube, but a capillary glass tube alongside the stem permitted air to enter to take the place of absorbed water. To show how much of the total loss was due to the cortex, control experiments were made with twigs deprived of their leaves. As it was found that the losses through the cortex sometimes amounted to 15 per cent. of those through the leaves, the plan of covering the entire cortical sur- face with cacao wax (a mixture of half beeswax and half cacao butter) was finally adopted. Weighings were made on a balance sensitive to less than 5™ and the period in most cases allowed for transpiration (two to four hours) usually secured a loss of weight of more than 200™ for the least active set of leaves employed. Only sunny days were chosen for the observations, which were all made out of doors. The thermome ter ranged, during the season of the experiments and the hours of the - occupied by them, from 18 to e (usually from 20° to 25°). Most ‘ the work was done between 12:00 @ 5:00 P. M., and the per cent. of ie | tive humidity at 3:00 P. M. was 17 mi | under 55. The determination gird . per cent. of total illumination Fic. 8.—Sun leaves of Olea: which shade leaves have been develo ; the branch stands nearly vertical aeema ta We ae important part of “oe and the leaves in general point fi the form, struct upward. set of observations On: ge ure, or functional activity of suc / and many photometric observations were made on bs 2 ayer discussed. Unless otherwise indicated, the per cents: eee ne! the illumination at or near midday, at the season stated. pane the shade leaves studied had grown in about the following a of illumination: Quercus, 1.5-5 per cent.; Olea, 4-0 PE ¥ \ 1904] BERGEN—TRANSPIRATION OF EVERGREENS 293 Pistacia, 1-4 per cent.; Rhamnus, 4-6 per cent. The results of the determinations of comparative transpiration are as follows: Ratros L088 oF SUN Leaves _ Loss or SHADE LEaves Olea Pistacia Q. Ilex Rhamnus a fare etc I, Sun leaves in sun and shade leaves in e. ee. 3.04 4.60 10.70 7-90 et. 1.45 2.20 BS 2.25 Average of all values obtained....._. 2.10 3-70 6.35 5-91 II. Both kinds of leaves in full sunlight. ns. 2.25 2.24 3-99 1.43 ta aa aa I.17 1.00 0.96 0.52 Average of all values obtained....___ 1.47 L.70 2.04 0.98 III. Both kinds of leaves in the shade. ee 97 2.58 2.70 2.61 ao... 0.81 0.68 0.93 tea Average of all values obtained....... 0.90 1.87 1.86 1,86 Summing up the results of the experiments on comparative trans- piration (taking into account some aberrant values not included in the table above given), the following conclusions may be stated: 1. Under the conditions normal for each class (I), sun leaves transpire from three to ten times as much as the shade leaves of the Same species, 2. With both classes of leaves under abnormally equal conditions Ul and IIT) the sun leaves of the species studied usually transpire more than one and one-half times as much as the shade leaves.® a averaging the averages of II and III, it appears that the Bi a of transpiration of sun leaves and shade leaves is about “manifest in sunshine as in the shade. abe = thinnest and most poorly nourished shade leaves con- a... more sharply with sun leaves in their behavior than do is th ty normal leaves which have developed in the shade. This — eer De! cause for the difference between maximum and Q. Pay results, particularly noticeable in the transpiration of _ babies is quite at Variance with what would probably be the a priori opinion Pflanzen, agian Seg directly contravenes the statement of WIESNER (Biologie der 294 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroBER 5. Shade leaves exposed for some hours to full sunshine may, without showing any signs of wilting, become almost unable to trans- pire. For example, a Q. J/ex shade leaf that during two hours in sunlight transpired almost one-fourth as much as a sun leaf from the Aono: 4Soam SULARAIRE UO Fic. 9.—Upper epidermis of Pistacia: A, sun leaf; B, shade leaf. X 230. same tree, was afterward in the shade found to transpire about one- sixtieth as much as the sun leaf in the shade. The fact that shade leaves transpire less than sun leaves, under similar conditions, may at first sight appear singular. But a little consideration will suffice to show that leaves of the former class are structurally unable to perform as much of any kind of work as are i PE rege ES a TIO DH O00GO¢ a . B, shade leal- Fic. 10.—Upper epidermis and mesophyll of Pistacia: A, sun leaf; B, sha Arak, the much opment stouter stems from which they spring, and the greater devel a : unit of time than shade leaves can. Also sun leaves, rs much ness two to four times that of shade leaves, usually ©o area of equal ft more interior evaporating surface than shade leaves 1904] BERGEN—TRANSPIRATION OF EVERGREENS 295 These considerations, however, do not explain all of the observed inequalities of transpiration. Portions of leaves of Agave americana freshly cut and with the cut surfaces hermetically sealed with Wax, so as to permit no loss of water except through uninjured epidermis, were found to give ratios ranging from 1.5 to 4 for loss of sun leaves com- pared with that of shade leaves, when both were exposed to full sunlight. Here the transportation of water is an unimportant factor, and the amount of tissue inside the leaf from which the transpired water is drawn was nearly the same in both cases. The Agave shade leaves had grown in a permanent shade of about 2 per cent. illumination. : Fic. 11.—Lower epidermis and mesophyll of Pistacia: A, sun leaf; B, shade leaf. 125. It may be of interest to append a statement of the absolute rate of transpiration of the four trees and shrubs discussed in the table above given, The measurements were made with sun leaves a year old, at a temperature of 21° C. and a relative humidity of 67 per cent. The leaves Were in moderately bright sunlight. | TRANSPIRATION IN MG. PER 10051 LEAF SURFACE PER HOUR.?° a “pparently large values for the transpiration of some- Sativym, = bus Plants. Leaves of Ulmus campestris and of Pisum “ade re examined at the same time, for purposes of comparison, _"€T€ found to lose 342 and 353™ of water per hour, respectively. however, only serves to emphasize a fact too often lost sight of, to Onl ¥ one surface of each leaf (the lower) is taken into account. 296 ; BOTANICAL GAZETTE namely that xerophytic leaf structure is not alway. abundant transpiration, but sometimes exists only for gencies to protect the plant from injurious loss of In conclusion, the writer can only express his re so far been able to investigate only one phase of #1 tl the Mediterranean region. A detailed study of 7 activity, month by month throughout the year, | results of much value. Naptes, ITALY. | —— Fe BRIEFER ARTICLES. NOTES ON NORTH AMERICAN GRASSES. TY: POA FLAVA L. and P. SEROTINA EHRH. Iv the first edition of his Species Plantarum (1:68. 1753), LINNAEUS describes this species as follows: : 7. Poa panicula diffusa, spiculis ovato oblongis nitidis. Gron. virg. 13. Gramen pratense majus virginianum. Pet. mus. 2309. Habitat in Virginia. ° This has been considered by many authors as identical with Poa serotina Ehrh. which occurs in Europe and also in the northern part of North America. The identity of the two was probably assumed from Munro’s Statement: to, P, flava, marked Gron. virg. 13, is Poa crocata Michx.; but that name should be altered to P. flava.” (Identification of the grasses in Linnaeus’ herbarium, Proc. Linn. Soc. Bot. 6: 43.) Referring to Gronovivs’ Flora Virginica we find that he cites Clayton 773. Clayton’s no, 273, then, becomes the type of Poa flava L. Clayton’s Plants are in the herbarium of the British Museum. Mr. A. B. RENDLE kindly examined this plant and informs me that it is Triodia cuprea a Kuntze States that Poa flava L., P. seslerioides Michx., and Triodia Pe i are identical, and hence proposes the name Sieglingia flava thy (Rev. Gen. 2:789). He does not state, however, upon what he his Statement. The fact that Linnaeus based the name upon a plant ‘ollected by Clayton and gave the locality as Virginia should have led —— botanists to doubt the reference of Poa flava to Poa serotina, the latter plant d W 00 flava was ta LDENOW, and 8 Seslerioid crocata Michx. Although Munro states that Poa flava L. “ crocata Michx., I cannot confirm this. I did not observe naeus’ herbarium nor Poa crocata in Michaux’s herbarium the description and the type locality, near Hudson’s Bay, one of the northern Poas allied to P. serotina, such as P. 207 P 0a flava in Lin . Paris, rom May Well be 1904) 298 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroneR glauca Vahl., but can scarcely be Triodia cuprea Jacq., which does not occur north of New York. PrRsoon (Syn. Pl.) refers P. crocea [crocata] to his P. hydrophila, which is given in Kew Index as a synonym of Leersia oryzoides. Nuttall (Gen. Pl.) retains P. crocata, and refers to this P. hydrophila Pers. as a doubtful synonym. Furthermore as to the validity of P. serotina Ehr. (Beitriige 6:83. 1791). This rests upon the mention of the name in EnRHAR?’s list of plants entitled ‘Index Calamarium, Graminum et Tripetaloidearum Linn., quas in usum Botanophilorum collegit et exsiccavit.” Miss Mary A. Day, who has kindly verified the reference for me at the Gray Herbarium, states that the name is mentioned without description, ‘‘Poa serotina, Ehrh. Upsaliae.” As this is a nomen nudum, the name was not technically published, and the next name in chronological order should be taken up. This appears to be Poa triflora Gilib. Exerc."Phyt. 2:531. 1792. Poa triflora Gilib. has been confused in America with P. nemoralis L., but both species occur in the northern portions and extend southward in the western mountains. In the northeastern states Poa triflora extends southward to Pennsylvania and is quite common northward, while P. nemoralis is rare and seems to be introduced. P. palustris L. (Syst. ed. 10. 874. 1759) is used by ASCHERSON - GRAEBNER (Synops. Mitteleur. Flora 2:416) for P. serotina Ehrh., but this name is founded on a plate in Morrison’s History (p. 201, pl. Fe 27), which is Phalaris arundinacea, and consequently cannot be used our plant, P. triflora Gilib. DIGITARIA Heist. This is based upon Plukenet, pl. 190, fig. 2, which is Trips L. (Index 550). Consequently, according to the recent “C ; Nomenclature,” Digitaria Heist. ex Adans. is published (Conee * * and its type is Coixdactyloides L. Sp. 972. 1753) inasmuch as Linn dod (J. c.) cites Plukenet, pl. 190, fig. 2. Tripsacum, based upon Cos loides, was established in 1 Syst. ed. 10). Digitaria as commonly ae was published by ScoPol (fi. es 1772). The type of Digitaria Scop. is D. sanguinale, as 3)s different group, certain botanists thought it advisable t - for the group typified by Panicum sanguinale, and take up in chronological order, Syntherisma Walt. -sitaria WAS The fact seems to have been overlooked that the ane ee ! used at an earlier date than that of ADANSON’S Familles 1904] BRIEFER ARTICLES ' 299 noticed the name in the second edition of Fasricrus Enum. Pl. Hort. Helm, (1763), where it is based upon ‘‘Gramen ischaemon Plinii, Clus. H. CCXVII,” and “Panicum spicis aggregatis, basi interiore nodosi, flos- culis, geminis muticis vaginis foliorum punctatis, L. Sp. 8?” Both these citations refer to Panicum sanguinale L. This work is at the Missouri Botanical Garden. Kuntze states that although dated 1763 this work appeared after that of ADANSON. It would appear that the latter author may have adopted the word from Faxrictus nevertheless. If the name appeared in the first edition of Fasricrus and with the same type, then there would be no doubt about its antedating ApANson. I have not been able to find this work in America, but it is in London, and Mr. Epmunp Baker has kindly sent me a transcript of what appears concerning Digitaria. It says “Digitaria Heist. Dactylis Raj. Gramen dactylon majus panicula longa, spicis pluribus nudis crassis. Sloane.” (Fasricius Enum. Pl. Hort. Helm, 207. 1759). The same citation from SLOANE appears under Pani- cum dissectum L. OP. §7.° 1753. Consequently Digitaria is published according to the canon of the code above mentioned. But Paspalum L. was established in the same year (Syst. ed. 10. 855, 1759) and is typified by Panicum dissectum L., as this is the first species mentioned, although LINNAEUS changes the name to Paspalum dimidiatum. ere is a curious mix-up here. In the first edition of the Species Plan- forum Linnagus describes as no. 6 Panicum dissectum, which is Pas- palum dissectum L., Sp. ed. 2, to which he erroneously refers Sloane’s Fe » hig. 2, and no. 7, Panicum dimidiatum, which is Stenotaphrum “ohana In the tenth edition of the Systema he publishes Paspalum, retnag the first species P. dimidiatum, although he bases it upon his PAP peg no. 6. SLOANE’s plant above mentioned he names P. dieu . the second edition of the Species Plantarum he corrects the ly and publishes Paspalum dissectum based upon Panicum dissectum ion, of the first edit There are still two questions to’ be answered. Which was published first , “a Fapricrus or LINNAEUS’ Systema? Was Digitaria published in some “ work of HEIsTER’s ? t Sop may be remarked that HALLER uses Digitaria in the same sense as POLI and c a few years earlier, basing it upon Panicum sanguinale and oe (Hall. Stirp. Helv. 2:244. 1768). atise from ra nes mentioned emphasize the evil consequences which may AS, Hircy, nging well known names without sufficient investigation.— Ock, U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 300 c BOTANICAL GAZETTE [octoser OOGENESIS AND FERTILIZATION IN ALBUGO IPOMOBFAE- PAN DURANAE. (WITH TWO FIGURES) Albugo Ipomoeae-panduranae (Schw.) Swingle occurs upon various species of Ipomoea, among others the sweet potato, upon which it inflicts, however, but slight damage. Its most common host is probably /. paw — durata, in which it induces great hypertrophy of leaves, stems, and — flowers. The distortions are so marked as to attract the attention of even the casual observer. It is within these hypertrophied parts that the sexual organs and sexual spores are found in such abundance as to render this species the most favorable of all in the genus for the study of oogenesis and fertilization. The material is killed in admirable condition if cut in pieces a few mill meters square (the outer part being first shaved off to avoid endangering the knife by adhering sand) and dropped in chrom-acetic acid of the strength recommended for other species of Albugo.t The stain chiefly employed is the triple stain of Flemming. , Inasmuch as several other species of Albugo have been described with | considerable care, I will detail here only the more salient features, and those which present divergence from the usual types. The early history of coger esis runs parallel with that of all other species of Albugo investigate namely, the mycelium enlarges to form the oogonium, the nuclei fe enlarge greatly, and pass to the spirem condition. This stage presenis little divergence from the same stage in other species that it is — represented by fig. 45 drawn from A. Bliti.2 Following the stag? described comes zonation or the differentiation of ooplasm from pe a the ooplasm.3 In A. I pomoeae-panduranae zonation character exhibited in A. candida and A. Tragopogomts, M ving plasm may be said to fall away from the oogonial wall, gate _ only a few strands, sufficient to suspend the oosphere ex: A. Trost Se type of zonation is sufficiently illustrated by fig. 27 drawn . pogonis.4 t STEVENS, F. L., The compound oosphere of Albuge 176, 225-245. pls. 11-15. 1899. (p. 233)- 2 STEVENS, F. L., doc. cit., pl. 12. 3 STEVENS, F. L.; 4 STEVENS, F. I.., Gametogenesis and fertilization in Albugo- 98, 157-169, 238-261. pls. 1-4. 1901. (pl. 3)- Bliti. Bot. G47- aur loc. cit, Ph 13, figs ugo. BOT. Gat. 3 oa: BRIEFER ARTICLES 301 With the inception of zonation comes the advance from the spirem to the later stages of mitotic division in all the nuclei of the oogonium. Many of the nuclei in process of division are floated to the periplasm, others com- plete the division within the ooplasm and there leave both daughter nuclei within the egg. The completion of this mitosis results in conditions very like those in A. Tragopogonis.s Many of the nuclei are in the periplasm, some are in the ooplasm. The chief difference lies in the coenocentrum, to be discussed later. The daughter nuclei of the first division, which remain within the ooplasm, proceed to a second mitosis as in A. Tragopogonis and A. candida, though the number of oospheric nuclei is constantly diminishing, owing lo their outward movement. All of them, except one or two contiguous to the coenocentrum, reach the periplasm before or immediately after mitosis is completed. One or two nuclei in mitosis are seen attached to the coenocentrum during the second division. The completion of the mitosis, however, finds only one daughter nucleus remaining thus to func- ton as the female pronucleus. Conclusive evidence was not obtained, but itis probable that some nuclei suffer degeneration within the ooplasm, asis the rule in A, Tragopogonis. ; The coenocentrum is first to be seen as a homogeneous globule, much like the central globule of A. Bliti, though considerably larger, being nearly as large as the nuclei at the completion of the first mitosis. There is no striking differentiation of the protoplasm surrounding the globule at this ee The globule, which does not change materially in size in later cae . me than that of A. Bliti and much smaller than that of A. na ms : shows much less structural differentiation than is exhibited a ule in the latter species. When the second mitosis approaches phase the globule is surrounded by zones of protoplasm of varying ne . i nee resemble the structure shown in Ags. 69 and 7 eg - Bliti,® though the development attains a higher degree ~panduranae. The attractive attachment of (igs. x » 2), power of the coenocentrum for nuclei is evidenced by the , Shorter in this than in most species of Albugo, of the completion of the second division, emptying "ENS, F. 1... Joc. c4., pl. 3, fig. Bt. ® Steven pie The compound oosphere of Albugo Bliti. loc. cit. pl. 13. one male nucleus into the ooplasm. This nucleus joins the female, and each enlarges much before pronuclear union, which is completed in the ruins of the decadent coenocentrum. Simultaneous with the opening of the antheridial tube begins the con- struction of the oospore walls. These are completed much as in other species of Albugo, with the exception that there is a slight though very per- ceptible thickening of the oogonial wall itself. Such thickening is one of the chief features in the spore of Sclerospora, but is not known to occu in any other species of Albugo. ; Fic. 33. Fig. 2: Fic. 1.—Central globule and coenocentrum of A. [pomoeae-pa nd rs a second mitosis; one nucleus attached. oe : m. Fic. 2.—-Similar to fig. 1; nuclei not yet attached to the coenocent™ Subsequent to fertilization, which does not proceed with ate" slowness noted in some species, the fusion nucleus divides - ig increasing the number of nuclei before the assumption of the gi compe A minor point, worthy of mention as an indication fa t known sition, is a feature of the staining, conspicuous in this species — ? in any other Albugo. All of that portion of the a pe takes touches the periplasm, and often the whole antheridium ee the gentian-violet with great avidity and retains it longet pee cai structures. Antheridia and antheridial tubes are thus ose ith the t¥ ably conspicuous, and dozens are often seen in a single aren cue thirds objective-—F. L. Stevens, A. and M. College, West — $00 BOTANICAL GAZETTE focrone, SemekeENT LITERATURE BOOK REVIEWS. Methods of ecological investigation. ONE OF THE most important recent contributions to the literature of ecology is a work on the development and structure of vegetation, from the hand of Dr. CLements.* The object of this and a forthcoming volume is to present in a systematic and detailed manner the methods of ecological research that have been employed by the author for .a number of years in the prairies and Woodlands of Nebraska, and in the mountains of. Colorado. The principles enunciated here were formulated as working hypotheses in 1898, and have since been submitted to rigorous field tests. The present paper deals in particular with the biological side of vegetation, while the forthcoming work is to be concerned more with the physical aspects. The fundamental phenomena of vegetation are regarded as invasion and suc- “ssion (dynamic), zonation and alternation (static), and association, the latter “presenting the stage to which vegetation has been brought. A section is devoted to each of these topics, and in each case there is given a historical survey of the phenomenon, followed by a keen analysis, and a bibliography. One may classify *soclations with relation to stratum, light, water, etc., but of these CLEMENTS ongly emphasizes the dominance of the water factor. He inclines not to accept ScHIMPER’s edaphic an pe tons are both climatic and e aphic. Invasion consists of the movement cy and establishment (ecesis) of species. In discussing this topic, a T of t “rms are introduced applying to the plant member that migrates, the of the contrivance which facilitates migration, and the agent involved. olygenesis (theory of po accepts j . enn (on denuded soil). Some excellent terms are introduced, indicat- tl sad ¢ me of movement in the succession, xerotropic, mesotropic, and hydro- The ¥ application is obvious. cute, a ives laws of succession, which will be admitted at once in most ugh it is likely that some may require modification. Zonation has been iy alternation slightly except b rn wey of N mf E.. The development and structure of vegetation. Botanical at eb: ee 2. 1904, mia Studies in the Vegetation of the State, III. 8vo. pp- 175- 1904) 326 304 5 BOTANICAL GAZETTE {octoER tation to the heterogeneity of the earth’s surface, and is in sharp contrast to zona- tion as it is related to topographic asymmetry. A very interesting analysis is made of competition, which the author holds to be a physical factor in the last analysis. This book is most difficult to review adequately, because of the great num- ber of vital topics which are presented. The presentation is so logical and con cise that a satisfactory review or summary would be little less than a verbatim reproduction of the work. The paper must be digested thoroughly from begin- ning to end by all who profess to be engaged in ecological research, and it should be studied by all botanists, especially those who think that ecology may not hope to deal with facts or have the logic or discipline of other lines of biology—H. © COWLES. Leaf ecology. HanscirG, who for a considerable time has been gathering data for such a work, has issued a somewhat elaborate volume on phyllobiology.? The am of the author is to present the topic of the biology of the leaf, much as the biology of the flower has been presented in earlier works. Part I is devoted to a general consideration of leaf adaptations, especially those adaptations that may be called protective. Parts II and III make up the body of the volume, and present the biological classes or types of leaves. Two general groups are recognized: the water and swamp leaf types of hydro phytes and halophytes, and the air leaf types of land plants. The former grou? has six subdivisions: the Vallisneria type adapted to currents, the M type adapted to standing water, the Nymphaea type of floating leaves, the Is type, the Lysimachia (Naumburgia) type, and the Calla type. More o types of air leaves are given, among which the following may be noted, - . illustrate the method of the author: the violet type of shade leaf, the ie type (wedge-shaped at base), the Taraxacum type of rosette leaves, the a" type of liana leaves, the Cyclamen type (reddish beneath), the Begona type type of trembling leaves, the Allium type of tubular leaves, of weather-vane leaves, the conifer type of needle leaves, the ; profile leaves, the grass type of involute leaves, the Gnaph j ou the Cat leaves, nyctitropic leaves, the Mesembrianthemum type of thick whey cast duus type of spiny leaves, the Drosera type of insectivorous leaves. roger with there is a detailed description of the leaf type under consideration, hich isa a discusion of the ecological advantages of the type. The pee the types are given in considerable detail. t is by past Part III considers the same material, but the age ee of youss families and genera. Part IV considers the protective ee ve 2 Hanscire, A., Phyllobiologie nebst Uebersicht der biologic a a ein-und-sechzig Siphonogamenfamilien. 8vo. pp- xiv+ 486. es 4 der Borntraeger. 1903. Mrz. : 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 305 leaves, and twelve types are recognized and discussed. The concluding chapter contains a summary and some concluding remarks. As might be supposed the author inclines to teleological views, holding that plant structures harmonize with their environment and even tend to become modified in advantageous ways. The volume will have somewhat the function of an encyclopedia, and it is therefore to be regretted that there is no index to genera.—H. C. Cow es. MINOR NOTICES. A REVISED EDITION of CouLTeER’s Plant Structures,3 an elementary text-book of plant morphology, has appeared, the first edition having been published in 1899. There are numerous changes that deal with misstatements, illustrations, changed points of view, and recent discoveries so far as these have to do with the purpose of so elementary a book. Such subjects as mycorhiza, the development of the sporophyte of bryophytes, and the endosperm of angiosperms have been rewritten, and the topic of “double fertilization’’ introduced. Heten Eastman‘ has written a fern book for amateurs, which is intended to be “an illustrated field-book that shall be concise, inexpensive, and adapted to the needs of the beginner.” The photographs for the plates are said to have been “produced by an entirely original process.” ‘The general purpose of such $ is to be commended, in so far as they stimulate interest in plants or help to make observation somewhat definite. Doubtless the present book will serve its Purpose well in New England.—J. M. C. ATKINSON 5 has ( published an outline of his lectures on plant ecology as delivered plant organization, plant organs are considered, then cal factors, vegetation types, migration. Several lectures on the various formations 9F societies conclude the series.—H. C. Cow es. NOTES FOR STUDENTS. — in a short address on the control of sand dunes in the ) tates and Europe, gives an account of the European methods of dune and “atrol, and makes Suggestions for similar work in this country.—H. C. Cowles. IC ix+ — Joun M., Plant Structures. Second edition revised. 12mo. pp. * P&S. 289. New York: D. Appleton and Company. 1904. of Piero HELEN, New En 1904, ng the Species, gland ferns and their common allies; an easy method T2mo. pp. xix+161. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 5 Aten. : Rees ck ae G. F., Relation of plants to environment (or plant ecology). Out- and 1904, Of lectures delivered in the Summer School of Cornell University 1903 6 PP: 67. Ithaca Publishing Co., Ithaca, N. Y. Nat. Geog. Mag nS, Controlling sand dunes in the United States and Europe. * 1904: 43-47. CosTeRus and SmiTH?7 have begun the publication of an account of numer- ous “‘monstrosities’” observed in the Botanical Gardens of Buitenzorg and else- where in the tropics. This is in continuation of a paper published in the same journal in 1895 (p. 97), and deals with monocotyledons. In a subsequent paper dicotyledons and a few cryptogams will be presented.—J. M. C. PosTGLACIAL fossils have been too much neglected by American paleobotanists. There seems to be no reason why the magnificent results that have been obtained by the Scandinavian investigators should not be duplicated here. PER O1ss0N- SEFFER ® has given an account of the methods of bog study (telmatology)employet by Andersson, Sernander, and other Swedish workers.—H. C. Cowzes. SHaw® has found that the stamens of Sanguinaria pass the winter in the mother-cell stage; that in Sanguinaria, Chelidonium, and Eschscholtzia there is @ stylar canal; that in all three genera the antipodals are very prominent; and that in Sanguinaria and Eschscholtzia the testa is developed from the inner part of the outer integument, while in Chelidonium it is developed from both intege ments.—J. M. C. Boopte’’ has discovered that a reduced secondary xylem occurs in the ma (both subterranean and aerial) of Psilotum, outside of the solid mass of tracheids described by Bertrand and internal to the ring of sieve tubes. In the lower region of the aerial stem a few cases of apparent mesarch structure were observed The results strengthen the hypothesis of the affinity of the Psilotaceae with the Sphenophyllales—J. M. C. E : ales N A PRESIDENTIAL address before the Linnean Society of New South ve MAIDEN" devotes attention, among other things, to a botanical survey country. He suggests a scheme for dividing New South Wales into a botanical counties or domains, and gives a list of the most important and access papers dealing with each. A plea is made for an ecological study along sed graphic lines.—H. C. Cow Les. 4 W. L. Bray has given an interesting anatomical account of some of “eh a of the xerophytic regions of Texas.*? A study was made of Agave Leo f 7 CostERus, J. C., and Smiru, J. J., Studies in tropical teratology- Ann. J Bot. Buitenzorg II. 4:61-85. pls. 8-11. 1904. Eee cial deposits 8 OLSSON-SEFFER, P. Examination of organic remains In postgla Amer. Nat. 37:785-797. 1903. ent of th 9 SHaw, CHarLeEs H., Note on the sexual generation and the pea pts: seed-coats in certain of the Papaveraceae. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 31:429-43 04. | 10 Boopie, L. A., On the occurrence of secondary xylem in Psilotum. Annals of Botany 18:505-517. pl. 33. 1904. ok a" wale 1t MAIDEN, J. H., Presidential address. Proc. Linn. Soc. : Eee: region. Bull. To _ 2 Bray, W. L., The tissues of some of the plants of the Sotol Bot. Club 30: 621-633. 1903. 306 BOTANICAL GAZETTE cdi 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 307 Hesperaloe parviflora, Nolina texana, Ariocarpus fisswratus, and Euphorbia antisyphilitica. The stomatal apparatus, in particular, was found to exhibit marked xerophytic peculiarities. In Ariocarpus there are a number of projec- tions of the cuticular layer into the pit just above the stoma, which virtually makes a series of chambers of the pit—H. C. Cow gs. © Cannon's has concluded from anatomical evidence that the two species of mistleto (Phoradendron villosum and P. californicum) occurring in the vicinity of esert Botanical Laboratory (Tucson, Arizona) do not penetrate their hosts by means of solvents secreted by the haustoria; but “the points of admission are determined solely by the character of the host-substratum, whether its cells are loosely put together, as in the lenticels of the cottonwood, or the place where the parasite seeks admission has cellulose cell-walls.”—J. M. C. STAPF'4 has published an account of his studies of the fruit of Melocanna, which is peculiar among grasses in being very large and having a fleshy pericarp. The three species are restricted to India, and the fleshy character of fruit or seed is shared with Melocalamus and Ochlandra. Endosperm is developed only as a delicate parietal tissue, which is soon resorbed by the much enlarging scutellum, ood reserve in the mature fruit being in the fleshy pericarp and the scutellum. Additional facts of interest are that the ovule develops no integuments and that Yipary is an established habit —J. M. C. Miss RosErtson"s has studied material of Torreya californica from plants cultivated in Great Britain. The microsporangia pass the winter in the mother- cell stage, and the tetrads are formed early in April. No prothallial cell was observed, and during the latter half of May the division resulting in the generative and tube nuclei occurred. Primordia of ovules were observed December 1, and vir April pollination took place. The megaspore mother-cell was not dis- unguished until late in May, and a month later the reduction division occurred, a linear tetrad being formed. Material did not permit following the develop- ment of the female gametophyte and embryo.—J. M. C. " Sd has been studying the roots of our terrestrial orchids. He finds that . us rhizome is provided only with slender roots, while species with slender i iex: m Possess tuberous roots. ‘The subject is treated under three wipe aes Slender, with the leptome and hadrome located in one central cylinder; " eet Hat Toots tuberous; (3) roots tuberous, with several cylinders of lep- : - fe a. W. A., Observations on the germination of Phoradendron villosum f tjornicum. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 31: 435-443. 1904. 4 i ‘Sth Otto, On the fruit of M elocanna bambusoides Trin., an endospermless, us genus of Bambuseae. Trans. Linn. Soc. London II. Bot. 6:401-425- bls. $5-, 5-4. 1904 ; 5 ~ 3:1 Ronertson, AGNES, Spore formation in Torreya californica. New Phytol. 33-148. pls, 3-4. 1904. A 2 Hou, THEO., The root-structure of North American terrestrial Orchideae. - Sci. IV. 18: 197-212. 1904 me 308 BOTANICAL GAZETTE foctoner _ tome and hadrome. The results show the greatest diversity of structure, even among the most closely allied forms. An interesting observation is that while the roots of our terrestrial orchids form mycorhizas, this is not true of all the roots of the same species, nor of the same individual.—J. M. C. WEsTGATE has been making a study of the reclamation of sand dunes on Cape Cod.'7 The ecological relations of the vegetation are first treated. Ecological factors, mode of sand deposition, development of the range of dunes, natural reclamation, the vegetation of areas which receive gradual accumulations of sand, of areas which receive no such accumulations, and of marshes and bogs are briefly discussed. An account is given of the devastating effects of the dune sand on adjoining areas, and of the means that have been employed to check them. At no other place in this country have artificial plantings in dune sand been carried on so extensively or for so long a time as there.—H. C. COWLES. Brirron'® has made a study of some rather extensive sand plains in the neighborhood of New Haven, Conn., especial attention being paid to the anatomy of the more typical plants. Perhaps the most characteristic species are Andropogon scoparius and Juniperus virginiana. A fact of much interest is that several species of swamp plants were found on the plains; ¢ £+ Nyssa sylvatica, Aronia arbutifolia, Vaccinium corymbosum, Kalmia angustijolia, Mes verticillata, Rosa carolina. In the anatomical portion of the paper, P™ ic that is often attention is paid to the anatomy of the subterranean organs, a top! superficially treated or even ignored in treatises that are otherwise satisfactory A number of interesting details are presented, for which recourse mt t be had to the original—H. C. Cow1es. STUDIES ON THE PLANT CELL is the title of a series of articles in which ae proposes to describe the chief structures and functions of the plant cell cell; subject will be treated under the following heads: (1) structures of the eee (2) the activities of the plant cell; (3) highly specialized plant cells peculiarities; (4) cell unions and nuclear fusions; (5) cell ape periods in the ontogeny of plants; (6) comparative morphology and under of the plant cell. The opening paper deals with the first of these pene al the subheads: (1) protoplasmic contents; (2) non-protoplasmic on (3) the cell wall. A list of fifty-five papers 1s ne ee philosophic students inte" While the subject is in such a condition that critic speculation is unsafe, a summary of the literature will be useful to ested in this subject—CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN. SIRS ee etin n0- % Cod sand dunes. Bull 6. 1904- Bull. Torr: Be 17 WESTGATE, J. M., Reclamation of Cape Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agric. pp- 3° pls. 18 Britton, W. E., Vegetation of the North Haven sand plains. Club 30:571-620. 1903. 2, 190 367-395: figs. F-3- r9Davis, B. M., Studies on the plant cell. Amer. Nat. 38: 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 309 SINCE PARTHENOGENESIS in flowering plants has been proven in only a few genera, it is interesting to note any accessory peculiarities. In parthenogenetic species of Alchemilla, MurBEcK’° finds that the number of chromosomes remains unchanged throughout the entire life history, not showing any reduced number in the gametophytic generation. ‘The behavior of the antipodal nuclei and syner- gids is also peculiar in Alchemilla, some or all of these five nuclei having the power of motion, so that they behave like polar nuclei. Consequently, it is not at all uncommon to find three or four nuclei at the middle of the sac where one expects tofind the two polar nuclei. In such cases the extra nuclei clearly belong to the antipodals or synergids, these regions lacking a corresponding number. Asso- ciated with parthenogenesis in Alchemilla is the phenomenon of polyembryony, the extra embryos coming from the synergids or from the cells of the nucellus.— CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN. Ta Cryton paranas, which may be compared to our prairies, are forming the subject of an important study by PARKIN and Prarson.?! In an earlier paper the junior author gave a general account of the patanas, which are grass- lands situated in a region that is otherwise forested. ‘The patanas are of two kinds: wet patanas, located above an altitude of 4500 feet, and dry patanas at a lower altitude. The present paper deals with the anatomical charactéristics of their Plants, and data have been collected from eighty species. As might be expected, the characters as a whole may be regarded as more or less xerophytic. The most important result is that the plants of the wet patanas are as xerophytic as those of the dry patanas; Tihlaan that os y; anah ps mpacter mesophyll. The authors appear to have been surprised at this feature of their results, which, however, seems quite in harmony with the well-known xerophytic Caracters of the plants of peat bogs and salt marshes.—H. C. Cowles. Witte*? gives the history of the generic name Gloionema, proposed in 1812 ee and, having studied the types in AGARDH’s herbarium in Lund, ows that the specimens on which the genus was founded are eggs of some oes to the Tipulidae. The genus Gloionema, the systematic position of has been subject to much discussion, has comprised not only these “egg- *Pecimens,” but also some diatoms. Since Kiitzinc (1849) used the name as a — for certain diatoms, later writers have followed the example. ject in reviewing the history of this name has been to show the errors te On i nomenclature, which may result from an indiscriminate seed . hei Groene Ueber Anomalien in Baue des Nucellus und des Embryosackes 38: no, senetischen Arten der Gattung Alchemilla. Lunds Universitets Arsskrift . » 2, Rp. oa p ba: 21 Linn Ay AN, J., and PEarson, H. H. W., The botany of the Ceylon patanas. Jour. i Soc, 35: 430-463. 1903. t from « eber die Gattung Gloionema Ag. Eine Nomenclaturstudie. 1904, Festschrift zu P. Ascherson’s siebzigstem Geburtstage,” pp- 439-45° 310 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroBER use of the priority rule and from an imperfect description such as AGarpn’s, which suits not only a great number of different algae within various groups, among them diatoms, red algae, Myxophyceae, and Chlorophyceae, but also insect eggs. He advocates therefore the necessity of furnishing not only a complete diagnosis, but also a good drawing of every new form of thallophytes described. —OLSSON-SEFFER. MacDovuceat has published several short papers that will be of interest to the readers of these notes. In a paper entitled “Soil temperatures and veget- tion”*3 he gives the results of his thermographic studies, and concludes that too little attention has been paid to soil temperatures; it seems likely that diurnal and seasonal variations, and differences in the temperatures of aerial and subterm nean portions must have a large influence on physiological processes, both directly and indirectly. In “Some aspects of desert vegetation ””*4 and “ Botanical explon- tions in the Southwest ”’?s he gives interesting popular accounts of our deserts and their vegetation, and shows the possibilities of the Desert Laboratory in shed: ding light on the origin of species. ‘Mutation in plants’?° is a sympathetic presentation of the mutation theory, in which the author gives the results of his own cultural studies. The mutants have in all respects the specific characteristics of their Holland prototypes. “Some correlations of leaves”?? deals with “fi results obtained in the further development of the shoot and leaf, when resort 8 had to defoliation. Extra development was awakened in stipules and other organs.—H. C. Cow Les Witte and Wrrrrocx?® submit to the next International Botanical Congress the right of prionty it will be necessary to publish in the future not only a description, : ism under consideration, sufficiently clear to make the diagnosis of the oe understood. II. In order to maintain the right of priority for new ee the thallophytes, besides the description there shall also be published (or ath to) a figure of at least one species among those comprising the genus — The III. These resolutions shall be in force from the first of January is most beneficial results that would be obtained if these proposals wi would be that the identification would be considerably aided by having - to refer to; such figures would in the future be executed with greater 23 Contrib. N. Y. Bot. Gard. no. 44. Mo. Weather Rev. Aug. 1993 24 Contrib. N. Y. Bot. Gard. no. 46. Plant World 6:249-257- 1903- #5 Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 5:89-98. 1904. ; 26 Contrib. N. Y. Bot. Gard. no. 48. Amer. Nat. 37:737-77° 1903- 27 Contrib. N. Y. Bot. Gard. no. 43. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club. 30:503-3!?" ee 28WILLE, N., and Wirrrocx, V., Motion au Congres international ai pear he Deuxitme Session, Vienne 1905. Nyt Magasin Naturvidenskaberne 42:2" Igo4. ’ 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 415 order to maintain the right of priority; characters would be more carefully observed, and better diagnoses would be obtained; provisional descriptions, which only tend to confuse the right of priority and are more or less incomplete, would be avoided.—OLSsON-SEFFER. PRIANISCHNIKOW?9 considers CZAPEK’s conclusion,3° that no free acid but carbonic is.secreted by roots, to be not justified by the experiments. His objections to CzaPEk’s work are, first, that the assertion that aluminum phosphate is insoluble in acetic acid is incorrect; second, that the aluminum phosphate used was not pure, the presence of the hydrate decreasing the solubility; third, that water affected the surface of the gypsum plates used. By using sand mixed with pure iron and aluminum phosphates, the author found that the phosphates were absorbed by the plants, and concluded that root secretions contain organic acids capable of dissolving aluminum and iron phosphates. The solution of phosphates varied with different plants. If it can be proved that carbonic acid secretion varies in fensonance with the solution energy of the root system of various plants, and that aluminum and iron phosphates are dissolved by carbonic acid, then there is no need to suppose the presence of other organic acids than carbonic in root secretions. The presence of acid phosphates in th t ti f lling y be explained by the fact that in germination, decomposition of proteid is in excess of synthesis, and the phosphorus set free may be, in part, secreted as phosphates.—L. M. Snow. pparent: (x) a stimulus to further development; (2) a mingling of © nes of descent; and (3) a doubling of chromosomes. Starting with this Primitive type, of these hing " common among angiosperms, no longer brings about the Re = gam hereditary properties; and cases of apogamy preceded by Many — 18 a still more reduced form of fertilization in the same direction. of reduction >a Cases of parthenogenesis are regarded as still further cases ‘pismely © primitive process, for there has not even been the formation sense, itis claimen in the sense that there has been a reduction division. In this plants, ed that true parthenogenesis has not been proved among the higher ‘nee there is no reduction division, there is no true gamete, and the 29 Siang Ntkow, D., Zur Frage iiber die Wurzelausscheidungen. Ber. ; a t. Gesells, 22:189-190. pl. 12. 1904 ig Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. - 1896. i i ona VERNON H., On the relation of fertilization, “apogamy,” and nogenesis.” New Phytol. 3:149-158. 1904. 312 BOTANICAL GAZETTE ict resulting embryo is really a case of sporophytic (somatic) budding. In such cases the reduction of the primitive process of exogamous fertilization is complete; the mingling of different characters, the stimulus to development, and the doubling of chromosomes all having disappeared.—J. M. C. Bray? finds that according to their character and distribution the forests of Texas are to be classified as the east Texas timber belt, the timbered area of Edwards plateau, the live oak timber belt, the Rio Grande plain chaparral, the mesquite, and the timber of the Cordilleran region. According to the habitat of its different components, the eastern timber belt is subdivided into the following types: the swamp and bayou forests, the hardwood forests of the alluvial bottoms, the mixed hardwood forest of the interior of the coast plain, the long-leaf forests of the Fayette prairie, and the hardwood and short-leaf forests of the lignitic belt. Under each of these headings follows a brief but very careful analysis of the factors determining the present condition of the tree growth in each forest type. From the economic standpoint the bulletin shows that only ro per cent. of the entire area of Texas is covered with a merchantable forest; 125,000 acres, yielding nearly & billion feet of lumber, are being-cut over annually. The timber is cut in such a way that the land does not reproduce valuable forests. ‘The author gives valuable and timely suggestions in regard to forest management both for private owners and for the state. ‘ A The same author? has studied the forests of the Edwards plateau err reference to their relation to the water supply. The plateau is com wie stone, and the naturally high water-absorbing capacity of the rock is enhanced by the position of the strata and by the numerous extensive fissures and pe Thus the region forms a vast catchment area for the water which supplies agricultural lands below. The rapid collection and run-off of the waters ” the bare slopes cause frequent disastrous floods. The writer shows how ae the slopes with tree growth (which is rapidly taking place naturally) pian reduce both the frequence and the eroding power of the floods. by eee the waters of the plateau in this manner they could be used to irr gate the arid lands of adjacent plains. State ownership for this purpose Is wpe These two bulletins are valuable contributions to our knowledge yee in relations of trees, and they demonstrate the value of careful ecolo sit dealing with certain problems of practical forestry —CLIFTON D. Hom Bull. Herb. ITEMS OF TAXONOMIC INTEREST ARE As FoLLows: Cart Mez (B Geieis liaceae 10 Boiss. II. 4:619-634. 1904) has published new species of Brome ceemen (idem Aechmea (2), Billbergia, Pitcairnia (9), and Puya Gms Ph Oe ms ic., Bureau of 32 Bray, Witt1AM L., Forest resources of Texas. U. S. Dept. Agne Forestry. Bull. no. 47. 1904. j i 5 1ts 33 Bray, Witt1aM L., The timber of the Edwards plateau e aie Bull to climate, water supply, and soil. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bureau © NO. 49, 1904. Tgo4] CURRENT LITERATURE 313 651-656) has published two new species of Quercus from Costa Rica—A. THEt- LUNG (idem 695-716), in the first of a series of studies of Lepidium, has replaced the L. virginicum of American authors by L. densiflorum Schrad., has disentangled from the same confused mass of forms the new species L. meglectum, and has described a new related species (L. costaricense) from Costa Rica.—C. A. M. LinpmaN (Arkiv for Botanik 1:7-56. 1904) has published a critical review of the American species of Trichomanes, based on collections in Swedish herbaria and on specimens obtained by the author in Brazil, 3 new species being described; and has also (idem 187-276) published an account of a collection of Brazilian ferns containing 16 new species—M. L. FERNALD (Rhodora 6:162. 1904) has published a new species of Alnus (A. mollis) from Canada and adjacent Eastern United States —E. P. BIcKNELL (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 31:379-391. 1904), in presenting the Californian species of Sisyrinchium, has described 5 new species.— P. A. RyDBERG (idem 399-410), in his 1th ‘Studies on the Rocky Mountain flora,” has described new species of Juncus (3), Juncoides, Allium (2), Corallorhiza Salix, Atriplex (2), Corispermum, Claytonia, Cerastium, Arenaria (3), Alsinopsis, Lychnis, Stanleya, and Schoenocrambe.—N. PATOUILLARD (Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 20:1 36. fig. 1. 1904) has described a new genus (Seuratia) of Capnodiaceae leaves of the coffee plant—H. Harms (Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg II. 4513-16. 1904) has described a new East Indian genus (Anomopanax) of Aralia- ‘eae, comprising 3 species.—S. H. Koorpers (idem 19-32. pls. 2-3) has described ‘new genus (7. eijsmanniodendron) of Verbenaceae under cultivation, its nativity being unknown.—G. R. Saw (Gard. Chron. III. 36: 122. fig. 49. 1904) has . = new pine (P. Nelsoni) from northeastern Mexico.—W. A. MURRILL :415-428. 1904), in his eighth paper-on the Polyporaceae has presented Hapalopilus and Pycnoporus, and described 6 : - Brirron (Torreya 4:124. 1904) has described a NEW Species of Alnus from New York M.C. es HE sep has published in full34+*the results of his studies upon the 1904, * Sp renay in the Mucorineae first announced in Science June 3, tions’ that aa work has completely revolutionized our views of the condi- have been ‘uence the production of zygospores. While most investigators trying to determine external factors such as increased humidity, high ne seasonal conditions, etc., as the stimuli to-zygospore formation, individual enec: that it “‘is conditioned primarily by the inherent nature of the *Pecies and only secondarily by external factors.” Oe rag shows that the Mucorineae fall into two groups. The first, and form essen 8Toup, comprise ‘‘the minority of species (ex. Sporodinia) fan be 8 ao from branches of the same thallus or mycelium, and ——_~ 0m the sowing of a single spore.” The second group, termed 4 Brak 40; 205~ mame, A. F., Sexual reproduction in the Mucorineae. Proc. Am. Acad. 314 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroBER heterothallic, contains a large majority of the species (ex. Rhizopus, Mucor, Phycomyces), each of which is made up of two sexual strains, so that the “zyg0- spores are developed from branches which necessarily. belong to thalli or mycelia diverse in character and can never be obtained from the sowing of a single spore. ee very heterothallic species is, therefore, an aggregate of two distinct strains, through the interaction of which zygospore production is brought about.” These sexual strains show in general a greater or less vegetative luxuriance and are designated by the + and — signs respectively. The two strains form zygospores when growing together, as the progametes “arise from the stimt- lus of contact between the more or less differentiated hyphae (zygophores) and are from the outset always normally adherent.” “A process of imperfect hybridization will occur between unlike strains of different heterothallic species in the same or even in different genera,” é. ¢., the gametes are formed by the chemotactic stimulus of contact with the mycelium of an opposite strain. This peculiarity makes it possible to determine the strait of an unknown form by cultivation with the strains of determined material and is most interesting as evidence that the stimulus to zygospore formation is cheat ical rather than the rougher physical conditions. These attempts at hybridization were not observed to go farther than the cutting off of the two gametes. BLAKESLEE concludes from his studies: (a) that the formation of SSE is a sexual process; (b) that the mycelium of a homothallic species 1s bisexual; (c) that the mycelium of a heterothallic species is unisexual; and further (d) that in the + and — series of the heterothallic group the two sexes are represented — B. M. Davis. THE CONDITIONS influencing the production of zoospores in Chea have been studied by FRANK,35 who shows that a decrease in concentration Knop’s solution acts as a stimulus, as does also, but in a secondary way, — he pana ie stad clusion that in light intensity. Temperature limits were also studied, with the con ae this factor is only a secondary one in the production of zoospores: a bears concentrations up to 2.5 per cent. Knop’s solution. In the ge a centrations the cells are larger and their contents more dense. On wes J strata soaked with solution the plant behaves much as in a more — solution. The transfer of cells from Knop’s solution to solute vty scoot single chemical salts influences the production of zoospores vari Be re poi ing to the salt used. Thus, as has been shown before, K is so mee d wherein sonous than Na. With all the salts used a concentration is soon spe: panes no zoospores are produced. The osmotic pressure of the solution at . equal 10 NaS ; times 1S 4 tration-limit sometimes lies above, sometimes below, and some ni that of the limiting concentration for Knop’s solution. From | a concludes that the stimulus producing zoospores is not an osmotic : é : ‘ te neal & mere reduction of concentration in the nutrient medium 1s INV der Chiam) : F : : : 35 Frank, THEopor, Cultur und chemische Reizerscheinunge domonas tingens. Bot. Zeit. 621: 153-188. pl. 6. 1904- 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 315 see how this follows, for in all the simple solutions used there was a lack of the other salts normally present in the Knop’s solution. Thus, in the study of these poisons more than one factor has been varied. The strengths of solution used are throughout stated in percentages, and the obsolete method of isotonic coeffi- cients is used in calculating osmotic pressures, so that it will be necessary to trans- form the data to more modern terminology before they can be of wide use in com- parison. The methods and terminology of physical chemistry are most suitable for this sort of investigation. The general results of this part of the paper are as follows: Production of new motile cells can take place only with a reduction of the concentration of the medium. The process is checked by the presence of many substances, and these act chemically rather than osmotically, 7. ¢., they act like poisons. The zoospores of this alga are positively phototactic towards blue light of hot too great intensity, but after a limiting intensity is passed they are negatively 80. They are sensitive to very weak light. It would be well if such observations as these could be made with a photometer, such as a silver salt perhaps, so that limits of light intensity might be definitely stated. The chemotactic responses of these same cells were also investigated, as were also those of Euglena gracilis, but the results cannot be stated here.—B. E. LIVINGSTON. THE EXPERIMENTAL morphology of Achlya polyandra has been studied, albeit in a somewhat medieval way, by Horn,3° working in KiEss’s laboratory at Halle. He shows that the presence of metals in the nutrient medium, as well a of traces of metallic salts, has a marked effect on both vegetative and reproduc- le activity of this organism. In such media the hyphae, which are normally Without cross walls, develop such walls, often at regular intervals, and the fila- ment often becomes divided up into polyhedral chambers, like irregular paren- chyma, by walls in all directions. The same effect is brought about by partially 0 tag healthy hyphae and then returning them to the normal medium. Fe appears to be a difference in the nature of the cross walls in these two cag produced by a metal are not doubly refractive and consist largely » While those produced by plasmolysis are anisotropic and contain much te aa eres the latter form of walls is at first exactly like the former; to that ce appears later. The general response of the plant is quite parallel which I have obtained in Stigeoclonium,37 the formation of cross walls Bites Experimentelle Entwicklungsinderungen bei Achlya polyandra de * Mycol. 2: 207~2 ZS. 2T. 190 ert tlie effect of external osmotic pressure upon Stigeoclonium see LIVING- AZ. 30: 361-377. pl. 22. 1900. Also, Further notes on of polymorphism in ten. fuller disc - Bot, Garden se 316 BOTANICAL GAZETTE foctom and of irregular division being quite parallel to the production of the palmella form in my alga, which is brought about by many metal salts as well as by high osmotic pressure of the medium. Perhaps if Horn’s poisoned material had been transferred to a normal medium at an early stage in the development of cross walls the same cellulose formation would have occurred as that which he observed in the partially plasmolyzed filament. Regarding the production of zoospores, the unsatisfactory and almost meat- ingless general observation is made again, as it has been made with other forms, that these bodies are produced ‘‘when a sufficient amount of nutrient material ‘for growth is no longer present in the medium.” This is of course not exact science. They are produced at a temperature of from 5° to 31° C. “Osmotic pressure has only an indirect effect.” Intercalary sporangia are produced in the filaments poisoned with metal and also in those which have been partially plas molyzed for a short time; indeed, all the cells of the parenchyma-like masses above described seem to be potential sporangia. This last observation seems to agit quite accurately with that made in the case of Stigeoclonium, that palmella cells are capable of producing zoospores when in weak media, whether the plant has been brought to this form by metallic poison or by external osmotic pressure. These are the main results of the paper. It is to be regretted that good experimentation should be brought to so little account by such vagueness thought as indicated in the adoption of NAGELI’s theory of the oligodynamic effec of metals, which has no real basis in experiment, and the idea that nutrition 8 somehow a thing apart from chemical stimulation and response. The ap paper appears to ‘‘strike only the high places,” as the phrase — seb needed in physiological work is more of the methods of the physical chemist B. E. Lrvincston. : Lawsons® has published the results of his investigation of pein japonica, concerning which we have had heretofore only ARNOLDIS = on the meager account. The material was obtained chiefly from trees pears campus of Stanford University. The staminate cones appear early m uae the reduction division occurs the first week of November, and bas jon takes the microspores are rounded off. In January the first nuclear i sal place, resulting in generative and tube nuclei, no prothallial ce being ob Deep in the nucellus three or four mother-cells become Rae of in March, each giving rise to a tetrad. The centrally ee el twelve to sixteen potential ones functions, the development © CC er of Cryplomer 38 Lawson, A. A., The gametophyte, fertilization, and embryo japonica. Annals of Botany 18:417-444. pls. 27-30. 1904- - 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 317 _ ophyte proceeding as usual, so far as parietal placing and centripetal growth are concerned. The method of forming the permanent endosperm tissue is remarkable, and is either unusual among gymnosperms or has escaped observa- tion. The primary endosperm cells, that is those open towards the center of the sac, elongate inward, and free nuclear division proceeding they become multi- nucleate. Then comes a stage when “hundreds of the free nuclei divide about the same time,” but no cell plate is formed between the daughter nuclei, the kinoplasmic fibrils extending between them increasing in number and curving outwards on all sides until both nuclei are completely surrounded by a sheath of fibrils which fuse, thus forming an investing membrane. This method of free cell formation goes on throughout the whole of the prothallium except in the region of the archegonium initials, the cells becoming crowded and thus resem- bling ordinary tissue composed of binucleate cells. After this tissue has been organized nuclear division with cell plates proceeds in the usual way. The archegonium initials were observed about May 25, and eight to fifteen archegonia are organized into a complex. invested by a common layer of jacket cells. The neck cells are usually four in number, and just before fertilization the nucleus of the central cell divides into ventral canal and egg nuclei, without the formation of any separating membrane. Only one male cell enters an egg, two 88s thus being fertilized from one tube, and the male nucleus is liberated from its cytoplasmic sheath only after the male cell has become imbedded in the °2 cytoplasm. tiers of cells and four free nuclei. The cells of the upper tier elongate g and tortuous suspensor, and one or several embryos may be devel- Single egg. The estimated but not definitely counted number of mes was nine or ten for the gametophyte and eighteen or twenty for the sporophyte. phyt & The Seneral conclusion is reached that the structures of Cryptomeria are distinctly of the Cupresseae type—J. M. C. NEWS. Dr. J. P. Lorsy has been appointed reader in botany in the University of Leiden. 6 Dr. W. A. Murritt has been appointed assistant curator at the New York Botanical Garden. . Proressor G. BonnreR has been elected an honorary member of the Royal Microscopical Society of London. Dr. K. LinsBaver has become privat-docent for anatomy and physiology of plants in the University of Vienna. Proressor P. A. SAccarpo has been elected a corresponding member of the Reale Accademia dei Lincei of Rome. ) B. M. Evernart, known best through work in systematic mycology done ® association with Mr. J. B. Exits, died at West Chester, Pa., on September 22, at the age of eighty-seven years. ; Tue Impertat Acapeny of Sciences at Vienna granted 4,000 kroner to Hofrat Professor Juttus WriEsNER for his journey to the Yellowstone National = where he expected to study the light relations of the flora. Unfortunately : a seriously interfered with his plans, and he had not fully recovered at the time the Congress at St. Louis. Professsor WIesNER delivered his address, howere in spite of evident weakness. : Tuomas H. Kearney, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United en Department of Agriculture, has been authorized to proceed to North er other Mediterranean coast regions for the purpose of securing new date, 108 plants adapted to the southwest. A special study will be made of the dats + -ecictant forage new introductions of this fruit will be undertaken. Alkali rend pri crops will also be studied and the introduction of seeds of new ring. Scien kinds will be made. Mr. Kearney will remain abroad until next a if A SECTION of biogeography was organized in connection pn §-10. International Geographic Congress, which met in Washington, Be respective! Professors HEILPRIN and HaRSHBERGER, both of Philadelphia, : as chairman and secretary. The papers Oscar Drupe, Die Methode der pflanzengeographisch : * al in the eastern United States; CHartes C. Apams, The disper American biota; H. C. Cowres, The remarkable : the Apalachicola River, Florida, and its significance, 318 1904] NEWS ag American range of the Cycadofilices. A paper entitled The importance of the physiographic standpoint in plant geography, by H. C. Cowxes, was read by title. It was greatly regretted that Prof. FLAHAULT, who was to have read a paper entitled La cartographie de géographie botanique, was detained in France illness. The biogeographical sessions were well attended, although there were few visiting botanists present, and the papers excited lively discussions. Tae INTERNATIONAL Concress of Arts and Science he'd at St. Louis, Septem- ber 19-26, secured the attendance of g I f scientifi , both Americ id foreign. It is safe to say that no more distin guished body of scholars has ever been gathered on this continent, or probably on any other. The formal addresses by botanists were as follows: JoHN MERLE Covtter, University of Chicago, Development of mor phological conceptions; HuGO DE VRIES, University of Amster- dam, Fundamental conceptions of evolution; FREDERICK O. Bower, University of Glasgow, The relation of the axis to the leaj in vascular plants; Karu F. GorBet, University of Munich, Die Grundprobleme der heutigen Pflanzenmorphologie; Juurus Wresyer, University of Vienna, Die Entwickelung der Pflanzenphysiologie wiler dem Einflusse anderer Wissenschaften; BENJAMIN M. Duccar, University of Missouri, Present problems of plant physiology; JosrpH C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, The history and scope of plant pathology; Merton B. Watre, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Vegetable pathology as an economic science; OSKAR an heutigen Wissenschaft; Benjamin L. Rosrnson, Harvard University, Problems mecology. These addresses will be published in the volumes of Proceedings of the sm Short (ten-minute) papers were read by J. M. Courter, M orphology ya taxijolia; J. A. Harris, The importance of the investigation of seedling Mages; C. E. Bessey, Distribution of trees in Nebraska. THE MARINE STATION of the University of Washington has completed a suc- cessful summer’ Sound. Th & work among the San Juan islands in the northern part of Puget amon ‘th = object of the work was to determine the marine life of the Sound : f Islands, and to begin the study of the distribution of species on the sea Trevor ae ecological point of view. The station was in charge of Professor Neal (zoology) and Dr. T. C. Frye (botany). The party included € teachers of biology in the colleges, normal schools, and large € state, as well as a number from adjacent ones. Headquarters at Friday Harbor, where house room was secured for laboratories, on the ki Ce hile the party lived in tents pitched in the dense coniferous forests ith wire ee © party had at its disposal a naphtha launch, and a scow fitted Staits and in1,, windlass, dredges, and nets, by means of which the bottom in the Ons were made of algae, shells, and hydroids, and valuable data Te secured : ®oncerning their distribution. Professor Cuttinc, of the State 320 BOTANICAL GAZETTE ashes of Iowa, took charge of the hydroids collected. The Washington i is endeavoring to locate the richest field in the Sound for THE MEETING of the British Association for the Advanteaae held this year at Cambridge, August 17-24, was attended by an number of British botanists and by many foreign botanists as guest “4 The president of the botanical section, Francis Darwin, disc and sympathetically, the hydrostatic and the statolith theories regarding ception of gravity by plants, expressing the conviction that, at the at least, the latter theory has most in its favor, but admitting that it proved. About sixty papers were presented, representing the whole botanical study. A group of papers on paleobotany showed the | fruitfulness of this line of investigation in England. Many of these papers’ illustrated by lantern slides, often of great beauty, and always interesting. group of papers by the ecologists showed by the careful anatomical and exp mental investigations, coupled with examinations of soil, drainage, and: gical conditions, that the thoroughness and accuracy which can any real value are recognized and applied in England and Scotland. also papers on mycology, morphology and* cytology, papiicet - One of the pleasantest features of this meeting was the dinn about seventy, in St. John’s College. The speeches by DARWI, Fuyu, Sewarp, and Wacerr were felicitous, and the cordial re to Fuyu, of Tokyo, was especially interesting at this time. 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We are age nts for i. aie makes of Pianos and have | Pianos on our floors. *The prospective bitte r can make compari- partments Roane the World. Gaal e re that eerie be impossible elsewhere. pee, f00, we Can meet your views in regard to Bausch é Lomb Opt. Co. fee, lor we have Pianos from $125.00 up. ROCHESTER, New York Chicago ‘san Say "asian Gy re sell Pianos on such terms of payment that me vm = without this necessary and wUse acquisi | Good asses Rent The Prospects of || . v8 a orton Wiepae Piano book. It the Small College By WittraM R, Ha President of the Valet d “AC hicago I2M0, paper; postpaid, 25 cents The University of Chicago Press C HL «A GO) to eo 38 ADAMS STREET, CHICAGO Se ) i_ Morgan Park Academy —=FOR BO A Complete Catalogue of Publications Sent on Reque ENTACU tate Tme Unt an ce , an Park eight In the beautiful village of a \ University’ B4t miles from € city site of ; age is “Sec is torte favorable, and spacious- Teh ° the Acade > ‘ e all leo g €my consists of e] ; ’ D, O H rpartmen a eg graduates, well- -trained in mb ) LI om - CLIP hol bye - thicgocee and can be weed “are ener over ins Setar fen Avoid unsightly P! phos e out It costs you pie ys on eiy announcements 4 tising matter. i ae on our mailing !! THE MANIFEST SUPERIORITY 5 p a 'NTRAST for a moment automatic and individual ie Playing. With a music-box or a mechanical piano player, y of Onous succession of notes but not an atom €rsonal sympathy. . Ook at a sheet of music and see the accent and aa erie mark € very life and essence of the phe Now loo MGs exact] with the sheet of music and contains all the seme accent sii expression marks, together with any pat oftime, all so clearly indicated that they can be easily followed 4 anybody. Remember it is not even necessary to be : read music when playing with the aid of an A ey ae ex ow are these quick little touches, changes and SVER-— the «0 obtained >—WITH THE PHRASING L €xclusive Property of THE ANGELUS chased by - ’ . . : ) reatest musicians. for (free) alty and the world’s g 7 n y ‘Roy — handsome booklet and the name of the nearest agent. i CO. Established ‘aly WILCOX & hindi’ CONN., U.S. A. Of What Use is a Feast Without Appetite > Or, an appetite if the stomach will not digest the food it craves? A keen and healthy appetite and the power to assimilate the food it a calls for comes from taking s{Exiract The “Best”? Tonic. It is ) Ee the life of the finest bar- ley malt, combined with the hop-blossom, a restorative that not only helps the work of digestion but is itself a rich nutritious food, readily taken up by the most delicate stomach. It is a combination that has no equal asa builder of flesh and muscle and as a soothing sedative for shattered nerves. Behind it are the testimonials of thousands of physicians who have prescribed it. It has helped others; it will help you. Your druggist has it. Booklet Free. Pabst Extract Department, Milwaukee, Wis. the "Y and E" Vertical System of correspondence filing. @ Shows exactly how compact es from letters to photo negative. @ Want it? YAWMAN & ERBE MFG. Phone: Central 2497 138-140 Wabash Avenue u ac.” “roOLLOW THE TAKE THE WABASH SAINT LOU THE ONLY LINE 1 oer F. A. PALMER, » “yc e 311 MARQUETTE 3 A Short Cut to Comfort “Long Distance Lo (showa in the siete ration) is just right for “ae _man who \ reads in bed, ord sna \ on 1; ke —— 4 pe she <4, oe ~ ar when burned out, Cords can = any length desired. = The buyer of a Look for the nl namé HYLO R>5emington and ed im- ttation Typewriter elve styles of icc Se Py ice, talogueand book expects good pad aes: - o Read Your Meter.”” gets it. THE PHE LPS C OMPANY Remington Bhi wiges 1 — : d . New Y % STATE STREET DETROIT, U.S.A snc AN 7 Dal "| OFFICIAL TYPEWRITER a a “ cae slestaet atin ecient ET CPE ete hes cae TE sg >. a ae The New Hammond Typewriter ; Een For All Nations and Tongues and used by Alf Classes of People. 4 a THE BUSINESS MAN ~ Because the New Hammond is the Best bes Writer, Manifolder and Tabulator. a 1 THE SCIENTIFIC MAN - Because the Hammond has a practically — range of service. THE LITERARY MAN - Because the Hammond allows the use % sed styles and sizes of type. achine more THE LINGUIST - - - Because on one Hammond m twenty languages can be written. 4 THE LADIES - - - ~- Because the Hammond has a beautiful -— and others in preparation. anyihing 20 4 EVERYBODY - Because one Hammond will write an re style of type, language, or color of # J size paper in any direction. 69TH TO 7OTH STS., AND EAST RIVER THE HAMMOND TYPEWRITER COMPAR a Rueeas co Lithia BUFF ALO warer Meester tot eatin Alfred L. Loomis, M. D., Pee, oe ifwe Oo the Practice o Medicine in the edical Dept. of New York “a Wm. A, Hammond, M. D., Surgeon-General vetived) oh . U.S. Army, and former. Prof, of, Diseases 5 of the Mind and : Bright’ $ Disease Nervous System in the eee New y a ee bm Boyland, A, M., M. f% Doctor of Medi- — ; of the ully of Paris, ‘and former Prof. of Surgery im , and Bibtisanoe, Medial aig “ Wm. B. Towles, M. D., former Prof. Aaciemsy and om a Post-Scarlatinal Materia Medica in ie Medicai ee of the Untoesaity of Va. _ Nephritis, E. H. Pratt, A. M., M. D., LL.D., Prof: Orificie ie Surgery to the C) = psig eae”: BBA: C.W. P. Brock, M. D., National Assn. Rail- way Surgeons and Vonaber Minar Socitly of Va. J. T. Davidson, M. D., Zx-Pres. New Orleans Surgical and Medical Assn. Renal Calculi, Dr. A. Gabriel Pouchet, Prof. of Pharmacology and ) Materia Medica of the Faculty of Medicine of Paris Bre Ms aE kina M. D., Prof. of Menizent Cline, SM., SN. ‘ Ja mes K. Is k, A . . M. D., Prof. Clinical Medicine and Clinical Diagnosis, New Kg k Post-Graduate Medical School. Jos. Holt, M. D., ES et Se ee Board of Health, etc. : Robe vt Dustholow, M. D.,M. A., LL:D., Prof, Materia Medica and General Therapeutics, Jefferson Medical College, Ph sea James L. Cabell, M. D., A. M., LL.D., sehpe ee Physiol nd Si in the Medical hen Unt we arr. pee Pris. of: the Nationai Board ola Horatio C. Wood, M. D., former Prof. of ateria * yetee. in the Medical Dept. of the University of Pa. B. Nancrede, M. D., Prof ¢. Surety, —_— pase of the’ University of Michigan. ee Pres ep ed Baye foo New York, ——— ae eigen of be iene Cheon? Medicine i fedical S SPRINGS, sone ‘OR, BUFFALO LITHIA The Chocolate Girl LLS THE STOR You will find her on every genuine package HEINRICH CONRIED, Director of i Sheath Convad Metropolitan Onera writes as NEw York, May 1, OF Baker’s “From time to time during the past B kf | ful resources. of the Weber Pianos | ea as have been using at the Metropolitan, “Subjected to immense usage dy? Cocoa our numerous reheai ins nevertheless retain their exquisite “ft know of no pian THE FINEST IN better pom: and it is my d tae THE WORLD Weber Piano. shall continue to: seaatl eteielitas Opera House.” E a1 mn oe Highest SS THE WEBER PIANO 60) urope and TRADE-MARK America AEOLIAN HALL 7 Wane: “-Ker & Co. Lid. 362 Fifth Ave., near 34th St., % : Catalog upon Request Established 1730 DORCHESTER, MASS. — DIRT IS VARIOUS— always out of place. itm " lives and homes and people. ’Tis the best of g0 ners tobe clean. A cake of HAND SAPOLIO is half as introduction, just clean et: Se hbicseens, but not poss HAND SAPOLIO. The daintiest soap made. : In sable to everyone who desires the real beauty °° cleanliness. THE PORES are the Bis eae valves of the body. . _ be kept in perfect order by constant and intellige? avo a_very general source of danger from disease is _ HAND SapPo_io is unequaled as a gentle, effies a ‘ Opener. Other soaps chemically disso eh me _SAPOLIO removes it. Other soaps eith sit _ Pores, or by excess of alkali absorb the healt 2 BS id contain. ae Its price. Is small, its use a fine EDITORS tai - JOHN M. COULTER anp CHARLES R. BARNES, — WITH OTHER MEMBERS OF THE BOTANICAL ‘STAFF OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO VOLNEY M, SPALDING, de University of Michigan — ae = ay, 12 - 4 “All rights secured.” $2.00 A Year (52 ISSUES) 10 Cents A Copy THE INDEPENDENT is not a class publica- tion, It is an up-to-date national and interna- tional illustrated weekly with sixty pages of reading matter. it is divided into four main departments in which everything of importance in the whole world is treated. THE SURVEY OF THE WORLD—A luminous and strictly unbiased account of the important events of the week told in brief paragraphs. It is a time-saver. EDITORIALS —Ti1z INDEPENDENT’ interpretation of these events, discussed positively and fearlessly in every field of thought—Art, Ethics, Literature, Politics, eligion, Science, Sociology, etc. SIGNED ARTICLES—By the leading authorities in the world. “Tue INDEPENDENT prints more articles from the ablest writers than any other paper in the United States.” BOOK REVIEWS—All the important books published in the English language reviewed by critics of authority who cannot be deceived by what 1s faulty or trivial. A helpful guide to the book lover and book buyer. For > quality” a year THE INDEPENDENT gives more in quantity and , any monthly or weekly magazine in the United States. Se 2 — Special Offer to New Subscribers & THE INDEPEN DENT Eight Weeks Free. és New Yorks We wil « Please send me Tue yt 16, 5 cents down and $1.75 y 1, 1906, 7.00 In one remittance if you _ ~ fe 4 * INDEPEN f - 7 oner you accept the offer SSUES you will get. P 1905 LA, Botanical Gazette A Montbly Journal Embracing all Departments of a Science Subscription per year, $5.00. Foreign, $5.75. ingle Numbers, 50 ( : European ee pe 4&1 4s per annum (post free), should be Bia to Wituaw Westey & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London, Sole European Agents, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 5 Issued CONTENTS A FOSSIL Ba aga FROM THE SIERRA NEVADA Sila PLATES XVIII AND xa) Edwa Jeffrey - - PLACE- ans FOR ASTER PRENANTHOIDES. CONTRIBUTIONS rrow Tae Het BoranicaL LABoratory. LXIV (WITH EIGHTEEN FIGURES). George Harrison Shull - BRIEFER ARTICLES, A NEw SHEEP-PoIson From Mexico, B. L. Robinson - - * SoME WESTERN SPECIES oF AGROPYRON. Elias Nelson - NOTE ON SOME dears esieiscrers peed oc TeEe Nakao: THREE rou) Co MacMillan CELLOIDIN TECHNIQUE: A REriy. &. C, upon Charles J. Chomberlade * AN ABNORMAL AMBROSIA (WITH THREE FicurREs). A. C. Life - ; CURRENT satiny hiya BOOK RE - - THE atte THEOR MATTHIAS JACOB SCHLEIDEN. : MINOR NOTICES - - - = : S ‘ NOTES FOR STUDENTS - - - 2 - < b Ss eee arates, if desired, must be ordered in statism of publication. Not less than 50 separate d . actual ing eh ed, of which 25 (without covers) will be furnished eg ster arte remainder (and covers, if desired) to be paid for by the author, Se rates ” ‘mate cost of without covers) supplied at cost. The table below rp co ng of plain text or fet with line engravings. The actual cost m epend up of work in re-making the pages into i ire a ress work, PS Separates containing ‘ee somid S may be expected to cost somewhat m mt depending upon the number of cuts and the amount of work required u upo 150 Number of copies 59 se $1.80 ress, for 4 pages or less $1.30 $x ir 2.50 Letter-press, for 8 pages or less eS -80 : 6b 4.65 Letter-press, for 16 pages or ee 3-20 *: . 1.35 Single plates (1 double =2 sin. 80 : poe 2.00 Covers, with title (paper like Gazerre cover) . 1.20 . ro nasty names with P ; Manuscripts. ts. —Contributors are requested to write scientific pang serps sho and in citations to follow the form shown in the pages of the Gaz Mite ot the Boteaica! Ga he University of zette, icago, Chicago, Books and Pamphlets f or Review should be sent to the same a sty days after Numbers will ed replaced free only when claim is made wl thirty oT. number following. voction S i to on to Foreign ibers,—The —— of foreign = ake indicated , seer ger by the payment of extra postage. til further notice the p : remitted to our forei agents. University 0 Chica abe roo ; Pr berceeonery should be made payable to the order of a Or Seger a es subscriptions, advertisemen : Press, Chicago, Ill, The U Universi tsity of Chicago oe [Entered at the Post-Office at Chicago, Ill, as second-class err Pabst 1905 Calendar Pleasingly reflects the beauties of Persian Art, with its rich colorings and atmosphere of romance. This exquisite calendar at distinctive in design and style, and makes a striking decora- tion for any home or office. It typifies the joy of living and the spirit of health. It is the highest — Bs lithographic art, and the picture here shown gives but a faint idea of the radiant beauty of F the calendar itself, We could not afford to sendit to you for 10 cents, did we not believe it will remind you Pabst Exiua is the “Best” tonic—the ideal malt nerve-food for men an en. Pabst Extract is the first aid to health—it helps digestion, soothes the nerves, brings rest to the sleepless, and builds up the entire system. It is sold by all druggists, Send ten cents to-day a this beautiful ex- ample of dyer Art 2: ia wide, 3 Sashes lens ), which will give added charm to any ress Pabst Extract oe Milwaukee, Wis. When calling please ask to see Mr, Gret BOOKS AT LIBERAL DISCOUNT PICTURES One cent each for 25 or o for $r.00, saeitted as tesived. Size Bly x 8 [5 to 8 times size of thi BEFORE BUYING BOOK WRITE FOR QUOTATION. An assortment of catalogues and spec slips of Books at reduced prices sent for ro-cent stamp a if you mention U. of C. P. THE PERRY PICTURES cA guael side t Mautpen, Ma Tremont Temple, nt erin Ave., New Yo Send all mail orders to ‘Malbec. Order early for Phiteins Gitte TO THE READER eed a Please remember that whenever you ne any information about Books, Toul addres will ss to please you “a attentio’ jw pris a Write me of ve, — or call and inspect stock, in wither: case I I ee ad sof in ether cane I ee F. E. GRASS 3 Ww. 4 reet oY a Mention this advertisement and receive ad ieee Lantern Slides to illustrate Educational and Scientific Subjects Bli aes are selected from our er 40,000 slides, and are carefully and nged, = many cases to accompany stand- ahi sas es 0! s eiaeik Lantern Slides on back oe Geography. Lantern Slides on 6 Lantern Slides on Bota Lantern Slides on Rateral History. Lantern Slides on Native Bi rds, L ee Slides on a eremas These Jan stock, thane! eg accurate 3] — ge ard T xt Bock a “in ng. rals. = a Slides on han gor A Design, ni Venter hg * Illustrating many other subjects in bet i a Educational Lantern Slides and descrip- tio ‘of our Ne rd Bright rate mp str gied mw Port- able Light for Magie Lante Li care ectin wt pn icro- scopes and Projecting Polaris st 8g vo ot Souler We also rent Slides at low WILLIAMS, nt comet & EARLE, ~ Manufacturers of Stereopticons, Microscopes, etc., Dept.24 9 la. 18 Chestnut St., Phi The Role of Diffusion a (smotic Pressure in By BURTON EDW $a ma This book would serve ¢ as qdva for both beginning and a b t is ‘ students, as the first pa “ol ise on ve" ough and concise treat phenomena in organi a the second part is 4 mo a and equally thorough trol a the present status of at regard to the occurre - phenomena, together ¥! ography on the subject cloth $yv0, © pages, aid, $1.6 C life ; a xiv +150 net, $1-50; postp# ity 0 THE UNIVE HICA GO, r CHES PRES . Walker Prizes in Natural History. the provisions of the will of ei late Dr. William oe Walker two prizes are annually offered by the Boston SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY for the best memoirs written in the English language, on sebjects proposed by a Dacidines cppbinted by the Council. for the best memoir presented a prize of sixty dollars may be awarded; if, however, the memoir be one of marked merit, the amount may be increased to one hundred dotinrs, at the Te of the Committee. For the : : Prizes will not be awarded unless the memoirs presented are o sane nent The competition for these prizes is not restricted, but is open to all, Luge is especially called to the following points all cases the memoirs are to be based on a considerable body of original and unpublished work, ato panied ~y a ahi review of the literature of the subject. . Anythin i n the hi oa ng ll furnish proof an the identity of the author shall be considered from Peompet s. Preterence will b t a showing intrinsic evidence of being based upon researches made deectly in competition for the priz 4. Each memoir must be Seiciea a by a sealed steueete Te the author's name and super- embed with a motto corresponding to one borne by the manuscript, and must be in the hands of the Sec- mary on or before April 1st of the year for which the prize is 0 §, The Society assumes no responsibility for publication of snatinclons submitted. Subjects for 1905: Subjects for 1906: t The life history of any parasitic fun ngus 1. An experimental Gord bres in CoOngTs: Ls Contin to our A pant nowledge of ‘the physiology of 2. A contribution to a k p tition in plants, 3. A physiological life history of a single species of : Costrbution to the development of some group of fos- Rate in animals or plan plant. same? of geographical lsibution of species. 4. Phyloge ny ofa si fossil organisms. mas Study of the mechanism of Galeleveltie (pene- _ pisgrs ne ia mineral Dhysie et iettetion to ge we Shee ye lation in the United . petits Cera ae Boston Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass., U.S.A. GLOVER M. ALLEN, Secretary. —— Methods in Plant Histology y CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN, A.M., PH.D., Instructor in Botany in the University of Chicago eee a I ed A CONSTANT HELP to Teachers and Students of Botany CONTAINS DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PREPARING PLANT MATERIAL FOR MICROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION § bas Tete publ ¢d upon a course in ian penis technique, and is the an complete manual to ag pith on “pe su i c ch ; uch preparations as are needed by those who wis! e alge i up to the flowering plants. Special attention n is paid t ep euating rnd ce because the student who masters this problem wi 2 onical labee uctures. Formulas are given for the reagents common ec m fro om t ; “hs Tyokined aaa ad ic ly use ed in I am, 8vo, illustrated, cloth, (net) $1.50; postpaid $1.59 For sale by dealers or by the publishers The Unive s_’*TSity of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois er Physical Chemistry inthe Service of the Sciences By FJACOBUS H. VAN’T HOFF (English version by ALEXANDER SMITH) In four groups Physical Chemistry as related to Pure Chemistry (First Group) Industrial Chemistry (Second Group) Physiology (Third Group) Geology (Fourth Group) Of special interes to Instructors in Chemistry Chemists Manufactur ing Chemists Instructors in Physiology Physiciats Geologists JACOBUS H. VAN’L HOFF Press Consens The eight lectures Le se ted in this volume have already appeared in —— and been oursel, 24, 7 (1902). The ae American Chemtcal Soc ned fr ystaim e book, interest being $¢ 7” row The hogs 1 Chemistry and ‘ne roe ticularl interesting, need 2 ve fe oe ¢ cific actio n Baa chemical io st € pt rtak ing lytic agents tending fs Geology, something © _ Bc onl ha tu lization. rysta nd edvane oy er tise Wor. on oe PUBLISHED BY The bigot aga A of Chicago Pre CwiCeee eo ie SEND THIS COUPON TO ANY BOOKSELLER, won @ setry in the SO Hees end me a copy of Physical ot Sciences. I will remit Name. Address Analytical | nelose | 3, 60 in payment for $3 ot =e Oe ee — SN A Pew BJllustrated History By Drs. Garnett and Gosse f' publication of recent times bas aroused such widespread eben Bases real book lovers and people of the Loge doe generally as has the ne nglish Liter- ature by Drs, Garnett and G eal achievement, both in form ends ins ee Not oaly is it the most scholarly cet the most complet but it is also the most sumptuous work of the kind ever . pi saber i in America or England. be tnpes numb wei containing a 8x 1034) securtelty's ny pie eg fro sie ; “es Ther , wide margins, and bound in blue cloth with labele 4 title and gold leaf dans — Sd deg plan of Th bala aie? aor " ane Lemire: ion cans Se = a limited number of s duce it are especially radive olies, both 2 as sane: ee ee phat ay > of rns ITS WIDE eee THE ILLUSTRATIONS sibs te we eine combin ations are the special fe. — of the work why we are finding . ee sacra is send Pr ks of this wart out on approval. ot be described, ie 4 pln interest, Saree of artistic serit. The ey m e seen to be appreciated. They are sure to be Seeeeats ed the Vi when seen, There are 1700 of them, yo in the ast Sry writ 42 full page photogravure plates, 29 full page colo bord to Engle pote » very influence which contri- —— victures ot rare objects, manuscripts, decora- * Merary ex ey ine ements every form , etc., preserved in the Bri ek keen oe ~ wm to | titerary ng Studie wed iewed in its re- Libriiy and pred world-know ces. These let € period toms the x hepinntng et Laeratre 4 the Fifth Century to the end ole, the work the richest Je. pictorial Stee —and pict e tecti lons from the writ excellence—of any e published jen similar sigies. ogy of British Other a are: ieee appendix, c ante Sroashness of “so ang istory it outranks— _lation; of all old English -peserts votre to plea al ina ccuracy,intrue per- text; the ~ dex, wherein by references and "enue We Cver atte “98 ° detail—any work of like references every ane, passage and illustration is made i tantly accessible. biographies of authors, abstracts from r letters i i iti ne _—? of th ment a ater 7 his work, as we cannot doin privi ege a — you the entire set Soe App We pay all carriage ee five days and hold the set subject to your amMinatio _ ae e th i der. Until the pr A 9 chase price hes . rovided . n the €xpense, or beet han I~ —_ pes the title ibe deg $ is lim coupon, We advis he & egel es toonan pa) wae plan shouly be understood as a prib pana sb fr Shall be ould you wish to pay ied "a os eral Discount, ., st, ake 18th St. , ew Dork Gar we Tot t = 5 aD py Fe — | Aenge 4 |} eeaeer fees | For Patil SER Life Insurance in : Wie for Pars of Policies, Dept.2 The Prudential Insurance Company of poeeet Pres't. : - re XXXVIII NUMBER 5 BOTANICAL GAZETTE NOVEMBER, 1904 A FOSSIL SEQUOIA FROM THE SIERRA NEVADA.! EDWARD C. JEFFREY. (WITH PLATES XVIII AND XIX) _ Awonc the material of fossil woods stored in the basement of the ical Museum of Harvard University is a large piece from the of the Central Pacific Railway. It is catalogued as no. 7354 and ibed on the label as “From tunnel no. 1, Central Pacific R, Blue Gap, Sierra Nevada Mountains. Elevation above the 4520". Found under 60!t of conglomerate.” There is no ner information as to the time of its collection or the formation Which it was derived. As the piece of wood in question had the olor and general texture of a Sequoia, I was led to investigate its : ic structure, with the result that it turned out to be a new “és of the genus, presenting a number of interesting and novel L -F. H. KNow ron, of the United States Geological Survey, has pet! the opinion that the wood which forms the subject of the W article is of the age of the auriferous gravels, 7. e., Miocene; Unable to state Positively that this is the case, on account of wet of definite evidence. As the location of the specimen is : ' indicated, it will probably be an easy matter to determine ny its exact geological horizon. In any case the morpho- eee. Which it presents are of sufficient interest to justify N at the present time. thy t of wood in its original condition as taken from ‘ollection, Was about 1.5™ long. One end was much frayed and a irom the Phanerogamic Laboratories of Harvard University. No. t- 32T 322 BOTANICAL GAZETTE ; [NovEMBER water-worn; the other showed a fractured surface as if it had been broken away from a longer piece. This supposition is strengthened by the fact that there are a few ax marks on the broken end of -the specimen. The piece measured about 15°™ in the radial direction and about 18°™ tangentially, and is rounded in these directions apparently by water carriage. There are about three hundred rings of growth, and perpendiculars drawn from these show that the original trunk of which the specimen under discussion is a fragment must have been at least six feet in diameter. It was possibly much larger, since in all probability a good deal of ligneous tissue has disap - from the outer surface of the specimen. The wood had undergone comparatively little alteration from decay, and the fact that it is only very slightly impregnated with silica, easily removed with hydro- fluoric acid, makes it very favorable for investigation. The preserva- tion even of minute details of structure is far beyond that of any other fossil Sequoia with which I am familiar. Fig. 1 shows some of the characteristic features of a transverse section of the fossil wood under discussion. The annual rings a well marked and very regular even in sections of that shown in the figure. Two peculiarities stand out above all others in fig. 1, viz., the apparent absence of resin cells, such as ordi narily occur in cupressineous woods, and the presence of rea C FH in both horizontal and vertical planes, a feature characteristic of Abietineae and hitherto unknown in the cupressineous sen : : cheids, but rings of growth are mostly composed of thin-walled tra suddenly toward the outer border of the annual zone appear @ thick-walled tangentially flattened elements. In one of the go rings may be seen a number of open spaces rounded jn outline. ee are vertical resin canals in transverse section, and ar confi the spring wood. A very broad horizontal duct originates eile from the vertical series of resin canals just described ree as beyond the boundary of the figure. Fig. 2 shows some tO : : ; . often square ©" rings highly magnified. The tracheids are more 74 to tel pentagonal or hexagonal in outline. The pits are confin radial walls, except in the case of the thick-walled au ey eids, and are obviously in two rows as seen in transverse sect vod of the tangential pits which are sometimes found in the spring ¥ et 7 Ae ee greater area than ae 1904] JEFFREY—A FOSSIL SEQUOIA 323 living Sequoias are not found in the present species.? On the left of the figure may be seen a medullary ray. The cells are obviously very long, and in the present instance extend across a complete annual ring. The elements still retain their dark granular contents, the so-called resin globules. In the present species of Sequoia the _ resinous material is mainly found in the medullary rays and scarcely at all in the wood, in this respect presenting a marked resemblance to Tsuga and Abies among the Abietineae. There is, however, a cer- fain number of resin cells on the outer face of the summer wood. One of these elements is shown in the second annual ring and on the right of the figure, This feature, too, finds a parallel in Tsuga among - the Abictineae. Fig. 3 shows part of a tangential section of the wood of our species, under low magnification. The irregular dark striping of the center of the figure represents the summer wood, while the light- colored lateral portions correspond to the spring wood. Most of the medullary Tays appearing in the figure are so small as to be scarcely cemnible, but some of them are enormously enlarged to constitute orm rays, which contain horizontal resin canals. Most of these canals appear to be empty, but some are obviously filled with coarsely sranular contents, The appearance presented in the section shown ip fig. 3 is somewhat exceptional for the species under discussion. =i a tangential section of the wood reveals no fusiform ** 4nd no horizontal resin canals. in ‘ '§- 4 appears to afford an explanation of the peculiarities seen § 3. The magnification in this instance is not great, and as a pequence a large number of annual rings are present. These “a arched and suffer interruption toward ‘the lower part of 2 gp In this case we have obviously to do with a healing inka Ng interruption in the continuity of the annual rings BD the rin op at which the injury took place, and outside this in Seg of growth are unusually thick, as is ordinarily the case ti aes There is a reaction farther out and the rings still nies nner, again to increase their thickness once more : - From the right border of the wound a horizontal i. si P., Generic characters of North American Taxaceae and » NOY. Soc. Canada 2: 1896 * 324 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER resin canal can be seen making its way outward through all the annual rings seen in the plane of the figure. By careful inspection it is also possible to make out that there are vertical canals in series in the spring wood of the first ring of ligneous growth subsequent to injury. Fig. 5 shows part of another section through the same wound more highly magnified. The tangential series of resin canals in the spring growth of the first traumatic ring can now be clearly seen. Passing off from these can be made out three horizontal ducts, the most median of which does not actually communicate with the vertical canals in the plane of the present section. To the right of the figure a short tangential series of ducts can be seen in the second ring of growth formed after the wound. No horizontal canals originate from this weaker series of vertical canals. Fig. 6 is taken from the center of the wounded region, and the annual rings imme- diately abutting on the wound are the second and third formed subsequent to the injury. Each of them contains a weak series of vertical canals in the vernal wood, but these do not give rise to aly horizontal ducts. Fig. 7 shows a part of another section through the same wound, somewhat more highly magnified. The vertical canals of the spring wood are now clearly discernible, and from these are passing off in the horizontal direction three huge resin canals. Two of these are more or less completely filled by parenchymatous tyloses. ical and We are now in the position to discuss the resin canals se a a horizontal appearing in figs. r and 3. It is a well-known iia in the Abietineae the formation of resin canals -— : “i about as the result of wounds. The present writer has sho the same feature is found in the living species of Sequoia.* bet existing species of Sequoia the formation of traumatic resin ¢ gf entirely confined to the vertical plane, so far as our present marie goes. In those Abietineae which give rise to ligneous eS . except as a result of injury they are also confined to the vertical plane, in the genus Cedrus, where, as the present author shows ees Three about to be published, they are formed horizontally age nt under cases of injury have been found in the fossil Sequoia - ee to the consideration, and in each of the three cases the injurie » no. 10° 3 Jerrrey, E. C., Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural — 1904] JEFFREY—A FOSSIL SEQUOIA 325 formation of traumatic resin canals. Where the irritation is most severe, 7. ¢., in the first annual ring formed after injury, there are apt to be both horizontal and vertical canals ; while in the later formed rings the impulse gradually dies out and only vertical canals originate. The horizontal canals run in considerable numbers from the margins of healing wounds. Fig. 3 represents a section through such a patch of traumatic horizontal canals. Fig. 8 shows the appearance of the large horizontal canal to be seen on the left of jig. 3 when somewhat more highly magnified. The enormously enlarged medullary ray is almost entirely taken up by the huge resin canal, which in turn is occluded by a mass of cells constituting a tylosis. Fig. 9 shows a smaller duct from the right of fig. 3 somewhat more highly magnified than the foregoing. The continuity between the tylosis and the wall of the duct can clearly be made out in this figure. The cells consti- tuting the walls of the traumatic resin canals in the Sequoias are thick-walled and much pitted, and generally contain in greater or less abundance the dark brown masses which occur in the resin cells of the wood of the Cupressineae in the larger sense. Not all of the canals contain tyloses in the fossilized material, but it is probable t they were universally present in the living tree. Fig. 10 shows the transition from a vertical to a horizontal duct #S seen in vertical radial section. The great difference in size which ordinarily obtains between the two sorts of ducts is very apparent. The abundant tyloses are also a feature of the horizontal ducts, although this phenomenon is also occasionally found in the vertical Tesin canals ol traumatic resin canals may extend very far above and om the Wound, so that in small isolated pieces of wood their relation From a wide knowledge of living forms of ty, I am in the position to state inductively oniferous w ts occurring vertically and tangentially in ods are always due to injury. It has been possible to that this is the case wherever the material was abundant enough ant a definite conclusion. onzontal traumatic canals ma Tows of vertical] duc y pass outward from a healed Canals ¢ ough many annual rings. In one instance horizontal ned through thirty-eight rings of growth, ending in another 326 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [Noveuser vertical series of ducts, and from this vertical series again other hori- zontal ducts passed outward beyond the limits of the piece of wood at my disposal. In another case I was able to follow the course of a horizontal duct through over seventy annual rings before it finally tapered off and ended blindly. Although the horizontal canals always start from a vertical series, they by no means always end in the next outward vertical series, even when one is present. More frequently they end blindly, as in the one last described above. The formation of new series of vertical canals may recur in remote rings of growth, and these are nearly always united by horizontal canals. It will be convenient at this stage to consider more particularly the structure of the wood parenchyma, since it is of considerable diag- nostic importance. Our jig. 2 shows the scantiness of the parenchyma as seen in transverse section through the wood, and also that it occurs on the face of the summer wood. Both these features are unusual, for in the living Sequoias the resiniferous parenchyma is particularly abundant and is found throughout the annual ring. Our fossil also presents a contrast in this respect to the woods of other extinct Sequolas. PENHALLOW‘ describes his S. Langsdorfii as having abundant resia cells throughout the annual ring and appearing also in a rudimentary form on the face of the summer wood. In another species, 5. Bur gesstt, according to this author, resin cells abundant throughout the ring are most numerous on the face of the summer wood. S. magnifica of KNow.ton’ the distribution of resin cells throughout the annual growth seems to be somewhat uniform. Longitudinal sections of the wood of the species under discussion, taken 1m ee bers both in the tangential and radial planes, show clearly that absence of resin cells from all locations except the face of the ee wood is not due to disappearance through decay, for there is no 2 dence of the existence of parenchymatous elements elsewhere a < the face of the summer wood. Fig. 11 shows the appearance a resin cells of our species in longitudinal section. They are long inlet row elements comparable among living species to those of 5- §'8 4 PENHALLOw, D. P., Notes on Tertiary plants. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada 9 5 Op. cit. 6 Know ton, F. H., Geology of the Yellowstone Park. Mo Geological Survey 32: pt. 2. 1904] JEFFREY—A FOSSIL SEQUOIA 327 rather than to the stouter, shorter similar elements of S. sem per- virens. They may be seen on the outside of the summer wood in two contiguous annual rings. They contain a very small number of resinous globules. On the left of the figure is a longitudinal section of a vertical resin canal. In fig. 12 is seen a longitudinal section of a medullary ray of the species under consideration. The lateral walls of the ray which are in contact with the tracheids are characterized by so-called bordered pits, which owe their double contour to the fact that the outline of the pit on the side of the tracheid is different from that on the side of the medullary ray cell. The medullary ray of the present species of Sequoia is strikingly different from that of the two living species in features other than the crucial one of the lateral bordered pits. There are distinctly differentiated marginal cells, broader than the central cells and having two to three radial rows of pits instead of the single tow found in the central cells. The marginal cells are further par- ticularized by their undulating borders, the tops of the undulations corresponding to the walls of the tracheids. They present an addi- tional contrast to the central cells in the fact that they are generally without tanniniferous contents and often contain very large clino- thombic crystals, lodged in cysts derived from the cell wall. The Presence of crystals finds a parallel in the genus Abies among the Abietineae. STRASBURGER has noticed their occasional presence in Abies pectinata, I have found them to be very numerous in A. soneuced and fewer in A. grandis, A. bracteata, A. nobilis, and A. magnifica. In Abies the crystals may or may not be associated with a dark brown matrix similar to that found in the resin cells of cupres- Pa Woods and in the so-called crystallogenous cells which occur oo of many of the Coniferales; but I have not found them _ i cysts derived from the cell wall as they are in the fossil ae of Sequoia here described. Where the medullary rays are fect fep the specialized marginal cells, instead of constituting a our Tow on the upper and lower borders of the ray, as is shown in §- 12, may be present to the number of three or four rows. In Satie Specialized cells may also occur in the middle of the ray, cettain aly the case with the tracheidal cells in the rays of etineae. Another feature which differentiates our species [NOVEMBER 328 BOTANICAL GAZETTE from the living species of Sequoia is the very abundant pitting of the tangential walls of the medullary ray cells. This is an additional point of resemblance to the Abietineae. Through the kindness of Professor PENHALLOW’'I have had the opportunity of examining the type specimens of his Sequoia Langsdorfii and Sequoia Burgessil. The state of preservation of the medullary rays is very indifferent in these species; but so far as could be made out they do not possess the peculiar marginal cells and the strong pitting of the terminal (tangential) walls which are characteristic of our species. The Sequoia magnifica of KNOWLTON has badly preserved medullary rays, accor: ing to the author’s description.? Professor PENHALLOW has seen sections of our species and agrees that it is new and unlike any which have been described. The name Sequoia Penhallowii is proposed for it in recognition of Professor PENHALLOW’S great services » the paleobotany of the Coniferales. The following is the diagnosis: Sequoia Penhallowii, n. sp. : Transverse.—Rings of growth rather narrow, with sharply marked - ser summer wood. Rings’ regular, or if varying in thickness varying uniformly and without violent transitions except as the result of injury. Resin canals present in both the vertical and horizontal planes apparently only as the ae of injury. The resin canals when present surrounded by resin cells, cage dark brown resin. Resin cells inconspicuous and confined to the face of summer wood, except in the case of injury, where they may be present ner the zone of annual growth. Tracheids of the spring wood ey large wee pits on the radial walls only. Tracheids of the summer wood with tangential i adial—Rays without tracheidal cells, but with distinctly differen : marginal cells. Lateral pits of ray cells elliptical and bordered, larger 2 MS's" cells. Rows of pits single in the central cells of the ray and two to ae ‘i in the marginal cells. Medullary ray cells covering one to f pire! oor central ones resiniferous, the marginal generally empty, sometians large clinorhombic crystals inclosed in cysts derived from the cell ee of ‘ cells with undulating free border, deeper than central cells. End cells of the medullary rays very strongly pitted. Loge wr ase of inj also pitted and rather thick. Rays contain resin canals a the wood. Res® which take their origin from similar vertical canals running gee re external ‘ ¢ Ms Hi times m i canals of the rays sometimes ending blindly and some al rings, varying series of vertical canals, often extending through may 4g penerallf greatly in size and frequently occluded by tyloses. ping with two rows of opposite pits, which often alternate in the ends. 7 Op. cit. 1904] ‘JEFFREY—A FOSSIL SEQUOIA 329 Tangential—Rays of one kind only in uninjured parts of the wood. Fusi- form rays present with linear rays in the case of injury and varying greatly in size. Fusiform rays when present generally with central resin canal, which is often occluded by tyloses. Linear rays varying greatly in depth. No pits on the tangential walls of the spring tracheids. Pits on the tangential walls of the summer tracheids numerous, generally not in rows. CONCLUSIONS. The greatest interest connected with the study of any extinct species is the light it throws on the structure and relationships of - livingforms. In the case of Sequoia Penhallowii the first point in this connection is its affinity with the living species of the genus. The very regular rings of growth and the very thin summer wood find their nearest parallel in S. gigantea. It is possible, however, that this similarity in structure of the wood may be due only to a similar mountainous habitat, since such surroundings tend, as is well known, 0 produce regular growth rings in living trees. For example, wood of spruce grown at high altitudes is particularly fitted for turning and the manufacture of fiddles on account of the regularity of the annual rings, The narrowness of the zone of summer wood, how- “vet, cannot be explained in this fashion. The long narrow resin cells of the wood in our species also most nearly resemble those of 5. siganiea. The wide spring tracheids with their double rows of radial pits present a feature of resemblance to S. sempervirens rather than > S. gigantea; but this feature cannot be regarded as conclusive, since in some of the fossil Sequoias known only by impressions the larger free leaves of the S. sempervirens type were correlated with — likes those of S. gigantea. The greater transpiration thus ig may well have been provided for by broader and sities _ netously pitted tracheids. A very strong argument for the associa- Hon of mt Species with S. gigantea is the fact of their similarity of ea distribution, for the fossil under discussion came from Mas of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, which are the home of the Py ; preenien. The weight of evidence seems to point to Sequowa ee ; being somewhat more closely allied to S. gigantea than bervirens, the od new turn to the question of the light which the study of Species throws on the general problem of the phylogeny 330 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER of the Coniferales. Attention has been called in the descriptive part of this article to the striking points of structural resemblance presented by S. Penhallowii to certain abietineous species. The medullary rays, for example, although they lack the marginal tracheidal cells _ characteristic of the typical Abietineae, have distinctly differentiated marginal cells which find a close parallel in the medullary rays of the genus Abies. Further, the marginal cells of the medullary rays of our species are crystallogenous, as are those of Abies. Another feature of strong resemblance to the Abies and the Abietineae is the marked pitting of the terminal walls of the medullary ray cells. Thi character is absent or poorly marked in the cupressineous series. Equally strong indications of abietineous affinities are to be found in the structure of the wood. The resin cells, which are such a marked feature of cupressineous woods, are almost absent in our species. The few which are present are confined to the outer surface of the summer wood, as in the abietineous genera Tsuga and Abies. The strongest argument, however, for the transitional nature of our fossil is that presented by the ligneous resin ducts. As has been pointed = ad the foregoing paragraphs, resin canals occur in both the horizontal and vertical planes in the wood of S. Penhallowii as the result of injury. In this feature it presents a striking resemblance to the normal state of affairs in the abietineous genera Pinus, Picea, Pseudot- suga, and Larix. In another place® I have pointed out that normal occurrence of vertical resin canals in the wood of the sm cone scales, peduncle, and jirst year’s growth of strong branches ° sexually mature trees of S. gigantea is good evidence that pes had come from ancestry characterized by the presence bo resin canals. In both S. gigantea and S. sempervirens resin a of the vertical type only occur in the secondary wood as the pei ats injury. In view of the conditions found normally in S- se trau- the matter of the occurrence of resin canals, I have argued me of S- matic resin canals are a case of reversion in the injured ¢ of the gigantea and S. sempervirens. Here we have an ees a by value of experimental morphological evidence when han out that that of comparative anatomy. Further it may be of Natur 8 Jerrrey, E. C., The genus Sequoia. Memoirs of the Boston Society C History 5: no. ro. 1904] JEFFREY—A FOSSIL SEQUOIA 331 if it is possible to recall experimentally morphological characters, which have entirely disappeared (as in the case of the ligneous resin ducts of S. sempervirens), the range of possibility in tracing phylo- genetic relationships will be greatly extended. In our fossil the traumatic resin ducts occur in both the horizontal and the vertical planes, and thus present a very close approximation to the condition occurring normally in Pinus. There is, however, a difference in the arrangement of the canals, for in Pinus they are distributed regularly throughout the wood and form an anastomosing system, while in 5. Penhallowii the vertical canals are confined to remote annual tings and the horizontal canals form a very incomplete system of connecting commissures. It is interesting to note that S. Langs- dorfii as described by PENHALLOW has only vertical canals, while S. Burgessii described by the same author has only radial ones. Had the material of the latter species been as abundant and as easily manipulated as in the case of our fossil, I am disposed to think that vertical canals would have been found as well. It is a noteworthy fact that-in three out of the four woods of fossil Sequoias which have been recently described, resin canals similar to those of the Abietineae have been found; or, to state it in another way, the oldest woods of Sequoia of which we have any reasonably complete knowledge more nearly approximate in structure the wood of the Abietineae than do lose of their living descendants. This fact, taken in connection with the great geological age of the Abietineae, makes it very probable t the Sequoias, and as a consequence the Cupressineae in a broader “yee have come from an abietineous ancestry. This conclusion “egg in harmony with evidence derived from the study of the _ and other important data, as I have pointed out at na forthcoming memoir on the Abietineae. SUMMARY. Sierra quoia from the Auriferous Gravels (Miocene) of the structur yada Mountains, although presenting features of wood aa which unite it with the living Sequoias, possesses other resin oo Strongly suggest the Abietineae. The paucity of high} Present only on the outer face of the summer wood, the Y developed medullary rays, and the traumatic resin canals A fossil Se 332 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER running both in the horizontal and vertical planes point strongly toward the Abietineae. The species is new and has been named Sequoia Penhallowti. It appears to be more closely allied to the living S. gigantea, and has, moreover, the same geographical occur- rence. A formal diagnosis is given in the body of the article. In conclusion I wish to express my obligations to Professor R. T. JAcKsON for permission to investigate the material described in this — article, and to Professor D. P. PENHALLOw for the opportunity af examining his type slides of fossil Sequoias. HARVARD UNIVERSITY. EXPLANATION OF PLATES XVIII AND XIX. PLATE XVIII. Fic. 1. Transverse section, including several annual rings and showing both horizontal and vertical resin canals in Sequoia Penhallowit. X 39. Fic. 2. Transverse section of thin growth rings of same species. X 180. Fic. 3. Tangential section of the same showing horizontal resin ducts. * 8. Fic. 4. Transverse section through a healed wound in the wood of the same species; on the right is a horizontal traumatic resin duct; smaller traumatic ducts can be seen in the spring wood of the three annual rings abutting on the wound. x 4. 2 Fic. 5. Part of another section through the same wound, showing three horizontal ducts on the left . the smaller vertical ducts of the spring wood can be more clearly seen on account of the greater magnification. X 8. Fic. 6. The central region of still another section through showing small vertical ducts in the spring wood. X 8 PLATE XIX. ae Fic. 7. Another of the same more highly magnified from the margin wound. xX 16. i Fic. 8. Transverse section through one of the large horizontal ducts see fig. 3. X 40. : Fic. 9. Section through a smaller duct from the same preparation - illustrated in the last figure. X 60. j Fic. 10. Section dieing the relation between a horizontal and a vertical duct; the former is blocked by a tylosis. x 50. : Fic. rr. Longitudinal etc showing the scanty resiniferous te on the face of the summer wood in two annual rings; a vertical resin a shown. X 60. a Fig. 12. Radial section to show the topography of a medullary i s size: on the horders of the ray can be seen the empty crystallogenous BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX XVIII PLATE XVUI Fie 30 Ry mn poaotecr tetas Ua poe Ning SIMU egg eae dang Hic “gagh ARES a sera nema Bite eae ascat ee nnmeasieke ee gg tibet Hirai |e Me HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. PLATE XIX XXXVI! ETTE, fi BOTANICAL GAZ f a q 5 pig tt tN F Pa . an HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER PRENANTHOIDES. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE HULL BOTANICAL LABORATORY. LXIV. GEORGE HARRISON SHULL. (WITH EIGHTEEN FIGURES) I. INTRODUCTION. GEOGRAPHIC isolation has long been accredited as an important factor in the process of evolution, but with the introduction of methods calculated to demonstrate the evolutionary processes an altogether new conception has been gained regarding the importance of locality asa modifying factor. Statistical methods have shown that the organ- isms of any species from different stations, often quite near each other, ate not to be considered homogeneous, and that in order to establish * Proper basis for comparison investigations must deal with definite teas. The modal condition of any species .prevailing on such a limited area is known as a “place-mode” for that species at that place, : i importance of determining and recording place-modes for Yarlous ‘species was first emphasized by DaveNpoRT (18994); and : “*sponse to his appeal a considerable number of local statistical ‘tudies have been made. Some of these studies have shown that ne determination of place-constants is not so simple a problem as a at first supposed. As a result of my earlier studies on Aster % oe catey it was shown that the establishment of place-constants * Species of Aster would involve the collection of all the heads ats during the sa canaasde since there is a continuous and are throu aed change in the variable characters from day to z tee : ~ season. It was suggested there that sige e Season “ might also be presented by the same population rom : season. The results of a number of studies on various iP te other investigators, both beforé and since my eres of ion Bows, lead to the same conclusion or admit of the same explana- ULE 1999 i 1895, MAacLEop 1899, LUDWIG 1901, TowER 1902, 1904] EP OON I 9°93; REINOHL 1903, etc.). a 334 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER TOWER (1902) discusses the bearing of these results upon the establishment of place-constants, and concludes “that the ‘place- mode’ for a species or for a character of a species should represent the average prevailing condition at a given place during a period of observation continued through years or long enough to eliminate the effect of secular fluctuations.’ It has been proved conclusively that conditions of variability which are a function of place are masked by others associated with time, and before we can satisfactorily arrive at the one the other must be eliminated. In the efforts which have thus far been made to establish place-constants this fact has not been taken into account. Indeed, we do not yet know how to take it into account, since no adequate investigation has been made of changes in variability which take place during the season and from season to season. It was to add to our knowledge of such secular variation and to col- tribute by its elimination to the establishment of true place-constants that the present study was undertaken. _ *In his summary Tower gives the following definition: “A ‘place-mode’ is the average prevailing state of a homogeneous lot of individuals [2. @., of the same pleomorphic condition and stage of development] characteristic of a particular ra and season, as determined by observations carried on long enough to cle effects of secular climatic fluctuations.” The limitation of a place-mode toa erner season was plainly unintentional, as it is inconsistent with the requirement yi tic observations be carried on long enough to eliminate the effects of se fluctuations. : EARSON (1902) objects to this definition as not being biometric. He says: mode is the least important constant involved, and in others—particul et thought, tion of plants—the theoretical mode is at present indeterminable. * ode, it WS not in studying place-modes, of limiting his studies to the theoretical : i unnatural so to extend the meaning of place-mode as to involve all relations of a population. ‘oo th ile it was evidently DAvENPoRT’s intention in proposing efinition will sho¥ mode” to use it in its strict mathematical sense, a reference to s a tion. He s4¥* how easy it was to make it include the entire condition of the Pe ie (1899a): “TI use the word ‘place-mode’ to embody a epeeirrstisan 5: 1904] SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 335 Il. MATERIAL AND METHODS. This study is based upon the flowering heads of Aster prenan- thoides Muhl. collected thrice a week from the same area which furnished the serial collections for my earlier studies (SHULL 1902). This species is in some ways an ideal subject for studies of this kind. The heads are beautifully regular, as may be seen in fig. z. They are little subject to injuries, and almost the only heads which must be thrown away are those in which insect larvae have hatched and subsisted tipon the developing flowers. Such cases are not numerous, amounting to less than 2 per cent. of the heads collected this year. The personal equation was éliminated in the same manner as in my former work, 7. e., by the collection of every head that bloomed on a naturally cir- cumscribed area. The method used in making the counts was also the same, the heads being completely dissected. This method prevents the errors Which will frequently occur in the Counting of rays without complete dissection — errors 336 -BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NovEMBER resulting from the loss of rays due to age or other causes—and it saves the necessity of discarding any material on this ground, since the remains of the ray-flowers are always distinguishable from the disk- flowers when they are separated. It ought not to be necessary in work of this kind to give assurance that no material has been arbitrarily discarded, either in collection or in seriation, but the importance of this matter seems to be too little appreciated. If one student arbitrarily discards material, who else in working over the same material will arbitrarily discard on the same basis? And if an investigation cannot be repeated by another investigator with at least approximately identical results, of what value is it? Tower (1902) assumed that his failure to get a mode at 34 in Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum might be due to the fact that he discarded a number of heads on account of age. He states that counts of some of this rejected material showed that all of the heads had a large number of rays. What would have been the result had he counted all the heads he rejected ? Miss SMALL- WOOD (1903) “arbitrarily threw out the small” specimens of beach-flea and then presented statistics as to the size and variability of the remainder, as if these data could have either interest or scientific value.? If anomalies appear when all the data are setiated, yd should be explained if possible, but explained or unexplained : data should be given, because these have value whether the explana tion has or not. ules In calculating the various constants I have again used the wing tabulated in DavENPoRT’s (1899) Statistical methods, except instead of DUNCKER’s method of calculating the coeflicient of en lation I have used the neat method adopted by YULE (1897)> ¥ may be expressed by the formula Sfx'x’” I p=( 2 —v,! vy" af nN 5) wed . , as i ] assume in which x’ and x” are the deviations from an a kecocsey mean of subject and relative classes respectively, / a 3 a iat f : : Vv of occurrence of each combination of subject and relat — . : r deals ¢ < i 2 In justice to Miss SmaLtwoop it should be said that = nie soe With the ethological relations of the beach-flea, and that she er the unsatisfactory character of her quantitative results. 1904] SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 337 nis the whole number of variates, v,’ and v,’’ are the deviations of the assumed means from the true means, and o’ and o” the errors of mean square or “standard deviations” respectively of the subject and relative categories.3 III. LOCALITY AND HABITAT. Flowers collected from the hillsides differ in a marked way from those of the same species collected in the lowlands of the same locality, ashas been shown in many instances by DE Vries, Lupwic, REINOHL, and others. This is a question of habitat. It remains an unsolved problem whether plants are not so sensitive to edaphic and local climatic conditions as to make impossible the derivation by statistical methods of anything more fundamental than the fact and the degree of this extreme sensitiveness. This problem can be solved only by long and carefully conducted investigations. In order that we may discriminate between the influences of habitat and locality in making Studies in variation, it becomes necessary to record as carefully as Possible the habitat in which the material has been collected, and so t0 indicate the locality that future investigators may visit the identical area studied, "The definite character both of habitat and of locality has strongly ‘ommended the choice of this particular area of Aster prenanthoides for such thorough investigation as is needed to elucidate the complex Problems involved in work of this kind. | oe is a small village on the boundary between ns — Sunties, Ohio, in lat. 39° 48’ 43” north and long. 83° 48" 41 st The Little Miami River, on whose northern bank the village eMeUpIES @ post-glacial channel in massive gray Niagara lime- saieig a deep and narrow gorge widely known for the wpe nety. About one kilometer west of the village two sma Say the river from the north. Both of these apsione? ; ave Cut gorges in the limestone, but, being unable to ar : the level (8 ga Ke 8 eee pee ae ee SR eee ieee mse ae. 8 .1§ | 1.06] .64 ro Bee a Poth Lis. Sh Sh 2h 4 21 .00 | 2.77 | 1.48 19 ae babe Sli atecf Sl oa | Ae ze 29 .OI | 3.83 | 2.47 20 Meiiire tet | ts 21312 | 42h ae 4I -OI | §.41 | 3.32 Mey a2) ss} 3) 5) 7) 3 oF; 6] 71 9 53 | 2-13 | 7-00 | 4.74 Ooh at. 244i sire). si) x31 Six xz 74 | 5.12 | 9.97 | 9.50 23 rixl $|.5{-3| 8| six2] 6) 7| 6| 29) Gr [6.22 eee 24 tera a a a sf a Boe 46 | 7.30 | 6.07 | 6.65 25 Poesy 2) 2) 2trs | 5|10| 61 of 8) x) 053" [oo sae ee oe: Pox) a) at sig] 2) Si xal.ol st 6 57 | 8.66] 7.52 | 8.06. a7 |--| tI] 2] 4] 4] 7] 5/22] 3] 5| 4| 2| 47 | 8-97 | 6-20) 7 28 ee pee eas tie] Oe Gi OF Ale 5h 8 41 8.36 | 5.41 6.79 29 Pine Ol Sere tod) Ree 37 | 7-14 | 4-88 | 5-94 Meet ats at ot 8) 4] 4] s) 4) 3 32 | 7-14,| 4-22 | 5-59 ole So 2B. Bae foe Gee a ee a ee ee al er 32 | 7-90 | 4-22 | 5-94 St er. 88) 8) 8) oat ap... 25 | 6.23 | 3-30 | 4-67 Cae Gan Gig eg Ye ee ge es 31 | 7-45 | 4-09 | 5-66 34 se ess al UR Ra a ae oe 16 | 5.02 | 2-11 3-46 "Gat Say oes We a ee OA Se Ga nae I 15 | 1.67 | 1.98 | 1.84 36 Pee eer ood eee on eats & |e 8 | 1.22 | 1.06 | 1.13 37 nia [Ry Gea CA eae BROS Wee : ° 15] 3004 et 38 is I I ie 2 46] .26) -35 39 = nik af re) 15.) ee 40 I ; I 2 225.1. oe oe 41 ae : a, (00:| ys4 dae 42 a ‘ 15 | ost | oe, 36 | 37 | 23 | 88 | 60 | o2 | 64 |123| 64 | 83 | 83] 4] 757 oe TABLE C. ‘ DISK-FLORETS. : OcTOBER, SEPTEMBER, 1903 1903 . No. : Eo dao my : 12 | 14| 16 | 18 | 21 | 23| 25| 28| 30] 2 | 6 | 9 14 PDR Pte PPR Hy ta I ; 15 cad Meer te are yi ° : 16 ia ad pels I ; 5 Gg cn Pak wee fee ee Tt ) FERRER, > ee 2.19 i 5 Pied . 4 « og ae “i soy ee 24 .46 77 | t Cee fx] 5\.2 4 46 3:8 .48 2 46 é ‘ I = ats 30 + 3 1.2 si as Re a4 oe he scl Cane : 4 : 5| 2 23 A 3-56 moe 8 2 ; I g 2 : I 6 2 . 21; 30 1.98 3-96 ek cei oie 3] 3 roges cd 36 i eek A ae St 4 3| 3 2| 5 7) 4 4| 1 22 .28 a c ~ a nye = Sa 2 I 4 ; 26 4.10 oy fe aS, @ Heme I S) ‘4 4 9 oe 3.61 Lt 2 2 I 3: go ape i al 2 gba ae ee Pate aoe ae 2 2 6 2\. 26 5-78 -43 et : + 3 oe WE, 5| 2 2); 1 32 6.54 4.62 me a": I 4)... 4| 2 9| 4 4) 3 ‘ 25 5-32 3-43 5-38 ot ee ee Sel 3 4 7 3 = Ss: 4.22 4 56 3 2 2] 2 Ty) 5 Tl: 4\- 25 93 | 3 4-74 | EREEEEBEE yo | 399 | 5.09 i cara 4 5 . I 20 -14 : | TEEEREEREEN toe fo |” as 3 5 : 6.8 2.64 51 : br | ee pod 6 ‘ 8 3} 2 x of 6 33 2 51 3.96 ae 2 I ; ‘ se Q : “oe is 2 ue 23 4.86 ‘7 ve es Fel g e% 3 2 t 2 3.95 2 I . peat: apie 23 | $58 394 3.46 2 a oe ee 18 74| 2. ||: a 8 | a.3s et se a: & |" 2 iy ee ae I 1.6 2.38 + 95 & x : - 7\|1 2.26 ie 2 zE of Ae a .98 I i by ws 2 I I.32 84 q we 2 we 5 A J I. 2 " gs es a I 1.22 Sate: ‘sa Gi; it Wisiel hg. 3 - 63 66 +92 i 2 ‘ee 3d 5 : pees 13 .g2 3 a oe : : eos 92 35 ae I 3 -46 - i: ae 1 2 . 3 “ 2 : Pl. : es .30 .40 = : fa 3 Uh ° .15 -490 . Ets (e] 00 << 2 vis +. 00 2 2... ° bee Boe 100 Z He plied ) Sg ae 2 ats ,oo ‘ LE 23) 88 6 2 | -8| 2 i ; “25 Se Beas og ° ‘ fi ee 4 eel | ae es fe ae ee pee ge NEE. 4/123 6 : 2 00 as 00 bas 4 8 00 00 pes 3 | 83 I .26 41:75 5 eS 14 7 Seed 07 346 BOTANICAL GAZETTE _ [NOVEMBER TABLE D. CHIEF CONSTANTS OF THE SEVERAL COLLECTIONS. Bracts | Sep. 12 | Sep. 14 | Sep. 16 sep 18] Sep. 21 leap 23| Sep. 25 |Sep.28] Sep. 30 iv 2/Oct. 6) Oct. 9 Mean..... 36.555| 43.207] 43.174|43.898| 40.700) 40.652] 39.828|37.423 36.016|35.120|/33.006| 35.750 P.E. y....J£1.110]/+ .868)+ .947)+ .500/+ .723/+.4092/+ .508/+.401/4+ .543|/4+.423|+ 3890/4 .035 Piigew kek 9.870] 7.829) 6.735] 6.951} 8.303] 7.002] 7.000] 6.508) 6.438] 5.717] 5.247] 2.773 P. Eng.) .785|+ -614/+ .670/+ .353;4 .§11t)+ .348)/+ .423/4+.284/+ . + .200|+ .275|4 .661 Ceci 27.000] 18.081] 15.600|/15.835| 20.401/17.225| 17.801|17.630| 17.877|16.278|15.854| 7.756 6) + + x1. 304 : 77 P. E.y....|+2.146]+ 1.418/+ 1.551|+ .805|+1.25 857|/+1.061|+ i 1,066] + .852/+ .830| + 1.849 Rays Mean..... 23.305) 27.540] 26.730/28.681| 26.600/26.033) 26.187/24.170) 24.10045 Seen 24.500 P.E.m....|£ «720+ .582/+ .660/+ .380/+ .485/+.326)4+ .302/+.240/+ .342|+ .272/+.278|/+ - Wavenacs: 6.407} 5.2 4-757| 5.284] 5.571] 4.628 -650| 4.092| 4.058) 3. 3-757) T+ P.E.o...j+ .500/+ .412)/+ .473]/+.269/+ .343]/+ .230)+- .277|/4.176/+ .242|/+ .192)+ .107 + Ce aia 27.400; 19.158] 17.790/t8.423| 20.045|17.780| 17.750|16.026| 16.834|15.361|16.846 +769 EE +2 4 404,41 a 037|+1.290] + 884\+1.059|+ 728|/+ 1.004 + 804 + .882 +1.614 Disk-florets Mean.....| 41.611) 51.720) 46.522|51.511| 47.100|46.801| 47.672|43.560| 42.187)41.301 38.072) 40.259 PEw +1.282\+1 318 +7 pice ba gd os baler -813 +.4590)/+ .682)+. + ee Weis: 11.405| 11.884) 9.546|10.062} 9.809] 8.560] 9.647| 7-530] 8.087] 6.339) 7-2 Fogr 4 P.E.o.../+ .007/+ .032/+ .o4o/+.512\+ .610;/+.426|/+ .575/+.324|/+ .482/+.332 = 354] 8.192 COMG tes 27.408] 22.073) 20.510|19.534| 21.017|18.274| 20.236/17.303| 19-170|15.349|19- +1.937 P.E.y....|+2.179| + 1.801| + 2.041|+ .903|+1.204|+ .909|+ 1.206/+ .744]/+1.1 -804| + .993 ee In Table D are given the more important constants of the several collections with the probable errors of the determination. The since the prob- average deviation is omitted as having no significance, ' able error of the determination is almost as large as the determined value of the constant. It will be noted on examining this table that all the constants are quite variable, and that only the mean seems t0 follow a rather definite law, beginning low, then leaping "we immediately to the maximum, after which there is a gradual until almost the end, when a slight rise appears. The fall of se values from the maximum on September 18 to the aes a October 6 was 24.6 per cent. in bracts, 22.25 per cent, 1n pci 26.4 per cent. in disk-florets. The changes of mean value mee set of variants from the beginning to the end of the flowering S° and the corresponding changes observed in 1900 are shown a in fig. 7. : 1904] SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 347 1. Bracis—The frequency polygon for the bracts is shown in ig. 8. The mean value is 38.597 +-.189, and a number of empirical modes are present. Some, if not all, of these are doubtless due to the smallness of the number of heads counted. It will be noted September October 2 14 16 18 ee 2s 25. 2728 30 2 i J "yi es as oes SG : ettth ae s2ag i —h—— ef Be” % inane T PALLY +. WE y = : XN : :., —_— HH Zs 5 ®, TNyiicl p Eos Et ry Ht Sei iL a 196 0 Toy oer 2 ee a ial eta SS eer aN se \ > Trt L ae ee =e ™~ Bracts 190 yt ct+rtrt a ‘ | — gag \ L, a% 1903, ret tt TT Nee y toe + 4 14 PAC td gore } Pree racts ~~ st +H YH" YH a pj} +t TEES geUREEe —~ aBaee au = a ee Ses area Hy 4 eet tr ttre & = > & tH {WY |" Lt | oe as San Sa SPS soos feseuueeeeees TENSE E “> ~ 1900 HH Suenos a t 7 el EE : coo oH Rac. ea Fig I—~C : fom the a showing the changes in the mean numbers of parts 1n the heads “MIS, 190 NG fo the end of the season, and the difference between the two collec- and 1903, tat om se Prominent modes are those which lie below the mean S er ent .. © may speak of skewness in multimodal curves, mgt We exhibits to a strong positive skewness. The breadth of t € eye the great variability, which may be express¢ 348 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER numerically by the standard deviation 7.692 -+.133, or by the coeffi- cient of variability 19.928 +.345. 2. Rays.—The ray-curve shown in jig. 9 has the mean at 25.247 +.122 and by much the strongest mode at 22, so that here again there is a very prominent skewing of the curve. The empirical | 5 EB it SEER GW mi (Be NRT a Bs He BE Se ie ee en 2 2 ) Sh Saal 2A Sd | i | iI a a sR | Fa SS a A OS: WR A OR LS Oo bei 31, 33 16, 22, 26, 33 16, 22, 26, 31, 33 Se a 4.070 4-990 4-792 See + .076 + .087 + .061 REY ez 14.516 19.764 18.052 . a pare + .344 mah lores, ¢ “ with the two partial curves of which each is com- c. aly In figs. 11, 12,and 13. These curves are all reduced | te method i 500 units, in order to facilitate comparison, and “Werposed of “loaded ordinates” is used to allow the curves to be | 354 [NOVEMBER The bracts for the two years combined present no less than seven empirical modes, showing without question that 1415 heads is still too few for material having so wide a range and so high standard deviation. In the rays, the range being less and the standard devia- reel ee fete = a te = } \A_| } ri} Li 3 | | | im a e.. i eee EERE eI | Bh Sv: EG BE ed aed a | ny iY dl 20 25 . r 1900 Fic. 11.—Summation curve for bracts 1900 + 1903 and the bract-curves for ¥§ and 1903 superposed for comparison; all reduced to the same area, se cove line the surimation curve; dotted line the rg00 curve; dot and dash line the 19°3 7M. CONSTANTS OF DISK-FLORETS FOR 1900, 1903, AND THEIR SU 30 55 a a ey 1904] SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 352 tion only two-thirds as great, the number of heads is much more nearly adequate. There are presented five empirical modes, 16, 22, 26, 31, 33, almost in agreement with Lupwic’s series. 5. Correlations—The correlation between rays and bracts is shown in fig. 14, between rays and disk-florets in jig. 15, and between Prt CI BRHF we x Cr | rliaiit) i 2 SREP Swe el im Crt EET A HEHEHE a sit Poorer itatr ee Tit ' rriitt “SRR RSh Bee ee TLitti ete Seeenegt H| SHES E SSS 40 SSGRR SSeS EERE GS SEH HIN EEE Sanna al Ate iy COC a BE a Vike £ we | 5 Vip At ‘Lik | os geet \ Teh ES PLS CT TY] OE | y/TT\ aH Titi | \ iT cI 0 it! Xr | AGE |e I 3 i H N ‘| REGS eee ot i rt [ ad Hoe oem BR BS Sw: 5 v 1 Bil fo He! 2 yy \} ri rr iy ‘ NPRGe ee x: tf i 1 }: CI fC: ee Woerrry 20 ffi Wd | me | He 0 (Ba Aq Jin ees: ia a Wwe rye yg J y te MRME BY: +1 15 i : if we i - Mh ite ’ t s 8 rr joenner suline : = Mi : rr it H rr ipepHi Cry [ ie t | ¥ i p= | 5 20 25 30 35 77) Fig + 12, . 1903 saperps Summation curve for rays 1900 + 1903 and the ray-curves for 1900 and the summat; for comparison; all reduced to the same area, 500 units; heavy line Mation curve; d b otted line the r900 curve ; dot and dash line the 1903 curve. ha and disk-4 with those Orets in fig. 16. The coefficient of correlation is » being greatest between rays and bracts, and least nd disk-florets. The coefficients may be compared f 1900 in Table H: *aAIND Tobr ayy eur Ystp pure 1op faains oo6r ay} out, pavlop faAand uoNeUIUINS oY sUTT AAvOY fs]tuN OOS ‘voIH SUIS 94} 0} PadNpaer qe fuosudui6S toy pasodisdns £061 puv oo61 A0j saaind JOIOY-YsIp vy} puv Lo61+-o061 sjo10y-ysIp 10} 9AIND uoMRYUUINS—'fr ‘org [NOVEMBER 0 GL £ 99 09 ss 0s cr s _ Of ae ; i 4 Shs ae oe et ee o&o-y] | | a OMT [ TELLIN IYTIST eT rry A] COC T TIT Jeeritrirrtiiitti es wh KC Re COCCre eer eet rrrtitirititt y Sei] Preri tint tt TetTET Titi. t Th a hE) rritwrtiitrtt et itis tt. Rete Al Priv tiifrite my A I) Chere ma tr tt retrt ‘S 7 Tit ICC Ss PR i ctr { ; RY y | t N oT yy bo] jLA\L 2: S ! ' j N r Tt ill " OS } 1 jamal ane Wey ~ WA iLLh IAT Te > \ WINTER TARE TY et \ I TAT AT eg S hth TT PS IE ve 5 ‘4\ 1 / 1 f oy : +/ 4 ) 1 4 ‘ ih He [a CI! \ a ro TTT a LLL! zt PriTeeririit 4 - "TWO Tt rt Prretiite ty | TANT TT! Pitlirrrtlilit + Pitti rt tity | mak a Por Tit tivititt i retitrtl tt a Prt TrirititittT tt tititati ct wp a 1 Posters it tit eer iit it tet és Ty 352 SMSO SRE UE STRESSORS Ee Se 354 355 SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 1904] ‘choo’ FSbLg- =d ‘aaneyer sjoviq “oofqns shea {£061 ut paysaqjoo speroy LL 10F vovzIns uONVpII0OgQ—'PI “OI Tl/OlO{TlOlOjoOlzc iol’ lerbri6riZrlotlrz iezZiez raraataa zie ele Elz ra tz\o1| 6 Sra Tati I BRiBE Cee ee ea PL et ee 0 |_| BES LARRABEE ACRE AAS 6E| +1 z mE I | Be ee ee i BE] ¢) jo | | Ld ee a ee E e| |r}t I Cig 3 Si efrix[hlelelet fafa rita a I T/€}r SEaESEIESE | pel 6 € : bIAZIZIolE lolz @ el 8 z viPliiz aE 1] | I ze 2 I pibizizjojSjz} jv] jz : le] 9 z I W[e(PlPlS|Plririe| 0¢| ¢ I|1 lejelele jae le lr ie yx I 6zl + I r{/1|1/z |Z gle le[r[e {etc I I Bait I }1jP\zjze|Pjojh jz lope |b iriz I Ze 2 El (zlrl{zlol[Sisleizivislelc le I zhi I MEE EISIS|VEISIE/TIS | S/S zie C4) P 1{I 1] [rjelziepolriei|sis[slp] fz | be] i 19 I 1 LEP APSF ITIZ BIOS GIF ISieis) 24) Pol ee Ld €2| z- {| { { fal [e{rlotriolir>(2i6jejzfofSiriz{] | | | [| Ty] fT Rae e | { {r] | fat [at fefrfelr [2 [elol blob [s[sfz le| = rv Pitti tT pe iattist [rie letZiololéielzis Zl s= z hha es SR RRB ee 61] 9~ Xe OE e[sieletel [x Bi f— | aS Sy Ga WN aS a EI EIE T/T 21] 8- or bet a ot od eee ee Tee ee ee Poe et ee a Was WR Ss SE ERLE ER $1} 01 Ld | ae Fy SR OR WN BF a Se ES I | SO SS Se BS Oe Hae DOE A A aes eS AS Se ey < SF (ED Des cay Ss SS CY NR SEY DS PM Ys ET eS FB ey = Eo zs 19 e: es 8S YoStes re 13 = BS osisy Brice 9¢]Cr, pepticy {fo GG 2D Oe C9 (29 9 F239 (0 6 & i. EE: E¢ Z3 Befes tf Be Bs 356 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER TABLE H. COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION. ~ 1900 1903 Mayeand bracts. i<.......... -7O5t+ .0002 5. .8745+ .0042 Rays and disk-florets........ .6749 + .o100 .8240+ .0058 Bracts and disk-florets...... ee eee .8355 + .0055 V. DISCUSSION. In my earlier study the conclusion was reached that the mean number of parts in the heads of Aster prenanthoides begins high and falls continuously from the beginning to the end of the flowering season. This was recognized as in accord with BurKIL1’s (1895) results on Alsine media and other species. REINOHL (1903) has recently made a very careful study of Alsine media and reports that the first flowers never have the highest number of stamens and that the maximum number is reached only after some time. He attributes BURKILL’s results to the fact that they were based upon occasional collections which, he supposes, did not happen to involve the very earliest flowers of the season. My collections of Aster prenanthoides in 1900 included all the heads which bloomed that year, but the first collection was made so late that.the mean numbers of parts in the very earliest heads were indeterminable because of their association with heads of later development; but in 1903 the collections were made with such frequency as more closely to analyze the changes taking place during the season, there being presented here twelve successive collections instead of four. It is now shown that in Aster prenanthoides also the mean numbers -begin low, leaping almost immediately to the maximum, and megs falling more gradually till near the end of the season. Inspection 2 jig. 7 will make it clear that four collections in 1903; made wos same dates as the 1900 collections, would have led to the pram then reached that there is a continuous fall from the beginning a end of the season. It will be noted in the same figure that the las ; Shows a rise in mean values. As this collection consist heads, it can be considered as having little significance. however, that this condition will be found to occur not infreq t collection in 1993 ed of but four I believe; uently. ClO/O/OlT i Tioajaioia tir t : tit oit @itigis z ] ij 0 Sal Se ie ee st | |S ERR RB ees bea} " | eee tet te igjer I AC RRA e ee ee 2 a as ee Gn an cae rer “Sen et eon Hae SA aon Si > ee EE te 1 HARB RB RiRe k em w | RE EBB eRe Ss Swe st t BAe SSRe SE RRSRRSRA Se Rh Be: # i { RE SE Sk Sh il 1 Bai tlt = ae t | MAME RBBB BRA MA Re. 4 ba ririry jz 1 1jz{t 1{t I 1 { Re BASSE RSM RS UO z Tit tir} jr}xlajzir} tx) Ir I { L titer bee eke | te) tee t[t{rjeiz(eiriele| | z I BRAS = 2k eRe ee 1Sitt 1] |r tlrjele| felx| |t t/t iz EEA s Tee RRR eek Re ae Li I at zjelSle(vle| jelelziziziz| |1]2 t RRR 8. 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HAACKE (1896) points out the same fact in regard to the number of rays in the heads of Tanacetum (Chrysanthemum) corymbosum. If this is also true in Aster prenanthoides (and I believe it is), how are we to account for the peculiarities of the curves in jig.7 ? The general fall in mean values from near the beginning to near the end of the flowering period can be best explained perhaps by the gradual waning of vegetative vigor during the time at which the © differentiation takes place which determines the number of parts inthe heads. This decreasing vigor was supposed by BURKILL (1895) to be largely due to changing temperature, but REINGHL (1903) has shown that temperature has little if any influence, while the important factor seems to him to be that of available food-supply. It is conceiv- able that there may be a decreasing lability of the protoplasm result- ing from lessened water-supply, or the accumulation of inert products of metabolism, or from other causes, which would bring about a Progressive fall in the number of parts in the heads, even though the food-supply remained unchanged. But if every individual produces the highest number of parts in the first head that blooms and the lowest number of parts in the last, how vc the mean number begin low—far below the maximum—and end with atise? This is to be explained by the fact that we are dealing with a population instead of an individual. The precocious flowering of starved or otherwise weakened individuals is a well-known phe- “omenon, and it is evident that the heads gathered at the first collection Here those produced by the very weakest individuals, and owe their low Values to that fact. Very soon, however, the mediocre plants, oe the great majority of the population, begin to bloom, they wanging the mean values at once to the maximum, oe eon ie ay fall until almost the end of the season. The ae Vigotousinar UL Undoubtedly be the last heads of hap: “4 hae Sindividuals which did not begin to bloom till late in the seaso a ugh these heads have the lowest numbers of parts produc Sept. 12 17 22 27 Oct. 358 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER by those individuals, they yet have higher numbers than the last - heads of the mediocre portion of the population which determined the minimum mean value. These facts will be made clear by a reference to jig. 17, in which the numerous oblique parallel lines represent the change in mean number of parts in the heads of the individual stems com- | posing the population. ad) The abscissal distances of the ends of a given line indicate the time at which the individ- ual represented by that line began to bloom and that at which it ceased blooming, while the ordinatal distances of the same points rep- resent the number of parts in the first and last heads produced. The heavy line running through the middle of : the figure is the exact Fic. 17.—Schematized representation of the mean of the figure “4 changes in mean number of parts in the heads of the drawn. This figure 1s 1903 population; each of the parallel oblique lines somewhat schematic, represents th ‘ : err 3 eg s i change ina anee en ; he heavy Ene of couse Dae ae - wholly imaginary: The and the outline Table A, which so that jig. 17 tation of the mean is suggested by the 1903 bract-curve of fig. 7: will be recognized in the distribution of numbers in also belongs to the bracts of the 1903 population, may be looked upon as a slightly schematized represem aximum to the minimum was 11.6 per cent. in bracts, 14-4 pet cent. in rayS, * in bracts, 18.9 per cent. in disk-florets; and in 1903 it was 24.6 per cent. In! oe 22.3 per cent, in rays, and 26.4 per cent. in disk-florets- This 1904] SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 359 siderable change in the constants of variable characters during the single season is now generally recognized, as has been made manifest inthe discussions which were roused by LUDWIc’s (1901) interpretation of such differences as indicative of the establishment of local races ot petites especes. Miss LEE (1902) says in her discussion of Lupwic’s results and conclusions, ‘‘ we require in fact to know how the means, variabilities, and correlations of the characters of a plant change (i) with its season and (ii) with the influence of environment before we can formulate a test for racial differences,” and PEARSON (1903) — and other recent writers make similar statements. While there is thus a general recognition of the changes which may be expected to take place during a single season, there is still a question as to changes of variability from season to season. This is the first investigation in which factors involved in modifying the variable characters of plants or animals have been so completely limited to the dissimilarity of different seasons. Although a number of students have at times found differences similar to those presented in this paper, their‘material has been collected nearly always in such @ Way as to allow of some other interpretation, and the conclusions ammived at have in consequence usually assumed the absence of Seasonal fluctuations. | YULE (1902) has investigated the number of sepals of Anemone nemorosa growing in several different habitats in the neighborhood of Bookham, Surrey, England, during the years 1889-1900, but unfortunately his collections were not made at coincident dates of ~ Several years, and one of the habitats had changed during the aa Which the observations were made from an exposed clearing ie ell-grown shady copse. Although he interprets his results as ecg 4 considerable fluctuation from season to season, his data thrown into a single series and shown to exhibit just the — sy Tecent investigations of REINOHL (1903) an Alsine . a the results recorded here for Aster prenanthoides show sur during a singl Thus, taking Yuue’s data for habit gle season. ; g ltat (C), which he describes as a narrow strip of copse at Little Which . arranging them according to the time of year at & % collection was made, without regard to the year, we have €an number of sepals: April 8-12, 1899, 6.63; April 15, 360 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER 1900, 6.81; April 21-22, 1898, 6.76; May 7, 1898, 6.51. A com- parison of these results with the curves in jig. 7 will show them to be strictly comparable with the conditions exhibited by Aster prenan- thoides in the single season of 1903. They differ, however, in being much less striking, the greatest change of mean value in Anemoile nemorosa being only 4.4 per cent., while the greatest change in mean value in Aster prenanthoides was 26.4 per cent. The Clifton area of Aster prenanthoides is in a perfectly natural ~ condition, and though the region is much visited for its fine scenery, this particular spot, being less attractive to tourists and at the same time more difficult of access, is not likely to be at any time seriously disturbed. It can be assumed with perfect assurance that there were no appreciable differences in the habitat in the two years 1900 and 1903, except such as were due to meteorological differences, and to these factors or possibly to internal periodicity, or a combination of these internal causes and climatic changes must be attributed the great differences found. It has not been infrequent to find great differences in variable characters of plants from markedly different habitats, as in the daisies (Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum and C. segetwm) collected from barren hills and fertile valleys by Lupwic and DE VriEs. But here at Clifton, Ohio, in the same spot, in the very same group of plants, undoubtedly consisting largely of the uniparental offspring of the very same individuals, the mean number of bracts was nearly 12.4 pet cent. less in 1903 than in 1900, the mean number of rays was nearly 10 per cent. less, and the mean number of disk-florets 10.6 per cent es If such differences as these are due to climatic fluctuations, it ia of interest to consider what factors may have been important 5 producing them. As already mentioned, REINGHL (1903) considers the chief factor in determining the number of parts in the androecium of Alsine media to be the condition of the available food-supP!) whether this be dependent upon the character of the soil or upom photosynthetic activity conditioned by the intensity of the sti As the physical and chemical conditions of the soil in the _ ravine were doubtless essentially the same in the two years 1D — the only soil factor which need be taken into account is water-SupP!Y as influenced by precipitation. REINOHL (1903) states that he co 1904] SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 361 h May June July August September October March Apri i—y | Tr TIIRE Le TEMPERATURE = % z SN | 10°¢} N f | ~ | | im ~ ~ [| pc) oa es 10Cay | | HAIL | 80 zx 10 = WA SUNSHINE =] = ae 4 LUT x INI UA 2. en h April Fig, 13 900 and ; Tepresent c ‘Ad the ay June July August September Uctoo Comparison of the climatic conditions during the growing season of 993; dotted lines for 1900; unbroken lines for 1993; temperature ose . at Dayton, Ohio; precipitation curves are for Cedarville, Ohio; Curves for Cincinnati, Ohio. 362 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER observe no influence produced by differences of temperature other than that of acceleration or retardation, but as conditions of nutrition are greatly affected by temperature, it is conceivable that it may be in some cases an important factor in determining variability. On these considerations I have sought to compare the season of 1903 with that of 1900 with respect to temperature, precipitation, and light. As the U. S. Weather Bureau records are not complete for any of these factors at Clifton, I have compared the conditions at the nearest stations at which complete records were available. In fig. 18 these comparisons are represented graphically, the temperature- curves representing conditions at Dayton, Ohio, about 60 km distant, the precipitation-curves made from data for Cedarville, Ohio, 10 v distant, and the curves for light-intensity from the self-recording instrument at Cincinnati, Ohio, 160*™ distant. These data are tabulated in Tables I, K, and L, along with the eleven-year OF twelve-year normal, and such fragmentary data as were attainable for Clifton itself. As this is the first attempt to refer changes in the variability of plants in a state of nature to definite climatic changes, there are obvious difficulties in the way of making satisfactory interpretations, and these difficulties can be overcome only by further study. id need to know (a) the relative importance of the several factors involved, (b) the harmonic optimum of each climatic factor for the species in question, (c) whether the critical period is that which precedes oF that which accompanies differentiation, (d) the time of beginning and ending of the period of differentiation. TABLE I. TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE. , 0. Dayton, O. srseeis 3 1900 1903 r1-yr. normal] —_ 790° 109 8.9 BEM oS eset ei ue 2.0 + 3 4-3 rates 10.6 PRE ros os aaa 11.3 10.7 II.3 ae 17-9 MME aS dicigigowh eared 18.4 18.4 ee care 17-9 WU rare irr k ccc eees 22.4 18.9 22. eos 23-0 Oh ore 24.7 24.0 24.8 a8 22.6 WAMBORL Coby ore foe ek 26.2 2555 23.0 25° . Semember. sks ov ae 22.7 19-7 19 ue 13-1 Seer ia cs ete 17.2 13-1 12. Se Oe E aoe bee 1904] SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 363 TABLE K, PRECIPITATION IN CENTIMETERS. CEDARVILLE, O. | Currton, O. 1900 1903 Ii-yr. normal] | 1900 1903 Mies... ...... 6.45 10.41 10.14 Bi 98 + a =.57 8.79 5.87 4.83 8.51 Meeet...,.....| 7.70 9.07 8.71 5.00 11.58 an 6.20 8.20 8.18 ae II.94 july terete s ce... 9.32 4.11 9.63 13.05 3-95 oe 10.29 175 5-54 04 -79 vm ees... <.| 2.08 2.46 5-74 eee ee ees 5.92 4.67 5:77 Se ee ee TABLE L. if LIGHT-INTENSITY AT CINCINNATI, OHIO. 12-yr. normal 1900 | 1903 Se aah Se a eee 49% 36% 45% 2 68 42 May... 73 12 es ley ; 71 62 72 Reeve August = < : Octobe =: - . - No study has been made to determine the period of differentiation mn Aster prenanthoides, but I am assured by Dr. C. J. CHAMBERLAIN, who has studied A ster Novae-A ngliae, that some of the heads in that Species are already blocked out by the first of July. I consider it a o: aaa that the period of differentiation of the parts of the ai this species lies between June 1 and August 1. ; _ “€ accept the normal climatic conditions as near the harmonic ties; (and this May not be a very erroneous assumption, since the in question is near the center of range), we find that the conditions “a more favorable in 1900 (a) with respect to June and July Lease ably ay the temperature for these months in 1903 being ae half the W normal, (6) in July precipitation, 1903 having less a *ormal precipitation for that month, and (c) in light-intensity ets month, except possibly May, up to August 1, after which °F could have any further influence. It may well be a question, Were 364 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER however, whether the harmonic optimum for light-intensity is not likely to be above the normal, the shade habit of Aster prenanthoides, as well as of other green shade plants, being assumed on account of the protection afforded against excessive transpiration, and not against excessive lighting. If this be true, the conditions in 1900 were even more favorable than here assumed, since with the exception of July the light-intensity was higher in 1900 than in 1903, being generally above normal in the former year, while in 1903 it was generally much below normal, being strikingly below in April and June. These several advantages of 1900 over 1903 seem to be offset by the single factor of precipitation during May and June, the rain- fall being appreciably below normal during those two months of 1900. As pointed out in the discussion of the habitat, it is probable that precipitation is of very slight importance in this case, leaving the low light-intensity and low temperature of the month of June, 1903, as probably the most important factors in bringing about the great change in the number of parts in the heads, the factors of next importance being possibly the very high light-intensity coupled with slight precipitation in the month of July 1903. I wish to repeat that these conclusions are based on assumptions which need confirmation. It must not be forgotten that the after- effects of a preceding season or a rigorous winter may also be _— of importance, or even that there may be an internal periodicity which cannot be definitely referred to environmental fluctuations Two features of the frequency polygons for the bracts, Tay, - disk-florets (figs. 8-ro) are sufficiently striking to warrant considera- tion, their multimodality and their skewness. So much has ne written upon the multimodal character of the frequency curves' 0 phyllotactic organs that it need only be pointed out here that this additional collection of material shows no tendency to eliminate the multimodality observed in 1900, and though the errors of —_ sampling, which are very great in material of such wide Tang® i be held to account for most, if not all, of the irregularities of ; rmanent curves (PEARSON 1902), there are some evidences that Pe ee modes may be developed on the Fibonacci series and Lupw “Unterzihlen.” : figs however; The constant recurrence of this series is not to be taken, 1904] SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 365 as has been maintained by Lupwic (1899, r90r), as proof that variation in plants is fundamentally different from that in animals. When the phyllotactic series shall have been successfully analyzed, they may be found to result from the working out of more or less definite cell-lineages as supposed by Lupwic (1888), or they may be the result of purely mechanical relations, as believed by SCHWEN- DENER, followed by WeIssE (1897) and CHuRCH (1904), but either hypothesis, in explaining the occurrence of such series, must leave departures from the theoretical numbers to be accounted for as fluctuating variations. In addition to this variation about each num- ber of the series, there is the general variation which may have a suficiently wide range to allow the variates to coincide with two or hore numbers of the phyllotactic series, so that we have in the case of phyllotactic variants two series of variations, the one overlying and partially masking the other. There can be little doubt that these Taniations taken separately will be found to agree with all the laws of Yatlation determined for animals and the non-phyllotactic characters ot plants, ap DE VRIES (1899) was able by selection to establish faces of Chrysanthemum segetum having monomodal ray-curves, this aR he Né taken as supporting Lupwic’s (1gor) view that multi- el : to the establishment of a mixed population of petites sexual re ae the common occurrence of asexual and ee ria uction, for REINOEL (1903) was able to reduce the tion, by ale of Alsine media to monodal curves without selec- frent degrees of light and manuring. “ahha a ed that we shall soon have a method of treatment of . © Variants which will remove the Fibonacci mask an eae of the underlying individual variation with as Althouph € as is now attained with non-phyllotactic ~~ Curves to “ah S Impossible on account of the multimodality ) i and rays (ff i. the skewness, it is so marked in the case of the - : oy 9) wee be recognized at a glance. There ! i bavorite eari interpretations of skewness in different ae ’ by the li 8 Ws (DAVENPORT 1901) being that it results either smunation of one or other of the extremes through the of natural selection, or that heterogeneity is introduced by the 366 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER development of a new race within the range of the old but centering about a different mean. It is also believed that skewness may result from physiological causes having no direct bearing upon the origin or modification of species. While in no specific case may the suggested interpretation be the correct one, these different views may at least be accepted as evidence that skewness may result from various causes, and that it is therefore not self-explanatory. If the 1903 curves are compared with those for 1900 in figs. 11-13, it will be seen that in every case the positive sides of the curves are approximately coincident, but on the negative side there is a very material disagreement. According to the recent discussion of skew variation by Lutz (1904), we have here a case of skewness produced by the addition of variates, and this addition of such magnitude as already to overtop the 1900 population, thus giving a fine example of “historic” skewness; but no one can be convinced that this is here due to the “starting of a new race about a mean within the range of the old race.” A It is evident that the skewness is here the result of direct physio- logical reaction to the changed environment. Not all individuals are alike sensitive to changed conditions, some being more, some less affected by a given amount of change; so that while many individuals respond to the less favorable conditions by the production of heads with smaller numbers of parts, there is still a considerable number of conservative individuals which are little or not at all affected. The positive skewness of these curves is due to the fact that only 4 — proportion of the population is conservative. If the great mass : variates had been comparatively conservative and only a small ae centage sensitive to the changed conditions, it is plain that the ge tion of the principal modes would have been little affected, while a mean would have been lowered and negative skewness would ee been the result. This would then have been a case of onl a e “prophetic” skewness. We may say then that in cases of age physiological variation, prophetic skewness indicates slight mee ness, and historic skewness great sensitiveness,* to the chang' pene ditions, provided always, of course, that “under ordinary co the distribution of the variates affected is normal. pe 5 As measured by the number of sensitive individuals, not by the degree sitiveness of each individual. 1904} SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 367 Cases are well known in which the distribution does not appear to be normal under any ordinary conditions, the frequency curves being of the “half Galton” type, as for instance the petals of Caltha palustris, Potentilla anserina, Ranunculus bulbosus (DE VRIES 1894), _ Ranunculus repens (PLEDGE 1897), sepals and petals of Ranunculus anvensis (BURKILL 1902), leaflets of clover (DE VRIES 1899@), ascidia and other abnormalities of various species (DE VRIES 1899a, TAMMES 1903), and other characters. Such cases may not be really so exceptional, however, as they at first appear. We have only to assume that the normal condition for these characters is one in which the value of o approaches zero to see that these are cases of “ pro- phetic” skewness due to the small proportion of abmodal variates; M other words, due to slight sensitiveness to conditions tending to produce a number of organs higher or lower than the normal mode. It may be found that any population or even any species is suffi- Gently uniform in its reactions to various degrees of environmental change to allow us to derive from the direction and amount of skew- tess the approximate value of the mean under average conditions . under conditions which would give a normal distribution of the ea Thus, the knowledge that this population of Aster prenan- & IS SO sensitive to change as to exhibit strong positive skewness when conditions are below average may be found to warrant the ‘sumption that there will be a strong negative skewness under usually favorable conditions, and also that the skewness exhibited ae Collection from any new locality would give an indication by .. - fas whether that collection was below or above the ply ts condition for that place. But before on can Mean” . pple with any confidence in determining the “normal thy any particular population, it will be necessary to confirm "mptions (a) that the distribution for that population is normal Oia conditions, and (b) that the sensitiveness to Reon — 1S similar in intensity to the sensitiveness to Th - Conditions. = ble here presented of variability in individual sensitive- in ad of environment is likely to find a wide aimee termini, ‘lation of skew variation, and suggests the need 0 8 Whether or not there is direct variation of the organ or 368 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER character under consideration before assuming that either natural selection or mutation is involved in any given case of skewness. And although this is most strikingly true of plants, it must likewise be true of animals, especially of animals having a short life-cycle, so that no investigation can be considered as giving satisfactory support to any hypothesis of evolution until the sensitiveness of the character under consideration to secular changes shall have been determined. Perhaps even more remarkable than the skewness and the changes in mean value, which have resulted from the less favorable conditions in 1903, is the great increase in value of the coefficient of variability. Reference to Tables E, F, and G will show that the variability in the bracts in 1900 was 12.979 +.241, as compared with 19.928= .345 in 1903. Corresponding changes are shown in rays and disk-florets, from 14.516+.270 to 19.766+.343, and from 12.546+.233 to 21.595 +.374, respectively. As it has been assumed that the low mean values indicate that conditions were less favorable in 1903 than os 1900, we may accept these changes in the coefficients of variability as proof of the hypothesis that when organisms are introduced into unusual surroundings or subjectcd to unusual conditions they become more variable, and that this would be favorable to any selective process which might set in as a result of the change. Before too great stress is laid on this conclusion, however, we need to consider the nature of the coefficient of variability. The importance of this constant lies in the fact that it is an abstract number and therefore allows us to compare the variability in characters of different magn! tude or even of different quality, as color, form, size, weight, pene etc. It consists of two factors, the standard deviation (7) and the i. mean (M), and is expressed by the formula C. V.= “yy ° with changes value of the coefficient of variability will change directly h g now to the of « and inversely with changes of the mean. Turnin 4 upon cause of the greatly increased coefficient of variability, so fin pet inspecting Tables E, F, and G that the value of ¢ was every rer considerably higher in 1903 than in 1900, and at the me rin the mean was much lower, so that both factors acted togetne producing the high values of the coefficient of variability : . measure To show that this coefficient is not always a satisfactory | 1904] SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 369 of variability, let us assume that conditions had been unusually favorable to such a degree as to give curves with the same values of ¢, but negatively skew. The variability would then be approximately the same, but, instead of the coefficient being the same or even nearly the same, it would be very much less, owing to the greatly 1000 M value of the coefficient of variability in cases of skew variation, since its values in positively skew curves are not comparable with those in curves of the same species or even of the same population, which are negatively skew. If the “normal-mean” could be derived from skew curves, that might be used instead of the mean in the formula for the coefficient of variability, thus making the value of o alone indicate the changes of variability from time to time within one and © same population. This would be theoretically correct, but it must be evident that. the experimental determination of the normal mean, except through a long series of investigations upon any popula- tion under Consideration, is impossible, even though, as pointed out above, the degree and direction of skewness may in some cases give 4 Tough approximation to it when the sensitiveness of the species M question is known. Returning now to the question as to the increased variability due © changed environmental conditions, we find that the present imper- Be eett of varicbility, which would tend to minimize the comty When conditions are unusually favorable, would still be erably increased by such unusually favorable conditions as Tesult in a negative skewness equal in magnitude to the positive he of the 1903 curves. We may confidently accept the results Study as Proof, therefore, that changes of environment do Tesult in increased variability. head noted in T1900 that the correlations between the parts in = in 1903 : very high, and by reference to Table H it will be a t . kin ey Were very considerably higher still, the highest coefficie he being that between bracts and rays. The exact meaning . SiN the degree of organic correlation is proving a somewhat . © Problem at the present time. Lupwic (1901) presents a 8 “Se of this kind as evidence of racial distinctness between increased value of the mean. I do not think that gives a proper Would 370 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER two populations of Ranunculus ficaria, but MAcLEop (1899) has shown that similar changes may be found in that spec‘es at d'fferent times in a single season. I have also found (SHULL 1902) that the coefficients of correlation in Aster prenanthoides may be very different at different parts of the season. Before the significance of such changes can be understood it will be necessary to investigate the nature of correlation when considered in this statistical way. Some biologists use the term “correlation” to designate a relation between two organs or characters, such that the development of the one determines that of the other, as for instance the dependence of the secondary sexual characters upon the primary in animals, or the relation of the internodes to the leaves in plants. In this kind of correlation the failure of the one organ or character to develop, or its removal at an early stage of development, invariably prevents or modifies the development of the other. Every degree of correlation in this sense is found in different cases, and it probably exists to some extent even between organs whose immediate relations to each other are little understood. It is only rarely, however, that this kind of correlation is not insignificant as compared with biometr- cal correlation. Thus, in the biometrical sense there is a very high correlation between the index fingers of the right and left hands, but the removal of one of these would have no appreciable effect upon the development of the other. For convenience we may speak of “immediate” correlation when one organ or character stands in a relation to another, and “mediate” or “indirect” correlation in cases of correlated variation in which no such direct dependence exists. Statistcal measures of correlation make no distinction between these two kinds of correlation, but as a notable degree of immediate corre- lation is comparatively rare, while mediate correlation 1S almost universal, the correlation of parts as spoken 0 may be considered as mediate or indirect. between two organs or characters may be defined, mutual relation to the combination of common causes, a ity, nutrition, etc., which determine their quantitative sees It is the relation which results in proportion and symmetry: . ans OF mediate correlation is perfect, 7. e., when p=1; the two OFS or ‘direct ” d rect causal 1904] SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 371 characters are proportionately influenced by every variation in the factors which determine their size, number, or other quantitative relation, and neither is affected by any factor which does not affect the other. The organs do not modify each other, but both are allected by the same conditions. Only confusion results from the failure to appreciate the difference between immediate and mediate correlation, as may be seen in BURKILL’s (1902) discussion of the correlation in the parts of the flower of Ranunculus arvensis, when he says that “reduction in the number of petals does not act as a reflex on the number of sepals in anything like the way in which the reduction of sepals may be said to promote reduction of petals.” If as the values of any pair of mediately correlated organs or characters are increased or decreased the correlation between them 4 changed, it must mean that one or other of them becomes propor- llonately less sensitive to the causes producing the change of values, and becomes more fixed or more variable in its quantitative relations. Such a change is well illustrated by an interesting diagram presented by Burk (1902), in which it is shown that sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels of Ranunculus arvensis vary together, 7. e., are closely Correlated, in flowers having the total number of parts less than 19, utin flowers having a higher total number of parts the sepals become fixed in number at 5, and the correlation between sepals and the Parts which continue to increase becomes zero. In flowers with more than 22 parts the mean number of petals likewise becomes .. at 5. In flowers of still higher numbers of parts the carpels @ tendency to respond with proportionately less increase a8 ‘Sata with the stamens. It is plain then that in this edger : ¥ conditions which promote the formation of flowers with a high imber of Parts will tend to decrease the degree of correlation and MCE versa, c alee important fact which must not be bimeec oe bean . Coefficient of correlation do not necessari f ee a hess, nge in correlation. PEARSON (1903) has pointed ot F seneity M a population tends to increase the coefficient 0 : tion, but of course such heterogeneity does not increase the degree of Correlation. It is probable that most of the marked “S which have thus far been observed in coefficients of correla- ee a ee 372 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER tion are to be accounted for in this way. I have already shown that my first collection in 1900 was made long after the beginning of the flowering season, and hence had the earliest heads with low numbers of parts associated with the heads having the highest numbers of parts produced during the season, and this fact sufficiently explains the high correlations found in that collection. A similar explanation may account for the considerable increase in the coefficients of corre- lation between the parts of the heads in 1903 as compared with those of 1900, as there are associated in the 1903 collection the heads of conservative individuals and those of individuals which were much modified because of their great sensitiveness to the unfavorable conditions in the latter year. It is apparent, therefore, that in cases of changed coefficients of correlation, as in other cases, it is necessary to scrutinize carefully the influence of more or less artificial conditions upon the value of the constants before we can appreciate their biological significance The results of this study have fully borne out the suggestion that considerable differences may occur in individual variation from year to year, and it shows that such differences may be even greater than one would expect. It is not likely that this is an extreme case nor that the differences between these two collections is even near the limit for this species. To some these results may seem to Pre clude the possibility of deriving anything of further value from quan- titative studies of variation, while to others many new problems of great interest and importance will be suggested. The interpretations which students have based upon the assumption that seasonal flue- tuations do not occur will have to be greatly revised or discarded altogether, and before we can appreciate the exact bearing of any case of variation upon the great problems of evolution it will be nec sary to know the laws governing that variation. It is to -_ this nature that students must direct their earnest attention pe are ever to have a basis for the appreciation of the bearing of in vidual variation. VI. SUMMARY. A second collection of heads of Aster prenanthoides Mubl. wat made in 1903 from the same area at Clifton, Ohio, that material for a quantitative study in 1900. The bracts, problems e.. 1904] SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER. 373 disk-florets were studied quantitatively, and the results compared with those of the earlier study. Twelve successive collections were made from the same plot, and it was found that the earliest collection had low mean numbers, that the mean values then leaped quickly to a maximum, falling gradually to near the end of the season, and that the last collection exhibited a tise, the rise in mean values at the beginning and at the end of the season being in disagreement with the conclusion reached in my eatlier study. In general, the first head to bloom on any stem has the highest number of parts possessed by any head produced by that stem, and the last to bloom has the lowest number. The low mean numbers at the beginning of the season are due to the precocious flowering of the weakest individuals, and similarly the rise at the end of the season is due to the belated flowering of a few very vigorous individuals, Comparison of the results with those of 1900 show that the mean Values in 1903 were 10-12 per cent. lower than in 1900, and that *ccompanying these low mean values there are a strong positive ewing of the curves, a remarkable rise in the coefficient of varia- llity, and a considerable increase in the coefficient of correlation. The difference in the mean values for the two years is attributed 10 less favorable climatic conditions in 1903, chiefly to low tempera- ture and low light-intensity in the month of June. The skewness is due to the unequal sensitiveness of individuals to “ ve of environment. It is positive because the proportion of nsetvative Individuals is small. In direct or physiological variation, a . skewness indicates great sensitiveness and “prophetic” ~ “Ness indicates slight sensitiveness to the changes of environment. egg great increase in the coefficient of variability is due to an in the standard deviation and a decrease of the mean. The Tatatig Seeffcient of variability is not satisfactory in cases of skew _~» and the value of o alone should be used as the measure of Ses of variability in one and the same population. ~ icing) 8€S In the coefficient of correlation may be due either to an change of correlation or to the introduction of a greater or less til heterogeneity, The latter is probably responsible for the hoted in this species, 374 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. C. B. Daven- PORT, under the inspiration of whose lectures this study was under- taken, and under whose direction it was largely carried on; to Miss Outve D. Cor for the care with which the material was collected, for the negatives from which jigs. 1, 4, and 5 were reproduced, and for the original of jig. 6; to the Directors of the U. S. Weather Bureau stations at Columbus, Ohio, and at Cincinnati, Ohio, for climato- logical data; and to the curators of numerous public and private herbaria for the data upon which jig. 3 is based. STATION FOR EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION, CoLp Sprinc Harpor, Long Island, N. Y. LITERATURE CITED. Apams, C. C. 1902. Southeastern United States as a center of geographica distribution of flora and fauna. Biological Bull. 3:115-131. BurxiLt, I. H. 1895. On some variations in the number of stamens and carpels. Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot. 31:216~245. ———. 1902. On the variation of the flower of Ranunculus arvensis. Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 71:93-120. Cuurcu, A.H. 1904. The principles of phyllotaxis. Ann. Botany 18:227-243- Davenport, C. B. 1899a. The importance of establishing specific place-modes. Science N. S. 9: 415-416. ’ . 1899). Statistical methods with special reference to biological varia- tion. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 2d ed., revised and enlarged. 19% . 1gor. Zoology of the twentieth century. Science N. S. 14:315-3?+ Haacke, W. 1896. Ueber numerische Variation typischer Organe und kor- relative Mosaikarbeit. Biol. Centralbl. 16: 481-497, 529-547: Leg, Miss Atice. 1902. Dr. Ludwig on variation and correlation in plants. Biometrika 1: 316-319. moe Lupwic, F. 1888. Weitere Kapitel zur mathematischen Botanik. V. Die Zell- theilung und der gesetzmassige Aufbau der Bacillarienbiinder. VI. oe Vorkommen bestimmter Zahlen bei den Organen héherer Gewichse sa ea Vermehrungsgesetz des Fibonacci. Zeitschr. f. math. u. naturwiss- Unter 19: 321-338. 2 . . 1899. Een fondamenteel verschil in de veranderlijkheid bi) a vr en de planten? Kruidkundig Genootschap Dodonaea te Gent II ; oo a 1go1. Variationsstatistische Probleme und Materialien. Bio I: 11-29. Lutz, F. E. 1904. Biological interpretation of skew variation. 19: 214. Science N. 5- 1904] SHULL—PLACE-CONSTANTS FOR ASTER 378 MacLeop, J. 1899. Over de correlatie tusschen .het aantal meeldraden en het aantal stampers bij het Speenkruid (Ficaria ranunculoides). Bot. Jaarboek 11:——. Discussed by F. R. Weldon in Biometrika 1:125-128. Pearson, K. 1902. On the sources of apparent polymorphism in plants, etc. Biometrika 1: 304-306. , Variation and correlation in the lesser celandine from diverse localities. Biometrika 2:145-164 DGE, J. H. 1897. Numerical variation of parts of Ranunculus repens. Nat. Sci. 10: 323-328. Reiént, F. 1903. Die Variation im Androecium der Stellaria media Cyr. Bot. Zeit. 61:159-200. SauLL, G.H. 1902. A quantitative study of variation in the bracts, rays, and disk-florets of Aster Shortii Hook., A. Novae-Angliae L., A. puniceus L., and A. prenanthoides Muhl., from Yellow Springs, Ohio. Amer. Nat. 36: 111- 152. SMALLWOOD, Miss Maset E. 1903. The beach flea: Talorchestia longicornis. Cold Spring Harbor Monographs I. Brooklyn: The Brooklyn Institute of Tasores, FRAULEIN TINE. 1903. Die Periodicitiit morphologischer Erschei- nungen bei den Pflanzen. Verhandl. Kon. Akad. Wetenschappen te Amster- am. Amsterdam: Johannes Miiller. Tower, W.L. 1902. Variation in the ray-flowers of Chrysanthemum Leucan- themum L. at Yellow Springs, Greene co., Ohio, with remarks upon the determination of modes. Biometrika 1: 309-31 RIES, H. DE. 1894. Ueber halbe Galton-Curven als Zeichen discontinuirlicher Variation. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 12:197-207. » I899¢. Ueber die phoetieiics der partiellen Variationen. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 17:4 ~~ + 18996. Ueber Be cit bei Chrysanthemum segetum. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 17:8 —98. tom A. 1897. Die Zahl der Randbliithen am Compositenképfchen. Jahrb. Vous Got 30'453-483. pl. 19. »G.U. 1897. On the theory of correlation. Jour. Roy. Statistical Soc. t. 4. oa ie ag of the number of sepals in Anemone nemorosa. Bio- Metrika x -3009. BRIEFER ARTICLES. A NEW SHEEP-POISON FROM MEXICO. TuroucGH the kindness of Professor ALFRED Ducks of Guanajuato, Mexico, I have recently had an opportunity to examine specimens of a plant, locally known as moradillo, which occurs on the Hacienda de Santiago in Zacatecas, Mexico. This plant is said to poison sheep which eat it. From its floral structure, as well as its habit, there can be no doubt that it belongs to the small solanaceous genus Bouchetia. Only two species of this genus are recognized as valid, namely B. erecta DC. and B. procum- bens DC., both published by Dunat in De Candolle’s Prodromus 13": 589- 1852. Of these, B. erecta is a well-known much-branched erect or decum- bent plant, 7 to 30°™ high, growing in rocky thickets, etc., of the south- western United States, Mexico, and southward to Argentina. The corolla is 14 to 18 ™™ long, being about twice the length of the calyx. The proper .tube of the corolla is short and entirely included within the calyx. The habit of the plant is closely that of an Evolvulus. B. procumbens is a be poorly known species, founded upon one of the drawings of the Moctho and Sesse collections. The tracing of this drawing (Calques des Dessins, pl. 920) shows a plant with a cluster of five slightly thickened roots. From the united summit of these spring eight leafy strongly decumbent or perhaps prostrate stems. These are in some cases as much as 12 %™ ‘ong. The leaves have the narrow lanceolate or oblanceolate form prevalent in B. erecta, but the corolla has a slender considerably exserted. proper tube. . limb is represented as about 1°™ broad, the lobes being subacute oF even shortly acuminate. So far as I know, the only specimen ever referred to this s its description was a part of Schaffner’s no. 611 from the Valley of Potosi, a plant so determined by Mr. W. B. HEMSLEY (Biol. Cent-Am- Bot. 2:437). This plant (in herb. Kew) I have not seen. Mr. tease also mentions some specimens (Schaffner’s no. 69 and Parry & Palmet® no. 701, from San Luis Potosi, as well as Graham’s no. 27° from Jalapa) ; aie : -; anomala Miers, Il. t The synonymy of this species is as follows: Nierembergia an : 1846. S.Am. Pl. 1:99. pl.20. 1846. N. staticaefolia Sendt. in Mart. Fl. Bras. pes Bouchetia erecta DC. acc. to Dunal in DC. Prodr. 131: 589. 1852- Leucant by, Trans tana Scheele, Linnaea 25:258-259. 1852. Bouchetia anomala Britton & Rusby, N. Y. Acad. Sci. 7:12. 1887. ; xOVEMBER 37 pecies since San Luis 1904] BRIEFER ARTICLES 397 which he doubtfully refers to a variety of B. procumbens with “floribus quam in icone fere duplo majoribus.” Of the numbers here mentioned, Dr. Schaffner’s no. 69 and Parry & Palmer’s no. 701 are in the Gray Herba- tium and appear identical with the sheep-poisoning plant recently sent by Professor Ducks. The stems are very short (3 to 4°™ in length) and prostrate; they spread from the summits of a 2—-several-branched caudex. The flowers, mostly appearing terminal, are more than 3 °™ long and 2 °™ in diameter, the long slender proper tube of the corolla greatly exceeding the calyx. The lobes of the corolla are rounded or retuse. I cannot at all believe that this is the plant sketched in the Calques des Dessins, fl. 920, which has the grumose roots, far longer branches, narrower corolla-limb and pointed lobes. It seems best, therefore, to characterize the large- flowered plant as a new species. The name chosen alludes to its baneful effects on sheep. Bouchetia arniatera, n. sp.—Pérennis pilis albis minutis curvatis hon-glanduliferis subcanescens: caudicis erectis vel patentis ramis sub- lerraneis saepe elongatis flexuosis pallidis; caulibus aeriis pluribus brevibus 34% longis prostratis foliosis prope apicem florentibus: foliis lanceolatis vel clliptico-oblanceolatis 8-11 ™™ Jongis 2.5—-4 ™™ Jatis breviter petiolatis Aa vel obtusiusculis uninerviis: pedunculis 3-6 ™™ longis teretibus; nibus solitariis: calycis lobis lanceolatis obtusiusculis erectis 4™™ longis {tam tubus ovato-turbinatus paulo longioribus: corollae purpureae 32-35" © 2% latae externe obscure glanduloso-puberulae tubo proprio oe longe exserto, faucibus gradatim ampliatis, limbi lobis soldeis apice rotundato vel retuso: filamentis equalibus paulo — iy corollae athxis filiformibus glabris 11 ™™ longis; antheris , S$ 1.5™™ longis: capsula ovoidea obtusiuscula 6™™ longa: . longis pallide brunneis irregulariter ovoideis, integumento . axe celluloso.—B. procumbens, var. ? Hemsl. Biol. Cent.- Luis . 1882.—In mountains of San Miguelita, Valley of San tributed 2 ele 1876, Dr. J. G. Schaffner,? no. 69 (hb. Gray), dis- una; San Luis Potosi, 1878, Drs. Parry & Palmer, no. 701 oo of Schaffner’s name here given is the one used on his printed Latin 8 Mexico an a oo a German apothecary, a native of Darmstadt, who _ ‘nd San Lais Potosi aces in the neighborhood of the city of oman ee ~ as J. G. “arty himself in two ways, sometimes as Wilhelm nec td a questi tes a The two signatures have given rise to some = san Ts stands bic. ; risceck of the person or persons concerned. The fist initial ; tin Guilielmus and the “J” probably for Johann or J ohannes. "at, Was drop Ries Manner of the Germans being regarded as relatively unimpor- chaffner in his ordinary German signature. 378 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER (hb. Gray); Hacienda de Santiago, Zacatecas, communicated by Prof. A. Duges, June, 1904 (hb. Gray). The reported poisonous qualities of B. arniatera certainly raise a suspicion regarding the nearly related B. erecta, which is frequent in some grazing regions of our southwestern states where, in case of unexplained sheep-poisoning, it would be well for veterinarians to investigate the toxic effects of this p!ant—B. L. Roprnson, Gray Herbarium. SOME WESTERN SPECIES OF AGROPYRON, Agropyron spicatum Vaseyi (Scribn. & Smith), n. comb.—A. Vaseyt Scribn. & Smith, U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Agros., Bull. 4:27. 1897. After a careful study of a large series of specimens I am disposed to regard A, Vaseyi as a depauperate form of A. spicatum. Agropyron subvillosum (Hook.), n. comb.—Triticum repens subvillosum Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. 2:254. 1840. A. dasystachyum subvillosum (Hook.) Scribn. & Smith. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Agros., Bull. 4:33- 1897- Much field study of this grass has led me to regard it as a distinct species. With its slender culms and small spikelets it is certainly quite different in — ance from the stouter and larger-flowered A. dasystachyum and A. Often it is not at all glaucous, but quite green, and the flowering glumes -— sometimes merely scabrous. It is very common in this region, occurring om bench-lands and alkali flats. Agropyron Bakeri, n. sp.—A smooth cespitose perennial, with stout culms, 3-54™ high: leaves rigid, flat, prominently striate-nerved; oo leaves three, 12-20 © long, 2-4 ™™ wide, those of the innovations longer: spike g-12 °™ long, scarcely exserted, equaled or exceeded by the — most leaf; spikelets terete, 5-9 ™™ distant, 5-flowered, 15-19" long: empty glumes 11-12 ™™ Jong, two-thirds the length of the — s : nerved (the nerves scabrous), margins scarious, narrowly oblong, ange abruptly narrowed into an awn 2-8 ™™ long, and with or without a pi to one side at the base of the awn: flowering glumes scabrous ame pn smooth on the back, the strong midnerve extended into @ rigid w a spreading awn 10-35 ™ long, often bidentate below the origin of the av palea equaling or somewhat exceeding its glume: rachilla scabrous. ees Related to A. violaceum and A. Gmelini, but distinguished by its stout speci firm and strongly nerved leaves, and long widely spreading awns- ie 130 men in the Rocky Mountain Herbarium, collected by C. F. BAKES poe near Pagosa Peak in southern Colorado, altitude 2750™ (gooo feet), 1899.—E tas NELson, University of Wyoming, Laramie. EDAD L NLL LIAO DT Phot r “ographs, Mer age by t phyll Te all allt} Pighs ‘ight 1904] BRIEFER ARTICLES 379 NOTE ON SOME BRITISH COLUMBIAN DWARF TREES. (WITH THREE FIGURES) Wate at the Minnesota Seaside Station on the west coast of Vancouver Island during the past summer, an interesting forest of dwarf trees was discovered. For the most part they grew on the weather-worn edges of a strongly inclined slate formation, but a few were found in crevices between blocks of diabase. They were all close to the sea, but outside the influence of the surf. Mr. F. K. Burrers and I succeeded in getting a number of BiG: x. after securing which we cut down the trees and determined The se mag of hand lenses and the compound microscope- Tees were of three species: Picea sitchensis, Tsuga hetero Maes. gigantea. The pictures herewith presented, en Si also the zs Ee prace.. F 1g. : shows the largest gee Pe eee ad : It was a little less than two feet high and sixt) ,., 28. The leaf-bearing phytomeres were decidedly short, ‘Temain upon the twigs for several years, so that he effect in OD» “4, and Thuja 380 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER cleft of the diabase. It was less than a foot in height, with trunk three- quarters of an inch in diameter. It turned out to be eighty-six years old. Fig. 3 shows a tree cut down and held in the writer’s hand. It was about a foot high, with trunk one inch in diameter, and ninety-eight years old. These trees have very much the appearance of the well-known Japanese dwarf trees, so much so indeed that it would be an easy matter for the unscrupulous to pot them and palm them off on innocent purchasers. Their striking resemblance to the famous products of Japanese horticul- tural art suggested to me that from such seashore dwarfs the Japanese might very easily have obtained their hint and learned the tricks of culture. Bie. 2. Two strong dwarfing influences are at work upon these little a Columbian trees. In the first place, the root system is strongly spi 3 between plates of rock. Of some of these trees the whole ee the was exposed and it looked a good deal like a sheet of brown paper ae trunk of the tree attached to one edge. In the second place, ese from the sea dwarf and contort the twigs. So with great a the root system and strong wind action upon the shoot ie ae accomplished. slender These little trees have a very different appearance from the : dwarf spruces of bogs in northern Minnesota. In such ein ge with trunks an inch or so in diameter have been noted, showing ab to sixty years, but they are tall, slender, and regular nea upon ns trees PS ——— 1904] BRIEFER ARTICLES 381 of their branches. The dwarf trees of mountain tops have likewise a decidedly different appearance, so far as they have come within my observa- tion, and do not particularly resemble the Japanese products. I do not remember to have seen it suggested anywhere that the dwarf D5 FIG. 3 tr me S of Japan are essentially of seashore origin, but in v.ew of the little a ural forest on the coast of Vancouver, I think it very possible that this a ee exp'anation.—Conway MAcMILLan, University of Minnesota, nea pol CELLOIDIN TECHNIQUE: A REPLY. bing August number of the GAzETTE, Dr. CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN the mas Criticism of a recent contribution by Mr. A. B. PLOWMAN on of celloidin imbedding. As the account of the method was Dr etal Mr. Prowman at my suggestion, and the ‘Correction”’ of LAIN contains several misconceptions, I think it well to pub- teply. Dr. CHAMBERLAIN is unable to find anything new in yond the preliminary use of hydrofluoric acid. If so accom- lis shed a technician takes the trouble to reperuse the article in question, 382 - BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER he will discover, in the very careful removal of air from the tissues before imbedding, the numerous accurately graded solutions of celloidin (2, 4, 6, 8, etc., per cent.), the repeated heating and rapid cooling of the objects during the process of infiltration, the thickening of the final matrix by the addition of chips of celloidin and the use of heat (instead of the usual process of evaporation), the hardening by means of chloroform followed by STRASBURGER’s solution of equal parts of alcohol and glycerin, the method of attaching the objects to the microtome, etc., etc., features of greater or less novelty in celloidin technique. It is scarcely necessary to discuss the misconception on the part of Dr. CHAMBERLAIN, by which he supposes Mr. PLowMaN to claim originality in the matter of using celloidin as an imbedding medium. The reference to previous incomplete accounts was perhaps unfortunate, but was due to the fact that Mr. C. H. MILLER, an assistant in the Anatomical Department of the University of Chicago had described imperfectly the celloidin method at present under discussion as derived from Prof. R. R. BENSLEY, a former colleague of the present writer. In his chapter on celloidin technique, Dr. CHAMBERLAIN too makes reference to his indebtedness to Mr. W. B. Mac Catyum, a former student of the Ontario Agricultural College, an institution into which the present writer’s celloidin method had certainly been introduced. The writer is glad to accept Dr. CHAMBERLAIN’S statement, in a letter to Mr. PLOWMAN, that he owes nothing to Dr. MacCattum. The mention of possible prior publication arising out of the wide informal diffusion of the method was not introduced out of any desire to establish priority, but for the purpose of obviating just such well meant criticisms as that of Dr. CHAMBERLAIN. The excuse for publishing the method is the fact that it gives results which excel those obtained by any other process known to the writer.— JEFFREY, Phanerogamic Laboratories of Harvard U: niversity. E. C. THE correction to which Professor JEFFREY refers in his reply was bas * - : : r cent. used, comes in tablets accompanied by directions stating that a 2 pe Solution may be made by adding to a tablet a sufficient quan™ tet alcohol to make the whole weigh 20008". For a 4 per cent. solution @ tablet could be added, and *o on. The chloroform method celloidin after infiltration was described by VIALLANES in 1883 Vhist. et le dével. des insects, p. 129; also Revue scientifique 3t° (Rech. sur 684-687- 1904] BRIEFER ARTICLES 383 1883). A mixture of equal parts of glycerin and alcohol was recommended by StRASBURGER (Das botanische Practicum 1884, Pp. 79) for facilitating the cutting of woody tissues. EEycLEsHymMER (Amer. Naturalist 34: 354- 357- 1892, and Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc. 1892: 563-565) describes a series of four grades of celloidin for infiltrating, chloroform for hardening, and a treatment with glycerin before cutting. In view of these facts, we do not doubt that others, who like ourselves have used STRASBURGER’S method for softening woody tissues, have continued to use the glycerin and alcohol mixture when dealing with material imbedded in celloidin. Mr. Prowman has certainly presented the subject in a very usable form, and in. perfecting the application of fluoric acid he has made it possible to obtain better sections of refractory tissues. In my ‘‘correction”’ Tintended merely to lodge an objection to the characterization of my account aS a second-hand presentation of Dr. JEFFREY’s methods. A study of LeE’s Vade Mecum and the references there cited indicates that Dr. JEFFREY, like myself, is deeply indebted to previous investigators—CuarLEs J. CHAMBERLAIN, IHAVE been permitted to read the proof of Dr. CHAMBERLAIN’s com- ment onmy letter. Matters have now resolved themselves into a difference of opinion between Dr. CHAMBERLAIN and myself as to what constitutes hovelty and improvement in celloidin technique. Iam very willing to allow the case to rest on the practical value of the method published by Mr, PLOWMAN.—E. C. JEFFREY. AN ABNORMAL AMBROSIA. (WITH THREE FIGURES) peal x Ambrosia artemisiaefolia that had been run over by a wagon condit: Y injured bore both staminate and pistillate flowers in an abnormal the ». The young shoots bearing the flowers arose vertically from ote and injured main stem. — gaia flowers of this injured plant appeared larger than the contained f © heads were scattered, forming a loose raceme, and each heads the “wer flowers than usual. In the center of the older flower While —. Was a group of buds that appeared to be vegetative (fig. 1); ._ ounger heads contained vegetative buds only within the bracts é the heads, the flowers having been entirely replaced. Instead of enter (f Style the older staminate flowers bore vegetative buds in the fo The pollen of these flowers appears to have been arrested 384 BOTANICAL GAZETTE © [NOVEMBER in development. In some cases the grains were shriveled and not well formed, in other cases the pollen seemed to have been checked just beyond the tetrad stage. The pistillate flowers of the same plant bore no ovules, but instead of them there were small vegetative buds (jig. 3). These flowers were not clustered as usual, but were mostly in the axils of leaf-like bracts, for the most part being considerably separated and forming a very loose raceme. The styles were glandular at tip only. In tracing the development, the bud ap- peared very early replacing the ovule, and the parts of the flower were more length- ened. A rudimentary ring- like outgrowth appeared just beneath the carpel, cor- responding to the corolla of the staminate flower (jig. 3; P) Fic. 1.—Vegetative buds (/) in the center of a staminate head. Fic. 2.—A vegetative bud (/) replacing the sterile style; s, pe oh Fic. 3.—A vegetative bud (J) replacing the ovule; c, carpel; ? corolla. dimentary- All the staminate flowers examined had styles more or ia ar corolla were In some of the marginal flowers the styles protruded beyond and were terminated by a disk fringed by glandular hairs. not formed in any specimen, but a tissue that had the appea™ rudimentary ovule was seen in some flowers. : It would appear that under the abnormal conditions eee primordia that usually form reproductive parts produced vegetatly —A. C. Lire, Shaw School of Botany, St. Louis, Mo. nee of 2 CURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REVIEWS. The adaptation theory. From THE time of LAMARCK the theory of direct adaptation to environment has found its adherents, and there certainly appear to be many facts which are Hest explained by some such theory. Dr. Cart Derro, assistant at the Botanical ot the University of Jena, has made a careful reinvestigation of the Subject, in the light of the most modern botanical knowledge.* The first chapters whe methodological postulates and a general statement of the problem of adaptation. Tt is evident from the first sentences that the author is radically pposed to the Lamarckian theories and especially to the Neolamarckian aspect cana theories as held, for example, by Wettstein. _ It is to be feared that DeTto Sometimes loses the appearance of impartiality, and becomes a partisan, anxious ‘maintain his view at all hazards. He regards the capacity for an advantageous 7 onse to new and hitherto unexperienced conditions as the central feature of smarckism, and thinks that the most refined Neolamarckian views are of a . with the more coarse and obviously teleological expressions of LAMARCK and aa He believes that those who hold to direct adaptation are necessarily ap S and vitalists, and fundamentally in error because they attempt to neg Physical phenomena by means of psychological data. The presence i Soom of a capacity for an advantageous response to changed condi- S'S called an ecologism, while the development of an advantageous from an am State is called ecogenesis. The difficulty with Lamarckism is oe it how es, cologism for granted; a true explanatory theory will have to exp ain me into existence, i. €., we are in need of a theory to account for ecogenesis. oo fxamines the evidence thit has been adduced in support of direct ition, especial consideration being given to “accommodation” or “regula ing exhibited by bacteria, molds, the biological species among the Ureaineae, e Paytic,” “hygrophytic,” and “hydrophytic adaptations’ among only ee any changes usually regarded as advantageous, which Ke held that — are placed in water, are here referred to hypoplasy, an € reduced or modified structures may be of slight benefit or even no pcb all. Other changes may be due to reversion, or to the removal of “ats The chief recourse of the author, however, is to what he terms the ‘ ‘Derto, Cc ARL, Die Theorie der direkten Anpassung und ihre Bedeutung fir _ iru gd und Deszendenzproblem. Versuch einer methodologischen sa vi tary, < haea und der botanischen Tatsachen des Lamarckismus. 8vo. pp- io, Ma: Gustav Fischer. 1904. M4. 386 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER potential limit of variation; the supposed direct adaptation is in reality nothing new, but rather the manifestation or release of a hitherto latent property. The new habitat is merely empirically new. Consequently DETTOo agrees with KLeBs that a species should not be defined as it exists normally in nature, but should include all possible variations in all imaginable conditions. The capacity of an organism is not widened but demonstrated by environmental changes. Direct adaptation or ecogenesis is impossible because it implies that there is a setting aside of the constitutionally prescribed effect of a given stimulus in the interest of the organism, or that menacing factors are in reality beneficial. The direct adaptationist conceives of a vital mechanism that looks out for the future, and holds advantageous reactions in readiness for conditions which have never yet occurred! Ecogenesis must therefore be indirect in all cases, chance alone determining whether the new ecologism is of advantage or not. DETTO, who agrees with Kiegs at so many points, holds in direct opposition to him that the external world causes no changes whatever in plants; every plant character is an organiza- tion character (in Niigeli’s sense) and the external conditions in which a plant is placed act merely as releasing stimuli. x k should be read carefully by all who are interested in the philosophy of adaptation, since the volume as a whole is so written as to stimulate thinking. However, it seems to the reviewer that the perspective is frequently distorted. In this country, at least, there is no need for such a continuous and hearty lampooning of teleological and vitalistic views, for they have been long since abandoned by most scientific investigators. That chance determines suc- cess and not a prudent foresight on the part of the plant is certainly the common view. Again, if one holds to a potentielle Variationsbreile wide enough to embrace all changes that ever occur in plants, it is obviously impossible ever to demonstrate the contrary by experiment; it is a concept incapable of proof or disproof. It seems far better to hold that both the organism and the environment are nee to secure the evolution of new forms; any other view seems to the reviewer funda- mentally unthinkable—HEenry C. Cowles. Matthias Jacob Schleiden. AN APPRECIATIVE biography of SCHLEIDEN by M. Most on the centennial of his birth, April 5, 1904.2, MOsrus was re hi to SCHLEIDEN (whose second wife was Mosrus’s maternal aunt), and to fal family sources of information have been open. SCHLEIDEN’S life was papi a of save for two incidents; the one an attempt at suicide on account of eh tion success and dissatisfaction in the legal profession, and the second his resignal of the professorate at Jena because of the refutation of his theories on oe ape of cells and the formation of the embryo. Clear and vigorous in ceo to expression, he demanded accuracy and lucidity in others and was ever If US, was published lated by marriage iv -? MOstus, M., Matthias Jacob Schleiden zu seinem 100 Geburtstage- vo. PP: +106, portrait, figs. 2. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1904- M2.50 CURRENT LITERATURE 387 criticise sharply. Indeed, polemics seem to have been his delight, and he attacked without reference to the standing of his antagonist, as his famous controversy with LieBic shows, @ propos of which UNGER wrote ENDLICHER: “Den arroganten Liebig hat Schleiden ganz késtlich zugedeckt.”’ The greater part of the book is devoted to an account of SCHLEIDEN’s published work, including an account of his famous cell-theory, his classical Grundziige der wissenschajtlichen Botanik, many minor papers, popular addresses and books, his editorial activity, and his philosophical, religious, and speculative writings. For many important services to the science of his day, and especially to botany, this many-sided man deserves of the present generation fuller recognition. This book, with its interesting portrait and character portrayal, will promote this and is a useful contribution to the history of botany.—C. R. B. MINOR NOTICES. ENGLER 3 has published a new edition of his Syllabus, including the most Tecent results of his views as to relationships. This complete outline of his classifi- cation, including as it does the whole plant kingdom, is of great service to students of morphology as well as of taxonomy. There is a prefatory statement of the Pnnciples of this particular scheme of classification, and an appendix containing the geographical regions recognized by the author.—]J. M. C. Wittoucusy, Vermont, has long been famous for its flora, and KENNEDY 4 has done good service in publishing a compact account of the region and a list of 690 plants. ‘The characteristic features of the region are wet cliffs and slides ae sphagnous cedar Swamps. The small area in which the species are massed ® remarkable, Probably nine-tenths of the indigenous species being found in two “duare miles—J. M,C. : Courter and Dorner 5 have published a simple key to the genera of the _ et trees of Indiana, using the most obvious characters. Its practical value 3 large classes has led to its publication, and its usefulness is not restricted to. Indiana —J. Mf, ¢ Ty ° has published a list of the vascular plants growing in Emmet unty, Towa, a northwestern county bordering on Minnesota. The list includes numbers—J. Mc. ee *EXcirr, A., Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien. Eine Uebersicht tiber das gesamte Pllanzensyste dae m, etc. Vierte, umgearbeitete Auflage. 8vo. pp. Xxx+237- Berlin: Borntraeger. 1904. M4. *Kennepy, GEORGE G., Flora of Willoughby, Vermont. Reprinted from of i” STANLEY, and Dorner, H. B., A key to the genera of the epee hed (eet chi 12. Lafayette, Indiana: Publisheg eo th chiefly upon ieaf characters. 16mo. pp. 12 . 6c € authors. 1904 : duced rida R.I., Flora of Emmet county, Iowa. A list of the native and intro- pants, Reprinted from Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 11: 201-251. 1904. 388 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER NOTES-FOR STUDENTS: YaBE 7 gives his opinion that CoviLtr’s ericaceous genus Arcterica,* from Bering Island, is Pieris nana Makino, common on the higher peaks in Honshu and Hokkaido, Japan. The plant was originally described as Andromeda nana Maxim., of which genus Pieris is often regarded as a section.—J. M. C. Hotm ° has been investigating the inflorescence of Cyperus, chiefly with reference to the prophylla. It is claimed that by means of the “‘cladoprophyllon” the originally erect and congested rays of the umbel are brought to their more or less horizontal position. Also, the small bodies always observable at the base of the secondary branches of the inflorescence of grasses, more distinct in large panicles, are said to represent rudimentary prophylla identical with those char- acteristic of the Cyperaceae.—J. M. C Fuyit *° in a short preliminary announcement gives the results of his investiga- tions upon the droplet which exudes from the micropyle of gymnosperms at the time of pollination. The preliminary announcement deals with Taxus baccata. Chemical tests indicate that the droplet contains glucose and calcium. A kind of gum and perhaps also malic acid are present. SCHUMANN claimed that only one droplet is produced. The present investigation shows that droplets may be formed repeatedly, both in the laboratory and in the field. —CHARLES J. CHAMBER- LAIN. ; VERSCHAFFELT * finds that the minimum lethal strength of some toxic solu- tions for fleshy or succulent organs of potato, Aloe, Rheum, etc. can be determined with fair accuracy by noting the change in weight which occurs when the test abject is removed from the toxic solution and immersed in water. The basis of _ the method is that tissues which have succumbed to toxic exposure lose in weight by yielding osmotically held water, or at least do not gain in weight by water absorption as compared. with controls. The method has limitations, some © which are noted by the author—RayMonpD H. Ponp. HE EXPERIMENTS upon which Elfving based his theory of posit negative galvanotropism have been repeated by PLowan ** with results for the most part confirmatory. Two exceptions to be noted are, first, that an electric ive and 7 YaBE, Y., On a new genus Arcterica. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 18: 127-128. 1904 Abstract. 8 See Bor. Gaz. 3'7: 298-302. 1904. of o Hom, THro., Studies in the Cyperaceae. XXII. The inflorescence Cyperus in North America. Am. Jour. Sci. IV. 18: 301-397- 1904. el to Fuji, K., Ueber di estaubungstropfen der Gymnospermen- bases Mitteilung. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 21: 211-217- 19°3- erent 11 VERSCHAFFELT, E., Determination of the action of poisons on plants. i Akad. Wetens. Amsterdam 1904: 703-707. 12 PLowMAN, A. B., Electrotropism of roots. Amer. Journ. Sci. IV. 236. pls. Q-I0. 1904. 18: 228- 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 389 current passing through water in which seedlings are growing is not necessarily fatal, and that the roots of such seedlings will curve toward the positive pole even when the current is of less than lethal strength; second, that ‘negative galvan- otropism is not a constant property of any species thus far studied. Since electrons instead of ions are the cause of the curve responses the author proposes to sub- stitute for Elfving’s “galvanotropism” the term ‘“‘electrotropism.”—RAYMOND, H. Ponp. NEWcOMBE ‘3 reports experiments on thigmotropism of terrestrial roots which show very feeble sensitiveness of the terminal millimeter and of the growing region, the few responses being positive and the angle of deviation small. Many Ingenious modes of securing continuous pressure and avoiding hydrotropic stimuli as far as possible were tried. ‘The most convincing results were gained by sur- tounding roots with collapsible collodion tubes, and using a water stream to give the pressure. The tubes do not allow appreciable filtration. These experiments save strong evidence for the identity of rheotropism and thigmotropism, and NewcomBe applies to thigmotropism the results given by his earlier experiments on theotropism.'+ The sensitiveness is equal on all sides, and the stimulation must extend over a considerable area and be continued for some time to produce 4 complete reaction. The feeble sensitiveness is probably of no utility to the Plant—C, R. B, Branpr holds *5 that REINKE errs in thinking the N-content of the sea small *° Pecause litle is added to it. His estimates of the yearly addition of organic Shige and of inorganic N-compounds by rains would indicate an N- P a M sea water that analysis does not corroborate. This discrepancy is ny ed by the active dentrification through the action of bacteria, so that the aes never surpasses a minute amount. This dentrification has been in the i occur and the bacteria have been carefully studied in several eae: the chi orth Sea, the East Sea, and even in the Antarctic under the ice. t is det s . Teason for the smaller N-content of tropical waters and this difference core the lesser amount of plant life there. Branpt believes the N-supply and oes without special appeal to such bacterial symbionts as Clostridium peerter, though these insofar as they occur may be effective. For "hag in the water of Kiel Bay (at 20™) the content in inorganic N is ge at of the plankton.—C. R. B I . 1. *NEweomse, F, C., Thigmotropism of terrestrial roots. Beihefte Bot. Cent. T8184. 1904, 4 Bor. Gaz, 33: 183. 1902. 15 : vs : * Pat Branpr, K., Ueber die Bedeutung der Stickstoffverbindungen fir die Pro nim Meere. Beihefte Bot. Cent. 16: 383-402. 1904. : " i disponiblen Quellen @ Stickstoff. J., Die zur Ernahrung der Meeres-Organismen (Isp ac 37: ol. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 21: 371-380. 1903- See Bot. * 228, 1904. 390 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER PILosTYLEs is a genus of the Rafflesiaceae parasitic upon various Leguminosae. Material from Brazil has been studied by ENprIss *7 in GOEBEL’s laboratory. The staminate flower consists of a solid axis in which are imbedded two circles of sporangia, with 18-20 sporangia in each circle, twenty being probably the usual number. If four sporangia represent one anther, the whole structure would represent five anthers, corresponding in some measure to the relations obtaining in the ovulate flower, which has normally five placentae. While the flowers are monosporangiate, a rudiment of the ovary appears as a column in the center of the staminate flower. In related forms the flowers are said to arise endogenously, within an originally compact tissue. In Pailostyles Ingae the flowers are strictly exogenous. The pollen grains are ext ly small, measuring only 5" in diameter. Some flowers have been pollinated, but in only one case had pollen tubes begun to form. Many older seeds contained embryos, but no trace of pollen or pollen tubes could be found. The writer doubts whether normal fertilization occurs. The anatomy of the plant and the development of the embryo are described.—CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN. Various ATTEMPTS have been made to attribute to external conditions the polarity seen in cuttings of roots and shoots. The latest effort is by Kuster, who discusses in a preliminary paper'® the influence of oxygen and of centrifugal force upon polarity, and in a second *° enlarges upon the same topic. KUsTer placed the roots of Taraxacum, which under uniform conditions of moisture produce roots at the apical (normally lower) end and shoots at the basal end, with their basal (normally upper) ends in water and the opposite ends pointing upwards into the air. Shoots develop on the latter end and none on the parts water. Cuttings of the stems of Ribes aureum placed with their basal ends in water and their apical ends in moist air produced roots only on their apical ends. Salix vitellina gave similar results, showing a marked tendency for the roots #9 appear only where there is a sufficient supply of air. Cuttings of Salix and other plants were rotated horizontally on a centrifuge. The centrifugal force acted as ; check upon development, the inhibition being in proportion to the force, 1. @ the apical end describe the greater circle the buds there are inhibited more than those at the opposite end. In this way the usual polarity may be reversed.— W. B. MacCatium. Lyon?° has made a detailed and much-needed study of the embryogeny . Ginkgo, with an unusual abundance of illustration. The general panasgeel mass of tissue that is known to fill the egg after free nuclear division 1S ; Ulei NDRISss, W., Monographie von Pilostyles Ingae (Karst.). (P ilostyles weE Solms-Laub.) Flora 91: 209-236. pl. 20. figs. 3I- 1902. Spross- 18 Kuster, Ernst, Experimental Untersuchungen iiber Wurzel- und i bildung an Stecklingen. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 22: 167-179- ste ae to Kuster, Beitrige zur Kenntnis der Wurzel und Sprossbildung 2” " Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 40: 279-302. figs. 4. 1904. . 20 Lyon, Harotp L., The embryogeny of Ginkgo. 290. pls. 29-43. 1904. Minn. Bot. Studies 3: 275~ 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 391 the “protocorm.” The cells in the micropylar two-thirds of this spherical proto- corm divide little or not at all, but the cells of the antipodal extremity form a small-celled meristem which passes over directly into the meristem of the “Dlastema” or ‘‘metacormal bud.’ The blastema invades the endosperm as a broad, blunt cylinder, the protocormal tissue being forced back through the neck of the archegonium, many of its cells often being crushed. The metacormal bud is meristematic throughout, but soon two “growth-foci,” those of stem and Toot, are organized in its axis and very close together. Later the primordia of the two cotyledons are organized in the marginal region of the broad apical meristem. Thus in the organization of the embryo much of the original proto- cormal tissue is not involved, heretofore being described as a rudimentary sus- pensor. There are usually two cotyledons, but in certain of the material three cotyledons were quite common; they are normally equal and entire, and spring apart when liberated from the seed. The anatomy of the embryo, including its histogenesis, is also described.—J. M. C. . Brssry has studied the effect of various external factors on the pigment formation in several fusarium-like fungi.2t The plants used were (1) two fungi, closely resembling each other, isolated from the roots of diseased sesamum plants, (2) Neocosmos pora vasinfecta and (3) its variety nivea, and (4) Fusarium cul- mortem. Of these the first four when grown on acid media produce a red pigment Which changes to dark blue when treated with alkalies. ‘The fungi were grown in Kyor’s solution to which the substances to be tested were added: No general relation could be established between the composition of the culture medium and the production of pigment. Mono-, di-, tri-, and polysaccharides generally save a-red or violet pigment, which changed to blue in cases where the culture ne alkaline during the experiment (gelose). Organic acids gave a scarlet ~ lor, except palmitic acid which is not soluble. Salts of the acids with few excep- Save no pigment. In alkaline media no pigment production takes place. bsence of air also suppresses the development of the coloring matter. ese Btalso produce a yellow pigment whose formation is independent of the char- ve of the substratum. Light and oxygen are necessary for its production. Pigments are formed in the cells of the fungi and not primarily in the sub- as has been stated.—H. HASSELBRING. oo *? mycological studies of endotrophic mycorhizas pe eee of Pog » Alnus, and Myrica have given the following results: In = es an ate the mycelium of the fungus develops extensively, os sed coll divides _- ata by the cells of the host. The nucleus of cake ack ‘ as: ies ; - — edly amitotically, the nuclei increasing greatly in Flore, Bessey, Ernst A., Ueber die Bedingungen der F arbbildung bei Fusarium. 391-334. 1904. ‘ cots Wiss, slags -, Cytologische Studien iiber die endotrophen Mykorrhizen. J io 37°643-684. pls. 14-15. 1902 392 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER on account of the increase in a nuclein-like material. After the digestion of the fungus the nuclei of the host cells resume their normal appearance. The increase and subsequent decrease in the nuclein-like material indicates that the nucleus takes part in the formation of enzymes. The amitotic division is not an indica- tion of degeneration, but is rather a means of increasing more rapidly the nuclear material. After the fungus has been digested, mitotic division is often seen in the multinucleate cells, showing that nuclei after dividing amitotically may again divide by mitosis. The number and arrangement of the chromosomes does not seem to be affected by the previous amitotic division. In Psilotum the cells containing the fungus can be distinguished as host cells and digesting cells. The nuclear change consists chiefly in a great increase in the chromatin. The formation of transverse walls in the intracellular hyphae is almost entirely suppressed. In Alnus the ungus is not a true hyphomycete. A plasmatic body appears in the nucleus of the infected cell, and within the body are numerous droplets which disappear after digestion of the fungus has been completed. The fungus in Myrica belongs to the genus Actinomyces, the first instance of actinomycosis recorded. In all the mycorhizas studied the cytological changes are intimately connected with the intracellular digestion of the fungus substance. The presence of a typ! digestive fluid was established in all cases. The mode of nutrition of the endo- trophic fungus is still an open question.—CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN. AMAR ?3 has recorded data obtained from histological and physiological study of the réle of calcium oxalate in plant nutrition. As a general rule the root con- tains few if any crystals, and they become less numerous as one follows the course of foods from the leaf blade to the root. Crystal formation in the leaf “ localized chiefly in tissues adjacent to those concerned with photosynthesis and conduction. The crystals represent excreted waste and not reserve products storage. Amar seeks to relate the formation of oxalate crystals to physiological conditions resulting from the chemical composition of the nourishment absorbed, but in the opinion of the reviewer he does not present conyincing evidence. He found that each species has a minimum requirement for Ca, up to which cry do not form, and above which they form in proportion as the Ca exceeds the minimum requirement. Since crystals do not form in seedlings grow? without any calcium, the author attributes the retarded growth in such cases to deficiency of this element, and concludes that the crystals form under natural conditions to reduce the excess of calcium rather than to remove oxalic acid from ca The justification for this conclusion is not apparent, because the ae a. tried does not exclude the presence of oxalic acid as a possible factor a ‘ opinion of the reviewer an important fact has been overlooked, namely molecule of oxalic acid consisting of just two carboxyl groups requires i oR addition of one atom of oxygen for complete oxidation to carbon dioxid - x For this reason an abnormal excretion of oxalic acid in animal metabolism : ‘la nutrition des” 23 AMAR, Maxnwe, Sur le réle de Voxalate de calcium dans ‘la nul végétaux. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VIII. 19: 197-292. figs. 34- 1904- ale 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 393 always been regarded as evidence of incomplete oxidation. Since calcium oxalate occurs in fungi as well as in green plants, it is quite possible that oxalic acid means incomplete oxidation for plants as well as for animals. The author’s experiment would then be interpreted thus: an excess of calcium retards oxidation and hence favors oxalic acid formation; rather than that oxalic acid is formed especially to remove excess of lime.—RayMOND H. Ponp. ToBLER *4 experimented at the Zoological Station of Naples upon fragments of living Rhodophyceae taken from the detritus zone of the bay. He finds motion essential to keep the thallus of some algae intact. Griffithsia Schousboet, for instance, grew well upon a shaking machine, but fell to pieces in a day when kept quiet. Bornetia, which normally has straight branches, only the claw-like branches about the fruiting organs being hyponastic, in darkness developed such branches at the tip of the plant. Lack of light produces abnormal growth and other effects. For example, alternately branched forms in the dark became oppo- sitely branched, and oppositely branched species became whorled. Terminal cells of Antithamnion plumula became elongated, lighter colored, and hair-like. Callithamnion lived three and one half months in complete darkness-—longer than it had ever been cultivated in light. Dasya grew more luxuriantly in yellow light. About ten cells from the tip of the axis intercalary growth was induced. Etiolation phenomena represent only a general form of reaction, because cultures wi number of algae in the light show typical etiolation, which the author calls phen cells, In con which ny by the intimate correlation between the cells of Callithamnion, which B S it impossible for them to become separated and remain alive. —ETOILE - Stuons, nt day is decidedly ATTITUDE i i dea 23 of experimental morphologists of the p as opposed to the Tae tow; : zh ik 4 causal explanation for the behavior of organisms, scott — sical view of the past. REINKE,?5 in a lengthy discussion, stren : 2 Md SSLER, F., Ueber Eigenwachsthum der Zelle und Pflanzenform. haan of ien an Meeresalgen. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 39: 527-577- Pl 10. 1993: 25 snfliisse. Bot. Zeit, ts, J., Ueber Deformation von Pflanzen durch aussere Einfliisse at: 81-1; 2. pl 394 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER opposes this point of view and argues for a “‘final” (which he makes synonymous with teleological) neeeriae REINKE cites as illustrations upon which his argument is based the behavior of Nuphar luteum and Ranunculus aquatilis which in flowing water Aaa no floating leaves or flowers, of Euphorbia Cypar- issias whose shoots are distorted by a rust fungus, and of Lentinus lepideus which in darkness develops a branching non-fruiting form. These cases he considers as undoubted malformations because they are forced departures from the normal type. In Nuphar, for example, the form developed in still water is “abnormal,” though it always occurs under these conditions. This character, REINKE claims, not being “normal” is not heréditary; only the capability of reaction to this stimulus is hereditary. One is tempted to ask here, what is the “normal” form of this plant but evidence of its capability of reaction to the conditions of still water ? The branched non-fruiting form of Lentinus occurring in the absence of light REINKE discusses at length, and claims it to be a true malformation because it is © the result of abnormal conditions, while the fruiting form is “normal” because it is the result of “normal” conditions, the test of normal or abnormal conditions here being very apparently whether they are the rule or the exception in nature. Such “abnormal” modifications according to REINKE all have this character, that they are not necessary for the life of the plant, and are not hereditary, but only potentially so, in that they occur only as reactions to definite stimuli, 4. ¢., the reaction ability is hereditary. When an organism responds to two different sets of stimuli by definite reactions in each case it seems to the reviewer rather futile to argue that one response is normal and the other is anything else. Kiess’s work is freely quoted, and REINKE, as would be expected, takes exactly the opposite view, maintaining that there is a definite form which the plant is striving to assume, but when certain inhibiting conditions exert their influence the morphological equilibrium is disturbed and the plant, against its innate forces, is compelled to assume another form. These external factors REINKE considers as opposed to the ‘‘normal” form, and the plant, so to speak, resists them.—W. B. MacCaLtum ITEMS OF TAXONOMIC INTEREST are as follows: K. SCHUMANN (Bot. Jahrb. 34: 325. 1904) has described a new African genus ise of Apocynaceae, and also (idem 331) one (Dolichometra) of Rubiaceae.—W. H. B LANCHARD (Amer- sh Botanist '7:1-4. 1904) has Pipe a new species of Rubus (blackberry), ¥! , a variety, from Vermont.—H. Curist (Bull. Herb. Boissier 4: 936-951: a has described new species of sac eciam (x2), Trichomanes (2), Cyathea (9) : and Alsophila from Costa Rica.—P. HENNincs (Hedwigia 43:353-4°° 904), in concluding his Ule’s Fungi amazonici, has described as new genera Saccar dom aed (Englerulaceae), Zukaliopsis (Perisporiaceae), Asteropeltis and Phaeos (Microthyriaceae), Metadothella (Pa digliadsiatench Cicinnobella, Diplodie wi : and Septodothideopsis (Sphaeropsidaceae), Poropeltis, Peltistroma, Seynesio ) and Phragmopeltis (Leptostromataceae), and Bactridiopsis (Tuberculariacest 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 395 —W. Lipsxy (Acta Hort. Petrop. 23:1-247. pls. I-11. 1904), in his second contribution to the flora of central Asia, which includes Ranunculaceae to Labiatae, besides numerous new species describes two new genera (Kozlovia and Ladyginia) of Umbelliferae—A. A. HELLER (Muhlenbergia 1:63-110. 1904) has brought together the species of Ribes in California, with a key, recognizing 43 species, one of which is described as new ; and has also described new species of Heuchera, Sidalcea, Eriodictyon, and Orthocarpus.—E. P. BicKNEtt (Torreya : 129-132. 1904) has described three new species of Viola from Long Island.— . A.M j of Bradburya from Florida.—E. L. GREENE (Leaflets 1: 49-64. 1904) has read the riddle of NacKER’s genera of Cactaceae (all of them happily synonyms); has called attention to Amarella as the propgr name of the American species referred 0 Gentiana, describing under it eight new species; and has described seven new species of Apocynum and five new western species of Rhamnus.—ANNA MURRAY Var (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 31:457-460. pls. 16-19. 1904) has published two neW species of Asclepias from New York and one from Kansas.—T. D FRELL (idem 461-509. pls. 20-23) has published an account of the N. Am. species of Hymenoxys (formerly referred to Picradenia or Actinella), recognizing thirty Species and varieties, describing eleven as new, and transferring seventeen.— J N. Rose (Smithsonian Miscell. Coll. 47:159-162. pl. 20. fig. 18. 1904) has Published a new genus (Lenophyllum) of Crassulaceae, comprising four species ftom northeastern Mexico and southern Texas.—J. M. C. : ras VOLUMINOUS monograph on anthocyanin by BuscaLront and Poracct *° Sin three parts. The first is a bibliography, presumably exhaustive, as it con- ia 866 titles, among which are Linnaeus’s Flora Lapponica and Loudon’s ? orelum. The industry of the authors in gathering titles has exceeded their Rid mination, as the inclusion of a paper by a Mr. Rosrnsov, entitled Blue see 'ss0ms, will testify, since it is purely a floristic list and the Blue Ridge i: Owe its color to anthocyanin. The second part (114 pp.) is a critico- Ba Neal discussion of the researches of previous authors. The third part (255 *) Contai their own summary. istri fon eo anins appear only in highly developed plant forms. = . rae tthe © parts of different plants does not accord with that of starch and indic y have more than one function, just as their formation depends on more en factor. Comparative studies show that the presence of areca es On sy volves a Modification of cells. Their origin seems due to Et gre The ‘Sars, glucosides, etc., while their decomposition is oftenest due to reduc = : uence of humidity, of nutrition, and of light upon them are very variable. 6 Bus Re . Rico nel “ALIONT, Lurcr, e Potacct, Gino, Le antocianine e loro significato biolo- “Plante. Atti Istituto Botanico di Pavia II. 8: 135-511- Pls. 9- 1904 396 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER They apparently tend to moderate rather than to accelerate transpiration. The relations of anthocyanins to parasitic organisms show that anthocyanic cells react against the invader by augmenting their osmotic pressure, which is accomplished by accumulating in them substances from which ultimately anthocyanins arise. Thus the pigments at once indicate and participate in the increased turgescence. Study of allogamy leads to the conclusion that floral coloration has not originated from the intervention of insects, but that the crowding of foods into the floral leaves has led first to the starvation of the chloroplasts, later to their modification, and finally to the appearance of the anthocyanic coloration, which became fixed by the agency of insects. To hold that allogamy is the primary cause of coloration seems to require belief that flowers are not only intelligent, but can voluntarily and freely alter their own bodily characteristics with varying external conditions. Finally, as the chromatic evolution of flowers is found to be probably polyphyletic, the anthocyanins can hardly have arisen from the xanthic pigments or vice versa. A new reagent for the anthocyanins—a solution of nicotin—is found to be the most reliable. This monograph, which the authors call un modesto contributo to the study of biological problems, suffers from hypertrophy. A more careful bibliography, confined to legitimate references, a compact relation of the discordant results of previous investigators, and a condensed presentation of their own work would have insured wider attention to an important paper than can be given it in Hs present voluminous form by any except special students of plant pigments.—C. R.B. THE RECONSTRUCTION of the nucleus and the formation of the chromosomes in vegetative mitoses is the title of an important paper by GREGOIRE and Wycaerts.?7_ The material studied was the roots of Trillium grandifiorum and the homotypic division in the pollen mother-cells of 7. cernuum. The-con- clusions in many cases differ decidedly from the commonly accepted views. Telophase in root tips. After the chromosomes have reached the poles, sees surrounding and bathing the mass of chromosomes the liquid which bs constitute the nuclear sap. The liquid increases rapidly and causes the formation of the nuclear vacuole and nuclear membrane. On this point t in accord with the recent view of LAwson.?* y ual process of alveolarization, becomes resolved into a network, meres nuclear network is a network of networks. In the resting nucleus within si membrane the chromatic network, lying in the nuclear sap, is (with the — of the nucleolus) the only constituent. The nuclear membrane forms 18 Ha! ye contact with the chromosomes, so that if any cytoplasm is included it is only 27 GREGOIRE, Victor, and WycaErts, A., La reconstruction du noyau tion des chromosomes dans les cinéses somatiques. I. Racines a florum et télophase homoeotypique dans le Trillium cernuum. La Cellule 28° 1"! pls. I-2. 1903. ¥e 28 Lawson, A. A., On the relationship of the nuclear membrane to the gs plast. Bor. Gaz. 35: 305-319. pl. 15. 1903- 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 397 threads of the central portion of the spindle which may become imprisoned. No karyoplasm is formed in the nucleus of Trillium. In passing through the telo- phase to the resting condition, no continuous spirem is formed. Prophase in root tips. The nuclear network becomes resolved into alveolar or reticular pieces. A process of concentration and homogenization (sit venia wrbo) continues until the chromosomes have the form of homogeneous rods. There is no continuous spirem in the prophase and the chromosomes never present the form of an achromatic ribbon carrying chromatic granules. The longitudinal division of the chromosomes begins by the formation of a series of chinks lying along its axis and not by the division of granules. In the nuclear cavity there are no granular or filamentous structures, but only the chromatin (and nucleolus) lying in the nuclear sap. Telophase oj second division in pollen mother-cells. No daughter thread is lomed. The nucleus results from the confluence of one or more vesicles each of which contains one or more chromosomes. A chromatic vesicle in Trillium 8a vacuole containing a chromosome bathed in nuclear sap. The nuclear mem- — brane is formed by the condensation of the peripheral layer of cytoplasm bordering the nuclear vacuole. The writers define the nucleus (excepting nucleoli) about as follows: In Trillium the nucleus is a vacuole limited by a cytoplasmic membrane, filled with a nuclear sap in which lies a chromatic network consisting of a homogeneous ground substance, without differentiation into an achromatic substratum and chromatic the 2 The network, which arises from the juxtaposition of the networks of vidual chromosomes, apparently retains its composite character during = ei and so might be defined as an association of chromosomes ome alveolar and reticular.—CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN. ; STRASBURGER?9 in "ews which are to be no ground for interpreting the second division as a Rvorable, since i+ Galtonia candicans, the principal form studied, is particularly ~ “8 tt has only six chromosomes and is easy to stain. In the pollen longitudinal ‘ “ 8 the loose spirem stage of the first division the thread shows a becomes —. mang, but the daughter threads do not separate. The thread *hich are bivale: thicker, and simpler, and then divides into six chromosomes arise a as shown by the fact that each one splits transversely into two. SaPes 50 often a mons united in pairs. The pairs assume the various id are nearin tved. After the two parts of each pair have become separated Sthe longitudi Poles of the spindle, a longitudinal fission can be seen. This Te hal fission commenced but not completed in the loose spirem stage. ——_2s become placed end to end, but are united only by linin threads, * StRasp Akad. Wy: URGER, Epuarp iss. 18. , Ueber Reduktionsteilung. Sitzungsb. Konig]. Preuss. * 587-61 tee 4. figs. 9 398 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER and are distinguishable during the short resting period. In the second division the chromosomes split longitudinally along the line indicated in the loose spirem stage of the first division. Consequently, it is the product of the first longitudinal division which becomes separated at the second division, and not the product of a second longitudinal splitting as believed by those who support the theory of a double longitudinal splitting. The first mitosis is a reduction division, the second an equal division (Aequationsteilung). Besides the figures of Galtonia, a series of diagrams makes the process easily understood. An examination of Tradescan- tia gave approximately the same results, but in this form the processes are not so easily observed. The much studied Lilium, though not a favorable form, will bear a similar interpretation. The greatest difficulty in the investigation and the most important part of the discussion concerns the synapsis stage. At this period the chromatin withdraws from the linin thread and collects around twelve centers (Gamocentren) correspond- ing to the twelve chromosomes. The chromatin granules form loose groups, then unite to form bodies in which the separate granules can hardly be distinguished. These bodies elongate, become constricted in the middle, the granules of the two halves begin to separate, and with the aid of the linin form a continuous thread. The entire thread then splits longitudinally. That the twelve bivalent segments of this thread correspond to the twelve bodies counted during synaps!s, and that the transverse division of each bivalent chromosome again separates halves of that body, cannot be doubted. The view that there are differentiated chromosomes in the synapsis stage is consequently incorrect. Rather, the chro- matin content of the chromosome is in the form of small granules collected about a middle point, the number of these middle points corresponding to the reduced number of chromosomes and to the number of chromosome pairs. Y actually see the granules form a body which becomes divided into halves. STRASBURGER conceives that the granules leave the linin thread that there sig be a freer interchange among them than would be possible in the case of mgr tiated chromosomes. He proposes the term gamosome for the individual chro matin granules, and zygosome for the body which they form. F ae each Zyg" some comes two chromosomes, in the formation of which the linin takes part. only a secondary significance. The diminution of chromatin du period of the nucleus is not regarded as evidence that the chro bearer of hereditary qualities. In synapsis the individuality 2 a and maternal chromatin is given up. They unite to form a single hs ge from which come two new chromosomes. These two chromosomes do no tain exclusively paternal or maternal gamosomes. This throws li differences in the offspring of a pair of parents and also upon the § ath monohybrids. In discussing the question whether each eign of the the hereditary qualities of the organism, some evidence is found in fa view that the chromosomes are not of equal value. . A fuller presentation of these views and their relation to current concef would be welcome.—CHar.es J. CHAMBERLAIN. NEWS. Mr. E. W. D. Hotway has been appointed assistant professor of botany in the University of Minnesota. PRoFEssoR GIROLAMO Coccont, a well known Italian mycologist, died at logna, October 6, at the age of 82. Proressor Gaston Bonnter of Paris has been elected a member of the Royal Microscopical Society of London. Avcust Franz LrJouts, the well-known French marine phycologist, died August 20 at Cherbourg, at the age of 81. Mr. Curron Durant Hows, instructor in the University of Chicago, has heen appointed instructor in botany in the Biltmore Forestry School. He will ‘ter upon his duties January 1, 1905. A. H. Recrvarp Buiter, of the University of Birmingham, has newt ‘Ppointed professor of botany in the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, a, and assumed his new duties in October. THE ADDRESS of Professsor F. O. Bower delivered at the International Congress of Arts and Science, St. Louis, September 1904, was published in Scvence October 2x. He discussed the relation of the axis to the leaf in vascular plants. Counnsstonen by the Department of the Interior, the Swiss Scientific said énnounces that it will award a stipend of 5,000 francs to enable some Swiss Scars to visit Buitenzorg. Applications are to be sent to Professor Dr. C. OTER of Ziirich. eS Boranicar Macazine (Tokyo), in its September number, has begun Publish a résumé of its Japanese papers in some European language. This stig “ontents of the journal within the reach of all botanists, and will avoid the 'Y neglect of interesting Japanese contributions. Tae 1: eas edited by Dr. D. 'T. MacDoveat and will appear in a volume to be Open Co becies and Varteties; their origin by mutation, to be published by the urt Publishing Co., of Chicago. The book is promised in January. Bardens en States DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE has now two cooperating “aaa especially for the study of the date palm, one at T a Stublshed ot’ &t Mecca, California. In all probability a third pr inet this plant Sa Yuma. The thorough studies under way on the life : z atid 2 Teld results Sage with its introduction into practical culture Pp’ Wag ‘nterest both to botanists and to horticulturists. 399 PCTURES given by Professor DE Vries at the University of California . 400 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER THE REPORT of the Imperial Botanic Garden of St. Petersburg for 1903 con- tains the following items of general interest: the collection of living plants com- prised 34,887 species; during the year there were 40,296 visitors; the herbarium ad an accession of 10,808 species (52,421 specimens); the library contained 14,986 works in 30,952 volumes. Attached to the garden are the biological laboratory, the seed-testing station, the central station for plant pathology, and the school of horticulture. BoTANICAL suByEcTS for the Walker Prizes have been announced as follows. For 1905, 1. ‘The life history of any parasitic fungus ;” 2. “‘Contribu- tion to our knowledge of the physiology of plants ;” 3. “Study of hybrids in animals or plants ;” 4. “Critical study of geographical distribution of species.” For 1906, 1. ‘An experimental field study in ecology;” 2. ‘A contribution to 4 knowledge of the nature of competition in plants ;” 3. “A physiological life his- tory of a single species of plants;” 4. “Phylogeny of a group of fossil organisms.” Address the secretary, GLovER M. ALLEN, Boston Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass. ; Tue Experiment Station Record states that the order establishing the soil and fertilizer laboratory in the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agri- culture, has been abrogated, and in lieu of this laboratory one to be known as the plant analysis laboratory has been established. The laboratory is charged with the examination of fertilizers and will collaborate in this work with the refer- ees of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, and with the investiga- gation of the constitution of plants. It is authorized to collaborate with the Bureau of Plant Industry in the chemical investigation of problems in which the two bureaus are mutually interested.—Science. . THE AMERICAN AssocrATION for the Advancement of Science will meet . Philadelphia December 27-January 2, and the many affiliated societies AS the course of this convocation week. Thus, the eleventh annual meeting of me Botanical Society of America is called at this time under aie na Freperick V. Covitte. CHARLES R. Barnes, the retiring president, wi VécuTING of Tiibingen. On Dec. 28-30, the eighth annual meeting Society for Plant Morphology and Physiology will be held. Mycological Society will meet in Philadelphia also in the same announcements have not yet reached us. re There is every indication that these meetings of bot : n interest and Penis Among other matters to be considered will a= for a union of the botanical societies. Preliminary suggestions ie bi their con- have been sent by the committees of conference to at it ulation sideration, and the replies received will be used as a basis for the " This a definite plan which will be sent to all members before the seen decision will then form the basis for the discussion at the meetings and FOF for or against a union. week, thoug anists will be of unusual Staying Power TIRED BRAIN Horsford’s Acid Phos- phate keeps the mind clear, the nerve steady and the body strong—a boon to the *verworked officeman, teacher and student. Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. There’s satisfaction in Knowing you’re right. 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Genoa, Vinetanske, (Nice and Monte Carl) Syra- cuse, Mal le 7 : f i ” THE PHENOMENA OF FERTILIZATION. BOTANY AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS, BIOLOGICAL STATISTICS GASTEROMYCETES OF HUNGARY TWO RECENT BOOKS ON ALGAE INDEX BRYOLOGICUS WIESNER AND HIS SCHOOL rs - 470 MINOR ES - ~ : : F - 47 NOTES FOR STUDENTS ; . - x a NEWS - - . a parates, if desired, must be ordered in advance of publication. Not pot a 50 separates oS ing articles will be rinted, 0 which 25 (without covers) be furnished gr “briefer articles” (with or remainder (and toa if desired) to be paid for by the author. Separates ore ‘brie er ae out covers) will also be s eng at cost. The table pray! shows the appr oximate the figures given, and consisting of plain text or text with li e engravings. Bae tual cost may vary from the binding, et. will th ount of wo © in re-m 5 ace into forms, press work, paper, the increase Separates containing half-tones may be expected to so somewhat more . than the rates given, them. Number of copies Letter-press, for 4 pages or less . -press, for = pages or sb €r-press, for 16 pages or less Single plates (1 doibioe ¢ single) Covers, with title (paper like GAZETTE cover) . Editor of the Botanical Gazette, The isa gs Books and Pamphlets for number following. © Foreign Subscribers,—The necessitated Mo the payment of extra postage. remitted ~ our forei comespondence regarding subscriptions ersity of Chicago Press, panes wth pa uscripts. —Contributors are requested to write scientific ae proper ae and in citations to follow the form shown in the pages of the GAZETTE. Manuscti ersity of AZO, Review should be sent to the same address. iii will be replaced pen only when claim is made within thirty attention of foreign subscribers is Until further notice the prices age: mittances should be made payable to the order a ive ee of Chi advertisements, ani is called to as indicated above cred, should be addres? ® matter.) [Entered at the Post-Office at Chicago, Ill., as second-class mail rr hauld be se after receipt of on oa Ee ee ee ee Pabst 1905 Calendar Pleasingly reflects i beauties of Persian Art, with its rich col orings and atmosphere of romance. This exquisite calendar is distinctive in nay and style, and makes a striking decora- It is the highest attainment © lithographic art, and the picture here shown n gives but a faint idea of the radiant beauty of the pea itself, We could not afford to send it to you for 10 cents, did we not believe it will remind you that Pabst Extua is the “Best” eee ideal malt nerve-food for men an Pabst oe is ere first aid to health—it helps digestion, soothes the nerves, brings rest to the sleepless, and builds up the entire system. It is sold by all aes ten cents to-day for this bane 4 Send t ample of Persian ha (size inches ag long), which will give added charm to y home. Address Pabst Extraa Department, Milwaukee, Wis. SttiEmMsen 3B M5 ie oa sa z +423 $150. in Cash To Everyone Who Names the Ten - . Most Popular Books NTIL January 31st next (1905) we shall break the sets of our new Library of the World’s Famous Books and sell you any volume pr volumes you choose. There are 20 volumes in the set. Which 10 volumes out of the 20 will prove to be Pe a ver net raped spodicts before Dec. 15th which ten books we shall sell ere midnight of January 31st in larger numbers than any of the other Says pg ee who name the ten most popular ones—will receive $150. in cash. It is sary to name the ten ee the order in which they sell, * sendy apple ten that sell more than any of the other ten Eve e who peeeicuk colreedy after Dec. 15th no! Baio Jan. Ist, will receive "$100. in cash, The date that governs the amount of these prizes will be the date you mail your predictions, ® eorn by the postmark on the envelope. by e believe we shall secure more friends and more publicity for the ee in this way than Revie ig hundred dhouaaind dollars in magazine and newspaper advertising ith it We plan to add to this Library from time to time, and expect to doa langet annual — wi th done with any one set of books. So much ‘to explain why we can afford to pay these large prizes, although we do not hope to make any profit on the present s These are the Twenty Volumes 1, Tale of Two Cities 6. Jane Eyre 11. Vanity Fair 16. Romols etch Book 2. Darwin’s Descent of Man 7. John Halifax 2. Tom Brown’s Sore Days 17. Irving abe 3. First Violin 8. Lorna Doone x Last of the Mohican soto gr 4. Hypatia g. Darwin’s Origin of Species 14. Prince of the House of David 2 a of Penge 5, Ivanhoe 10. Uncle Tom’s Cabin 15. Robinson Crusoc tionably among the These twenty ae ae be 8 ae a wide range of taste, but each one is unques ubject of 08 leaders of its class. Any one who is familiar with these twenty books will — posed gee: we versation in an nei any. “This rize offer will secure many new gig =a Hon William T- which should be in every home where the English language is read and spoken. Ha - $. Commissioner of Education, write : : into eac R Mr. MERRILL—I am glad you are going to introduce a library of such good books 1 family of hang land. t historical epochs e books which furnish keys to our experience and which explai oy nit t Doan gs pana lor ge a ge noel age the birth os sid cone lection om lations, pea industrial, and educational. lot ; u hav . Fe! ee examples o severe al ty na hoes will ve we of your “coun ry and read such books. age Yours truly, WILLIAM r Dr. Edward Everett Hale ition : 1 out be “I am much interested in your plan, T wonder is that it es oak perhaps i = Your list seems to me a very good one aid while, of course, 1 think I cou avant to us all sure that if you can circulate these books as you cS eeyag: bor it deg be a great a DWARD . HALE. in the United ad Se Post, of Washington, D. C., one ae the best ne er entities The will decide who are the successful contestants, and to what prize each treet. ; S$ to our responsibility, look up Merrill and Baker, New York, in Dun or bier , How the Prizes Will Be Awarded ital and A eleven yea e entire reputation of our concern, with more than a million della pe successful book publishing, is pledged to the fair and square awar shingt ton Post will Dé tt mit No one in any way connected with our entablishinent or wi eV oe business, this contest will be co to , D.C. Look over the a rime a and make up your Sporn Page ten volumes you r yourself if yo d hav ined fend twenty, and ong ten. you ha 4 ted wi in f th in naming the ten, vl teas and book ish ple, among them Sir John t considered the in such lists. which ten he tad see how the twent ; y mentioned here are rated Consult your local book dealer and find out Who May Predict. wenty and m Any time within one week af =m we will return your money— =s1 for : i ". We wouldn’t make ap sees &¢ applies to books b egtis unable, because any withd | pu p | of su Your sig Back if sig! Wish r 50, to Everyone who Names the Ten Most Popular Books convenience of the Judge of the contest, and to prevent any possible confusion with the rest of our nducted entirely from Washington, D.C. Addre: es and pt. 21, World’s Famous Book Contest, care The Washington Post, Wash- ss all inquiries Use Your Own Brains and Consult Your F riends | pee hans sell the best—which he has sold the most Con the Librarian of any library to which sh have * public and high school teachers and professors which Nok | ten are the Then make ‘you ur prediction. The more intelligence you pect ut a making your predictions the greater your pros ess. Bat o this quickly—at once—you must deter- ' mine pate to secure one of the larger prizes. Limit as to Time and Number The pri ¢ ad — volume is $1.00. Each book is good, homeat. ir fox, the dollar. For each vol- nil prove most popula entitled to make cate rediction—that is e the aoe which you " hink at wl sell better than the other ten. 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DRYDEN, President. .s t. 25 Write for information of Policies, TCT uae is or ever conferred upon a Life Insurance Company of th VOLUME XXXVIII NUMBER 6 BOTANICAL GAZEEEE DECEMBER, 1904 THE VARIATION OF SOME CALIFORNIA PLANTS. EDWIN BINGHAM COPELAND. (WITH NINE FIGURES) I. ONE of the first features of the flora of the mountainous and rather dry parts of California to impress one familiar with that of the fastern states and the Mississippi valley is the exceeding — bility of a great many of the plants. While every botanist going into this field must have been struck by this fact, and some have remarked UPON it, as JEPSON well does in the introduction to his Botany oj M iddle Western Calijornia, it has never been the subject of any particular study, ; The 800d material for such work is practically unlimited; but my lime has not been so, and it has seemed to me that the study of a few Plants Ought to show what is most characteristic of variation in this Plausible explanation of the great local variability, and at the same - Pants of wide occurrence, and of a few apparently monstrous — 8nd the lesser variations connecting them with normal forms. ine f? Plants selected are several oaks growing near P alo _ “; and Rhamnus californica, Arctostaphylos tomentosa, se 401 RR Sabet ee a 402 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER thus sorediatus, and Baccharis pilularis, shrubs of the Palo Alto neighborhood, of frequent occurrence and reasonably independent as to altitude, soil, and exposure. As a further limitation, this account is confined with a single exception to the leaves of these plants; varia- tion in other features—for instance in the scales of the cup of Quercus —is not less conspicuous. QUERCUS CHRYSOLEPIS Liebmann. The leaves of oaks are exceedingly variable everywhere, but the differences between the leaves of this species on the same tree, or on neighboring trees, are conspicuous even in such a genus. igs. 1-3 QDPODOCOGs oma HoonoQOH9 PAVGOOOOY aves on Fic. 1.—Quercus ckrysolepis: a, alternate leaves on a branch; }, all the le a twig; ¢, all the leaves on a twig. In all series from left to right is towards the apex. are from neighboring trees, growing in the mountains back of Stan- ford University. Each tree had a well-defined leaf character, these outlines, each representing leaves of one season’s growth on one axis, indicate. The venation of the leaves on each tree was as charac- teristic as the outline. As a rule, older trees have more entire leaves, but this is not at all constant; all my specimens are from acorn-bearing trees. All the leaves figured grew on well-illuminated parts of the trees. In the three trees furnishing these leaves the variation 1 leaf- character was an attribute of the entire tree, and must therefore have occurred at a time in the tree’s history when it or the stage ™ ‘in ancestry where the variation occurred was a single cell, or (possibly) i 194] COPELAND—VARIATION OF CALIFORNIA PLANTS 403 at most a small and homogeneous group subject to a common impulse. We are in the habit of thinking of variations as concerning entire organisms. More frequently, however, such leaf forms as these are not so strictly characteristic of whole trees; but single twigs show uniformly aberrant types of leaves; or most often single or few leave’ of diver- gent forms are found scattered over the tree. Fig. 2, a represents the leaves of a single twig on which the leaf character changed profoundly during the season. This might have been ascribed to a change in the available water during the season, but that not all the twigs of the tree 0OOD)0000 000000 * 2-—Quercus chrysolepis: a, all the leaves of a twig; b, younger leaves of a Bo itive leaves; d, some leaves on one season’s growth of a twig. Fic twig; ¢, so mn this way. ig. 2, b shows the opposite change in the same hg wth, on another specimen from Chico; and jig. . C, OW ab Ing four successive leaves on one twig of the same tree, s os 2, a 4 the size, as a character of the twig, may cUAnRe: : * twig. i * Outlines of a number of leaves on one season 7 growth o : meriste a “ase variation seems to have occurred not in the ae idvidual ie” tise to both axis and leaf, but in the primordia of the eaves, QUERCUS pDuMosa Nuttall. 3 € figured leaves of Q. dumosa were collected in a single of chaparr al, on exposed parts of mature shrubs; their are therefore independent of the environment. Fig. all the leaves of the last season’s growth on two twigs of the All of th ‘mall Patch “ferences 3, a~h are weed 404 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER same shrub, showing variation in the shape of the leaf as a character of the twig. ig. 3, c shows single leaves from other parts of the same shrub, illustrating variation in single leaves. Figs. 3, d, e represent the characters of the shrubs as the varying entities; the shrub from which jig. 3, d was made bore conspicuously narrow leaves through- out, while fig. 3, e is from an example of the well-known bullate variety. This strain is so pronounced that it has been regarded as worthy of a distinct name; but it intergrades with the more typical form, and flat more or less spiny leaves are sometimes found on the same shrubs with the most bullate ones. ~ Pere TOONS Od DVYDOV ° (( el Fic. 3.—Quercus dumosa: a, all the leaves of a twig; 5, all the leaves of a pes from same plant; c, single leaves from same plant; d, leaves of a twig of a bush wit prevailing narrow leaves; e, leaves from the bullate variety. ee op aes wee ae oe Quercus WIsLizENI A. DC. In the Santa Cruz peninsula Q. Wislizeni is a characteristi of the hilltops. In its typical situations it is less constantly and conspicuously variable in shape than the two species just considered. In protected spots it varies more noticeably, but as the influence of the environment may be directly expressed in these cases, they are left out of account. About Chico this is the common live oak of the valley, and is also common in the hills, and is as variable as Q. chryso- lepis or Q. dumosa in that region. As in these, variation is by the tree, the branch or twig, or the single leaf. The difference between neighboring twigs on the same tree is illustrated by fig. 4- c tree 1904] COPELAND—VARIATION OF CALIFORNIA PLANTS 405 QUERCUS AGRIFOLIA AND OTHER OAKS. Q. agrifolia Née is the commonest live oak of the valley and lower hills about Palo Alto. It varies in the shape, size, thickness, and pubescence of the leaves, and like all the preceding may be entire or verymuch toothed. Variation is by the tree or any part of it, but is by no means so extreme and chronic as in the oaks I have illustrated; in other words it breeds truer to a type. The other live oak of this region, Q. multiflora, is quite restricted as to its habitat; its variation is incon- siderable, Among the deciduous oaks, Q. Kelloggii Newberry, which is common in the foothills and mountains, is most variable in its foliage (and fruit) ; decidedly more so than Q. lobata N ée, the great POO Fic, 4-—Quercus Wislizeni: all the leaves on two twigs of the same tree. white oak of the valleys. In the mountainous north end of the state, 0. Kelloggii is still very variable, as is the Q. Garryana Dougl., found I. On the slopes of Mt. Eddy, Q. vacciniijolia Kellogg, ranging iat the foot of the mountain up in an extreme case to well above line,” has as variable leaves as Q. chrysolepis. The leaves ie small oak of the moist wooded valleys of this region, known as e. "multiflora, are very uniform in all respects; but quite unlike those ©. multiflora of the south. 7 to “48es of all these oaks the fact cannot be too strongly ie that I have been discussing only real variation, as ea Made it any influence of the environment as experiment could have ~The Influence of differences of environment, wherever fae 7 ® Very evident, and has been broadly handled by BREN- ‘ © points out the great differences the environment causes 1909. aaa a Klima und Blatt bei der Gattung Quercus. Flora 90: 114-160. Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Gattung Quercus, idem 466-470. 406 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER between the leaves of different trees, and even the leaves unequally exposed on the same.tree; which naturally makes him skeptical of the value of determinations of extinct oaks by the remains of their leaves. The variations independent of the direct action of the environment, which I have just depicted, must strengthen the skepti- cism. Before leaving the subject of Quercus I wish to discuss briefly BRENNER’S conclusions. He regards the less stability of the lobed forms of leaf as compared with the entire as evidence of the greater antiquity of the latter; such a difference in their variability—which should be a better test of newness than stability under varying environ- ment—does not exist in this region. Still, considering oaks the world over, BRENNER may well be correct on this point. In his concluding paragraph, however, he exposes a classical weakness which needs pointing out as often as it occurs. It reads: Was als wichtigstes Ergebnis aus derartigen Untersuchungen hervorgehen diirfte, ist die so oft noch bezweifelte Thatsache, dass die durch dussere Medien hervorgerufenen Veriinderungen an den Pflanzen thatsichlich erblich werden und im Lauf der Entwickelung zu eigentlichen Artmerkmalen sich entwickeln kénnen. Durch den Nachweis, dass bei den Eichenblittern die Veranderungen beim Versuch und bei natiirlichen Standortsunterschieden den mit dem Klima wechselnden Speziesverschiedenheiten entsprechen, hoffe ich einen Theil zur Kriftigung dieser Anschauung beigetragen zu haben. If one accepts the inheritance of acquired characters 4 priori as ““Thatsache,” he may construe BRENNER’S observations as an illus- tration of it. But the direct reaction to the environment is fairly to be regarded as the result of natural selection, developed and pre- served by virtue of its appropriateness; and since it is appropriate, it is obvious that by natural selection alone the plants varying in this direction spontaneously would be at an advantage, and in the long run would be parents of all the offspring. Since the identity of the forms assumed as a direct response to the environment with the forms characteristic of lands with the corresponding climate is fully expli- cable by natural selection alone, it is certainly no valid argument 19 favor of the inheritance of direct reactions to the environment. My oak leaves will be discussed with those of the other woody plants. 1904] COPELAND—VARIATION OF CALIFORNIA PLANTS 407 RHAMNUS CALIFORNICA Esch. In the foothills and mountains back of Palo Alto, R. calijornica and its var. omentella Brewer and Watson are scattered promiscuously and merge by insensible gradations. ‘The distinctions are supposed to be that the variety has tomentose reddish twigs, leaves yellow or white tomentose beneath, and peduncles longer than the petioles. My material was not collected at a season to illustrate the last feature. As to the others, individual shrubs possess or want them, so that a collector might easily gather material of the type or the variety; but in the field there is no constant relation between the color of the stem and the tomentum on the leaf, and neither green nor red twigs are likely to be glabrous. The leaves also vary notably in outline, apex, thickness, and margin, and in the rolling back of the sides. The most remarkable variability is in thickness and texture, margin, and Pubescence. I have measured the length, breadth, and length of petiole of all the leaves on one twig (one year’s growth) of twenty-eight shes. In the following table the results, averages for each bush, are atranged according to the shape of the leaves, the ratio of breadth to length, because this ratio is a feature that can be exactly expressed, a one that could not possibly have been considered in the collecting. This ratio is of average width to average length, and is usually larger than the average of the ratios for the individual plants. laa explanation of the table is as follows: under “margin” - hea € entire; under “‘lower surface” g is green and apparent glabrous, and moderately pubescent, w white (sometimes yellow) and very ane under “reflex” is given the per cent. of leaf folded back when pressed ome Hi Ang g is green, rg reddish-green, r reddish, rr red; thickness 1s. of a spherometer. aa length of the petiole is not significant. The width of the i Yes 18 omitted from the table because expressed in the shape; 1t “Ss variable than the length, wherefore the average length of the Vely narrow leaves (55.7°™) is greater than that of the rounder o c . . m3 "): I did not attempt greater accuracy of description Shed Margin than calling it entire, subserrate, or serrate. This leay # Majority of the leaves in the middle class, which includes. | : th a few prominent teeth irregularly scattered or only near Pex, or few or more numerous closely appressed teeth, or rarely 408 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER - TABLE. I. Shape Length in mm Margin cre tl Reflex | Stem Color thicoia 1.8 25.4 SS 9 z 139 : ; 62.9 SS g ) r 102 ‘9 { 27.8 é wg 2 rg 106 2.0 73-1 s g 4 8 4 ve | 51.1 SS wg 2 rg 93 f 34.0 e weg 29 rg 124 30.3 SS WwW 34 f 164 2.2 48.5 e w 36 § 166 70.8 s g fe) r 62 2.3 62.8 SS wg 3 "s 50.1 SS g 13 ‘id 148 47.0 SS g 2 rr se 2.4 50.0 SS ee oe I A ait 20. SS wg 17 é 118 46.6 Ss g 3 hf ce 2.5 { 43.5 ’ g 17 r 118 [ 55. SS we ° heh 278 2.6 50.0 e wg 4° se l 38.7 e wg 33 . “pears entire, and in the other to a form with compound teeth, * Gaz, 34°142-144. 1902. 416 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER incised more than a third of the way to the midrib. — A. aculeatum Swtz., in several varieties endowed with names, but freely merging, varies from a form but little deeper cleft than the most incised form of A. munitum to one in which these teeth become pinnae which in turn are cleft to the midrib into toothed divisions; that is, it varies as from pinnate to tripinnate, the most ; divided part of fertile fronds being io Soe considered in every case. This er variation could be duplicated in a many ferns. It is doubtless continu- ous; but many of our fern species sf are founded on differences so small that a series of them would not bridge the gap between the extremes f of this variation. - Fig. 8 is a fragment of a very ron Aidan maim: es abnormal frond of A. arguum Kaulf. Such freaks are not exceedingly rare. Some pinnae are usually normally developed, and there are all stages between these and mere lumps marking the place where pinnae should be. These freaks are almost always sterile, ‘ Ay fi as other very abnor- 27% =e 3 mal ferns are likely or" to be. Reproduction Youd ARS is the consummation of normal develop- s ‘ x | ment, and any devia- , tion from the usual course is likely not to lead tothisend. Of course, this is not true of ferns alone. I have found sterile freaks of a number of | owe plants among fertile normal forms. Reproduction 4 decidedly more perfect concatenation of favorable external internal conditions than does growth. 1) Fic. 8.—-Aspidium argutum: part of abnormal frond, 1904) COPELAND—VARIATION OF CALIFORNIA PLANTS 417 There are several different lines of interesting variation of Poly- podium californicum Kaulf. One of these is the elongation of the pinnae, some or all of them, on a frond. Fronds noticeably more acute than the normal are not rare, but of course the more extreme variations are proportionately seldom found. I have some twice as long as the normal; but none so con- spicuous in this respect as the P. wlgare from West Virginia, in my other note on this subject. Another . line is the increase in the size of the teeth and the deepening of the incisions between them -until the pinna is , Pinnatifid, even to the midrib on the lower side. In this case the number of limes the veins are forked is greatly increased, which disturbs one charac- tet often deemed specific in Polypo- dium; and the veins all remain free, which would be more notable if the “eparation of Goniophlebium as a dis- linet genus were natural. In merely ae plants the union of the veins to areolae of the Goniophlebium = ae or may not occur, the anasto- ei veg its failure being utterly with- _ »€ven on single fronds or single pinnae, EK AI Fas The anastomosis is likewise irregu- in thesfern known as P. Scouleri “aah Grev., which is so unstable 4 be ae that it would as well | 5 ailorel- a " ered a form of P. californi- Fk ie é * own close to the beach, where — cum: a series 0° @ : ‘ai form of P. Scouleri is found, .-< of pinnae, which dre ab le, there being from three to twelve sg fon ll fold in . ‘Ypically” twisted and thrown forward until they 4 tected essing, but are sometimes perfectly plane. ——S 418 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER they are thinner, with more acute pinnae. To what extent P. Scouleri represents the direct action of the environment, and to what extent it has developed into a really independent species can only be deter- mined finally by experiment, but certainly it is very variable, and is also profoundly modified by the environment. Its variability is evi- dence on the point demonstrated by the oaks and shrubs. A most remarkable monstrosity, many individuals of which have lost all characteristics of P. calijornicum and are indistinguishable from a freak of P. vulgare reported from Germany, was first found near Chico, where it had complete possession of a small patch of ground (jig. 9). Its essential feature is that the distal part of the midrib of the lateral pinnae and segments, and the whole axis of the terminal one, develop no wing, but spring free from the spore- bearing surface of the blade. In correlation with this, the growth of the segments is arrested, making their apices round and dentate, and the frond as a whole truncate-oblanceolate. The free part of the midrib may be prolonged to at least the natural length of the segment; or may be shorter, even to the extent of not springing free at all; in which case the development of the blade may be anywhere from very stunted to normal. All the pinnae may be affected; or some of them toward the apex may not; or only a few or a single one may be modified, making a complete series from normal fronds to the most monstrous. Since collecting it near Chico, I have twice found a few ferns like these back of Palo Alto, but in these only a part of the segments were ever malformed. Il. I wish now to use this material, both the shrubs and the ferns, as the basis for a discussion of the “mutation theory” in bionomics It is already clear enough that I do not believe there is any foundation at all for the view that mutations as essentially distinct from ordinary variations exist. That they do not I endeavor to show. But the mutation theory under one or another caption has for years — . refuge for those who on any ground regarded natural selection 45 inadequate to the demands upon it, and has recently been s0 poe fully supported by Dr Vries and others (BATESON, WETISTEIN; etc.), and has been so enthusiastically received that it has become 1904] + COPELAND—VARIATION OF CALIF ORNIA PLANTS 419 a proper subject for discussion by those who recognize no ground for it. The mutation theory does not, as some of its supporters seem to believe, do away with the doctrine of natural selection. This doc- trine is that among more living things than can live and bear progeny those best adapted to the existing environment will survive. It assumes, what is the fact, that the existing organisms differ. The mutation theory would explain the origin of the differences, saying that from their first appearance they are too wide and fundamental to fall in the category of “individual variations.”’ The more prevalent idea since Darwin has been that these minor, incessantly appearing differences were the raw material for nature to select among, and that by the constant survival of the individuals with the slightest advantages new Taces, varieties, and species might arise; but every Partisan of natural selection recognizes variation as prerequisite to any evolution. The apparent issue is: “are the differences whose per- Petuation gives rise to new species the ordinary individual variations, or the less usual but more considerable mutations?” But a question Which should obviously be settled first is: “are individual variations and mutations distinct 2” Since I do not believe that the differences between the offspring of common parents differ fundamentally among themselves, It 1s but ‘atural that I should be unable to frame a definition of a mutation Which would really distinguish it from the general run of ppemanare For the Most authoritative definition I have consulted DE VRIES'S Mationstheorie. To my surprise, I have read the book, and then — Carefully re-read the general part, without finding anywhere ‘nything that has the force or form of a definition. 3 In the introduction, where “es sich darum handelt, den i beiden Grundformen der Variabilitait so klar wie méglich darzu sell he says: ‘‘Die Mutationen sind Vorginge, tiber deren Natur "I noch sehr wenig wissen. Die bekanntesten Beispielen — Mutationen sind die sogenannten spontanen Abinderungen ( single "atiations ’), durch welche scharf unterschiedene neue Varietaten eeianae Man nennt sie auch wohl Sprungvariationen Shs sie ‘Sain he Says (p. 22): “Die letzteren [single variations] sind - - ®% Spontane Abinderungen, unseren Mutationen entsprec Unterschied 420 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER (italics mine). And (p. 23): “Die single variations sind zufallige, nur von Zeit zu Zeit auftretende, sprungweise die Formen verandernde Erscheinungen.” He says (p. 5): “Die Gesetze der Mutabilitit sind ganz andere als jene der Variabilitat;” but this clue to the dis- tinction fades when we read (p. 23) that “Die ‘single variations’ sind zufallige Erscheinungen, von deren Gesetzen man bis jetzt keine Erfahrung hat.” Calling single variations and saltatory variations and discontinuous variations synonymous with mutations does not tell what any of them are. The one criterion by which DE Vrirgs tries consistently to distinguish mutations is their giving rise to specific characteristics. This certainly does not admit of practical application, because we do not know how to identify a specific characteristic. It is a very tenable position at present that the species is a group of organisms with limits set by our convenience, and that many “valid” species—to put it moderately—are characterized by distinctions which are matters of degree. The specific characteristic can hardly be more clear-cut than the species it characterizes. If specific characteristics are in nature unstable and not exactly definable, this one means of identify- ing mutations is imaginary, in addition to being inapplicable. DE Vries holds that species, not necessarily with the usually recognized limits, are definable and never have merged, and that their individual characteristics are likewise definable and stable; but when he identifies these in turn by their origin by mutation, he brings his argument into a circle. The practical characteristic of mutations on which DE VRIES lays most emphasis is their inheritance: ‘“Solche sind fast stets entweder véllig oder doch in hohem Grade erblich” (p. 16). But, as he of course recognizes, the continuous individual variations are also hereditary. We see that on every hand. The most familiar examples are furnished by human beings. De Vries says explicitly that the differences between them have not arisen by mutation as he uses the term. Yet what characteristic of any species is more certain to be inherited than the straight hair or the black hair of a pure Chinese, or the complexion of an Ethiopian or an American Indian? Among the much less constant features of our own race We know how likely the color of the eyes and hair, and other physical peculiart 1904] COPELAND—VARIATION OF CALIFORNIA PLANTS 421 ties, and even mental eccentricities, are to be inherited. On the other hand, mutations are not always inherited, as DE Vrigs’s observations on Oenothera show; and if they were, there could be no mutations. Variations certainly differ in the reliability with which they are inherited; but mutations, if there were such, would not be distin- guishable from other variations in this respect, unless sometimes in degree. Many authors have sought to distinguish single variations or dis- Continuous variations from the continuous individual variations by the *xtent of the deviation from the parental type. DE VRIES does not lay himself liable on this point, saying explicitly that they are not dis- tnguishable in this way (p. 41): “Die Betrachtung mancher sm- gle variations hat die Einsicht eingebiirgert, dass die Mutationen Jedesmal bedeutende Veranderungen sein miissen, namentlich, dass ‘e gtosser sein sollten als die Variationen. Solches ist aber durchaus mich der Fall, und anscheinend sind wenigstens zahlreiche Muta- ionen kleiner als die Unterscheide zwischen extremen Varianten.” If mutations cannot be recognized by their range of deviation, nor by their being inherited, from other variations which may chance lo be ‘nusually wide and to be hereditary, there is no test by which they can be recognized. If a practical definition of a mutation had ever been framed, it could not have escaped DE VRIES; and if his idea Could be formulated so that it would represent a distinct phenomenon ecognizable as such in nature, he would certainly have given it that om. I agree heartily with its friends in welcoming DE VRIES’S work 4 og Most valuable empirical contribution to our knowledge of the eae of novel forms of organisms since the Origin of Species; and _ Vates’s method—the analysis of the composite character ee *S Into its elements, and the study of the origin (and change) © & ie far more rational and promising than the study of the SPecies,” as we recognize them, as a whole. But I regard sn eT Ons as 8enerically different from ordinary variations, and his specific Saacterstics as distinct and clear-cut in their existence and abrupt “lag as undefined and not scientifically definable, because not “senting distinct natural phenomena. ts recognition that the discontinuity Rs does not necessarily distinguish them of “discontinuous ” from “continuous” 422 BOTANICAL.GAZETTE [DECEMBER variations is one of the best evidences of his familiarity with the sub- ject. Numerous writers ascribing to discontinuous variations the same importance he does to mutations have, as he says, regarded them as fundamentally distinct in the range of their deviation. Some of these writers have regarded their importance as a function of the extent to which they are aberrant. This question has been threshed over so thoroughly that I do not care to touch on it more than to suggest again the frequent sterility of sports. The assumed distinctness of discon- tinuous variations is, however, by no means so trite a subject. I disbelieve in the distinctness of these two classes of variations on empirical ground, and a priori. We will consider the former first. If they are distinct, it must be possible to draw a line between them, and to say positively of any variation with which we are thoroughly familiar that it is the one or the other, and to give a reason for the judgment. It will be classed as discontinuous only when the series of less considerable variations in the same direction breaks short of it. But every first-hand worker in this field knows that such series always tend to fill when the material is increased. In variation within wide limits or limits approximately but not absolutely fixed, the extremes of any finite number of examples are likely to be disconnected. When the number is increased sufficiently the gaps fill up, but new isolated extremes are found. Do the variations which are assimilated to the regular curve in this way thereby become continuous? If “discon- tinuous” means anything, they do; and if they do, it obviously does not mean very much. My abnormal ferns illustrate this assimilation of apparent mon- strosities into a regular series with the accumulation of enough material. The Polypodium I described from West Virginia, with the apical segment and its neighbors greatly enlarged, seemed most remarkable when I first collected it; but a thorough search of the spot the next season showed a long series of specimens bridging the g@P between these seeming monstrosities and typical plants. 1 have had the same experience with several lines of variation of P. calijornicum. In its extreme form the caudate monstrosity, with the frond as a whole narrowly oblanceolate, the individual segments abnormally broad and widening toward the round or retuse apex, and the midrib springing as a long curved hair from the dorsal surface, is the most extreme 194] COPELAND—VARIATION OF CALIFORNIA PLANTS 423 freak fern Ihave ever seen. From its occurrence in compact patches Tam sure it is as near as nature comes to a mutation in DE VRIEs’S ee And yet, examining hundreds of specimens, I have found a very complete series of steps connecting it with typical plants. Does = as that thorough search fills the series class this freak outside of discontinuous variations,where it would unhesitatingly be placed if Thad done less hunting? What fern in the series is just aberrant enough so that if found alone it would constitute a mutation? An answer should be possible if mutations and variations are distinct. Polypodium calijornicum with its veins all free exhibits variation not merely beyond the limits of the species, but beyond those of the Subgenus. That would be a mutation surely; but I have fiesta at e a and others with some anastomosing veins from the same - Zome; fronds with anastomosing veins on one side of the rachis and a. the other; and fronds with the two forms of venation variously 7 eo among the segments. Among the fungi I have a ae ~ but the : ag extra-generic variations, as the genera are now limited ; no cert oundaries are so artificial or dubious that most of panne: ain Interest at present. In a dozen or so American species 0 a i spor es of the Uromyces type are common or at least ser ma “chons of Lenzites from a single log, I have specimens wit ny Connected lamellae, and others with all of them free, which by Shy would unhesitatingly be referred to Agaricaceae, and still This aed Suggestive of Irpex. Cars ions and 7 worth while to rehearse more instances . Ww sagas to me to ordinary variations cannot be distinguished; t = ge Vatiatio Prove the case as well as more would doit. If ~ : cae an nS were fundamentally different, it would be possible S Y one of these peculiar ferns that it belongs in one or the other cate eS the more copious the material the easier it would be to ia! . Classification; if it were but natural. But the more thoroughly ‘ Collected and examined them, the more evident it has become . slight and extreme variations differ only in degree. ‘ ee : "ate that this evidence is not of the same kind as DE VRIES’S, = “S @ value in the study of heredity which mine absolutely lacks. *Goniophlebium was regarded as a distinct genus by BLUME, and is just now Testor, g *d to that rank by UNDERWOOD. : 424 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER My evidence is appropriate, however, to the question at issue. Irre- spective of the individual parentage of the plants, it shows that the distinction between wide and narrow, or continuous and discontinuous, variations is artificial. That these aberrant forms should be the result of several generations tending in the same direction would be incom- prehensible in view of the sterility of some of the forms and partial sterility of others; and would itself be contradictory to DE VRIES’S idea that new forms of plants arise suddenly, without preparation or intermediate steps. The a priori objection to really discontinuous variation is the impossibility of really discontinuous development. Every organism that varies grows, and varies only as it grows. All organisms of any kind are indistinguishable during a considerable part of their develop- ment, but sooner or later their individual differences appear and become fixed. The tendency of heredity, as the conservative factor in both evolution and development, we believe is to postpone the appearance of deviations from the parent types. If they appear very late, the variations will be very small; if they appear earlier, they will obviously be more notable. If variations in growth appear much earlier than usual, the variation will be unusually profound. But it must be evident to anybody that it is not possible to select any point within the range of known deviation in the development of any organ- ism whatever, and to say that the differences which occur before this time are different in kind from those which appear at and subsequent to it. Variation, when it is just appearing, is a phenomenon involving small and homogeneous groups of cells; or, regarded in finer detail, single cells. When variation occurs it is by the unit of the varying structure. If it occurs early, the subsequent development of the eit can make it become very conspicuous; but the variation is when It #5, irrespective of later growth based on it. Stomata and trichomes are 4S a rule formed late in development, and the presence of two where one is normal is likely to escape our attention, as is the presence of an extra leaf on a tree; cotyledons are formed earlier, and an € st cotyledon, perhaps involving an unusual form of the whole plant seh grows from the seedling, is an object of interest and remark. : when the first step toward the formation of the extra cotyledon W 1904] COPELAND—VARIATION OF CALIFORNIA PLANTS 425 taken it was certainly as small as can be imagined. And surely there is no point between the formation of an extra cotyledon and that of an added leaf on a season’s growth where mutations leave off and varia- tions begin. Both begin with the formation of two growing points from one. Every step in growth is an insensible move from the pre- ceding state; and variation, inexorably dependent on growth for its appearance, cannot be less continuous than growth is. It may be objected to this argument that the variation does not occur in growth, but before it begins; say in the formation of the germ cells. That cannot be demonstrated, even in as favorable subjects as the insects. And if it were really and demonstrably true, it would hot damage the argument, but merely shift it. Life is an uninter- tupted process from generation to generation. The division of the chromosomes, the reduction in their number, and their combination in the sexual union are orderly, regular processes, just as the growth of any individual is. In Our ignorance of the forces at work and their way of working I can imagine no discontinuity in these finer, more tecondite processes, any more than in more visible growth. Nor can T see why we should regard differences between twin organisms as not arising in growth because we suppose their environment to be identical, and on that ground refer the differences which we certainly do see to still earlier stages in ontogeny, perhaps even antedating fertilization ; unless we can show differences in the environment there. It is perhaps natural to suppose that the things we do not understand happen in the stages we know least about, but this assumption does not share the nature of a proof. It is therefore sophistry to plead that variations are independent of growth as an objection to the principle that they mnust be as continuous as growth is. If variation is a phenomenon of growth, it may occur wherever growth is going on. In the beginning of this paper I have pointed out that it actually does this in the oaks I studied. It is as reasonable to Speak of variation localized in the parts of a tree, each the product of the activity of an isolated meristem, as to regard the differences tween parthenogenetically produced offspring of a single parent as “xamples of it. Kxrzxtocc has shown that variation is more consid- ‘table among the parthenogenetically than the bisexually produced members of a hive of bees. 426 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER SUMMARY. In this part of California, where conditions are locally very diverse, plants are more variable congenitally than in regions where the environment is uniform. For in the latter, natural selection acts along the same line on many generations, and the more closely plants breed true to forms fitted to their uniform environment, the better are their chances of perpetuation; while here natural selection is unlikely to work in the same way on many generations of variable plants; and breeding very close to a form fitted to any one sort of environment decreases the number of the plant’s prospective descendants. For the same reason, the ubiquists in this region are more variable than the plants of restricted occurrence. Their variation enables them to be ubiquists, and being ubiquists keeps them variable. “Mutations,” or discontinuous variations, and the most insignifi- cant of individual variations are parts of one unbroken series. GOVERNMENT LABORATORY, Manila, P. I. KLINOSTATS AND CENTRIFUGES FOR PHYSIOLOGICAL EARCH.* FREDERICK C. NEWCOMBE. (WITH THREE FIGURES) SOME years ago, when the author had to make use of the klinostat for extensive experimentation, the work went so slowly with one machine that means were sought to secure the operation of several Klinostats at the same time without incurring the expense incident to the purchase of a number of the costly machines in common use. After some attempts to construct apparatus on too light and too cheap a scale, the apparatus here described was designed and manufactured with the cooperation of Mr. RALPH MILLER, at that time university Mechanician. It has been used extensively for seven years, and has answered every demand made upon it. It is herewith described Partly in response to several inquiries by men in other universities, and partly with the hope that it will be welcomed as offering a means lor various kinds of research now practically impossible with the Spring machines. This apparatus can be provided with a horizontal and a vertical Klinostat to run at the same time, the whole costing less than a Pfeffer machine ; and the number of turn-tables can be increased almost indefinitely. Moreover, it will carry a much greater load than the spring klinostats. I. CENTRIFUGES. For both the centrifuges and klinostats the same motive power is Used—an electric or a water motor. I have found it convenient to have both kinds of motors; for while the electric motor runs more *venly and with less noise, the current is more liable to interruption from one Cause or another. Should one have the advantage of a Constant head of water, secured by a tank with constant water level, &S suggested by ARTHUR,? a water motor alone would suffice. "Contribution 83 from the botanical laboratory of the University of Michigan. 156, : ARTHUR, Water power for botanical apparatus. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 1897: 1904] 427 428 BOTANICAL GAZETTE DECEMi By a series of pulleys on shafts, as shown in fig. 1, any desired speed of revolution can be secured. In the figure two centrifuges are shown for revolution on a horizontal axis. The centrifuge nearer the motor shows a large chamber fastened to the revolving plate, as already described from this laboratory by REED,3 while the centri- fuge at the right carries a plate of ordinary size—about 15°™ in diameter. c Fic. 1.—Electric motor (a) and two horizontal centrifuges (6 and ¢). Il. THE KLINOSTATS. The centrifuges of fig. 1 are immediately turned into klinostats the interposition of a worm reducing gear between the motor and the first shaft pulley. Fig. 2 shows the apparatus set up for klinostat revolution; but in this figure, instead of the simple shafting with plate attached, as in fig. 1, we have a special form of klinostat shown, a form capable of revolution about either a vertical (a), a horizontal axis (6), or any oblique axis. by III. DESCRIPTIVE DETAILS. The chief excellencies of this apparatus are found in what may be termed its unit construction, enabling.an interchange of parts and an indefinite increase of turn-tables. The shafts are all the — diameter, the pulleys are interchangeable, and the shaft supports are all the same size. 3 REED, A damp-chamber for use on the klinostat. Jour. Appl. Micros. 4° “” I. 190 rE ] NEWCOMBE—KLINOSTATS AND CENT RIFUGES 429 Lhe motors.—Instead of temporizing with cheap motors, it is better to purchase those of known efficiency at the outset. A one- fourth horse-power will do the work well. A constant water pressure ora constant electric current will demand only one motor. Neither of these sources of power being always constant at this university, I had to purchase both kinds of motors. ‘The water motor is a Pelton t HP with a water head of about 10™. The electric is a Sprague- Lundell pattern, + HP. Both motors have a speed of 1,600 revolu- tions per minute. - 2.—Two klinostats (a and 5), the worm gear (c), and the electric motor the worm gear. Fic back of The worm gear (fig. 3, a).—As made by MILLER this reducing sear is manufactured in two sizes. In the smaller size the pulley Worked by the worm has too teeth, thus reducing the speed to 0.01; i the larger size the pulley has 200 teeth, thus reducing to 0.005. Besides this reduction caused by the worm, the pulley attached to the Worm Shaft and receiving the belt from the motor is four times the diameter of the pulley of the motor shaft. Thus the total reduction Y the worm gear brings the 1,600 revolutions of the motor down to four times or two times per minute, according to the use of the pulley mith the 109 teeth or 200 teeth. A revolution of four times per minute 48 been shown by CzapEx‘ to bring in centrifugal action unless the Plant is kept within s°™ of the axis of revolution; and hence, for merely Neutralizing the effect of gravitation, one should still further * Czapex, Untersuchungen iiber Geotropismus. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 27:243. 1895. 430 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER reduce the speed from the smaller worm gear by interposing one of the step pulleys between the worm gear and the first klinostat. By the interposition of one such pulley, the speed of the first klinostat can be reduced to one revolution per minute, which is slow enough for objects less than one meter from the center of revolution. If desired, speed may be still farther reduced by other pulleys between the worm gear and the klinostat. The shajts (fig. 3, d).—The shafts are of half-inch cold rolled steel, and are cut to any length. The shajt supports (fig. 3, c)—These supports have a total minimum height of 12.5°™, and by raising the upper part of the support may be extended to a height of 15.5°™. This adjustment of the height of the support allows the shaft to be leveled up when the table or other object to which the supports are fastened is not level. The lower part of the support is a socket in which the stem of the _ upper part is held by a set-screw. The brass co]lar at the upper end of the support acts as a bearing, as shown in fig. 1, and automatically tilts up and down to conform to the direction of the shaft which passes through it. The middle piece of the support (fig. 3, ¢) has the shape of a tuning-fork, the stem of which is held in the socket below, and between the forks of which is received a plate projecting from the lower side of the collar above. An iron pin passing through the arms of the fork and the plate of the collar suspends and hinges the collar, and thus allows the automatic tilting. The three movements allowed the upper part of the support—that of vertical movement in the socket, rotation in the socket, and tilting of the collar—give ready adjustment to all possible faults of mounting of the shafts, prevent all binding, and have much to do with the easy running of the machines. The pulleys (fig. 3, d)—The pulleys for the horizontal mae are of cast iron, and made with three steps of 4, 8-5; and ee diameter respectively. Each step has a peripheral thickness of 1 and has turned in it a V-shaped groove to take a quarter-inch leather belt. The pulleys are fastened to the shafts by set-screws. Special turn-tables (fig. 2, a and b; fig. 3, 6).—The * : apparatus is sufficient for centrifuges and klinostats revolving wi horizontal axis. For revolution about a vertical axis the geen shown in the figures referred to have been made. They have an ire foregoing 1904] NEWCOMBE—KLINOSTATS AND CENTRIFUGES 431 base 20X14%2.5°™. An iron support screwed to this base rises vertically and carries at its upper end a horizontal arm which holds a collar through which passes the half-inch shaft of the machine. One end of this shaft, as shown in the figures, receives a brass two- step pulley, and the other end the usual plate for supporting the object under experiment. This plate is of heavy brass 15-20°™ in diameter, and has cut in it three equidistant radial slots which Teceive the ends of brass posts. The brass posts have shoulders Which rest upon the brass plate on the upper side (jig. 2, a), while huts on the opposite side secure the posts at any desired distance from ea Fic. 3.—Worm gear (a), turn-table (6), shaft standard (¢), and shaft and y Pulleys (d). the center, The free ends of the posts have a thread on which runs * nut to be screwed down over the edge of a flower-pot or other con- tainer, The horizontal arm projecting from the support rising from the base is held against the vertical support by a heavy friction screw Passing through the vertical support and into the horizontal arm. This friction screw is turned by a removable steel rod passing thr ough the head of the screw. By manipulating the friction screw, this Machine may be set with its shaft at any angle desired, allowing the “ame klinostat to be used for revolution about a vertical, horizontal, *T oblique axis (jig. 2, aand b). 432 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Idler pulleys and support.—For adjusting the klinostats to cramped positions, or to fixed directions of light, it is often desired to turn a driving-belt from a straight course. This has been accomplished by means of the shaft and two small pulleys shown standing in the right- hand end of the klinostat base in jig. 3, 6. This position of these idlers is right for the klinostat to which they are shown attached when the klinostat is adjusted for revolution with horizontal axis. For other purposes I have had made a cheap iron base into which the pulley shaft is set, and this device allows a belt to be turned at right or oblique angles anywhere desired. Belting and couplings—The belts used are of one-fourth inch leather. The thimble-like couplings screw over the ends of the belt and hook into one another. Both belting and couplings are common articles of trade. Shajt-stops—It is often desirable to keep a shaft from working out of some position in which it is placed or to prevent it being acci- dentally pushed out of position and thus destroying the alignment of the pulleys. For this purpose several collars are cut from half- inch brass tubing, and each collar is provided with a set-screw. Two such collars are shown one above and one below the small pulleys on the vertical shaft rising from the base of the klinostat (fig. 3, 9). Besides what has been already mentioned there are several things which might be added in commendation of this apparatus. It is easily portable, in spite of its seeming size. The parts may all be screwed to a movable table, or each part may be screwed to a piece of plank and the parts then clamped to tables. The shaft supports and bearings are easily shifted, placed nearer together or farther apart, S° that one may use many shafts of various lengths with any two sup” ports. One end of a horizontal shaft may be made to project any desired distance beyond a support, and the free end of the shaft may support a klinostat or centrifuge plate, thus allowing the plants used to be pushed into the recess of a window or into a small, closed chamber. The pulleys can be shifted to any position on the shafts, or any number of pulleys attached to a single shaft, thus allowing cons turn-table driven by that shaft a variety of positions, or allowing several turn-tables to be driven from one shaft. The speed of ead lution can anywhere be increased or diminished, and a variety of 1904] NEWCOMBE—KLINOSTATS AND CENTRIFUGES 433 speeds can be otained from the same shaft at the same time by belting to larger or smaller steps on the pulleys. A machine, however simple and however powerful, is of little use unless it will accomplish the purpose of its design. A klinostat, as is well known, must move through any quadrant in the same time it traverses its counter-quadrant. The experience of years has demon- strated that the apparatus here described is not faulty in this particular. Of course, the loads must be balanced, and this is done as on any Klinostat. There is no danger from the creeping or stretching of the belts. The unevenness of motion imparted by a water-motor attached toa central system seems to havé no effect in causing either heliotropic or geotropic curves on the klirostats, the irregularities of one minute apparently correcting those of another, since the irregularities are not periodic. Cost—The minimum cost for a complete unit of this apparatus may be given thus: 1 HP electric motor with rheostat = - - - - : $35 .00 1 FHP water motor ‘ ; : f “ - - $24.00 Tworm gear - f i Z : ‘ : eee ees 12.50 a a 2.50 2.50 2ft. din. steel shaft - Smee $ ¢ ‘ = 12 42 T3-step pulley . . 1.50 1.50 1 klinostat (fig. 2, a and b) revolving on either vertical or horizontal shaft - - - - - : : : 9.00 = Total cost : - - $49.62 or $60.62 The equipment contained in this list provides a centrifuge with horizontal axis, revolving 800, 400, 200, 100 times per minute, and almost any lower speed, and with a klinostat revolving on either * Vertical or horizontal axis with speeds from the centrifuge rate down to” one revolution in four minutes. Moreover, it allows one “atrifuge and one klinostat to be operated at the same time, or two “entrifuges to be operated at the same time. Additional centrifuges or klinostats with horizontal axis can be blained tor $6 each, and with vertical axis for $9 each. €N one considers that the standard spring klinostats with but ne turn-table cost $60 to $80, it can be seen that for the same expen- 434 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER diture the apparatus described in this paper possesses many times the efficiency of those, not counting cost of power. Should anyone desire to construct this apparatus, I shall be willing to give additional details; or I will gratuitously supervise the con- struction should any one wish to have the work done by Mr. Miller. In the latter case, application for construction should be made to Messrs. Eberbach & Son, Ann Arbor, Mich., into whose employ Mr. Miller has entered. UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, Ann Arbor, Mich. “ECOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE TREES OF THE . BOTANICAL GARDEN AT NAPLES. GRAcE E. Cootey, (WITH FOUR FIGURES) VIEW of the country about the bay of Naples in the spring gives ittle idea of the luxuriance of the vegetation of which the land pable. The only trees left standing are the stone pines, and Me selected inaccessible rock niches to grow in. To be sure, the tS cultivate the black poplars, but only for use in their vine- us. The living trees make the vine posts, and the cut branches isa singularly treeless region. The impression of the country > Clear atmosphere is much like that of the foothills east of the ides in the rainless regions of Washington and Oregon. There same soft gray color on the hills, that readily changes under “uence of the sun and the clouds, and the gray artemisias on Tocks help to make the picture the same. Yet this land, ” like desert in color and absence of trees, is very different in its Produce the fruits of the soil. There is water to be had Clouds in abundance at all seasons, except in the three ~ Months, and the apparent barrenness is only the result of ¢ of ‘crops the peasant plants, and the way he has dealt = uve trees. Every available spot is devoted to the cultivation Spe, and the land is terraced for vines up the slopes of the old cones and sometimes down to the very depths of their worn- 435 to oe omer BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER out craters. All the wild shrubs go into the fire to cook the daily meal. The succulent cactus and the spiny century plant, fugitives from America, are protected from the hacking of the peasant’s knife, and having escaped have made themselves perfectly at home here. It is only in the gardens that one sees trees, and there one is struck by the cosmopolitan mixture. There are few natives of Italy, but many foreigners. The ilex oak is the hardiest of the natives, and the tree most often used along the avenues in the parks, but, with this exception and the cypresses and Judas trees, the gardeners have gone to other countries to get trees for adornment. A critical eye is at once struck by the multitude of plant types represented, and the marvel grows when one considers the exact habitat of the foreigners and the perfection of their development under cultivation here in Italy. This Mediterranean region is the home of the Hartlaubge- hélze of the warm temperate zone, with the ilex oak, European olive, and classic laurel among the best-known and most representative examples; but there are Australian trees here from within the tropics; trees from the cold northern forests of our own land; some from the deserts of Africa; and others from the mountains of Asia. They stand for types of all the ecological regions of SCHIMPER, except the Arctic and the ever rainy forests of the tropics. The soil and the climatic conditions seem remarkably congenial to these strangers, and they appear to grow as well as under the conditions native to them The Royal Botanical Garden of N aples is an admirable place for the study of diverse types of trees, for it furnishes many species and these are growing almost in a state of nature. The funds of the garden have been for many years too small to give them much care beyond that which locks the gates and gives them the chance to live. The whole yearly allowance for the support of the gardens, the greenhouses, the library, and all the force employed from the director to the gate- keeper is 7000 lire (about $1400). Some years ago there was some- times a little to be expected from the city of Naples, but the sum has been for many years too inadequate for what we should consider the actual needs of a botanical garden. One resident spoke of it as “a ruin twenty years ago,” but the very ruin is of deepest interest to a student of ecology. It shows forms from many climates mingling 1904] COOLEY—BOTANICAL GARDEN AT NAPLES 437 and growing freely under conditions unnatural to them at home, and the marvel is that they find it so easy to do it. It is instructive to run over the climatic conditions that exist here and contrast them with what can be gathered concerning those of other lands which have representatives here. Naples lies in the warm temperature region of winter rains. The latitude is 40° 52’, the longitude 14° 15’ east. The garden is a short distance from the sea, from 31.30 to 44.50™ above it, and lies on a slope that looks southeast to Vesuvius. Back of it and protecting it from the north winds, rises the hill of Capodimonte, on which is an observatory from which the meteorological observations were taken which are given in the table low. Since the hill is much higher than the garden and more exposed, the conditions are not quite those which hold in the garden itself, 103™ below. In an account of the garden published in 1867 by Pasguate, a former director, some of the climatic conditions are discussed. In 1846 there was a summary made of the observations of temperature for twenty-four years. The medium temperature for these years was 1 5-66° C. The highest temperature recorded was for July 17, 1841, 39° C.; the lowest was February 21, 1845, —5.8° C. The period of greatest heat succeeds July 25, and that of greatest cold January 24. Specially cold nights are recorded, when the femperature sank to —7° C. and —8° C. Such periods of extreme Cold are rare, occurring perhaps only once in ten years. The ther- Mometer seldom sinks to the freezing-point, and hoar frosts are most Unusual. The table given below is for the year 1902, and is taken from the monthly reports published by the observatory of Capodi- Monte, 149™ above sea-level. The rain falls for the most part in the winter, but the amount that in special months varies from year to year. In general it is steatest from October to February, and least in June, July, and “gust; in 1902 sinking to zero in July. SCHIMPER divides the globe into regions according to the relative ‘Mounts of rain during the year and the seasons in which it falls. If we follow this classification in arranging the plants of the garden, Stouping them with the countries where they are native, we shall be able to make Some interesting comparisons. 438 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT CAPODIMONTE FOR THE YEAR 1902 1S) oO : to ‘0 . i iI g 1 1 388s 388 e Soft | ge | 2ag B85 g 8d of 3 of-3s ond 3 Sw 39° Oe Months wo a ee pe So's & | Boo 8 a 2 ahs aA 2 aa gm ae gag Eee fae SESSA | SAGA | SEBx| S88 |-Se8d| 885 | B83 > > > ° >on => < < < & cs) = a CERT ea tees 11.88 9.23 62.8 65.6 44.8 Sak 0.8° ebruary 13.32 8.66 6.6 103.4 34.1 16.9° 4:3 March 14.12 8.10 68.7 76.1 56.0 17.5 2.4 5 ole Deh iewer ves | 18.70 12.26 71.6 65.8 55.6 21.7 6.5 Mee Sorcerer shes | 18.35 II. 42 55.3 80.2 70.3 26.3 8.0 pit EGS Cae rea 23.00 16.50 55.6 8.0 I07.0 29.7 II.o IG eee oC Cee 28.73 20.50 6x. 0.0 137.7 31.3 17.8 (BRUNE. Ga orice t 28.66 20.20 62.7 9.0 10.5 33.6 16.0 September.......... 26.14 18.08 64.3 82.5 102.1 32 Fab 22 Se ag 20. 15.41 78.7 171i .7 50.8 26.3 10.2 November..........| 14.08 9.80 70.8 157.8 47.0 18.5 sua December... ..0 55's 11.23 6 67.8 66.0 46.3 Ae 235 887.0 1. The temperate regions of winter rains and summer drouths.— The countries included are Italy and the other lands bordering on the Mediterranean, the coast of southern California, and the coast region of southwestern Australia. These regions are in about the same latitude, and they all have an annual rainfall of 60-130°. Representatives in the garden are many, the ones selected for our purpose being as follows: Iraty: Quercus Ilex, Olea europaea, Laurus nobilis, Pinus Pinea, Cupressus sempervirens; GREECE to PERSIA and AFGHANISTAN: Pinus brutia; Asta Murnor: Cedrus Libani; soUrHWESTERN AUSTRALIA: Eucalyptus and Acacia; PACIFIC Coast OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA: Libocedrus decurrens, Chamae- cyparis Lawsoniana, Cupressus macrocarpa, Pinus sabiniana, Sequoia sempervirens. 2. The regions of heaviest rain in spring and early summer and the beginning of winter, with drouths in late summer.—Included in this group are the greater parts of Spain, France, Switzerland, and Austria. The annual rainfall varies in these countries from 60 to over 130°". It will suffice to give only one or two examples from the many that could be given: Larix europaea, Fagus sylvatica, Quercus Suber, Pinus pyrenaica, Abies Pinsapo. 3- The regions where all the months of the year are rainy or snowy.— Included in this class are northern Europe, parts of Siberia and the 1904] COOLEY—BOTANICAL GARDEN AT NAPLES 439 extreme north of Japan, North America on the east from Hudson Bay throughout the Alleghanies and on the west as far south as British Columbia. The range of latitude is from 30° northward; and the annual rainfall is 60-200°™. Europe: Picea excelsa, Pinus sylvestris; SIBERIA, AMOOR REGION, and NORTHERN JAPAN: Abies a, Cryptomeria japonica; Wrst coast or AMERICA: Chamae- cyparis nutkaensis; ALLEGHANY REGION: Pinus Strobus, Lirioden- dron tulipifera, Prunus serotina, Robinia pseudacacia, Celtis occi- dentalis, Tilia heterophylla, Gleditschia triacantha, Quercus nigra. 4. The regions of winter rain or snow and heavy summer rains.— Countries included in this group are British Columbia, Central Japan, and parts of Chile. The range of latitude is 40°-50°, and the annual rainfall is 130 to over 200°". Examples of these regions are as follows: Britis CoLumsrA: Chamaecyparis nutkaensis; CHILE: Araucaria imbricata; CENTRAL JAPAN: Chamaecyparis _pisifera, Torreya nucifera. 5- All the months of the year rainy, the most in winter, but no month without fifteen rainy days.—The southern part of New Zealand is the only region where this condition holds. No trees of the garden are surely from this region, unless possibly a Dacrydium sp. - All the months of the year rainless, at least with less than six days of rain.—Under this group come the deserts of the Sahara, central Asia, central Australia, Arizona, and southern California. The latitude range is 20°-50°. This region is that of least rain, never more than 60°™ falling annually. OAsES OF THE SAHARA: *hoenix dactylifera; Gost: Tamarix articulata; ARIZONA: tree yuecas and agaves. 7. Regions of the normal rainy season of the tropics and subiropics, with some drouth in winter and spring—The countries included “te China, Japan, India, the East Indies, New Guinea, eastern Australia, southern Florida, the Mexican plateau, the West Indies, Central America, Peru, Brazil, and Argentine Republic. This region includes the monsoon forests of India and Brazil, where the annual Tainfall exceeds 200°™, the latitude ranging from the equator to 40°. The trees Selected from the garden to represent this region are as Ws: Cutna: Camphora officinalis, Ginkgo biloba, Cephalo- Taxus Fortunei, Chamaerops excelsa, Livistona chinensis; JAPAN: 440 | BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER magnolias and camellias; Inp1A: Pinus excelsa (found also in an isolated area on a height in Greece), Acer oblongum, Corypha australis; New GUINEA, AUSTRALIA, and NEw ZEALAND: Araucaria Bidwellii, A. Cunninghamii, Melaleuca styphelioides, Calistemon saligneum alba, Grevillea robusta; SANDwicH IsLANDs: Pritchardia pacifica; Brazit and the ARGENTINE: Eugenia Michelii, Arau- caria brasiliensis, Prosopis torquata; ANDES, PERU, BotrviA: Schinus molle, Phytolacca dioica; Mrxico: Pinus Montezumae, P. patula, Taxodium mucronatum, yuccas and agaves in regions of less rain; West Inpres: Cordia martinicensis; FLormDA and the ADJACENT Gutr States: Sabal Adansoni, Magnolia grandiflora, Planera aquatica, Liquidambar styraciflua, Torreya taxifolia, Persea Borbonia. The plants chosen from the large number in the garden to represent the above regions have been selected particularly because they are well known as types of peculiarly significant societies. Another con- sideration, which is also a limitation, has restricted the examples to certain groups, such as the conifers and palms, because it has been impossible in many other cases to secure data as to the exact climatic conditions under which the trees are found in a natural state. Information of an exact nature in reference to this is most meager, as everyone knows who has consulted floras to find the ranges of species or the habits of plants with regard to environment. No plants were placed in the list which do not seem to be reasonably vigorous, and many of them are growing most vigorously, as will be seen by the following measurements of circumference taken 30°" from the ground: Pinus excelsa 297°", Camphora officinalis 278°" (spread of horizontal branches 12™), Taxodium mucronatum 258°", Sequoia sempervirens 239°™, Cedrus Libani 227°, Araucaria Bid- wellii 195°", Ginkgo biloba 191°™, Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana 172s The classification shows that the garden represents plants from 61° north latitude to 48° south latitude. Countries are represented with an annual rainfall of 20 to more than 220°". There are plants from the high mountains, the Canary pine growing at 2000"; Pinus excelsa has a range on the Himalayas of 1800 to 3200"; Taxodium mucronatum grows on the highlands of Mexico from 1600 to 23005 and Pinus Montezumae from 2500 to 4400™ on Orizaba. There are 1904] COOLEY—BOTANICAL GARDEN AT NAPLES 441 plants that thrive in swamps and those that grow in rocky or sandy places. Few regions of the whole earth have not here their repre- sentatives. Still more impressive than these plain facts is a walk in the garden itself in early spring, when the great variety of foliage shows itself to perfection. There is a yellow-green just appearing in the decidu- ous oaks and maples in the midst of the jungle of tropical evergreen tees with their glossy dark green foliage, and in sharp contrast to both are the gray phyllodial leaves of the Australian wattles, and such plants as Colletia cruciata, or the thin gray foliage of the lofty Melaleucas and eucalyptus trees. Tree yuccas and tall.dracaenas thrust their swordlike leaves through the soft sprays of the conifers. The date palms grow here vigorously and sometimes show a curious adornment of climbing ivies, while northern ferns and blossoming herbs grow in the axils of their fallen leaves. One such palm on close observation showed a score of young seedling maples that had taken Toot on the trunk of the tree, and had already passed their first sum- mer Successfully. Beside the maples, there were on the same tree trunk raspberries, grasses, geraniums, Cotyledon umbilicus, fumitory, Masterwort, and perennial ferns, forming a most friendly and thriving community. On superficial view of the trees there seems little variation from formal habit, but there is one tendency so strongly developed here that it seems to be climatic. Many trees develop root-shoots and ‘routs from the old wood of the trunks. This is conspicuous in the conifers and palms, where it is certainly an exception to the usual habit of the groups. Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana has, besides the main trunk, four prominent ones given off just at the ground line, and they are conspicuously large and well-developed, the main trunk ing 172°™ in circumference, and the others 56, 45, 40, and 40°. Araucaria Cunninghamia has four bushy shoots about sms from the base of the trunk. Some specimens of Pinus canariensis are Clothed to the ground with filmy shoots, recalling the habit of many American elms (fig. 1). No other pine with which I am familiar this habit except P. rigida, which frequently exhibits it in regions Subject to forest fires. : One Specimen of Cry ptomeria japonica has a remarkable habit 442 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER of producing branches some distance from the ground which bend down, and when they meet the soil broaden out and root, throwing up erect stems which become independent trees. The tree is 110° in circumference and has given rise to six such. independent growths, one 65°™ in circumference; the others 45, 30, 27-5, 12-5; and Fic. 2.---Cryptomeria japonica, show- Fic. clothed to the ground with shoots ers; two suckers in view. 12.5°", all 30°" from the ground. The highest of such rooting branches is given off from the trunk 60°™ above its base. in circumference until it touches the ground, where it flattens and broadens to 15°™ in surface view, and creeps some dista the trunk before rising into the erect shoot. of the daughter trees and two of the suckers. Several specimens of Phoenix dactylijera in the garden produce 1.—Pinus canariensis: trunk : . ing one of five daughter trees from suck- tis 85°” nce from Fig. 2 shows only one 1904] COOLEY—BOTANICAL GARDEN AT NAPLES 443 leafy shoots in the axils of the old leaves near the base of the trunk, and even some distance from the ground. A very remarkable case of this kind is shown in fig. 3, a photograph of a palm growing in a Twenty leafy shoots were counted on private garden in Naples. The trunk just above the soil measures one side of the trunk alone. leaf ng 3-—Phoenix dactylijera, with . . yhose Bet in the axils of old leaves. panion tree to that shown In fig. 3, Wn0 leaves show in the upper foreground. 7 in circumference, but these abnormal growths so increase its Size at a height of 130°™ that it measures 500°. In this tree and . the others in the botanical garden roots had arisen from the base 0 these shoot vis 4 shows the companion tree to the date palm of jig. 3, which i “llowed its natural habit. The branching one has not attained the eight of the other, but is well developed in every other way. 3. 4.—Phoenix dactylijera; com- 444 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER - Chamaerops humilis, the low native palm of the Mediterranean coasts, grows here into a thick bushy tangle from the development of an immense number of underground shoots. This is not an uncom- mon habit of the plant when growing wild in northern Africa. Phyto- lacca dioica has a curious flat table-like formation of its main roots or of the lower stem just above the ground line, and from this spring a great number of slender vigorous shoots. The trees of the garden are not of great age, for the garden itself in its present foundation is not very old. Although as early as 1662 there was here a pharmaceutical garden connected with one of the church hospitals, in its present state it was founded in 1809 under the auspices of the Bourbon rulers. Its first director was MICHELE TENORE, who held the position for fifty years. He was succeeded by GuGLIELMO CasparRI (1861-1866) and GrusEPPE ANTONIO PASQUALE (1866-1867). In 1893 FREDIRIGO DeELpPINo, formerly in Genoa and Bologna, became its director, and he still holds the position. TENORE in his long term of fifty years put in train the plans which have been largely followed since. The important large trees now in the garden are included in a catalogue published in 1867 by Pasquarr. In many cases he gives the heights of the tallest trees, and from his figures we can judge that the growth since that time has been strong and normal. With a few exceptions the trees are probably none of them much older than one hundred years. A few of them have been broken by tempests and one or two are stag-headed, but most of them show no signs of abnormal growth. They are not well pruned, but in a natural woodland condition that is most interesting. It is a remarkable collection when one considers how little care has been given it. One marvels at the friendliness of the climate which has proved congenial to so many strangers. In our own country southern California has a somewhat similar type of native vegetation and somewhat similar climatic conditions, but even there it would hardly be safe to leave such a collection of trees to themselves. One feature of importance is the great fertility of the soil in , this region, which has been under the influence of civilization for three thousand years, and probably a good part of that time under cultiva- tion, yet it still yields several harvests a year. 1904] COOLEY—BOTANICAL GARDEN AT NAPLES 445 Such a climate as this would be an ideal one in which to estab- lish an experimental garden, with the study of variation in structure in special view. The garden already contains valuable material for research. Naples has proved to be a splendid situation for the Marine Biological Laboratory. There is a place here also for a great botanical station for the study of plants from all the world. The botanists have left the ecology of this region almost untouched until lately, and now Professor J. Y. BERGEN is working on the plants of the Solfatara. This pioneer work should indicate the possibilities of this region as a place where the American botanists might establish a station which would do for botany what the German zoologists have done for zoology. STAZIONE ZOOLOGICA, Naples. RELATIVE TRANSPIRATION OF OLD AND NEW LEAVES F THE MYRTUS TYPE. JoserH Y. BERGEN. WHILE making some studies of the transpiration of the coriaceous- leaved evergreens of the Neapolitan region, such as Olea, Pistacia, and Quercus Ilex, the writer became interested in the question of the relative activity in transpiration of their old and new leaves. Some results of the measurements made upon them are here set down, together with a few words of discussion in regard to the mean- ing of the facts observed. It is commonly said that the trees and shrubs of the Mediterranean region are largely evergreen, but a little examination into their characteristics shows that the word “evergreen” should be used to describe them only when its meaning is carefully defined. When local floras, like Gussone’s excellent catalogue of the plants of Ischia, describe such summer deciduous shrubs as Spartium junceum, Cytisus scoparius, and Calycotome villosa as evergreens, it would seem that any woody plant with leaves which remain green during a considerable part of the winter is considered to be an evergreen. As a matter of fact, the angiospermous trees and shrubs of the coast- wise region about Naples seem to be classifiable, as regards their mode of shedding the leaves, into the divisions shown in the table* on the opposite page. Some of the plants of division I may be described as facultative deciduous species; that is, they may retain their leaves almost or quite the year around. The Medicago and the Euphorbia above named do this when the water supply is abundant. The members of division II are more or less covered with leaves at all seasons. Those which belong to subdivision 1 show little difference in density of foliage dependent on the season. Many, however, of subdivision 2 lose nearly all their old leaves soon after the new leaves have reached their full size (area). Rhamnus Alater- * The table given is jem illustrative and does not embrace nearly all the species which the writer has obse 446 [DECEMBER 1904] BERGEN--RELATIVE TRA NSPIRATION OF LEA VES 447 aa) bd : Juglans, Populus, Fagus, Cas- : Me inter decidu- tanea, Quercus (in part), Ulmus, _ Morus, Ficus, Vitis, etc. I. Leaves simulta- Calycotome villosa | neously deciduous y | 2. Summer de- ciduous Medicago arborescens | Euphorbia dendroides 1. Le e of them lasting | Olea europaea two years or Pistacia Lentiscus more I. Leaves not simulta- neously deciduous | Rhamnus Alaternus? | (evergreen) 2. Leaves lasting | Nerium Oleander? | more than one rear but less Quercus lexs ys Ceratonia Siliquas pags: . Arbutus Unedo3 mis and Nerium Oleander are therefore much less leafy by July 1 than they were throughout May. A large proportion of the time spent was devoted to leaves of the so-called Myrtus type; those namely of Olea europaea, Quercus Ilex, Rhamnus Alaternus, and Nerium Oleander. Four other species, namely, Pistacia Lentiscus, Hedera H elix, Smilax aspera, and Viburnum T. imus, were also studied, in order to give any conclusions that were reached a more general value, as applicable to the sclerophyll trees and shrubs of the region. With very species, some comparisons of the relative rate of — transpiration for old and new leaves were made as soon as the latter had reached their full areal growth. = RELATIVE THICKNESS OF OLD AND NEW LEAVES. On comparin g the thickness of the old leaves with that of new ones of the same Species which had just reached their full area (usually in May ) the older ones were commonly found to be somewhat thicker. All Of the species in the list above given were examined except Viburnum, and : s thickness old leaf _ and the average ratio for all seven species was ‘iki The steatest disparity was found in Pistacia, which sometimes gave * Tatio of 1.48, and the least was in Hedera, which frequently ee wed no difference in the respective thicknesses. The greater Mckness of the old leaves was not mainly due to growth of the * These last fifteen months or but little more. 3 These last eighteen months or more. 448 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER epidermis; the amount due to this cause was never found to be more than ro per cent. of the whole difference in thickness, and sometimes the epidermis of the new leaf was as thick as that of the old one. All the measurements were carefully made with the eye- piece micrometer. RELATIVE TRANSPIRATION OF OLD AND NEW LEAVES. The measurements of transpiration were all made by determina- tion of loss of weight of twigs in water, except in the case of Nerium of which leaves only were used, with the petioles immersed. The time allowed was usually one hour, and the temperature (always the same for each comparison) ranged on different days from 25 to 31° C. Observations were begun on May 8 and continued at intervals until August 6. : | In the following table are given the ratios of rates of transpiration for equal areas of old leaves and new ones which had just attained their maximum area. The values given are usually averages of several observations taken daily or at intervals of two or three days during _ a period of a week or ten days. The column o+m represents the ratio, amount of transpiration per hour for 100%™ of old leaves divided by the corresponding amount for new leaves. : TRANSPIRATION RATIOS; EQUAL AREAS. Olea europaea fre reg ne See Quercus Ilex - 0. eS eee 2.73 Smilax aspera - Me a Viburnum Tinus - - - ee In two species, the Rhamnus and the Hedera, the old leaves are seen to be notably deficient in capacity for transpiration. In the former this fact is very possibly due to the moribund condition of the old leaves, which at the time of observation were about to turn yellow and fall. In the latter, the leaves were not ready to fall, and some other explanation of their sluggish action needs to be sought. In view of the marked differences in transpiration between the dld and the new leaves of most of the species studied, it seemed Worth while to investigate the question whether these differences Were accentuated or diminished by covering the stomatal surface (the lower one) with wax and so comparing the normal transpiration with the epidermal taken alone. This inquiry was not undertaken until so late in the season that only a portion of the comparisons Which it would have been desirable to make were possible. The Most convenient way of expressing the results seemed to be to give the ratio, Joss of water by plain leaf divided by loss of water by waxed leaj, first for the old leaves, then for the new ones, of each species examined. TRANSPIRATION RATIOS; PLAIN AND WAXED LEAVES PLAIN + WAXED Old leaves New leaves Olea europaea...........++. 2.62 3-77 Nerium Oleander..........- 3-52. 12.75 Pistacia Lentiscus........... 3-00 5°33 dlédera Helix... .........<.% 2.93 6.80 In the Species examined it is evident that the total transpiration Is the epidermal alone much more in the new leaves than the Examination of the actual amounts of moisture lost in 1 “th case leads me to suppose that this inequality is due to the 450 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER greater impermeability of young epidermis (several months old) than of that which is more than a year old, and to the greater functional activity of the younger than of the older stomata. One would a priori have expected to find the thicker and more indurated epidermis of the older leaves more impermeable than that of the younger ones, but in many cases it certainly is not. For instance, the older leaves of Nerium were found to lose moisture more than five times as fast for equal areas as the younger ones (both with the lower surface waxed), and the older leaves of Olea lost moisture nearly four times as fast as the younger ones (both waxed below). In the table above given the losses from waxed leaves may be a little too high relatively to the losses from plain leaves, since the former values were obtained after the leaves had. been standing in water longer, and therefore, perhaps may have established a better transpiration current. But this would not affect the general conclu- sions to be derived from the data. The leaves of Olea and of Pistacia compared in the last table were aged about six months (“young’’) and eighteen months (“‘old”’) respectively, and those of Nerium and Hedera were about three and a half and fifteen and a half months of age. None of the results obtained by the writer in transpiration experi- ments upon sclerophyll leaves can be much elucidated by comparison with the conclusions (contradictory among themselves) obtained in the studies of young and old leaves by SCHIRMER, KRUTITZKY, TscHAPLowi1z, H6HNEL, and others,‘ since none of these authors dealt with leaves which differed in age by an entire year. It is also unlikely that sclerophyll leaves should in their behavior as regards transpiration closely resemble the leaves of the herbaceous Gramineae, those of Coleus, Phaseolus, Pisum, and such other species as have received most study with reference to the relation between their development and their power of transpiration. CONCLUSIONS. ar conclusions of the present paper may be aaa as follows: . The evergreen trees and shrubs of the Neapolitan region differ eile in the longevity of their leaves, some of the species having 4 Summarized by BuRGENSTEIN, Materialien zu einer Monographie betreffend die Erscheinungen der Transpiration der Pflanzen. II Theil, pp. 25, 26. Wien. 1889. A. Hélder. 1904] BERGEN—RELATIVE TRANSPIRATION OF LEAVES 451 leaves that live only about fifteen months, while those of others live more than two and a half years. 2. All of the leaves studied reach their maximum area consider- ably before they attain their full thickness. 3. The leaves of six out of the eight species studied transpire more for equal areas when fifteen to eighteen months old than they do when they have just reached their maximum area (i. ¢., at three or four months). 4. Transpiration for equal weights of leaves is generally more active for leaves of fifteen or more months than for those of three months or a little older. 5. Epidermal transpiration bears a much smaller ratio to total transpiration in leaves of three months than in those of fifteen months. Naptes, ITALY, REGENERATION IN ZAMIA. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE HULL BOTANICAL LABORATORY Joun M. CovutrtrerR and M. A. CHRYSLER. (WITH EIGHT FIGURES) Mr. P. H. Rotrs, in charge of the Subtropical Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture at Miami, Florida, first called our attention to the remarkable power exhibited by mutilated stems of Zamia floridana of producing new shoots and roots. This cycad grows in great abundance in the neighborhood of the station, and Rotrs stated that he had seen “portions (of the stem) not larger than an English walnut” produce both shoot and root. He was kind enough to send an abundant supply of this mutilated and sprouting material, collected about February 1, 1904. The pldnts grow at Miami in a pure and well-drained sand, with a soil temperature standing rather uniformly at about 30° C. On April 16 RoLFs reported that the temperature of the soil one inch below the surface was 40° C.; three inches below, 38° C.; and six inches below, 35° C. In most of the cases studied, the top of the thick stem had been cut off by the grubbing hoe, leaving the subterranean portion intact, though all of the smaller roots were lacking. Some of these stems were planted and observed at intervals. One of them, a plant about two years old, was placed in the greenhouse about February 13; the fully spread leaves soon withered, and no activity was visible for two and a half months, at the end of which time a new leaf was put forth from the bud. On June 1 the plant was removed carefully from the soil, its appearance being shown in fig. 2. The stem had been cut . off at x, and had produced a new apex. Since the last planting no ordinary roots had been produced, though an upwardly directed spur 2™m long (not shown in the photograph) indicated the beginning of one of the characteristic apogeotropic roots; and yet the young shoot was in vigorous condition. An attempt was made to discover experimentally the possible ; 452 [DECEMBER ee - Mém, 1904] COULTER & CHRYSLER—REGENERATION IN ZAMIA 453 anatomical limitations of this reproductive power, by artificial mutila- tions of various kinds, but probably the proper conditions for vigorous growth were not maintained; at least no results were obtained. We have found no record of this behavior of Zamia, except in a statement made by WILLDENOow,’ a century ago, of which the follow- ing is a translation: The majority of palms die as soon as their trunk is cut or even damaged. There are only a very small number of them which, like Chamaerops humilis and Rhapis flabelliformis, send out from their root new shoots; and Cycas circinalis _ is the only one which sends out shoots from its trunk when this has been cut; further, the stem of this tree gives out new roots where it finds itself in contact with the soil. The different species of Zamia may be cut up and thus multiplied artificially by cuttings, but with the exception of Cycas and Zamia no other p survives amputation of the stem. This power of producing new shoots and roots after mutilation ls usually called “regeneration,” but this term seems to have been applied primarily rather to the restoration of lost parts than to the production of a complete new structure. As a consequence of its broader application, there has been a tendency to regard the regenera- tion ordinarily observed in plants and in animals as of two distinct inds; the former being nothing more than adventitious budding, the latter actual restoration of lost parts, the new structure becoming an integral part of the old. The great majority of the illustrations of regeneration in plants are cases of adventitious budding rather than regeneration in the stricter sense. We recognize the fact that the whole subject of regeneration among plants is in an inchoate Condition, but perhaps the two kinds cannot be distinguished by any _ €xact definition. Most of the cases presented in this paper are not Tegeneration in the restricted sense defined above, but in addition to _ Adventitious sprouting in Zamia there also seem to be cases of direct *estoration of lost parts. In the mutilated (mostly decapitated) stems of Zamia studied, the new shoots arise most frequently from the vascular part of the Central cylinder, as many as five shoots having been observed to Spring from this region in a stem 3 °™ in diameter, though only one t may occur. The vascular elements present in these shoots *WILLDENow, C. L., De quelques nouveaux palmiers de V Amérique méridionale. Acad. Roy. Berlin, 1804, p. 20. 454 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER are continuous with the vascular tissue of the central cylinder of the parent stem. Less frequently, the new shoots arise from the peripheral part of the wounded surface of the cortex. Both of these regions of origin may be used in the same Fic. 1.—Decapi- tated stem showing one shoot eae from the an wounded surface. X i. stem, as illustrated by jig. 1. In the case just referred to, a distinct group of vascular strands was traced from each shoot to the vascular tis- sues of the central cylinder. In certain other cases no vascular connection was found, due probably to the fact that the shoots were younger and _ undifferenti- ated. In a few cases the new structure stands directly over the central cylinder, as illustrated by fig. 2 and observed also in much older plants. In such cases, a series of vertical sections shows that the vascular tis- sues of the central cylinder converge to form a dome- shaped cap underneath the restored part (fig. 3), that is, the whole cut end of the central cylinder regenerates, in the strict sense, the lost part being thus restored. In all other cases there is no such restoration, but the production of entirely dis- tinct and complete struct- ures upon the old stem. Just what conditions deter- Fic. 2.—Young plant which was de- capitated at x and has produced a new xX E.- - nection was traced, the vascu- lar elements forming a hollow leaf; p, periderm; v, vascular cylinder. X 4. Tio] “COULTER & CHRYSLER—REGENERATION IN ZAMIA gs Mine the formation of a complete new structure in the one case, and the restoration of the” lost part of the old structure in another case may not be clear, but it is entirely probable that the central cylinder is more apt to be restored in young plants. ; The origin of the new roots is just as variable. It is customary tothink of secondary roots as arising from vascular tissue, and this was found to be true in several of the cases studied. In the case illustrated by Wg. 4, however, no trace of central cylinder was found, the piece of stem from which the shoot springs on one side and the root on the opposite Side being simply a chip from © cortex of an old stem. Between this shoot and root of cortical origin a distinct and complete vascular con- Fic. 3.—Median vertical section through apex of stem represented in fig. 2: /, base_of ylinder tapering at the ends Bie & 5). It seems certain that the decay of the “chip” in this Case would uncover a completely organized new plant. In any “vent, from this isolated cortex new organs and new kinds of issue have been formed, the new shoot arising from the outer edge Of the Cortex in the region of the cork cambium, and the root arising _ ‘Tom a more internal region of cortex. Whether the starting of > shoot determined the root, or vice versa, or neither, are matters 0 onjecture, but a completely organized and independent new plant S been derived from isolated and relatively old cortical tissue. The attempt was made to determine the exact layer or tissue from Much the new shoots proceed. It seems evident that regions of Meri i to 4 i ither meristematic tissue alone are concerned, that is tissue which has eit = med so or has resumed its power of cell-division; and in a rdinary cycadean stem there are at least three such active reg) 456 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER in addition to the growing point, namely the fascicular cambium, the pericycle, and the cork cambium. Srmon? finds that in regener- ating root-tips the pericycle is the active layer. In Zamia the peri- Fic. 4.—A chip from the cortex a has ear a new shoot and x §. cycle is poorly differentiated, and does not act as a secondary cam- bium, as is the case in Cycas and certain other cycadean genera. In the cases observed the new shoots nearly always arise from the wounded surface; and as a layer of wound-phellogen is always found beneath this surface it must be added to the list of active regions. It has been im- possible thus far to secure the earli- est stages in this adventitious shoot-formation, but sections through moderately young re- gions of this kind show the layer of callus curving outward around the base of the shoot-primordium (fig. 7). This suggests that the phellogen forming the callus is responsible for the initial growth of the new shoot. If this be true, a new shoot may be pro- duced at any point of the surface covered by the callus. In fact, in the cases of Zamia before us the new shoots stand over either fascicular cambium or cork cam- bium, but this position seems to us to be favorable rather than essential to shoot-formation. A case of the production of adventitious shoots from the hypocotyl 2Simon, S., NERS iiber die Regeneration der Wurzelspitze. Jahrb. Wiss. ai 40: 103-143. a 19044] COULTER & CHRYSLER—REGENERATION IN ZAMIA 457 of a seedling was also observed (fig. 6). The photograph shows a leaf arising from a bud on one side of the hypocotyl; another bud, younger than the one shown, is present on the opposite side. Ana- tains a_ strong present just be- neath the surface of the hypocotyl, and around the bud this layer bends outward to form a sort of collar (jig. 7). The tissues of the bud show no evi- dence of break- ing through the or <. cortex, as is the Fic.5.—Vertical | case with lateral ection through the roots; hence it is probable that Periderm; 7, root;7, growth of the vascular _cylinder. X 2. shoot started in the phellogen. Whether the bend of the hypocotyl indi- “ites some slight injury or not cannot be swered, at least there is no direct evi- dence of an injury of any kind. hat a so-called polarity does not he in this case the nature of the % cture produced at each end of the Utilated stem, seems to be indicated Y such a case as that represented by i & 8, in which two new shoots and a to9 ei 3 pare arising from one end and a shoot tomical examination showed that the bud con- vascular strand that runs straight inwards to join one of the bundles of the hypocotyl. A layer of periderm is i lad ritalin ee Fic. 6.—Seedling showing production of shoot from the hypo- cotyl. 458 BOTANICAL GAZETTE from the other. [DECEMBER It is probable that the horizontal position of the old stem is directly related to this result; and if so it would be referred to the influence of gravity. Fic. 7.—Part of transverse through hy pocotyl at level of the ne section w shoot: ¢, cortex; ca, callus; m, se aa a p, periderm; v, vascular strands. points, such as have been called ‘latent buds,” and which in this sense can have only a hypothetical existence; but is gener- ally present in all meri- stem and expresses itself under favorable condi- tions. The evidence against wounding as a necessary condition for such production of new shoots is suggestive, and that against the theories of “polarity” and “‘latent buds” seems to be clear. UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. Fic The suggested conclu- sions are that in the case of the stem of Zamia the power of regeneration and of developing adventitious shoots and roots is present in all meristematic tissue; that in cases of mutilation the meristematic tissue chiefly concerned is the phellogen of the callus, that over the region of the cen- tral cylinder being more often successful than that over the cortex. This power does not seem to be localized in any definite .8.—Piece of stem showing two shoots and a root springing from one end and a shoot from the other end. X # BRIEFER ARTICLES NEW OR UNREPORTED PLANTS FROM SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. SPARGANIUM GREENEI Morong, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 15:77. 1.79, fig. 3—Collected near Ballona, in marshes near the coast of Los Angeles co., July 1904, by Geo. B. Grant. The type was collected at Olema, Marin co., and the plant is common there and at Lake Merced, near San Francisco, but has not been met with heretofore elsewhere. Poa HANSENI Scribner, U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Agrost., Bull. 15: P- 53- pl. 9.—In an alkaline meadow at Rabbit Springs, 2700 alt., Mojave Desert, 4888 Parish, June 1901. This and the following grasses were identified at the Division of Agrostology of the U. S$. Department of Agri- culture. POA LONGILIGUA Scribner and Merritt, U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Agrost., Cire. 9:3.—In open pine forests, Mill Creek Falls, 5sooft alt., San Ber- matdino Mts., 5043 Parish, June rgot. __ Poa secunpa Presl, Rel. Haenk. 1:271.—Collected at the same time and place as the preceding species, and distributed under no. 5044. __ Eracrostis reprans Nees, Agrost. Parag. 514. E. hypecoides B. S. P. "Prelim. Cat. N. Y. 69.—Los Angeles, Rev. J. C. Nevin, 1904. Probably 4 Tecent immigrant. Festuca catirornicA Vasey, Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb. 1:277.— Forest clad slopes, Mill Creek Mts., Head of Edgar Cafion, 4ooo* alt., May 1881, 857 Parish; Mill Creek Falls, sooo alt., July 1892, 2490 Parish. The type of this species was collected near San Francisco, whence extends to Oregon. The present report brings it nearly to the southern indary of the state. SITANION RicIDUM J. G. Smith, U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. AE, — -18:13.—Collected by Mrs. H. E. Wilder, June 1904, growing in the —Gevices of rocks on the summit of Grayback Mt., r1,725% alt. The ‘Nearest station reported for this grass is Mt. Shasta, at the northern end ne state, but it may be expected on the intervening high summuts ~ the Sierra Nevada. __ JoNcus tenuis coNGESTUS Engelm. Trans. St. Louis Acad. '7:450; - *Tairie Flat, 5,000°t alt., 3959 Parish, June 1895. ard 459 i 460 BOTANICAL GAZETTE . [DECEMBER CHENOPODIUM LEPTOPHYLLUM Nutt., Mog. in DC. Prodr. 13?:71.— I have a specimen of this plant collected long ago at Lang, Los Angeles co., by Rev. J. C. Nevin. Subsequent collectors appear to have over- looked it. SAXIFRAGA PUNCTATA Linn. Sp. Pl. 401.—Dry Lake, Grayback Mt., about goooft alt., June 1904, Mrs. H. E. Wilder. Mt. Whitney, where it was collected by Coville, is the nearest recorded station, so that the present one becomes the southern limit of this species in the Sierra Nevada. SPIRAEA Dovuctasm Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. I:172.—Near the electric power-house in the cafion of the Santa Ana River, San Bernardino Mts. Collected in 1903 by Miss Marguerite Graham. The southern limit of the species. Horkelia Wilderae, n. sp.—The whole plant sparsely pubescent: stems several from a perpendicular root, 24™ tall, slender, erect, much branched above: stipules lanceolate, entire or 1- or 2-toothed at base; basal leaves 6-8°™ long; leaflets 5 or 6 pairs, cuneate, 5™™ long, deeply incised, the few lobes oblong; upper cauline leaves unifoliate, deeply dissected: cyme diffuse: flowers numerous on slender pedicels, 3-8™™ long: hypan- thium glabrate, saucer-shaped, about 2™™ jn diameter; bracts linear- oblong, obtuse or acutish, r™™ long: calyx lobes lanceolate, 2™™ long: petals obovate, white, about equaling the sepals: stamens 10: achenes 2 or 3.—Along the trail leading from Barton Flat to South Fork of Santa Ana River, 6000-80ooft alt., San Bernardino Mts., June 1904, Mrs. H. E. Wilder. The stems, and still more the calyces, are tinged reddish-purple, so that the whole plant appears of that color. Even the leaves soon become highly colored. Near H. Michneri Rydb., from which species it is well distinguished by its more diffuse cyme, smaller pedicellate flowers, and glabrous calyx lobes. Drymocallis viscida, n. sp.—Viscidly villous throughout, with inter- mingled straight one-celled and crisped glandular several-celled hairs, which are sparse on the stems and abundant on the peduncles: stems several, erect, tinged with purple, about 39™ tall: stipules semiovate and acuminate-pointed, more or less toothed; basal leaves tufted, about 1%™ long; petioles as long as the rachis of the pinnae, of which there are 3 pairs, 5-15°™ long, orbicular to obovate, the terminal one cuneate, sessile; the lowest cauline leaves similar, the upper ternate to unifoliate, all coarsely incised-toothed: cymes rather condensed, few-flowered: bractlets narrowly lanceolate, 2™m long: sepals ovate-lanceolate, callous-tipped, 5™™ long: petals yellow, obovate, a little shorter than the sepals, both merely spread- ing in anthesis; stamens about 20; filaments r to 1.5™™ in the same flower.— . BiVEFER ARTICLES __ 461 Snow Cafion, soooft alt., San Bernardino Mts., 5060 Parish, June 20, igor. Near D. reflexa Rydb., fzom which it differs in its smaller size, | _ pubescence, and spreading sepals ind petals. _TRIFOLIUM MONANTHUM TENERU 4. 1’. monanthum Eastw. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 29:81.—In meadows, at h‘gh altitudes in the San Bernardino Mts., Bluff Lake, 7400 alt., 3309 Harish, June 1894; Vivian Cafion, 6343 Geo. B. Grant, July 1904. Hosack1a Torreyi Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 8:625.—Little Bear Val- - Key, 5500 alt., San Bernardino Mts., Mrs. H. E. Wilder, September 1904. o GONIUM AUSTRALE CLANDESTINUM Hook. Fl. N. Zea. 37. P. _ dandestinum L’ Her. ex DC. Prodr. 1:660, as synonym.—Santa Ana, _ Orange co., Rev. J. C. Nevin, 1904. Perhaps only adventive, or casual, ___ butofinterest as the second species of this genus collected in North America. 9. The previously reported species is also from California, having been col- __ kected near San Francisco by Miss Eastwood. Identified by Dr. GREENMAN. Rus ciasra Linn. Sp. Pl. 265.—Chino Cafion, near Palm Springs, _ atthe desert base of San Jacinto Mt., November 1903, H. E. Hasse. Dr. Hasse’s interesting find adds the first true sumac to the state flora, the ‘Previously known species belonging to other sections of the genus. This _ ‘lation becomes the western limit of the species. pe Gentiana viridula, n. sp.—Annual: stem leafy, erect, simple, or few ® branched, 3-6°™ tall: leaves narrowly scarious-margined, the lowest - mrbicular, apiculate, 5™™ in diameter; the upper narrowly oblong, 5"™ long, obtuse, connate-sheathing: flowers solitary, terminal: corolla funnel- : form, 5mm long; the lobes greenish, acute; the plaits at the sinuses blue, _ %ne-toothed: anthers oblong; filaments 1™™ long: capsule (immature) obovate, on a stout stipe 3™™ long.—Growing at the edge of water at Be head of the South Fork of the Santa Ana River, 8500" alt., San Bernardino 4 Mts. Mrs. H. E. Wilder, June 1904. § CHONDROPHYLLA Bunge, and _ ‘hear G. prostrata Haenke. __ Mentwa crrrata Ehrh. Beitr. 7:150.—Well established along Town feek, near San Bernardino, September 1904. In the M anual of the Bay \egion, Greene reports this mint from West Berkeley. Apparently it 1s Tather rare in the older states. Aster defoliatus, n. sp.—About 1™ tall, minutely hispid above: stem “aves unknown, early deciduous; those of the pedicels narrow and bract- : like, pungent, 3-8°™ long: heads in a loose elongated raceme, aoe or “ately 2 or 3 at the ends of the elongated leafy pedicels, small, 8° high ‘nd somewhat broader; bracts narrow, the green tips not much enlarged, : loosely imbricated in a few series: rays about 40, light violet: achenes 462 BOTANICAL GAZEITE [DECEMBER hispid.—In a meadow at San Bernardino, 5335 Parish, October 17, 1903. This species belongs to Gray’s subsection DIVERGENTES, and is quite distinct from any other Aster of Southern California. ANTENNARIA MARGINATA Greene, Pitt. 3:290.—Grayback Mt., about 7ooof alt., June 1904, Mrs. H. E. Wilder. A New Mexican species. Identified by Dr. GREENE. PSILOCARPUS TENELLUS Nutt. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. 7:340.—In the coastal subregion, probably not uncommon. San Diego, Brandegee; Glendale, near Los Angeles, Braunton. Senecio sparsilobatus, n. sp.—A cespitose perennial, tomentose through- out: stems few, slender, 10-15°™ tall: basal leaves 5~7°™ long, the long petioles bearing near the end about five cuneate toothed pinnae 3—5°™ long; those of the stem similar, but few and reduced: heads 1°™ high, calyculate with 2 or 3 short filiform bracts, these glabrate on the margins; rays 8, disk flowers numerous.—Collected June 1904 by Mrs. H. E. Wilder, at about 7ooo*t alt., on the trail from Barton Flats to South Fork of Santa Ana River, in the San Bernardino Mts. CENTAUREA Cyanus Linn. Sp. Pl. 911.—Well established at the race track, Los Angeles, where it was collected in the present year by the Rev. J. C. Nevin.—S. B. Parisu, San Bernardino, California. CURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REVIEWS. The phenomena of fertilization. FECUNDATION in plants is the subject of a treatise by Morrrer™ published by the Carnegie Institution, in which is discussed a variety of cytological topics. In judging the work the reader should bear in mind that the preface is dated August 1902, more than two years previous to the time of actual publication, a delay on the part of the Carnegie Institution that seems somewhat unjust to the author, and unfortunate in that it has withheld from investigators for many months an important contribution in a field of very active research where points of view change rapidly by reason of new discoveries. The book is chiefly a dis- cussion of the nuclear activities connected with “fecundation,” as the author prefers to call the fusion of sexual cells instead of using the more usual term fertilization. Preliminary to the main discussion MorTTIER gives a general account of nuclear and cell division, based chiefly on his own work upon Dictyota and various types of the Liliaceae. There is a brief account of the centrosome and blepharo- Plast, the author believing that the latter structure arises de novo and holds no Senetic relation to the former, which is the opinion of STRASBURGER, WEBBER, and others. The topic “significance of the sexual process and the numerical teduction of the chromosomes” is an excellent summary of STRASBURGER’S Views on antithetic alternation of generations. : The last two-thirds of the work treats of sexual processes as understood in the plant kingdom, beginning with Ulothrix and Hydrodictyon and continuing through higher groups, without any attempt, however, at an evolutionary dis- cussion. Indeed, the arrangement of forms follows closely the old classification of Sachs into zygosporic, oosporic, and carposporic types of sexual reproduction. hus the arrangement of types of the Conjugales side by side with Sporodinia under the heading ‘‘non-motile isogametes” seems a very artificial division, in " View of the many recent studies on multinucleate gametes (coenogametes). It _ S among the thallophytes that the work is likely to suffer most from the advanc- Ig investigations, and since 1902 papers on the coenogametes of several ascomy- Cetes have appeared, also accounts of oogenesis in Vaucheria and Saprolegnia, while the recent work of WotrE on Nemalion is likely to change very materi- ally our conception of the morphology of the sexual organs in the Rhodophyceae. _ The account of the archegoniates and angiosperms describes in detail the *Mortier, D. M., Fecundation in plants. imp. 8vo. pp- viii + 187. figs. 75- , Washington, D.C.: Published by the Carnegie Institution. 1904. "94 463 464 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER structure of the sperms of the pteridophytes and the sexual processes in Onoclea, Cycas, Zamia, Ginkgo, Pinus, and for the angiosperms Helleborus and Lilium. Among these higher forms every month is bringing forth important papers and there are no cytological topics in which the ground has so frequently shifted and is still so unstable as that treating the events and significance of synapsis and heterotypic mitosis and the behavior of chromosomes during reduction and fer- ilization. The work deserves special mention for its clear exposition of the chief theories of STRASBURGER on subjects associated with sexual reproduction. It is the most complete account of the speculations of this master published in English and should be very welcome to the general reader. The book is very fully illustrated and the figures excellent, but they would have been even clearer if printed on a paper with a smoother surface.—B. M. Davis. Gufr1N? has brought together in a very useful way for French readers our information in reference to fertilization and associated phenomena in seed- plants. Spermatogenesis, oogenesis, and fertilization in angiosperms are first presented; and the same topics are taken up under gymnosperms, the Cycadales, Coniferales, and Gnetales being considered separately. In each case a brief historical résumé is given, and the references to recent bibliography are fairly complete, surprisingly so in the case of American publications. ‘There are numer- ous illustrations, and the orderly presentation of topics makes the work very easy to consult. Of special interest in a work issued from GuIGNARD’s laboratory is the full presentation of “double fertilization.’ Brief concluding chapters deal with a comparison of angiosperms and gymnosperms as to the origin and development of the reproductive structures and the phenomena of fertilization, a comparison of the phenomena of fertilization in plants and animals, and a general interpretation of the phenomena of fertilization. The work is a compact organization of current knowledge, and should be of great service in calling the attention of French botanists to the more modern points of view in connection with seed-plants.—J. M. C. Botany among the ancient Greeks. WHILE ALL botanists have heard of THEopHrastus, and know that he wrote a treatise on plants, it is safe to assume that only a few have taken the time to read him in the original. We have had translations of his ‘Ieropla: rdv purGr, but now for the first time there is before us a critical study of this work, as well as the works of other Greek and Roman writers.’ It appears that the stimulus for the ‘Ieropiae was largely given by the reports brought back from India by those who accompanied Alexander the Great upon his journey of conquest. ? GuErIN, Paut, Les connaissances gop sur . bragscays chez les Phané- Trogames. pp. vii+160. Paris: A. Joanin et Cie. 1904 3 Brerzt, Huco, Botanische ee Le tiie 8vo. pp. xii+412- figs. 11. maps 4. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner. 1903. M 12. CURRENT LITERATURE 465 The original reports of the officers of this expedition are lost to the world, perhaps forever, but THEOPHRASTUs had access to them, and has presented their observa- on plants, together with his own. Bretzt, the author of the work, believes that THEOPHRASTUs deserves to rank among the great botanists of the world, “and that he was the only great botanist of antiquity, so far as we have record. _ Pury, in comparison, is regarded as an inaccurate copyist. It is certainly _ femarkable that at the very earliest dawn of botanical study so many correct _ observations should be made, observations, too, which have commonly been Jost sight of even until now. Nearly all of the important observations made by _ Txropprastus have been reported as original by modern botanists. ia A few of the more striking contributions made by the Greeks may be here mentioned. Mangrove swamps were reported about the Persian Gulf, and this record is the only one we have of them; they have not yet been “originally” _ feported by modern botanists; SCHIMPER says that, with the exception of Avi- _ Cnnia, mangroves have not been seen west of the Indus. The descriptions of _ the mangroves are so exact that one has no trouble in making out the character __ Species as we now know them. The zonal relations of the species were noted, _ Rhizophora being correctly regarded as the pioneer. It was inexplicable to them, a it is to us still, that plants, and particularly trees, could grow in salt water. ~ Similar geographic studies were made in the deserts of Beluchistan, and there, as in the mangrove swamps, the character plants were described as such. ‘THEO- PHRASTUS used a series of leaf types in his descriptions, based largely on ecological is features; more than two thousand years later, HUMBOLDT made out a similar _ Series, and largely because of this has been generally regarded as the father of Plant geography. The nyctitropic movements of the tamarind leaf are care- fully described and are definitely termed sleep movements, distinction being made y ween leaves of that type and those of Mimosa. The banyan is correctly Tegarded as a fig, and the supporting roots are called roots and not stems, because they are leafless, and not green; their adventitious character is also noted. Com- Pound leaves are so regarded in spite of the leaf-like appearance of the leaflets; the reasons given are the fall of the entire structure in autumn, and the fact that i the buds the leaflets are not differentiated. The sexuality of plants is clearly - Shown, especially in cucurbits and dates, and use is made of the terms male and femal Nearly two thousand years later, CAMERARIUS again showed the sexuality Plants, although it was late in the century just past before it was universally accepted —Hrnry C. Cowes. nee Sg Biological statistics. . Davenport’s Statistical methods+ has been revised and enlarged and made embody all the more important recent developments in the aia analysis of variation in living organisms, as elaborated chiefly by PEARSON an * Davenport, C. B., Statistical methods with special reference to biological itl - 2d. ed. 16mo. pp. viii+223. figs. 10. 1904. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Feview of first edition see Bor. GAz. 28: 364. 1899. 466 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER his students. Much of the book has been rewritten and many additions of new examples and new methods are given, making it more indispensable than ever as a handbook for the student of this important phase of biology. The changes which have been made are too numerous to be considered in detail, but the most noticeable are as follows. (a) The section is omitted which dealt with the quantitatve expression of terms used by botanical taxonomists in the description of leaf-form. (6) The subject of correlation has received new and altogether better treatment by the substitution of YuLrs’s method for DUNCKER’S, and the addition of PEARSON’s method for determining the correla- tion between qualities not quantitatively measurable. (c) Two additional types of asymmetrical curves are presented. (d) A section is introduced dealing with MENDEL’s law of alternative inheritance. (¢) A 22-page chapter on the results of statistical biological study is substituted for the 2-page chapter on the applications of statistical methods. (f) A professedly complete bibliography is given instead of a selected one. A comparison of the bibliography with that given in the first edition shows in an interesting way the remarkable activity which has developed in this field. In the earlier edition thirty-nine titles were given, in the present edition there are 265 references, 186 of which bear dates later than the date of publication of the first edition. As is usual in extensive bibliographies the attempt at com- pleteness leaves something to be desired. A number of titles not found in the list occur to the reviewer as being of more value statistically than some which are given. The unique feature of the chapter on the results of statistical studies is a tabulated analysis of the literature, showing the general bearing, and in some instances the point of view, of each paper. At least two of these papers are listed under subjects to which they make no significant contribution; ¢. g., HarsH- BERGER on “The limits of variation in plants” and KELLERMAN on “Variation in Syndesmon thalictroides” are classed as dealing with correlation, but neither paper treats specifically of questions of correlation, and the data given by each are too meager to be of value to students who would be interested in turning them to account in the study of correlations. Everyone will appreciate-how difficult it must be to keep free from errors 4 work made up so largely of tabulations. A reference on p. 113 to Table X means Table X of the first edition, which has become Table XII of the present edition. Botanists will be astonished to see Syndesmon thalictroides classed as a desmid on p. 78. On the whole, the second edition is a very marked advance over the first, and there is every reason to expect that with its assistance the bibliography of statistical biology will rapidly advance in the coming years, not alone in bye number of titles but also in the clearness and completeness of mathematical analysis and in the importance of the conclusions reached.—GroRGE H. SHULL. 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 467 Gasteromycetes of Hungary. HOLL6s’s imposing monograph of the Gasteromycetes of Hungary, the Ger- man edition of which has recently come from the press, will form one of the most valuable additions to the literature of this group. One cannot read the intro- ductory parts of this work without feeling that the most careful and critical atten- tion has been given to every detail. In 1896 the author, as he tells us, began to devote exclusively to the study of the gasteromycetes the time that his duties as teacher in the Staatsoberrealschule in Kecskemét left at his disposal. From this time until the completion of the work material was collected principally by innumerable excursions into the various parts of Hungary, while many specimens were received from collectors throughout the country. By purchase or exchange the author was able to secure numerous types from other European countries and from America, thus making possible a direct comparison of specimens representing species common to these countries. The scope of the study was still further widened by visits to all the important col- lections of gasteromycetes in Europe. n the work, which is a large folio volume, eighty-one species and many varieties are described and illustrated. These represent all the forms known to occur in Hungary. To the technical descriptions the author has added his own observations, both adding to the original description and pointing out many peculiarities of appearance or form occurring during the different stages of the growth of the plants. ‘These incidental characters, that are too often omitted in descriptions, bring to the mind a clearer picture of the plant in question than the categorical enumeration of technical characters. The text includes complete citations of specimens seen by the author, enabling the future student to identify the plants which the author had in mind or h’s descriptions and drawings. A full list of synonyms is found at the end of the descriptive portion The work contains thirty-one beautifully executed plates, printed by a color- type process from colored drawings and from colored photograph . In the illus- trat ons the author has endeavored to represent specimens showing the different stages and forms in which the fungus is likely to be found. Variable species are more fully illustrated. Five plat s a e devoted to the forms of Secolium agart- coides. Microscopical details are added in most cases. The complete descriptions, full synonomy and citation , and the excellent illustrat ons are three features that will insure this book a position of authority among taxonomic works. Not only will it be of value to the students of the coun- try for which it was written, but also to American students, for most of the gastero- mycetes have a world-wide distribution. Of the forms described nearly all . in this country and specimens of many of these were seen and cited by the author. —H. HAssELprine. 5 HoLiés, LapisLaus, Die Gasteromyceten Ungarns. Im Auftrage der = 28 ischen Avotute der Wissenschaften. Autorisierte deutsche Uebersetzung, mit Unter- stittzung der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Folio 30X42. Pp- 279- pls. 31. Leipzig: Oswald Weigel. 1904. M 8o. 468 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Two recent books on algae. A very readable text on British fresh-water algae by G. S. WesT® has appeared and will be welcomed as the only work of its kind in English that is up to date. The descriptive portions of the book are clear and the figures excellent. The accounts of the desmids, diatoms, and unicellular green algae deserve special mention. The general arrangement of the groups is quite simple and consistent from the author’s point of view, but few specialists would be likely to agree with him, so varied are the classifications of the algae. EST’s arrangement is in the main conservative, and the synopses and keys are so clear that the reader cannot be confused. There is a preliminary account of methods of reproduction, sexual organs, polymorphism, and phylogeny. These topics might well have been expanded, as in their condensed form a reader with little knowledge of mor- phology is scarcely likely to grasp the underlying homologies and evolutionary principles illustrated in the algae. uch more pretentious is a large volume of OLTMANNS? which is announced as the special part and is to be followed shortly by a second that will treat of general problems. OLTMANNs covers the entire group of the algae, fresh water and marine, excepting the Cyanophyceae, and aims to collect all important literature of recent years. His classification is elaborate, and the arrangement of the great groups is quite different from that in Die natiirlichen Pflanzenjamilien. How- ever, the families are easily understood, and it is around them that the descriptive matter is collected in convenient form. Reproductive processes are discussed in great detail, especially for the Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae, where the advance in our knowledge has been greatest in recent years. The account of the Rhodophyceae, following his interpretation of the cystocarp as involving a sporo- phytic generation associated with the gametophyte, is an especially valuable con- tribution, bringing order into what has been one of the most chaotic subjects in botany. The work is very full of figures, some 470, excellently reproduced, many of dea covering the greater part of the page. This first volume is sure to find a hearty reception and the second one will be awaited with keen interest. —B. M. Davis Index Bryologicus. Tue Index Bryologicus of Général Paris® was completed in 1894 and a sup- plement was published in 1900. It was welcome as a real boon to bryologists and the immense toil of its author was gratefully appreciated. Now it has been 6 West, G. S., A treatise on the British freshwater algae. 8vo. pp- 37?- Ags. 166. Cambridge University Press. 1g04. ros. 6d. 7 O_tmanns, F., Morphologie und age der Algen. Vol. I. 8vo. pp- 733 jigs. 467. Jena: Gustav Fischer. 1904. M 20. 8 Paris, E. G., Index Bryologicus sive enumeratio muscorum ad diem anni 1900 cognitorum, adjunctis synonymia distributioneque geographica | fasc. II. 8vo. pp. 65~128. Paris: Librairie Scientifique A. Hermann. 1903 ul am ocupletis- 2.50 fr. 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 469 determined to recast the work and to supply certain deficiencies, especially in dates of publication and in Scandinavian literature, bringing the work down to the beginning of the twentieth century as a point of departure for future investi- gations. The original was unfortunate in usually omitting the dates of publication of species; the prospectus announces that in the second edition this lack will be sup- plied. Y et the second fascicle (which alone has just reached us) shows many failures to carry out this laudable intention. Nomina nuda (admitted in the first edition in hope of proper publication!) will be rigorously excluded, it is said, but the Index will include besides described species and those issued in numbered exsiccati, species ‘‘existant dans les grands herbiers publiques (Kew, British Museum, Paris, etc.) ott on peut les consulter.” The latter have no place in such a work and should be as rigorously excluded as other nomina nuda. The author of so important a bibliographical work should have adopted a consistent system of citation and adhered to it rigidly. Much space might have been saved and greater clearness attained by attention to such details. Refer- ences “Joc. et op. cit.’ are maddening because they compel the users to hunt back for the last.citation often some lines back and not prominent enough to catch the eye readily. Even with its faults the revision of this indispensable Jndex will be greatly appreciated. We trust the publisher will take due pains to make its dress accurate and worthy of this valuable work. It is to be issued in monthly fascicles of which about 25 will be needed.—C. R. B. Wiesner and his school. THE PERSONALITY of a great investigator is very properly recognized upon festal days by his associates and pupils. Hofrat Professor Dr. WIESNER founded in 1873 the institute for plant physiology in University of Vienna, and upon the occasion of the thirtieth anniversary of his professorship his many pupils have united in congratulations, and a F estschrijt® has been prepared by three of them, which takes the form of a contribution to the history of botany. After a congratu- latory introduction by Dr. Hans Motisc# it consists of two parts. In the first is a bibliography of WresNER’s writings, which number 213 titles extending over fifty years (1854-1903), and a running summary of his contributions to various subjects, classified so as to facilitate ready reference. As a second part there isa bibliography of 157 titles and a similar résumé of the work by his pupils which has issued from this institute. The first part was prepared by Dr. Lupwic LinsBaver of the Imperial Gymnasium and Dr. Kar LiysBaveEr of the Insti- tute (Professor Wiesner’s assistant), and the second by Count LEOPOLD VON PortHeErM, of the Biologische Versuchsanstalt recently established in the Prater. o LinsBaver, K., LinsBaver, L., and PortHEIM, LEOPOLD R. von, Wiesner und seine Schule; ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Botanik. Festsc : pp dreissigjahrigen Bestandes des pflanzenphysiologischen Institutes der Wiener Univer- sitét. Mit einem Vorwort von Prof. Dr. Hans Mouiscu. 8vo. pp. xviii +260. Wien: Alfred Hélder. 1903. 470 © BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Among the names in the second bibliography one finds those of BuRGER- STEIN, CZAPEK, FRITSCH, HABERLANDT, KRASSER, LINSBAUER, MIKOSCH, Mo tiscH, WETTSTEIN, ZAHLBRUCKNER, and others—certainly a notable list. It has been a pleasure to many American botanists to meet Professor WIESNER this summer and to join in the congratulations upon his past labors and extend to him our best wishes for the future.—C. R. B MINOR NOTICES. FritscH has published an interesting contribution to the comparative mor- phology of the seedling of Gesneriaceae.*° The account is so largely a description of many forms that a satisfactory summary is difficult to give. The book is divided into two parts. In the first part twenty-six species, comprising fourteen genera, are treated, and the gross form, particularly in several species of the Strep- tocarpus, is described in considerable detail. In the second part the structure of the grown plants is considered, and the behavior of the cotyledons, leaf arrange- ment, anisophylly, and kindred topics presented by this group are discussed. A chapter is devoted to a short account of the anatomy of Gesneriaceae and one also to the structure of Steptocarpus as compared with other Cyrtandroideae.— W. B. MacCatium THE HortIcuLtuRAL Society of New York has published"! the proceedings of the International Conference on plant-breeding and hybridization held in New York city, September 30 and October 1 and 2, 1902. The conference was such a notable one in the quality of the papers presented that it is a valuable service to biology in general to have them accessible. Not only are the presented papers published, but also the discussions and the papers read by title. Forty-two papers are thus brought together, most of them dealing with the fundamental principles of plant-breeding and hydridization, and they represent investigations and con- clusions that botanists should become more familiar with—J. M. C. Lrypav” has published a pocket handbook for the collection and preparation of the lower cryptogams with special reference to conditions in the tropics. In this work of some 75 pages the characteristic habitats of mosses, liverworts, algae, and fungi are described; directions are given for the preparation of material in herbarium form and for the simpler methods of preserving in spirits or in formalin. It is a book which the traveler and collector with botanical interests will find very useful—B. M. D to Fritscu, K., Die Keimpflanzen des Gesneriaceen, mit besonderer Beriicksichti- gung von Gisentcielieyas, nebst eauinneanie Studien iiber die Morphologie dieser Familie. 8vo. pp. iv+188. figs Jena: Gustav Fischer. 1904. M4.50- 1t Proceedings feet ree on plant breeding and hybridization. 1902. Hort. Soc. N. Y. Memoirs, Vol. I. New York: Hortic eee: Society. 1904- 12 Linpau, G., Hilfsbuch fiir das Sammeln und Priparieren der niederen Krypto- gamen mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Verhiiltnisse in den Tropen. 12™0- pp. 78. Berlin: Gebriider Borntraeger. 1904. Mz1.s0 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 471 THE TWENTIETH part of ENGLER’s Das Pflanzenreich is a presentation of the great tropical family Zingiberaceae by ScHUMANN.'3 The usual critical discus- sion of the family from various standpoints is followed by a presentation of the 38 genera and 84 cies. Four new genera (Odontychium, Gagnepainia, Ajramomum, Noe and 141 new species are described.—J. M. C. Rotn’s Europdischen Laubmoose*4 progresses rapidly, the eighth part having been issued in July and the ninth in October. They contain the conclusion of the Acrocarpae and a good share of the Pleurocarpae. It would seem that two more parts might complete the work. The author would do well to devote a final part to keys to genera and species.—C. R. B THE SECOND fascicle of the third volume of HatAcsy’s's flora of Greece com- pletes the work, including from Gramineae through the pteridophytes. With this last fascicle appear the general preface, the bibliography, an introduction describing the floristic regions, and a good index.— A BF NOTES FOR STUDENES. BessEy'® has described the peculiar stomata of Holacantha Emoryi, a leafless shrub of the southwestern arid regions. The guard cells lie at the bottom of a narrow chimney-shaped cavity which extends above and below the epidermis, and consists of about eight vertical rows of cells—J. M. C. THE MoRPHOLOGY and general histology of three Pacific coast algae are described in the last number of the Minnesota Botanical Studies: ‘7 Callymenia ‘phyllophora by Ciara K. Leavitt; Endocladia muricata by FLorence M. Warner; and Laminaria bullata by OLGA MuELLER.—B. M. Davis. Russeti'® shows many photographic prints produced by contact or mere approximation of various woods with a sensitized plate in darkness. The amount of action varies greatly with different woods, exposures of thirty minutes to eighteen hours or more being required. The active agent seems to be H,O,, and probably the resin in the wood is the indirect cause.—C. R. B. at 4 NN. 13 ENGLER, A., Das Pflanzenreich. Heft 20. Zingiberaceae von K. ScHUMA pp. 458. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1904. hen Laubmoose. “+ Rome, Gnone, ts eee Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. Leiferung 8, pp. 257-384. pls. 21-30. ee 9, pp- 385-512. pls. 31-40. 1904. Each M 4. Not sold separately. 1s HarAcsy, E. de, Conspectus Florae Graecae. Vol. III. fasc. 2. pp. 321-520. Leipzig: Withee Engelmann. 1904. 16 BessEy, CHARLES E., The Saha stomat Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 31:523-527- pl. 24- 1904 17 Minnesota Botanical Studies 3:291-308- pls. 44-47- 1904. aoe 18 RUSSELL, W. J., On the action of wood on a photographic plate in the dark. Phil. sca oe. Soc. London B. 197:281-289- pls. 11-18. 1994 a of Holacantha Emoryi. 472 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER SCHULZE’? has investigated quantitatively the formation of arginin in various stages of the gérmination of Lupinus luteus. He finds it is produced entirely from proteid decomposition, probably through the action of erepsin, a protease. The facts adduced seem to support his contention that asparagin is a secondary product, because it is not formed pari passu with decomposition of proteids as arginin is—C. R. B JoLiscH reports?° an extraordinarily rapid autonomous movement of the leaves in Oxalis hedysaroides HBK., far exceeding the oft-described movements of Desmodium gyrans. In the latter the leaf completes its elliptical path in 85-90 seconds at a temperature of 35° C., while in the former the tips of the leaflets may sink at once 30~45°, or a distance of 5—15™™, in a single second, though the movement may consume twelve seconds and be executed in a succession of six jerks, with a pause of about a second between. The recovery occupies about five minutes.—C. R. B. THE RESULTS of ScHOUTE?* on the histogenetic layers of Hippuris vulgaris have been called in question by Knrep?? who considers that ScHouUTE studied too few specimens and used unsuitable methods. From a renewed study of the growing point in a large number of stems of Hippuris, KNrep concludes that the histogenetic layers of HANSTEIN correspond to the regions distinguished by Van TiecHEM, thus going back to the old accepted view. It is unfortunate for this theory that Hippuris is the only flowering plant in which the histogenetic layers of the stem are distinguishable—M. A. CHRYSLER. SCHIFFNER calls CoKER sharplyto account?3 for overlooking his characteriza- tion of Dumortiera as having rudimentary air-chambers and so misrepresenting him.?4 He contends that the obliteration of the air-chambers is not an adaptation THE JOINTED structure peculiar to some genera of the corallines in the red algae has been studied by YENDO.?5 These regions of the plant are free from *9 SCHULZE, E., Ueber die Argininbildung in den Keimpflanzen von Lupinus luteus. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 22: 381-384. 1904. 7° MoLiscu, Hans, Ueber eine auffallend rasche autonome Blattbewegung bei Oxalis hedysaroides HBK. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 22: 372-376. figs. 2. 1904. 21 See review in Bor. Gaz. 35:144. 1903. 2 Knrep, H. Sur le point végétatif de la tige de lHippuris vulgaris. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VIII. 19: 293-303. 1904. 23 SCHIFFNER, V., Ueber Dumortiera. Hedwigia 43:428. 1904. 24 COKER, W. C., Dumortiera. Bot, GAZETTE 36: 225. 1903. ; *5 YENDO, K., A study of the genicula of Corallinae. Jour. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo 19:—. [pp. 41. pls. r.] 1904. 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 473 the lime which is deposited between the cells in all of the nodes. The form of the genicula are frequently of important taxonomic value and they present several types of structure, the pitted structure being described and figured. ‘The pits are both lateral and terminal and consist of depressions which extend to the middle lamella where there is a lens-shaped thickening which, however, lies in the middle of the cavity and does-not completely close the pit—B. M. Davis. Miss Forp?° has published a somewhat detailed account of the anatomy of Psilotum. The plant is monostelic throughout, being protostelic at the base of the aerial stem and often siphonostelic above. In the aerial branches a central core of sclerenchymatous fibers is found, and throughout the phloem is poorly developed. The form is probably a reduced one, but the anatomical evidence does not relate it closely to any of the living Lycopodiales. There is closer resemblance to certain Lepidodendron forms; but the combination of sporangial , ry . 1 Pap a, «en | , ea | TEs R PCE OR IE | OWFR has suovested — OO 4% f sieve tissue in conifers has been studied by CHAUVEAUD,?? who describes elements intermediate between sieve tubes and parenchyma occur- ring in the hypocotyledonary portions of Abies Pinsapo, though not found in the higher regions of the stem. ‘These elements are succeeded by the primary phloem, and both are eventually squeezed to a flat mass by growth of the secondary phloem. In another paper?’ the same author shows that the double leaf trace in the genera Abies and Pinus is single in the leaf of the seedling, and in the course of ontogeny splits into two, that is the double leaf trace is a secondary formation.—M. A. CHRYSLER. ‘ DENNISTON?? finds in developing starch grains of various sorts an outer sharply defined layer of material next the plastid which takes up orange strongly quer safranin gentian-violet orange stain, while the body of the grain becomes ign violet. Grains partly digested by diastase show the orange-staining layer affected, while the violet regions are much dissolved and orange-staining materia appears in the corroded interior. DENNISTON interprets these pearmanpi — that the outer layer is different from the rest (MEYER was able only in a ee : to find such a layer in potato starch) and, in harmony ett aaes : ben of the developing cell wall, believes it to be a carbohy yet fully poly to starch.—C. R. B. 7 } 18: 26 Forp, SIBILLE O., The anatomy of Psilotum triquetrum. Ann. Botany ° 589-605. pl. 39. 1904 ae uvEAUD, G. Le liber précurseur dans le sapin pinsa Bot. VIII. 19: 321-333. 1904- po. Ann. Sci. Nat. , G. Origin sapins (Abies) et les pins (Pinus). /. ¢. 335~34°- 20 DENNISTON, R. H., The structure of the starch grain. 527-533. 1904. Trans. Wis. Acad. 14: 474 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER From A series of experiments in which the radicles of seedlings were employed as physiological reagents, DANDENOS° concludes that the theory of electrolytic dissociation is without support from the physiological side. The author also finds, as TRUE and OGLEVEE have already shown,3! that the toxic effect of cer- tain solutions is greatly reduced by the mere presence of non-chemical bodies, such as pure sand whose property of physical affinity retards chemical action and physiological effect. The economic significance of these facts is also stated. Other factors regarded as affecting toxicity of solution are quantity of solution, rate of diffusion, Pe of container, and even the glass walls of the container. —Raymonpd H. Pon Two nores of interest in relation to the way in which the powdery mildew and downy mildew live through the winter are published by IstvANFrr.3? As is well known the perithecia of the powdery mildew rarely occur in Europe, and according to the author they have not been found in Hungary. Patches of mycelium, however, are said to remain alive during the winter on the stems and dried clusters of grapes left on the vines. From these fresh conidia were pro- duced when taken into the laboratory in January. Similar observations, the author states were made by Appet. The mycelium of the downy mildew is also found33 to survive the winter in parts of the vine, especially in the buds, thus confirming the observations of CuLont.—H. HassELBRING. To ASCERTAIN the influence of a periodical dry season upon the meristematic activity of the cambium, Ursprunc34 has studied the anatomy of certain species common to Buitenzorg and East Java. The climate of the former locality is uniform, while that of the latter shows a distinct periodicity of wet and dry seasons. He finds as a general rule (for representatives of six different families) that material from East Java shows a much more complete and distinct zonation of w: structure than specimens of the same species from Buitenzorg. Species vary, however, in susceptibility to climate, since the one which shows the relatively clearest zonation in Buitenzorg may not sustain this relation in a group of the same species from East Java. The influence of foliation and defoliation upon 3° DANDENO, J. B., The relation of mass action and physical affinity to toxicity, with incidental pr eRORES as to how far electrolytic dissociation may be involved- Amer. Jour. Sci. IV. 17: 437-358. 1904. 3 Teve:R. H., and OcLeEVEE, C. S., The effect of the presence of insoluble sub- stances on the toxic action of poisons. Science N. S. 19:421. 3? IstvAnrri, Gy. DE, Sur l’hivernage de l’oidium de la vigne. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 138: 596-597. 1904. 33 IstvAnrri, Gy. Dk, Sur la perpétuation du mildiou de la vigne. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 138:643-644 1904. 34 Ursprune, A., Zur Periodicitit des Dickenwachsthums in den Tropen. Bot- Zeitung 62": 189-210. 1904. 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 475 the activity of the cambium is given some attention, but no general conclusion is established.—RAymonpD H. Ponp SEVERAL METHODS in cytological technique are described by OsteRHOUT.35 One of these is a substitute for the universally used paraffin method. Though various soaps have been tried and found unsatisfactory, OsreRHOUT has developed a method with cocoanut oil soap which he regards as superior to the paraffin method. It is better to make one’s own soap, using 70°¢ of cocoanut oil to 38.5°° of 28 per cent. solution of caustic soda in water. The tissue is placed in warm water and the soap added gradually until a fairly strong solution is obtained. It may then stand in the bath for two or three days. When sufficiently firm, the block may be cut. The sections form a perfect ribbon and do not crumble or crush as is so often the case with paraffin. They may be fixed to the slide with albumen. In trying this method one should have the full paper at hand.— CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN. THE GREAT and, indeed, almost violent interest taken in some quarters in Bulletin 22 of the U. S. Bureau of Soils, will cause the appearance of Bulletin 23 to arouse some curiosity at least.3° The subject-matter of the present bulle- tin falls into two separate portions. The first presents a series of rather incom- plete experiments on the movement of soil water, together with some data on the rate of imbibition of seeds in contact with moist soil, while the second portion deals with experiments on the growth of plants in culture media. ‘The first mass of material is not important, but the second presents a discovery which, if sub- stantiated and generally true, is as far-reaching and important as it is unexpected. This discovery is, briefly, that the good or bad characteristics of a soil are trans- mitted to its aqueous extract. This is shown by growing wheat plants in pots of the soils to be compared and in bottles of watery extract of these same soils. In such an experiment the different water cultures show the same relations as do the pot cultures. The plants were compared in respect to size and general appear- ance and to amount of transpiration. That this difference in soils and their solutions is not one of mineral salts is shown by the fact that good and poor Cecil clay show the difference markedly, although practically identical in chemical nature. It is suggested that the bad properties of at least some sterile soils pred be due to organic substances. The bulletin is essentially a report of progress an all of its lines of investigation will need further work before they can be regarded as established.—B. E. LIvINGSTON. 35 OSTERHOUT, W. J. V., Contributions to cytological technique. (1) weer freezing microtome. (2) Fixation im vacuo. (3) A simple slide holder. iw as method of mounting in aqueous media. (5) Embedding microscopic i. mh Embedding with incomplete dehydration. Univ. of California Publications. otany 2:73-90. 1904. 36 Wuttney, M. and CAMERON, F. K., Investi gations in soil fertility. U.S. Dept. Agric., Bureau of Soils, Bull. 23. 1904. 476 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Miss MAtTTHAEI’? has made a careful study of the effect of temperature on photosynthesis, which by avoiding radical sources of error corrects the resul s of various observers and particularly those of KrEUSSLER, which have been accepted and quoted for more than a decade. Having found that the actual temperature | of a leaf was not that of the water bath within which it was placed when high intensity of light was used, thermoelectric measurements of temperature became necessary. A thermocouple of copper and constantan wires only .o87™™ in diameter was imbedded in the midrib of the leaf used and was connected with a galvanometer to which also a second thermoelement in a water bath was con- nected. When this bath was brought to such a temperature that there was no deflection of the needle the temperature of the element in the leaf was known. The results show that corresponding to each temperature there is a definite maximal amount of photosynthesis which cannot be reached unless both light and CO, supply are adequate. These maxima increase with increasing tempera- ture, forming a curve convex to the temperature abscissas which resembles the respiration-temperature curve. They begin to decrease suddenly some degrees below the temperature which can be endured only a few hours. The maximum photosynthesis at any temperature can be maintained only for a short time, declining the sooner the higher the temperature. The difficulties overcome in the experimentation and the manipulative skill exhibited make this a notable contribution to plant physiology.—C. R. B. Kuyper’* has given an account of the events of the development of the asco- carp of Monascus purpureus Went and M. Barkeri Dangeard. The account of the former agrees in the main with that recently given by Ikeno,3° but differs in some respects. The sequence of events is as follows: The ascogonium consists of two cells, the lower of which develops. No fusion was observed between the ascogonium and pollinodium. The number of nuclei in the ascogonium increases. “Free cells” are then formed possessing one to several nuclei. The 1-nucleate Stage is regarded as having arisen from the fusion of the nuclei of the originally binucleate cell, a view opposed to that of IKENO, who believes the cells to appear with single nuclei. In the next stages the number of nuclei in each free cell increases to a considerable extent. It appears that the spores are now formed within the free cells. These are represented as containing a variable number of nuclei, one to many, so that the whole spore is deeply stained. According to IKENO each spore contains but a single nucleus while the other nuclei of the free cell degenerate. When mature the spores fall apart and come to lie free in the 37 MATTHAEI, GABRIELLE L. C., Experimental researches on vegetable assimila- tion and respiration. III. On the effect of t perat carbon-dioxid imilation Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London B. 197:47-105. figs. 6. 1904. 38 Kuyper, H. P., De perithecium-ontwikkelung van Monascus purpureus Went en M. Barkeri Dangeard in verband neet de phylogenie der Ascomyceten. Disserta- tion. pp. 148. Amsterdam. 1904. 39 IKENO, Ueber Sporenbildung etc. Ber, Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 21:250. 1903+ 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 477 ascogonium. ‘The account of M. Barkeri follows the same general outline with some differences as to details. The protoplasm of the ascogonium is divided into sections by irregular vacuoles. These sections become free cells within which the spores are formed. In the summary one spore is said to be formed from each of the eight nuclei in the free cell; in the text, however, the spores are described as possessing many nuclei. The paper contains also a long discussion of the Hemiasci and the phylogeny of the ascomycetes.—H. HASSELBRING. NATHANSOHN?? continues his investigations of the nature and functions of the plasmatic membrane in plants. The following points are now announced. slices of Dahlia tubers be placed in 2 per cent. Na,S,O, solution for two days, they absorb the salt to such an extent that at the end of the experiment its concen- tration within the tissues is about one-sixth of that without. If now these slices be changed to a solution of the same salt of a concentration equal to that now within the tissue, there occurs a marked outward diffusion, so that at the end of another two days the inner concentration is considerably less than one-half of the outer one. This means, of course, that the salt has passed through the plasmatic membrane in a direction from the weaker to the stronger solution, 7. e., against its own diffusion tension. This case substantiates similar results already pub- lished by the same author. Furthermore, slices of the tubers of Helianthus tuberosus and of the roots of the red beet placed in solutions of NH,Cl, NH,NO;, (NH,)2S20;3, (NH,)250,, and (NH,),HPO,, absorb much more of the ammonium ion than of the anion. This is not accompanied by an increasingly acid reaction of the external solution. The last observation led to an investigation of the substances which might diffuse out from the cells, and enough Mg was found to have escaped to account for about three-fourths of the NH, which had entered. The author supposes that some other cations, perhaps in part organic bases, must be given out from the cells, and thus explains the lack of acidity. It is possible also to cause the extru- sion of Mg by subjecting these tissues to a solution of a potassium salt. K is absorbed and Mg replaces it in the external solution. A very interesting theoretical discussion makes up a good part of the paper, in which the nature of the protoplasmic layers is considered in the light of the new facts, but this cannot be entered into here.—B. E. LrvincstTon. Briccs and McCatz4" have devised an ingenious method for investigating soil solutions and the rate of movement of such solutions in the soil. The appara- tus consists, briefly, of a porous porcelain filter tube connected with a vacuum chamber. The wall of the tube is saturated with water, and in this condition it can be exhausted to the vapor pressure of water, and will maintain this nearly (°c ee gulation der Stoffaufnahme. 4° NATHANSOHN, A., Weitere Mitteilungen iiber die R Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 40: 403-442. 1904. 4t Briccs, L. J. and McCatt, A. G., An artificial root for inducing capillary move- ment of soil moisture. Science N. S. 20:566-568. 1904. 478 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER complete vacuum against atmospheric pressure for a day or more. The tube thus prepared and connected to a two-liter vacuum chamber is placed in the soil to be studied. |The water surfaces of the pores in the tube become continuous with the surfaces of water films in the soil, and water moves into the tube at a rate which varies with the nature of the soil and its amount of contained moisture. The force involved in the movement of water through the wall of the tube is the difference between the capillary pressure or surface tension of the water surfaces at the external and internal ends of the pores of the wall. And since the external surfaces are continuous with those of the soil water, it follows that water must pass from the soil into the tube, for the soil films are subjected to a pressure of one atmosphere, while those at the internal surface of the tube bear a pressure only equal to the vapor pressure of water. The authors do not make this matter immediately clear, and it may simplify matters to call attention to the fact‘? that the films of tube and soil form a system one extremity of which (in contact with the vacuum) is subjected to a very low pressure, while the other extremity (in con- tact with the air) is subjected to a pressure relatively very great. Thus in the end the solution is driven through the tube by atmospheric pressure, though the steps in the movement involve the forces of capillary films. The rate at which water collects in the tube is the criterion for the soil’s power of delivery. The authors state that the nature of the collected solution is the same as that of the soil itself, though proof of this is reserved for a later paper.—B. E. LIVINGSTON. Errksson‘s has published two further accounts bearing on the mycoplasma theory of rust fungi. These accounts deal with Puccinia dispersa Eriks. on rye and P. glumarum Eriks. & Henn. on barley. The facts, according to the author, are these. The teleutospores of P. glumarum are capable of germinating imme- diately after ripening in midsummer. Aecidia occur on Anchusa arvensis and A. officinalis. During thirteen years’ observations the aecidia were observed only in three instances in the vicinity of Stockholm. Both because the aecidium is pro- duced from the teleutospores in summer or autumn, and on account of its rare occurrence in this region, it cannot be the source of spring infections of rye. It is also impossible to find living mycelium in the plants during the winter. These facts point to the conclusion that the infection arises from a germ already existing in the seed. In the leaves sectioned during the winter the author found peculiar dense protoplasm which he considers as a mixture of the protoplasm of the host and of the fungus mycoplasm. Later the nucleus is partially dissolved, while “nucleoli” begin to appear in the mycoplasm. ‘This stage occurs immediately 42 This method of statement has been hinted at in a review of this article by KING. Either this reviewer has failed to grasp entirely the meaning of the authors or his own statements are so ambiguous as not to warrant a discussion of his criticisms here. See Kine, F. H., An artificial root for inducing: capillary movement of soil moisture. Science N. S. 20:680-681. 1904. 43 ERIKSSON, J., Ueber das vegetative Leben der Getreiderostpilze. Kungl. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl. 38:—. [no. 3. pp. 18.] pls. 3. 1904. 1904] CURRENT LITERATURE 479 before the appearance of uredosori. In the next stage intercellular protomy- celium begins to appear. The patches of mycelium are connected with the “nucleoli” mentioned above. These are the centers of development for the inter- cellular mycelium. The course of development of P. glumarum {follows the same lines. Some of the author’s figures admit of a different interpretation from that given. It is difficult to see how a nucleus being dissolved by a substance diffused throughout the cell as the mycoplasm would be can be cut away on one side in such an abrupt way as figured in p/.z. It would seem possible that the proto- plasmic connections extending from nucleoli to the intercellular protoplasm represent haustoria, for, to use the author’s own words, they give exactly the same impression as a young haustorium of the Uredineae-H. HassELBRING. THE REGULATION of turgor in molds is again the subject of study, this time by PANTANELLI,4+ working with Aspergillus. The author points out that, since in these organisms the cell walls are normally in a state of tension owing to the pressure within, the method of plasmolysis is not available directly as a measure of turgor pressure. Incipient plasmolysis will occur only after the application of an external pressure which is equal to the normal pressure of the vacuole plus that of the stretched wall. He further shows that the pressure which influences the wall is made up of at least three components: the osmotic pressure of the vacuole, the pressure of swelling of the protoplasm itself (Quellungskrajt, closely related, if not identical with the pressure of imbibition in organic bodies), and the tension of the surface films. The latter is exerted toward the center of the cell, and is negligible when compared with the other two which are exerted in the opposite ‘direction. An ingenious method for approximating these two outwardly directed forces is used in the work. It is based on measurement of cell shrinkage in plas- molyzing solutions. To control the results obtained by plasmolysis, the method of determining the freezing-point of expressed sap is resorted to. Cells of this form live but a few days and practically all the cells of a culture die when spores are produced. Thus it is necessary to be sure one works with at least a great majority of living cells. The pressure of swelling decreases with age of the cell, while the osmotic pressure of the sap first rises and later falls, but is always dependent upon the pressure of the nutrient medium. The total turgor pressure of a cell depends in great measure upon conditions of nutrition, rising with increase of sugar in the medium, sinking with lack of oxygen. Other con- ditions, such as temperature changes, anaesthetics, etc., affect turgor pressure, and the author is convinced that in these changes we have a true response within the protoplasm itself. When the fungus responds to sudden increase in external osmotic pressure, its adjustment takes place at a rate which is related to the velocity of penetration into the protoplasm of the solute used. This leads to the idea that the perception of the osmotic stimulus occurs only when this solute has distributed itself throughout the protoplasm.—B. E. Livincston. 44 PANTANELLI, E., Zur Kenntnis der Turgorregulationen bei Schimmelpilzen. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 40: 303-367. 1904. NEWS. PRoFEssoR W. PFEFFER has been elected a corresponding member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences. F. M. Rotrs has been appointed professor of botany and horticulture in the University-of Florida, at Lake City R. S. WrtitAms, who has been collecting in the Philippines for the New York Botanical Gardens, has lost his collections of four months by fire in a hotel where — he was making his headquarters. PRoFEssor N. L. Britron, director of the New York Botanical Garden, received the honorary degree of D.Sc. from Columbia University in connection with the recent celebration of the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of its foundation as King’s College. BERNARD RENAULT, the well-known paleobotanist at the Museum of Natural History in Paris, died October 16, 1904, at the age of sixty-eight years. His studies of the conspicuous vegetation of the Coal Measures have been of the greatest possible service to anatomists and morphologists. Proressor W. A. KELLERMAN, of the Ohio State University, will spend the first three months of the coming year in Guatemala. He expects to traverse the country from east to west, and to spend considerable time in the Andes Mountains. The purpose of the trip is to collect parasitic fungi, and incidentally to execute some small botanical commissions. THE FORMER students of Professor CHARLES E. BEssEY who are connected with the Office of Vegetable Pathology and Physiology, Department of Agricul- ture, have had an enlarged copy of his photograph framed and presented to the office. The portrait was unveiled by Dr. E. A. BEssey, at a gathering of the office staff on November 28. Miss Carrte Harrison presented the picture, and appropriate remarks were made by Messrs. Woops, WEBBER, and SHEAR. eS [DECEMBER GENERAL INDEX. The most ae classified entries will be found under Contributors, Per- sonals, and Revi New names and names of new genera, species, and varieties are printed in bold- rie type; synonyms in #talics. A A.A. AS. 4 Abies, costal 32 3275 Pi see zy Chauveaud on e Mbictineae, hago A “So te Mars on 313 Abroni villo a 52 TS aalininae,. Lindau on 238 errors, cervina 271; xanthophana Achiya Rambo, Horn on wall forma- hs 3 Cal alamus, central cylinder 163 Actinela, Cockere me n 395 Adam C. C., personal 318 Saket cuneatu ‘canal cells 248 Aechmea, Mez on 312 aS of maize rust 645 oa 66; schia anum, aecidia Pasion umbellatus, cicg cylinder +75 Agave 56; Lecheguilla, Bray on histology yron, Bakeri 378% _dasystachyum spica subvillosum 378; Gmelini 378; tum Vas 378; eubviligsuin 378; SEL ary wiolaceum 37 Agrostis, alba ; borealis 142; cani er capillaris pres rubra 141; eae 139; vertici ‘Hata 140; — Ss 142 ae ah ogams 73 Al coenogametes 0, 255; Ip panduranae, oogenesis and fontieacan Aleuria cerea, Guilliermond on o on eee hiaskan 73; coralline, Y: 472; Moore and Kellerman on a Killing 225 Allium, central cylinder 175; Rydberg on Alnus, Britton on 313; F as. mycorhias, Shibat orata, central ie 168 linder 17 — on 226, I Am on ecg oxalate 392 Reale: Green ne oO ma pe 271 eaves of Peri, ergited on 74; of Pilostyles, Endriss Psilotum, Ford on 473; of * Tillandsia usneol idee S 99 nemarrhena asphodeloides, central cyl- der 176 : Anemone a nO 359 Anogra, Nelson Anomopanax, Harms 0 Antennaria, Gr 2873 Rsk ca 462; Liliago, nite cylin 175 Animalia, 4 Monoclea 190; ng? Pterido- phytes 24 Paar — 253; univalvis 186 Anthoc uscalioni and Polaccion 395 Aeidieniiicn eons Tobler on 39 A num, Greene on 395 Apogamy, Blackman on 311 Arabis, Osterhout on 2 a Araceae, central cylinder 1 Arauc aria, pollen 208; Bid wellii 449; Cun ningha amii 441; excelsa, Vochting on uianeciiiet 157 Arbutus, Andrachne, — 286; Unedo, sun and shade stort seen pee of bryop 12; of Monoc- hyte 246; 0 ec edra sevedieg lea I Aechaatepboenix Alexandrae, Gatin on root 2 Lg Arcterica, Yabe on 388 Arctostaphylos, a enol 414; tomen- tosa, variation 410 a ay puna on 237; Rydberg on wupinus luteus, Schulze on 472 fate inl fissuratus, Bray on histology, Ariocarpus Aristema central sonia 168 Arkiv for Botani Arno ; biloba 2 nm proembryo of Ginkgo 481 482 Arthur, J. C. 64, 1 Arts gress 80 een. italicum, central cylinder 168 Ascidia ester Vail on 395; albicans 55; sub- ulata 52 prowiens marginatus, Guilliermond on 159; personal 319 and Sciences, International Con- i ocarp o a: Pay af on 476 Ascomycetes, s exual organs Asparagin, Priani ore as bs 230 Asparagus, cia cylinder 174; rust, water relati ee ieee rage or tschew 228; Ma; Aapboaaine eae Senha pa ee 75 Asphodelus fistulosus, central sede 175 Aspidium, variation in 415, jy defoliatu us 461; Novae- Angtae 363; prenanthoides, place constan Asteropeltis, oe aie N 304 ~ : ie 2 Relation of plants to environ 305 Atractina, Héhnel on 238 Sanaa ndulatum, sexual organs 247 ; Rydberg on N 313 Ss sterhout on 2 cpio Diels and Pritzel a is of 237 ae gies pilularis, variation 412; vimi- Bacidia j inundata 270 ranaeaas os 850 Sa Wigham on effect of radium rays 1 Bactridiopsis Henning on 394 Balfou sonal 400 aaa « = ee We TRO, IST, F52, £54; 157, 222, 230, 387, 389, 395; 468, 469, 471, 472, 476; personal 4 Batrachospermum m, ans | organs 260 Sea peas parasitic o 214 _ Beard, J., on “The tra ck of heredity” 153 sees is °Y. 285, 446; “Notebook” 151 Ber ren, J., on heterotypic chromosomes Poara. ee , on i epaetiom ex. outside the organi: Berry, EW. a 56; personal 79 © Bessey, C. E., » pe ersonal 319, 460; on sto- mata of Holacantha Emoryi 471 es ue , pers hie - nal #805 on pigment Biatora arrose fe BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER ee = P., on Sisyrinchium 313; on Viola € Billbergia, ies on 312 a B.A 230) 237 Biogeography sectich Biogtigtiy of Carl 5 eas cee Station, 4 University rol Mon- ; of University of Washington fae aap study of Aster 333 an, V. H., on pars 2 apog- and pa rthenogenesis 3 Blakeslee, ie F., personal He ieee © Mucorinese 552; Bi Blan hy, W. nR ub peahaniee ieee on 22 Bog oo Transeau on out of xero- hily 154 Bio Blackpa Honnior. G, anaes? are 399 Boodle, tomy of leaves of Pteris ge Ps Soka 306; and ritsch’s systematic anatomy ‘of the _liotledons g, V., on flora of Finland 152 Bre Tobler on 393 Botanical Magazine 399 z Bo cs sy Society of America 400; annu rt 80 Bouchetia, arniatera 377; erecta 376; pro- 37 ’ Bow OF. ee perene 319, 399 Bradb. a, Britton o Br ations Kahecoe on Cactaceae hts Brandegee, T. S., on new Mexican.speclé = Brandt, K., on nitrogen content of the sea Bray, kit oa on forests of Texas 312; 08 histol Bretzl, Ht “Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzu es Briges, L. Jy : and McCall on soil solu- tions and rate of movement 477 : British rae es for the Advancemen oF Science 320 Britton, N. L., 239, 4 gees Alnus 313; on i 395; on us 238 Britto We E., on sand plains 3 308 sf Bromeliaceae fe absorption by €P 236 phyti eZ e ecu "hy brid 78 dire, sexual organs 246 Bubdk, Fr., on Lentodiopsis 238 Bulbine, central cylinder 7s a Buller, A. H. R., per se Bureau an a indy, shetaical in- vestigat Bursera aceoonyle 55 1904] Buscalioni, L., and Polacci on anthocya- nin 395 Buxus sempervirens, sun and shade leaves 286 C Cactaceae, Brandegee, Katherine on 2 (oe Greene on Caladium bulbosum, eas es 168 ‘alcium oxalate, Amar Ca aaaee ss new plants tag: luis varia- Calla ahisttis. Se Be ope 166 Callithamnion, Toble ‘tri , Leavitt on 471 ortus 49; ee central pat Caltha A eiohela 357) 3 Calycotome villosa, Camassia i. raseri, parte yhader eae Cambium activity, Ursprung on 473 Cameron, ¥ . K., and Whitney on soil fertility 475 ati officinalis 440 Cannon, W. A., on Phoradendron 307 and Thériot, ‘Alaskan 3 “eet ton, M. A., on rusts 225 48 Castillesa, Brandegee on 237; Nelson on 23 Ceanothus, cuneatus, variation 412; Fae se sid sorediatus, variation thyr: 41 gee Signin Piet pale method with hard tissues 145; techni ru Crh 462 Central American ‘io Greenman on 226 Centrifuges Cerastium, Crean on 237; Rydberg See longifolia 8; mexicana 5 Cer srs Bra ndegee, Katherin e on 2373 p-aborigiats s 54; Pringlei 54 Ceo patanas, Parkin and Pearson on Chamaccyparis 8; pollen 207; Lawsoniana ; Chamaerops bie haa 453 Chamberlain, C. J. 76, 145, 15m 153, 22h 224, 22 % 236, 227, 228, 235, 308, 309, 3IT, a 388, 390, ae pee 397) ; personal 160 cin fragilis, Mottier on sperm 224 Charales, sexual o organs 244 Chauveaud, G., on Abies Pinsapo 473 INDEX TO VOLUME XXXVIII 483 pera investigation, Bureau of Plant n Chenopodium leptophyllum 460 Chlorophytum elatum, bentval cylinder er ig pi Tillandsia usneoides 112 Chodat, R. Chondropiyls. Nelson on 238 Christ, H., on Lo gxsomopsis 238; on new species from Costa Rica 394 Christen, personal 239 scm n_heterotypic, 228; G W 4 igh on 396; Reacaheaes on io dustiviitnal Chrysanthemum pice ee 339; segetum 3 Chrysler, NI. A. 157, t61, 452, 472, 473; personal 2 Cincinnobella, H. ennings on 394 Ci sey Aurantium, sun and shade leaves Cladonia cariosa, cristatella, fimbriata furcata, gracilis, mitrula, pyxidata 270 Ciayonia Rydberg on 313 Ss Big a a a and Clements, structure of v vegetatio 303 Clintonia, borealis, cmbeliata “central cylinder 170 Cocconi, G., gsr nal 399 T. D. A., on Hymenoxys 395 fung Coix dactyloides 298 Co ker, W. C., Colletotrichum gone ey Rolfs on 226 Coltricia ieee urrill o hf Coltriciella, Murri Conde Inter eetieoal 7 Arts and ‘Sciences 319 257 Coniferals, phylogen Y 330; spores 206; e, C d on 47 ae 15°, 15I, 152, , 389, 395, 488, ; Copela nd, E. a eee 75, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 220, 223, 224, 226, 227, 233, 484 237305, 306. 207,-39 7; 372, 216,:357, 338, 390, 394, 464, 470, 471, 473, and 2; Cowl C. 146, 148, 303, 304, 305, 306, 308, 310, 385 64; Davis, B. M. s 313, 463, 81 468, 470, 471, 472; Fastwood. Alice 38; Fink, Bruce 265; "Hasselbring, ET 225: 226, 231, 300, 467, 477, 478; Herre A. C. 218; Hitchcock, A. S. 139, 297; Howe, C. ties, (GE, Jeffrey, E. 1; 381, Jensen, G. H. aa : ae Livingston ‘and, 67; Johnson, Deloss G. ¥, 220; Life, A.C. et Livingston, I eran 2206, 233, 235, 314, 315, 475, 4%, Ate and Jensen 67; MacCallum woe ; Pe ND 3 ie a5, 229, 230, 388, 392, ; ; Robinson, B. i 5 Shu iy “e wo. Sak, 333, 465; Smith, R 3: tia 31 Spalain V.M.1 yong F. i. 3003 Volkens, Gag se ee M. T. personal 79 , O. F., on Plectis 238 ool, Grace I pe oI mb aie Vende! on 472 orallorhiza, Rydberg o rey line australis, Fariteal “pliner 174 rispermum, Rydberg on on 31 ‘orn, aecidium of rust 64; a cells 7 Corr: C., on evolution 78; on Mira- bilis hybo ids Costerus, J. strosities 306 ers ve M. 74, 75, 149, 150, 152, 153; 154, 155, 156, 220, 223, 224, 226, 227, 233, oo 395, 306, 397, 311, 312, 316, 387, 388, 390, 394, 464, 470, 471, 473; and °C tysler 452; personal 310; “Plant Structures” 305 Coulter, S. M., on swamps 156 Coulter Stanley, and Dorner, “Forest trees of peel 87 Coville nal 4oo Coville 4 49; tridentate, water supply 122 » H. C. 146, 148, 303, 304, 30 5; “9 308 399, 310, 385, 464; personal is ratty, R : oe Tow »” 2328528 Reed on , and Smith on mon- “Flora of Emmet Co., Creosote bush, lta supply 122 Cressa truxillensis 49 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Croton mer cum 54 Cryptogams, Alaskan 73 Cryptomera ee 8, 441, Lawson 316; pollen 207 Crystals in Abies 327 Cummings, Clara E., Alaskan lichens Fie a sonal 1 Cupressineae, hi ond ny, s 8; pollen 206; ‘Yawsoniana 4 rson e vegies Holm on 238 perus, Holm 88 ytisus Sastustan as evergree ytology 81, of Cyan ea pceaes ‘Wee 75; Davis on 308; of Drosera rotundifolia, Rosenberg on 228; of on 183 of mycor- BOLE Q O22 O22 << 4 ¢ BO BEE Qu =) Q tS) O .e) \2) hiza 391; Némec on oe Seis fate on 237 Gs) [Bacon eoceolvie dissocia- 478 arwin, F., eaten 320 Dasya, Tobie Date, enzyme veha? Reed on 75 me palm, ee ae for study 399; Swingle 33 Deseoren: C. B., ‘Statistical methods” 6 Davis, B. M. 81, 241, 313 63» 468, 470, 471, 472; on cytolo Davies, ip het) and polis “ Pollina- tion of flow yee Debaryella, H Shel ¢ La oipd agg of plants oy external influ- s, Reinke on 393 Delta and aici bs iperne Denniston, R. H., n starch rains 473 p Reopanieae pialifim Desert shrubs, water suppl 122; vegeta- tion 44; MacDougal on es, C., “Theorie der divekien Anpas- ung” 3 85 Dictyota, ‘ha organs 245 Diels, L., a Pritzel, 0 on flora of western Aus tratia 237 Diels Diels and Pritzel on 2 oe Digitaria, spp., synonymy 2 Diplodiopss, Hennings on Fs ase Zimmermann on 231 Disko ns *Poraild on ecology 234 1904] Distichlis spicata 49 Sati serrata 54 n effect of radium rays pe “growth 126. and Wigham, on 152 Dolichomet, Schumann on 3 “Forest Dorner, Coulter and, trees ‘of indiana” 387 Dracaena, central cylinder 174 eg del Cas tillo, Emmanuel, death Drosera, hybrid, Rosenberg on 76; ro- eae Rosenberg on Edie 228 -, personal 239, 3 Rcsnccaliie reflexa 460; vines .460 Duggar, B. M., personal 319 Dug geli, Ds “Monographie des Sihl- Bis Bion, Schiffner on nh Beier 188 308 sc Olt vitality e ee 156 Dwarf trees 379 E Earle , personal 79 ect ‘Alice, 38 Eastman, Helen, ““New England ferns” 39 Echinocactus 54 Ecology, Boodle c on Pi of Disko Island, w South Wales, Britton on 308; sandstone riprap 265; of trees of the Botanical Garden, Naples 435 Eichler’s ‘Flower diagrams” E agate of roots, Plowman on 388 Elliott, L. B., personal Embryo of Ginkgo biloba 22 3 ae on 39° Embryology, of Cryptom japoni Laveson on 316; of Pilostyles, Endrise Embryo sac, ve ae 209; of Tilland- sia usneoi Embryonal sahetaihe. Noll on 235 Encephalartos, pollen 208 End ocla dia muric cata, Warner on 471 S 3 Engler, A., personal 239; “Das Pflan ee GO) 4713 “Syllabus tet Pflanzenfamilien” 387 algae, and _respir aS od, Kostytsche 228; Maximow on 229; Shivata on on Biccn cells, cytology, Reed on 75 Ephedra 52; altissima 12; campylopoda 8; helvetica 8; trifurca, spermato- genesis and oogen INDEX TO VOLUME XXXVIII 485 Eragrostis reptans 459 eS eemateee sexual organs 259 n, im on mycoplasm theory 158, po Eriodictyon, Heller on 395 Eriogonum, Nelson on 238; inflatum 55 Erysiphaceae, Salmon on 155 eae ium americanum, central cylin- Eupatorium, etic on 2 Euphorbin antisyphilitica, Bray on his- tology 307; Cy bearer sig Reinke ) “vans, i n liverworts” 73; on Hepaticae of Puerto Rico” 238 transpiration Evergreens, broad-leaved, 28 Everhart, B. M., death of 318 Excretious of roots, Prianischnikow on F Farlow, W. G., personal 79 Ferguson, Margaret, personal 160 ss M. L., on Alnus 313; on Mexican flora 226 Ferns: Brasilien, Lindman on 313; varia- on 41 Fertilization, in Albugo Ipomoeae- an on 311; Festuca californi ink, Bruce say Finland flora, Borg o Flahault, C., estat soy 319 Flora, of Disko Is land, Porsild on 234; of Finland, a 152 Flowers, of Gne tales, — on 222; of Tillandsia ‘sheckdes Ford, Sibille O., on cee of Psilotum Forests of Texas, Bray on 312 Fossil pants Sequoia “iid Seward on 74; Weiss on 76; Zodda on 76 Fouquieria splendens 52 Frank, T., on production of zoospores in hl 54 Fries, R. E., on ornithophily 152 tsc a “Kei mpflanzen des Gesner- aceen” 470; Boodle and, ae anatomy of the dicotyledons Frye, T. C., personal 319 Fujii, K., on arene baccata 388; personal 20 F une Alaskan 73; on coffee, Zimmerma 231; fossil, Weiss arid 78; from the azon n new egy Peck on 238; igihent forma- n, Bessey on 391; Ternetz on 2 486 G i he albicaulis 52; oe 54 seer nee andicans, central cylinder 175; reduc ici divinicts Sopeapan gee 397 Balasoectinn Plowman on 388 oo defined 2406 Gam 25 Gametocyst defined 24 of Rahedre trifurca, female 11, male 5 Garden, Botanical, at Manila at Naples sae report of Imperial, "St re tersburg 4oo; for study of date palm 399 Garnsey’s Eichler’s “Flower diagrams” Gatin, C. L., on first root in germination Gentiana, Brandegee on 237; Greene on 95; Nelson on 238; viridula 461 Oder o ., on influence of nucleus Giesenhagen, K., on Gilia, Brandegee on at Baa: + anhaees i Ginkgo 8; Arnoldi on proembry embryo: pore Lyon on aes pollen Sok biloba Glotilfonien: le on 313 Gloionema, Wille on 309 Gloriosa s oapertie! central Zierial Oh oS poo n “flow Gne Gnemon 11; Ula, + cna on 297 arias 237; on Greene, E. L., on Antenn Cactaceae 395 per an, J. M., on Mexican flora 226, Gri ifitheia a Schousboet, Tobler on 393 Grifola 23 Growth, effect of ‘Rocaigin rays, Koer- icke 4, influence of nucleus, Gesaesnicote on 231; effect of radium rays, Dixon on 152; ‘relation of soil Fi Guérin, i “Fécondation chez les Phané- rogames”’ 464 cuilermond, M. A., on nuclear and cell divisio Gi nemaaciiee coenogametes 254 Gymnosperms, megaspores 10; prothal- lial cells 8 BOTANICAL GAZETTE n grow Gerafnation, a Tillandsia usneoides 107 - Sorica 238 [DECEMBER H Haberlandt, G., on heliotropism 1 54, E57; cpiaysinlogioche Pflanzen anatomie”’146 Halacs de, ‘‘Conspectus Florae Gamnce ” 471 : Ha shpat. A : je pac pusioae 304 eda Murr on 313 S; a1: mopanax 313 Hanis ear — eon 319 Harrison, Carrie, personal 4 asia J. W. gene adh Harvey, L. H., on physiographic ecology of Mt. n7 a Haselhof, 5, and Lin “Die Bescha- digung der Veghiation durch Rauch” psig rma H., 225, 226, 231, 390, 467, 477, 478 Hedeoma, Nelson on 238 He alent Helix, transpiration of leaves 447 Heilprin, I aan Weaticntte 69; strumosus 69 pay = henge dt on 154, 1573 Jost on 157; 5 Heller, An on tine of Nae 4 395 Hennings, Fy oe 238; on Ule’s Fungi ama ep Hepaticae of Puerto oy Evans on 238 ice of Small 2 Herre, A. C., 218 Hesperaoe ieyiliies. Bray on histology Haepeotiis aecegae 52 Heuchera, Heller n 39 ae Hexagona, Murri illo Heydrich, F., on Sains ae 238 Henican. Robinson and Greenman on 226 Hippuris hee Kniep on histogenetic layers Hieckeack < S., 139, 297; on control of sand dunes 305: Hohnel, F. n Atractina 238; on gue Saas andl eke see 23 Holacantha Emoryi, Remsey on stomata 471 i eis ge “Die Gasteromyceten Un- Ho oa. CG. Me ie a ge ein Cyperaceae 238; on Cype 388; on roots of orchids < E. W. D., personal 399 Horkel, Michneri 460; Wilder. Horn, L., on wall formation in a a pileante Ta 315 Hosackia Torreyi 461 Hosseus, C. C., — 79 Hottes, C. F. 23 Howe, C. D. pes personal 399 1904] Hyacinthus candicans, central cylinder 17° Hybrid, Bryonia 78; ruins rotundi- Bieeras on 76; n 78; Mirabilis “Corr n77;M haus o Hybridization <2 Plant i genta: ny International Confe 470 and Pritzel on 238 38 * Hyoscyamus cnecimeiea ee Correns on ~ seamen te Christ on 394 Hymenoxys, Cockerell on 395 slated; Hennings on 238 I Ibervillea tonella 54 Ikeno, S., on blepharoplast 223; on sper matogenesis in Marchantia polymorpha pibeddin soap for, Osterhout on 475 Inerelulr protoplasm of Lupinus albus, ny on 15 Iowa EN 26 Istvanffi, Gy. de, personal 160; on mildew 473 ¢ : Jeffrey, ae 32%; Jensen, G. H. me perirs and 67 n,-D2S., ,on hitiotingials 157 Juel, H. O., on ene. in Tarax- acum officinale Juncaceae, Saneits re 223 Juncoides, Rydberg on 313 Juncus, Rydberg on 313; tenuis 459 Juniperus 8; pollen 206 Juruasia, Lindau on 238 K pethrcne in roots of Vicia Faba, Sabline o Kearney, T. H. , personal 318 ep Newaai W. =e personal 480; Moore and, on killing algae 2 25 Seas G. G., “Flora of dons nag 387 Vermont’”’ Kincaid, ‘3 , personal 319 Klebahn, H., on emesis theory 159 Klinostats 427 aed ¥H.; oi wp iid layers of Hip- ae vulgari rerenete Coat hayes 175 “see “Pollination of flowers” 160 L., on inpercetular ‘prowiplaae of photo albus 152 INDEX TO VOLUME XXXVIII 487 Koernicke, M., on effect of Roentgen rays on growth 74 penciersites . H., on Teijsmanniodendron edandia Hoéhnel on 238 ee S., on enzymes and respira- 228 Kerio Lipsky on 395 tzkia : Braeeiee on 237 thes oe , on polarity 390 Kuyper, H. P., on ascocarp of Monascus 476 L Laboulbeniaceae, sexual organs 244, 259 Lachenalia pendula, central cylinder 175 Ladyginia, Lipsky on 3 a case: Mueller on 471 and, W. 229; personal 239 rangi Schotti i 52 Larix, europaea 8, pollen 208; sibirica ro, egaspores 213 t, M., on Funcaceae 223 Lavauxia, Nelson o ee A. on pi id He of Crypto- eria japoni ica 31 Leaf aes peerage Winkler on 2 2334 a 153; movement xalis hedpeeaden Molisch on 4723 of "Tillandsia usneoides 111; transpira- tion, 0 old and new 446; of sun and ? shade 285 Leavitt, Clara K., on Callymenia phyllo- ora 471 Lea vitt, R. G., on root goats 227 [ecanora, cinerea 271; muralis 271 Lecidea, enteroleuca 20% ip A 270 es 298 or; ; rap 2 Life, Lignier, vy sks Equisetales and Spheno- Liliaceae, atl yhoo 161, 175 Lindau, , on an Acanthaceae 238; Haselhoff Nee 5 Die Beschadigung der Vegetation dur soa uae Lindman, C r Linsbauer, K. and L., d Portheim, “Wiesner und seine Sthulle” 469 488 Linum, Nelson o Lipsky, W., on ora fe central Asia 395 Liverworts, "Alaska 3 Livingston, B. E., 236 233, 235) 314, 3155 475) 47%, 4795 and Jensen Lock, R. H., nera ulmifolia 152 Lots ; ea ome 318; on partheno- genesis in Caen U ie 225 Loxsomopsis, Christ on 238 Lupinus, albus, Kny on intercellular pro- inate 152; luteus, Schulze on arginin 2; mexicana 52 5 Lychnis, Rydberg on 313 Lycium Torr rreyi 54 Lycopodium, annotinum, canal cells 248; complanatum, = cells 248; Phleg- maria, sexual organs 247 Lyon, H. L., on p ae cabana of Ginkgo 39° M MacCallum, W. B., 2 ice 390, 393, 470 are ougal, D. as 4; on desert eee n 310; onn uta tho n 310; on soil tem ernie an vegetation 310; person nal 79, Mackenzie, K. K., on Oenothera 238 Maianthemum bifolium, central cylinder r7t Maiden, J. H., “Eucalyptus” ecology of New mae Wales 306 Maize shai aec Malformations, ee on 394 MomaaDarte 54; Brandegee on 237 ia polymorpha, Ikeno on sper- 1515 on ay matogenesis 23 5. NT f. se ADOT Marquette, W. G M effect of mperature on photosynthesis 476 Malas this, ieee 237 aximow } Pes 229 n, W. R., on Polypodium 238 McCall, A. = » Briggs and, on soil solu- tions and ra 477 Medeola acheacnetes central cylinder 172 Megaspore, of Coniferae 209; of gymno- sper elocanna, Stapf on fruit 307 mbrane, ty gr maganin on plasmatic 477 entha cit SSSSSS ® Statetiictla. denniies on 394 exican ip 226 ez, C., on new species of Bromeliaceae 312; on por er coe by epiphytic Bromeliaceae 2 hy BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Microcyclus, Sydow on 237 Microsporangium 0 “ “Lieets trifurca 2 Mildew, a at Milium len Mirabilis, Ata on hepa 77 N 307 nium, canal lls 248 bius, M., . J. Schleiden”’ 386 Moenkhaus, V. J., on hybrids 226 Molds, Pantanelli on Lechiy are of turgor Molisch, H., on movement of leaves in is scus, *Ruses r on ascocarp 476; coenogametes S 2 s cage crispata 186; eas develop- and ielationship ea tes de ses central cylinder 1 164 Monstrosities, Cos and Smith on 306 pms Rookowical Station of Unive sity 160 Moore, 2 T., and Kellerman, on killing algae Morphology o f Ephedra r; Pa 185; xual organs 241; Tillandsi Moses, Alaskan 73 Mottier, D. M., “ Fecundation in ee prem: ons sperm in Chara fragilis 22 poiteake of leaves in Oxalis, Molisch on Mucor pee Kostytschew on respira- Mucus ee A 2 ipa reproduc- tion, eet ON 153, 3 Mue ller, Olga, on Lami ee bullata 471 Polyporaceae 238, 313; personal 79, I Mutation erage Copeland on 418; Mac- Dougal on Mycological Sel a Mycoplasm theory, Eriksson on 458, 478; a on posi 391; Miyeorkizoiem, Weiss on 76 yrica, — ta on mmycorhizn 391 yrtu munis, transpiration of sun and sm leaves 286 N Nama, ae on 23 : Nathansohn, A., on osmosis 477 Nelson, ane on new gees and species 238 cack: Elias 378 Némec, B., on division and fusion of nucleus 232 1904] Nerium Oleander, transpiration of leaves 286, 447 Newcon FCs ie Uebel 160; on thigmotropism of roo Too New York Hortcultiral Society, nat of “abner 1 Conference on plant breeding and hy bridization 470 croferics Murril 13 ungus ae pvempes havea embryonal substance 235 hele aaee 155 Nucleus, Némec on a er ron fusio 232 illi ivisio ence on Se on 231 atshar pede Rakes 394 O Oaks, variation 401 Oangium, defined 246 Oedogonium, aNibar organs 2 Oenothera, Mackenzie on Oe clavi- ormis 52 Olea iia ig! Peete 285, 447 Olneya tes Olsson- ‘Sefer, Pp. , 152, 309, 310; on telma- 243. Oogenesis 258; in Albugo Ipomoeae- pee ; he dra I; uranae gee in Ephe trifurca in Vaucheria Oomycetes 259 Opuntia 54 Orchids, Holm on roots 307 hi Im Orthocarpu us, Heller on 395 Ornithophily, Fries on 1 152 Osmosis, Nathansohn on 477 Osterhout, G. E., on Atabis and Aulosper- mum 2 sew ge W. J. V., on cytological tech- nique Otidea Sitick, Guftiiernall a 224 Overton, B., on ceprhencgeneee in corniculata, aecidia 66. Oxidases, Porodko on 151 FP Pachylophus, elas on 2 Panicum, — m 299; o paiile 2098; virgatum INDEX TO VOLUME XXXVIII 489 peer iss E.. onregulation of turgor in olds 479 Papaveractae, 7 on seed-coats 306 m, artificia Par vias "6. “rade "Bejoinelcus* 468 Parish, S. B. 459 Parkin, J., and Pearson, on Ceylon pata- Barkineonis microphylla 54 Parmelia, Borreri 271; conspersa 271 Pamulariella, Hennings on 23 a 54 on 311; in alictrum purpuras- ns, Ove n 224 Puineloin aimidi atum 299 Patanas, Ceylon, Parkin and Pearson on see on ae a Patouillard, N., on Seuratia 313 hae te Prantl’s “Lehrbuch der Botanik”’ 150 pia H. H. W., Parkin and, on Ceylon as 309 eas, pom ae n beans Peck, C. H., Algshan fungi 73} on new species of fungi 2 a Peirce, G. J..21 nak coger guste clandestinum 461 Peltandra inica, central ae 166 Peltistroma, . Henhi ngs 0 Pericarp of Me locanna, ‘Supt on 307 Per “Fragmenta florae a8; arlo WO; Per Margaret ag Flahault, ‘a 239, 3193 c Fujii, K. 320; 490 W. D. 399; eat {, 583 Russa f ney, Jolis, F. 399; Linsbauer, K. 318; Lotsy, iE 318; MacCallum, W. B. 239; Macon De Po. "309; Macoun, J. 79; Murrill, W. A. 79, 316; New Phaeophyceae, Spe ay 245 Phaeoscutella, Hennings on 394 Is 75; can root 230; iene ago 2 ce Cannon on 3°7 Photo anaes. *Wiede tsheim on 2 Photosynthesis, Matthaei on pike of ete ture 476; outside the os es ard on 152 ya nmas Wrak on Chlamydomonas Phototropism, re 158 Phragmopeltis i n Phyco mycetes, $ at organs 2 . Phyllitis, gametogenous tissue 251 Phylloporia, Murrill on Phylogeny of —— 330 Physcia stellaris 2 Picea, e ar ES oF lichenais, dwarf 379; Picradenia, Cockerell ee 395 Pieris nana, Yabe on 388 Pigment-formation in fungi, Bessey on Bede Schottii 54 Pilostyles, Endriss n 39° — Zodda on fos cone 76; Masters 153; pollen 206; hassabaians 441; excelen 440; penn megaspores 213; maritima o: Manes e 440; Nelsoni, Shav ee 3: rigida apAS sylvestris 5 Pistacia Lesiae us, aa ena 286, 447 Pisum sativum on Vicia Faba BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Pitcairnia, Mez o Place-constants for Aster prenanthoides 3 Placodium, wabapiamgas 271; cerinum Ae tellin Plant ‘br reeding ed feisideauon, Proc. ional gee satin nce 470 ie ae sa 393 Plowm ng GaN 388 bieees sericea ene Poa spp., Synonymy 297; compressa 69; Hanseni 4595 longiligua 459; pratensis 69; se Podoearpis, bee amy Shibata on 391; 206; — 8 neste ree hee cCi, heep 376 ., Buscalioni and, on anthocya- n 3 Polarity, Kiister on cae in Zamia 457 Pollen on Conifer Pollination, fluid, ‘Fujii on 388; Fries on 152 Polygonatum, — verticillatum, cen- tral cylinder 1 Polypodtum, eae on 238; ee variation 417; Scouleri 417; vu variation 4 Sal eae Murrill $%3 Pond, ROH475; 320, ins aes 302, 473, 474 Populus mexicana 47 orodko, T., on oxidases 151 Poronidul ” Murzill on 313 neat wale Henni ngs on 394 hyra, gametogenous tissue 252 P., on ecology of Disko Portheim, L., personal 239; Linsbauer and, “Wiesn ner and seine Schule” 469 Potentilla, = et 3675 — 69 Prianischnikow sparagin 230; nae pains pe Pritzel, ee ae els and, on flora of western Australia 237 Prizes, paar for Walker se bryo of Ginkgo biloba, “Areas on Prophylla, Holm o Prosopis, pubesce ae - sbominie 47 Pro thallia 1 cells in gymnosperms 8 Psilocarpus tenellus 462 ee maircgit Ford on 473; dered , Shibata o n 391; secondary xylem le Preridophytes, Alaskan 73; ; sexual organs of southern Brazil, Rosenstock on Pann. asparagi 19; Sorghi, aecidium 64 1904] INDEX TO VOLUME XXXVIII 4gI Punctaria, gametogeneous tissue 2 52 Pustularia vesiculosa, Guilliermond on 224 Puya, Mez on 312; ree 104 Dorit: Murrill o Pylaiella, ga emetopehoil “ate 252 Pyronema, coen = metes 255 Pythium conidia 2 Q a Berio on 313; agrifolia, varia- tion chrysolepis, variation a cag ’ variation 40236 variation 405; Il transpiration 286, 447; Kelloggii, —_— 5; multi flora, variation 405; vacciniifolia, varia- tion 405; Wislizeni, veteue 404 R Radium rays, effect on growth, Dixon on 152; Koernickeon Ssaimghe hi oe 157 i icaris ticulata, growth a es unculus, Fics ores Reinke on 394; arvensis 357; bulbosus 5 357 repens 367 Reduction ‘icine of Ephedra trifurca 5; Strasburger on Regeneration, in Torenia, peer on rSy; i ia floridana Reinke, J., S i plants by external ‘adie 93 Rehmiomyces, Hennig on 238 Renault, B., death 4 Rendle, ASB: 2 Clasaton of flower- ing plants” Rerriabiction. a ” sicsaeeeeae Blakeslee OM 153, 313 Resin canals in Sequoia arses . Aspens niger, oo stytschew “Secnieltag Pit then cryptogams 73; At- kinson’s “ Relation of plants to environ- Coulter and Dor Eidiana”: 3873 ‘ratty s > “Flora of Emmet county Davenport’s “Sta- tistical ars *? 465; Detto’s “Theorie der direkten Anpassung”’ 385; Dugge- Engler’s “Das Pflanzenreich”’ 150, 4713 “Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien” 387; Guérin’s “Fécondation chez les Phané- re ” 464; Haberlandt’s “ sh bl 146; Haldc Bans nsgirg’s ye 304; Ha- selhoff and Lindau’s “Die Beschidig- ung der Vesetation durch Rauch” 148; se igs ’s “Die — ordigas ote Un. ” 467; Kennedy’s 1 Willoughby. Vermont” 387; Lindau’s “Hilfsbuch fiir das Sammeln” 470; i cnt ay and Portheim’s ‘Wiesner 468; Paris’s ‘Index Bryologicus” 468 Pax’s “Prantl’s “Lehrbuch der Bo- tanik”’ 0; ’s “Fragmenta Co) hilippi 151; le’s 149; Roth’s Pipes cs aub: ” 151, 468; Willis’s «Flowering moose plants and ferns” 220 amnus, Greene on gt Alaternus, fea epee cual we californica, variation 407; croc Rhapis flabelliformn a apeags fore saxand organs 244; Tobler Nn 393 Rhus glabra 4 i Ribes, aureum, Kiister on polarity 390; Californian, . Halleron 3 95 Rickiella, Sydow on 2 8 Rinodina sophodes at Robertson, Agnes, on spore formation in Torreya ‘californica 307 Robinson, B. L. 376; personal 3193 and Greenman, on Mexican flora penis rays, Koernicke on eect on Rois, "P. M., perso nal 480 Rolfs, P. Hi. on Colletotrichum gloeo- 05 osenberg, O., on cytology of Drosera genes aye ems on Ske Drosera ta on individuality of the chr 492 Rosenstock, E., on pteridophytes of southern Brazil 23 Roth, G., “Europiaischen Laubmoose” 151, 471 Rothert, W., poner 160 Rubus, Blanchard o Nn 304 Rumex acetosella, Transeau on 154 Ruscus ee Peter cylinder 174 Russell, W. J.,0 n of wood on photo- ic plate ae Rust, aecidium of maize 64; asparagus 19; Carle n 22 Rydberg, P. A., on Rocky mountain flora 313 : S Sir anate and Greenman on 224 “ne aR in roots of Vicia rales sapeeat Le AS grr fungi 73; per- al 31 Seocandankodun Hennings on 3 Salix, me. On 313; vieliina Kiister On POMrty ite almon, : oie ee 155 Saprolegniales oogenesis 88, au mors signe” a3 60 r absorption by epi- phyt Sspeialiicoae's 6 Schismatoglt s Roebelinii, central cylin- Schoenocrambe, R Schréder, H., on geotropism aa Schule, F “., On arginin in Lupinus luteus der adden eris, gametogenous tissue 252 Rydberg o n 313 47 Schumann, sou biography 143; on new African a iotrmatenal Congress of Arts Scilla sgh eee central cylinder se Scirpus, Britto. 305° A Seed, imbibition hoes soil, Whitney me 2 475; of Tilla Cie usne- itality, Duvel on 156 ye ue: of egithiy aceae, Shaw on 306 : , O. von, on Quercus 31 : elagin th apus, Seanad cells 248° 6 « _-Senecio s Septodothideopsis, Hennings 0 Sequoia 10; fossil 321; ioe — ‘Pen li 328; sempervir megaspores Seuratia, Patouillard on 313 Seward, -» personal 320; on fossil plants 74 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Sexual organs 241 Sire Saar ngs on 394 a ce n Papaveraceae 306 n Pinus ; Soca 313 road C. 1 ear al 4 gore K., on ee 222; on cytology of my orhiza a 391 Shoots, ere n Zamia 453 Shull, G. H. 77, 221, 333, 465 Sidalves, a on 395 Sieglingia flava 297 Sieve wigs in onto: Chauveaud on 473 Simon on regeneration in root tips 157 Si imons, Ee ile B. 393 Sisyrin nchium, Bicknell on 313 Sitanion rigidum 9 Small, J. K., _ascetagt 2 Smilacina, a, central cylinder ye crn Nei central cylinder 171 Smilax aspera, transpiration of leaves 447 mith, J. J. S ‘Je osterus and, on monstrosi- ties "306 Smi Snow, aM. ae oes ie ¢ Plant Micrpholey and Payetiony 4 00 ser — to plant growth 67; Sis of n 5 i, gS jes PRE Re ede —| KS & a pres oe movement, Whitney and Camer- 475 Selkreder'e “Systematic anatomy of the dicotyledons”’ 160 Solidago serotina 69 Solutions, Dada on perk effect 473 Sorica, Giesenhagen on Spalding, V. M. 122; oncaal 160 Spar ganium Greenei 459 Spa ng junceum, as evergreen 446 Pgs ties, their yee by Sp em} in Co fragilis, Mottier on 224 Spermacoce, Brandegee on 237 Spermatangium, defin ote Sheitaporrek J defined Spermatogenesis, in Maschantis poly- rib eg Ikeno on 235; in Ephedra tri- fur Spermatophytes of i = Central a, Greenm n 22 Paani oaitienes > 257 Sphagnums, Alaskan 73 Spirostachys pee 54 Sele Wide m, defined 2 of Coniferae sb Sporocyt, defined 24 m, of Monoclea 195 Reales: Rydber Tg 0 Stapf, O., on fruit of Malscishe 307 Ay ee eee OR ee Texas forests, Bray on ‘halictrum 1904] Stem of Tillandsia usneoides 119 Stenotaphrum dimidiatum 2 Stephanoste cS « < Stereoc Stereophyllum, Heydrich on 2 agg Stevens, F. L. 300; p c ‘ c Stomata, of Holacantha Emoryi, Bessey on 471; of Meera usneoides 116 Strasburger, E., on reduction division 397 Streptopus ee pre ee T1472 Strobilus, of Ephedra trifurc St. Petersburg, Report otanic Garden 400 ca 2 of a er on 156 Swamp ats on ae plains, Britton on 30 Swingle, W. T., on date palm 233 Swiss Scientific ee gies d 399 Sydow and P., w genera of Bohideras 237; on Rickie 238 Symphoricarpos, Nelson o coe foetidus, aa cylinder a SR 208 * ‘Sparse corymbosum 357 Taraxacum, Kiister on acti of roots ie: officinale, Raunkiaer on partheno genesis Tax od, _egaspor 209; ‘distichum 8; ° Taxonomy. sa: si 394 vin sac 209; pollen 206; bac- Taxus, cata 3. Fujii on 3 i "echnique, o ological, ecepe on id 5 eijsmannioden oorders 9 ‘elmatology, Olesen’ Seffer on Temperatures of a Bichon! on gro Teratology, Costerus and Smith on 306 + ernetz, Charlotte 6 on fines 222 7 M 312 purpurascens, Overton on 237 sievehaaed ale Cardot cit “ Alaskan as Hearth, Wiedersheim on 299 Thigmotropism of roots, Newcombe on 3°90 Thiselton-Dyer, comeid T., personal 239 Thuja, embryo sac 209; gigantea , dwarf say oncidentaiia 8; orientalis 8, pollen 207 INDEX TO VOLUME XXXVIII 2 493 Tillandsia, streptocarpa, Mez on water abso shay d ey scales 237; usneoides, anatomy 9 Tischler, Go on mycoplasm theory 158 Tobler, F., on Rh ni Toxic effect of solutions, Dandeno on 474 ‘On ¢€ Transeau, E. N., on causes of Saressliily in bog plants 1 ee of ais and ber leaves 446; of sun and shade _ Trees, "of Botanic is at Naples, ecology 435; Butish “Columbian dwart BE Trelea ae “Alaskan fungi” 73; a ipa pteridophytes’ as Trichomanes, Christ on 394; Lindman on Trifolium monanthum tenerum 4 Trillium, central ae 173; aie Tripsacum dactylo ides 29 Triticum i nee felt ho 378 Trixi Greenman on 226 obin: oe heterophylla dwarf 379 Tumboa ' Turgor, regulation in molds, Pantanelli on 479 Turnera ulmifo lia, Lock on 152 Typha angustifolia 48 : Typhonium divaricatum, central cylinder 169 U Uleopeltis, Hennings on 238 Ulva, gametogenous tissue 251 Urceolaria scruposa 272 Uromyces euphorbiae, Carleton on 22 5. po as ci e, Weiss on 76 Urs ve is condary t thickening in PL pics Usnea rae ai 18 : Uvularia edocs ‘central cylinder 176 V Vail, Anna Murray, on asians 395 ariation, of some Californian plants 401 : 5 8 Verru Si Verschaffelt, E., on poiso: by rum Tinus, canepiretion of leaves Vics Faba, Pisum sativum on 214 i 395 deVries, H., personal 79 240 319), 399; “Species and varieties; their origin by mutation” 399 494 ee | H., personal 400; on eS eae raucaria exce elsa 157 ae = 14 W Wager, H., personal 320; on cytology of Cyanophyceae 75; on nucleolus 155 Waite, M. B., personal 3 Wales, New South, — on survey 306 Walker Prizes, subjects 4 Warnstorf, C., a Alaskan sphagnum” 73 ing Plant geography” Were” 'F tae M., on Dadcidis muricata 471 eh erga Marine Biological Station of niv bins secs by 2 bind Bromeli- , Mez 236; movement in soil, Whitn ney and eons on ante relation of Puccinia asparagi 1 Webber, H. J., personal 480 Weiss, F. E., on fossil fungi 76; on mycor- hiza 76 West, G. S., “British fresh water algae”’ 468 Westgate, J. M., on reclamation of dunes 30 White, D., personal 3 Whitney, M and cate on soil fer- tility 475 Wiedersheim, Mh , on photonasty and thermonasty 22 bare qs ied 239, 318, 319; on ting of leav ves. 552. m, J. T., Dixon and, on bacteria Wille, N., on Gloionema 309; trock, on op aaeeesane proposals 310 Williams, R. S., personal 480 BOTANICAL GAZETTE and Wit- [DECEMBER, I904 Willis, x = “Flowering plants and ferns” Wilson and Davies s Knuth’s “ Pollination of flower gd sep ae on iad cir age 253° regeneration in Tor 157 Wittrock, V., Willie and, on A hens proposals 310 ood, pat on a photographic plate, I AL Ww. : oe Wygaerts, A., Gregoire Sea on nucleus and chromos ate os Wylie, R. B., personal 239 x Xerophily in bog plants, Transeau on auses Xylem, secondary, of Psilotum, Boodle on 306 ° x Yabe, es on Arcterica 388 Yendo, on coralline algae 472 Yucca ie “central cylinder 174 Z floridana, cig cannipioiere 452 167 Zamia 8; Zantedeschi, central cylinder a Mays, aecidium of ru st 65 ae mermann, on alta of coffee 231 Zodda, on on Sone acts 76 Zoosporan hye ned as : Zoospores, produc in Achlya "316; err on saree in Zukaliopsis, Hennings on 394 a ‘Staying Power FOR THE ‘TIRED BRAIN | Horsford’s Acid Phos- | phate keepsthe mind clear, the nerve steady and the body strong—a boon to the | overworked officeman, teacher and student. Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. ee . From the Greek SOZO—to preserve ODONTES—the teeth True to its name it has ever been the old reliable Sozodont HALL & RUCKEL NEW YORK BORATED TALCUM ‘ a Tole Powder ¢ Impure air and sickness ya caused by OIL and Lo gps fau fy feet and dry steam heat. se every ng keep open vessel Showek water an Platts Chlorides, THE ODORLESS DISINFECTANT PERPETUAL PENCIL ) ANAS Just Press thee To olutely Guaranteed o PENCIL AND 33 tigi aT DEALERS’ oR seNT POSTPAID c RE Ee or 25- AMERICAN LEAD PENCIL 68 East Washington Square, N, ae Write for 22 Farringdon Ave., E. C., Agents” Proposition B, s, ee THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS = Aah agg and Scientific works prizted in English, German, French, and all other modern languages. Zstimates furnished. 58TH STREET AND ELLIS AVENUE, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Unit Vertical Filing Systems Che Land of Manatee described and illustrated, its wonderful resources shown, and its strange and absorbingly interesting history, recounted in the Seaboard Magazine. SENT FREE ON REQUEST Ey J: W. WHITE, General Industrial Agent — PORTSMOUTH, VIRGINIA Library Bureau Seaboard Air Line Railway Boston New York Chicago Send for Catalog The University of Chicago Press HE books and periodicals published by the con't of Chicago Press a particularly to purchasers of books other than fiction: and every r should familiarize himself with hs Mist, so that he may pre- sent scernacate rien interested customers. Our publications are also especially desirable -~ libraries who aim to supply their patrons with the more solid current books and magazines. Consult our catalogues for par- ticulars, or write to other our eastern or home office CHICAGO, and 156 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK as LAURENCE LAUGHLIN of the University of Chicago Higher Commercial Education A. W. SULLIVAN of the Illinois Central Railroad Railway Management and Operation GEORGE G, TUNELL of the Chicago & ithwestern Railway Railway Mail Service; A Historical “of the Atchison, Topeka & Sante Fe Railway Railw way tmssolidation LUIS JACKSON e Chi Maaskee £3 Paul Rai PAUL MORTON z the Atchison, ge & Sante Fe Railw: ay . Wy ‘ps - a Problems FRANKLIN H.H ofthe Contin. ental Casualty Co. * Ase eel Industry D. R. FO of the First Ni i Bank Chicag Tavostauisith JAMES H, ECKELS of the Commercial*National Bank chicago The Comptroller of the c The Methods of Banking H. K, BROOK of the American Express Co. Foreign Exchange — SUCCESS IN BUSINESS who know how—who is gained by men ave a thorough understanding of the methods employed in modern commercial life. heirs aia The University of Chicago Press, in reproducing a course of lectures delivered at the University of Chicago, on modern busi- ness procedure, has rendered a real service to all who would have a first-hand knowledge of the routine followed in present-day in- dustry and who would thus equip themselves towork along similar lines. This book, entitled LECTURES ON COMMERCE (edited by Henry Rand Hatfield), is now in its second edition. It is packed full of val- uable information, interestingly told. The names and subjects in the margin of this advertisement guarantee the reliability of the volume; the reviews here quoted give the opinions of impartial critics. Fours FROM THE REVIEWS **The book contains an. ig rate en “esi information.’’ — Chicago hesitation in com aoe no Be SA this vosuEAe as a really tale - The mopte handbo: is is Outlook. pas k - of unusual pore Thi a and Lang practical value.” — S¢. Pas « These papees ma! the nage hart books ersit "ae Chet- ke most interest- ing pe instructive reading.”’— Te 396 pp., 8vo, cloth, $1.50 net; $1.63 postpaid The University of Chicago Press CHIGAGO and 156 Fifth Avenue NEW YO Send for our Catalogue of Publications Published by “The volume is of special interest and will . gr ~ practical — to railway men nomists, Ae! stors, and C anpontad ” “oducabh a , THE WORLD'S FAIR % biker Shane Shee wriace aa P) THE ONLY LINE MAIN ENTRANCE, ploma of Honor, Rome, Grand Diploma of Honor, St. Petersburg, 1904 C4 I, DI , F. A. PALMER, A.G. P.A., » ik = 311 MARQUETTE BLDG., CHICAGO } 2 Pirgt Grand Dipionst ame a wi Gold Medal Pan-Ameri- 7s can, Buffalo, 1901 Qa Gold Medal, Paris 1900. eT new catalogue "RIDE ACOCKHORSE T0 BANBURY CROSS, A Jo SEE A FINE LADY UPON A WHITE HORSE, of the books and RINGS ON HER FINGERS,AND BELLS ON HER TOES, ees SHE SHALL HAVE MUSIC WHEREVER SHE GOES; | periodicals pub- : = lished by the Univer- sity of Chicago Press has just been issued, Those interested in fo , , Ze N\A een and serie y SINGS THE FOND MOTHER IN NURSERY eis O HER GLAD INFANT, THE. WHILE KEEPING. TIME; Netcare tain AND SO CAN ALL MOTHERS WITH TUNEFUL REFRAIN a copy tree by ad- pet IN THEIR INFANTS WHOSE HEALTH THEY MAINTAIN, : HROUGH dressing MRS WINSLOWS SOOTHING SYRUP | VER FIFTY YEARS SOLD THE UNIVERSITY CHICAGO P CHICAGO OR 156 pee Pie tots NEW gate 0 MILLIONS OF MOTHERS IN THE NEW WORLD AND OLD» Established 1860 150 Varieties Esterbrook’s Steel Pens Sold Everywhere The Best Pens Made The Esterbrook Steel Pen Co. Works, Camden, N.J. 26 John St., N. Y. = GARTER 1S KNOWN AND WORN) Bc Pair Warranted The Name Is unre on every / ih é CUSHION BUTTON LASP Lies flat to the leg——never SIPs Tears nor Unfastens ALWAYS EASY a sil i Gotta, sir. EFUSE ALL SUBSTITUTES ‘epmmmmses Winter Courist Cickets TO POINTS IN FLORIDA AND THE SOUTH OW ON SALE VIA THE POPULAR Big Four Route AT VERY LOW RATES, GOOD UNTIL JUNE 1, 1905, FOR RETURN, ALSO GOOD FOR STOP-OVERS, ETC, Ask agents for tickets, via the “Big Four,” on sale at all stations, or address J. C. TUCKER, Geauens Northern Agent, 238 Clark Street CHICAGO a Pen Extravagance So eed ary writers dip ; that’s waste- ways, and so ‘A. ‘ and the word ‘‘Modern’”’ and you'll find the way to true Pen <—oee Economy. The _ exacting pen user can be s Dee —— A. A. Waterman & Go. 22 THAMES ST. NEW YORK DEPT. G. pede Phrasing Lever has happily been called “The Heart of The ANGELUS.” It seems almost literally to imbue this wonderful instrument with life. The Phrasing Lever gives you just as little or just as much life, shading, phrasing, individual expression, or personal sympathy as you want, be your music classic or popular, sacred or operatic. Yes, you can play without touching The Phrasing Lever and still play one note after another in exactly the proper time, use loud or soft pedal, and even accent any certain notes or passages. You can do all of this without The Phrasing Lever, but it will leave you cold and unmoved. But then begin using The Phrasing Lever and it will completely transfigure your playing, interpret instantly your mood and feeling—your very thoughts and fancies. Then only an ANGELUS will satisfy you for only The ANGELUS has The Phrasing Lever. Purchased by Royalty and the world’s greatest musicians. Send jor (free) handsome booklet and the name of the nearest agent. THE WILCOX & WHITE Co. Established 1876. MERIDEN, CONN., U. S.A. “THE ONLY WAY” ST. L RANGA i 82 id bane PEORIA Hands somest, most Ti. 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Morgan Park Academy ae het, ee he University. of Chi Isa constituent par o, and is the Unive rsity. affording healinul pee and spacious- ness of f groun men, all college pind ovate 0 Sinead in pee ments, The courses include Manual Training and me requirements of all the lead- ing phrvden and technical schools Its seven buildings, all of brick my stone, consist of three dormitories, the new gymnae sium, the library containing 6,000 oluineas the well-equipped science laboratory, and the reci- tation building. The Academy’ s ideals are to develop’ the best is en all its discipline is directed. Espe paal effort is Made to teach boys how t o study and to form habits of work. The bint interests, athletic, literary, social, musical, and religious, are well Sustained. e expenses vary from $250.00 t 0 $450 -five samo are given ‘ia recognition of excellence 0 ‘Seen THE LL TER wee gee am sicagye 20TH FOR peepee CAT. GUE ADDRESS DEAN WAYLAND J. CHASE, Morgan Park, Ml. iit \Branches in Principal Cities. CANDIES SENT EVERYWHERE BY MAIL OR EXPRESS. ee ame The bottom layer of a box of "a tw + delicious morsels ~~ and surprises as the top layer. The Goodness,| Freshness & Purity is the same all through. | ae brings forth as many 863 150 BROADWAY, 508 FIFTH AVE. 21 W. 42nd. ST. NEW YORK. THE EUREKA REMOVABLE MEMORANDUMS INEXPENSIVE, HANDY, USEFUL Fill up one book, simply slide out of cover and put in new tablet 24x 434 ; gue : ‘ 125 -08 abe RP Oye Gers aay erletar ayo rear ve -I0 34%X5% . .40 Sent postpaid on nimelilpe of price Se D. CHILDS @ CO ESALE AND RETAIL STATIONERS 200 ave Street CHIC THE ONLY REAL TYPEWRITER AT A ve PRICE, It combines UNIVERSAL EYBOARD, STRONG MANIFOLDING miNSOGhAPE STENCIL oue hd es , VIS IBLE WRITING and INTERCHANGE. i TYPE The Postal will be sent ono Write one week's trial, for our Booklet and a Plan, TIC. — f. e favor which the Posts : has r LIABLE AGENTS WANTED HOW DOES THE LEAD GET INTO Lledo cee: of tare has puzzled a grea "t ‘you are a teacher, we will in accion © to the book send you samples ‘of our eon By so you can try them in your school and see how useful they are in the many kinds of educational work JOSEPH DISOn RUG Co. Y CITY, N. FORTY YEARS of EDUCATION _.. im the Piano business ae 4 We ought to know something about Pianos. Others think so, for we do the largest retail Piano usiness in the world. { We are agents for 24 different makes of Pianos and Dave r 600 individual Pianos on our floors. 1 The Pay teil purchaser can make compari- sons here th uld be im possible ane pie hen, too, we can meet your views in regard t price, for we have Pianos fro 5 up. ‘egve sell Pianos on such terms of payment se home need be wichous this, necessary a istic seacisliion A Good New Piano for Rent $4.00 per Month 4 Let us send you our handsome Piano book. It today. is free for the asking. Writet Say that YOURS isa a Be 2a a 6c . . The ‘Old Reliable’’ Piano and you will have convinced any competent critic of the soundness of your judgment 38 ADAMS STREET, CHICAGO Catalogue No. 10 free Warerooms, 136 Fifth Ave., New York The Prospects of Ee the Small College DENTAC CURA By WitirAM R, HARPER President of the University of Chicago I12mo, paper; postpaid, 25 cents The University of Chicago Press i ) e Disease Bok $s Diniene tay Moteereats Can | Cyrus Edson Paee Piss :D. , es nd Snag (Sei oe 4 H s Yi me Cit ty and ‘Siate, vestdent Boar armacy, New Yor Albuminuria City, Examining Physician Corporation Council, etc. ca : - | John V. Shoemaker, M. D., LL. D., Professo Materia ae Pre Medica ana Ti Renner’, recent a College, Phitadelphio. \ ghancy Dr. George Ben. Johnston, mond, Va., Ex-President iy Southern Surgical and “Cynecological OO se Ex-President pee Medicai Society of Va., and Professor y. Cyaeemony ond Abdomen ees Surgery, seen College of Va. ; i | . A. | Professor 0 of Pharmacology and InStonei in the Blad- ee tae ore of the Le Paty a? Medicine, Paris. — ; | x Renal Calculi, Dr. J.T. LeBlanchard, Prof, Montreal Clinie,SM.SN.V.U. Jas. M. Crook, A. M., M. D., Professor essor Clinical Medicine — and Clinical Srapndss, New York Post Graduate Medical School. : aepreben Louis G. Horn, M. D., Ph. D., Professor Diseases of Chit | of the dren and Dermatology, EEO On compat ee haw _ AN Hotdoes, nd Professor ervoUs | ae Bladder Ment Disease pare College Serer of Medicine, caccons Ve Robert Bartholow, M cae maces past and General Ther apeitics, 27 erson 5 Riital Coleg Dr. I. N. Love, Vew ¥ Children, College of Phystctans ¢ College of Medicine, St. Loe Pa iy fer McGuire, M M. Dus LL EL! gern Uri ssoctation Ly gy tes % Cw ork r. Alexa B. Mott od, 5 Beileiue Sosa! at Medical Ce ST. LOUIS FAIR Ghe GRAND PRIZE Weber Small Grand AWARDED TO (Smaller, vii than the Baby Grand) DMIRERS of the magnificent tone of A the Weber Grand, but who have in the past been debarred from owning a Grand Piano on account of the space re quired, will find a most agreeable surprise awaiting them in the latest creation of the Weber house—the Small Grand. Its length is but five feet four inches, rendering it avail- able in many homes where the limited size of the music-room precludes the use of a larger Grand. It is of this instrument that Felix Mottl, the great Wagnerian conductor, has written: “Vou If never thought it would be possible to s m small an instrument : t free. THE WEBER be 8 in part payment. | Walter Baker & o.L1d, | | jf TGMEes vo coneayy ; _ Esublshed Dorchester, Mass. pasistaprapetiiesnstiitttnttinie PRE SI WHY TAKE DAINTY CARE of your mouth and neglect your pores, the myriad mouths of your skin? The pores are the safety valves of the body. If they be kept in perfect order by constant and intelligent bathing, avery general source of danger from disease is avoided. HAND SAPOLIO is unequaled as a gentle, efficacious Pore-opener. It does not gloss them over, ft or chemically dissolve their health-giving oils, yet clears them thoroughly, by a method of its own. AFTER A REFRESHING BATH with HAND SAPOLIO, every one of the 2,381,248 healthily-opened pores of your skin will shout as through a trumpet, “ For this relief, much thanks.” Five minutes with HAND SAPOLIO i equals hours of so-called Health Exercises, x Don’t argue, Don’t infer, Try it! it’s use is a fine habit. Its cost a trifle. '~ : Hh have been established over go YEARS. By our system tem ( IANOS 2 VOSE piano, We fake old instraments fm exchange aad eT ae _ deliver new pi hk oe lon deen ae : Write for Catalogue D andexpianations, _ a ai oe ner pen tee